Encyclopedia Edinensis; or, Dictionary of arts, sciences, and literature

>x

\ ■.■>'

r .'•■

BBRKEIBY

LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY Of
CAUFORNIA

^

C^'l

M^^-'

c\^^

,.K. ^'^^

U\o r^

c^^^^

l>vf^

Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive

in 2007 with funding from

IVIicrosoft Corporation

in ttp://www.arcliive.org/details/encyclopediaedin01 mill rich

THE

ENCYCLOPJiDIA

EDINENSIS.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA EDINENSIS =

OR

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

IN SIX VOLUMES,

IXCLDDINS Alt THE MODEBN IMPROVEMENTS TO THE PBESENT TIME; AND IILUSTRATED
WITH UPWARDS OF ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY ENGRAVINaS.

KKOWLEDGE IS POWER— Videos.

VOLUME FIRST.

EDINBURGH

^^PUBLISHED BY JOHN ANDERSON, JUN. 55, NORTH BKIDGE STREET, EDINBURGH ; '

COWIE, LOW, & CO. LONDON; RICHARD BURDEKIN, YORK ;

AND WILLIAM CURRY, JUN. & CO. DUBLIN.

MDCCCXXVII.

laa A1CI3 *f oj » /'1 4"*

LOAN STACK

PREFACE.

In announcing the completion of the Encyolopjedia Edinensis, the Proprietor begs leave to
assure the subscribers, that, in conducting this undertaking, it has uniformly been his study not
only to fulfil, but even to exceed the expectations held out in the prospectus. He, therefore,
feels much satisfaction in being enabled now to present to the public this work, embracing almost
all the departments of human knowledge in a form so concise, and at the same time so com-
plete, without transgressing the limits originally proposed. Although unavoidably deprived
of the valuable co-operation of the original Editor, Dr. James Millar, he may still be permit-
ted to congratulate the subscribers, tliat the arrangements he has effected, have been such as
cannot fail to satisfy them, that the respectability of the Publication has been successfully sup-
ported, and that neither labour nor expense has been wanting on his part to bring it to a speedy
and satisfactory termination. The public will now be enabled to form a proper estimate of
its merits, not only regarding the selection of the materials, but also in respect to the quantity
of matter contained in each volume, compared with that of any contemporary publication of
the same kind. To such as are denied the advantage of public libraries, and of numerous and ex-
pensive publications, this work, which admits of being so easily carried about from one place or
country to another, cannot fail to be extremely valuable, since it contains, within a narrow compass,
the essence of all the information we possess respecting the different countries of the world, and
not only delineates the boundaries and extent of every continent, state, and kingdom, on the
globe, but also contains a distinct view of the political, moral, and commercial condition of each ;
thus furnishing a convenient register of knowledge, digested in an easy and agreeable form, and
containing an immense variety of remarkable and valuable facts, which no memory can accurately
retain, and which, were it not for such compositions, might occasion no small expense, and no little
time and labour to investigate. The extended details and profound discussions, on abstruse sub-
jects, which abound in most Encyclopa;dias, have justly been complained of, as unsuitable to a nu-
merous class of readers ; and the magnitude and great expense of such works, preclude not a few
from the benefits which they are so eminently calculated to afford. From a persuasion, therefore,
that many of the works of this nature are not only too expensive, but also too voluminous and in-
convenient for general use, the Encyclopedia Edinensis was originally projected ; and it will be
found not only to obviate these inconveniences, but, from its moderate size, and the style of its exe-
cution, will be accommodated to a more extended circle of readers than any popular work of a simi-
lar description.

While the various treatises on the higher branches of science form a prominent feature in this
Encyclopa;dia, the subjects of miscellaneous literature, and of history, both ancient and modern,
occupy at the same time their adequate proportion, and, instead of indulging in extraneous specu-
lations, the primary object uniformly kept in view, has been to promote useful knowledge, to mingle
instruction with amusement, and to render the different branches of science perspicuous and intel-
ligible to readers of every class. The accounts of the different empires, and the descriptions of
the inferior districts or counties which they contain, have been entirely written anew. The larger
treatises on scientific subjects have been drawn up with the greatest care by professional men of
eminent talents, and have either been methodically arranged under different heads, with a running
title, or furnished with a copious and accurate index, so as to render a more particular division
superfluous. The political changes that have taken place in the various countries of the world, as well
as the wonderful moral and scientific revolutions which have lately occurred, have also been brought
under the review of the reader, while the discoveries and improvements recently made in all the
branches of experimental philosophy, have been duly examined and discussed. That interesting and ■
important branch of knowledge which records the lives of eminent men, particularly the biography of
distinguished literary characters, will be found to be very complete, having been drawn from the
most authentic sources, and brought down to the latest period of publication. The science of geo-
graphy has been rendered particularly interesting by the Maps which accompany this treatise ; and
the public, it is hoped, will find that the great divisions of the earth, and of particular countries
and states, have been accurately delineated. The drawings intended to illustrate the various sub-
jects treated of, have also been executed with great taste and precision, and are elegantly engraved
by the most eminent artists. In such a work as this, so diversified and extensive, mistakes.

^•1

218

▼I PREFACE.

inaccuracies, and omissions, may naturally be expected, and all that the proprietor can rentnre to
hope on this point is, that they are not very numerous, and perhaps fewer than will be found in
most publications of a similar kind.

The Proprietor ought not to omit acknowledging his obligations to those friends and literary gen-
tlemen, to whose inspection the treatises contained in it have been occasionally submitted, and some
of whom have largely contributed to the merits of this undertaking, by the numerous original
treatises they have furnished on various subjects. Among these he is proud to announce the names
of the original editor. Dr. James Millar, Dr. Jeremiah Kirby, and Dr. Richard Poole of Edin-
burgh. The labours of these three principal contributors to this work have been so extensive, that,
to enumerate them individually, would occupy a greater space than the limits of this Preface will
allow. It may be sufficient to state, that Dr. Millar, besides his almost innumerable minor contri-
butions, as editor of the first Eighteen Parts, has contributed most of the principal treatises in that
division of the work, especially Bleaching, Botany, Chemistry, Galvanism, (under Elec-
tricity,) and Geology. Dr. Kirby, among his numerous contributions, has furnished the
whole department of Medicinjj, except Midwifery, including Anatomy, Dietetics, Materia
Medica, Medicine, Human and Veterivary, and Surgery ; he has composed many of the
principal Zoological Treatises, especially Bee, Entomology, Ehfetology, Helminthology,
and Ichthyology; some of the most important Geographical and Historical articles, as Geo-
graphy, Hanover, New Holland, Ireland, Jud^a, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, and
Turkey ; several prominent treatises on some of the Chemical Arts, as Brewing, Dyeing, Fire-
Works, and Glass Manufacture ; and some treatises on Experimental Philosophy, particularly
Electricity, Optics, and Pneumatics. Dr. Poole, in addition to other contributions, has
furnished the treatises on Architecture, Education, Language, Mathematics, Mind,
Philology, Philosophy, and Phrenology. It may be satisfactory to the reader also to learn,
that the articles Astronomy and Dialling were compiled by George Buchanan, Esq. Civil Engi-
neer, Edinburgh ; Magnetism and Meteorology, hy the Rev. Dr. Russel of Leith ; Design,
by Patrick Gibson, Esq. of the Dollar Institution ; and Mechanics, by the Rev. David Liston,
Calcutta; that the treatise on Midwifery was furnished by John Dick, M. D. Mid-Calder; and
that on Music, by the Rev. Henry Liston of Ecclesmachen. Besides various geographical and his-
torical contributions by the Rev. Thomas Nelson, and the Rev. Alexander Duncan, Mid-Calder, the
former composed the treatise on Religion, and the latter the articles Miracle, Name, Necker,
Prejudices, Pyramids, and Reformation. The history of the Polar Expeditions, and the
Essay on Sports and Pastimes, together with numerous small contributions in volumes fifth and
sixth, were furnished by Mr. Alexander Anderson ; Theology, also America, South, in the
Addenda, by Mr. Walter Tod ; and Navigation, by Mr. William Galbraith, Teacher of Mathe-
matics, Edinburgh. Among the other distinguished individuals to whom the proprietor is indebted
for assistance in the execution of this work are, the Rev. James Couper, D. D. Professor of Practi-
cal Astronomy in the University of Glasgow, and Lockhart Muirhead, LL. D. Professor of Natu-
ral History, the latter of whom composed the treatises on Ophiology and Ornithology; also
Robert Wallace, A. M. Professor of Mathematics of the Andersonian Institution in that city, who
conducted, and who furnished the greater part of the contributions in the Addenda in volume
sixth, and the Preliminary Dissertation in the first volume. In addition to these may be men-
tioned the names of the Rev. John Adamson of Newton ; of Messrs. James Flint, Land- Surveyor,
Robert Macmillan, John Wallace, Teacher of Mathematics, Edinburgh, and Alexander Peterkin,
late Sheriff-substitute of Orkney ; also that of the Rev. John Sommers, D. D. who superintended
the publication of the last Twelve Parts of this work, and who, besides supplying a great variety
of articles in the departments of Geography and Biographv, not only contributed the treatises
on Plant and Planting, Poor and Poor Laws, Railway, Road, Stipend, Teinds and
Tithes, together with Antiquities, Prophecy, and Revenue, in the Addenda, but also fur-
nished a considerable portion of the treatises on Mammalia, Missions, and Moral Philosophy.
To his friends Sir William Hamilton, Bart, and his brother Thomas Hamilton, Esq. the proprietor
has also been indebted for many useful suggestions and other occasional assistance in the execution
of the work. Besides these, several other individuals of distinguished talents have contributed
their literary labours and friendly assistance, but their names it is wholly unnecessary here to parti-
cularize. Most of the gentlemen above mentioned have been long known in the republic of letters,
by their numerous and valuable contributions to the Britannica, the Edinburgh Encyclopedia,
Metropolitana, and similar works of great literary merit. The publication of the fourth edition,
and of the last 15 volumes of the fifth edition of the Encyclopsedia Britannica, was conducted under
the able superintendence of Dr. Millar, while Dr. Kirby, Dr. Poole, and Dr. Muirhead were like-
wise among the principal contributors to that valuable publication.

. Encyclopa;dias of various kinds have now been long in use, and have been read and consulted
with great avidity, both by the learned and unlearned, throughout the various nations of Europe.
From the number and variety of these publications, one of which may be considered as constituting
the library of many an individual who has neither much time nor much money to dispose of, the
reader may be enabled to form a tolerably correct idea of the progressive improvement of the sciences

PKEFACE. VU

and of literature, since as they approached the standard of real excellence and perfection, books of
this kind seem to have multiplied in proportion. Most of these Encyclopaedias will be found, on
examination, to be only copies of such as have preceded them, with additions, corrections, and im-
provements, adapted to the state of the sciences at the period when they were published ; and some
of them, indeed, which profess not to be original, but mere compilations, will, on examination, be
found to be the most correct, the best arranged, and the most valuable. By this means all repe-
titions and extraneous matter are excluded, which cannot possibly be the case with such as consist
wholly of original essays and contributions, as every writer is apt. more or less, to touch upon
kindred topics connected with the subject on which he writes.

At a very early period. Lexicons, Dictionaries, and other works similar to an Enclyclopsedia, were
published under different titles, some of which were excellent and valuable at the time, and evinced
in the compilers, marks of great industry as well as a wonderful degree of useful information. Pliny's
Natural History was esteemed a work of this kind, as it included all that the ancients comprehend-
ed under that head. Alfarabius, who is mentioned by Casiri as a celebrated Arabian writer of the
tenth century, is said to have composed a work which treats of the liberal Arts and Sciences, to which
he gave the title of Encyclopaedia. Another curious publication of this kind is that of Scalichius
Paalus de Lika. — Enctjclopccdias, seu Orbis Disci/ilinarum, tarn Sacrarum quam Frophanarum, Episte-
nton. Basileas, 1559, in quarto. In 1638, the title of Encyclopsedia was likewise given to a Dictionary
of the Arts and Sciences, published in two volumes, folio, by J. H. Alstebius, a German author of
no inconsiderable talent and erudition. To this succeeded the " Idea Encyclopediw Mathematico-Fhi-
losophicae, — Erhardi Weigelii, which was published in 1657. After this, in 1661, appeared " Cas-
pari Schotti Cursus Mathematicus, Libris 28, sive Encyclopcedia omnium Di.sciplinarum Mathematica-
rum ;" and in 1668 the "Lexicon Mathematicum" of Vitalis. There was also published
in 1573, a curious work similar to an Encyclopaedia, which was reprinted at Strasburgh in 1579,
under the title of " Lexicon, seu Dictionarium Mathematicorum in <juo Definitiones et Divisiones
continentur Scientiarum Mathematicarum, Arithmeticae, Logistieae, Geometriae, Geodesies, Astrono-
miae, Harmoniae, — M. Conrado Dasypodio, Alctoke." In 1598, this was followed by the " Ta-
bula Artium et Profes.sionum Mathematicarum, — Lazari Schoneri." A work of very considerable
merit was also published at Paris in 1690, under the title of Dictionnairc Mathematique, by Ozanam.
In 1706, Dr. Harris gave to the world his Lexicon Technicum, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and
Sciences ; and in 1710, the second volume of that valuable production, to which was added a sup-
plement, to bring down the improvements in the sciences to 1736, and before 1741 it had gone
through five editions. For a long time this excellent work furnished materials for many succeeding
compilationsof the same kind. Subsequent to this appeared the " Compendieuses Gelehrten- Lexi-
con," by H. D. John Burkhard Menken ; the Lexicon Mutliematicum by Wolfius; and the Ma-
thematical Dictionary by Stone ; followed by a host of inferior productions of a similar kind.

To these succeeded a work of very superior merit, the Cyclopaedia of Chambers, in 2 vols, folio, •
first published in 1727, which greatly surpassed in style and execution all that had gone before it.
In the short space of eighteen years this valuable work had seen no less than five editions ; and it
was rendered still more valuable by a large supplement of two additional volumes to another edition,
all of which were embodied by Dr. Abraham llees in 1786, in i vols, folio. This publication, by
the united labours of Dr. llees and Dr. Price, was rendered still more complete, and has within
these few years been given to the world in a finished form, consisting of 40 volumes quarto, besides
six volumes of splendid engravings.

A vast number of other productions of a similar nature, many of them of great celebrity, have,
within the last century, been published in Germany and France. The most distinguished of these
are Lubwig's " Grosses Volstaendiges Universal Lexicon," published in 1732, in 68 volumes folio.
The Encyclupedie, on Dictionnairc Raisonnee des Sciences des Arts et des Metiers, of Diderot,
D'Alembcrt, &c. 28 vols, folio, with a supplement of five additional volumes. This great work
was begun in 1751, and completed in 1772, and the supplement, which was begun in 1776, was
finished in 1778. Tlie same work was also published at Geneva nearly at the same period, and also
at y verdun, in 58 quarto volumes ; and a few years afterwards at Lausanne, in 39 volumes, royal
octavo. Being again new-modelled at Paris, it was published under the title of Encyclopedic Me-
thodique, by a society of literary gentlemen, in which the arts and sciences are included in separate
treatises; so tliat this great undertaking comprehends not fewer than 40 separate Dictionaries; and
when completed will exceed in magnitude any work of a similar kind, as nearly 150 vols, quarto,
were completed before the French Revolution interrupted the publication.

Several other works under the title of Dictionaries and Encyclopjedias also appeared about this
time in Britain, such as Owen's New and Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, which pos-
sesses no small degree of merit. It consists of 0 vols, octavo, and has gone through several edi-
tions since it was first published in 1754, and has furnished materials for various subsequent com-
pilations- We may here also mention the Encyclopaedias of Proctor, Croker, Clark, Castieau, Hall,
Barrow, Howard, and Gregory ; the British, English, London, Imperial, Domestic, Oxford, and
Edinburgh Eiicyclopa;dias; the Portable, and the New Cyclopedias ; the Pantalogia, the Perthensis,
and the Metropolitana. To these may be added a great variety of particular Dictionaries on separate

VIU PREFACE.

branches of science, such as the Medical Dictionaries of Quincy, James, Motherby, Parr ; the
Chemical Dictionaries of Nicholson, of Aikins, and of Macquer ; Dictionaries on Law by Cun-
ningham, Burn, and by Giles Jacob, improved by Tomlins; on Gardening, by Millar, Dickson,
and Martyn ; on Numismatology, by Guesseine and Rasch ; the Marine Dictionaries of Falkoner
and Chapman ; Dictionary of Architecture by Felibien ; Dictionaries of Music by Rousseau, Hoyle
and Busby ; Mortimer and Postlethwaite's Dictionaries of Trade and Commerce; Button's Mathe-
matical and Philosophical Dictionary ; and Barlow's excellent work of the same kind ; Smith's
Panorama of Science and Art ; also his Mechanic, or Compendium of Practical Inventions ; with
smaller works of this kind almost without number.

But the most valuable Encyclopaedia that has hitherto been completed in Britain, and one that
eclipsed all that had gone before it, was the Britannica, first published in 3 vols, at Edinburgh, 1771.
Several improved and enlarged editions of it soon afterwards appeared, and in 1800 it was again
revised and extended to 20 vols, quarto, by a supplement of 2 vols, under the superintendence of
Dr. Gleig. This masterly work has now passed through six editions, and has lately been greatly
improved and enriched by a splendid supplement of 6 vols, making in all 26 vols, quarto. Two
works of great merit, already noticed, are also in progress of publication, the Edinburgh Ency-
clopaedia and the; Metropolitaiia, which, when completed, will do honour to their conductors. The
first of these follows the plan of the Britannica in the form of a Dictionary, and the latter, that of
the French works, which include separate sciences or dictionaries under a philosophical and an al-
phabetical arrangement.

The prodigious number of Encyclopiedias and Dictionaries of a similar nature that have been
published during the last century, clearly proves that the public is extremely partial to works of
this description ; so that while tile arts and sciences continue to improve, such literary productions
may be expected to increase. AVhether the present work will add to the value and respectability
of such publications, remains for the subscribers and the public to determine.

Edinburgh, October, 1826.

HISTORICAL DISSERTATION

ON THE

ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES.

I HE origin of the Arts and Sciences is, like that of nations, involved in obscurity and fable. Know-
ledge began to dawn upon the human race in those genial climes that are first illuminated by the rising
gun ; and, like that luminary, though its early rays were comparatively feeble, yet they were, in the pro-
gress of civilization, gradually rendered more brilliant by the fire of superior genius, till they ultimately
reached a state of meridian splendour. The useful arts which sprung up in the infancy of the world, are
but slightly mentioned in Holy Writ, and of the antediluvian ages we have no other record. According
to the traditions delivered by Josephus, the science of Astronomy was first cultivated by the sons of Seth,
and the discoveries of those early observers of the heavenly bodies, were, for the benefit of posterity,

** On flood-surviving pillars deep enrol]'d."

After the flood, many ages elapsed before Science assumed a consistent and systematic form. When man-
kind began to relinquish a wandering and savage life, — when the Nimrods of the primitive periods of
society had ceased to hunt their fellows like beasts of prey, — when conventions were held, and general
laws established for the common good, — and when, by universal consent, it was agreed that every one
should jjrovide for his own subsistence, without seizing on the property of another, — then, necessity, self-
preservation, and domestic comfort, the great springs of physical exertion, gave rise to the most useful
Arts. Houses were built, iron was forged, the land was divided, and the courses of the stars were ob-
served. Nor is it remarkable that Astronomy should have been among the first of the Sciences; it was
necessary even to Agriculture. The spontaneous productions of the earth were insufficient for the support
of man approaching to civilization ; useful plants and fruits required labour and cultivation to bring them
to a state of perfection ; and as the ground brought forth only at stated periods, it was necessary to regu-
late the operations of agriculture by the seasons of the year. The observations for these purposes, at first
rude and unskilful, were connected with Science by a secret tie, though for many ages, experience and
custom were the only guides.

At length arose some aspiring genius, who, collecting the traditionary knowledge, observations, and
aphorisms of earlier times, formed them into a system, ill-arranged, perhaps, and incongruous at first, but
sufficient to point out to mankind the progress of knowledge, and its immense advantages to society. The
magnificent spectacle which the vast field of nature presented to the senses and imagination of man, was
then beheld with new feelings of delight ; he learned to examine the parts of which it was composed
and to compare them with each other ; his powers were increased and his condition ameliorated by the
process ; ideas acquired from physical objects were transported into an intellectual world ; the phenomena
of nature were studied with a discriminating attention, and desires were excited in the mind to ascertain
the causes by which they were produced. 'I'he fine feeling expressed in that line of the Roman poet,

** Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas,"

had then its due influence on the early improvers of Science. Geometry originating at first in the art of
measuring the fields, was extended to other departments of knowledge, and gave rise to loftier and more
difficult problems. Astronomy was enriched by a regular succession of observations, and though the
spring of the mighty movements of the celestial bodies lay long concealed from the scrutiny of mortals,
the most useful phenomena were obvious to the ordinary observer.

The invention of machines for the abridgment of human labour soon followed, if they were not con-
temporaneous with the expansion of intellect which such researches originated. The Mechanic Powers
must, in some form or other, have been early suggested to mankind. There is no age, indeed, so igno-
rant and barbarous, in which we can imagine them to have been unacquainted with the use of levers and
wheels, so necessary for the transportation of heavy loads and the erection of stupendous structures. The
superiority of each successive age consisted only in the skilful combination and application of these simple
powers. Science has ever in such cases lent her powerful aid, and enabled the philosopher to wield the
ordinary powers of nature with a gigantic force and skill. Such must have been the early history of hu-
man knowledge; in all probability its progress would have been more rapid, had not fanaticism and am-
bition frequently obscured the light of genius for a long series of ages. As a fire, however, concealed
beneath the embers, it has been relumed in happier times, at the inspiration of a kindred flame, and has
at length burst forth upon the world, with that blaze of intellectual glory which now so brightly irradiates
the greater portion of the habitable globe.

VOL. I. PART I. b

X DISSERTATION.

The Fine Arts, which have ever possessed charms for mankind, more powerful than those of Science or
even the useful arts, owe their origin and commanding influence to an immediate comparison with na-
ture. The expression of the passions in the simplest and most natural language and tones of voice,
laid the foundation of the kindred arts of Poetry, Music and Eloquence. The delineation of the objects
of those passions on the first smooth surface that presented itself, or the formation of their image in the
first soft mould that was subjected to the pressure of the hand, became, in like manner, the basis of the
sister arts of Painting, Statuary, and Sculpture. The same causes which gave an early origin to the Fine
Arts, produced in tliem an early degree of excellence. They seem to have shot up at once into per-
fection, long before the phenomena of nature and her laws had become the subject of philosophical
investigation. With the exception of Astronomy, none of the physical sciences seem to have arrived at
any thing like system, previous to the composition of the noblest specimens of the fine arts. The super-
natural effects ascribed to the Lyre of Orpheus, of Linus, and of Musa;us, sufficiently show the splen-
dour of their achievements. The Promethean animation given to the lifeless statue, and the grandeur
and simplicity of the epic poem, form an early and a striking contrast to the feeble advances made in
the history and economy of the material world. The summit of excellence to which Homer, Thncydides,
Demosthenes, Apelles, and Phidias, reached in their respective spheres, while mankind were ignorant of
the great laws of the univefse and the causes of the most common natural appearances witli which they
were surrounded, must appear remarkable to us, while contemplating the effierts of the moderns in the
very dawn of their Literature and Science. It would seem as if men, satisfied with the first efforts of
their ideal powers, or awed by tlie grandeur of their conceptions when embodied in forms surpassing
their expectations, were willing to let fancy gloat on the images before them, and cared not to exert the
imagination, much less the reason, on pursuits of a higher and more exalted nature.

Thules and the Ionic Sect. The period, however, approaclied when a new and more useful impulsion
was to be given to the human mind. The glimmering twiligiit which had so long overspread the nations
was about to be dispelled. The lamp of Science which had hung so long concealed in the fanes of eastern
idolatry and superstition, bedimmed by the gloomy and debasing artifices of Chaldean magi, and enveloped
in the mystery of Egyptian priests, was about to be relumed in more favoured climes. The sages of Greece
travelled into foreign countries, visited the seats of ancient learning, and returned fraught with the wis-
dom of the east. A host of eminent men arose in succession, and shed a glory over their native land.
The Ionic sect of philosophers was founded by Thales about six centuries before the Christian era. With
him the authentic periods in the history of Science seem to begin. Though, previous to this period, the
Chaldeans boasted of celestial observations at Babylon for iCOO years, and the Egyiitians for a period
nearly as ancient ; and though Cadmus had, 850 years before, introduced the Phenician letters into Greece ;
yet the ascertaining the height of a pyramid by means of its shadow was considered an achievement worthy
of this early sage. The geometrical propositions, however, which he is said to have discovered, in addition
to his astronomical knowledge, — particularly the foretelling of an eclipse, — entitle him to higher praise.
His successors, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, continued the Ionian line, and taught tiie doctrines of
the same school under various modifications. Though the knowledge of nature possessed by those early
philosophers was but superficial, it was not the less aspiring. They conceived every substance to be
composed of four elements, fire, air, earth and water, but combined in various proportions. Earth and
water were considered as naturally ponderous and inert, while air and fire were fancied to be endued
with elastic virtue, and possessing lightness and activity. According to this system, the earthy matter
settled towards the centre, while the aqueous fluid rolled along the surface of the globe. The air and
fire, or aether, soared aloft, — tlie former filling up the wiiole of the sublunary region, and the latter
streaming through the boundless extent of space. The same pure lambent fluid, collected into globular
masses, formed the groups of stars ; while portions of its divine essence descended to animate terrestrial
beings and communicate the vital spark. These notions, so like the colouring of fantastic dreams, were
no doubt firmly believed in former ages, and, by their influence on the vulgar mind, became powerful
auxiliaries to the worshippers of the muses.

Seven Sages of Greece. The degree of civilization to which the Greeks had now arrived, tended greatly
to foster the spirit of speculation. The legislator Solon, about this period, promulgated his laws at Athens ;
tliose of Lycurgus having been established about a century before, at Sparta. The great questions of law
and government had thus early attracted the attention of mankind. At the court of Periander, king of
Corinth, were the seven sages of Greece assembled, and each of them was asked, " which is the most perfect
popular government." Bias replied, "That where the laws have no superior ;" Thales said, " That where
the people are neither excessively rich nor miserably poor ;" Anacharsis answered, " That under which
virtue is honoured and vice detested ;" Pittacus said, " That where dignities are conferred only on virtue ;"
Cleobulus said, " Tliat which inspired more fear of blame than of punishment ;" and Cliilo, " That under
which the laws are more regarded than the orators ;" Solon's decision, which was esteemed the wisest,
was, " That government where an injury done to the meanest citizen is considered as an insult to the
whole community." Such were the invaluable maxims which formed the basis of the legislature of Greece,
and held up to the admiring world examples truly worthy of imitation, in jurisprudence and civil polity.
The Olympic Games, which had been instituted at a very early period, (about thirteen centuries before the
Christian era,) had been revived by Iphitus king of Elis, and afforded the philosophers, poets, historians.

DISSERTATION. xi

and orators of Greece, the grandest arena for the display of their talents, that ever graced the annals
of any country. Before their assembled countrymen they strove who should excel in all that was
worthy of being called great or good among men, and the spirit of emulation thus excited was productive
of the happiest effects. Learning and the arts flourished apace, and being freed from the trammels of
despotism, under Avhich they had languished in the country of their birth, rose to an eminence far sur-
passing that of the countries of the east, hitherto the most celebrated in the world.

Pythagoras. Soon after the periods of which we have been speaking, arose one of the most eminent sages
of antiquity. Pythagoras, who flourished about five centuries before our era, was the founder of the Italian
school, and was the first who assumed the modest, but auspicious, name of Philosopher. He was a native
of the island of Samos ; and on his return from those travels into Egypt, Persia, and India, during which
he had acquired that vast fund of knowledge for which he was so renowned, he was viewed with awe
and veneration by his countrymen daring the celebration of the Olympic games. Aware of the preju-
dices of mankind, those idols which Lord Bacon long afterwards so fancifully, but justly described, he
cautiously introduced those doctrines to public notice, wherein he differed from the mass. A long pro-
bation alone rendered his disciples able and willing to receive those truths which constituted the tenets
of his philosophical creed. The study of Mathematics appears to have been absolutely necessary for the
comprehension of some of his doctrines. Certain it is that these sciences were indebted to him for some
fine discoveries, particularly, that respecting the relation between the sides and the hypotenuse of a right
angled triangle, whicii now forms the forty-seventh proposition of the first book of Euclid's Elements, — a
theorem more essential to the perfection of Geometry, than any that can be named; and if we may judge
by the story of his sacrificing a hecatomb to the Muses on the occasion of its discovery, he seems to
have had a foresight of the magnificence of the edifice that was, in after ages, to be built on its founda-
tion. Pythagoras also brought Music to a great degree of perfection, both in theory and practice.
Having his imagination, like that of Kepler in modern times, full of the beautiful relations and properties
of numbers, which he cultivated with the greatest enthusiasm, he is said to have transferred his musical
ideas to the harmony of the celestial motions. Arriving, by the force of his genius, to the sublime con-
ception of the true system of the universe, he is supposed to have veiled the noble discovery under a
splendid allegory. Under the symbol of Apollo playing on the lyre, he is said to have taught his
chosen disciples, that all the planets, including the earth, are inhabited worlds, revolving round the sun
as a common centre ; and, to have maintained that those bodies, while they circle round that great lumi-
nary, perform a most harmonious concert, though such ravishing and heavenly sounds are lost to our
gross ears, and drowned amid the jarring noise which prevails below. This great philosopher is also
believed to have been the first who discovered that Lucifer and Hesperus, or the morning and evening
star were the same planet, and made that noble conjecture respecting the milky way, so finely alluded to
by Milton :

" Which nightly, as a circling zone, thou seest
Powdered with stars."

Grecian Poets. The genius of Greece was now rapidly advancing to her zenith. Her tragic and lyric
poets had kindled their torch at the lamp of philosophy, which now shone with an uncommon splendour
over that favoured country. Though epic poetry had long ago reached its summit of excellence in the im-
mortal poem of Homer, yet the passions and the feelings, and even the understanding, as well as the moral
sense, were called into a higher field of contemplation, by the splendid compositions of the three great tragic
poets, ^sehylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, who flourished between 500 and 460 B. C. Their works abound
with the sublimest flights of imagination and eloquence that ever graced mere human writing. What,
for instance, can equal the following passage from the " CEdipus Tyrannus" of Sophocles, even though
it labours under tiie disadvantage of translation : — " O for a spotless purity of action and speech, accord-
ing to those sublime laws of right, \>hich had the ethereal heavens for their birth-place, and God alone
for their author — which the decays of mortal nature cannot change, nor time cover with oblivion ; for
the divinity is mighty within them, and waxes not old I" The sublimity of Pindar, the loftiest of the
Grecian lyric poets, who flourished a few years before tlie tragedians, is perhaps superior to that of the
latter ; but it is of a kind less calculated to rouse the more amiable feelings and moralities of our nature.
This is no doubt owing to the loftiness of his subjects, which were connected with all that was reckoned
noble and praiseworthy by his countrymen. He sung those celebrated games of Greece, " quorum pars
magna fuit," and was himself rewarded in the very place and manner which he has rendered immortal
in his songs. It is a remarkable fact in the history of the world, that a number of eminent men have
always appeared at the same time. 'J'he immortal Phidias arose at this period, and produced those splen-
did works of which it is the lament of the moderns that some fragments and descriptions only remain.
However much, indeed, they may have excelled the ancients in the ethical and physical sciences, all their
progress in the Fine Arts, falls far short of the Parthenon, and the statues of Minerva and Jupiter Olym-
pius. Such achievements as those, require a genius, like Phidias, whose whole soul, filled with the gorgeous
visions of the elder time — the dark legends of gigantic strength— and the feelings of a power and a glory
departed from men, — shall catch (he spirit of ages gone with the years before the flood, and transmit it
to after generations in the most durable of earthly memorials.

Grecian Pldlosophy. Philosophy kept pace with the march of intellect and liberty in Greece. The doc-

jdi DISSERTATION.

trines of Pythagoras were promulgated by his disciples, of whom the most eminent was Empedocles, the
Sicilian, who flourished about this period. He seems to have had some obscure notions of the theory of
attraction and repulsion in the corpuscular philosophy. Xenophanes, the founder of the Eleatic sect, drew
some accurate geological conclusions from the discovery of marine fossils in the bowels of the earth, and on
the tops of the highest mountains, inferring that the exterior crust of our globe had, at some remote period,
been submerged under the waters of the ocean. His follower Leucippus, anticipated the idea of a centrifugal
force. But it was reserved for Democritus, who flourished during the Peloponnesian war, to extend, cor-
rect, and improve these doctrines of his predecessors. He made considerable advances in natural philoso->
phy, and rectified the erroneous notions which prevailed before his time, respecting the existence of a
plenum and a vacuum, and levity, as attributed to the elements of air and fire. He discovered the fun-
damental principles, that the weight of bodies is proportional to their mass, and that they would fall in
the same time, in a vacuum. From his acquirements and learning, Lucretius, in his elegant poem on the
" Nature of Things," bestows on him the fine appellation of " pater et rerum inventor."

Confucius. While philosophy and the arts were thus rapidly extending in Greece, an eminent philosopher
had made his appearance in the East. China, a country which has always made great pretensions to high
antiquity, early civilization, and remote astronomical observations, had produced the great Confucius, who
flourished about four or fivu centuries before the Christian era. This philosopher, who has been called the
Socrates of the east, is chiefly celebrated for his moral and political maxims, as, like the Grecian philosopher,
he turned his attention almost entirely to the moral improvement of his countrymen. Much has been said
by modern infidels respecting the excellence of the maxims of Confucius, especially as regards the duty
of man to man. It is affirmed that he inculcated our Saviour's golden precept, " Do unto others, as you
would that they should do unto you ;" but the same sentiment was expressed by several of the Grecian
sages, and by Cicero, very nearly in the same words. What, however, do such facts prove, or how do
they in any way invalidate the divine mission of Christ } He did not come to abrogate the law origi-
nally impressed on man's heart and conscience, but to establish that law by new and more powerful mo-
tives. Every good feeling and sentiment that arose in the human mind, was an emanation from the
divinity ; and it would be wonderful indeed if the author of the sublimest system of morals that was
ever promulgated to the world, should not have adopted any maxim that so manifestly bore a divine
impress, however well it might have been known, or by whomsoever it might have been at first appropri-
ated. He who, in the beginning of time, made the worlds,

" Who rounded in his palm those spacious orbs,

And bowi'd them flaming through the dark profound,"

required not the assistance of heathen philosophers, in laying down rules of conduct for his disciples.
As in the regions of external nature, the produce of a thousand hills was his, so in those of philosophy
and morality, the gems of truth which sparkled amid the rubbish of many ages, were his unquestionable
property, and could only be restored to their pristine purity and situation in the Christian code, by their
original author.

Socrates arose at a period when philosophical sects had increased so much throughout Greece, that the
true end of knowledge seemed to be abandoned for the love of system. This philosopher, who flourished
at Athens about 400 B. C. was eminent for the sublimity of his genius, the simplicity of his manners,
and his happy talent for investigating truth and exposing error. Disgusted with the absurd sophisms
and vain pretensions of many of his contemporaries, he forsook the study of nature founded on mere
speculation, and recommended that philosophy alone which is established on fact and experiment.
He justly considered that the first stej) to real knowledge was to discover our ignorance ; hence he took
pleasure in exposing every kind of hypocrisy and false learning. The method he adopted, which is de-
nominated the Socratic Dialogue, was well calculated to produce thfr effect he desired ; by seeming to be
desirous of acquiring a knowledge of the opinions and systems of individuals, he drew from them such
concessions in the course of conversation, as showed the absurdity of their tenets ; these he afterwards
employed to overthrow their imposing and flimsy fabric, by turning their own arguments against them-
selves. His chief object was to diffuse instruction among the body of the people, rather than to confine it
to a few. Hence he is finely said to have been the first sage who brought philosophy down from heaven to
earth. We would willingly draw the veil over the close of the life of this illustrious man, when we reflect
that truth and virtue have too often been ill rewarded, even though they escaped the glory of martyrdom.

Platonic School. Plato, the most eminent of his disciples, soon rivalled his master in fame. He was
distinguished both as a philosopher and a mathematician. He imbibed his taste for the pure sciences while
he studied the doctrines of the Pythagoreans. In the grove of Academus, near Athens, under the shade
of spreading planes, he taught the youths of Greece those sublime tenets of his mystical philosophy,
which laid the foundation of his after renown. He was the inventor of the beautiful method of Geome-
trical analysis, which became so powerful an instrument in directing the investigations of succeeding
geometers, and extending the boundaries of Science. He is said to have been tlie discoverer of the Conic
Sections. Certain it is, however, that before his time comparatively little progress had been made in geo-
metry, as a science, and that he considered this kind of knowledge a necessary qualification in his disciples.
The mensuration of rectilinear figures was no doubt long known, its origin being ascribed to the Egyp-

1

DISSERTATION. xiii

tians ; but Hippocrates of Chio appears to have been among the first who attempted to find the area of
curvih'near figures. Foiled in his attempts at the quadrature of the circle, he discovered the method of
squaring that portion of it called a bine. The problem of finding hvo mean proportionah excited much in-
terest at this period. It is said to have arisen from that proposed by the oracle at Delos, lo double the
cube, the solution of which was to allay the plague which then raged in Attica ; a fiction probably invented
to give an air of importance and mystery to the problem. Though this problem is impracticable by plane
geometry, yet it was solved both by mechanical construction and the resources of the higher geometry,
which was cultivated in the time of Plato. He himself, his master Archytus, and his scholars Eudoxus
and Menechmus gave solutions of it, the latter of whom, especially, deserved praise for his method, as
being the first known application of the geometric loci and the conic sections. The triseciion of an angle,
another problem beyond the limits of plane geometry, gave rise to new discoveries in the Platonic school.
The quadralrix was invented by Deinostratus. The properties of the five regular solids were also inves-
tigated by the Platonists ; hence they were denominated the Platonic bodies. Geometry was applied soon
after this period to Astronomy, by Eudoxus and Autolycus.

Aristotle, the most comprehensive genius of antiquity, called the Stagyrite from the place of his birth,
flourished about 360 years B. C. He was the illustrious disciple of his illustrious master Plato. As his
celebrated pupil Alexander aimed at the universal conquest of the civilized and barbarian world, so he
sought to embrace both the natural and moral, within the single grasp of his capacious mind. Though
he founded the Peripatetic school at the Lyceum, yet the progress of his opinions in Greece was little,
compared with that despotic sway which they for ages maintained in Europe, over the learned. It is said
by some historians that he was the author of 4000 volumes, of which scarcely twenty are now extant.
No philosopher, either in ancient or modern times, ever took such a vast range of disquisition, and yet he
is remarkable for soinidness of judgment, precision of thought, and singular acuteness. His great work
on Natural History, is a wonderful production, when we consider the period of its appearance. He was
the founder of Comparative Anatomy, and the improver of Meteorology, Mechanics, Physics and Astro-
nomy. In his woi-ks on these subjects, amid much useless matter, there are to be found many fine
remarks and just conclusions, and not a few interesting doctrines worthy of a better day. He wrote
treatises also on Mathematics and Music, and the fragments of these which have escaped the ravages of
time, prove the great extent of his knowledge in these sciences. His Rhetorics and Poetics are such
master-pieces of their kind, that they have never yet been excelled, and the moderns still bow implicitly
to tlieir laws, while his authority in Natural Philosophy and Metaphysics has long since been exploded.
His Organon, now deemed the most useless of all his works, and certainly, as a method of discovering
truth or detecting error, perfectly futile, is still valuable for the synthetic mode of instruction which it
unfolds, and which is still followed in the mathematical sciences.

Alexandrian School. It is a remarkable fact that the exact sciences not only flourished in Greece when
literature and the fine arts existed in their greatest splendour, but continued to advance after the latter had
become retrograde. Poetry, eloquence, and sculpture, soon began to decline, while all parts of the pure and
mixed mathematics were rapidly extending. A short, but brilliant period only has been allowed, in most
countries, to original excellence in the literature and arts which depend upon the imagination. The exercise
of that power, seems, like the liberty of the turbulent republics, to lead, after a few generations, to its
slavery ; but the reason, a better governed kingdom, goes on making acquisitions which are imperish-
able, and perpetually accumulating. The science and literature of Athens, that once mistress of the
intellectual world, were transferred to the other countries bounded by the shores of the Mediterranean,
and particularly cherished by Ptolemy king of Egypt, one of the sharers of the vast and unwieldy empire
of Alexander. The school of Alexandria, founded by this prince, in the magnificent edifice styled the Mu-
saeum, and enriched with an immense library and a splendid observatory, produced an extraordinary suc-
cession of eminent men. This royal establishment was for nearly 1000 years, the resort of the most illus-
trious geniuses of ancient times, and conferred incalculable benefits on the human race. A host of the ablest
mathematicians shed a lustre on the first three centuries of the Alexandrian school. Euclid, one of its
brightest ornaments, digested his immortal Elements of Geometry, and raised a monument to his fame,

" Quod non imber eclax, noii Aquilo impotena
Possit diriiei'e, aut innumerabilis
Anuorum series, et fuga temporum,"

This lucid genius wrote treatises also on Conies, plane loci, and porisms, a spscies of geometrical propo-
sitiory which, after being involved in obscurity for ages, from the loss of his work, was elucidated by
three eminent mathematicians of modern times, Simson, Playfair, and Brougham. The works on Music,
Astronomy, Optics, and Mechanics, ascribed also to Euclid, will at least not lessen his merit, when we
consider the early period at which they were written. Accurate Astronomical observations were first made
in the Alexandrian Observatory, by Aristillus and Timocharis, about 300 B. C. The astronomical poem
of Aratus, entitled " Phenomena," illustrative of the opinions of Eudoxus. the Pythagorean, and so po-
pular among the ancients, as to be translated by Cicero and Germanicus, was written shortly after this
period. Paul, in his admirable sermon at Athens, makes the following quotation from this poem, when
speaking of the Unknown God whom they ignorantly worshipped :-r-" row yog xa/ yttoi is/at."

xiv DISSERTATION.

Archimedes. The most inventive genius which antiquity ever produced, was the much-famed Archimedes,
a native of Syracuse, who flourished 2.60 B. C. The achievements of this philosopher in pure science were
only excelled by his real discoveries in Natural Philosophy, which first took its genuine form under his
plastic hand. He gave an unlimited extent to the notation of numbers, and founded the method of indivisi-
bles, which led him to the finest discoveries in Geometry. By this means he determined the area of the
parabola, the first curve that was exactly quadrated ; he made a very near approximation to the quadrature
of the circle, and unfolded the beautiful relations that subsist between the cylinder and its inscribed cone
and sphere. He was the first who illuminated the sciences of Jlechanics and Hydrostatics by the light
of Geometry, and his advances were accordingly splendid and triumphant. He appears to have been the
first who noticed the centre of gravity in bodies, and h'e determined it in a number of figures. The
properties of spirals and of conoids and spheroids were also among his discoveries. He developed the
principles of equilibrium in floating bodies, and thus traced the elements of naval Architecture. He was
the first who demonstrated the properties of the lever and some other mechanic powers, and who showed
their vast practical application. The story of his boast is well known : " Ao; ecu ffri; xai tjjv yijv -/.uriiriii."
The detection of the fraud in the fabrication of Hiero's golden crown, on the principles of specific gravity,
is equally notorious. His success in applying his immense mathematical and mechanical knowledge to
practice, in defending his native city from the Romans, have conferred no less renown on his name. The
powerful engines which he constructed enabled his countrymen to resist, for three years, the united efforts
of the fleet and army of the enemy ; and it is to be regretted, for the honour of science, that the relax-
ation of their ordinary vigilance one fatal night should have laid their city open to stratagem, and in-
volved it in the horrors of an assault, which terminated alike the mortal career of this amazing genius,
and their own existence as a wealthy and independent state. The skill of Archimedes appears to have
shone equally in Astronomy and Optics as in other branches of Natural Philosophy. Of his discoveries
in the former, no accounts remain, except of his determination of the sun's apparent diameter, by a very
accurate method, and his deduction from thence of its distance from the earth ; he is said also to have
constructed a machine for exhibiting the motions of the heavenly bodies, so remarkably ingenious, that
Cicero employs the fact as an argument against those who denied the existence of a God. Among his
optical inventions, that of burning mirrors, and their wonderful effects, are well known. The fact of the
Roman vessels being set on fire by their means, during the siege of Syracuse, was long doubted till its
practicability was demonstrated by Buffon.

Aristarchus and Eratosthenes. Tlie broad imd ample base of the pyramid of science had been now laid,
and the irrefragable and eternal truths of Geometry had for ever rendered it impossible to be shaken.
Astronomy began to extend its domains. Aristarchus of Samos had devised an ingenious mode of deter-
mining the distances of the sun and moon, made an observation of the solstice, and attempted to revive
the Pythagorean system of tlie universe, which had been rejected by Aristotle. Eratosthenes, a mathema-
tician of the Alexandrian school, determined the obliquity of the ecliptic to be ^^ of the circumference, and
had the honour of being the first who measured an arc on the surface of the earth. He invented the Sieve,
a method of finding prime numbers, and several other ingenious mathematical contrivances. His literary
and poetical acquirements, in addition to his scientific talents, procured him the esteem of his conterapo-
rai'ies, as a universal genius.

Apolloniiis of Perga, a genius scarcely less illustrious than Archimedes, was distinguished among the"
ancients by the name of the Great Geometer, and flourished at the Musa!um, about 200 B. C. He ob-
tained this noble appellation from his discoveries in the Coiic Sections, on which he wrote a treatise in
four books, the last three being his own invention. In this work so wonderfully did he display his
powers in the management of the ancient geometry, that he treads on the threshold of some of the finest
modern discoveries. The lost treatises of this great genius, of which the titles were given by Pappus,
have exercised the ingenuity of the most skilful of the modern mathematicians, in their attempts to restore
them. The problem of tactions, was solved by Vieta and Newton. The sections of ratio and space, were
restored by Halley. The problem of determinate section was resolved by Simson. The problems of in-
clinations and loci plani were also restored by Simson and others. \\'ith Apollonius the progress of the
Greek Geometry in the Alexandrian school seems to have terminated, and the labours of his successors
were either turned to the improvement of Astronomy, or confined to the writing of commentaries on the
works of those gigantic geometers who had spread such a glory around that ancient temple of science.

Hippnrchiis of' Bithynia, wiio has been styled the father of Astronomy, flourished at Alexandria about
liO B. C. He discovered the precession of tlie equinoxes, and the inequality of the periods between
those points. He approximated very nearly to the exact length of the year, ascertained the distance of
the moon, and rectified that of the sun. The motion of the signs of the zodiac in antecedentia, suggested
to Hipparchus the idea of ascertaining and registering the positions of the principal fixed stars; he also
made a catalogue of eclipses for 600 years ; thus he laid the basis of the first Astronomical Ephenieris.
He was likewise the first who determined the latitudes and longitudes of places on tiie surface of the
globe by celestial observations. The appearance of a new star in the heavens led him to the grand con-
jecture of the motion of the stars which were considered fixed, a discovery which has so recently been
established by Herschell, South, and Struve. Overlooking, however, the true notion of the solar system,
he unfortunately introduced the hypothesis of Eccentrics and Epicycles to explain the inequalities of the
•un's motion, which, being afterwards adopted by Ptolemy, proved an enormous incumbrance to science.

1

DISSERTATION. xv

Plolcmy. The next philosopher of note in the Alexandrian school, was Ptolemy the Astronomer, who
flourished at a period about as long after the Christian era, as Hipparchus did before it. He was a most
excellent and indefatigable observer, and he not only improved every branch of Astronomy, but he corrected
the erroi's of Hipparchus and others, and digested the multifarious discoveries that had been made before
his time, along with his own, into one great system, which he published under the title of the '•' (iiyaXij
"SMSTa^ic," or " The great Construction," called by the Arabians, " Almagest." He discovered the evection
of the moon, and wrote a treatise on Optics, in which he explained the nature of atmospherical refraction.
He was also the author of a work on Geography, in which he applied the theory of projections, which he
had invented, to the construction of maps. The study of spherical trigonometry was begun by Hippar-
chus, extended by Theodosius and Menelaus, but reduced to a practical form by Ptolemy. He adopted
and exhibited in his great work, the ancient system of the world, which placed the earth in the centre of
the universe, and which has been named after him, the Ptolemaic system. Other philosophers of the
Alexandrian school applied themselves to mechanics, but their advances, compared with those of Archi-
medes, were feeble and insignificant. The genius of Greece, which by this time was fast sinking under
oppression, was at length evaporated in unsuccessful struggles for liberty, — and with liberty fled every
thing that was valuable in art, science, or philosophy. The Romans had now become masters of the
world, and humble imitators of the Greeks, they never produced, during the whole period of their em-
pire, a single genius in those valuable branches of human knowledge, that could equal, much less surpass
the achievements of that ingenious people.

After the decline of the Roman empire, and the burning of the Alexandrian library — that storehouse
of the collected wisdom of ages — Europe had fallen into such a convulsed state, by the irruption of
Northern hordes, that science was totally neglected, and every thing gave way to the ravages of war, and
the overwhelmhig tide of religious superstition. The Arabians actuated by the fierce spirit of a false
religion, which had newly sprung up in their quarter of the globe, began to spread the terror of their
arms in all directions. Having overrun Egypt, Syria, and Persia, in the East, they turned towards the
West, made themselves masters of Spain, and, penetrating into the interior of France, threatened at
last to extinguish the very name of Christianity. Checked, however, by the rudeness and poverty of
the natives, or by the inhospitality of less favoured climes, and perhaps satiated with the thirst of con-
quest, they soon abated the fervour of tiieir warlike zeal, and their ambitious enterprizes at last yielded
to the arts of peace. Fortunately some remains of Grecian Literature and Science had escaped the gene-
ral conflagration of the works of the ancients, and the Arabians, under the influence of a spirit that
reflects on them the highest honour, carefully collected all that could be found of the philosopliical
writings of that wonderful people, and caused them to be translated into their own language. Their
princes rewarded such undertukings with unbounded liberality ; they filled their palaces with those pre-
cious relics of science ; and, attracted by the beauty of astronomical researches, they adorned their courts
by the erection of splendid observatories.

Arabians. The intimate connection of Geometry with Astronomy led the Arabians to cultivate both
sciences with ardour ; and, destitute of the speculative genius of the Greeks, they turned their efforts chiefly
to their practical application. Hence they soon became expert calculators and accurate observers. Alma-
moun, the son of the celebrated Haroun al Keschid, who reigned at Bagdad in 814, observed the obliquity
of the ecliptic and measured the length of a terrestrial degree in the plains of Mesopotamia. Of the astro-
nomers protected by this prince and his successors, Albategni was the most eminent. He ascertained, in
880, the eccentricity of the solar motion, and discovered the change of the place of the sun's apogee.
Ibn Junis, at Cairo, in 1000, determined the length of the year, within 2' of the truth. To the Arabians
we owe several improvements in Trigonometry. They first employed the sines of angles instead of the
chords, and introduced the tangents into their calculations. Arithmetic took from them that permanent
form which it has since preserved by the introduction of the decimal notation — one of the most important
steps that was ever made in the progress of Science. This beautiful and simple invention they did not
arrogate to themselves, but acknowledged that they borrowed it from the nations of India. The use of
these Indian characters was carried by them into Spain, whence it was transferred to the rest of Europe.

Croisades. During these enlightened periods of Arabian history, the fairest portions of Christendom
were enveloped in intellectual darkness. The savage arts of war and the intrigues of a cunning priesthood,
had conspired to reduce man to a state little better than that of absolute barbarism. His restless and un-
controlable spirit was, in these times, forced to expend its energies in the severest sports, or the most wan-
ton depredations. Science, during these middle ages, was reduced to a very low ebb; it was pi-eserved,
however, from becoming totally extinct. The pilgrimages which were undertaken to the shrines of saints,
and the visits paid to Rome from every corner of Europe to which her influence extended, served still to
keep alive the feeble light of knowledge which had survived the wreck of ages. The Croisades, those
expensive armaments which were raised during the period from the twelfth to the fourteenth century,

" wlien the peers
Of Europe, by the bold Godfredo led.
Against the usurping infidel display 'd
The blessed cross, and woa the Holy Land,"

xvi DISSERTATION.

•re regarded by many as the main cause of the renovation of the human mind in the West. Tlie inter-
course produced, during the cessation of hostilities, between the Croisaders and the Saracens who surpassed
them in knowledge and refinement, as well as the information obtained by foreign travel, tended greatly
to advance the former in the knowledge of the arts and sciences wiiich had been driven from Europe.
To this origin is ascribed many of the subsequent improvements which had a polishing and invigorating
effect on the progress of society. During these benighted periods, when the streams of ancient philosophy
had been almost completely dried up, and no trace left of their source, several useful arts arose, which
were destined to lend their valuable aid to the advancement of science. The making of paper was in-
vented about the year 1100, and was the first step to that immense stride afterwards made by the art of
printing. Salvino Degli Armati constructed convex lenses for spectacles about the year 1285, thus still
farther preparing the way for the use of that grand invention.

Jioger Bacon, who flourished in the thirteenth century, was the most eminent natural philosopher of that
perioil, and his name shines like a star amid the general gloom. He appears to have anticipated several
chemical and philosophical discoveries of later times. The invention of the magic lantern and telescope has
been attributed to Bacon, though, probably, his attempts merely showed others the way ; he was acquainted
with the construction of certain locomotive carriages, and aeronautic machines ; and he gives a description
of the diving-bell. It is said that he was familiar with the properties of gunpowder, though the invention
has been attributed to Schwartz, a German monk, who lived at a later period. The eastern nations were,
however, early acquainted with the deflagrating property of nitre, which was introduced into Europe by the
Croisaders, and probably the art of making gunpowder itself. This invention has wonderfully extended the
empire of man over Nature, and may indeed vie with the art of printing, in those improvements which
they have mutually introduced into society. Wars have been rendered less frequent and sanguinary than
in ancient times, by the expense attending the raising of armies, while the arts of peace, have been greatly
indebted to its tremendous power in tearing asunder solid rocks of stone. It appears not to have been
employed in Europe till about the year 1330 ; artillery was first used by the Moors at the siege of Alge-
siras, in 1334; and in 1346, King Edward employed four pieces of cannon, at the memorable battle of
Cressy.

Mariner's Compass. The Greeks, though acquainted with the attractive power of the magnet, seem to
have been ignorant of its wonderful property of pointing towards the north, the discovery of which is attri-
buted to the Chinese. The Croisaders are alleged to have brought a knowledge of this discovery from tlie
east ; but it was first employed in Navigation, by Ginja of Amalphi, near Genoa, about the year 1260. The
declination of the magnetic needle seems to have been known very soon after the discovery of its directive
property, as it is mentioned by Peter Adsiger in a MS. dated 12G9- Aided by this wonderful invention,
man soon ventured to explore the utmost limits of the ocean, and wandering, at first, in fear and uncertainty,
wasguided by an irresistible power to the discovery of a New World. The thirst for knowledge had begun
to rouse the latent energies of human ingenuity, when an invention occurred which may be justly esteemed
its noblest achievement, when we reflect on the incalculable benefits it has conferred on our race.

" 'Tis to the pen and press we mortals owe
All we believe, and almost all we know.'*

The art of Prinliiig is said to have been first invented at Haerlem, about 1430, but it is generally
attributed to the ingenuity and perseverance of Schoefler and Guttenbeig, assisted by the wealth and the
patronage of Faust, a citizen of Mentz. It was introduced into England by William Caxton, and in
the short space of thirty years arrived very nearly to that high degree of perfection in which it now
exists. The art of painting, which had been revived by Cimabue about the time of Roger Bacon, re-
ceived at the same period, such a wonderful improvement, by the invention of engraving, that its divine
productions were rendered as imperishable as the works of Literature and Science by that of printing.
Those who studied the manuscripts of antiquity, which had escaped the ravages of time and the bar-
barity of nations, now saw a field opened for the exertions of genius which had never been anticipated by
the most sanguine expectations of philosophers. Their most ardent hopes for the means of advancing
science was infinitely surpassed. Much was to be done, however, before this great invention could be
rendered useful to the mass. The repositories of the ancient treasures were to be made accessible ; the
knowledge of the languages in which they were written was to be acquired ; the manuscripts were to be
decyphered, and the skill of the grammarian and the critic were to precede that of the mathematician
and the philosopher.

Literary^ Esiabliskmculs. The monasteries and other religious endowments afforded an asylum to the
explorers of ancient lore, and part of the ample revenues of the Romish church were dedicated to the
education of youth. Separate academies were established for the purpose of communicating tlie higher
degrees of instruction, and the adoption of the Latin language as the common medium of intercourse
over Europe, greatly facilitated the progress of learning. U'hen these seminaries were so much extended
as to comprehend all branches of liberal knowledge, they were denominated " General Studies ;" and,
afterwards, when they were sanctioned by the Bulls of the Roman pontiff, and protected by law, they
received the title of " Universities." In these schools, the opinions of Aristotle, which formed the highest
object of study, were expounded with incredible diligence, and their authority was held paramount to

DISSERTATION. xvii

that of the Holy Scriptures. Thus, the vigour of early genius which, if better directeil, might have risen
to sublime discovery, was speedily wasted in idle disputations, and, at length, exhausted in empty subtleties.
The study of letters, though productive of no immediate advantage to tliat of nature, still prepared the
mind of man for the reception of her great truths. Poetry, as in the infancy of time, began first to attract
his attention after the renovation of his powers. Dante and Petrarch resorted to the pure fountains of
ancient learning which had been discovered, and the deep enthusiasm and eloquence of the latter poet,
produced a great impression on the minds of his contemporaries. The Greek language began to be cul-
tivated, and the princely patronage of the family of Medici, diffused a general taste for literature. The
dispersion of the men of letters, occasioned by the taking of Constantinople in 1453 by the Turks, was
the cause of the transportation of the remains of Greek Philosophy and Roman Literature to Italy, where
they were happily preserved from oblivion.

Arts and Manufactures. The civilization which the Romans introduced into Britain seems to have been
either forgotten or very little improved, till the period of Alfred the Great. In his time the English
goldsmiths began to excel, and before the conquest, the woollen manufactures had risen to a considerable
degree of perfection. About 1250, the linen manufacture seems to have been considerably advanced in
England, though embroidery was then much practised. In the twelfth century, silks were principally
worn in Sicily. The manufacture of cloth was greatly improved, by the establishment of Kempe and
other Flemish weavers in England, in the fourteenth century ; and numerous mechanical arts were ad-
vanced, about the same period, by the invention of wire-drawing, which was first introduced at Nurem-
berg. The great increase in the arts of civilization and refinement in the succeeding centuries, produced
a greater demand for superior manufactures. This required more labour and skill, and suggested to some
happy genius of superior penetration, the great principle of the divixion of labour, by which each indi-
vidual is enabled to acquire so high a degree of perfection in a single branch of the arts or manufactures,
that the whole is much more perfectly and expeditiously performed, than if it had been the entire work-
manship of any one artist, though possessed of far greater abilities and experience. The invention of
the modern spinning wheel is attributed to Jurgen of Brunswick, in 1530, and England soon afterwards
profited by the improvement. Before the end of the century, Lee of Cambridge invented the stocking
loom, which imitated the texture of the knit stockings manufactured in Spain about 1550. Mills for
drawing wire and slitting iron were first erected about the same period, and Birmingham and Sheffield
were, even then, celebrated for their manufactures, and for the germ of that powerful machinery which
has since astonished the world by its wonderful productions, as well as by the facility and expedition witli
which they are fabricated.

Mathematics. With the revival of Literature a new science was introduced into Europe from Arabia,
of a name and character unknown to the Geometers of antiquity. The feeble attempts of the early im-
provers of Algebra, gave no indications, however, of that splendid career which it was destined to run in
the hands of the modern mathematicians. Even the towering genius of the Greeks, during the most
flourishing periods of their philosophy and science, was unable to rise to the invention of the Analytic
Art. Diophantus of Alexandria, who is believed to have flourished a few years before Hipparchus, had,
no doubt, composed a curious treatise consisting of thirteen books of Arithmetical questions, many of
which are of considerable ditliculty ; but the instrument which he employs, being chiefly an abridgement
of ordinary language, is comparatively weak and imperfect, though he manages it with great address and
skill. Leonardo, a wealthy merchant of Pisa, who made frequent commercial adventures to the East,
was the first who made the science of Algebra known in Europe, about the connnencement of the
thirteenth century. This science is supposed to have been originally carried from India into Arabia, by
Mahomet Ben Musa of Cliorasan, about the same time that Gerbert the Monk, otherwise called Sylvester
II. first introduced the Arabic sjstem of notation among his coa)!trymen in the Low Countries. The
first printed treatise on Algebra, was that of Lucas Pacioli, or de Burgo, published in M()4. The
characters employed in this work, as well as in that of Leonardo, which existed only in manuscript, consist
of mere verbal abbreviations ; thus, showing that this science was in its early state, merely a system of
short-hand applied to the solution of arithmetical problems ; yet to this simple invention are we indebted
for one of the most powerful weapons of modern discovery. The work of Diophantus was given to the
world by Xylander in 1575. The utmost extent to which these early writers on Algebra had arrived, was
the solution of Quadratic Equations; and even in India, the father-laud of the science, their knowledge
seems still to be circumscribed within such narrow limits.

Cardan and Tnrtalea. Italy, which had been the scene of so many revolutions for ages, was now
defined to behold the peaceful warfare of Science. The discovery of the method of solving Cubic Equa-
tions, the joint result of the labours and skill of Scipio Ferreo, Tartalea and Cardan, forms a remarkable
era in the history of the Analytic Art. Ferreo, who was Professor of Mathematics at Bologna, had, in
1508, found out a rule for the resolution of one of the cases of these Equations, wliich, after the manner
of mathematicians in those days, one of his scholars obscurely communicated in a challenge to Tartalea
of Brescia, to try their strength in the new art. The genius of Tartalea, being thus called into action,
soon enabled him to discover the method of solution and to extend it to more intricate cases. The report
of this discovery excited in Cardan of Milan, who was well skilled in the knowledge of Algebra as it was
then practised, the most ardent and lively curiosity, and he ceased not to importune Tartalea with the n:ost

TOL. I. PART I. c

xviii DISSERTATION.

earnest solicitations, till he had extorted the rules from the latter, under the most solemn promises and
oatlis of secrecy. Cardan soon discovered their demonstrations, and having extended this important dis-
covery to all kinds of cubic equations, he published the method to the world in 1545, as his own, without
any regard to his onths, or acknowledgment of the man to whom he was so much indebted. However
unfair such conduct might be to his contemporaries, he conferred a permanent benefit on Science, and
marked a point in the progress of Algebraic investigation, with respect to the solution of equations, be-
yond which all the efforts of succeeding Analysts have scarcely been able to reach. The irreducible case
which falls imder Cardan's rule, has baffled all the mathematicians of Europe since that period, and may
safely be ranked, along with the quadrature of the circle and the trisection of an angle, among the pro-
blems which are doomed to exercise human skill and ingenuity in vain.

Astronomy was the first of the sciences that was regenerated on the revival of learning. It had always
been cultivated, even during the middle ages, from its supposed connection with the absurd and illusive
science of Astrology, which, as well as alchemy and magic, was prosecuted with great assiduity in those
periods of ignorance. Even in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, professors of Astrology were ap-
pointed in the Universities of Italy, to instruct their pupils in the nature of the influence of the stars.
Previous to this period, astronomical observations of an a^ithentic date, about 1278, had been made in
China by Cocheouking, whereby the obliquity of the ecliptic was very accurately made known. The
Persians had likewise made great progress in astronomy, ^nd UUigh Beigh, in his capital of Samarcand,
in 1437, employed very elaborate instruments in the investigations of this sublime science. Alphonso,
King of Castile, who flourished about the middle of the thirteenth century, was the first who dared to
question the system of the woi-ld, which had descended from antiquity, hallowed by the venerable names
of Aristotle and Ptolemy. The bold saying of this prince has been justly taxed with impiety, and though
<m that account deeply liable to censure, it exhibits, in a strong point of view, the difficulty which an ac-
curate investigation of nature always presents to the reconciliation of facts with preconceived theories.
Milton, whose learning and genius drew illustrations from every branch of human knowledge, has alluded
to this ancient and complicated system in his divine poem ;

" Hereafter, when they come to model Heaven
. And calciJate the stars ; how they will wield
The mighty frame ; how build, unbuild, contrive
To save appearances ; hoTV gird the sphere
With centrick and eccentrick scribbled o*er
Cycle and epicycle, orb in orb."

Copernicus. Several valuable improvements had been introduced into astronomical calculations by Pur-
bach and Regiomontanus, two eminent mathematicians of the fifteenth century, when Copernicus arose like a
meteor in the midnight sky, and unfolded to the gaze of man the true system of the world. This illustrious
astronomer, who was born at Thorn, in Prussia, in 1473, stands at the head of that able phalanx of dis-
coverers, in modern times, who, bursting the fetters of prejudice and authority, discarded every opinion in
philosophy not founded on experience and observation. Dissatisfied with the complicated hypotheses of
the Ptolemaic system, he examined the works of the ancients now laid open to Europe, in quest of more
satisfactory opinions. It is supposed that he borrowed his ideas of the true system from the allegorical
notions of the Pythagoreans, and that he applied them to the numerous observations which had been ac-
cumulated by the diligence of astronomers. Finding them all in perfect conformity with his theory, he
quickly threw aside the Ptolemean epicycles, and in those remarkable phenomena, beheld nothing but the
necessary consequences of the combination of the motions of the earth and planets round the sun ; thus,
he was enabled to calculate the relative distances of the planets from the sun, which, till then, had re-
mained unknown. The marks of that beautiful simplicity which pervades all the works of nature, being
impressed on this system, carried with it the most convincing evidence of its truth. The publication of
the work which contained tlie explanation of the doctrines of Copernicus, took place in 1543, only a few
days before his death ; and, what is remarkable, was earnestly solicited by a Cardinal, while the book
itself was dedicated to the Pope. In this work, he promulgated the opinion of the earth's motion with
great caution, as if he had been gifted with a presentiment of the opposition it should one day experience.
This system, at first, attracted so little attention, that it was rejected by most of the learned, and it lay,
as it were, smouldering in secret for half a century, till, by the exertions and the fame of Galileo, it was
kindled into so bright a flame, as to consume the philosophy of Aristotle, alarm the hierarchy of Rome,
and threaten the destruction of every opinion that had descended from antiquity.

Tycho Brake. Another eminent astronomer flourished towards the end of the sixteenth century, in the
small isle of Huen, at the entrance of the Baltic Sea. There the noble Dane Tycho Brahe erected his
famous observatory of Uraniburg, and enriched Astronomy by observations equally celebrated for their
number and their accuracy. He employed instruments which were not only the most perfect hitherto
constructed, but introduced the valuable improvement of detecting and rectifying their errors by actual
observation. He formed a new catalogue of the stars amounting to 777, and discovered almost all the
irregularities of the moon's motion, that were known previous to the theory of universal gravitation. He
clearly pointed out the nature of atmospherical refraction, and even contrived an instrument for rendering

DISSERTATION. xix

it visible. His theory of comets which was just, and his observations on the appearance of the new star
■ in 1572, gave a severe blow to the physics of Aristotle which were now beginning to fade before the
splendour of modern discovery. Unfortunately, he was deterred, by religious scruples, from adopting
the true system of the world unfolded by Copernicus, and thus, by one retrograde step, lost the glory of
giving the finishing touch to that noble column in the temple of science, which his own invaluable labours
had reared.

Kepler. Modern times can scarcely present a name more illustrious than that of Kepler. Born in
1571, at Wiel in Germany, and living at a period when the scholastic philosophy was yet in vogue, and
the authority of Aristotle still maintained its ascendancy, he soon rose above the errors of his day by the
force of his superior genius. He commenced his splendid career by adopting the planetary system of
Copernicus, which was then becoming popular. He corrected the law of refraction, and applied the
principles of Optics to Astronomy. In his works he tells us there were three things of whicli he an-
xiously sought to discover the reason, from his early youth ; namely, why the planets were six in num-
ber ; why they performed their revolutions in orbits of the dimensions ascribed to them by Copernicus;
and what were the laws of these revolutions. In the true spirit of the ancient Pythagoreans, he endea-
voured, at first, to account for these phenomena by the properties of number and figure, and by the
analogy and harmony of nature. The candour with which he acknowledges his obligations to Tycho
Brahe, whose pupil and assistant he afterwards became, for properly directing him in his investigations,
cannot be too much admired. Succeeding to his illustrious master in his appointments at Prague, under
the emperor Rudolph, he enjoyed the enviable title of " Imperial Mathematician ;" there his bold and
exuberant imagination, working on the register of the accurate observations of the Danish astronomer,
and aided by the most persevering industry and intense labour in calculating and combining them for the
space of 17 years, at last drew aside the hitherto impenetrable veil, and disclosed to view those eternal
laws which govern the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. Kepler, besides those three remarkable laws
which are generally distinguished by his name, made several other important additions to Astronomy.
He corrected the errors of Copernicus respecting the parallelism of the eartli's axis, and before his death,
which happened in iQSO, had the satisfaction of applying his immortal theory of the planetary motions
to the satellites of the planet Jupiter. When we consider the nature of the discoveries of Kepler, as being
elevated far above the observation of ordinary men, — when we reflect on the deep enthusiasm that dwelt
in his'bosom even from his youth, on subjects of such a profound and exalted nature, and so far removed
from what usually interests the human race, — and, above all, when we contemplate that patient, un-
wearied, and unremitting spirit of perseverance which bore him through the most lengthened and per-
plexing calculations and hypotheses, at a period when the use of logarithms was yet unknown, and the
rules of philosophizing were still in an embryo state, — we must award the homage of our greatest respect
and profoundest admiration, to his brilliant and indefatigable genius.

Galileo. The noble army of scientific men was now rapidly increasing. Galileo, the illustrious co-
temporary and rival of Kepler, was born at Pisa, in 1 564. The news of the happy discovery of tlie
telescope in Holland, having reached Galileo in I6O9, he soon re- in vented that instrument for himself,
and had the singular felicity of being the first to point the wondrous tube to heaven, to observe the vary-
ing phases of the planets, and to discover the immutable order and harmony of new worlds. The sensa-
tions which must have been communicated, may be more easily conceived than expressed, when first

** the moon, whose orb
Through optick glass, the Tuscan artist views
At evening fi'oin the top of Fcsol^,
Or in Valdarno, to descrj' new lands,
Rivei*s, or mountains in her spotty globe."

The earth and the planets were now proved to be similar bodies, and the ancient systems of the universe
annihilated by this single instrument, were replaced by a system more suitable to the simplicity and mag-
nificence of nature. When the same illustrious philosopher turned his telescope to the fixed stars, his
surprise at finding their magnitude diminished was only surpassed by the splendour of the glorious spec-
tacle laid open to his admiring view ; he then discovered that the Almighty had filled infinite space with
innumerable instances of his creative power invisible to the naked eye,

" And sow'd with stara the heavens, thick as a field. "

Sucl^ extended conceptions of the mechanism of the universe, could not fail to delight and astonish man-
kind, and to raise their minds far above the grovelling and limited ideas formerly entertained of the power,
the wisdom, and the goodness of tlie Great Author of Nature. The next discovery of the Italian Philo-
sopher was that of the satellites of Jupiter, which he announced in his " Nuncius Sidereus," or " Starry
Messenger," under the title of the Medicean stars. His telescope was not sufficiently powerful to detect
the remarkable phenomena of the ring of Saturn, though he pointed out those uncommon appearances
which led to its discovery. The beautiful crescent of Venus, and the gibbous figure of Mars, enabled him
to give the most convincing demonstration that liad yet been adduced of the Copernican system, and to
verify the sagacious conjecture of its author, that, if the sense of sight were sufl^iciently powerful, we

XX DISSERTATION.

should see Mercury and Venus exhibiting phases like those of the moon. The singular and still unex-
plained phenomenon of the dark spots on the surface of the sun, next attracted the attention of Galileo,
and enabled him to ascertain the curious fact of the rotation of that luminary on its own axis. So many
shining discoveries threw a halo of renown around the name of the Italian philosopher, and produced a
host of enemies to whose machinations, and interest with a corrupt and debased church, he very nigh fell
a martyr. Instead of meeting with the admiration and gratitude of the learned, as in our days, he was
viewed with jealousy and alarm as an obstinate heretic, and innovator. In proportion to the ability which
lie displayed, and the success with which the promulgation of his doctrines was crowned, so did the un-
relenting rancour of superstitious bigotry pursue the venerable genius who had overthrown the idols of
antiquity, opened up a new path to knowledge, and almost doubled the faculties of the race. Arraigned
before the tribunal of the Inquisition — the most infamous engine of power ever suggested by infernal
agents — a council of seven Cardinals pronounced a sentence which, for the sake of those who imagine
that wisdom and power are synonymous terms, ought never to be forgotten : " That to maintain the sun
to be immoveable and without local motion, in the centre of the world, is an absurd proposition, false in
philosophy, heretical in religion, and contrary to the testimony of scripture. That it is equally absurd
and false in philosophy to assert that the earth is not immoveable in the centre of the world, and consi-
dered theologically, equally erroneous and heretical." In l66S, Galileo, at the age of 70 years, was again
brought before the Inquisition, forced solemnly to disavow his belief in the motion of the earth, and
condemned to perpetual imprisonment. The very means, however, which the church of Rome took to
suppress this heresy, tended only to fan the flame which science had kindled ; and, while we look back
with regret on the persecution of that venerable sage, we ought to glory in the emancipation of the human
mind from that spiritual thraldom which was alike the bane of true religion and sound philosophy.

Fine Arts. The day-spring of knowledge which had thus risen on the human race, had also a regenera-
ting and enlivening influence on the progress of the Fine Arts. Italy, during the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, produced those inimitable masters of Painting, whose fame rivals that of the ancient Grecian
artists, even when in the full tide of their glory. Leonardo da Vinci, who was born at Florence in 14,52,
was the first who gave a prelude of that degree of excellence which was afterwards to be attained in this
divine art, and which brought the achievements of the moderns in comparison with those of tlie age of
Pericles. He was the most accomplished man of his age, and merits the esteem of posterity for the uni-
versality of his talents, which were successfully applied, not only to poetry and painting, but also to
architecture, mathematics, and mechanics. The transcendent genius of Michael Angela, his contemporary
and illustrious rival, stamped the character of the Florentine school with grandeur and sublimity. The
fame of Leonardo excited in his breast that flame of emulation, which set fire to a train of achievements in
the arts more brilliant than had ever before illuminated Italy. The appearance of a new competitor in
the field, the immortal Raphael, who was born at Urbino in 1 483, gave an impulse to mind and a glory
to art, which succeeding ages are content to admire without the hope of ever reaching, much less sur-
passing, by any after effort of creative skill. Angelo, who had striven for the palm of superiority with
Da Vinci, was doomed, in his turn, to be outshone by the more splendid genius of Raphael. Yet the history
of human ingenuity does not furnish a more miraculous example of undaunted perseverance than that
of Angelo in the fresco painting of the Deluge, the very first trial of his skill with that great master of
the Roman school. The most stupendous production of his genius was the Last Judgment, which occu-
pied eight years, and contained three hundred figures, executed with such ease, majesty, and grandeur,
as not only to strike despair into the minds of his contemporaries, but into those of almost every succeed-
ing generation of artists. The rising renown of Raphael threw the lustre of Angelo's fame partially into
the shade. Such was the peculiar modesty and candour of this young artist, however, that he expressed
his gratitude to Providence, for having been destined to live at the same period with that eminent man.

The w^orks of Angelo proved a rich mine to the aspiring Roman, and were to him what the immortal
poem of Homer had been to the Mantuan bard. The muscular forms, the bold outline, and the energetic
attitudes of the Florentine artist, were softened and harmonized in the elegant and graceful productions
of the pencil of Raphael. Though the career of this illustrious genius was short, it was splendid ; and
the fertile age of Leo X. beheld none whose works could equal his in touching simplicity and grace. His
celebrated " Cartoons," are well known, and have been often described. The " Transfiguration," a pic-
ture of immortal Touch, terminated the labours of this divine artist. None of the immediate followers
of these great masters in Italy could equal their productions; and, indeed, a manifest declension in the
Fine Arts speedily succeeded. Other masters arose in various places on the continent, and produced
works of considerable merit, but the grandeur and natural simplicity of the Italian artists were gone. The
Venetian school could boast of their Giorgione and Titian ; and the Lombard school, of Corregio and the
Caraccis, the former of whom is deemed worthy of being classed in the same rank with Angelo and Ra-
phael. The French school had their Poussin and Lorraine ; and the Flemish their Rubens, Vandyke,
and Rembj-andt, — the latter a genius of extraordinary skill and romantic originality. Such a brilliant
galaxy of talent, which had thus succeeded the age of erudition, showed that man possessed powers ca-
pable of the most astonishing exertions if properly directed, and that tlie principle of emulation is the
t'ruitful parent of all that is great and ennobling in Science, as well as all that is elegant and beautiful in

3

DISSERTATION. xxi

Art. The human mind, has, however, in all ages, required the gigantic efforts of bome master spirit to
set it free from the trammels of authority, to overthrow the inveteracy of antiquated opinion, and to
enable the race to explore with a fearless eye the wide fields of knowledge and of nature.

Mechanics. From the time of Archimedes till the era of Galileo's discoveries, comparatively little pro-
gress had been made in Mechanical science. Guldo Vbaldi, an Italian, in his treatise published in 1577j
was the first who attempted to extend the theory beyond the investigations of the ancients. He simplified
several of the mechanical powers, and wrote a valuable commentary on the works of Archimedes. Sle-
vinus, a Dutch engineer, was the first, however, who passed the limits of mechanical knowledge possessed
by the philosophers of the Alexandrian school, and their commentators. He accurately ascertained the
force necessary to sustain a body on an inclined plane, and thus discovered the solution of that particular
case of the composition of forces, by which the equilibrium of any three forces is determined. His de-
monstration is extremely ingenious, and remarkable, as being the first solution of a problem which had
stood as a barrier in tiie way of mechanical discovery for ages. He detected the important law in Hydro-
statics, that the pressure of fluids is simply in proportion to their depth. As Kepler has been elegantly
styled the forerunner of Newton in his Astronomical discoveries, so may this appellation be awarded to
Galileo with regard to those in Physical Science. In his treatise </f//a Scienza 3Iecanica, published in 15^2,
he unfolded the theory of the Mechanical Powers, and developed that important mechanical principle af-
terwards denominated the principle of Virtual Velocities. He extended his investigations both to statical
and dynamical questions relative to the doctrine forces, and showed that if the effect of a force be esti-
mated by the weight which it can raise in a given time, no mechanical contrivance can ever increase that
effect. Important as these discoveries were, they were eclipsed by others of a more remarkable nature.
The theory of variable motion, wholly unknown to the ancients, is due to his penetrating genius. He
discovered the law of the acceleration of falling bodies by the action of gravity, both vertically and along
inclined planes, and established it both by experiment and mathematical demonstration. It was during
his professorship in the university of Pisa, that he made those experiments which laid the foundation of
his fame. Having attacked the fundamental axiom of the Aristotelian philosophy, that the velocities of
falling bodies were proportional to their weights, he publicly demonstrated its fallacy by letting fall heavy
bodies from the top of the church in that city. The experiment attracted crowds of spectators, and the
popularity which he thus acquired, drew upon him those persecutions with which the prejudice and
jealousy of his enemies continued to harass and afflict this great philosopher through life, and which may
be justly esteemed as the only equivalent for the praise of the liberal and enlightened, that an ignorant and
bigolted age can bestow. The vibrations of the lamps in the cathedral having attracted the attention of
Galileo, he was led, by the train of reasoning which they suggested, to the discover}' of the isochrunism
of pendulums, and other properties of pendulous bodies, which have proved so important in Mechanics.

To ordinary observers, indeed, the swinging of a lamp or the falling of an apple, would seem a matter of
the most common and trivial occurrence ; but to those who are gifted with the " afflatus divinus" of science,
such a simple phenomenon often appears pregnant with those sublime principles that are concealed in the
womb of nature, and are only considered as simple and obvious after they have been iliscovered. Hence
the truth of the remark, that it is one of the prerogatives of genius to find the highest value in things
which ordinary men are trampling under their feet. The true path of a body when thrown obliquely
through the air was first demonstrated by Galileo to be a parabola, and on this principle he founded his
beautiful '• Theory of Projectiles," a step of the highest importance to physical science, as it included, in
its full extent, the doctrine of the composition of raotion. The vibrations of the pendulum suggested to
him the means of accurately measuring time by its application to the clock, which he concluded might be
employed to find the longitude by means of observations on the satellites of Jupiter. The discoveries of
the Florentine philosopher were wonderful indeed for the age in which he lived. Considering the state
of knowledge at that period, tiiey required and found in him a depth of philosophical skill, an acuteness
of mathematical research, and a comprehensive grasp of mind, of which we shall vainly attempt to form
any conception, without retracing the march of genius in his own luminous and elegant exposition of the
steps by which he was conducted to those simple but sublime truths, which formed such a noble acquisi-
tion to tile territories of the kingdom of Science.

Logarithms. The beginning of the seventeenth century was distinguished by one of the most valuable
improvements in Mathematical science that ever shone in the history of human invention. An important
step had been made in Arithmetic by Stevinus, who introduced the use of decimal fractions in 1 590, the
notation of which was soon afterwards so much improved by Napier as to retain its form to the present
day.* This highly favoured genius, who was born in 1550, at Merchistoun in Scotland, had early turned
his attention to the discovery of a method of shortening those laborious calculations, which the accuracy
of astronomical observation and the improvements in trigonometry required. The rapidity with which
the progress of discovery was extending the boundaries of Science had rendered such calculations ex-
tremely irksome to the ardent minds of the mathematicians and astronomers of Europe. The freshness
of Napier's invention, therefore, burst upon them at once, like the relief which the sudden appearance of ihe
sun through tlie clouds, brings to mariners in the midst of a storm. In I6l4, he published his " Cjtnon
Mirificus Logarithmorum," at Edinburgh; and philosophers seeing their difficulties vanish before this

xxii DISSERTATION.

wonderful invention, received it with universal applause. The idea of employing the terms of an arith-
metical series to discover those of a geometrical series, which formed the basis of this immortal work, had
once occurred to Archimedes, but for want of a simpler system of notation, it had never been farther
pursued; the tide of his ideas had, in fact, soon after flowed beyond it, and in the long series of ages that
succeeded, no genius, less lofty than his, arose to complete the discovery, till tiie torch of Science again
illumed the world. The great merit which the immortal Napier had in this achievement, is owing to the
state of Science at the period in which he lived. Algebra had still to receive many of its finest improve-
ments, and though Geometry was advancing with rapid strides, the doctrine of Fluxions was yet un-
known. The genius of this great inventor appears to have leaped over many intervening barriers which,
to less powerful minds, would have presented insuperable difficulties, and, seizing upon the discoveries of
a future age, to have compressed them into the single principle from whence his invention emanated.
The idea of considering all numbers as powers of a given number assumed as a base, was an expansion of
thought which carried him over a century of discovery, and placed him by the side of the inventor of the
new Calculus. Logarithms, indeed, contributed in a very high degree to the subsequent progress of sci-
ence ; and, in the hands of modern mathematicians, proved an engine of no ordinary power. In conjunc-
tion with the various branches of Analytical science, it has become a gigantic instrument of investigation
and discovery ; and, like the fabled wand of the magician, has enabled the philosopher to penetrate into
the mysteries of nature.

Baconian Phihsophy. The march of the human understanding had now surpassed its progress in every
former age. Even the brightest periods of antiquity were thrown into the shade by the splendour of
modern discovery. The mind of man was on the eve of some mighty achievement, when Bacon arose
and bore away the palm of triumph. To secure to the human race, the acquisitions it had won, and to
prevent it for ever from returning to that state of intellectual darkness and degradation from which it had
so gloriously emerged, it was necessary to ascertain and to fix the laws of philosophical investigation, and
to compress them into one grand and ruling principle,

'* that might direct
Our knowledge, and the scale of nature set
From centre to circumference."

Such a gigantic effort required the hand of some master genius ; and philosophy, at last, taking her flight
to our favoured isle, delegated her power to Lord Bacon. Born at London, in 1560, he had been early
dissatisfied with the Aristotelian philosophy, still taught in the schools, and soon turned his powerful mind
to the contemplation of the state of human knowledge, to the investigation of the causes of its imperfec-
tions, and to the formation of plans for its improvement. He clearly saw the vagueness and uncertainty
of the physical speculations which at that period still prevailed among philosophers, and he beheld, with
the penetrating eye of genius, the want of a connecting link between the sciences and the arts. He per-
ceived the necessity of investigating nature not only by careful observation but by accurate experiment,
before man could venture to generalize facts, and found a solid body of knowledge on such an inductive
process. He saw, that to discover the Protean forms of material objects, required both the caution and the
intrepidity of the experimental philosopher ; and that, if he would seize the predominant agent, and un-
fold the different principles of action, he must press Nature into a corner, and compel the unwilling
captive to reveal her secrets. Examples of the true method of investigating nature had been afforded by
the discoveries of his contemporaries. Dr. Gilbert of Colchester, particularly, in his treatise, " De Mag-
nete," in which he established terrestrial Magnetism, and laid the foundation of electricity, had furnished
an admirable model of philosophical analysis ; the various facts were there reduced to a few leading prin-
ciples, and occasional gleams were thrown on other branches of science. The early germ of the Inductive
philosophy, however, is contained in the remarkable advice given by Tycho Brahe to Kepler, on receiving
a copy of his " Mysterium Cosmographicum " : — " Argumentum literarum Brachei," says Kepler, " hoc
erat, uli siispensis specidalionibus a priori descendentibus, animnm polius ad obscrvationes, quas simul offerebat,
considerandas adjicerem. Inque its prima gradit Jhcto, postea demum ad causas asccnderem." This valuable
advice, which is not surpassed by any of the Aphorisms of Lord Bacon, may be said to comprehend the
sum and substance of the Novum Organum. From this luminous view of the true spirit of philosophy, so
admirably illustrated by the after discoveries of Kepler, Galileo, and others, how easy was the transition
to the first sentence of that immortal work ! " Homo nalurw minister et inlcrpres lanlum fucil et intelligit
quantum de naturm ordine re vel mente ohservaverit, ncc amplius scit aut potest." The reformation of reli-
gion, in addition to the general progress of the arts and sciences, contributed in no small degree to eman-
cipate the mind of man from the errors of ancient system, and to pave the way for the labours of Bacon.
In the " Novum Organum," published in 1620, he divided the causes of error into four heads, which he
figuratively denominated the Idols of the Tribe, the Den, the Forum, and the Theatre. The first, are
those which are founded in human nature ; the second, in the character of the individual ; the third, in
the intercourse of society ; and the fourth, in the systems of the different schools of philosophy. He
next arranged the different modes of investigation founded on an induction from facts, under twenty-seven
"different species; fifteen of which are addressed to the understanding ; five serve to correct or inform the

S

DISSERTATION. xxiii

senses ; and seven to direct the hand in raising the superstructure of art on tlie foundation of science.
The ingenuity and ability displayed by Lord Bacon in thus directing the human intellect in its researches
after truth, surpass all praise. The compass of that mind which formed the plan, traced the outline and
ramifications of experimental inquiry in branches of science yet to be discovered, must be ati object of
admiration to all future ages ; and before another genius comparable to his can be found, the human race
must return to that state of ignorance from which they were so happily emancipated.

Cartesian Philosophy/. Various important discoveries succeeded the era of the Inductive philosophy.
TorriceUi, the friend and pupil of Galileo, laid the foundation of Hydraulics by proving that water issues
from a hole in the side or bottom of a vessel, with the velocity which a body would acquire by falling
from the level of its surface to the level of the orifice. He discovered the reason why water cannot be
raised, in pumps, higher than 33 feet — which had been left unexplained by his master — and demonstrated
the existence of Atmospheric pressure, by his celebrated experiment of the suspension of mercury in the
barometer. Pascal suggested, in farther confirmation of this doctrine, the experiment whereby the diminu-
tion of that pressure was made known, by carrying the barometer to the top of the Puy de Dome, and thus
affording an accurate method of determining the altitudes of mountains. Otto Giiericke, in Germany, about
] 654, completely overthrew all the objections of the Aristotelian philosophers to the pressure of the
atmosphere, by the invention of the air-pump, which was afterwards improved by Mr. Boyle. The
doctrines of Aristotle, whicli had been frequently attacked in detail, were now destined to be completely
demolished by the penetrating genius of Descartes. This original and inventive philosopher, who
flourished about forty years later than Bacon, appears to have been unacquainted with his works. He
was equally dissatisfied with the ancient philosophy, and soaring above the influence of prejudice, was
hurried away by the ambition of erecting a system of his own. Assuming no other data than matter and
motion, he proposed to explain a priori the structure and constitution of the universe. Instead of pro-
ceeding from the effect to the cause, he reversed the order of the Inductive philosophy, and attempted to
proceed from the cause to the effect. The ancients had imagined a primiim mobile, or kind of homocen-
tric orbs, to account for the celestial motions ; Kepler, in the liveliness of his fancy, had conjectured a
kind of animation and organic structure ; and Descartes introduced a plenum, and endless vortices, limiting
and circumscribing one another. Absurd as his system of philosophy was, and as ill-calculated to explain
the phenomena of nature as any of the former, it maintained its ascendancy over the continent, under
▼arious modifications, for the space of nearly a century. In as far as the Cartesian system served to ex-
plode the wrangling of the schools, it may be said to have aided the progress of science; but containing
in itself the seeds of its own destruction, it was destined at last to be obliterated by the Newtonian philo-
sophy. The other labours of Descartes form a more permanent monument to his fame.

Algebra and Geometry had been making considerable advances since the period of Cardan and Tartalea.
Stiphelius, Recorde, Pelitarius and Bombelli, had made improvements in the notation and rules of Algebra.
F'ieta, in his work published in ifiOO, first employed the letters of the alphabet to denote the known as
well as the unknown quantities, by which important step, the symbolical language of this science first
became capable of expressing general truths, and, subsequently, such a powerful instrument of investigation.
His treatise on " Angular sections " appears to have been the first application of Algebra to Geometry.
The discoveiy of the genesis of Equations, to which Girard had made a near approximation, was com-
pleted by Harriot in l631, who brought Algebra almost to the perfect form in which it exists at the pre-
sent day. It was thus prepared for the important step made by Descartes, which constitutes a remarkable
era in the history of the Mathematical sciences. This philosopher, in his Geometry, published in l637,
showed the application of the Algebraical Analysis to the investigation of the nature and properties of
Curves, and first introduced the notion of variable quantity. He solved the curious and diflicult problem
of the locus ad quatuor rectas, in a variety of cases, and invented a method of drawing tangents to curves,
in which he was rivalled by Fermat. This important branch of analysis was afterwards improved by
Roberval, Barrow, and Newton, who was finally led, by his investigations on this subject, to the invention
of the method of Fluxions.

The New Calculus. The Mathematical sciences began now to share in the general progress of improve-
ment, which the ferment of discovery had awakened in the mind of man. The ancient method of " Ex-
haustions," which had been brought to such a degree of perfection by Archimedes, was found to be too
cumbrous an instrument for modern investigations. Accordingly, Cavalieri, who was born at Milan in
1598, had the good fortune to make the first step in the direct line to the new Calculus. Both Kepler and
Galileo had introduced the idea of infinitely great and infinitely small quantities into their geometrical
discussions, but Cavalieri, who was a more profound mathematician than either, took up the subject in a
regular and systematic form, in his work on " Indivisibles," published in l635. By this method he
arrived at the quadrature of numerous areas, and the cubature of many solids, which surpassed the power
of the ancient Geometry, and discovered several new and beautiful theorems. The properties of the
Cycloid were unfolded by the same means, and particularly attracted the attention of TorriceUi, Roberval,
Wren, Wallis, and Huygens. The next important step was made by Wallis in his " Arithmetic of In-
finites," published in IfiOO. He effected the quadrature of all curves, where the value of one of the co-
ordinates could be expressed in terms of the other by means of integral and positive indices ; but he par-
tially failed, in attempting to obtain the quadrature of the circle, from inability to express the values of

xKiv DISSERTATION.

those co-ordijiates which involved fractional or negative exponents. The remavkuble results which such
speculations produced, had excited the curiosity of mathematicians both in England and on the Continent.
The idea of infinite quantity, after being made the subject of reasoning and calculation, led to conclusions
from which, as if by magic, that idea had wholly disappeared, and left the calculator in possession of
valuable propositions involving no magnitudes but such as could be readily exhibited.

Newton. The star of genius which had been rising with majestic splendour in the hemisphere of
science, at last reached its zenith above our favoured country. Over the birth-place of Newton it shone
forth with unclouded lustre, and the beams of its meridian glory were destined to illuminate his path.
The invention of the New Calculus, the discovery of the Composition of Light, and of the Principle of
Universal Gravitation, all within a period of about twenty years, were a series of more remarkable discoveries
than ever fell to the lot of a single individual ; and they have encircled the name of the British philosopher
with a never-ending fame. Taking up the consideration of the doctrine of " Infinites" at the point where
Wallis had failed, he extended it to the case of fractional indices, and thus found the quadrature of the
circle and innumerable other curves by the method of infinite series. These investigations first led to the
discovery of the Binomial Theorem, and afterwards to the invention of Fluxions in 166Y). His treatise on
the " Quadrature of Curves" was published in 1704, more than twenty-eight years after it was written.
In l684, Leihnilz, a German philosopher, published an account of his "Differential Calculus" in the
Ada Entdilorimi, an invention so entirely the same as that of Newton, as to differ only in the notation.
John and James BernoiiiUi, two eminent mathematicians, uniting their talents to those of Leibnitz, spread
this new Calculus rapidly over the Continent, by the solution of many interesting and difficult problems
which Geometry had hitherto been unable to solve, or which had been suggested by the new invention
itself. In a paper on the line of stviflexl descent, presented by De Duillier to the Royal Society in 10"()9,
the author remarked that Newton was the first inventor of the New Calculus, and insinuated that Leibnitz
had borrowed the invention. This remark lighted up a flame which a whole century was scarcely suffi-
cient to extinguisii. A war of problems was now declared in the republic of science, between the English
and the Continental mathematicians, which was carried on with much asperity on both sides, though the
inventors themselves, especially Newton, took little or no share in the disputes. The English being at
that period less skilful in the new Analysis than their opponents, were frequently worsted, and it was only
when Newton himself condescended to answer their problems, that a victory was gained.

Taylor. A problem respecting the Brachystochrone, or line of swiftest descent, proposed in 1697, as a
trial of skill between the contending parties, was resolved only by the most distinguished mathematicians
— Newton, Leibnitz, the Bernouillis, and De I'Hospital. Newton's solution appearing in the Philosophiad
Transactions without a name, drew from John Bernouilli the exclamation, " Ex unpie Iconcm .'" The
problem of Orthogonal trajectories, proposed by Leibnitz in 171f), as a defiance to the English mathema-
ticians, was solved by Newton within a few hours after he' received it, on his return from the Mint,
fatigued with the business of the day. Brook Taylor, one of the ablest geometers of that period, published
his " Method of Increments" in 1715, and involved himself deeply in this war of science, though with
more success than the unfortunate Keill. A single analytical formula in his treatise, conferred on him
more celebrity than the most voluminous works are generally found to bestow. If any one proposition
could be said to comprehend in itself a whole science, it was the T'aylorian Theorem; for from it almost
all the truths and results of the New Calculus might be deduced, and by its intrinsic merit that science
was speedily established all over Europe.

Optics. The knowledge of Optics which existed previous to the invention of the telescope, was too
inconsiderable to form a separate body of science. An important step was made by Baptista Porta, in
J 560, who invented the Camera Obscura. In l604, Kepler added to the glory of discovering the true
laws of the planetary system that of first analyzing the whole scheme of nature in the structure of the
eye. Antonio de Dominis, in Ifill, had the good fortune to give the first satisfactory explanation of the
phenomenon of the Rainbow. Snellius, the first of the moderns who measured a terrestrial degree, dis-
covered the true law of Refraction, which was first published by Descartes, in l6.'J7. Gregory, in his
" Optica Promota," which appeared in 1C6.9, gave the construction of the Reflecting Telescope. liny gens,
a genius of the highest order, in his " Dioptrics," greatly improved the science by a developement of the
practical rules for the construction of telescopes, as well as of the causes of the aberration of spherical
lenses and of the theory of single and double refraction. Optical researches had begun to acquire a
peculiar interest from the discoveries gradually revealed by the invention of the telescope and miscroscope,
when Newton entered the field and made all those achievements his own, for which they had prepared the
way. The unexpected delight which he felt when, in the course of his experiments with the glass prism,
he beheld the brilliant colouring of the sun's image thrown on the wall opposite the entrant ray, may be
easily conceived. The elongation of the spectrum by refraction, and its divergence into the seven primi-
tive colours, disclosed to him the loveliest of Nature's wonders, and first

" Untwisted all the shining robe of day."

The decomposition of Light thus effected, made known the texture of-the magic garment which the Deity
had so kindly spread over the surface of the visible world, and which is figuratively said to envelope his
throne with beams of insupportable brightness. The Rainbow, that beautiful emblem of his mercy, which

DISSERTATION. xxv

has equally attracted the attention of the peasant and the philosopher by the brilliancy of its colours,
naturally presented itself to the analysis suggested by this discovery. Accordingly, Newton completed the
explanation of the machinery which nature employs in the construction of this splendid arch, which had
been left unfinished by De Dominis and Descartes, and gave an example of one of the happiest applica-
tions of theory which Science affords. The optical researches of Newton form the noblest commentary on
the philosophy of Bacon; an individual of moderate talent, with the "Novum Organum" in one hand
and the " Optics" of Newton in the other, could not fail to become a philosopher. To see the genius who
had risen by his discoveries to such an extraordinary elevation above mankind, descending to the fabrica-
tion of soap-bubbles, might excite the risible faculties of the ignorant and unthinking; but, in the eye of
philosophy, no toy is esteemed despicable, and no occupation frivolous, which can assist in the investiga-
tion of truth. The explanation of the law of Refraction, on dynamical principles, is anotlier instance of
the sagacity of Newton, in whose hands light became also the means of making important chemical dis-
coveries respecting the internal constitution of bodies. The increase of refracting power in inflammable
bodies, led him to the fine conclusion that bodies of this nature enter into the composition both of the
diamond and of water, — a truth confirmed by the subsequent discoveries in chemistry. These discoveries,
in addition to his elegant speculations on " Fits of easy transmission and reflection," excited, by their
brilliancy and novelty, the admiration of his most enlightened contemporaries, and at the same time cre-
ated a host of opponents both in this country and on the continent. The latter, however, were either soon
silenced, or forced to join in his praise. Newton perfected the construction of the Telescope, and con-
cluded his Optics with those remarkable queries which, penetrating into the region of future discovery, and
soaring beyond the limits of poetical fancy, with those of probability still in view, enabled him to alight
safe on the terra incognita sed firma of philosophic truth.

Physics. The establishment of Academies or Philosophical Societies, about the middle of the seven-
teenth century, now contributed greatly to the progress of physical science. The Florentine Academi-
cians, who set the first example in 1651, greatly extended our knowledge of nature, and were followed
by the Royal Society of London, which was founded in 16'62, and the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, which was established in 1 66G, under the enlightened administration of Colbert. The foundation
of Oliservatories, which apparently served only to carry the views of man beyond the boundaries of the
world, proved of the greatest advantage to Navigation, and consequently of Commerce and the arts of life.
The observatory at Paris was founded in l66"7, and that at Greenwich in 1675. About the era of these
establishments, Astronomy was enriched by some of its most brilliant discoveries. Gassendi, in 1631,
first observed the transit of Mercury over the disk of the sun, which had been predicted by Kepler, and
Horrox, in l6.'59, first observed that of Venus. Huygens, the great successor of Galileo, about this period
acquired, by his discoveries, a degi'ee of fame which was only eclipsed by that of Newton. He improved
.the telescope, and was the first who explained the beautiful phenomenon of the ring of Saturn, which had
baffled Galileo. He discovered one of the satellites of Jupiter, other three being afterwards added by
Cassini. He was the first who applied the pendulum to clocks, and showed its utility in astronomy. The
laws of the collision of bodies, which had been mistaken by Descartes, were discovered and explained by
Wallis, Wren, and Huygens, about I669. The improvements which the latter philosopher introduced
into the doctrine of pendulums were of a remarkably beautiful nature, and constituted the most difficult
mechanical inquiries previous to the invention of the new Calculus, The theory of central forces unfolded
by Huygens, forms a brilliant link in that noble chain of discovery which led Newton to the explanation
of the great phenomena of the universe. This immortal genius laid the top-stone of his fame by the publi-
cation of his Principia in 1687, an era for ever memorable in the annals of Science. This work, which
confers more glory on its author, than the achievements of an Alexander or a Caesar, compressed the
beautiful laws of Kepler into the single Principle of Attraction, and showed that the law of this force,
which was the common bond of union in the planetary system, varied inversely as the square of the dis-
tance. One of the most remarkable results contained in the Principia, was the method of determining
the quantities of matter and densities of the planets, investigations so recondite that they seemed the far-
thest removed beyond the sphere of human knowledge. The principle of universal Gravitation was found
to afford the only solution of the irregularities of tlie moon's motion that were known, and of all those
discovered afterwards which related not only to that body, but to other bodies in the system. The same
penetration which enabled its author to range through the celestial spaces, taught him to define the true
figure of the earth, and to calculate the tides of the ocean. The cause of the precession of the equinoxes,
the true form of the orbits of comets, the properties of water and air, the motion of currents and the pro-
paga<;ion of sound, were all brought imder the dominion of this amazing genius. Newton had the singular
good fortune to enjoy during his life, and in his native country as well as abroad, that high respect and
admiration to which he was entitled by his sublime researches and discoveries. He was successively
elected Parliamentary representative of the University of Cambridge, Master of the Mint, and President
of the Royal Society. Since his death, which happened in 1727, at the advanced age of 80 years, eulogy
has been exhausted in tributes to his memory, and Europe has been filled with rivals in his praise. In
extent and refinement of mathematical skill, he had no compeer, and the testimony of recent writers, of
the highest eminence declares, that he must have discovered certain improvements in the higher analysis
unknown even to Euler, and to every mathematician before Laplace. In the study of Nature and iier

VOL. I. PART I. d

xxvi DISSERTATION.

laws, and in the investigation of her analogies and resources, he seems to have been inspired, as it were,
with wisdom from an invisible source, and to have been enabled, by a kind of prophetic sagacity, to dis-
cover many noble truths which were still veiled in the impervious gloom of futurity. To him, therefore,
as intellectual representative of the human race, may be justly applied, that fine saying of Suidas, which in-
spired Bacon with his figurative appellation of man : " Tjjs puffso; yja,a/i!.ar8i;j ■^v, rov 7'm)m/i,ciii aTosos^ai/ ilg wiuv."

Newtonian. Philosophy. The spread of the Newtonian Philosophy was for a few years retarded by the
doctrines of Descartes and his followers, but at last their splendid and imposing fabric was sapped to the
foundation, and the immortal structure of Newton, founded on the eternal basis of Geometry, raised in its
stead. The mensuration of a terrestrial degree within the arctic circle, and another at the equator, be-
tween 1736 and 174(2, affording a comparison of results conformable to the Newtonian theory of attraction,
completed its triumph on the continent, and forced Cassini and others who had opposed its progress, to
become converts to the New Philosophy. The discoveries of Cassini in Astronomy, led to another more
remarkable for its singularity and minuteness than any that had yet occurred in the progress of that
science. This was the Felociiy with which light travels through space, discovered by Olaus Iloemer, a
Danish astronomer, in l667, who offered this as the explanation of the periodic inequality in the eclipses
of the satellites of Jupiter, proved his conjectures by calculation, and immortalized his name by the disco-
very. Cotes, the friend of Newton, who signalized himself by his discoveries in the new Calculus published
in his profound work the Harmonia Mensurarum, cultivated the doctrine of Hydrostatics with great
success. Dr. Halley, to whose liberality and enthusiasm the world first owed the publication of the Prin-
cipia of Newton, was a most assiduous and indefatigable observer of nature, and he has laid science under
great obligations. The natural history of the atmosphere, of the ocean and of magnetism, can furnish
proofs of his skill as a philosopher, and both Navigation and Astronomy were enriched by his labours.
He predicted the return of the comet of 1759, ascertained the nature of evaporation on the vast scale
of nature in the Mediterranean, and accounted for the origin of fountains and many other natural and
meteorological phenomena. In I7OI, he published his Variation Chart, so valuable to navigators at that
period and for many years afterwards, and gave the first probable theory of that unknown power which
causes the Magnetic needle to deviate from the true North. His observations on this subject were in-
deed the germ of more recent and important discoveries in the history of Magnetism. The Copernican
system of the world, which had been so irrefragably established by Newton, was destined to receive an-
other confirmation as remarkable as it was unexpected. The discovery of the Aberration of the fixed stars,
in 1726, presented the most complete demonstration of the velocity of light and of the motion of the earth
in its orbit, which had yet been afforded by the delicacy of modern researches, and placed the name of
Dr. Bradley high in the scale of renown. This celebrated astronomer made another discovery no less
important than the preceding, namely, the nutation of the earth's axis, which completed the explanation of
the cause of the precession of the equinoxes, developed in the Celestial Mechanics of the great founder of
Physical Astronomy. The philosophy of Newton assumed a more popular form than it possessed in his
great work, in the writings of Clarke, Pemberton, Maclaurin and Musschenbroek, and in the lectures of
S'Gravesande and Desaguliers, while its more refined investigations were extended and improved by
Maclaurin and Simpson in this country, and by Herman, D. Bernouilli, Euler, Clairault, and D'Alembert
on the continent. Maclaurin, Bernouilli, and Euler had the honour of sharing with each other the prize
proposed by the Academy of Sciences at Paris, in 1 740, for the best Essay on the Causes of the Pheno-»
mena of the Tides.

Euler, who was born near Basle, in 1707, was one of the greatest mathematicians of which the eigh-
teenth century, so rich in genius, can boast. He invented Analytical Trigonometry, a Calculus no less
important than that of Newton, not only for its utility in the higher Geometry, but for its beautiful appli-
cations in Physical Astronomy. He subjected to the analytical method, which had now left the ancient
(jeometry at an infinite distance, the theory of rational mechanics, the whole range of physical astronom)',
the vibrations of elastic and incompressible fluids, naval architecture and tactics, the doctrine of chances,
probabilities, &e. and made such admirable additions, improvements, and inventions, that of him it might
be truly said, with respect to these sciences, " nunquam tetigit, quod non ornavit." France, a country so
renowned for splendid genius, produced, about this period, two of her most eminent men to divide the
conquests of science, which were beginning to shed a glory over the middle of the eighteenth century,
unparalleled in the history of human knowledge. D'Alembert, who was born in 1717, made an improve-
ment in the Integral Calculus, which doubled its power and extent. This was the invention of the method
of Partial Differences, which was afterwards improved in form and notation by the great Euler. Clairault,
born two years later, commenced a career equally splendid by the publication of his treatise on " Curves
of Double Curvature," at the early age of sixteen. These three great geometers, than whom there did
not exist at that period a more noble triumvirate, had studied in the scliools of Newton and Leibnitz, and
having greatly improved the methods of their masters, began, nearly about the same time and unknown
to each other, to attempt the solution of the famous problem of the Three Bodies. The result was the
greater perfection of the Lunar Theory, and the subsequent advantage to Navigation. The solution of
Euler fumislied data for the accurate tables of Tobias Mayer of Gottingen, which were rewarded by the
Board of Longitude i!i England. Euler also constructed a set of accurate tables from his own theory,
which were rewarded by the Board of Longitude in France.

DISSERTATION. xxvii

Lagrange. Splendid as the achievements of these great mathematicians appear when compared with
the efforts of their predecessors, they sink in the scale of invention before the towering ascent of La-
grange. Born at Turin in 1 736, he commenced his illustrious career by an addition to the integral cal-
culus, denominated the Calculus of variations. Euler, though he stood at the head of mathematical
science, with that generosity and nobleness of mind which are always the characteristic of supereminent
talents, was the first to hail the appearance of the young mathematician with joy, and to celebrate his
fame by pointing out his merits and adopting his method in preference to his own. This is indeed an
instance of the intellectual sublime rarely to be met with in the history of the world, while in that of
science it stands without a parallel. The publication of the Meca?nque Analytique constituted an era in
the progress of human knowledge, which even the sagacity of Newton could hardly have anticipated.
D'Alembert had discovered the mechanical principle which reduced every question respecting the motion
of bodies to a case of equilibrium. This principle was extended by Lagrange, who subjected all pro-
blems of this description to mathematical computation, by differential equations, whereby their solution
was reduced to the integration of such equations. The singularity of this treatise, besides its profundity
and excellence, may be remarked. In this treatise there is no reference made to figures, notwithstanding
the great number of mechanical problems which are resolved. The resolution of all the forces that act
on a point, into three forces acting at right angles to one another, enables the author to express their
relations sufficiently distinct, without representing them by a figure, or by any other symbols than those
that are algebraic. The perfection of Physical Astronomy was now approaching. The theory of the
disturbing forces of the planets had been successfully cultivated by Euler and his compeers. He proved
that the change which had been discovered in the obliquity of the ecliptic was periodical. Yet the secular
inequalities in the motions of Jupiter and Saturn were not satisfactorily accounted for ; geometers began
to push their investigations to the extreme, when Lagrange arose on the eve of discovery and effected
one of her noblest achievements. Struck with the circumstance that the calculus had always brought out
periodical inequalities, he pursued the study of the general question, whether, in the solar system, those
inequalities which continually increase or diminish, and consequently affect the mean motion of the planets,
can ever be produced by their mutual gravitation. He found that the inequalities produced by the mutual
action of the planets, must in effect be all periodical ; and that amid all the changes which arise from
this cause, two things remain perpetually the same, — the mean distance, and the mean motion of each planet.
Variations occur in the plane of the orbit and in the nature and eccentricity of the ellipse, but never in
its greater axis, nor in the time of the entire revolution of the planet. " The discovery of this great
principle, which," as Playfair says, " we may consider the bulwark that secures the stability of our
system, and excludes all access to confusion and disorder, must render the name of Lagrange for ever
memorable in science, and ever revered by those who delight in the contemplation of whatever is excel-
lent and sublime. After Newton's discovery of the elliptic orbits of the planets, Lagrange's discovery of
their periodical inequalities is, without doubt, the noblest truth in Physical Astronomy." This immortal
genius, whose mathematical skill surpasses eulogy, had the glory of being the first to remove the difficul-
ties which had clouded the entrance to the New Calculus since the period of Newton, and by his invention
of the Theory of Functions, to place the noble pyramid of science, reared by the labours of genius, on a
firm and immoveable basis.

Laplace. By the efforts of the illustrious astronomers Clairault, D'Alembert, Euler, Lagrange, and
Laplace, it was found that, at the close of the eighteenth century, there did not remain a single pheno-
menon in the celestial motions that was not explained on the principle of Universal Gravitation. To
complete the theory of Astronomy, and to compress into one system the entire comjiass of that science and
its discoveries during the most brilliant period in the history of the race, required the genius of another
Newton, and this was found in the person of Laplace. His treatise entitled the Mecanique Celeste fulfilled
this arduous undertaking, in a manner that does honour to science and to man, and left nothing more to
wish for in this dqiartment of human knowledge. We deeply regret that our limited space prevents us
from doing justice to the transcendent merits of this immortal astronomer, whose honour is, that the
" genius of the human race is the only rival of his fame."

In the perusal of a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, the reader is generally guided by his own taste
and inclination, or by the particular line of his professional or other pursuits, without attending much to
any didactic plan that may be proposed in an introduction. A scheme of the contents of such a work,
however, adapted to a regular method of study, and expanded according to a natural order, may be of
great service to those who have never enjoyed tlie advantages of a systematic education. We have ac-
cordii^ly adopted the following arrangement of the branches of human knowledge from the prospectus
of the European Review, and classified under its various heads such portions of this Encylopsedia as
correspond with the plan, which, though far from being complete, is perhaps as perfect as any that has
been proposed.

The Sciences, according to their natural arrangement, comprehend: — the Principles of all things —
the Elements which these principles originate — the Beings which these elements form — the Organs
which these beings develope — the Wants which these organs experience — the Signs which these wants
excite — the Societies which these slgtts produce — the Countries which these societies inhabit — the
Earth which these countries compose — the Planetary System to which the eat-tk belongs.

XXVlll

DISSERTATION.

CEHUAt HKADS.

Principles

Elements

Beinos

Organs

Wants

Signs

Societies

CoUNTnlES

Earth

Planetary
System.

rABTICDLAR SUBJECTS.

r Matter

< Space
( Motion

f Extension

< Divisibility

(^ Impenetrability, &c.

5 Number
, Form
( Magnitude

HAMES or THE SCISNCES, IMCLUDIKG THE FOLlOWINc SUBDIVISI0K3.

Atoms

J Molecules
LMasses
{"Minerals
J Vegetables

1

Animals

r Forms
-^ Structures
( Actions
r Clothing
< Food
Shelter

Speech

Gesture

Writing

I Families

S Cities
(^Nations

Land

Metaphysics, Philosophy.

Physics, or Natural Philosophy.

> Mathematics, Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Mensuration, &c.

. f Acoustics, Optics, Pneumatics,

' ( Doctrines of Heat, Light, Sound, Steam,
Chemistry, Electricity, Galvanism, Magnetism,
Mechanics, Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics.
MiNEttALOOY, Crystallography.
Botany.
y f Bee, Conchology, Entomology, Erpetology, Helmin-

' \ thology, Ichthyology, Mammalia, Ophiology.
Physiognomy, Phrenology.
Anatomy, Zootomy, Surgery.

Physiology. ,

Costume.

Gardening, Agriculture, Brewing, Dietetics.
Architecture.

5 Language, Philology, Rhetoric.
, Poetry, Novel, Versification.
(Music

Sea
Air
TForm
^ Motion
(Effects
r Forms
-? Motions
( Influences
The application of the Sciences to
the following general heads, and partic

r Gesture, Games, Recreations, Sports and Pastimes.
i p'^'"''''^"" ' l Arts of Design, Engraving, Perspective.

J „ ' I Printing, Mnemonics, Stenography, Ab-

I TT ' C breviations, Numismatography.

^^ Hieroglyphics, J a t- j

^ f Biography, Education, Heraldry, Mind, Miracles,

MORALS, j j^^j.gj Philosophy, Prophecy, Religion, Schools.
Civics, ) J History, Institutions, Missions, Political Economy,
Politics, j \ Poor, Popery, Population, Revenue.

C Polar Expedition, America, Britain, China, Egypt,
Geography, < Europe, France, Greece, Hindostan, New Hol-

( land, Ireland, India, Rome, &c.
Hydrography, Navigation.
Aerology, Aerostation, Aeronautics, Meteorology.

Cosmography, Geology.

OEKIKAL HEADS.

M(:n

Matters

PARTICULAR SUBJECTS.

In Individuals
In Societies
In Nations

In Production

In Manipulation

In Exchange

> Astronomy, Dialling, Horology.

the Wants of Man, constitute the Arts, which are classed under
ular subjects :

PROFESSIONS, ARTS, TRADES, &C.

Medicine, Materia Medica, Midwifery, Poisons, &c.
Jurisprudence, Laws.
War, Naval Tactics.

5Coaliery, Fisheries, Veterinary Medicine, Plant-
, . ing. Railway, Roads, Spirituous Liquors,

( Water Works, &c.

f Bleaching, Buttons, Calender, Cards, Cloth,

J, J Dyeing, Fireworks, Gilding, Glass, Hats,

' J Horn, Ivory, Metallurgy, Paper, Porcelain,

{_ Ropes, Soap, Sugar, Tanning, Turning, &c.

P f Banking, Book-keeping, Measures, Money, Ship-

' \ building. Trade, Weights, &c.

Anderson's Institution, )
Glasgow, Nov. I8th, 1826. J

ENCYCLOPEDIA EDINENSIS.

A.

f^ A ^^ '''^ ^'^^^ leUei* of the alphabet, in all known

I] -^ij hinguagcs, excepting that of Ethiopia, in

albourg. which it is the 13th. The simphcity of the sound of

..Y"^^ this letter has probably obtained for it the first place

in most languages ; for, in pronouncing it, the lips

are merely opened to allow a passage for the voice.

The letter A has three sounds in the English lan-
guage ; broad, as in call, malt ; open, as in man, ran ;
and slender, as in cessniicn, dedicntion.

A is employed as the indefinite article, and then
denotes the number one, as a man, a tree, that is, one
man, one tree ; and it is also prefixed to plural nouns,
as a thousand,' a million; but in such cases, these
nouns are considered as one aggregate or whole, al-
though composed of a number of individuals. In the
following expressions, A denotes one, as five pounds
a week, a man, a head, or one week, one man, &c.

A is regarded, by some grammarians, as a substi-
tute for the prepositions at or on, in such expressions
as the following, a foot, n head, a sleep. Thomas a
Kempis, I am n doing, I go a hunting, this part is a
wanting ; but when prefixed to the participle, it is
clearly redundant.

A was employed by the ancients as a numeral let-
ter, denoting 500, and with a line on the top a
5000.

A is used as an abbreviation for many words ; as,
A. D. anno domini, year of our Lord ; A. M. anno
niundi, year of the world; and when preceded by a
person's name, artium magister, maxter of arts.

A A, is the name of several small rivers in Switzer-
land, of some in Germany, of some in Holland, and
of one in France.

AAIN-CHARIN, a village near Jerusalem, which
is chiefly remarkable for a convent built on the spot
where John the Baptist is supposed to have been
born. This convent is distinguished for its extent
and elegance, and is the frequent resort of pilgrims.

AAlJBORG, or Aalbourg, a diocese or province
of Denmark, and in the northern part of Jutland, is
nearly an island, is about 90 miles square, and con-
tains about 81,0<X) inhabitants.

AALT50UIJG is also the name of the capital of
the above diocese, and signifies Ecltown, from the

VOL. I. PARI I.

great abundance of eels in the neighbourhood. It is
one of the finest cities of Denmark, the population
exceeds 1^,000; the trade in herrings and corn is
considerable, as well as the manufacture of gloves,
saddles, and fire-arms. N. Lat. 57. 3. E. long. 9. 56.

AAM, or Haam, a Dutch liquid measure, equal
to 288 Einglish pints; containing 128 mingles, each
weighing nearly 36 ounces avoirdupois.

AAR, is the name of a river in France, and of one
in Switzerland, both of which fall into the Rhine.

A ARBERG, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of Berne, situated on an island formed by two bran-
ches of the Aar, and 12 miles N. W. from Berne.
It is also the name of another town in the same can-
ton, and on tlie same river, distant from Berne 27
miles N. N. E.

AARHUUS, or Aarhusejj, a city and sea-port
of a diocese of north Jutland in Denmark, situated
in a plain between the lake Guden and the sea. The
town has a considerable trade, a population of near-
ly 15,000, is the seat of an university, and lies in N.
Lat. 56. 10. E. Long. 10. 23. The diocese of the same
name is 60 miles long and SO broad, and contains
118,000 inhabitants ; the soil is fertile, the country
is covered with woods, and its numerous bays, lakes,
and rivers abound with fish.

AARON, the high-priest of the Jews, and elder
brother of Moses, was specially appointed, by the
divine command, to the priesthood among that people.
In the deliverance of the Jews from Egyptian bon-
dage, Aaron acted as interpreter to Moses, both in
his communications with Pharaoh and his own coun-
trymen. Accompanied by his two sons, and seventy
elders of the people, he proceeded half way up
Mount Sinai, and remained there, while Moses as-
cended to the top to receive the law. During this
period, Aaron, influenced by the importunities of the
people, or fearing their resentment, permitted the
golden calf to be set up and worshipped. This hap-
pened in the third month after the departure of the
Israelites from Egypt. For this sin he was reproved
by INIoses, and was again admitted to the favour of
God ; for, in the first month of the following year,
he was constituted high-priest, and continued in that

A

Aam

Aaron.

'ji'^m^"

Ah

II
Abacus.

ABA

sacred office during the remainder of his life. As he
was precluded from entering the Holy Land on ac-
count of his former distrust of the promises of God,
'lie died in the 123d year of his age, in the 40th year
after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, and
was buried in a cave of mount Hor. Aaron died
A. M. 2522, and 14'52 years before the Christian era.
Aaron, a physician of some celebrity at Alexan-
dria, who wrote a treatise in the Syriac language, on
the practice of medicine, before the year 620 ; and
who first distinctly described the small pox and
measles, which diseases are supposed to have been
introduced into that city when it was taken by the
Arabs. A few fragments only of this work are now
extant.

Aaron Ben Aser, a learned rabbi, who flourish-
ed about the fifth century, and to whom the inven-
tion of points and accents in the Hebrew language is
ascribed.

AB, is the eleventh month of the civil year of the
Hebrews, and the fifth of their ecclesiastical year.
It consists of 30 days, and includes part of July and
August. The ninth day of this month is observed
as a solemn fast among the Jews, on account of the
destruction of the temple, which was burnt, first by
the Chaldeans, and afterwards by the Romans, both
these calamitous events happening on the same day
of the year ; and it is not a little remarkable, that
the edict issued by Adrian, for the exile of the Jews
from their native land, was published on the same
day of the month.

ABACINARE, a barbarous punishment, which is
noticed by writers of the middle ages, and which was
inflicted on criminals, by holding a bason of melted
metal before their eyes.

ABACK, is a sea-term, expressive of the sails of a
ship lying flat on the masts, in consequence of a sud-
den change of the wind, or of the ship's course, for
the purpose of giving the vessel stern-ivay, or of mov-
ing backward. In »uch cases, a ship is said to be
taken aback.

ABACUS, the name given to a smooth table cov-
ered with sand or dust, on which the ancient mathe-
maticians traced diagrams, and conducted calcula-
tions. It is derived from a Phoenician word, abak,
signifying dust.

Abacus is likewise the name of an instrument for
arithmetical operations, and is variously constructed
in different countries. In the European abacus, pa-
rallel lines are drawn at the distance of twice the di-
ameter of the counters employed. A counter plac-
ed on the lowest line, denotes one ; on the second
line, ten ; on the third, 100 ; and on the intermediate
spaces, the counters express one-half of the value
of the line immediately above. In the following di-
agram, the number 1815 is set down both ways.

Abano.

1000

800

10

s

-o-

o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-

.0-

I 0-0-0-0-0-

— o —

o
-o-o-o— I

-o-
o

2 ABA

Tlie Roman abacus had pins which were moved Abaddoa
in grooves. In the Grecian abacus, brass wires,
strung with ivory balls, were stretched on an oblong
frame ; and of a similar construction is the abacus or '
shwanpan of the Chinese, which that ingenious peo-
ple employ with great dexterity in their computa-
tions. But, however commodiously constructed, it
is obvious, that the general knowledge of written
characters, and the use of figures, must supersede
such an instrument, and render its description a sub-
ject of mere curiosity.

Abacus, or Abaciscus, in Architecture, is the
highest part or member of the capital of a column,
diSering in its form in the dift'erent orders. See
Architecture.

ABADDON is the name which is given by St
John, in the Revelations, to the king of the locusts,
the angel of the bottomless pit. The word is ex-
plained by the inspired writer, and signifies a de-
stroyer. Some suppose the angel king to be Satan;
and the locusts are understood to be zealots or rob-
bers who infested and laid waste the land of Judea,
before Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Romans :
while, according to others, Abaddon may liave a re-
ference to Mahomet, or to the Sei-pent Deity, which
was anciently the object of worship.

ABANO or Apono, Peter de, a celebrated philo-
sopher and physician, was born in 1250, at Abano, a
village near Padua in Italy, from which, according
to tlie fashion of the times, he derived his name. At
an early age he went to Constantinople, where, he
was instructed in Greek, and afterwards studied ma-
thematics and medicine at Paris. Having travelled
into different countries, he returned to Italy ; was ap-
pointed, in 1302, professor of medicine at Padua,
which situation he soon resigned, and settled at Bo-
logna as a physician, where his reputation, if it can
be correctly appreciated by the magnitude of his fees,
rose so high, that for every visit to a patient without
the walls of the city he received 50 crowns ; and
when he attended the pope at Rome, he demanded
400 ducats a-day.

Abano wrote several treatises on astrology, a sub-
ject which, with the learned of the times, he seems
to have studied deeply, was regarded by the vulgar
as a magician, and was supposed to be indebted for
his great knowledge to seven familiar spirits, whom he
kept confined in a glass vessel. His learning drew upon
him the suspicion of the inquisition. He was charg-
ed with heresy by that vigilant tribunal, but was ac-
quitted. The charge was repeated when he had
reached the 88th year of his age, and death only sav-
ed him from a cruel punishment ; for the sentence of
condemnation was pronounced, and his body was or-
dered to be raised from the grave and committed to
the flames ; but being removed by his friends, the
sentence could not be farther executed than by burn-
1000 ing him in effigy, and this mark of resentment was ex-
500 hibited in the market-place of Padua. The works
300 of Abano on astrology, scholastic philosophy, and
medicine, are numerous and voluminous ; but in an
10 age in which some of these studies are exploded, and
5 more enlightened views prevail on the subject of
Others, they will be rarely consulted.

ABB S

Abaris ABARIS, denominate I the Hyperborean philoso-
II pher, is supposed to have been a celebrated sage of
Ahna.;'!-. antiquity, whose history and character, obscured with
v^wY*^ innumerable fables and conjectures, have been a
most fertile subject of learned discussion from the
time of Herodotus almost to the present day. Aba-
ris is represented as travelling with an arrow, on
which he sometimes took a flight through the &ir,
and as requiring no kind of food ; as having visited
various parts ot Greece, and particularly the city of
Athens, to which he was sent ambassador to invoke
the prayers of the Athenians, or to assist in some re-
ligious ceremony, for the purpose of averting a dread-
ful plague which then infested the earth. It is said
by some that he had an interview with Pythagoras in
Italy, was highly favoured by that philosopher, and
admitted to the peculiar secrets of his doctrines ;
while by others he is regarded as a conjurer, or an
impostor. Of the native country of this renowned
subject of historical criticism, opinions and conjec-
tures have not been less numerous. Some authors as-
sert that he was a native of Scythia, was one of the
priests of the Hyperborean Apollo, and when he re-
turned from his travels he presented the gold which
he had collected to that divinity ; and others, from
some peculiarity in his dress, are induced to believe
that he was a Druid, and a native of the Hebrides of
Scotland. The period when this celebrated person-
age lived is not fixed by his biographers ; and indeed
it may be doubted whether he ever had any real ex-
istence. But what we have stated affords a striking
example of excessive credulity and useless investiga-
tion.

ABASCIA, or Abcassia, the northern district of
Georgia in Asia, and situated on the coast of the
Black Sea, between 43° and 45° N. Lat. and 39° and
43° E. Long. The inhabitants, who are generally
poor, and charged with being dishonest and trea-
cherous, have some trade in furs, skins, linen-yarn,
and bees-wax ; but chiefly in female slaves, ^^"ho are
either their own children, or carried off by force, and
who being esteemed handsome and beautiful, are in
great demand among the Turks, to whom they are
usually sold.

ABATIvS, or Abattis, in Military Affairs, a me-
thod of defence resorted to in sudden emergencies, in
which felled trees are placed together lengthwise, with
the branches pointing outwards towards the enemy,
for the purpose of preventing his approach. In de-
fending a pass or entrance, the boughs are sometimes
stripped of their leaves and pointed, the trunks are
fixed in the ground, and the branches are interwoven.
This mode of defence, we believe, was practised by
Lord Wellington in the lines of Torres Vedras, which
were fortified for the protection of Lisbon, and secu-
red with abattis composed chiefly of trees of Spanish
oak.

ABBADIE, James, an eminent Protestant divine,
wa^ born at Nay in Berne, about the year 1655, and
having received the early part of his education in his
native place, studied at the university of Sedan. He
resided some time in Germany and Holland, accom-
panied King William into England, and was appointed
minister of the French church in the Savoy in Lon-
don. He was afterwards promoted to the deanery of

ABB

Killaloe in Ireland, for which he was no doubt in- Abba
debted to his writings in defence of the Revolution. ||
But he was a man of distinguished talents. His elo- Abbey,
quence in the pulpit was greatly admired ; and his '••^^/'^
memory was so retentive, that he arranged and com-
posed his longest works before they were committed
to writing. He died at London in the year 1727.
Beside the political tract already allude! to, and
some others of the same character, he was the author
of several theological works written in the French
language.

ABBA, in the Syriac language, signifies a father,
and, on account of age, or dignity attached to certain
official situations, a superior, as the superior of a mo-
nastery. See Abbot.

ABBAS, the son of Abdalmotalleb, and the
uncle of Mahomet ; is remarkable for having re-
sisted the pretended revelations of his nephew, re-
garding him as an impostor and a traitor. But being
taken prisoner by JNIahomet, and a large sum being
demanded for his ransom, he attempted to evade the
payment, by pleading that it would reduce him to
poverty, and thus dishonour his family. When the
new prophet reminded him of the inmiense wealth
which he had concealed at Mecca, Abbas, who
thought the transaction unknown, was immediately
impressed with the belief of the divine authority of the
new religion, or perhaps to save and secure his riches,
not only became a convert to its doctrines, but a dis-
tinguished military commander in its defence, and one
of the first doctors of Islamism, or expounders of the
Koran, on every chapter of which he is said to have
delivered lectures as his nephew received it from hea-
ven. He died in 652, and his memory is still held in
the highest veneration by the followers of Mahomet.

ABBE, is the name given to a class of persons in
France, who have received the ceremony of tonsure,
which entitles them to certain privileges in the church,
although they are not in clerical orders. They are
employed as tutors in colleges and private families.
Some have risen to high situations in the state, and
others have been equally distinguished in literature
and science.

ABBESS, the superior of a convent of nuns, pos-
sesses similar authority with an abbot, excepting the
exercise of spiritual functions, for the performance of
which some abbesses have had the privilege to grant
a commission to a priest. Some abbesses, too, are
exempted from episcopal jurisdiction, and are per-
mitted to be present at confession. An abbess is
chosen from her own order, and must be 40 years of
age before election.

ABBEVILLE, a town of France, finely situated in
a fertile valley watered by the river Somme, and dis-
tinguished by the name of Maiden totvn, and the mot-
to, ahvaysjaitliful, because every attempt to take it
has been successfully resisted. The population ex-
ceeds 20,000. The manufacture of woollens of fine
quality, and the trade in grain, flax, hemp, and
coarse linens, are considerable. The Somme is na-
vigable to the town, vriiich is 15 miles distant from
the British channel, and 120 miles N.N. W. from Pa-
ris. E. Long. 50. 7. N. Lat. 1. 50.

ABBEY, a monastery, or religious house, under
the superintendance of an abbot or abbess. In the ori-

ABB

Abbeys ginal endoiraient of such establishments. It was the
II intention of their pioas founders to atfort! a conifort-

^Lbot. able asylum to those who were desirous of withdraw-
— Y^^ '"g from the cares and tumult of the world to spend
their days in retirement and devotion. Bi t the ac-
cumulation of immense wealtli, and the acijuisition of
extensive territorial possessions, introduced such
scenes of luxury and dissipation within tlieir walls,
and gave them such power and influence in public
altairs, as often excited the watc'iful jealousy of go-
vernment, and at last led to their final suppression
in Britali\. As church-pioperty could not he alien-
ated, and as donations to religious houses had bo-
come so frequent, statutes were passed to prohibit
gifts in mortmain, that is, donations to monasteries
and similar establishments; and in grants of lands to
laymen, clauses are introduced expressly prohibiting
them from disposing such lands to monks or Jews.

It seems scarcely credible that the annual revenue
of religioius houses in England was estimated, in the
time of Henry VIIl. at the enormous sum of nearly
L. 3,000,000 Sterling; too rich a prize to escape the
rapacity of that monarch, in v^hose reign they were
suppressed. They met with a similar fate in Scot-
land a few years afterwards. Their immense wealth
and extensive possessions were seized by the crown,
or by those ministers and favourites who had suffi-
cient influence to obtain a share.

Abbeys, or monasteries, were the seminaries, as
"well as the repositories of learning; laymen were ap-
pointed in some of them for the instruction of youth,
and even the monks themselves sometimes undertook
that task; andin those religious houses appropriated to
women, the education of their own sex, both in use-
ful and ornamental branches, was conducted with
great care. The libraries of monasteries were the
only safe places, in turbulent times, for the preserva-
tion of historical records; and they were amply en-
riched with the most valuable manuscripts, which had
accumulated for ages, and some of which, on account
of the beauty of execution and splendour of embel-
lishment, are greatly admired and highly prized in the
present day. The sick and poor were admitted into
monasteries as into an hospital ; the traveller received
gratuitous accommodation ; and to persons ot better
condition in life, who had been visited by adversity
and indigence, they offered a comfortable asylum.
]Jut whatever may have been the benefits of such
establishments, the overgrown wealth which they
had acquired, and the great mass of industry with-
drawn from the community, required some check : —
reformation, it cannot be doubted, v/as necessary;
and yet the indiscriminate destruction which follow-
ed must ever be seriously regretted, while their ve-
nerable remains seem to moulder slowly under the
hand of time, as if intended to hold out to distant
ages an awful lesson of the fatal effects of misguided
zeal and popular frenzy.

ABBOT, derived originally from the Hebrew, and
signifying ya^e?-, is the superior of a monastery or
abbey of monks. In the early period of the his-
tory of monasteries, the abbots were subject to the
bishops or ordinary clergy of the district in which
•they 'Were situated ; but when they became rich and
.powerful, they assumed the rank of prelates, and ma-

4

ABB

ny of them succeeded in throwing off their depen-
dence on the bishops. Abbots who exercised epis-
copal autliority were called mitred abbots : crosiered
abbots bore tlie crosier or pastoral staff. There were
also eecumcniad, or universal abbots ; and those who
possessed authority over all others, were denominated
cardinal abbots. In Roman Catholic countries, ab-
bots are distinguished by the appellation of regular,
who take th.e vow, and wear the habit of the order ;
and commcndalory, who are seculars, but have re-
ceived the ceremony of tonsure, and are bound to
take orders at a proper age.

A great deal of ceremony was observed, and splen-
did feasts were given at tlie election and installa'.ion
of abbots. The Dalmatic or seamless coat of Christ,
the mitre, crosier, gloves, ring, and sandals, consti-
tuted their public dress ; wl.ile those who sat in par-
liament were clothed in rich robes. Not less cere-
mony was observed at the death of an abbot. His
seals were formally broken on one of the steps of the
great altar ; the body, dressed in his ponvificals, with
his crosier in his hand, was placed in the middle of
the choir, where it lay in state for three days ; and,
thus decorated, was witli great pomp and solemnity
consigned to the grave.

In Britain, some of the abbots possessed almost
regal power. They had the privilege of coining
money, of exporting, duty free, the productions of
their own domains, and of trying offenders even for
capital crimes. The mitred abbots were lords of par-
liament ; and in England, at one period, twenty-seven
abbots, called lords abbots, with two priors, sat in
the House of Lords.

ABBOT, George, archbishop of Canterbury, was
the son of a cloth-worker, and was born in 1.562.
He studied at Oxford ; in 1.597 was chosen principal
of University College; in 1599 was promoted to the
deanery of Winchester; was associated with those
engaged in the translation of the Bible, which was be-
gun in 1604 by the direction of James I. ; and was em-
ployed in 1608 in a mission to Scotland, to unite the
churches of England and Scotland under the same form
of government. He was consecrated bishop of Litch-
field and Coventryin 1609; in a month afterward trans-
lated to the see of London ; and in the succeeding
year he was raised to the first dignity of the church.
For this unexampled raj)idity of preferment, the
archbishop was no doubt indebted to the royal fa-
vour ; and it is alleged that it was obtained by ser-
vile flattery, of which the following specimen is re-
corded, and is here inserted as a literary curiosity.
Speaking of the king, he says, " Whose life hath
been so immaculate and unspotted, that even malice
itself, which leaves nothing unsearched, could never
find true blemish in it, nor cast a probable aspersion
on it. Zealous as a David ; learned and wise, the
Solomon of our age ; religious as Josias ; careful of
spreading Christian faith as Constantine the Great ;
just as Moses ; undefiled in all his ways as a Jeho-
shaphat and Hezekiah ; full of clemency as another
Theodosius." But it ought to be observed, that
this strain of learned pedantry was the accustom-
ed mode of the times in addressing the great ; and
that the conduct of the archbishop was not always
marked by the same complying spirit. For, in

ABB

Abhrevia- ^ c^6 of divorce at tlie instance of the Countess of
tinn Essex against herliusband, the Earl of Essex, whicii
|] was keenly promoted by the king, the matter being
Ahiiera. referred to a court of delegates, of whicii the arcli-
>»w-\/-«— ' bishop was a member, lie opposed its validity, and
forfeited the king's favour : lie prohibited the king's
proclamation, permitting sports and pastimes on Sun-
day, from being read at Croydon ; and, in the suc-
ceeding reign, he refused to license a sermon preach-
ed in favour of a loan exacted by Charles, and was
for a time suspended from his functions.

While the archbishop was hunting in 1620, he had
the misfortune to kill a gmiic-keeper with an arrow
from a cross-bow, which was aimed at a deer. This
1 fatal accident impressed him with deep melancholy ;

' and he made every kind of reparation in his power,

by settling a handsome pension on the poor man's
widow, and keeping a monthly fast on the day on
which it happened. But it was followed by a singu-
lar investigation, whether he had not forfeited, by
this involuntary deed, his archiepiscopal character;
the result of which was a dispensation from the king,
declaring him absolved from all its consequences,
and fully capable of performing all his archiepiscopal
functions. He cUed in 1633, at the age of 71, and
was buried at Guildford, the place of his nativity,
where he endowed an hospital with a revenue from
lands of L. 300 a-year. None of his writings is en-
titled to much notice. Robert Abbot, the archbi-
shop's elder brother, also rose to a distinguished rank
in the church. He was promoted to the see of Sa-
lisbury in 1615.

ABBREVIATION, is the contraction of a word
by the omission of some letters, or by the substitu-
tion of certain marks ; has been nmch practised by-
professional persons, as lawyers and physicians ;
abounds in ancient languages and manuscripts, and
is of very frequent occurrence in the writings and
inscriptions of the Romans.

ABCEDARIAN, or Abcedary, a title given to
compositions, chiefly poetical, the difl'erent parts of
which, or the stanzas, begin with the letters of the
alphabet, and are arranged in the same order. Such
is the 119th Psalm.

ABDALMALEK, the son of Mirvan, and fifth
caliph of the race of the Ommiades, was distinguish-
ed from all his predecessors bv the greatness of his
power and the extent of his dominion, and not less
so for having excluded the Greek language and cha-
racters from the public accounts, and introduced the
Arabic numerals now in very general use ; a change,
it has been observed, which has in a high degree pro-
moted the most important discoveries in mathemati-
cal science. His character has been reproached for
extreme avarice. Having reigned fifteen years, he
died in 699, and in the 80th year of the Hegira.

ABDALS, a sect of people in the East Indies,
who occasionally become so infuriated with fanati-
cism, Vas to rush into the streets, and destroy every
person of a different religion whom they meet ; and
if they fall in this mad career, their death is consi-
dered highly meritorious, and they are venerated by
the vulgar as martyrs for their faith.

ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace, and
uear tlie mouth of the river Nessus, is only re-

5 A B D

markable for the extravagant fables concerning it
which have been transmitted from ancient to modern
times. The inhabitants arc characterised as having
been extremely stupid. At one time it is said they
were banished from their city by immense numbers
of frogs and rats; the grass of the surrounding coun-
try is described as being of such a noxious quality,
that the horses which fed upon it were seized with
madness ; and the unfortunate people themselves, af-
ter being present at the performance of the Andro-
meda of Euripides, during a hot summer, were at-
tacked with fever and delirium, under the effects of
which they fancied themselves players, and imitating
the looks and gestures of the different characters, in-
dulged in violent tragic exclamation. This dramatic
delirium, it is added, became epidemical, raged dur-
ing the whole summer, and was only subdued by the
cold of winter. Abdera is now only a small village.

ABDOLLATIPH, an Arabian physician and phi-
losopher, was born at Bagdad in the year 1161;
and having made great proficiency in rhetoric, his-
tory, and poetry, as well as in the doctrines of Ma-
hommedan theology and medical knowledge, he left
his native city in the 20th year of his age, for the
purpose of visiting other countries. Having spent a
year at Mosul in Mesojiotamia, he removed to Da-
mascus in Syria, where he obtained a victory over a
celebrated grammarian, in a controversy on some li-
terary subjects.

AbdoHatiph, anxious to visit Egypt, found it ne-
cessarj', for the successful prosecution of this jour-
ney, to obtain the permission and protection of Sa-
ladin, king of the Saracens, to whose arms that coun-
try had yielded, and who was now marching against
Palestine for the purpose of expelling the Christians
from the Holy Land. When the traveller arrived at
the camp before Acre, he found the Saracens be-
wailing a defeat which they had recently experien-
ced, and the lofty spirit of the Sultan sunk in melan-
choly, so that he was disappointed of a personal in-
terview. But although he was solicited, with the pro-
mise of a pension, to leave Uie seat of war and re-
turn to Damascus, he persisted in his resolution of
exploring the wonders of Egypt : and, aided by the
munificence of Saladin, and the recommendations of
one of his ministers, he received the most cordial
welcome when he reached Cairo, and continued,
during his stay in that city, to enjoy the esteem and
friendship of persons of the highest rank.

Abdollatiph withdrew from the agreeable and in-
structive intercourse with the great and the learned
in Egypt, to present himself before the Sultan,
who had concluded a truce with the Christians,
and then resided in Jerusalem ; and he was receiv-
ed by that prince, who was greatly distinguished
by dignified politeness, and munificent liberality in
the patronage of science and art, with every ex-
pression of esteem for his character and attain-
ments. The Sultan, besides, bestowed upon him a
monthly pension, which was increased threefold by
his sons and successors, and continued till they were
driven from the throne of Egypt and of Syria b3-
the ambition of their uncle ; and thus, after a short
residence in Jerusalem, the traveller was compelled
to revisit Damascus, where his lectures and writings

ABE t

AbJomen Were equally the objects of applause and admiration,
(I wliile liis practice as a physician was extensive and
Abciird. lucrative. But his thirst tor knowledge, or his de-
*"»i»-y"»' sire of contemplating new scenes, again seduced
hiui from the certain pursuit of fame and wealth. He
4 left Damascus, visited Aleppo, resided several years
in Greece, and travelled through different regions
of Armenia and Asia Minor. Impressed with sen-
timents of devotion, he resolved to undertake a pil-
grimage to Mecca ; and, in the meantime, he felt a
strong desire of beholding the place which gave him
birth ; and with this view, he eagerly journeyed to-
wards Bagdad. But he had scarcely reached his
I native city when he was seized with an illness, which
cai-ried hmi off in the year 1223, and in the 63d of his
age. Of 150 treatises which have been ascribed to
the industry of AbdoUatiph, only one is known to
exist, the Compend nf the History of Egypt, the ma-
ituscript of which was brought to Europe by the ce-
*■ lebrated traveller Dr Pococke, and is now preserved
in the Bodleian library, in Oxford. Dr White pub-
lished an edition of this work in the original Ara-
bic, with an elegant Latin version, in 4to, in the
year 1800.

ABDOMEN, is that part of the trunk of the
body situated between the thorax and tlie pelvis.
See Anatomy.

ABDOMINAL Fishes, or Abdominales, is the
name of the 4th order of fishes, according to the
Linnai-an classification.

ABDUCTORES, or Abductors, are such mus-
cles as serve to separate or draw away the parts to
which they are attached. Of this description are
the muscles which separate the fingers.

ABEL, the second son of Adam and Eve, was a
shepherd, and offered, in sacrifice to God, of the first-
lings of his flock ; while his brother Cain, who was
a tiller of the ground, offered of the fruits of the
earth. God was pleased with the offering of Abel,
but he was displeased with that of Cain. The sa-
cred historian is silent on the cause of this prefer-
ence, or in what manner the displeasure of God was
expressed ; but the consequence was, to excite a
deadly hatred in the breast of Cain against his bro-
ther, whom he invited into the field, and put to
death. It seems somewhat unaccountable, that the
Greek churches, which celebrate feasts in honour of
every other patriarch and prophet, pass over the
martyrdom of Abel unnoticed ; and among the llo-
man Catholics, his name was not introduced into the
list of saints and martyrs before the tenth cen-
tury. But he is invoked, in some litanies, for per-
sons who are at the point of death.

ABELARD, Peter, an eminent scholastic philo-
sopher of France, whose story and misfortunes, in
conjunction with those of Heloise, the object of his
attachment, present a striking feature in the an-
nals of the times, and became the theme of the
poet in ' distant ages, was a native of Brittany,
and was born in the year 1079. Possessed of vigo-
rous and active intellectual powers, lie discovered, at
an eat ly age, those talents which were requif^ite to
make a conspicuous figure in the learning of the
schools; and, destiiicdby his fofher to the pursuit
of letters,- he was entrusted to the care of Rosce-

i ABE

line, a celebrated teacher, and founder of the me- Abelartl
taphysical sect called Nominalists. By his own '
assiduity, and the instructions of this able master,
he had acquired, at the premature age of sixteen,
that subtlety and quickness of thought, fluency of
speech, and facility of expression, which were the
necessary qualifications to appear with advantage in
the field of disputation. Having visited several pro-
vincial schools, in his twentieth year he entered tlie
university of Paris, and placed himself under Wil-
liam de Champeaux, the master, whose reputation
at that time stood high. But Abelard was not sa-
tisfied to remain long in the humble capacity of a
pupil ; he ventured to contradict the opinions of his
master, and held public disputations with him, from
which he frequently retired victorious. This suc-
cess, while it excited the jealousy of De Champeaux,
increased the vanity of Abelard, and roused his am-
bition to aspire after the higher distinction of appear-
ing as a teacher. At the age of twenty-two, he open-
ed a public school at Melun, ten leagues from Paris,
and soon had the gratification of seeing himself sur-
rounded with crowds of scholars. But his restless
disposition and insatiable vanity, or perhaps some
feelings of resentment against De Champeaux, who
had employed all his influence in opposing the esta-
blishment of his school, prompted him to renew the
contest of disputation ; and for this purpose he re-
moved to Corbeil, near Paris. A challenge was of-
fered and accepted ; the disputants frequently met
in each other's schools ; the contest was supported
with great ardour in the presence of crowded audi-
tories ; and the palm of victory was again assigned
to the youthful teacher.

Declining health, the consequence of severe study,
required Abelard to withdraw from his labours, and
retire for a time to his native country. Returning
to Corbeil at the end of two years, he found that De
Champeaux had taken the monastic habit, but still
continued to teach logic and rhetoric, and to hold
public disputations in theology. Abelard returned
to the charge, again foiled his adversary, and soon
attracted crowds of De Champeaux' scholars, a-
mong whom he had the gratification to number
the new professor, who had surrendered his chair
to the young philosopher. De Champeaux, stimu-
lated by resentment, obtained the appointment of
another professor, and thus drove back Abelard to
his former residence at Melun. This violent mea-
sure was unsuccessful. De Champeaux retired to
the country ; Abelard returned to Paris and resumed
his lectures, which were soon crowdetl by the pupils
of the rival school ; and De Champeaux re-appear-
ing on the field, had the temerity to renew the con-
test, in which Abelard was still victorious.

The promotion of De Champeaux to the see of
Chalons, terminated the long-contested struggle be-
tween the two philosophers ; and Abelard, for want
of a rival, or perhaps from his unsettled disposition,
resolved to exchange the study of philosophy for
that of theology. With this view he repaii'ed to
Laon, and placed himself under Anselm, a profes-
sor of theology of high celebrity. But although the
teacher possessed great flu(>ncy of language, he com-
municated little instruction : " He was," says Abe-

ABE f

Abelard. h\r^, " a tree covered with a thick foliage, which
._^ -y_' pleased the distant eye, but, on a nearer inspection,
there was no fruit to be found." Abelard retired
from these unprofitable lectures ; and in a conversa-
tion with some of Anselm's pupils, having expressed
his opinion that the explanatiou of the Scriptures
was a task of no great difficulty, he undertook, with
one day's previous preparation, to give a connnent
on any part they should point out. The beginning
of the prophecy of Ezekiel was tixed upon ; and
next morning he delivered a lecture on the passage,
which was received with admiration and applause.
The lectures were continued, and for several suc-
cessive days attracted a crowded audience. But the
rising fame of the young theologian excited the jea-
lousy of the professors, who prohibited the lectures.
Abelard obeyed the prohibition, and removed to
Paris, where he opened a school of theology, and
5 commenced with his lectures on Ezekiel, which met

H with equal applause, and drew multitudes of scholars

from every part of Europe.

The eventful period of Abelard's life now approach-
es. Ambition and vanity have hitherto been the
ruling principles of his conduct ; and the splendid
reputation of an able philosopher and subtle disput-
, ant which he had acquired, afforded them ample
gratification. Other passions now fill his bosom, and
other pursuits occupy his thoughts. In the house of
Fulbert, a canon attached to the cathedral church
of Paris, Heloise, his niece, a lady of eighteen
years of age, greatly distinguished for her personal
charms, and no less celebrated for her literary at-
tainments, was at this time an inmate. Abelard saw
her, was struck with her blooming beauty, and de-
termined to captivate her affections. Fulbert, who
regarded the frequent visits of Abelard as a high
honour, was at last prevailed upon, by the offer of
a handsome gratuity, to admit him into his family ;
and such was the canon's confidence in the honour
and integrity of the philosopher, that he requested
him to undertake the mstruction of his niece ; a trust
which Abelard readily accepted, but, it would
appear, . for the base purpose of betraying it. An
unfortunate amour was the consequence of the fa-
miliar intercourse which now commenced between
them, and was notorious to all, excepting the un-
suspecting Fulbert, whose partiality for his niece,
and respect for Abelard, excluded every surmise of
impropriety. But when concealment was no longer
possible, it is not easy to imagine with what feelings
of surprise and resentment he received the news of
the fatal discovery. Heloise retired to the house of
Abelard's sister, in Brittany, where she was deli-
vered of a son. On condition that the marriage
should be kept secret, Abelard proposed to Fulbert
to make Heloise his wife. The canon consented ;
l)ut Heloise, in the wild enthusiasm of romantic love,
at first rejected the proposal, preferring to live -in
the c^Jaracter of mistress with one the laws of whose'
profession required celibacy. Her consent was at
last obtained, and the ceremony was privately per-
formed at Paris. From this time Fulbert treated his
niece with liarshness and severity, which induced
Abelard to remove her from his house, and place her
in the nunnery in which she had been educated.

ABE

Fulbert, suspecting that Abelard's real intention was AhthrK
to dissolve a connection which tended to mar his v«apvr<«i
future prospects, and urged by resentment, vowed
revenge. For this purpose, he hired ruffians, who
entered Abelard's chamber by night, and brutally
attacked and wounded liim. The ruffians were pu- *
nished ; and Fulbert, beside the confiscation of his
goods, was deprived of his benefice. But Abelard's
spirit sunk under the misfortunes and barbarity whicJi
he had suffered ; he resolved to spend the remainder
of his days in the shades of a convent, and most un-
generously required Heloise to make a similar sa^'
crifice ; nay, even insisted that she should first re-
nounce the world, fearing that, if he were once en-
gaged, she might violate her solemn promise. He-
loise obeyed, and took the veil ; and, in a few da3'S
after, Abelard assumed the monastic habit in the
abbey of St Denys.

But the dull routine of a convent was ill suited
to the restless ambition of Abelard. Invited by his
former admirers and scholars in Paris, he resumed
his lectures at a small village in the country, and
soon collected a numerous audience. The revival of
his popularity excited new jealousies ; the daimon of
persecution was let loose against him ; and a treatise
on theology, published about this time, was con-
demned as heretical, and Abelard was sentenced to
commit it with his own hands to the flames. Dread-
ing the consequences of new charges of heresy, he
fled from his persecutors, concealed himself for some
time in a convent in Champagne, and was permitted
to retire to a solitary retreat, on condition that he
should not again become a member of a convent. A
vale in the forest of Champagne was the spot which
he chose for his retirement; and in 1122 he erected
a small oratory, which was dedicated to the Com-
forter, or Paraclete. When the place of his retreat
was known, scholars flocked to him from all quar-
ters ; and his rustic college could, in a short time,
number not fewer than six hundred pupils. But jea-
lousy again provoked his enemies ; and while he was
meditating his escape from new persecutions, through
the interest of the Duke of Brittany he was elected
superior of the monastery of St Gildas, where, al-
though not altogether unmolested, lie spent several
years of his life.

About this time the convent of Argenteuil, of
which Heloise was prioress, was annexed to St De-
nys, and the nuns, who were charged with irregu-
larities, were dispersed. Wlien Abelard was inform-
ed of her destitute situation, he invited her, along
with eight of her companions, to accept of the Pa-
raclete as an asylum. During Abelard's residence
at St Gildas, the correspondence between him and
Heloise took place : and from the letters of Heloise,
which discover undoubted marks of genius, learn-
ing, and taste, Pope has derived the subj'ect of his
" Epistle from Eloisa to Abelard ;" a highly poetical
composition, although not strictly consonant either
to the character and story of Heloise, or to moral
propriety. Here too it is supposed Abelard wrote
his " Theology," which was pronounced heretical
by a council ; the judgment was confirmed by the
Pope ; and he was sentenced to perpetual silence and
imprisonment. The interposition of friendii, and a

ABE

AUrtbro. submissive apology, procured him a pardon, and per-
thick. mission to spend tlie remainder of his da3's in tlie
^^^'Y'm^ convent ofClugny. Here, excepting occasional lec-
tures, which he delivered at the solicitation of the
monks, his time was chiefly occupied in study and
devotion till his death, in IH'2, and in the 63d year
of his age. His body was sent to the Paraclete to
be interred. Heloise survived Abelard twenty-one
years, and was buried in the same grave. The fol-
lowing epitaph, which is a model of simplicity, ele-
gance, and characteristic expression, was drawn up
at the request of the abbess of the Paraclete to ilie
Academy of Belles Lettres, in 1766, and inscribed
on their tomb ; ivhich was removed, about the com-
jnencement of the revolution, and placed in the Na-
tional Museum :. ...
IIic,

Sub eodem marmore, Jacent

IIiiJiis monasteni

€ondiior, Petrus Abelardus,

Et Abbatksa prima, Hbloisa,

Olim siudiis, ingenio, hifaustis nuptiis,

Et pcenitentia,

Nunc, eeterna, ut speramus,Jelicitaie,

conjuncti.

Petrus obiit 2imo Aprilis 1142;

Hclbisa, \1mo Mali, 1163.

The character of Abelard, after the preceding
detail oPhis life, requires no particular delineation,
lixcessive vanity, insatiable ambition, a restless and
turbulent temper, were its more prominent features ;
and whatever may be said of the illiberality and ca-
price of the times, the endless controversies and
persecutions in which he was involved must be in a
great measure charged on himseli". But it cannot
be doubted, that he who cbew together crowded au-
ditories wherever he appeared as a public teacher,
and foiled the ablest masters in the art of disputa-
tion, possessed talents of no ordinary kind. The
conduct of Abelard towards Heloise was treacherous
and base ; and the deliberate plan of seduction which
he formed and executed, has fixed a lasting stain
upon his memory. The ardour and inexperience of
youth luive been advanced as an excuse for He-
loise ; and romantic attachment, generosity, and
sensibility, have been held up as a veil to human
■frailty. But if such sentiments have much influence
on the female character, its beauty and excellence
are surrounded by feel)le barriers, and it will not be
difficult to find an apology for female indiscretion. —
The v/orks of Abelard, which are chiefly theological
and controversial, and written in the Latin language,
do not merit particular enumeration.

ABERBROTHICK, or Arbkoatii, a royal bo-
rough and sea-port town in the county of Forfar, or
Angus, in Scotland, and situated at the mouth of
the small river Brothic, from which it derives its
name. The early history of Arbroath is chiefly con-
nected w'itli its abbey, the ruins of which afford in-
dubitable proofs of its former wealth and magnifi-
cence. King William the Lyon granted the privi-
leges of a royal borough to Arbroath about the mid-
dle of the i2th century, and founded the abbey in
1178. Tilt; abbey was dedicated to Thomas a Becket,
ftrchbisjiop of Canterbury, was oecupied by Tyro-

8 ABE

nensian monks from Kelso, and, by various grants Aberdeen,
and donations, became one of the richest and most >_,- -^_i'
distinguished for its privileges of any in Scotland.
The abbot was permitted to assume the Episcopal
dress, and to exercise Episcopal jurisdiction ; and
John, King of England, conferred on the citizens of
Arbroath the very unusual privilege of trading duty
free in every jiart of his kingdom, London excepted.
The last ecclesiastical Jibbot of Arbroatli was Cardi-
nal Beaton. It was erected in 1608 into a temporal
lordship, in favour of the Marquis of Hamilton, af-
terwards became the property of the Earl of Dysart,
and was purcliased by Maulc of Panmure, in whose
family it remained till 1715, when it was forfeited.

The population, manufactures, and trade of Ar-
broath have increased during a century past. The
population in 1801 exceeded 7000, and, including
the suburbs, is not less than 9000, who are em-
ployed in the manufacture of brown linens, or osna-
burghs, and sail-cloth. In the year 1804, the brown
linen which passed through the Stamp-office amount-
ed to 1,129,495 yards, and was valued at L.62,097 ;
and in 1809 it amounted to 1,484,425 yards, valued
at L.83,454. The annual value of the sail-cloth ma-
nufacture is estimated at L.100,000. The British
navy is supplied with canvas by ten sail-cloth ma-
nufacturers of Arbroath. A tan-work has been al-
so established. Tlie harbour, which was first con-
structed in the early period of the abbacy, and
has of late been extended and improved, is safe
and commodious, and admits vessels of 150 or 20G
tons. Fifty vessels, from 50 to 150 tons burden,
are employed in the London, coasting, or Baltic
trade. The principal imports are flax, hemp, tal-
low, and ashes, from the Baltic. The harbour du-
ties, which, in 1717, did not much exceed L.29, were
farmed, in 1807, for L.735. A new town-house, in-
cluding a prison and public offices, has been lately
erected ; and a library, established in 1797, is rapidly
increasing. N. Lat. 56. 33. W. Long. 2. 34. and about
56 miles N.N. E. of Edinburgh.

ABERDEEN, County or Shire of, in the north
of Scotland, is bounded on the north by the Moray
Frith ; on the east, by the German Ocean ; on the
south, by the counties of Kincardine, Angus, and
Perth ; and by Inverness, Moray, and Banff, on the
west. Its greatest length, from north-east to south-
west, is between 50 and 60 miles, and the breadth
from 25 to 30. The superficial extent is estimated
at 1200 square miles, and it is divided into 85 par-
ishes. The western parts of Aberdeenshire are
mountainous and rugged, and in many places cover-
ed with extensive forests. On some parts of the
sea-coast, there are considerable tracts covered with
blowing sand, while others are terminated by stu-
pendous rocky precipices. Of this latter descrip-
tion are the Bullers or Boilers of Buchan.

The mountains of Aberdeenshire are chiefly com-
posed of granite ; this, indeed, is the i>revailing rock
through the whole coimty. The quarries of beauti-
ful gray granite, near Aberdeen, have been long ce-
lebrated. The stone dug from tliese quarries, and
annually exportetl to London, is valued at nearly
9000 Sterling. Limestone is abundant, but the want
of coal is a bar to its general use. Some parts. at'

ABE

9

the county afford excellent millstones and blue slate.
A vein of manganese, discovered near Old Aber-
deen, furnished splendid specimens of that mineral
in the crystallized state ; but being too hard, or
impure, it was found unsuitable for the purposes
of the manufacturer. The crystals of smoky quartz,
known by the name of Cairngortim stones, are found
in the alluvial soil, on the sides, and at the foot of
the mountains, in the interior of the county. A
considerable number of persons is employed, during
the summer months, in searching for these stones,
as well as for another beautii'ul mineral of an azure
blue colour, and to wliich the name of topaz has
been, perhaps inappropriately, assigned. Some mas-
ses of Cairngorum stone have been sold in Edin-
burgh at from L.40 to L.50. ' Fluor spar, so abun-
dant in the mining districts of England, as a produc-
tion of Scotland, appears onjy in this county ; some
places of which, also, dfford indications of lead ore.
Tlie mountains produce many of the rarer Alpine
plants of Nortli Britain ; and Linncea Borealis, the ge-
neric title of which commemorates the father of bo-
tany, grows in a wood on the borders of the county,
the only spot in which it has been discovered 'in this
kingdom.

The rivers of Aberdeenshire are, tlie Doe, the
Don, the Ythan, the Urie, Ugie, and the Cruden.
The principal of these are the first two, which de-
rive their origin from the mountiiins in the west, tra-
verse the county, nearly parallel to each other, to
the eastward,* and discharge their waters into the
German Ocean ; the Dee, at New Aberdeen, where
it forms the harbour ; and the Don, to the north of
Old and New Aberdeen. There are many mineral
springs in this county ; those of Peterhead, Glendee,
and Pannanach, have acquired the greatest celebri-
ty, and are places of chief resort. Aberdeenshire
contains a number of the chief seats of the Scottish
nobility, as those of the Marquis of Huntley, of the
Earls of Errol, Kintore, Aboyne, Fife, Aberdeen,
and of Lords Salton and Forbes, besides many ele-
gant residences belonging to private gentlemen.
The agricultural improvements, which have been, of
late years, introduced into Scotland, by the spirit and
activity of many of the proprietors, have made no in-
considerable progress in this county. The late Dr
James Anderson, whose ingenious speculations and
numerous writings have greatly served to illustrate
almost every branch of rural economy, was a native
of Aberdeenshire, in which he commenced his re-
searches on these important subjects. The real
land rent of Aberdeenshire is estimated at li. 133,632
Sterling. The population, in 1755, amounted to
117,000; in 1801, to 123,000; shewing an increase of
6000 inhabitants in the period of 46 years.

Tile sea-coast of this county abounds with excel-
lent fish, and affords employment to a considerable
proportion of the inhabitants. The salmon-fishery
on tlie Dee and the Don is the most valuable, yield-
ing a rent of nearly L.3000 annually, and the pro-
duce is stated at L.10,000. The greater proportion
of the salmon taken in these rivers is pickled, and
exported to the London market. Several ships I'rom
Aberdeenshire are employed in tlie Northern Whale
Fishery. The produce of four ships from Aberdeen,

VQL. I. PART I,

ABE

in the period of the last seven years, is estimated at Aberdeen.
L. 140,000, and of these from Peterhead, in the year \^.%,-»^
1813, at L.4.0,000.

The knitting of stockings and hose was formerly
carried on to a great extent ; but in consequence of
the state of the Continent, during the French revo-
lutionary war, that brancli of manufacture had de-
clined. It has since revived, by the introduction of
spinning machinery, and is now in a more flourishing
condition than at any former period. Machinery for
spinning wool was first introduced into Scotland by
Mr Baird of Aberdeen. It was erected in- 1789, on
the river Don; in the year 1799, 4000 lbs. of wool
were weekly manufactured \)y 18 engines. The
most considerable work of this kind, in Scotland, is
that of Messrs Adam and Company at Aberdeen,
which extends to 20 machines, driven by two power-
ful steam engines ; and since the introduction of ma-
chinery, superfine broad cloths, equal in quality and
price to the best made in England, are manufactured
in this county. Carpets also form an article of ma-
nufacture ill Aberdeenshire. The linen manufacture
is considerable ; and one of the most extensive es-
tablishments in Britain for spinning flax by means
of machinery, is situated at Grandliolme, on the river
Don, two miles from Aberdeen ; and, at the same
place, there are 16 power looms, or looms for weav-
ing cloth by machinery, which are peculiarly distin-
guished by elegant constructionj and ingenious me-
chanism.

Among other improvements in this county may
be mentioned the construction of two timber bridges ;
the one over the Don, about seven miles from Aber-
deen, on the road to Banff, of a single arch, 109 feet
in span, with an elevation of 13 feet, which was fi-
nished in 1803 ; and the other, of two arches, each
71 2 feet span, and an elevation of 10, feet, erected
at Grandholme, for the accommodation of the ex-
tensive spinning establishment of Messrs Leys, Ma-
son, and Company ; and a canal from Aberdeen to
Invcrury, a distance of 18 miles, which was opened
in the year 1807. This canal is from 21 to 23 feet
wide, nearly four feet in depth, and cost about
L.44,000 Sterling.

Aberdeen, Old and New, two cities in the north of
Scotland, each governed by its own magistrates ; and
the latter is the capital of the county of the same name.

Old Aberdeen is a mile distant from the New
Town, and not far from the river Don, over which
there is a Gothic bridge of a single arch, of 67 feet
span and 34 ^ feet high, which was built in 1290.
Tradition ascribes great antiijuity to Aberdeen, as
being a place of importance in the ninth century.
The bislioprick is said to have been translated from
Banifshire in the 12th century; and in 1217, similar
jirivileges with those of Perth are granted to Aber-
deen. • The cathedral, of which one aisle, still used
as the parish church, and two spires, are the only
remains, was dedicated to St Machar. The fine lib-
rary attached to this cathedral was totally destroy-
ed "in 1560.

Tile University, or King's College, was founded
in 1494, by Bishop Elphinston, who was lord
chancellor of Scotland in the reign of James III.,
and privy seal in James IV.'s time. The latter mo.

A BE

Aberdeen, narch claimed the patronage, and hence its name.
The buildings of King'8 College are arranged in a
quadrangular form, with an open court in the middle,
and they are adorned with a fine tower, which is sur-
mounted with an imperial crown. This seminary
consists of a principal and eight professors, and it is
furnished with a considerable library. The first
principal of this college was Hector Boetliius, the
historian of Scotland. He was invited from Paris
to accept of tlie appointment, with a salary of 40
merks Scots, or about L.2, 4s. 5d. Sterling. The
population of Old Aberdeen, including the parish,
exceeds 8000.

Aberdeen, New, the capital of Aberdeenshire, is
situated on a rising ground, near the mouth of the
river Dee, and seems to have been a place of consi-
derable antiquity, if we can judge from the number
of religious houses which were established in it ; one
of which was erected previously to the year 1214.
About the beginning of the 14th century, Aberdeen
was burnt by the English ; and, in consequence of
new buildings being erected, it obtained, according
to some accounts, the name of New Aberdeen.
The church in the High Street, which formerly be-
longed to the Franciscans, is said to have been be-
gun by Bishop Elphinston, and finished by his
successor Bishop Dunbar. The same Bishop El-
phinston also provided funds for building the pre-
sent bridge over the Dee ; the execution of which
was superintended by Bishop Dunbar. Many of
the streets of Aberdeen are spacious ; and the houses,
which are built of granite, are elegant. Aberdeen
contains numerous public buildings and charitable
cstablislnnents ; as, the town-house, with a hand-
some sjiire ; the prison, with its square tower, sur-
mounted with a spire ; the cross, an octagon build-
ing in Castle Street ; the poor-house, a large build-
ing ; the infirmary, which annually admits a thou-
sand patients ; and the barracks, erected on the site of
a fortification whicli was constructed by Oliver Crom-
well. But the chief building in Aberdeen is Ma-
rischal College, endowed, in 1.593, by George Keith,
Earl Marischal of Scotland. This seminary con-
sists of a principal and eleven professors. The com-
mon hall contains some fine paintings by Jamieson,
who has been distinguished by the name of the Scot-
tish Vandyke, and was a native of Aberdeen. An
observatory, furnished with astronomical apparatus,
is connected with this college ; and the library, and
museum of natural history and of antiquities, are res-
pectable. The number of stinJents, including those
of King's College, is stated at between 300 and 400.

Aberdeen has lately received some essential im-
provements, in opening up two elegant and spacious
streets, the one leading to the north, and the other
to the south. For the accommodation of tlie latter,
a stupendous arch of cut granite, haviiig a span of
130 feet, 29 feet of elevation, and 40 feet within the
parapets, has been erected. The harbour, too, has
been greatly improved of late years, and particular-
ly by constructing a pier of 1200 feet in length, at
an expence of L.17,(X)0.

The trade of Aberdeen, in tobacco, was at one
time considerable. Some merchants are, at pre-
sent, connected with the West Indies and North A-
merica ; but its chief imports are from the Baltic ;

10

ABE

and the exports are manufactured articles of the Abefdour
town and county ; fisli, pickled pork, and granite ||
from the neighbouring quarries. The population in Abernethy.
1801, is stated at IT.'SOO. N. Lat. 57. 8. W. Long.
2° 8', and 120 miles N. E. from Edinburgh.

ABERDOUR, a small town in Fifeshire in Scot-
land, and situated on the north bank of the Frith of
Forth, is a place of some note in antiquity. A con-
vent of nuns of the order poor Clares, was establish-
ed, and the monks of Inchcolm had the privilege of
a burial place in Aberdour. The Earl of Morton
and his predecessors have been superiors or lords of
the manor since the time of David II. The popu-
lation is about 1000, who are chiefly employed in
the manufacture of coarse cloth.

ABERGAVENNY, a town of Monmouthshire,
in England, and situated in a rich and beautiful val-
ley, at the conflux of the rivers Gavenny and Usk,
over which is a fine gothic bridge of fifteen arclies.
A priory was founded here in the eleventh century ;
and the castle, now in ruins, was frequently the
scene of treachery and bloodshed, in the earlier
periods of English history. This place, of which
the population, in 1801, exceeded 2500, is chiefly
known as a considerable market for flannels. It is
143 miles W. from London.

ABERNETHY, John, an eminent dissenting
clergyman, was born at Coleraine, in the north of
Ireland, in October 1680. His father was a dissent-
ing minister in that place ; and being called to Eng-
land on some public affairs, he left h>j family to the
care of his wife, when young Abernethy was in his
ninth year. The disturbances which then existed
in that part of the kingdom compelled her to retire,
with her family, to Derry ; and, in consequence of the
sufferings and privations towhich those withinthewalls
were subjected during tlie memorable and disastrous
siege of that place, she lost all her children excepting
John, who then lived with a relation, whom he ac-
companied to Scotland. In his thirteenth year, he
commenced his studies in the University of Glasgow,
where he was admitted to the degree of master of
arts. He afterwards studied divinity at Edinburgh.
In the year 1708, he was appointed minister of the
dissentmg congregation at Antrim, and held that si-
tuation for twenty years. A controversy having a-
risen concerning subscription to the Westminster
Confession of Faith, he became one of the principal
leaders among those who opposed it, and was sub-
jected to the censure of a general synod ; and being
deserted by many of his congregation, he accepted
of an invitation to become minister of a dissenting
congregation in Dublin ; in which situation he con-
tinued for ten years, greatly respected and esteemed.
He had been formerly subject to the gout; and in con-
sequence of a sudden attack of that disorder, he died
in December 1 740, in the sixty-first year of his age.

Mr Abernethy was greatly admired as a preacher.
His writings in general are distinguished by liberal
and manly sentiments. His discourses on the Divine
Attributes have obtained considerable celebrity, and
are much read and admired. Several posthumous vo-
lumes of his sermons were published by his friends.

Abernethy, a small town in Strathern, a district
of Perthshire, in Scotland, and situated on the river
Tay, is said to have been the metropolis of the Pic-

A B 1

11

Aberration tish kings, and also the see of a bishop, afterwards

II transferred to St Andrews. But this place is now

AbiaDs. distinguished only by a singular tower, of a circular

*^i"Y^^ form, 74 feet in height, and 48 in circumference.

These towers are not unfrequent in Ireland. One

at Brechin is the only instance of a similar structure

in Scotland ; but of the puqjoses for which they

were intended, whether as places of confinement, or

of penance, as has been supposed, the conjectures of

antiquarians furnish no elucidation.

ABERRATION, in Astronomy, an apparent mo-
tion of the heavenly bodies, or a seeming change in
the position of the fixed stars, which is produced by
the progressive motion of light, and the annual mo-
tion of the earth. This important discovery was
made in 1725, by the late Dr Bradley, astronomer-
royal. See AsTHONOMY.

Aberration, in Optics, the deviation of the rays
of light, when reflected by a speculum, or refracted
by a lens, which prevents them from meeting in the
same point, called the geometrical focus, but wliich
are spread over a small space, and produce a confu-
sion of images. There are two species of aberration
distinguished by their dift'erent causes ; the one a-
rising from the figure of the lens or speculum, and
the other from the unequal refrangibility of the rays
of light. See Optics.

Aberration, af a planet, is the space through
which it appears to move, as seen from the earth,
during the time that light passes from the planet to
the earth. See Astronomy.

ABESTA, or Avesta, a sacred book of the Per-
sian Magi, which is supposed to be the production
of their great founder Zoroaster. This work is a
conunentary on two of tlieir religious books, called
Zeiid and Pazend ; and these three comprehend the
whole system of their religion.

ABEX, a mountainous coimtry of Ethiopia, ex-
tending along the coast of the Red Sea, 500 miles
in length, and about two in breadtli. The soil is
bandy and barren, the country destitute of water,
and greatly infested with wild beasts, and the forests
abound with ebony trees. It is subject to the Turks ;
and Suakem and Arkeeko are its chief towns.

ABEYANCE, in Law, is the expectancy of an
estate or possession ; as, for instance, lands are leased
to one person for life, with reversion to another for
years ; the remainder for years is said to be in abeyance.

ABGAR, or Abgarus, the name of several kings
of Edessa, in Mesopotamia, one of whom has been
the subject of controversy among ecclesiastical writ-
ers, on account of a letter whicli he is said to have
written to Jesus Christ, requesting him to come and
cure a distemper of his feet. This letter, and the
answer, according to the assertion of Eusebius, by
whom they were translated from the Syriac, were
preserved in the archives of the city of Edessa.
T^e authenticity of these letters is denied by some
divines, while it is admitted by others of no less re-
spectability.

ABIANS, a wandering tribe of Thracians, or Scy-
thians, who lived chiefly on the productions of their
herds and flocks ; had no other dwellings than their
waggons ; assigned the privilege of tlie cultivation
of their lands to others, for a small compensation ;

A B L

and were greatly distinguished for their integrity ; Ablb
in allusion to which. Homer eulogizes them as the J|

most honourable men. Ablative.

ABIB, originally signifying an ear of corn, is the S^-s^'^^'
Jewish name of the first month of the ecclesiastical
year, corresponding to the latter part of March and
the beginning of April.

ABINGDON, a town of Berkshire, in England,
is supposed to be the place called Cloveshoo in the
Saxon annals, and contains two churches, several cha-
ritable institutions, and a free school. At this place
a considerable quantity of malt is made, and transport-
ed to London by the Thames, which is here naviga-
ble for barges. There is also a manufacture of sail-
cloth and sacking. Population, in 1801, was 4356.
It is seven miles south from Oxford, and 56 W. N.
W. from London.

ABIPONIANS, a wandering tribe of Indians,
who inhabit the district of Chaco, in Paraguay, of
whom, it seems probable, very inaccurate and ex-
aggerated accounts have been related. They are
represented a$ a bold and independent people, nmch
occupied in hunting and war. They possess many
horses ; and, in a single incursion against the Spa-
niards, sometimes carry oft" several thousands. Po-
lygamy is admitted ; and the barbarous practice of
destroying their offspring is quite common among
the women. The Abiponians, like every other unci-
vilized people, are greatly influenced by their sooth-
sayers, without whose advice no undertaking is at-
tempted. A singular custom is said to prevail a-
mong them. The moment a person expires, he is
wrapt up in a hide, and committed to the earth.
The hut in which he lived is thrown down ; all things
which belonged to him, his horses, and other ani-
mals, are destroyed ; his widow and children re-
move to a distant country, and every memorial of
the deceased ^is obliterated. The number of this
savage people is now reduced, by wars and other
causes, to 5000. The attempts of the missionaries
to convert them to the Christian faith have not suc-
ceeded.

ABJURATION, Oath of, signifies the renoun-
cing and denying the right of the Pretender to the
crown of Great Britain.

ABLAI, or Ablay, a country of Great Tartary,
the inhabitants of which are called Buchars ; are
governed by a Calmuck chief, but are subject to
the Russian government. This country extends 500
leagues along the southern frontier of Siberia.

ABLATIVE, in Grammar, is the sixth case of
Latin nouns, to which some suppose there is no cor-
responding case in the Greek language. It may be
said in general to denote concomitancy, which is
expressed by the use of xvith or from in the English
language. There is, strictly speaking, no such thing
as the ablative absolute in the language of gram-
marians ; for what has been invariably so denominat-
ed, by Ruddiman and others, is nothing more than
the expression of a concomitant circumstance. Sole
oricnte Jugitint tencbra. While the sun rises, dark-
ness flies away. The flying away of the darkness is
the result of the rising of the sun ; so that the one
is a concomitant circumstance of the other. See
Gb.\mmar.

A B L

IS

ABO

Able ABLE, or Abel, a clergyman who was chaplain

fi to Catherine, queen of Henry A'^III. and greatly dis-

Aboiition. tinguished himself in opposing the proceedings a-
gainst her for a divorce. In \5ii4; he was prosecut-
ed for being concerned in tlie aft'air of Elizabeth
Barton, called the holy maid of Kent, who announ-
ced herself as a prophetess. She was condemned
and executed, along with several of her accomplices ;
and Able being charged with misprision, or conceal-
ment of treason, was thrown into prison. He was
afterwards convicted of denying the supremacy over
the church, which Henry, in his arbitrary manner,
had assumed, and strenuously maintained ; and he
was condemned to be hanged, drawn, and quarter-
ed ; which sentence was put in execution in Smith-
field, in the year 1510.

ABLUTION, a ceremony connected with religi-
ous rites, in very general use among ancient na-
tions, and still practised in different parts of the
world, consists in washing the whole, or parts of
the bodj', before offering sacrifice, or performing
other religious duties. These washings are of re-
mote antiquity ; they were enjoined by the Jewish
lawgiver, and adopted both by heathens and the fol-
lowers of Mahomet. They were practised by the
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, as well as by the
first Christians, and they are still observed by Ro-
jnan Catholics and Maliometans.

ABO, a seaport town, and capital of Swedish Fin-
land, situated on the promontory formed by the
gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and about 120 miles
north-east from Stockholm. The tOH'n is built on
both sides of the river Aurajocki, and has a com-
munication by means of a wooden bridge. The po-
pulation, in 1791, was nearly 9000. The manufac-
tures arc, sail-cloth, fustians, silk ribbands, leather,
paper, tobacco, watches, and clocks. The trade is
considerable : iron, copper, tar, and deals are ex-
ported ; and coffee, sugar, wine, sak, grain, &c. are
imported. The plantations of tobacco in the vici-
nity yield annually, it is stated, 152,000 cwt. of to-
bacco.

The Russians took possession of Abo in 1713, and
retained it for seven years. A gymnasium, founded
by Gustavus Adolphus in 1626, was converted into
a universrty, by Queen Christina, in 1640, in which
are now taught, anatomy, natural history, chemistry,
&c. The same queen established the library, which
consists of 10,000 volumes, besides manuscripts, an-
cient coins, medals. Sec. The school of anatomy,
which is said to be in considerable repute, enjoys a
very extraordinary privilege. All persons who hold
lands or pensions from the crown, are bound, by a
particular regulation, to leave their bodies to be
dissected, for the instruction of the students.

ABOLITION, the act of making void, or an-
nulling ; and, in our law, the repealing of any sta-
tute. When.a prince granted liberty to a criminal
accuser to give up the farther prosecution of the
party accused, it obtained the name of abolition.
Civilians employ it to denote remitting the punish-
ment of a crime. It signified, in the Roman Law,
the annulling of a legal prosecution, and of course
differed from an amnesty, by which an accusation
was extinguished for ever. Abolition also denoted

the erazing of a person's name from the public list Al>om«sai
of the accused, which was hung up in the treasury. ||

It was either public or private ; the former like that Abortion,
under Augustus, when all the names were ex[)unged ^'•'^'^■1'
at once ; or private, when that was done at the mo-
tion of one of the parties.

ABOMASUS, or Abomasum, names which have
been given to the fourth stomach of ruminating ani-
mals. It is from the abomasus, or fourth stomach
of calves and lambs, that the runnet is obtained,
for the coagulation of milk, or its conversion into
curd. See Anatomy.

ABOMINATION, a term employed in Scripture
to denote the Hebrews, who, leading a pastoral life,
are said to have been an abomination to the people
of Egypt, on account of their sacrificing the animals
which the Egyptians deemed sacred. The term
abomination is likewise used in Scripture to denote
idolatry, which, being frequently attended with licen-
tiousness, is odious. Antiochus Epiphanes ordered
the statue of Jupiter Olympus to be placed in the
temple of Jerusalem, which commentators understand
to be meant by tlie phrase of the prophet Daniel, the
abominatinn of desolation ; and the same expression
employed by the evangelists, is referred to the Ro-
man ensigns, during the siege of Jerusalem by Titus,
because the representations of their gods were em-
broidered on them, and placed on the temple after it
was taken.

ABORIGINES, in the most limited acceptation
of the word, denotes a particular people in Italy, in-
habitants of ancient Latium, now known by the mo-
dern name of Campagna di Roma. According to the
opinion of St Jerome, the Aborigines were so deno-
minated as being absque origine, the postdiluvian
planters of the country ; while others are of opinion
that they were so called, as being originally Arca-
dians, who claimed to be born of the earth, and not
deriving their origin from any people whatever. In
a modern sense, it is employed to denote the origi-
nal inhabitants of any country, in opposition to co-
lonies, or new races of people from a distant region.
Thus, the natives of Britain, in the time of Julius
CiEsar, were the Aborigines of that country, in op-
position to the Saxons and Danes, by whom it was
afterwards subdued.

ABORTION, the prematureexpulsionofthefcEtus.
Solon and Lycurgus, the celebrated legislators of
Greece, strictly prohibited every attempt to procure
abortion. Tlie practice was common among the
Romiins ; and it is doubted whether any prohibition
existed against it previously to the time of Antonine
and Severus, who made it criminal only in the case
of a wife procuring abortion, from resentment, to
deprive lier husband of the comfort of children.
The punishment annexed was only temporary ba-
nishment. In the present day, it is a common
practice, in different parts of the world. Before
the revolution in France, the crime of procuring
abortion was punished with death ; but since that pe-
riod, the punishment is twenty years imprisonment ;
and it ought to be generally known, that, by an act
of the British parliament, passed in the year 1803,
those who are guilty of procuring, abortion, in the
early period of pregnancy, or before tlie cliild be

A B R

13

A B R

Abouktr i^wick, are subjected to imprisonment or transporta-
II tion ; but in the latter period, or when the child has

Abritl).ment quickened, they shall suffer death. It is scarcely ne-
v^p^;-^ cessary to add, tiiat, in the case of a woman's death,
in consequence of medicines taken for the purpose of
causing abortion, those who administer them are
chargeable with the crime of murder ; for this, it is
obvious, must be considered equivalent to the exhi-
bition of poison.

ABOUKIR, a small town between Rosetta and
Alexandria, in Egypt; is supposed to be the ancient
Canopus. It is built upon a rock, and seems to have
been formerly an island. Aboukir is an inconsider-
ableplace, has few inhabitants, andscarcely any trad j ;
but it is celebrated on account of the splendid victory
gained by Lord Nelson over the French fleet on the
1st of August 1798, and by a severe engagement be-
tween the Turks and French, which took place in
July of the succeeding year, when Buonaparte ob •
tained possession of the peninsula. It was taken by

* the British in 1801. Aboukir is 12 miles N.E. from

Alexandria.

ABU AM, or Abraham, in Scripture history, the
father of the faithful, was the son of Terah, and the
tenth in lineal descent from Shem, the son of Noah.
It is supposed that he was born in the city of Ur in
Chaldea. Accompanied by his father, Abraham left
that city, and resided at Hsran, in Mesopotamia,
where Terah died. He then received the divine
command to go to Palestine, which was inhabited by
the Canaanites ; and the promise was then made to
him, that his descendants should become a great na-
tion, and that a seed should be raised up to him in
whom all nations of the earth should be blessed.
Under the firm belief of the accomplishment of this
promise, he took with him his wife, his family, and
cattle, and settled in Canaan. He died at the age of
175 years, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah :
but for the particular detail of the life of this patri-
arch, we must refer to the Scripture narrative by
Moses. A great deal of traditionary history has been
related of Abraham, little of which is worthy of no-
tice ; and it has been added, that he was profoundly
skilled in many sciences, and was the author of se-
veral books; that he taught the Egyptians arithmetic
and geometry, and instructed the Phcenicians in as-
tronomy.

ABRASAS, or Abraxas, a mystical, or cabbalis-
tic word, composed of Greek letters, which, accord-
ing to the Grecian mode of numeration, are equiva-
lent to 365. This word is also supposed by some
to be the name of the supreme god of the Basilidian
heretics ; and that they wore gems, by way of charm
or amulet, on which this word was engraven. Ac-
cording to Basilides, the founder of this sect, there
are 365 heavens between the earth and the empyre-
an, to each of « hich an angel or intelligent being,
by wh^m it was created, ^ appointed. Eacli of the
angels was created bj' the superior angel, — thus as-
cending to the Supreme Being, or the first Creator
of all ; but of the origin and use of these gems,
which have greatly occupied the attention of anti-
quarians, their opinions are quite uns'Ettled.

ABRIDGMENT, in Literature, the reduction of
a book into a smaller compass ; is an occupation of

great utility, both to the abridger himself, to enable Ab:»«»n.
him to become master of the contents of any work, v^p-,/-^.
and for the purpose of comnmnicating to the public
the more essential parts of any subject. The method
of reducing the bulky works of the ancients came
into general use about the fifth century. Soiiie of
those who were engaged in this occupation were sa-
tisfied with a mere abridgment of their authors, whose
expressions were employed, or only inconsiderable
alterations adopted. Some composed abridgments
by extracting the materials from various autliors, and
clothing them in their own language; while others
consulted several authors who wrote on the same
subjects, took passages from each, and uniting them,
formed a new work. The best maxims, the charac-
ters of persons, descriptions, and other topics which
appeared most interesting, were preserved ; and in
this way, it is probable, many valuable fragments of
antiquity have been rescued from oblivion.

The art of abridging is peculiarly usel'ul, cither in
committing to memory, or in writing down what is
delivered by public speakers ; and for this purpose it
is necessary that the plan and arrangement of the
subject should be well understood, and then it will
not be difficult to recollect and note down the lead-
ing parts of the discussion, and the arguments which
are employed in support of the dilFercnt topics and
positions which are advanced. The abridger may
then extend it in the form of a discourse, dressed in
his own language, and thus materially improve his
talents in composition. In abridging any printed
work, the first thing to be attended to is its precise
object, and then to study those parts of it which are
most essential in attaining the object which the au-
thor had in view. When the abridger has reached
these points, he is qualified to retrench redundancies,
to clear up ambiguous expressions, and even to pro-
duce a more perfect work than the original.

ABRUZZO, a province of Naples, and anciently
"the country of the Samnites, a brave people, who
were long distinguished for their successful hostility
to the Romans. The Adriatic forms the boundary of
this province on the north-east ; and the river Pesca-
ra divides it into Abruzzo Citerior and Ulterior, of
which Aquila and Chieti are the chief towns. The
soil in many places is rich and fertile ; rice, wheat,
and other grain, wine, oil, fruit, and saffron, are
abundant ; but the want of roads and commodious
harbours renders exportation difficult, and excludes
the inhabitants from the advantages of an exchange
of commodities for their redundant productions,
so that they are very generally in great poverty
find wretchedness. Liquorice is cultivated on the
coast, and the produce of wool is considerable, from
extensive flocks of sheep, which thrive well on the
pastures of the more elevated regions in summer, and
of the warmer plains in winter. A large extent of
the province is mountainous and rugged, covered
with thick woods, which afford shelter to numerous
wolves and bears, whose predatory incursions, during
the severity of winter, are often exceedingly destruc-
tive. The lynx or tyger-cat, and deer, are enumera-
ted among the wild animals. The manufactures ex-!,
tend only to coarse woollen stufis and pottery ware,
the latter of which finds a ready market in German j.

A B S

14

A B S

Absa'oai To the southward of Abruzzo Ulterior, lies the
{{ ancient lake Fucintis, now called iMgo di Celano ; and

Absi.iiarii<. the canal or diain, for carrying off its superfluous
^^»-.rm^ waters, traverses this province. This canal was con-
structed by the Emperor Claudius at an immense ex-
pense, 30,000 men being employed for the period of
eleven years. The extent of this canal is three miles ;
part of it is open, part is supported by masonry, and
part is dug through a mountain. This lake, which
exceeds forty miles in circumference, is described by
travellers as a most beautiful and romantic expanse of
water ; but in consequence of the numerous torrents
from the surrounding mountains, which are often
swoln witli rains or melted snow, its banks were fre-
quently subjected to destructive inundations ; and as
great part of the canal is now filled with rubbish, the
neighbouring plains are still liable to the same cala-
mity.

ABSALOM, in Scripture history, the son of Da-
vid, king of Israel, and the brother of Tamar, who
was ravished by Ammon, their elder brother, by a
different mother. Two years elapsed before an op-
poitunity offered of revenging this injury, when the
assassination of Ammon was perpetrated at a feast
prepared by Absalom. To avoid his father's resent-
ment, he fled to Talmai, king of Geshur, and re-
mained with him three years ; and he was no sooner
restored to favour, than he stirred up the Israelites
to revolt against David. Absalom's army was de-
feated; and in his flight through the wood of Ephraim,
his hair was entangled in the branch of an oak tree,
where he hung till Joab came up and pierced his
body with three darts, although David had issued the
most express orders to spare his life. Wlien he heard
of the fate of Absalom, he was thrown into the deep-
est affliction, and the pathetic lamentations which he
uttered for the death of his rebeUious son forms part
of the sacred narrative.

The weight of Absalom's hair, which is stated at
" 200 shekels of the king's weight," has been a fer- '
tile subject of criticism among commentators, aris-
ing, no doubt, from the uncertainty of the precise
weight of the shekel. According to the estimate of
some, it was 6| pounds ; by that of others, it is in-
creased to the enormous quantity of 125- pounds ;
while others reduce it to five ounces.

ABSCESS, in Surgery, a cavity containing puru-
lentmatter, sodenominatedfroma word which signifies
to sepai'aie, because parts naturally united, in conse-
quence of injury or disease recede from each other
by the secretion and accumulation of matter. See

SUUGERY.

ABSCISSA, or Absciss, is the segment of the
diameter of a conic section, between its vertex and
an ordinate. See conic sections, under Mathe-
matics.

ABSIMARUS, a short-lived emperor of the East,
who owed his elevation to one of tliose sudden revo-
lutions which are effected by the power of an army
in unsettled states. He was proclaimed by the sol-
diers in the year 698. He succeeded Leontius, who,
after mutilation, by having his nose and ears cut oft',
was thrown into a monastery. Justinian II. who haxl
been dethroned by Leontius, aided by the Bulgarians,
attacked and took Constantinople, and made Absi-

niarus prisoner. Having both usurpers in his power, Absinthi*.
he commanded them to be loaded with chains, and ted
while he enjoyed the barbarous satisfaction of stand- ||

ing with a foot on the neck of each of his insulted Absorbent,
rivals, for the space of an hour, in the presence of all "^^^y^m/
the people, the air resounded with exclamations from
the fickle multitude, who sung, " Thou shalt walk
on the asp and the basilisk, and tread on the lion and
the dragon." After this cruel treatment, the de-
throned monarchs were beheaded in the year 705.

ABSINTHI ATED, a term used by older medical
writers, and signifying a substance impregnated with
wormwood, as wine or spirits, hence called worm-
wood wine, &.C. Infusions of this kind are beneficial
in cases of indigestion.

ABSOLUTE, in its general meaning, is expres-
sive of something which is free or independent, which
does not subsist in virtue of any thing as its cause, in
which sense God is said to be absolute. The same
word is employed to denote what is unfettered by
conditions or limitations, as in the phrases absolute
obedience, absolute promise.

Absolute Number, in Algebra, is any pure num-
ber in an equation, or the known quantity which forms
one of its terms; as in the equation 2 x -j- 12=: 24,
the numbers 12 and 21' are absolute.

ABSOLUTION, in the Civil Law, is the sentence
pronounced, after hearing the evidence by which a
person charged with a crime is declared innocent.
According to the forms of the Roman judicatories,
when the pleadings were finished, three ballots were
delivered to each of the judges : One was marked
with the letter A. signifying absolvo, I absolve or ac-
quit ; another with the letter C. signifying condeinno,
I condemn ; and the third, with the letters N. L.
signifying non liquet, it is not clear, or, the case is
doubtful ; and the sentence pronounced corresponded
to the majority of votes of condemnation or acquit-
tal.

ABSOLUTION, in the Canon Law, is that act
by which the priest, according to the forms of the
Roman Catholic church, pronounces the remission
or forgiveness of the sins of those who make full
confession, and give evidence of sincere repentance.

ABSORBENT Medicines, are such substances as,
if taken into the stomach, are supposed to have the
property of combining with or absorbing acrid or re-
dundant matters, which are preternaturally secreted
in the digestive organs ; such are, testaceous powder,
or chalk, or crabs' eyes, or magnesia ; and certain
substances are applied externally to the skin, with a
similar intention of absorbing acrid humours which
are exuded in cases of inflammation.

ABSORBENT Vessels, or ABSonBENTS, in Ana-
tomy, are minute and transparent vessels which have
been detected in animal bodies, and which take up
or imbibe fluids which come in contact with them.
These vessels are divided into lacteals and lymphatics.
The lacteals open on the internal surface of the sto-
mach and intestines, and absorb the chyle or nutri-
tious fluid, and convey it to the mass of blood, to re-
pair tlie waste which it sustains in the course of the
circulation. The lacteals derive their name from
the fluid which tliey contain having a milky ap-
pearance. The lymphatics are so denominated, from

A B S

15

the lymph, or pellucid fluid, which they absorb and
convey from the cavities and surface of the body.
See Anatomy and Physiology.

ABSORPTION, in Physiology, the function of
the absorbent vessels, or the power by which they
imbibe and propel their peculiar fluids. Some have
attempted to explain this function, on the principle
of capillary attraction, while others ascribe it to the
pressure of the atmosphere, or to suction, which is
only a different mode of expressing the same fact,
since it depends on the same pressure. See Phy-
siology.

Absorption, in Chemistry, is that power orpro-
perty, which some bodies possess, of absorbing or at-
tracting others, in the state of liquid or elastic fluid.
Thus, a sponge absorbs a large proportion of water ;
a piece of wood, or porous stone, exhibits the same
property ; water combines with different airs or elas-
tic fluids, in proportion to its temperature ; and fresh
prepared charcoal greedily absorbs air or water. In
some of these cases, the absorption is to be consider-
ed as a mechanical rather than a chemical action.
But the process of slaking lime presents one of the
best examples of the absorption of a liquid by a so-
lid body, and is, besides, a case of chemical combi-
nation. Here a large portion of water unites with
the lime, which falls down in the state of dry pow-
der ; and, during the process, great heat is produced
in consequence of the evolution of the caloric, or heat
which is necessary to retain the water in the liquid
form. See attraction, under Chemistry.

Absorptions o/" the Earth, an expression which
has been employed by naturalists, to denote the sink-
ing of extensive tracts of land, in consequence of
subterraneous convulsions. Such absorptions are by
no means uncommon in countries which are subject
to earthquakes ; and few, indeed, which are visited by
calamities of this kind,are entirelyexemptedfrom their
dreadful effects. Examples are not wanting, both
in ancient and modern times. Pliny mentions, that
the town of Curctes, with the mountain on which it
stood, was entirely swallowed up. He records also
a similar fate of the city of Tantalus, in Magnesia ;
and afterwards of the mountain Sypilus. Galanis
and Gamalis, celebrated towns in Phoenicia, and the
lofty promontorj' of Phegium in Ethiopia, disappear-
ed, and left not the shghtest vestige of tlieir exis-
tence.

In more modem times, Pious, a lofty mountain in
one of the Molucca isles, which was seen at such a
distance as to be a useful landmark to sailors, was
shaken by an earthquake, and sunk in a moment.
An extensive lake, whose shores marked the limits
of the base of the mountain, now occupies its place.
In the year 1566, an entire province, in a mountain-
ous district of China, was swallowed up, with all its
inhabitants, and what was formerly dry land became
an immense lake. Those parts of South America,
in wftich earthquakes prevail, have suffered greatly
from similar calamities; and in 1692, during a dread-
ful earthquake, great part of the town of Port-Roy-
al, in Jamaica, with a large proportion of the inha-
bitants, sunk into the ocean.

The fall of mountains has been ascribed to a simi-
lai- absorption of some part of the subterraneous ma-

A B S

terials which support their base. In the year 1727, Abuinence.
a mountain in the south of France, forming part of ^"■•'V"*"^
the chain of the Cevennes, fell, with a tremendous
crjish, into the valley below, and in its progress over-
whelmed an entire village, the inhabitants of which
fortunately escaped, in consequence of being at some
distance, celebrating a rural festival. But the most
memorable calamity of this description took place in
Switzerland, on the 3d September 1806, when the
Spitzberg, a projecting clift' of the mountain Rosen-
berg, was suddenly precipitated from the height of
2000 feet, and overwhelmed in its ruins five or six
villages, with nearly 2000 inhabitants.

ABSTINENCE, in its general meaning, is the act
of avoiding or refraining from something to which
there is a strong natural or habitual propensity.
But this word is employed particularly to denote a
spare diet, or denying the appetite its full indul-
gence in certain kinds of food to which it has been
accustomed. Many remarkable effects in promoting
health, and protracting life, and some wonderfU
cures recorded by the older medical writers, are
ascribed to abstinence. But it must be observed,
that the abstinence here alluded to, is confounded
with moderation and regular habits of life. Such,
for instance, is the example of Cornaro, a noble
Venetian, who had lived in dissipation and luxury
till the age of forty, when he was seized with a vio-
lent disease, which threatened his life, and who, by
the mere effect of abstinence, not only recovered!,
but enjoyed almost unbroken health to the great age
of 100 years. But this, and similar cases on record,
ought perhaps to be considered in no ot!> 3r light than
as striking examples of the beneficial effects of tem-
perance and regularity.

Abstinence is more frequently applied to those
cases of animals which are either totally deprived of
food, or Htc on a very small portion. Many ani-
mals live a long time under a total privation of food : ,
Such, for instance, are those which become torpid
on the approach of winter ; but in these cases the
animal functions are in a great measure suspended,
and are only restored to their former vigour by the
genial warmth of spring. The most remarkable ex-
amples of abstinence, or total privation of food, are
found among the cold-blooded animals, as frogs and
toads, serpents, lizards, and insects. A rattlesnake
has lived many months without any food, whilst its
health and vigour seemed in no degree diminished.
Dr Shaw mentions, that two Egyptian serpents,
which had been kept five years in a bottle closely
corked, had just cast their skins when he saw them,
and were as brisk and lively as when they were first
taken. Experiments have been made by Redi, Leu-
wenhoek, Buftbn, and other naturalists, to ascer-
tain how long different animals could live without
food. A spider hved eight months ; a beetle three
years, when it escaped ; a toad fourteen months, and,
in another instance, eighteen months ; a land tor-
toise eighteen months ; several dogs lived thirty-six
days ; a wild cat twenty days ; a civet cat ten days ;
a badger a month ; an eagle twenty-eight days ; and
wild pigeons twelve and thirteen days. Even human
beings have afforded astonishing examples of living
a considerable time under a total privation of food ;

A B S

Abstinence as «n cases of shipwreck, when the crew had been
[] thrown ashore on desart islands, or when persons

Abstraction, have been buried under the snow, or confined in
places altogether inaccessible.

Abstinence, as a religious observance, may be
considered as either partial or temporary. It is
. partial, as in the case of the Jews, who abstained
from particular kinds of food, according^ to tlie or-
dinances of their law ; and on certain days of the
week, as well as during the period of certain festi-
vals, the Roman Catholics abstain from eating flesh.
On the other hand, during some of the religious fes-
tivals among the Mahometans, a temporary absti-
nence from food is ordained, and they are strictly
enjoined to observe it from §unrise to sunset. A si-
milar abstinence was observed among some of the
ancient sects of philosophers. The Pythagoreans
were forbidden the use of aniinal food, except what
remained of the animals oftered in sacrifice. Their
drink was pure water, or only a small portion of
wine, in which they might indulge in the evening.

A13STINENTS, a heretical sect which arose in
France and Spain about the end of the third cen-
tury, and are supposed to have derived some of their
tenets from the Gnostics and Manicheans. They
disapproved of marriage, and prohibited their fol-
lowers from the use of flesh moat.

ABSTRACT, in its general acceptation, denotes
something which is considered apart, or separated
from other objects with which it is naturally con-
joined.

Abstract, in Literature, is a sketch or compen-
dious view of any subject treated in a larger work,
but shorter and more condensed than an abridg-
ment.

Abstract, or Pure Mathematics, considers
magnitude or quantity generally, or without refer-
ence to any particular magnitude or number, as in
arithmetic and geometry ; and is opposed to mixed
mathematics, or the application of mathematical
science to the investigation of material objects ; as,
for example, when the properties of air and light
are examined, constituting the sciences of Pneuma-
tics and Optics.

Abstract Numbers, are assemblages of units,
considered independent of any reference to particu-
lar objects ; thus, 4 is an abstract number ; but 4
trees is a concrete number, because it is conjoined
with certain specific objects.

Abstract Terms, are words which express cer-
tain properties or qualities, considered apart from
the objects in which they reside; as, brightness, red-
ness, hardness.

ABSTRACTION, is that operation of the mind
which is occupied in considering one property or
quality of objects separate from others with which
it is conjoined in nature. Thus, in the expressions,
.rtd coat; red rose, red pink, a certain quality, de-
noted by the term red, is said to belong to each of
these objects. But, by the power of abstraction,
the mind separates this property from individual ob-
jects, and considers it under the general term red-
ness. In the same way, the mind proceeds in arran-
ging and distributing objects possessing some com-
mon properties into groupes or divisions, according

16 ABU

to colour, figure, density, or degrees of hardness, or Absurdum
some other common property, by which the groupe {|

or division to which distinctive appellations are given, Abulfara-
is characterized and known. This is called genera-
lization, and is a very important mode of procedure
in the acquisition of knowledge ; for by this means
the labour of investigation is greatly abridged and
facilitated. See Logic and Metaphysics.

ABSURDUM, Reductio ad, leading to an ah-
surditi/, in Geometry, is a mode of demonstration
resorted to by mathematicians, to prove the truth of
a proposition, by shewing that the contrary is im-
possilde, implies a contradiction, or leads to an ab-
surdity.

ABTIIANE, an honorary title of distinction,
which existed in the earlier periods of Scottish his-
tory, the nature of which seems to be imperfectly
understood by antiquarians. According to one ex-
planation, the nobles, or thanes, held a middle rank
between ahthanes and underthanes ; the first possess-
ing a superior, and the last an inferior dignity. But
according to another view, the thane, which, in the
Saxon language, signifies, minister of the king, was
appointed to attend to certain rights which the king
reserved over lands granted to a bishop or abbot;
while the abthane was the minister, or steward, of
the ecclesiastical possessor.

ABUBEKER, or Abu-Becr, the immediate suc-
cessor and confidential friend of Mahomet, was the
first convert to tlie new faith, and his only compa-
nion in his flight from Mecca to Medina. He was
originally named Abdulcaaba, servant of the temph.
This was changed to Abdallah, or, the servant of
God ; and when the prophet married his daughter
Aye'sha, he assumed that of Abu-Becr, the father
of the virgin. The new religion was in imminent
danger of perishing on the death of its founder ;
an event which was thought by many of his follow-
ers to be impossible. But Abubeker, with the as-
sistance of Caled, an able general, prevented a total
revolt, and either reduced to submission, or punish-
ed with death, all who disputed or opposed his au- '
thority. His prudence and moderation powerfully
checked the fanaticism of the disciples of Mahomet,
after that prophet's decease ; and having restored
tranquillity within his own dominions, he carried his
victorious arms into Syria. His celebrated general,
Caled, laid siege to Damascus ; and on the very day
on which it capitulated Abubeker died, in the 64th
year of his age, and 13th of the Hegira, and 635
of the Christian era.

Abubeker was distinguished as caliph (the name
which all his successors assumed ) for his prudence,
equity, and moderation ; for his indifference to riches
and honours ; his liberality to the poor, and to the
military, among whom he divided his revenue. He
collected the detached revelations of Mahomet, to
which the Arabians gave the name of Almoshaf, or
the book, the transcript of which was deposited with
Hassa, the widow of Mahomet.

ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, a native of Ma-
latia, a city of Armenia, was born in 1226. He fol-
lowed the profession of his father, which was that of
a physician, but was afterwards created bishop of
Guba, by Ignatius, patriarch of the Jacobites. . He

A B Y

17

A B r

Abulghazi

II
Abydos.

was a voluminous writer ; but his Epitome of Univer-
sal History, which was published in 1663 by Dr Po-
cocke, with a Latin translation, is considered as the
most learned and valuable of all his works. He was
well acquainted with the Greek, Syriac, and Arabian
languages ; and he was panegyrised by his cotempo-
raries as " the king of the learned, the phcenix of
the age, and the crown of the virtuous." He died
in 1286, in the 60th year of his age.

ABULGHAZI, Bayatur, a prince of the Tar-
tars, descended from the famous Jenghiskhan, was
born in the year 1605 ; and having passed through a
long train of disasters and misfortunes, he mounted
the throne of Karuzm in 1645. During a reign of
twenty years, by the courage and vigour of his ad-
ministration, he made himself respected and feared
by his enemies. This prince is one of the few re-
corded in history, who have laid aside the pomp of
power, to descend into the peaceful quiet of retired
life. In 1665, he resigned his sceptre into the hands
of his son, and devoted the remainder of his days to
literary pursuits. In his retirement he commenced
a work, the genealogical history of the Turks ; but
his labours were interrupted by death, and the work
was completed by his son and successor. It is writ-
ten in the Turkish language ; and being esteemed an
authentic history of the Turks and Tartars, has ob-
tained some degree of celebrity. It has been trans-
lated into many of the European languages.

ABUNDANT Number, in Arithmetic, is a num-
ber the sum of whose aliquot parts exceeds the num-
ber itself. Thus 12 is an abundant number, beclause
its aliquot parts or divisors, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, added
together, are equal to 16. It is opposed to a defi-
cient number, the aliquot parts of which, taken to-
gether, are less, as 14, whose divisors or aliquot parts
are, 1, 2, and 7, which added together make 10;
and also to a perfect number, to which its aliquot parts
are equal, as 6, whose aliquot parts, 1, 2, and 3, add-
ed together, are equal to the number itself.

ABYDOS, an ancient town, built by the Milesi-
ans, on the Asiatic side of the Hellespont, or Strait
of the Dardanelles. This place is frequently refer-
red to by classical writers ; it is noted in history as
the scene of the story of Leander and Hero ; and
near it was the famous bridge built by Xerxes. As
Abydos commanded the passage of the straits, its
possession was deemed of great importance to those
who were anxious to interrupt the conmiunication
between the Archipelago and the Euxine, or Black
sea. The desperate resistance which the inhabitants
of Abydos opposed to the attack of Philip, king of
Macedon, is almost unequalled, in ancient or modern
times. When it appeared that the city must fall in-
to the hands of the enemy, the inhabitants vowed, in
the most solemn manner, that they would put their
women and children to the sword, and destroy all
their property, rather than submit to a foreign yoke;
and ^vhen the Macedonians entered the town, the ci-
tizens had actually begun todestroy each other. The
work of death was only interrupted by the interfer-
ence of the victorious enemy. This event took place
about 200 years before the Christian era.

Abydos, an ancient town of Egypt, situated be-
tween Ptolemais and Diospolis Parva, and celebrat-

VOL, I. PART I,

ed for the palace of Memnon, and the splendid temple
of Osiris. This city, which was one of the most magni-
ficent in antiquity, was reduced to a village in the
time of Augustus, and now presents a heap of ruins.
Not far from the ruins is the famous tomb of Osy-
mandes, an edifice of extraordinary magnificence,
which had a portico 60 feet high, supported by a
double row of massy columns. This forms the en-
trance to a temple 300 feet long, and 145 feet wide,
the roof of which is supported by 28 columns, 60
feet high, 19 feet in circumference at the base, and
12 feet distant from each other. The walls of these,
spacious apartments are covered with hieroglyphics,
among which appear numerous animals, birds, hu-
man figures, and some Indian divinities. This re-
markable edifice contains many subterraneous apart-
ments ; but the passages have been filled up with
heaps of earth and rubbish by the Arabs, in search-
ing for treasure.

ABYLA, the ancient name of one of the pillars of
Hercules, on the African side of the Straits of Gi-
braltar, and opposite to Calpe, the other pillar, which
is situated on the Spanish side.

ABYSS, in its general acceptation, denotes some-
thing which is profound ; or, from the literal signifi-
cation of the word in the Greek, from which it is de-
rived, bottomless. In Scripture, this wOrd is applied
to the water which God created at the beginning,
with the earth, and has been translated by the word
deep. In the New Testament, the same word, which
is translated bottomless pit, is supposed to denote hell,
and to correspond with the Tartai-us and Erebus of
the ancients.

Abyss is also a term used to denote an immense
cavern in the earth, in which God is supposed to have
collected the waters on the third day, which, in the
English version of the Bible, is translated seas and
great deep. According to some of the older geological
writers, this collection of waters still exists in the
central parts of the earth, and has a communication
with the ocean. This opinion has been opposed by
others, and has been the subject of a good deal of
controversial discussion. See Woodward's Natural
History of the Earth ; and Cockburn's Inquiry into
the Tndh and Certainty of the Mosaic Deluge.

ABYSSINIA, a large country in eastern Africa,
bounded by the Red sea on the east, part of the
kingdom of Sennaar on the north, another part of
the same kingdom and Kordofan on the west, and
on the south by several deserts and mountainous dis-
tricts, which separate it from Alaba, Gingiro, and
Adel. It lies between the 7° and 17° N. Lat. and
between the 33° and 43° E. Long, from Greenwich ;
being about 700 British miles long, and 500 broad.
The inhabitants, who are dark-coloured, but without
any of the negro features, have long professed the
Christian religion, though on all sides surrounded by
the followers of Mahomet, and by tribes not yet e-
merged from paganism. To this country various
other names have been applied in difterent periods ;
but the term Abyssinia has nearly altogether sup-
planted them ; and, accordingly, those of Upper or
Higher Ethiopia, Abassia, Al'-Habash, Cephenia,
Ethei;ia, &c. are rarely used in modern times.

Face of the Country, — The face of the country is
c

A B T

18

A B Y

Abyssinia, wiouiitainous ; to which, in a great degree, must be
ascribed a moderate, and, comparatively speaking,
healthy climate. Another advantage arising from this
inequality of surface is the number of rivers, streams,
and lakes, which essentially contribute to the fertility
of the soil. These, however, are not so extensively dis-
tributed as tosupply the demands of the whole of Abys-
sinia ; but, on the whole, few countries of similar geo-
graphical situation, are less frequently visited by ex-
cessive drought. One of the ranges of mountains which
traverse this region, named Taranta, is on the east
of the kingdom, extending in a direction nearly par-
allel to the Red sea. Another occupies the centre ;
and, besides a third range, towards the southern boun-
dary, thei'e are numerous detached groupes of less
elevation in the intermediate plains. These add to
the picturesque aspect of the country, and are well
fitted for defence. The central range is known by
the name of Lamalmon ; that on the south, by Gan-
za. The former contains the mountains of Amharaj
and Semena, which, according to one author, are the
most elevated in the kingdom. The latter, from the
circumstance of its exhibiting a semi-circular form,
was imagined by Mr Bruce to constitute part of
what have been long denominated the Mountains of
the INIoon, — an absurd appellation, given to an im-
mense chain, supposed, on very inadequate proof, to
run across the African continent. The conforma-
tion of the mountains, in general, is imperfectly
known ; few persons, if any indeed, competently ac-
quainted with mineralogy, having examined them.
From theii; magnitude, however, their mode of a-
rangement, the appearance of their summits, and the
circumstance of granite being frequently found to
constitute a part of them, there is every reason to con-
clude that they belong to the class of primitive rocks.
Rivers, S^c. — The principal rivers are, the Bahr-el-
Az-rek, Abay, Abawi, Astapus, or Blue river, as it has
been variously named, and which, for reasons it is un-
necessary to state here, was imagined by Mr Bruce to
bo the Egyptian Nile, whose origin it was the chief ob-
ject of his celebrated travels to ascertain ; the Tacuz,
or Tacazze, known to the ancients by the name of
Astaboras ; the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White river, con-
ceived to be the chief branch of the Nile ; the Ma-
leg, said by some to join the Tacazze, and by others
to augment the v/aters of the Abawi ; the Mareb,
remarkable for its depth and smoothness ; the Jem-
ma, a rapid river, equal in size to the Bahr-el-A-
biad ; and the Hawash, and Hanzo or Hanazo, two
smaller but still very considerable rivers, which run
toward the Red sea, or rather the Indian ocean,
not very far below the straits of Babelmandel.
Of the lakes may be mentioned, the Dembea, or
Tzana, of variable size according to the season of
tlie year, but at times estimated at 60 miles long,
and 30 broad ; the Zawaja, one of the sources of the
river HaWash, in the south of the kingdom ; and Haik,
which, though of smaller extent, is of sufficient mag-
nitude to merit distinction.

Climate, 3fc. — The climate of Abyssinia, it will rea-
dily be supposed, from what has been already said, is
much modified by the peculiarities of its surface. It is
cold and somewhat unkind in the highest region ; a-
gveeabje and salutary on less elevated lands ; whilst in

the low plains and confined vallies, much incon-
venience, and no small injury, are often experienced
from the prevalence of moisture or excessive heat.
The range of the thermometer is between 60° and
80°, rarely exceeding in either direction, and more
rarely towards cold. The appearance of ice and
snow, therefore, is utterly unknown in the inhabited
parts of the country ; but the popular legends make
mention of the supposed miraculous occurrence of
white rain, and a hard transparent substance on the
surface ofthewatcr,on some very particular occasions;
and this description is abundantly verified, for Euro-
pean faith at least, by tlie testimony of Mr Pearce,
who was long enough in Abj'ssinia to have an op-
portunity of witnessing the occasional existence of
both on the top of the loftiest mountains. The
seasons are not uniform, but appear to vary in their
duration and periods of approach, according to the
situation with respect to the mountains. This ac-
counts for the discordance in the relations of those
authors who have treated of the subject. Perhaps,
also, it is proper to admit, that, as in other countries,
certain disturbing causes occasionally produce vari-
ations in the commonly observed uniformity. But,
on the whole, we may conclude, that there is no
great difference between the seasons of Abyssinia,
Egypt, Barbary, and the Syrian states.

The soil, which mustbe various, cannot be reckoned
ungenerous ; for, if the industry and skill of the peo-
ple were equal to its capability, it would yield every
necessary, and many of the luxuries of life, in the
greatest abundance. Neglected, or mismanaged as it
is on their part, nature has done her's, in no illiberal
manner, singularly favouring some districts, espe-
cially those which are watered by rivers, with most
luxuriant and often renewed vegetation. Wlieat, bar-
ley, teff, and other grains, are amongst the alimen-
tary products ; and of these there are sometimes
even three harvests in the year. The first is usual-
ly about the end of November, the second in the
end of February, and not unfrcquently a third suc-
ceeds towards the end of March, iiumediately pre-
vious to one of the rainy seasons. Besides the ar-
ticles now mentioned, different districts yield cot-
ton, linen, wax, and honey, various aromatics, abun-
dance of fruits of the richest kinds, and many other
productions, the excess of which beyond the demands
of the natives answers the purpose of trade with
foreign countries.

Divisions. — Abyssinia has been variously divided at.
different periods; but its political divisions are so liable
to changes, from causes to be afterwards specified, that
even the enumeration of its several provinces, as giv-
en by Mr Bruce, who visited the country in 1769, is
unsuitable to its present condition. That which we
are about to detail is on the authority of the mor».
recent information of Mr Salt, who divides Abys-
sinia into three independent states, viz. TigrC", Am-
hara, and tlie united provinces of Shoa and Efat.

Tigr6 and Amhara are distinctly separated by
natural boundaries, viz. the high range of mountains
in Samen, which extend from Waldubha to the south
of Lasta, and the course of the river Tacazze along ,
the base of that range. The character and language
of their respective inliabitants form, besides, a strik- -

A B Y

10

A B Y

Aliyssinia. Ing caiisc of distinction, which it is exceedingly im-
Vi»~y^ probable that political circumstances should at any
time altogether subvert.

Tigre, at present the most powerful state in A-
byssinia, is bounded on the north by the Bekla,
Boja, Takue, and Shangalla tribes ; on the west and
south-west, by the mountains of Samen ; and on the
cast, south-east, and south, by the Gala, Doha, and
Danakil tribes. It comprehends about 4° in Lat.
and as much in Long., and is divided into several
provinces. The central province is Tigre proper,
from which the ilenoniination of the whole is deriv-
ed ; and it is bounded on the north by the Marat, on
the east by Agami, by Shire on the west, and the river
Warre on the south. In general it consists of ranges
of hill-forts, intersected by deep gullies and well cul-
tivated plains. Agame, to the east of Tigre proper, is
a rich and level country, considerably elevated above
thesea. Its eastern frontier, which is the high ridge of
mountains extending from SenofetoTaranta, its strong
holds on the Taltal, and its vicinity to the Salt-plain,
which is an object of so much consequence to Abys-
sinia, contribute greatly to the importance of this
province. On the south of Agame are the moun-
tainous districts of Derra, Asme, Womburta, Desa,
Muntilla, and Monos, forming part of the province
of Enderta, which comprises also the territories of
Moculla, Dirbah, Gambela, Upper and Lo-vwr Gib-
ba, Wazza, Saharti, and Giralta. Antalow, the ca-
pital of Enderta, is well situate for defence against
the attacks of the Galla, from which Abyssinia has
so often suffered of late years : it has accordingly
been chosen for the residence of the Ras or sove-
reign of the province, though Chelicut in its rtfeigh-
bourhood, which may be considered as a country
Beat, be his favourite place of abode. A long and
narrow region, running in a direction from east to
west, called Wojjerat, lies to the south of Enderta.
It is said to be covered with forests, to abound in
beasts of prey, and all kinds of game, and is much
celebrated for its white honey. The small low dis-
trict of Wofila, where the adventurous Galla have
succeededin intermixing with the native Abyssinians,
is to the south of Wojjerat. In the same direction
lies the almost inaccessible province of Lasta, not-
ed for its mountains and soldiery ; aiid to the north
lie the two provinces of Bora and Salowa, which
much resemble it in hilly aspect. Still farther to the
north is Avergale, a narrow flat country, extending
k 50 miles along the eastern side of the Tacazze. On

the western side of this river is the province of Sa-
men, whose mountains are reckoned to stretch a-
bout SO miles from north to south. Between the
most northerly part of this extensive range and
Tigre proper, is Temben, a valuable province, di-
vided into several districts, each of which has its
separate chief, or Shum, as he is called. It has been
noticed, that the houses in this province, and in Aver-
gale, resemble the ancient Egyptian temples, and are
usually built without mortar. North of Temben is
the province of Shire, forming a sharp angle with the
Tacazze, by which it is separated on its western side
from the beautiful and fertile districts of Waldubha
and Walkyt. The north-east province of Tigre is
commonly called the kingdom of the Baharnegash,

and comprises a great many districts, all of which Abyssinia,
are ruled by different chiefs. ">«i^/^»/

Amhara, the second division of the kingdom, is no
longer subject to it, having been subdued by the
Galla, between whom and the people of Tigre there
exists a state of perpetual hostility. Since their con-
quest of Amhara, the Galla have in great measure
adopted the more civilized manners, the dress, and
mode of living of the Abyssinians. The name of
Amhara is still retained, probably on account of the
language prevailing there. It comprehends the pro-
vinces of Begemder, Menna, Belessen, Foggora,
Dembea, Tcherkin, Knara, Tchelga, Maitsha, Go-
jam, and Damot. Some of these are extremely rich,
and at one time, indeed, constituted the most impor-
tant part of the kingdom. Thus, Gondar, the capi-
tal, is situate in Dembea, one of these provinces ; but
the king, who still resides there, is almost entire-
ly neglected, having but a few attendants, and keep-
ing up a mere resemblance of the ancient dignity of
his office.

Of the united provinces of Shoa and Efat, which
form the third, or southern division of Abyssinia, and
which are now entirely separated from the others by
the Galla, the former is described as a high track of
land, running north and south, and throwing off a
number of small streams ; and the latter, which is
on a lower level, is celebrated for its fine pasturage
and fertile vallies. It is said also to contain many
large towns, and an immense number of monasteries.
From all the accounts which Mr Salt received, he
was inclined to think that Ethiopian literature might
be found in a more flourishing condition here than
in any other part of Abyssinia, and that the inhabi-
tants retain more of the ancient customs and peculi-
ar manners of their forefathers than either of the
other two states.

The natural history of Abyssinia presents an in-
teresting variety of objects.

Quadrupeds. — All the common domesticated quad-
rupeds are found in abundance. The Galla oxen, or
Sanga, are remarkable for the size of their horns, some
of them amounting to four feet in length, and to up-
wards of twenty inches in circumference at the base.
Mr Bruce conjectured, that this peculiarity was the
effect of disease, and that great pains were taken to
encourage it. But in this he was entirely mistaken,
as the observations of Mr Salt have shewn. Several
specimens seen by him were in perfect health, three
of them indeed so exceedingly wild that it became
necessary to shoot them. The horns of one have
been deposited in the Museum of the College of Sur-
geons in London, and a still larger pair adorns the
collection of curiosities belonging to Lord Valentia
at Arley Hall. The animal is not of greater size than
is common to the genus ; its colour is not peculiar ;
and both male and female are provided with these
gigantic ornaments.

Wild animals are extremely numerous. This seems
to indicate, either the unimproved state of the coun-
try, or the frequency of wildernesses and thick fo-
rests. Lions are found in the sandy districts bor-
dering the Tacazze ; but as the killing of one of
them confers a certain degree of honour, it is proba-
ble they are aot in great numbers. There are *e-

A B Y

vera! species of tlie leopard tribe, some of wliich are
said to l)e very fierce, and to prove destructive to
children, and even men, occasionally carrying them
away, if found asleep or unprotected. Hyaenas exist
in vast numbers, and are exceedingly ferocioiis. The
howling of this animal is very peculiar. It consists
of three distinct deep-toned cries, succeeded by a few
minutes silence, when they are repeated.

Wolves, foxes, and jackals, as well as several spe-
cies of lynx, are common; antelopes, and wild goats
of various kinds, abound in some districts, with wild
boars, porcupines, hares, squirrels, rats, &c. Ele-
phants are met with in all the forests which border
on Abyssinia. They are hunted for their teeth, by
the Shangalla, a tribe of negroes to the north of Ti-
gre. The wild forests of Wojjerat are frequented
by a species of rhinoceros having two horns. These
constitute an article of trade in the east, where they
are used as handles for swords and daggers. The
skins are employed for shields.

The buffalo is common in some parts of Abyssinia.
That singular animal, the giraffe, or camelopard, is
occasionally seen ; but his shyness and timidity con-
fine him to the most unfrequented parts of the coun-
try. His skin is an article of barter ; and the hair
of the tail is converted into an instrument for brush-
ing away flies which are so troublesome in the hot
season. The zebra and wild ass are found in the
southern provinces. The mane of the former is
much sought after for making a sort of collar to a-
dorn the war horses of the chiefs; but its scarcity is
probably the reason why only a few of the principal
men have the privilege of wearing it. The hippopo-
tamus and crocodile are found in the large rivers.
The latter being in great numbers, and often of an
enormous size, justly excite the dread of the natives
at the thought of bathing, or even going near the
water, unless with the utmost precaution to avoid
danger from their attacks. Mr Salt had a good op-
portunity of proving the impenetrability of the hide
of the former animal to common musket balls. Sever-
al shots were fired at one of them, and appeared to
strike him, as was believed, from his angry-like noise
and suddenly plunging deep into the water. Short-
ly afterwards, however, he rose again, without seem-
ing to be hurt ; and though another charge was made
on him, there was no reason to think that he receiv-
ed any material injury.

Birds. — Abyssinia is plentifully supplied with birds,
and their variety is very considerable. Mr Bruce has
given a description of two belonging to the falcon
genus; one of these he denominatetl the Golden eagle,
by way of distinction. Dr Shaw ranks it among the
vultures, terming it the " Bearded vulture." Mr
Salt again, from its general appearance, and the
great vigour and animation which it displays, in-
clines to class it with the eagles, calling it the Afri-
can bearde'd eagle. Of one shot by him, tlie extent
betwixt the tips of the wings exceeded eight feet.
In addition to the second species named by Dr
Shaw, the Occipital eagle, and which is rare in the
country, there is a third, not before noticed, which Mr
Salt proposes to designate by the name of the " Abys-
sinian white-breasted Lanner," the whole of its breast
being of a clear white colour. It is about the size of a

20

A B Y

common falcon ; its feet and beak are of a blueish tint,
and its general colour is a deep brown, verging to
black. This bird is held in high veneration by the
natives, who will on no account suffer it to be killed.
From several superstitious notions concerning it, and
its resemblance in form to a figure he frequently met
with in the hieroglyphics in Egypt, Mr Salt con-
ceives it to be a species of the hawk, venerated by
the ancient inhabitants of that country. Immense
flocks of vultures are to be seen in Abyssinia, es-
pecially in the rear of an army, which, either by in-
stinct or experience, they appear to expect wili
supply them with provisions ; in this, generally, they
are not disappointed. By the beneficent order of
nature, these ravenous creatures feast on the re-
mains of the slaughtered cattle, and the bodies of
the slain and diseased soldiers, which would speedily,
in such a climate, render the atmosphere destruc-
tive to animal life. At other times, and in other
places, they feed on shell-fish, the wild beasts which
have fallen by the hands of the hunter, or such
smaller animals as their own strength or ferocity,
stimulated by hunger, can overcome. The ostrich
is somewhat »are. Herons are common, as well as
numerous species of water-fowl ; and the whole
country is said to abound with red-legged partridges,
quails, snipes, lapwings, &c. &c. Only one species
of parroquet has hitherto been discovered. Pigeons,
larks, and thrushes, are abundant.

We may now notice some of the less known, or, till
Mr Salt's time, non-descript birds. Bucco Saltii, a new
species so named by Lord Stanley, who has contribut-
ed notes to Mr Salt's ajipendix, in honour of that tra-
veller as its European discoverer. This bird bears
someaffinity to thedoubtful barbet of Latham, butmay
be distinguished from it. The length is about seven
inches. Its bill is of a blackish horn colour, rather
more than an inch in length from the gape to the
tip, and about three quarters of an inch thick at the
base, with two notches in the edge of the upper
mandible, and a sort of indentation in the lower,
but without any channel on the bill as in Latham's
bird. The general colour of the plumage on the
body is black ; but the whole of the face, from the
crown, round by the eyes and the ears, as far as the
breast, is bright red ; the wings are dusky ; except
the primaries, the quills are margined with yellowish
greea ; and the legs and claws are dark. 'This bird,
like the common woodpecker, clings to the branches
of trees. The Certhia Tacazze, or splendid creeper, is
one of the most beautiful birds of the kind. The
head, neck, breast, upper part of the belly, the back
and rump, the upper coverts and bend of the wing,
exhibit a metallic lustre of the greatest brilliancy,
partly green, partly purple ; whilst the wings, which
are dusky, have an edge of deep blue, and the low-
er part of the belly, the legs, and claws are black.
The tail is of a bluish-black colour, but with large
edges of a bright steel blue, and would be round in
shape, did not the two middle feathers exceed the
rest in length, nearly two inches. This bird is eight
inches and three quarters in length ; and its bill,
which is much bent, and of a black colour, is an inch
long. The Tanagra erythroryncha, or red-billed ta-
nager, is the name given by Lord Stanley to a bird,

A B Y

21

A B Y

of which Mr Salt saw vast numbers, especially
( wherever there were droves of cattle. It resembles
the African beef-eater, in size, the arrangement of
the feet, and the general colour of the plumage.
The peculiarity in the habit of this bird is his feed-
ing on the backs of cattle, whence he picks out a
species of grub, engendered there during the hot
weather, and which, without his friendly appetite,
would prove extremely distressing. Tiie Merops
furcatus, or fork-tailed bee-eater, is above nine inches
in length ; has a black bill, about an inch and a half
long ; is, in general, of a bright yellow-green colour,
but in some lights shews a golden, and, in others, a
chesnut tinge ; the chin and throat are bright yel-
low, edged with a line of bluish-green, and below
the latter there is a straight bar of ultra-marine
blue ; the under parts of the body, and the tail co-
verts, are of a bluish-green. The tail, as the name
implies, is forked, and the legs are weak, and dusky,
with a reddish tinge. A list of more than 60 rare
birds, in Mr Salt's publication, testifies the richness
and variety of this department of Abyssinian natural
history.

Insects Of the insects found in this country, those

most requiring notice are, a species of fly called tsal-
tsalvn, or tlatsalva, and the locust. The former, though
little larger than a bee, is extremely formidable.
Fortunately he is rarely encountered, and is princi-
pally confined to places where there is a black loamy
soil. The wound he inflicts is extremely difficult to
heal, and often gives rise to inflammation and gang-
rene, ending in the death of the sufterer. Mr Salt
has completely confimied the previous reports con-
cerning the destructive powers of the locust. Dur-
ing his stay in an island on the coast of the Red sea,
a flight of these insects, in a few days, destroyed
nearly half of its vegetation ; and he had convincing
evidence, that it was no unusual thing for them to
lay waste very extensive tracts of land. In addi-
tion to what Drs Russel and Shaw, and other writ-
ers, have said, as to these creatures being sometimes
eaten in different countries, this gentleman informs
us, that the wandering tribes of Yeman and Dankali
commonly use them as food, — first of all broiling
them, then separating their heads from their bodies,
and devouring the latter, in the same manner as
Europeans eat shrimps and pra^vns. This is cer-
tainly a suitable retaliation. But it is surpassed by
what they experience from bustards, lapwings, and
other birds, which contrive, in a summary way, to
swallow them without any culinary or decapitating
operation.

Fishes, Sfc. — We have no satisfactory account of the
fishes found in this country ; and, according to Mr
Bruce, there are not many serpents, as had often been
reported before his time. Of the individuals of the
latter class, we may mention the boa snake, which is
sometimes found m the low country of Abyssinia,
and a species of horned viper, called cerastes ; but
the descriptions of them, and of the mode of incan-
tation, as it is called, which has been practised on
the latter, will be noticed in our natural history of
tliose animals.

Plants. — The geographical situation of Abyssinia,
its many local advantages, and the differences of soil

and climate which it presents, secure to it the great-
est beauty, and most abundant variety of vegetation.
Indeed, nearly every plant, which requires either a
very low, or a very elevated situation, great warmth
and moisture, or a cold and arid soil, may be ex-
pected to adorn it. Fruits, flowers, and aromatics,
are produced in the greatest perfectiop ; and to these
must be added a number of plants, which ingenuity
has made subservient to the necessities and comforts
of our species, or experience has ascertained to
prove serviceable in alleviating or removing disease.
But we could not presume to enter upon a specifi-
cation of individuals ; for Mr Salt, in his list of new
and rare plants, collected during his stay here, enu-
merates more than a hundred species above what
Mr Bruce had observed.

Both Mr Bruce and Mr Salt, who seem to have
possessed a taste for natural scenery, were struck
with the general luxuriance and beauty of this coun-
try. They have, accordingly, written under the evi-
dent impulse of an excited fancy, so as to produce
no small degree of interest and pleasure in the rea-
der. Perhaps, then, we could not do greater jus-
tice to this part of our subject, or, indeed, to the ac-
count of Abyssinia in general, than by giving a view
of the most striking objects that were presented to
them. Mr Bruce's work, however, has been so long
before the world, and is so universally read, as to
render any such labour, with respect to it, unneces-
sary. A few notices, therefore, are all we shall de-
rive from it ; but of Mr Salt's more recent publica-
tion, we shall avail ourselves in an ampler manner.
The following abstract will serve also to introduce,-
and connect together, all the accounts which it
is necessary to detail respecting the manners and
customs of the people.

Bruce's Journey. — Mr Bruce left Arkeeko, a town
near Masuah, or Massowa, on the 15th of November
1769, intending to proceed to Gondar, the capital of
Abyssinia. Having changed his course from south to
west on the 17th, he arrived, on the same day, at a
range of mountains, over which he could find no other
passage than what had been produced by torrents of
water, which often, in this climate, come on with
such rapidity and force as to prove highly alarming,
if not dangerous to the traveller. Till the 20th, his
journey was either along one of these, or on the
banks of a small river, well shaded by sycamore trees,
some of which were above seven feet in diameter.
On that day, he reached the mountain of Taranta,
which presented still greater difficulties than he had
yet experienced. The ruggedness of the path, the
frequent occurrence of immense gaps or fissures,
occasioned by the excessive rains, and the obstruc-
tions produced by large fragments of rocks which
had tumbled down from their original connexions,
would have been sufficient to deter any less spirited
adventurer. The eye was often delighted, however,
in the appearance of trees, especially on the lower
and middle regions ; they were chiefly the Kolqual,
olive, and cedar, which, in any situation, would af-
ford a pleasing effect : And, on the top, a village of
shepherds, flocks of sheep, and cattle of various kinds,
some of them of a very beautiful white colour, be-
sides a plain, on which wheat had been sown, ad-

Abyssinls;

A B Y

,Abv»inia. ministered the comfortable tliouglit, that, even here,
the liberal hand of nature had distributed the marks
of her indulgence and providential care.

The western descent was equ;illy rugged and dif-
ficult ; but, on approaching the town of Dixan, the
road considerably improved. Dixan, which is the
first town in Abyssinia on the side Mr Bruce enter-
ed, is situate on the top of a hill of a conical shape,
surrounded by a deep valley, and having no other
access than by a path which winds round. 15etwecn
Dixan and Adowa, lay a fertile and tolerably well
cultivated country, producing several kinds of grain,
and a variety of trees and flowers. Adowa, once
the capital of Tigre, did not contain above SCO
houses, but it occupied a large space, as the houses
;ivere generally encircled with plantations of the
wanzey tree. It is on the declivity of a hill, and is
watered by three rivulets. The houses are of stone,
cemented with mud, the use of lime being almost
confined to Gondar. The town of Axum, in its
neighbourhood, once the capital of the empire, just-
ly merited his next attention, on account of its for-
mer grandeur, and of the ruins, which are still con-
templated with veneration. Sire, the next town he
visited, is larger than Axum, and is said to contain
about 600 houses. The intervening country has a
very fine appearance ; and a considerable part of the
road lay over the remains of a magnificent causeway.
Sire was noted for a cotton-cloth manufactory. On
leaving this place, he traversed an extensive plain,
covered with grass, and occasionally presenting a
few detached hills. He soon afterwards crossed the
river Tacazze, and then arrived at the mountains of
Samen. Of the difficulties of passing these remark-
able heights, it may be allowed that he has given a
faithful report; but, in his description of the hills
themselves, especially as to their forms, he has
made, perhaps, rather unfair demands on the credu-
lity of his reader. It required, indeed, great confi-
dence in that principle, to assert, that sonve of these
hills are like pyramids, pitched on their points, with
their bases uppermost ! Mr Salt assures us, he did
not see a single instance which corresponded with
such a description ; and most readers, it is presum-
ed, even allowing a good deal to fancy, would in-
cline to deny the existence of such anomalies with-
out the aid of his authority. Mr Bruce, with great
perseverance, and much toil, reached the top of La-
malmon mountain, on the north-west part of the
high land of Samen, of which he has given an inte-
resting account. It is surmounted by a large plain,
from which issue several springs, the sources of the
principal rivers in this portion of Abyssinia. On ap-
proaching Gondar, the country improved in cultiva-
tion. His account of this capital, and of the various
events in which his residence in Abyssinia engaged
him, will fiffbrd much entertainment to the reader.

Salt's Journey Mr Salt, in both his journies in

this counti7, set out, as Mr Bruce had done, from
Arkeeko, in the direction of Dixan.

Arkeeko is an assemblage of miserable huts, in-
habited by a sef of rogues an3 half-civilized savages,
who have contrived, whilst losing the rude virtues of
.their original state, to imbibe the worst vices of peo-
ple more advanced than themselves. It is scantily

22 A B Y

supplied with fresh water from six wells, about a.
mile and a half distant ; where it is usual for men,
women, and children, to assemble in the evening,
for the purpose of collecting and carrying it in skins,
as is conmion throughout eastern countries. Pas-
sing these v.L'Us, to which the name of Illerbehcy is
given, Mr Salt reached a rising ground called Shil-
lokeab by Mr Bruce. The road onwards to Weah,
which is a small stream or torrent, lay over a rugged
ridge of low hills, the basis of which consisted
chiefly of granite, rising above a bed of micaceous
earth ; and the face of the country was nearly co-
vered with the thorny Acacia, whose sun-burnt
leaves afforded little repose to the wearied eye. A
short distance from Weah, which is conjectured to
be about 18 miles from Arkeeko, there is a forest of
gira trees ; and a little beyond this, the mountains
conmience, along whose ravines and declivities there
is a winding road, which continues as far as Taranta.
Some encampments of the Ilazorta, a wandering
tribe, and a village or two, were passed on the way.
In both his journeys, Mr Salt found the thermome-
ter to stand above 80°, near the same situation, in
the months of February and July. The hills now
met with, are generally described as composed of
burnt brown stone, with a few layers of white spar ;
and, at one point, we are told, a rock was found,
which contained so much iron as to attect the com-
pass. Some springs and natural cisterns were occa-
sionally seen. Torrents were frequently encounter-
ed ; and both Mr Bruce and Mr Salt, it may be re-
marked, experienced a dreadful storm, nearly at the
same place. A few very pleasant spots, called Sa-
doon, Tubbo, &c., partly described by Mr Bruce,
yielded the refreshments of water, some fruits, game,
and, above all, the enjoyment of beautiful scenery.
The Hazorta, Welleihah, Bedowee, and many other
tribes, had taken up their abode at various points of
this course; some of whom were, perhaps, nearly as
much to be dreaded as any of the wild beasts which
occasionally roared around them. It was found
practicable, however, to get through both, without
any very material inconvenience ; and, at last, the
pass of Taranta was reached, which iSIr Bruce had
described in so terrifying a manner. Immense dif-
ficulties, of course, were anticipated by Mr Salt in
his first visit to this noted region ; hut his experienc-
ing how easily he could overcome them in three
hour's time, including several delays, so far moderat-
ed his apprehensions on his second journey, that he
found leisure to amuse himself with the many beauties
and rarities which presented themselves.

The view that bursts upon the traveller when he
attains the height of Taranta, is said to be one of
the most magnificent that imagination can delineate ;
" extending over the abrupt mountains of Tigr6, to
the pinnacled and remote heights of Adowa, and
singularly diversified with patches of vegetation, ex-
tensive forests of Kolqual and numberless intersect-
ing vallies." The thermometer, on the summit, va-
ried from 59° to 66° in the month of July.

A remarkable change of climate was experienced
on reaching the wild and rocky district that stretches
from the foot of the mountain towards Dixan. The
sun was hot and scorching ; vegetation had a parck-

A B Y

23

A B Y

AbTssiiiia. cd appearance ; the brooks were dry ; and the cattle
had been driven off in search of pasture. Many of
the rocky mountains, in the country round Dixan,
are planted with villages constructed much in the
same manner, only with flat-roofed houses, having
neither windows nor chimneys. The place of the
latter is badly supplied by two pots of earthen ware,
rising out of the roof. A chapel, the only public
building in Dixan, is held in great veneration by
the priests and people in general, who have a great
fondness for crosses, and a strong propensity to kiss
whatever they hold sacred. But their religion, un-
fortunately, seemed to have no efficacy in reclaiming
them from the vices of idleness, ignorance, and
dirt — a defect, too serious in its consequences to be
compensated by the foolish habit of uttering some
jargon, profanely denominated prayers, on the most
trifling occasions.

Marriages, SfC. — Here we may mention several pe-
culiarities, noticed as general with this people. Cir-
cumcision is practised. Boys marry at fourteen years
of age, and girls sometimes so early as ten. The
laborious occupations devolve, as is not unusual in
half-civilized countries, on the female sex. Poly-
gamy is allowed ; but there is always one wife to
whom the law allows a superiority in point of conse-
quence, however the affections of the liusband be
elsewhere disposed of. Marriage itself is generally
held to be a merely civil institution, the priests rarely
officiating at the ceremony. There is indeed a ho-
lier kind, at which they assist, when the parties take
the communion, and this is reckoned to be indisso-
luble— a very sufficient reason why, in a country
where licentiousness is on the increase, the common
mode of coming together, which allows of very easy
separation, is now universally preferred. It is curi-
ous, that the wife always preserves her own name.
She is entitled also, which is a still better institution,
to recover the whole of her dower, in the event of
the husband's misbehaviour occasioning her to quit
his home : but it is lost on her own infidelity being
proved — an event, perhaps, not of very easy disco-
very, as the law requires her to be caught in the
act. Another peculiarity, of no small interest, has
often been aimed at by the fair sex in other regions ;
the ladies of rank are accustomed to assume a high
degree of superiority over their husbands !

South from Dixan lies the plain of Zarai, which,
Mr Salt says, reminded him of the vale of Evesham
in Worcestershire. It was highly cultivated, and
disposed in ridges, for the convenience of irrigating
the land ; a practice not unusual in this country.
Still further south, beyond the village of Ascariah,
and a pretty steep declivity, there is another fine
plain, called Serawe, which forms a part of the west-
ern boundary of the mountains of Taranta, which
have a remarkably wild appearance from this ])Osi-
tion. Onwards is the picturesque village of Abha ;
ancl there are several other villages scattered through-
out this part of the countr)'. The church at Abha
is partly excavated out of a rock, rather difficult of
access, and apparently not so often visited as that
at Dixan. A weekly market, held in the immediate
vicinity, attracted much more notice ; man's physical
wants, here, as elsewhere, commonly obtaining most

of his regard. Not less than three hundred persons Aby»ini».
had assembled to barter their various goods, such as ^^^-y^
horses, cattle, skins, butter, iron wrought and un-
■wrouglit, &c. &c. nmch in the same manner, and
no doubt with equal avidity, as in any English vil-
lage ; and nearly as many more were met with on
the road, in straggling parties, conveying their mer-
chandize ; a pretty good test of the population and
prosperity of the place.

In his first journey from Abha to Antalow and
Chelicut, Mr Salt went by the east of the Devra ^

Danio, and Ilaraniat mountains ; and in his second,
he took the western side of this ridge. The i'ormer
route lay through a number of villages, most of
which are small and inconsiderable. The country,
in this direction, exhibited very various appearances ;
as insulated rocks, difficult mountain passes, hills of
remarkable forms, extensive flats, cultivated val-
lies, rich pasturage, many plants of great beauty,
vast herds of cattle, and flocks of sheep. On the
whole, making allowance for peculiarities in manner
and habit, a good deal of hospitality was experien-
ced ; and, in general, maize, the intoxicating be-
verage commonly drunk in Abyssinia, and which is
prepared from honey, fermented with barley, and
strengthened by a bitter root called taddo, was sup-
plied in very liberal doses. This is the liquor which
Mr Bruce calls hydromel. The other course con-
ducted Mr Salt to Logo, a large town near the river
Seremai ; the village of Legote, which bore a resem-
blance to Dixan; a remarkable pass, called Kella, a
word signifying, in the Abyssinian and Arabic lan-
guages, " a castle," and given to it on account of
the shape of the rocks in its neighbourhood ; a very
rugged mountainous dictrict, where the path was so
steep as to require the travellers to dismount from
their mules ; a very extensive plain, stretching from
the hills of Agame and Hararaat, in a westerly di-
rection towards the river Tacazze; another pass,
leading to the district of Giralta ; and the towns of
Mugga, Gibba, and MocuUa, situate in the rich
and fertile plain of Ganibela. Of the information
collected in these two tracks may be mentioned a
few particulars, illustrative of Abyssinian manners,
&c. The bad contrivance of the houses with respect
to chimneys, exposes the people so much to smoke,
that even many of the children were nearly blinded
by it, and almost every woman advanced' in years
had lost either one or both eyes. On the death of
near friends, the Abyssinians go into deep mourn-
ing, both men and women clothing themselves li-
terally in sackcloth and ashes. They shew also their
affection for the dead, by tearing the skin off their
temples ; a practice something similar to what pre-
vailed amongst certain ancient people, and is now '
found in some of the South-Sea islands, viz. cutting
and maiming the body as a token of grief. Lent is
observed by the higher classes with very particular
attention.

The unfortunate dissensions which existed during
both his visits to this country, prevented Mr Salt
from going to Gondar. But the friendly disposition
of the Bas Wallad Selasse enabled him to traverse
Tigre in any direction he chose, and contributed
materially to his opportunities of acquiring infor-

A B Y

Ahy«sini». tnation on every subject he deemed worthy of his
regard.

Eating Ratv Flesh. — One of the most extraordinary
relations contained in Mr Bruce's account of this coun-
try, and wliich, perhaps, more than any thing else ex-
posed him to censure, was that of a practice which he
attributed to the people, of cutting portions of flesh
from the bodies of living cattle, and serving them up
quite warm, and without preparation, to the table.
The barbarity of this action was thought so extreme,
that perhaps any man's veracitj' would have been ques-
tioned who should have asserted its reality. There
required nothing more, then, in addition to certain
other very debateable points, to bring on him the
charge of falsehood. Mr Salt seems to have gone
into this common accusation, during his first journey.
His observations did not prove the alleged enormity,
though they were ample enough to ascertain a very
considerable approach to it, in the common practice
of eating slices of flesh, called brinde, taken hot
and quivering from the slaughtered animal. His
own account of a feast of this sort, therefore, is
abundantly horrible and disgusting. To be sure, the
life, at least the sentient principle, was not present,
to give the exact amount of Bruce's previous state-
ment ; but a little candour niiglit have suggested the
possibility of complete coincidence, in certain situa-
tions, different from those in which he hiinself hap-
pened to be placed. Accordingly, in the narrative
of his second journey, he is actually induced to
make mention of scenes of barbarity, which, to use
his own words, " appear strongly to corroborate the
account given by Mr Bruce !" The statement is
made by Mr Pearce, one of his establishment, and
is too curious to be omitted. " Mr Pearce went out
with a party of Lasta soldiers, on one of their ma-
rauding expeditions ; and in the course of the day
they got possession of several head of cattle, with
which, towards evening, they made the best of their
way back to the camp. They had then fasted for
many hours, and still a considerable distance remain-
ed for them to travel. Under these circumstances,
a soldier attached to the party proposed " cutting
out the shulada" from one oi the cows they were
driving before them, to satisfy the cravings of their
hunger. This term Mr Pearce did not at first un-
derstand ; but he was not long left in doubt upon the
subject ; for the others having assented, they laid
hold of the animal by the horns, threw it down, and
proceeded, without further ceremony, to the opera-
tion. This consisted in cutting out two pieces of
flesh from the buttock, near the tail, which together,
Mr Pearce supposed, might weigh about a pound ;
the piece so cut out being called " shulada," and
composing, as far as I could ascertain, part of the
two " glutei maximi," or larger muscles of the thigh.
As soon as they had taken these away, they sewed
up the wounds, plastered tlieni over with cow-dung,
and drove the animal forwards, while they divided
among the party the still reeking steaks. The ani-
mal, after this barbarous operation, walked somewhat
lame, but nevertheless managed to reach the camp
without any apparent injury ; and immediately after
their arrival it was killed by the Worari, and con-
sumed for their supper !" Mr Salt immediately af-

24

A B Y

terwards remarks, that the fact of this practice being Abyssinia,
occasionally adopted was certainly placed beyond all
doubt, by the testimony of many persons, who de-
clared that they had likewise witnessed it, particu-
larly among the Lasta troops.

Feasts, Anmsements, Sfc Brinde, though a favou-
rite dish, is by no means the only one that constitutes
an Abyssinian entertainment. There is considerable
variety of fare in the houses of persons of rank. Cow-
heel, grilled mutton, curried fowl, fisli of different
kinds, with an abundance of fruit, yield sufficient en-
ticements to the indulgence of appetite. The people,
especially those of rank, when entertaining, shew a
good example in doing justice to the feast, eating and
drinking enormously ; and it seems to be considered
as essential to kindness, that they should press their
guests to do the same. Solicitation to this effect,
however, is not here as in some other countries the
only means adopted to overcome the reluctance, or
satiated feelings of their friends. On the contrary,
the host would be thought very deficient in polite-
ness and hospitality, if he did not actually put his
victuals into their mouths, much in the same man-
ner, we learn from Mr Salt, as boys feed young mag-
pies. A very modest man, therefore, in such liberal
hands, would stand no small chance of being cram-
med to death. Marriages, births, and all otiier con-
venient occurrences are taken advantage of, to ad-
minister festivity to this active and lively people.
Their rejoicing is pretty much alike on all such oc-
casions, and is always accompanied by most circum-
spect regard to the substantials of life. Their mirth,
however, which almost invariably degenerates, or im-
proves, as they no doubt think it, into intoxication,
is productive, at least amongst the higher ranks, of
very few quarrels ; and Mr Salt says, he never knew
an mstance of any one drawing his knife on such an
occasion. In their private parties, a great degree of
freedom is enjoyed, and the sexes are by no means
restrained in their very natural desire to associate.
Their conversation does not seem to be the most re-
fined, or altogether very delicate, even in presence
of the ladies, who do not scruple to liear things with
a good grace, and some apparent satisfaction, which
elsewhere would be so totally unintelligible to them,
as not to produce a single emotion. The young wo-
men, however, are said to be well educated ; and no
doubt the early marriages of the country are very
beneficial, as the husbands in general are fully dis-
posed to watch tlie preservation of their morals.
Children are treated with severity, and those who
are illegitimate do not inherit the father's property,
but are considered nearly in the light of servants.
Land descends from father to son, and if there is no
son, to the brother. All the children, however, and
the relations, have a claim to a maintenance. The
poor and the distressed are, on the whole, charitably
assisted, and slaves are well treated. Pilfering and
dishonesty are far from being rare ; and an eagerness
for presents is very universal. The people are fond
of amusement. Chess is one of their favourites.
The indulgence in comic humour is not unusual
among them. They have a sort of rude poetry, in
which they delight. Musical instruments of a sim-
ple kind are pretty common ; and some of their pfc-

A B Y

25

A B Y

tures are not destitute of ingenuity. Few of their
manufactures are important ; — those of coarse carpets
in Sauien and at (iondar, from tlie wool and hair of
sheep and goats, — of knives at Adowa, — and spears
and razors at Antalow, may be reckoned the cliief.
The implements of husbandry in use, are very rude ;
the plough, for example, is shaped out of the root
and branch of a tree, to vt'hich, sometimes, a plough-
share of iron is added. It is drawn by two oxen,
and guided by men only ; but, in all the other de-
partments of husbandry, the women have the lar-
ger share of labour. Their greatest toil, perhaps, is
that of clearing away weeds, which the luxuriance
of the soil frequently renews. Reaping is exclusively
committed to females.

In his visit to the antiquities of Axum, Mr Salt
had full opportunity to correct several errors into
which Mr Bruce had fallen, and also to ascertain
some points of interest in the history of Abyssinia.
The particulars are too numerous to be noticed here.
He was less fortunate, in being prevented, as we
have mentioned, from going to Gondar. Any ac-
count, therefore, we can give of that capital, must
be collected from the previous information of Mr
Bruce, and such reports as his repeated inquiries pro-
cured him. This, however, is perhaps little to be
lamented, as, even admitting the full effect of the
opinion which the natives entertained of it, there is
not much reason for solicitude as to either the mi-
nuteness or the grandeur of the description. The
town has neither walls nor fortification. The palace is
the principal building. But there are many churches,
for the splendour of which, the Portuguese, who
formerly had great influence here, must be allowed
to claim merit. Gondar is situated on a hill of con-
siderable height, and occupies a large space, as the
houses in general are only one story high. It is said to
contain about ten thousand families.

Government. — Of the government of Abyssinia, it is
extremely difficult, for reasons already mentioned,
to give any satisfactory account. In former days
it was undoubtedly monarchical, and of the most
absolute kind, the will of the sovereign being su-
preme, and his power irresistible, at least by any
thing established in behalf of popular feeling and in-
terest. The tlirone was hereditary in one family ;
but the individual who filled it was commonly elect-
ed by the ruling minister, who frequently nominated
an infant for the successor. The consequences, as
might easily be foreseen, were almost perpetual dis-
putes and animosities, amongst the persons of the
blood-royal. To prevent mischief from this cause,
it was usual to confine the members of the royal fa-
mily in the mountains of Wcck-ne or Way-gne, and
in other fastnesses, in a state of complete seclusion
from the business of the state, and, indeed, the com-
mon concerns of life, — a peculiarity in Abyssinian
historj', of which Dr Johnson has availed hhnself, in
his b^utiful fiction of Rasselas. This custom has
been abolished for several years, and the princes now
usually live in a kind of dependent condition on the
chiefs of the different provinces, who may be said to
have shared among theni the power and consequence
of royalty. This being the case, and Abyssinia having,
in fact, dwindled into a sort of rival and uncombined

VOL. I. PART I.

aristocracy, it is less necessary to occupy room in
any account of the national revenue, the kind and
number of state officers, or other peculiarities of con-
stitution and government, which form so essential a
part of the history of most nations.

Money, S(c. — In place of coin, or even of massive
gold and silver, the Abyssinians employ j)ieces of salt,
obtained originally from the salt plain, and cut into
different sized pieces, for the medium of trade. Cot-
ton cloths sometimes answer the same purpose. Re-
cently, it seems, foreign coins have been introduced,
which, in more favourable circumstances of the coun-
try than have long existed, would, probably, from
its much greater convenience, give rise to a nation-
al currency of the precious metals. Perhaps a small
kind of glass beads, which are commonly used in the
minor payments, is to be considered as the more im-
portant approximation to such an advantage, as in-
dicating the universal acquaintance with the opera-
tion of what may be called a representative system
of exchange. The Abyssinians have measures of ca-
pacity and weight, which,' in their various subdivi-
sions and modes of adjustment, indicate a suitable
degree of attention to the necessary trading occupa-
tions.

History. — The early history of Abyssinia is in-
volved in the greatest obscurity, and seems to pre-
sent difficulties which it is impossible to solve. To
ascertain even the origin of the ])cop!e who have so
long inhabited this country, would lead to discussions
of no ordinary compass or perplexity. Till lately,
indeed, the opinion of Ludolf, tiiat they were derived
from the Arabians, was so commonly received, that
it might be assumed, unsupported as it was, and li-
able to serious objections, without apprehending the
smallest opposition, or any unfavourable imputation.
It is not the least merit of Mr Salt, that he disputes
the evidence on which this opinion was founded, — for
it is praise-worthy to arrest the despotism of fictitious
authority ; but, in addition, he has assigned reasons
of at least a very plausible appearance, for the sup-
position that Egypt, and not Arabia, is the country
whence the Abyssinians proceeded. The only strong
objection that seems likely to prevent the general
adoption of this supposition is, what the late very
learned editor of Bruce's Travels, Mr Murray, re-
marked, as to the similarity between the Geez and
Arabian languages. But this is readily enough ex-
plained by Mr Salt, on the principle which that gen-
tleman himself maintained, viz. that the Hebrew, be-
ing the most ancient language in existence, is the com-
mon stock from which they have been derived. This
reply, it is obvious, is merely an argumentiim ad ho-
rniiiem, and may not obtain the assent of those who
deny the major proposition. Besides, as it might
easily be shewn, the consequences of this proposi-
tion, even admitting its truth, are of so general an
application, that we must discard it entirely from the
investigation, unless we mean merely to prove, what
is not disputed in this case, that the Abyssinians and
the Arabians are descended from Noah. It would
have been better, perhaps, if Mr Salt had chosen a
more special ground for the defence of his opinion,
and had been at some pains to inquire, or at least to
state, what probable events had preserved the resem-

AbyssinTa,

A B Y

Abyssinia.' blance of language, whilst the institutions, modes of
building, dress, written characters, and other pecu-
liarities of one of these people differed so materially,
as he affirms they did, from those of tlie other. Now,
in this respect, we think he might have been most
materially aided by the labours of the industrious
Bryant, who perhaps has done more towards the elu-
cidation of this point of history, though merely in-
cidental to the peculiar objects of his research, than
any previous or subsequent author. We refer the
reader to his Analysis of Ancient Mythology, esjie-
cially that part of it which treats of Cushan, or Ethi-
opia, as it has been commonly called. He will there
discover a reason lor much of the obscurity and con-
tradiction, to be found in those writers who have
treated of the origin and earl)- history of the people
to whom the term of Ethiopians has been applied, in
a circumstance not attended to by them. We mean,
that the term Ethiopia, which is not, as is usually and
absurdly imagined, a word of Greek original, alluding
to the dark or burnt-like countenances of the people,
but a term of sacred import, in fact a title of the
chief Deity, was not confined to that region in Africa
which, in modern times, has been so denominat-
ed. On the contrary, there were several countries
which bore the name, in consequence, no doubt, of
their inhabitants being fellow-worshippers of the same
God, known to them by that appellation. We shall
find, in fact, an Ethiopia in most places where the
descendants of Cush or Chus, so noted for their wan-
■ derings, had taken up their abode. Thus the sacred
Scriptures speak of three countries, to which the
name has been given ; viz. one in Arabia, on the bor-
■ders of' the desert, near the land of Midian and the
Red Sea ; the second, that which is to the south of
Egypt, on the western side of this gulf ; and a
third, which comprehended die regions of Persia,
Chusistan, and Susiana, and which was watered by
the eastern branches of the river Tigris. But these
were not the only countries so called ; for Mr Bry-
ant has adduced evidence, that, not only a region
still farther to the east than the last mentioned, but
also the Colchis of the Greeks, part of Syria and
Phoenicia, Arabia Felix, Egj-pt itself, nay, even a
district in Spain, near the straits of Gades, or Gi-
braltar, as it 'is now called, besides several other
places, had obtained this appellation, and that un-
<(uestionably, for the very same reason. The origi-
nal settlement of the family seems to have been in
the region of I'abylonia and Chaldea, from which
one large branch, preserving for a long time the
name of Cuseans, in honour of their progenitor, in
addition to that derived from their religion, extend-
ed southwards to the country afterwards known by
the name of Arabia. Another branch, for we shall
not trouble ourselves with the smaller divisions, re-
taining also both names, but not for so long a period
the latter one, and accjuiring a new title from their
principal occupation, viz. Auritae, or shepherds, went
into Egypt, and for a time settled in a place long
afterwards denominated Goshen, — a word, most pro-
bably, derived, by a mere difference of dialect, from
the term Cushan, which again is evidently very strict-
ly referable to the boasted origin of the people from
Cush, the grandson of Noah. Both Arabians and

26 A B Y

Abyssinlans, it may be remarked, glory in having Abvssiai
descended from Ham, the lather of Cush. If what '^_," -,
we have now said be correct, their mutual claim is a -^ ^^
just one, and we have no difficulty in understanding
how, in one of the most permanent characteristics of
a people, that of language, they should still offer
some traces of resemblance and of identity of proge-
iiitorship. The reasons why in many other respects
they ditier, it will be easy to assign, in few words.
The Arabiiuis were the original and the only inha-
bitants of the country whither they went on leaving
the primitive settlement, and were, therefore, noway
exposed to receive modifications of their own peculi-
arities of language, religion, or institutions. Where-
as, the other branch was immediately brought into
contact with the descendants of Mizraim, whom it
found in possession of Egypt, and whose deep-rooted
fastidiousness, and disdain of novelty, would, in all
probability, require a very decided sacrifice of the
distinguishing features of all strangers attempting an
intercourse with them. Even the subsequent con-
quest, and long dominion of Egypt, which these peo-
ple effected, could not be accomplished without very
important changes in their own economy ; and these,
it is quite easy to imagine, must have arrived at the
greatest height, when they were at last effectually
opposed by the people of Upper Egypt, and obliged
to abandon the country, after a cruel tyranny of
nearly three hundred years duration. We conceive,
then, that the people who inhabited what is properlj'
denominated Ethiopia, are the descendants of some
of those Cuseans who successfully invaded Egypt,
but who were at last driven out in various directions
a considerable time before the arrival of the sons of
Jacob in that country.

The conjectures now stated, which it would no
doubt require much room and considerable re-
search to substantiate, will afford an easy method of
reconciling some otherwise inexplicable discrepan-
cies in the history of Abyssinia, besides accounting
for several remarkable instances of similarity between
them and two other nations, those of Egypt and
Arabia, who were nevertheless very widely distinct
from each other. But we must leave tlie subject for
the curious reader's investigation.

The city of Axum, already spoken of, was the
first which these emigrants built; and this the Abys-
sinians assert, on the authority of their traditions,
to have taken place in the time of Abraham. It
was from this city, that the Romans, in after times,
gave the name of Axomites to the Abyssinians.
Alany ages elapsed from this commencement of their
power, till we are furnished with any satisfactory
information respecting their progress as a nation.
We learn, certainly enough, that they were joined
by stragglers from Egypt and other countries, — a i

circumstance which probably gave rise to the term J

Habesh, signifying ' convena,' an assemblage of dif-
ferent people ; and that they were noted for their
commerce, and its attendants, wealth and civiliza-
tion. Among the doubtful, if not the impossible, e-
vents concerning them, it is sufficient to specify the
conquest of their country by Moses the Jewish le-
gislator ; the visit of one of their sovereigns, viz. the
person called in Scripture the queen of Sheba, to So-

A B Y

^7

A B Y

Abv s!i)!a. lomon at Jerusalem, and her pregnancy by that mo-
' _, -,_' narch ; the consequent introduction of the Jewish
religion into Abyssinia ; the invasion of the country
by Shishak, king of Egypt ; and the conquest of it
by Cyrus the Great. As to these and several other
incidents, which it is unnecessary to mention, wc
shall merely remind the reader of what we have al-
reay said respecting the application of the word
Ethiopia, as affording a ready solution of seeming
paradoxes and real absurdities.

We have evidence, though few particulars, of the
conquest of Abyssinia by Ptolemy Evergctcs, one
of the successors of Alexander. It is still more
clearly establishetl, that the Romans, in the time of
Augustus, carried their victorious armies into some
of its provinces, and that Candace, the queen of Me-
roe, one of its chief cities, and probably the sove-
reign of the country, contrived to obtain very honour-
able terms from that prince, who, in all probability,
thought its complete subjugation to be unworthy of
his regard. Queens of the same name, Candace, are
sard to have reigned in Ethiopia for several genera-
tions. One of them is mentioned in the book of the
Acts of the Apostles : Yet, it is singular, that this
name is not found in any of the lists of kings of Abys-
sinia furnished by Mr Salt from the ancient chroni-
cles of this people. Perhaps there is reason to think,
that a very different nation from that of which we
are now treating is alluded to in both these cases.
In short, till about a century or two after the Chris-
tian era, the history of Abyssinia is nearly altoge-
ther unknown to us. Then, however, it begins to
assume consistency. This is owing to its commer-
cial connection with Egypt, and the introduction of
the Greek language. By the former circumstance,
both the people of this country, and the Arabians
of the opposite coast, who had long carried on a
very extensive trade with India and Africa, were
brought into notice in the Roman empire ; and by
the latter, a medium of communication was establish-
ed, which served to produce a more general atten-
tion to their transactions. But the declining affairs
of the Roman empire, the great distance of this coun-
try from the seat of power, and the still vague ac-
counts of it which prevailed, were obstacles to the
production of the natural benefits to be expected
from this advantage.

Abyssinia shared, however, in the effects of the
conversion of Rome to the Christian faith. Accident,
Wot design, introduced it into the former, in the early
part of the fourth century. It soon took root, and
pervaded every part of the government. Abyssinia
became dependant on the patriarch of Alexandria, to
whose spiritual labours it has almost always sinceprov-
ed an addition of solicitude and perplexity. Its ec-
clesiastical affairs, indeed, form tlie most interesting
portion of its modern history. Tlie reason is easily
6ta{ed. In fact, scarcely any public transaction in
which the Abyssinians were engaged for many cen-
turies, had not a reference to what they, perhaps,
J, more than almost any other people, might denoriii-

t ftate a ccflitention, not always very successful, for

|, " the faith once delivered to them." Abyssinia ac-

B ' quired consequence with its religion; and an alliance

whix;h Justinian made with it in the sixth century,

cannot be said to have demeaned that Emperor. Abyssinia.
Considerable proficiency in arts and sciences, the en- v^v-y^w'
tire possession of the Red sea, the conquest of Ara-
bia, may be allowed, in addition to their professing
at least a kindred doctrine, to redeem the Abyssi-
nians of this period from the imputations of savage-
ness and insignificance. Had these advantages been
permanent, or had the friendship of Rome been
equalled by its ability to assist in the common cause,
there is every reason to believe, that the arms of Ma-
homet would never have contributed to the agency
of his imposture ; and thus the world would have
been deprived of one of the most humiliating proofs
of the weakness and caprice of mankind, when as-
sailed by a fanaticism which has botli sensuality and
the sword to enforce it. The exception in favour of
this people, abandoned by their friends, declining in
their commerce, disheartened by their calamities, as
they were, is one of the most singular spectacles in
history. The most expectant admirer of their reso-
lution, however, must have failed in his hopes, had
not the fortunate discovery of the passage to India,
by the Cape of Good Hope, brought seasonable aid
to their exertions. The immediate consequence of
the arrival of the Portuguese in Abyssinia, which
followed this discovery, about the middle of the six-
teenth century, was a more effectual opposition to
the Mahommedan power than it had hitherto expe-
rienced in this quarter, llie victories of De Gama,
the leader of these enterprising and warlike Euro-
peans, secured, for a time, the peace of Abyssinia,
and revived in it tlie languishing spirit of improve-
ment and civilization.

The connection between Abyssinia and Portugal,
it ought to be remarked, was of an earlier date than
the important discovery of the practicability of doub-
ling the southern cape of Africa ; and in a great de-
gree, indeed, it may be said to have contributed to
the accomplishment of that event. There cannot be
a doubt, at least, that the accounts which the priests
of the former country gave, at Jerusalem and Alex-
andria, of the eastern regions with which their coun-
trymen continued to trade, were instrumental in ex-
citing the attention of tlie commercial states of Eu-
rope to the probability of renewing an intercourse
■with them, which in former times, and by another
route, had been found profitable. King John H. fol-
lowing the example of his grand uncle. Prince Henry,
the enlightened instigator and patron of those plans
of discovery in which the Portuguese were at this
time so eagerly occupied, v/as the first to take advan-
tage of these accounts, and of the medium through
which they were reported. Peter de Covilham, one
of the persons sent out by him towards the east, in
search of more particular information, having gone
from Alexandria to Cairo, Suez, and Aden, sailed
thence across the Indian ocean, and reached Calicut
on the coast of Malabar. On his return to Cairo
he was met by two Jews, whom the king, with his
usual foresight, had ordered out with fresh instruc-
tions. One of these carried home the account of the
observations he had made during his interesting ex-
pedition ; and, with the other, Covilham set out from
the island of Ornius, in the Persian gulf. Thence
he returned to Aden, and ultimately arrived in Abys-

A B Y

28

A B Y

siiiia, where he was well received by the Emperor
I Alexander, and elevated to very important state offi-
ces. To his judicious communications during the
long residence he made in this country, which com-
menced about 1490, we must ascribe the encourage-
ment the Portuguese received to prosecute their ef-
forts towards discovery ; whilst, on the other hand,
his advice, in some critical emergencies, induced the
Abyssinians to have recourse to an alliance with tliat
power, as alone capable of retrieving their affairs
from the ruin that threatened them. An embassy
to the Court of Lisbon, under Matthew, an Armeni-
an, was graciously received. A return was made in
lo'iO; and thus was effected a direct intercourse be-
tween the two countries, which promised the most
important results to both.

A just opinion of their superiority, enhanced by
gratitude for considerable benefits, secured the at-
tachment of the Abyssinians to their European allies.
Probably tliis had been consolidated by a scrupulous
regard being shewn, on the otiier part, to their an-
cient prejudices, which would certainly almost have
given way to tlie lenient influence of moderation and
a respected example It was undoubtedly impolitic
and unreasonable ailervvards to condemn and anathe-
matize the minor differences of a creed, which, when
first discovered, had been in general considered a
cause of the greatest exultation. Such, however,
was the conduct of the Portuguese. Their admira-
tion of the Abyssinian faith, which operated so es-
sentially to the interests of this country, when first
visited, was speedily converted, by an unrelenting
bigotry, into a source of the most absurd and oppres-
sive exactions. These could not be made palatable,
even by the insidious arts, or the useful favours, with
which the Jesuits, who were appointed to the labour,
sought to add new lustre to the spiritual triumphs of
Rome. When pressed by difficulties, or threatened
by calamity, the emperors would promise obedience
as an essential condition of the assistance recjuired.
But performance was a tardy follower on the relief
obtained. In a few instances, indeed, the vows which
distress extorted were kept when it was removed ;
and, on one occasion, especially, a Catholic patriarch
bad the satisfaction to receive the homage of an
Abyssinian monarch, and his abjuration of the Alex-
andrian faith.

For similar and still greater success, the really
meritorious Paes was indebted, not less to the ex-
treme prudence and consideration which he had ex-
hibited since his arrival in this country, about IGOO,
than to the inmiense superiority which the Jesuits,
whom he employed in a controversy, displayed over
their feeble opponents, the native priests. The peo-
ple, however, were far less docile, and seemed in ge-
neral to be insensible alike to the painful instructions
of experience and the policy or devotion of their
monarchsl Tumults, rebellions, and bloodshed, tes-
tified their abhorrence of the novelties attempted to be
imposed on them, and their full and invincible deter-
mination to believe and to worship as their fathers
had done. Extermination seemed the only measure
fitted to accomplish the views of the frantic and ob-
stinate Mendez, who succeeded Paes in the patri-

archate ; and to this, apparentl}', neither the dispo- A'-yssnia.
sition of his heart, nor the suggestions of his judg- ' _ -»,■*
ment, presented any obstacle. The army, however,
paused in the work of destruction ; and the infatuated
emperor, Socinios, had the misery to survive the
slaughter of his subjects and the universal resistance
of liis impious decrees. An act of tolerat ion, the re-
establishment of the ancient religion, and the resig-
nation of the crown to his son, which were the last
measures oi his reign, were the surest tests of the
madness by which it had been actuated, and of the
extreme fallibility of Popes and Jesuits in directing
the affairs of his kingdom.

Facilidas, his successor, pursued a diflFerent line of
conduct, though, in one respect, the resemblance was
obvious. The principle of intolerance, in fact, was
tlie same in both, but the objects on which it was ex-
ercised had varied. Mendez and his brethren were
ordered to leave the kingdom, but delaying their de-
parture, were either executed or sold as slaves ; and
the Roman Catholics, throughout Abyssinia, were
commanded, on pain of death, to renounce their re-
ligion. This does not seem, on the whole, to have
proved a very difficult task, and few persons availed
themselves of the opportunity of martyrdom which
it afforded. Some feeble attempts were occasionally
made by other missionaries, during this reign, to in-
troduce or revive the faith of the Romish church ;
but they were uniformly unsuccessful. Thus, then,
may be said to have ended a contest for religion that
had lasted upwards of a century ; and, to use, with
some modification, the words of the eloquent Gibbon,
" the gates of this solitary realm seemed for ever shut
against the arts, the sciences, and the fanaticism of
Europe."

The disorder brought on by these impolitic efforts
to subvert the popular faith, was not confined to the
period in which they were made. The whole machine
of government became deranged ; irregularity and
.confusion marked all its operations ; fear and distrust
pervaded all ranks of the people ; and usurpers and
aliens seized upon the throne. Factions and revo-
lutions within, and the attacks of barbarous neigh-
bours, fill up the remaining history of this unfortu-
nate kingdom, and seem naturally enough to have
proceeded from this disorganizing cause, though its
influence was long overlooked in the abundance of
newer dissentions. The arrival of missionaries from
the same church, in 1751, revived its memory. Im-
pelled by the same zeal, they commenced their la-
bours in the same manner, operating on the hopes
and fears of the emperor and his court. But all
their exertions were fruitless, and ended in equal
disappointment, from the reluctance and aversion of
the people.

Of the complete failure of this perhaps final effort
of the " Propaganda," notwithstanding its early pro-
mise on royalty at least, the reader will find a trans-
lation of an interesting document in Mr Salt's appen-
dix. Mr Bruce, who has drawn up an able summary
of Abyssinian history, does not appear to have been
acquamted with this production, though an observa-
tion in his original memoranda alludes to an event ,
corroborative of its contents. To the works of these '

A B Y 2P

entetin-ising travellers, we must necessarily refer for
information respecting the minuter particulars of
Abyssinian history.

Before concluding, however, we shall make a few
remarks on the present posture of affairs in this dis-
tracted country. The chief of Anihara, when Mr
Salt left Abyssinia, was Guxo, who originally had
tlie command over Begemdor and the eastern pro-
vinces only, but who had greitly enlarged his do-
minions by the conquest of Damot and Gojam. This
rendered his power absolute on the western side of the
Tacazze, and his recent connexions with the south-
ern Galla have served to confirm it. He is said to
be able to bring 20,000 cavalry into the field ; but
this force, which constitutes the main part of his ar-
my, is inadequate to offensive war against Tigre, al-
though quite sufficient for the defence of the con-
quests he has already made. It is probable, how-
ever, that no long time may elapse, ere the Galla, in
union with hira, shall have acquired strength enough,
not only to overrun the provinces of Shoa and Efat,
already detached from Tigre, but also, by the con-
quest of that state itself, to complete the subjuga^
tion of the kingdom. The reduced and daily weak-
ening condition of the government rendered such an
event extremely probable previously to Mr Salt's
visit ; and it is obvious from his account, that, unless
some friendly aid be given, no effectual struggle can
much longer be made to restore the ancient splen-
dour of Abyssinia, or to prevent it from passing into
the list of extinct empires. How far this is to be la-
mented we shall not conjecture; but that almost any
assistance, however small, on the part of the British
government, might prove available against its occur-
rence, seems fairly enough to be infei'red from the
effect already produced by that gentleman's visits, in
augmenting the consequence of Tigre, and giving it
a preponderance over the other states. The posses-
sion of two small field-pieces, which he was directed
to take as a present to the Ras, and which he was
fortunate to convey in safety, notwithstanding many
difficulties, will enable that chief to retard the threat-
ening fate of his country. But he would require still
greater help to secure its independence, or to esta-
blish its dignity. The principal obstacle to such as-
sistance is, the want of communication with the coast
of the Red Sea, through which alone any intercourse
with Abyssinia can be conveniently carried on. Be-
sides the intervention of the Dumhoeta, and other
tribes, Massowah andSuakem, two considerable ports,
. offering the easiest access to it, are at present pos-
sessed by the deputies of the rulers of Jidda, whose
exactions and unfriendly conduct prevent merchants
from carrying on any steady or profitable commerce
with this region. It is not to be doubted, however,
that a respectable force under the British flag, al-
ready so dreaded, would easily accomplish any pur-
pose which it might be necessary to put into execu-
tion.^ Mr Salt argues for this measure as essential to
the safety of our Indian possessions, which he thinks
threatened, though surely with very remote danger,
by the increase of power on the part of these hostile
rulers. They are said already to comniand both sides
of the gulf, by several armed ships of four and five
Imndred tons burden, besides having a fleet olt (lows,

A B Y

carrying each from six to eight guns, and manned by Abyssinia.
the desperate ruffians composing tlie population of >_, -,_
Jidda. Without going tlie length of Mr Salt's ap-
prehensions, we concur in opinion as to the advantages
of at least protecting some port on the Abyssinian
coast. The important benefits resulting to the Abys-
sinians from this measure, would undoubtedly be-
queath on them the debt of gratitude ; still, however,
a new and probably large demand for English and
Indian goods, the acquisition of a cordial ally to
watch over our interests in a quarter where danger
has been suspected, not to speak of the satisfaction
arising from generosity towards an ancient Christian
power, reduced to implore our kind offices, — might
prove amply remunerative of any expence or trouble
which we bestowed on the enterprise. It is no doubt
gratifying to think, that the arduous contest in which
we have so long been occupied, has not altogether
prevented the attention of our government to this
very interesting point. The mission of Mr Salt, with
a present from our Regent, may be allowed to form
the basis of some hope in behalf of Abyssinia. And
now, (August 1815,) that our efforts have ended so
gloriousl)' for our arms, it is reasonable surely to
think, that still greater regard will be shewn to the
superstructure. If so, the suggestions of Mr Salt,
we have no doubt, will be effectually adopted. Tlie
most complete success may be anticipated ; and we
should have another, and perhaps not the least pleasing
instance, in this most extraordinary age, of the power
and liberality of Britain in restoring the ancient or-
der of kings ! Far be it from us to applaud such ef-
forts, if our national morality were to be violated
in their display, or if even hostile powers should
have the slightest grounds to charge our interference
with selfishness or dishonesty. But the apprehension
seems unnecessary. We, at least, are convinced, that
the conduct, which, on political grounds, it would be
prudential in our government to adopt in this case,
may be defended on principles strictly recognizing
the rights and th.e real interests of every other pow-
er that might happen to be concerned in its success.
On the whole, perhaps, the reader will agree with us,
that the Abj'ssinians want neither inclination nor a-
bility to become a powerful people, and that the un-
toward political circumstances with which they have
long contended, rather than any deficiency of char-
acter or unkindness of nature, prevent them from
sharing in the benefits which free intercourse, an^
the cultivation of mutual interests confer on more
fortunate nations. Sei)arated as she now is from the
sea, shaken by interniil convulsions, and beset on
all sides by malignant rivals, Abyssinia, neverthe-
less, is able, by the warlike spirit of her people, the
intelligence of her chiefs, and the remains of an
emulation, which was formerly indeed more success-
ful, to command respect and forbearance from her
hostile neighbours. She is still of consequence,
therefore, in the scale of nations, and could scarce-
ly disparage any power that might incline to make
her greater. The experiment would at least be me-
ritorious, and would hazard little. Who knows, but
that, in after times, its results may be registered
amongst the brightest examples of British benefi-
cence and policy ?

A C 1

.^0

Acida ACACIA, is the trivial name of several plants,

II the flowers of one of which are emploj'ed by the

Academics. Chinese in painting on paper, and in communicating
a beautiful and durable yellow to cloth. The same
word denotes the extract,or inspissated juice, obtain-
ied from the Mimosa NUofica ;and a similar prepara-
tion from unripe sloes, which is sometimes employed
as a substitute, is called German acacia.

Acacia, a name which has been given to the
S^ure of a roll, or bag, in the haiids of consuls and
emperors, which is represented on ancient medals.
It is supposed by some to be a handkerchief rolled
up, v/ith which signals were made at the public
games ; or, according to others, it is a purple bag
filled with earth, which was carried bj' some of the
consuls and emperors, as an emblem or memorial of
their mortality.

ACACIUS, St. bishop of A mi da, who flourished
about the year 420, and was greatly distinguished by
his charity and humanity ; a remarkable instance of
which is recorded, iri the redemption of 7000 Persian
slaves, who were perishing with hunger, at the ex-
pcnce of the church plate, which was sold for this
beneficent purpose. When they returned in safety
"to their own country, Veranius, their king, was so
impressed with this noble act of the humane and ge-
nerous bishop, that he anxiously desired to see him.
An interview too place, and produced the happy ef-
fect of establishing a peace between the Persian
prince and Theodosius I.

ACADEMICS, the name by which the disciples
of an ancient school of philosophy are distinguished.
Socrates was the founder of this philosophy; and Plato
first established a school for teaching it, in a garden,
or grove, near Athens, which had been bequeathed
to the citizens by a person of the name of Acade-
mus, for the purpose of gymnastic exercises ; and
hence the school was called the Academy, and its dis-
ciples Academics. Three periods, characterized by
the diversity of doctrine which prevailed, mark the
progressive history of this celebrated school, and
have received the distinctive appellations of the Old,
or Ancient, the Middle, and the New Academy.

Plato, and his immediate successors, ascribed the
diiEculties v/hich oppose the discovery of truth, not
to the nature of things, but to the imperfection of
the human faculties, and therefore recommended mo-
desty and diffidence, caution and circumspection, to
those who would successfully pursue it ; and while
this method of acquiring knowledge was followed,
the school was denominated the Old or Ancient Aca-
demy. But new teachers arose ; and, disregarding
the sound maxims and cautious mode of procedure
ii)culcated by Plato, introduced subtleties and refine-
ments formerly unknown in his system. At the head
of these innovators was Arcesilaus, who assumed it
as a principle, that no difference existed between
truth and falsehood, or, at least, that it could not
be discovered. He rejected the testimony of the
senses, and the autjiority of reason. Those who
adopted this sceptical philosophy are known by the
name of the Middle Academu. When Carnegdes, a
native of Africa, was placed at the head of the Pla-
tonic school, he abandoned the more absurd and ob-
nojtious opinions of Arcesilaus, and introduced va-

A C A

rious modifications into his doctrine. He and his
followers, one of whom, Philo of Larissa, is cele-
brated by Cicero for his learning, eloquence, and
attractive manners, constituted the Nevi Academy, s
Antiochus was the last teacher of this school during
its establishment at Athens ; and after his resigna-
tion, in the 175tli Olympiad, the groves of Acade-
mus were disturbed by the horrors of war, the pro-
fessors were dispersed, and the school itself was re-
moved to Home.

ACADEMY, in modern times, is used to denote
a society of learned men established for the improve-
ment of arts and sciences ; and it is also applied to
public and private seminaries for the instruction of
youth. For an account of Academies of both de-
scriptions, as well as of associations for similar and
other purposes, under the name of Society, see In-
stitution.

ACANTHUS, or Bear's Breech, a genus of
plants belonging to the class Didynamia. The same
word is sometimes used to denote an ornament, re-
sembling the leaves of a species of acanthus, on the
capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders of
architecture-

ACAPULCO, a seaport town of Mexico, situ-
ated on a bay of the Pacific ocean. It is distin-
guished by the name of a city, although an incon-
siderable place, and containing only about 400 fa-
milies, chiefly composed of negroes, mulattos, and
Chinese. The houses are ill constructed, and gene-
rally thatched. The climate is extremely sultry;
and the air being frequently loaded with vapours, is
insalubrious. On this account the Spanish inhabi-
tants retire from the coast, excepting when business
requires their attendance during the arrival of the
shipst from the islands in the Pacific ocean. The
productions of the surrounding country are cotton,
maize, fruits, and tobacco. Cattle and sheep are also
abundant. The harbour of Acapulco is commodious
and extensive, and capable of receiving 500 ships.
It is defended by a fort, furnished with a small gar-
rison, and mounted with large cannon. The trade
of Acapulco is considerable. A ship sails annually
to Manilla, and another returns loaded with the rich
productions of the East. Tlie arrival of the Chinese
ship, or galleon, presents a new scene. Merchants
come from most parts of South America, but chiefly
from the provinces of Mexico, and form an exten-
sive encampment in the vicinity of the town, for
the conveniency of exchanging cochineal, European
toys, and nearly half a million Sterling of silver, for
precious stones, Persian carpets, silks, muslins, drugs,
spiceries, tea, and gold works. A large proportion
of the goods brought by this ship are conveyed to
Mexico on the backs of mules and horses ; from
thence they are carried to Vera Cruz, to be shipped
for Europe. Acapulco was taken and plundered in
1580, by Sir Francis Drake. N. Lat. 17° 10', W.
Long. 101° 40'.

ACAllNANIA, an ancient country on the Ionian
sea, separated by the river Achelous from TEtolia, and
from Epirus by the gulf of Ambracia. It was a free
state, governed by a prastor, with other subordinate
magistrates. The inhabitants are represented as an ef-
feminate and dissipated race, but remarkably jealous

Academy

Acairiania,

A C C

31

Aciruj

Accent.

of their liberty, as well as inflexibly faithful in ob-
serving their treaties. As the Acanianians were
strongly attached to Philip, king of Macedon, every
attempt was made by the Romans to seduce them
from their fidelity. Leucas, their capital, beingjbe-
trayed by some Italian exiles into the hands of Lu-
cius Flaminius, this event so intimidated the whole
country, that the cause of Philip was universally
abandoned, and the people remained under the pro-
tection of the Romans till the fall of Corinth, when
their country formed a constituent part of Achaia.
Their year, it is said, consisted only of six months.
The modern name of this country is la Carnia.

ACARUS, the Tick, or Mite, a genus of insects
belonging to the order Ajitera. See Entomology.

ACATALECTIC, in Prosody, denotes such ver-
ses as have all their feet or syllables complete.

AC ATHISTUS, a solemn hymn, or vigil, sung in
the Greek church, on particular occasions, in honour
of the Virgin, for having thrice delivered Constan-
tinople from the invasions of the barbarous northern
nations. The term signifies without sitting, because
the people stood while they celebrated this festival.

ACCAIA, otherwise called Laurentalia, were so-
lemn festivals celebrated by the Romans in honour of
Acca Laurentia, the nurse of Romulus, the founder
of their city.

ACCELERATION, signifies the increase of ve-
locity, or the continued accession of velocity in fall-
ing bodies, or in bodies passing along an inclined
plane, or moving round a fixed centre. See Me-
chanics.

Acceleration of the Moon, is the increase of
the moon's mean motion, compared with the di-
urnal motion of the earth. See Astronomy.

Acceleration of a Planet, is, when its real
diurnal motion exceeds the mean diurnal motion.
This inequality arises from the change in the planet's
distance from the sun, which is continually subject
to variation, the velocity of the planet being acce-
lerated in that part of its orbit which is nearest to
the sun. See Astronomy.

Acceleration of the Stars, is the difference
of time between the diurnal revolution of the sun,
and the diurnal revolution of the fixed stars, by which
they rise and set 3' 56" sooner daily. See Astro-
nomy.

ACCENDONES, or Accidones, the name of
certain persons among the Romans, whose office it was
to excite and animate the gladiators and combatants,
in their public exhibitions. The term is derived from
a word which signifies to kindle or inflame, or from
another, which signifies to approach, or come near to.
ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, were the su-
pernumerary soldiers, intended to supply the places
of those who were wounded or slain in battle. They
were chosen from the fifth class of citizens, and be-
ing considered raw troops, were placed in the rear of
tlvp army.

AccENSi, an inferior order of officers, who at-
tended the Roman magistrates, called assemblies of
the people, and summoned parties to appear be-
fore the judges.

ACCENT, in Grammar, is a particular character
or mark put over a syllable, by which tlie manage-

A C C

ment of the voice, in pronouncing it, is to be direct- Accent.
ed. The Greeks and Romans employed three cha- ||

racters for this purpose, and were the same with Accident^!,
those which are used in Britain, viz. the actde accent "^■^^^/"^^
('), by which an elevation of the voice is marked;
\.\\e grave accent ('), which denotes a depression of
the voice ; and the ciraimjiex accent ("■), which being
composed of the two former, and originally marked
thus ( " ) , denotes first an elevation and then a de-
pression of the voice.

Accent, in Music. Such parts of a bar are said
to be accented, as naturally receive the emphasis or
expression, whether of the voice or of instruments.

ACCESSION, in Law, a mode of obtaining
property in things closely connected, or depen-
dent on each other, as in the case of the propri-
etor of the soil having right to its productions, the
proprietor of cattle having right to their offspring,
and the proprietor of land on the sea-shore, or on
the banks of a river, having right to any additions to
that land by thfe deposition of soil. This is distin-
guished by the name of iiatural accession. In the
case of artificial additions to land, as in building
houses, and planting trees, such houses or trees be-
long to the proprietor of the land, and not to the
person who built or planted them. This is called
aiiificial accession.

Accession, among Physicians, is employed to
denote the paroxysm of a disease ; while politicians
apply it to the succession of a prince to the throne,
on the death of his predecessor.

ACCESSORY, or Accessary, in Common Law,
denotes a person guilty of a felonious offence, not
actually or primarily, but by participation, such as
by concealing, advising, or commanding. An acces-
sory, before the fact, is one who prevails with another
to commit felony, though not present at the perpe-
tration of the deed ; or he who receives, assists, or
comforts any person guilty of murder or felony, of '
which he has a clear and distinct knowledge. But
all concerned in rioting, mobbing, and similar of-
fences, and in the highest species of crimes, as high
treason, are regarded as principals.

Accessory Nerves, in Anatomy, two nerves
which arise from the spinal marrow of the neck; and
are distributed to the muscles of the neck and shoul-
ders. See Anatomy.

ACCIDENT, in general, denotes any casual
event. Among logicians, it is used for whatever
is not essential to a thing, as a man's money or
clothes ; for such properties in any subject as do not
essentially belong to it, as whiteness in paper ; and
all qualities indiscriminately are termed accidents, in
opposition to substance, as hardness, bitterness,
smoothness, &c.

Accident, in Grammar, denotes any property
of a word which is not essential to the definition of
it. Whatever its meaning may be, it is either pri-
mitive or derivative, simple or compound, which are
said to be its accidents. So the accidents of a noun
are gender, number, and flection, and the accident
of an adjective is comparison. See Grammar.

ACCIDENTAL Colours, are those which are
produced by the continued action of light upon the
^e. If a small square of red paper be placed upon

A C C

52

Acc^penser a Trhite ground, a border of light green, surrounding

II the red square, is perceived. If the eye be i-enioved

Accidina- from the red s<iuare, and directed to another part of

> """• the white ground, a square of light green, inclining

V"^ somewhat to blue, and of the same size with the red

square, is distinctly perceptible. This imaginary

green colour is the accidental colour of the red; and

its impression remains upon the eye, till it is eifiiced

by impressions from other objects. Buffon, who first

prosecuted this curious investigation, made similar

experiments with squares of different colours, all of

which wure placed on a white ground, excepting the

■white square, which required a black ground ; and

he found that black is the accidental colour of white;

v.hite, that of black; red, that of blue; purple, that

of green ; blue, that of yellow , and green, that of

red.

ACCIPENSER, or Sturgeon, a genus of fishes
belonging to. the order CaiiUaginei. See Ichthy-
ology.

ACCIPITER, signified, among the Romans, a
hawk, which was regarded as a bird of a bad omen,
on account of its being extremely carnivorous ; al-
though we are informed by Pliny, that in the case of
marriage it was looked upon as a bird of a favourable
omen, as it never devours the hearts of other birds,
thereby intimating, that no differences in the connu-
bial state ought to reach the heart. It was worship-
ed as a deity by the inhabitants of Tentyra, an island
in the river Nile.

ACCIPITRES, the first order of birds in the sys-
tem of Linnaeus. See Ornithology.

ACCLAMATION, a confused noise or shout, is
the manner, in which the public usually express their
approbation or applause ; but, in a more limited ac-
ceptation, it denotes a certain form of words, uttered
with great vehemence, and in a kind of musical tone.
Acclamation is distinguished from applause ; the for-
mer is an expression of approbation by the voice, the
latter by the hands. Applause was only bestowed
on those who were present, and it was confined to
men ; but acclamation was given to the absent, and
sometimes extended to women ; and it was often ac-
companied with applause.

Acclamations ibrmed a remarkable feature in thie
manners of the ancients, and they were of different
kinds, as nuptial, military, theatrical, &c. In the
nuptial ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans, ac-
clamations were exhibited on the evening of the mar-
riage, and the morning after, in the form of songs,
in which the praises of the newly-married party were
celebrated. Military acclamations were employed
by the Roman armies at the election of their com-
manders ; and in the moment of engaging the ene-
my, they shouted out, Victory ! A similar practice
obtained among the Greeks ; and, it may be added,
has prevailed both among ancient and modern na-
tions. At the conclusion of a war, the victorious
army extolled the praises of their leader ; and on the
return of the army, while they proceeded to deposit
in the capital the spoils they had taken, their accla-
mations were re-echoed by the citizens. The thea-
trical acclamations of the Romans, which, in the
earlier ages of the Commonwealth, were simple ex-
pressions of approbation an^ applause, became af-

A C C

terwards confused and disorderly shouts, and ■were
at last converted into a kind of regular concert.
This form of musical acclamation was known in the .
time of Augustus ; it was greatly improved by Nero,
who seems to have appointed a master of his band,
which consisted of 50(K) soldiers, who, on a given
signal, began to chant his praise, which was rej)cat-
ed by the spectators. Acclamations were also given
to the children of emperors, to favourites, and ma-
gistrates who presided at the i)ublic games. Similar
expressions of approbation and applause were intro-
duced into the Roman senate, and were exhibited
on account of the election and proclamations of the
emperors. Among both (ireeks and Romans, it was
not unusual to hold public assemblies, to hear the-
works of their poets and other authors recited ; and
those who were anxious for reputation had measures-
preconcerted that the acclamations should be loud
and general. The solemn assemblies of the church
were not exempted from this tumultuous manner of
expressing approbation ; but the violation of the so-
lemnity usually attached to religious duties was at
last suppressed.

It is quite unnecessary to add, what is known to
every reader, that the different kinds of acclama-
tion, excepting the last, are very prevalent in mo-
dern times — so prevalent, indeed, that they seem to
form an essential part of many of our popular as-
semblies.

ACCOLADE, a certain ceremony, anciently ob-
served in conferring knighthood ; but concerning its
precise nature, the opinions of antiquarians are not
agreed. While some sappose, that it signified the
embrace or kiss which princes gave to the new knight,
as a mark of regard, and hence the origin of the
word, which implies embracing, or taking around the
neck, — others think, that it means a blow on the
chine or back part of the neck, on the same occa-
sion. The kings of France, in the early part of the
history of that nation, conferred the gilt shoulder
belt, by kissing the knights on the left cheek. The
blow was in use among the ancient Normans. In
this manner, William the Conqueror conferred the
honour of knighthood upon his son. The blow was,
at first, given with the naked fist, for which a stroke
with the flat side of a sword was afterwards substi-
tuted.

ACCOMMODATION, is the application of one
thing or event, by analogy, to another, in which'
some real or supposed resemblance exists. This
term is chieflj' applied to the interpretation of one
part of Scripture by meansof another ; and, as might-
be expected, commentators are by no means agreed-
to what extent this principle of accommodation
ought to be carried in the explanation of sacred his-
tory. According to the views of some authors, a
prophecy of Scripture is said to be directly fulfilled,
when the event foretold actually happens ; and it is
said to be indirectly fulfilled, when an event happens
to any place or people similar to what befel another
at a former period. In this latter sense, the prophe-
cy or passage containing it referred to, is said to be
applied by way of acconmiodation. An example of
this kind is taken from the words of Isaiah, which
were spoken to the people of his own tiine> and are

A C C

$3

ACE

Aecempani. said to be fulfilled in those who lived in the time of
ment our Saviour, and are accommodated to them : " Ye
hypocrites, well did Isaias prophecy of you, saying,
This pi'ople draweth nigh unto me with their mouth,
and honoureth me with their lips, but their heart is
far from me." The same words were afterwards ad-
dressed, or accommodated by St Paul, to the Jews
of his time. It has been asserted by some, that the
rites and observances of the ceremonial law were of
Egyptian origin, and were thus accommodated by
Moses to the peculiar views and modes of thinking
among the Israelites ; and it is farther asserted, that
the primitive church applied or accommodated many
Jewish and heathen ceremonies to the system of
Christian worship.

ACCOMPANIMENT, in Mudc, denotes the in-
struments which accompany a voice in the perfor-
mance of any composition, to add to its general ef-
fect. Accompaniments are employed on the stage,
as well as in the choir, and in recitative as well as
in song. In modern times, the accompaniment is a
different part from the song. Accompaniments were
likewise employed anieng the ancients ; and, in the
theatre, it would appear that a different set of in-
struments was adapted to the chorus from that
which accompanied the recitative. It is generally
supposed, that the ancient accompaniment consisted
only in playing in octave ; although some think that
a passage in Plato implies that actual symphony, or
music in parts, was performed.

ACCOMPLICE, a person who is associated with
another in the commission of a crime. By the ge-
neral rule of law, the accomplice is subjected to the
same punishment with the principal offender ; and,
according to the law of Scotland, his evidence a-
gainst associates is not admitted, excepting in cases
of treason, secret crimes, and some others, which
are specified in the statute; but to remove every
motive to give false testimony, he receives a full
pardon before his evidence is required.

ACCUSATION, derived from a word which sig-
nifies to lie doTvn, is a posture of the body, between
sitting and lying, and it is generally applied to the pos-
ture of the Greeks and Romans at meals. It was
introduced by the Greeks, and from them was adopt-
ed by the Romans ; for, in the earlier periods of the
republic, this practice was unknown. A Roman
meal was conducted in the following manner : A low
round table was placed in the dining-room, and a-
round it two couches, called hklinium, or three, tri-
clinium, were arranged. These couches were co-
vered with a kind of bed-clothes, and furnished with
quilts and pillows, for the accommodation of the
guests. Three persons usually reclined on each
couch. They lay on their left sides, with their
heads on the pillow, or on the left arm, while the
back was supported by cushions. Tlie bead of the
second was placed near the breast of the first, sepa-
rated by a pillow ; and the third person was in the
same relative situation with the second. The mid-
dle place was regarded as the most honourable. Be-
fore the guests came to table, they put on a dining
garment, and pulled off their shoes or slippers, that
the couch might not be soiled.

ACCUSATION, a charge brought against a per-

VOL. I. PART I.

Acitates.

son supposed to be guilty of some crime, at the suit Accusative
of a private individual, or of a public prosecutor.
Among the Romans, there was no public prosecutor ;
private persons, whether aggrieved or not, or other-
wise interested, might prosecute for public crimes.
In Britain, all accusations for public crimes are
made at the suit of the crown, or of private parties
who are interested or aggrieved. According to the
English form of criminal procedure, the case of a
person charged with a crime is investigated by the
grand jury before he is put upon his trial. This
form of proceeding is only observed, in Scotland, in
cases of high treason. In all others which come
before the supreme criminal court, the Lord Advo-
cate is the public prosecutor, and in the inferior-
courts the procurator-fiscal ; and if they should
think proper to decline to bring the accused to trial,
the private party aggrieved, with the concurrence of
the public accuser, which must be granted, may in-
stitute a criminal action. See Law.

ACCUSATIVE, is the fourth case of Latin nouns,
by which the termination of motion or action, or the
connection between the agent and the object acted
upon, is expressed. Thus, Ille amat Deum, He
love9»God ; in which the action of loving proceeds
from the agent, and terminates in, or is exerted to-
wards God. See Grammar.

ACEPHALI, from a Greek word, signifying
'without a head, is the denomination of certain here-
tical sects who had no head or leader. These sects
appeared in the fifth century. Some maintained
that the body of Christ was incorruptible before the
resurrection ; others held a contrary opinion ; and,
while some asserted that there are three distinct na-
tures in the Trinity, others believed that our Saviour
was ignorant of some things. Each of these sects
was characterised by distinctive appellations. A si-
milar denomination was given to bishops • who were
exempted from the jurisdiction of their patriarch.

ACER, the maple or sycamore tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the class Polygamia.

ACERRA, in Antiquity, denotes an altar which
was constructed by the Romans in the apartment of
a person deceased ; and, on this altar, incense was
burned till the time of burial. The original intea-
tion of this custom, it is supposed, was to conceal or
destroy infectious smells ; but it seems to have been
converted into an expensive funeral ceremony ; for,
by the laws of the twelve tables, the practice is pro-
hibited. The same word corresponds with thuribii-
lum and pyxis, and denotes the small pot in which
the incense and perfumes were burnt. It corres-
ponds also with the censer of the Jews, and the in-
cense-pots of Roman Catholics.

Among the Chinese, a custom similar to that of
the Romans prevails at this day. A room is deco-
rated with mourning ; an altar is erected, on which
the image of the deceased is placed ; and all who
approach to it bow four times, and offer oblations
and perfumes.

ACETATES, in Chemistry, are salts formed of
acetic acid and alkaline, earthy, or metallic bases.
See Chemistry, Index.

ACETIC ACID, in Chemistry, a production of
vegetable fermentation, corresponding with radical

E.

A C H

Atlweans or distilled vinegar, and existing ready formed in

II some plants. See Chemistry, Index,
Achaia. ACH/EANS, a people of Greece, who inhabited
AcHAiA propria, a district or province of Pelopon-
nesus. The name is derived from Achoeus, the son
of a king of Thessaly, who was exiled from his own
kingdom, and fled to Laconia, a province of Pelo-
ponnesus. His descendants drove the lonians from
i\.chaia, and seized their kingdom, which consisted
chiefly of twelve cities, with no large revenues, and
no great extent of territory. A republican form of
government was established, wise laws were framed,
and their administration was entrusted to upright
and prudent magistrates. Firm, and united within
itself, feared and respected by its neighbours, this
small state continued to flourish and preserve its
liberty and independence till the time of Alexander
the Great, when it was distracted and weakened by
jealousies and political dissensions, and became an
easy prey to a foreign yoke, or a fit subject of op-
pression to domestic tyranny.

In the 280th year before the Christian era, when
Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the Acha;ans recovered their
independence ; the tyrants were banished, the an-
cient league was renewed ; new states were united
under it ; and the whole of Greece, excepting the
Lacedaimonian territory, included. A public coim-
cil or assembly was formed, consisting of deputies
from each state, and met twice annually for the pur-
pose of managing the affairs of the commonwealth.
The president of this assembly was the commander
of the army.

The Lacedaemonians, the rival neighbours of the
Achaeans, were the first to disturb their tranquillity.
To resist their power, they were forced to form
an aUiance with Philip, king of Macedon, by whose
aid they were successfully supported, and peace was
established. But when the Achasans declined to
promote the ambitious views of the Macedonian mo-
narch, he became their determined enemy. This
conduct led them to form an alliance with the Uo-
mans against Philip ; and when the war was finished,
they obtained possession of Corinth, and were again
permitted to resume their ancient constitution. Nine
years afterwards, the city of Lacedaemon was con-
quered, and became part of the Achijean confederacy.
The Achican state was now the most powerful of
anv in Greece, and it was greatly respected by all
surrounding nations. But it was soon after disunited
and enfeebled by internal dissensions ; and becoming
an object of jealousy to the ambitious views of the
Bonians, it was invaded by that people. In the
l-iSth year before the Christian era, Mummius, the
Roman general, defeated the Achaeans, and plun-
dered and burnt the rich city of Corinth ; soon after
which the celebrated confederacy was dissolved, and
Greece became a Roman province.

ACHAIA, a name under which early writers and
poets seem to have included the whole of Greece.
In the times of the Roman state, this name was ap-
plied to the whole territory which constituted the
Achaean league ; when that league was dissolved,
Greece was divided by the Romans into two pro-
vinces ; one including Macedonia and Thessaly, and
the Other Achaia, which comprehended all the other

»4 A C H

states of Greece. Achaia Proper is limited to a
small district of Peloponnesus, extending westward
along the bay of Corinth, and bounded b'- the Ionian
sea. The modern name is Romania Aha.

ACHEEN, AciiB, or Achen, a kingdom in the
north-west of the island of Sumatra. See Suma-
tra.

ACHILLx'EA, yarrow, milfoil or sneezewort, in
Botani/, a genus o£ plants belonging to the Syn-
genesia class.

ACHILLEID, or Achilleis, the name of a
poem, in which the author, Statins, proposed to ce-
lebrate the life and adventures of Achilles; but he
died before he proceeded farther than tlie infancy
and education of his hero.

ACHILLES, one of the most celebrated heroes
of ancient Greece, was the son of Pelcus and The-
tis, and was born at Phthia in Thessaly. Innume-
rable fables are related of this hero. To render
him invulnerable, his mother immersed him in the
river Styx ; and it was expected that no wound
could be inflicted, excepting on the heel by which
he was held ; but this supposed charm was not
effectual, for he was wounded in the arm by a
lance, in battle with the Trojans. Aciiilles was en-
trusted to the care of the centaur Chiron, to be in-
structed in horsemanship and martial exercises ; and,
to fit him to bear toil and fatigue, he was fed with
honey, and the marrow of lions and wild boars.
His mother, Thetis, endeavoured to keep him from
the siege of Troy, by disguising him in female
apparel, and concealing him at the court of Lyco-
medes. He was discovered by Ulysses, and persuad-
ed to follow the Greeks, among whom he greatly
distinguished himself by his bravery and lieroism ;
but being disgusted with Agamemnon for the loss
of Briseis, retired from the camp, and nothing could
rouse him but the spirit of resentment to revenge
the death of his friend Patroclus. In an engage-
ment with the Trojans, he slew Hector, and drag-
ged the dead body, fastened to his chariot, thrice
round the walls of Troy. While Achilles was in the
temple, treating about his marriage with Philoxena,
the daughter of Priam, he was wounded in the heel
by Paris, of which wound he died, and was buried
in the promontory of Sigaeum. After the fall of
Troy, in obedience to the dying request of Achilles,
the Greeks sacrificed Philoxena on his tomb, that
he might enjoy her company in the Elysian flelds.
When Alexander the Great visited the tomb of A-
chilles, he placed a crown upon it, in honour of the
Grecian hero, and said, " Achilles was happy in
liaving, during his life, such a friend as Patroclus,
and, after his death, a poet like Homer." The death
of Achilles happened about 1183 years before the
Christian era.-^

ACHMIM, the ancient Chemmis and Panopolis,
is a celebrated city of Upper Egypt, and is situated
on the eastern bank of the Nile. Abulfeda, a writer
in the beginning of the fourteenth century, describes
Achmim as a large town, and its immense temple as
one of the most splendid monuments of antiquity.
This temple, the ruins of which afford ample proof
of its former magnificence, is without the limits of
the present town. The stones of which it was con-

A C H

Achmini. fitructed were of enormous size. Some liavfi been
removed to be employed in the construction of a
mosque, some are heaped up in the squares of the
town, and others, whose magnitude has defied the
efforts of modern ingenuity to displace them, remain
as a memorial to distant ages of a spot which the
sublime genius of ancient architecture had rendered
sacred. Many of the stones are covered with hie-
roglypliic figures. On one stone, four concentric
circles are inscribed in a square. The innermost
circle contains the figure of the sun ; the next circle
is divided into twelve parts, on which twelve birds
are represented ; the third, divided in the same way,
exhibits the figures of twelve animals ; and on the
fourth, which has no divisions, twelve human figures
appear. M. Savary, from whom this description is
taken, supposes that these divisions and figures re-
present the twelve months of the year, and the
twelve signs of the zodiac ; and this seems probable,
from the Egyptians being the first who thus divided
the year. The angles of the square are occupied
by the four seasons, and on each side is seen a globe
with wings. The French traveller thinks it probable,
that this temple was dedicated to the sun, and that
the whole of the hieroglyphics mark his passage into
the signs of the zodiac, and his annual revolution.

Achmim is at present under the dominion of an
Arab prince ; and, though greatly circumscribed in
extent, the streets are spacious and clean, and a re-
gular police is established. Agriculture and com-
merce are prosperous, and the manufacture of cot-
ton stuffs and pottery is considerable. But the most
extraordinary object of the traveller's attention, is
what may be denominated the serpent establishment,
for the cure of diseases. More than one hundred
years ago, Scheick Haridi died at this place, and
was so much venerated for his sanctity by the Ma-
hometans, that they erected a splendid monument
to his memory, to which people flocked from all
quarters, to offer up prayers. A priest, taking ad-
vantage of their credulity, persuaded them that
Haridi's soul had entered into the body of one of
those harmless serpents, which are abundant in the
country. lie taught it to obey his voice, and to
perform wonderful tricks, and at last pretended to
cure all diseases. The serpent was confined to the
tomb of Haridi, and produced only on proper oc-
casions. The priest who had established this lucra-
tive trade, found successors who were equally dis-
posed to persevere in it, and who saw the advantage
of impressing a belief of the serpent's immortality,
of which they ventured to exhibit a public proof.
The serpent was produced, and cut in pieces, in pre-
sence of the Emir, and placed for two hours under
a vase ; and when the vase was removed, a serpent,
exactly the same in size and colour, appeared. This
miraculous event was spread abroad, greatly in-
creased the reputation of the serpent, and attracted
crowds of suppliants. When the serpent appears at
the bottom of the tomb, and approaches the sup-
pliant, it is regarded as a sign that the disease will
be removed ; but it is understood that a present has
been previously offered, and is expected to be pro-
portioned to the rank and wealth of those who so-
licit the serpent's healing influence.

55

AGO

ACHRADINA, one of the four cities or divisions Achradina
of Syracuse, is represented as the most extensive and ||

most beautiful part of that celebrated city. The pub- Acosta.
lie buildings were of the most magnificent descrip- Vi^-y^i*'
tion, among which are enumerated the forum, with
its splendid porticos ; a prytaneum of remarkable ele-
gance ; a spacious senate-house ; and a superb tem-
ple, dedicated to Jupiter Olympius.

ACHRAS, or Sapota Plum, a genus of plants
belonging to the Hexandria class.

ACHROMATIC, a Greek word, which is ex-
pressive of want of colour, is a term applied to teles-
copes which are so constructed as to remedy the
aberration of the rays of light, v/hether it arise from
the figure of the lens or speculum, or from the un-
equal refrangibility of the rays. See Optics.

ACIDS, in Chemutry, an important class of sub-
stances, which, when applied to the tongue, excite
the sensation called sour; which change the blue co-
lours of vegetables to red ; unite with water, almost
in all proportions ; and combine with alkalies, earths,
and metallic oxides, forming com])Ounds which are
denominated salts. See Chemistry.

ACIS, in ^lutholngy, the son of Faunus and the
nymph Simaethis, was a beautiful shepherd of Sicily,
and beloved by Galatea. Polyphemus, one of the
giants of ^tna, stung with jealousy and resentment,
seized him, and dashed out his brains against a rock,
after which he was changed into a river, which took
his name ; but, according to the Sicilian authors,
Acis was a king of this part of the island, and was
slain by Polyphemus, from a similar motive.

Acis, a river of Sicily, greatly celebrated by tlie
poets, which issues from a cold spring at the foot of
mount j^tna. Its waters, which were held sacred by
the Sicilian shepherds, and were famous for their
sweetness and salubrity, are now impregnated with
sulphureous vapours. The modern name of this ri-
ver is Aci or Jaci.

ACOEMETiE, the name of a religious sect which
arose in the fifth century, and is expressive of their
practice of keeping up constant worship in their
churches ; the rule of which is derived from the apos-
tolic precept, — pray luithout ceasing. To observe the
literal import of this precept, the establishment was
divided into thi'ee parties, one of which was alwa}^
occupied in religious duties, so that the church ser--
vice suffered no interruption.

ACONITUM, Aconite, wolfsbane, or monks-
hood, a genus of plants belonging to the Polyandria
class. Winter aconite is a species of the genus Hel-
leborus.

ACORUS, sweet flag, or sweet-smelling rush, a
genus of plants belonging to the Hexandria class ;
one of the species of which is sometimes employed
in medicine.

ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree ; in some
countries, during scarcity, is employed as food, while
in others, such is the diversity or caprice of taste
and fashion, it is introduced at table, and considered
a delicate part of the desert.

ACOSTA, Uriel, a learned Portuguese, the his^
tory of whose life presents a singular picture of wa-
vering principles and versatile opinions, and affords
a useful- lesson of the fatal consequences of unsteady

AGO

56

AGO

Acouj'ks. conduct. Acosta was born at Oporto, about the end of
_i- -K^' the sixteenth century. His father was descended
from a Jewish family, but had embraced the Koman
Catholic faith, in wliich also the son was educated.
He received a liberal education, made considerable
progress in science, and at last devoted himself to
the study of law. At an early age he had accus-
tomed himself to look on the dark side of things,
and at last gloomy forebodings of futurity seemed
entirely to take possession of his soul. Still, how-
ever, in the midst of religious doubts and mental per-
plexities, he continued his professional studies, and
was appointed, in his twenty-fifth year, treasurer in
a collegiate church. But the more he examined the
religious system in which he was educated, the more
he was dissatisfied with its peculiar tenets, and the
more he dreaded the eternal fate of his soul. As his
family were of Jewish extraction, it seems probable
that he was not altogether free from some remains of
the old leaven ; but, whatever influence this might
have on the change which he contemplated, he be-
gan to study Moses and the prophets ; the conse-
ijuence of which was, a determination to become a
convert to the Jewish religion. The vigilance and
zeal of those who superintend the propagation and
establishment of the Roman Catholic faith, did not
permit him to make a public avowal of such a change
in the country where he now resided. Resolved to
surmount every difficulty that opposed the accom-
plishment of his purpose, he resigned his office ; ac-
companied by his mother and brothers he removed
to Holland ; and having submitted to the requisite ce-
remonies of the Jewish law, they were all admitted
members of the synagogue of Amsterdam. Gabriel,
his former name, was exchanged for that of Uriel.
But this change in his religious belief had not the
desired effect in quieting the unsettled state of his
mind ; new scruples arose, and new doubts, which it
could not solve, presented themselves in rapid suc-
cession. He was little guided by prudence in ex-
pressing his opinion on those points on which his
mind was not satisfied ; and even had no hesitation in
using violent invectives against those who supported
the peculiar tenets which he did not approve. Sen-
tence of excommunication was pronounced against
him : and it was executed with such vigilance and
severity, that even his own brothers were prohibited

from addressing him in the streets. He published a Acoustic-
book in his own justification ; soon after which, a trea- v^••^/.^
tise on the immortality of the soul, in which Acosta
was reviled as an atheist, appeared. This produced an
answer, in whicli he attempted to confute that doc-
trine. Popular clamour was now excited against him ;
he was insulted in the streets; and he was not safe in
his house, from the violence of the multitude. The
irritated Jews applied to the civil power, and declar-
ed him the enemy of all religion. He was thrown in-
to prison, subjected to a heavy pecuniary penalty,
and all the copies of his works were seized and de-
stroyed. After this severe persecution, and fifteen
years exclusion from the Jewish church, he subscri-
bed a formal recantation of his errors, and was again
admitted into its bosom. But a few days only had
elapsed after this event, when he was charged by his
nephew with want of conformity to the laws ot the
synagogue in meats and drinks. He was again ex-
communicated. Having passed seven years more
of his life, in some measure as an outcast from socie-
ty, and being encouraged to hope for some remission
of the severity of the discipline required, he declared
his willingness to submit to the sentence of the sy-
nagogue. But he was deceived ; the most rigorous
penance was enforced ; he was subjected to the ig-
nominious punishment of receiving thirty-nine stripes;
and he was laid on his back at the door of the syna-
gogue, that everj' one might pass over him. Unre-
lenting persecution made Acosta desperate ; he re-
solved on self-destruction, which he afterwards per-
petrated ; but he previously attempted to destroy his
principal enemy, by shooting him with a pistol as he
passed his house. This attempt failed. He instantly
shut the door, and having another pistol in readiness,
shot himself. This event happened at Amsterdam,
about the year IGtS. A posthumous work of Acosta,
entitled " Exemplar humanee vitee," or a specimen of
human life, which is supposed to have been written
a short time before his death, was published by Lim-
borch, with a refutation and criticism annexed. The
strange character which Acosta exhibited, his love
of controversy, and his vacillating temper in mat- *

ters of religion, may perhaps be partly ascribed
to the intolerant spirit of the times, but chiefly, it
would appear, to a certain degree of alienation of
mind.

ACOUSTICS.

Acoustics, a term derived from the Greek word to
hear, is used to denote that science which treats of
the nature, properties, and laws of sound. It has
been divided, like the kindred science of Optics, into
Diacoustics and Catacoustics — the former, respect-
ing those sounds which come directly from the sound-
ing body to the ear ; and the latter, those which are
reflected from other bodies before they reach that
organ. The distinction, though undoubtedly just,
obviously involves a theory, and is perhaps improper,
therefore, in the commencement of an elementary
treatise, more especially when the science itself is in
a state of infancy. The correct division of any science

must necessarily follow the acquisition of a know-
ledge of the materials composing it, a proper enu-
meration of the most important facts, and a cautious
induction of general laws from them.

Sound, to use the language of Dr Johnson, is that
which is perceived by the ear. This, indeed, is
scarcely a logical definition, properly so called ; but
it sufficiently implies, though it does not express,
what is meant by the word, in the judgment of all
who have the faculty of hearing. It must be allow-
ed, too, the merit of accuracy, as well in restriction
as in comprehension. The ear perceives nothing but
sound, and is the only organ which does perceive it.

A C O

37

The first part of this assertion requires no other
proof, than an appeal to every man's experience. A
seeming objection to the latter clause, arising from
the circumstance of certain sounds being perceived
when the bodies producing them are applied to the
forehead, teeth, &c., although the ears be stopped,
will be found, on inquiry, to have no real weight. In
all of these cases, the organ of hearing is operated
on through the medium of bones, membranes, cavi-
ties, &c. ; for it is not essential to the perception of
sound, that the external ear be affected, though this
is materially conducive to its perfect discriminating
power.' The case of Mitchell, a boy born blind and
deaf, whose history has been given by Mr Dugald
Stewart, in a paper read before the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, does not suggest any thing against this
explanation. The disposition he has shewn, since in-
fancy, to ring or strike objects against his teeth, may
be accounted for on two principles, quite Consistent
with it. Either the nerves of hearing are not entirely
wanting or useless in his case, so that he acquires
some information by them, — or his teeth, by a process
little or not at all attended to by others, furnish him
with sensations, by means of which he perceives the
relative hardness, or some other properties of bodies.
This latter is probably the more correct conclusion,
■and might be amply supported by analogies drawn
from the histories of many other individuals, who
have been deficient in an organ of sense.

The ear alone, then, perceives sounds, and nothing
but sounds. These are very various, and, either by
the constitution of our nature, or the result of expe-
rience founded on it, communicate to us very diffe-
rent sensations, emotions, and information. They are
signs, in fact, by which we learn to distinguish a
multiplicity of objects, and that in so accurate a man-
ner, that, to take one example for many, we can re-
cognise a friend by his voice, without any intimation
to our other senses, amongst a vast number of per-
sons, all using the same language and speaking in
the same tone. The power of which this organ may
become possessed, in marking differences, as in the
case of the blind, who are led, of necessity, to culti-
vate it, is scarcely conceivable by those who confine
themselves to its more common attainments, and
make up the deficiency by the other senses. How
far its structure is accommodated to the pur-
poses for which it is manifestly designed, and the
manner in which it is affected by the variety in the
tones and strength of the sounds it is subjected to,
fall to be discussed elsewhere. The business of this
article is quite distinct ; and it is sufiiciently impor-
tant, not to require the interest of anatomical demon-
strations, or the disquisitions of physiology, as an in-
citement to attention. We shall remark, however,
as necessary to guard some readers against one bane
of true philosophy and just logic, the drawing gene-
ral conclusions from particular premises, that the ear
differs so considerably in different orders of animals,
that it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to say
what parts of its mechanism are essential to the faculty
of hearing in general, or to what peculiar purposes the
specific modifications of individuals are subservient.

Phenomena of Sound. — However constructed, it is
certain the ear is requisite for the perception of sound.

AGO

Let us now inquire what it is that produces sound, Acaustics.
or, to speak more cautiously, what are the occasions Sri»^^r■M«<
on which the phenomena of sound take place ? The
investigation may be conducted in the following
manner. A rumbling kind of noise attracts our at-
tention : We remember to have heard something
like it, when a cart passed over the street. We infer
this to be the case at present, and we are not mista-
ken. Another sound is heard, similar to what we
have often perceived when a certain rope was pull-
ed in an adjoining room, and that rope, we know, <
is connected with a bell, which is made to ring
on such occasions. Presently a confused noise
occurs, for which we can assign no precise rea-
son : But we refer it, by a rapid process of rea-
soning on past experience, to the fall of a heavy
body on the floor above us. The conclusion is
perfectly correct. Now follows an agreeable suc-
cession of soft and delicate sounds, which we ascribe,
with equal confidence and truth, to a musical in-
strument called a hand-organ, that is played on by
a man at a short distance from us. Immediately a
beggar boy solicits charity in a whining tone of
voice ; and, on observing him, we remark his lips to
be moving. In all of these cases, and in a vast va-
riety of others, we discover, that the bodies frorw
which the sounds appear to proceed, have been sub-
jected to some kind of motion. Hence, after mul-
tiplying our observations, and finding no exception,
we come to the conclusion, that motion is essential
to the production of sound, or, at least, that there is
a constant conjunction between sound and some sort
or degree of motion in the body whence it proceeds.
All bodies, we soon remark, do not give out sound
with equal ease. Their nature, shape, and situation,
appear to have some influence, both on the compa-
rative facility and the kind of sound. The metals,
especially, if in certain degrees of thinness, in cer-
tain shapes and magnitudes, are remarkably sono-
rous; glass, china, and stone- ware, have the same pro-
perty. Other substances, and even the same substan-
ces in different states, or placed in peculiar circum-
stances, are made to sound with much greater diffi-
culty, and the sounds which proceed from them are
of shorter duration. We have instances of this kind,
inearth, sand, most masses of stone, woollen, and ^
other cloths, &c. Even the sonorous bodies before
mentioned, when filled with these substances, or
caused to press closely and for a considerable por-
tion of their magnitude upon them, are rendered less
fit for the production of sound than they were be-
fore. A few observations, and some familiar expe-
riments soon point out some of the conditions on
which these differences depend, or with which, at
least, they are invariably united.

Having ascertained that sound is always connect-
ed with motion, it seems reasonable to enquire, what
is the sort of motion most favourable for its produc-
tion, or that is constantly associated with it. Let
us, therefore, examine the states of those bodies
which are remarkable for the freedom and duration
of their sounds, at such times as they are producing
them. We have a singular example immediately
before us, that promises a little aid in our research.
A long knife, spatula, or paper-folder, being ptes-

A C O

58

A C O

Af»ustits. Red on the table by the fingers of one hand placed
within an inch or two of the point, and in such a man-
ner that the remainder of the blade may project be-
yond the edge of the table, immediately gives out a
very peculiar and somewhat musical sound, as soon
as the handle is pushed downwards by the other
hand, and then allowed to spring up to its former
position. During the continuance of the sound, and
as often as it is produced, the fingers, by which the
blade is still pressed on the table, experience a tre-
mulous motion. We discover also, that as we either
apply more fingers to the blade or remove some of
them from it, vary the force by which we press it on
the table, diminish or increase the quantity of the
blade thus pressed, &c. we alter both tlie sounds
produced and the tremulous motions accompanying
them. This simple instrument, in short, may be so
managed, and has been so managed, as to produce
several notes, and to emulate, if not excel, most of
the music of savages. Again, if a thin but large
plate of copper or iron be struck in such a manner
as to yield a durable sound, we shall easily perceive,
by a finger gently applied to it, that it undergoes a
very similar action. This may even be discovered
by the eye, if some light substance, such as sand
or dust, be strewed over its surface. When a glass
vessel, partly filled with water, is made to sound by
a wet finger passing artfully round the brim, as in
the case of the musical glasses, we may distinctly
observe an undulating or trembling appearance of
the surface of the water, always when the sound
takes place ; and this motion, it cannot be doubted,
is communicated to it by the glass, to which alone
the moving force is originally applied. Minnows
confined in the vessel, as we have sometimes no-
ticed, appear to be sensible either of the sound or
tlie motion thus produced. The atmospherical pir
contained in sonorous bodies of a particular shape,
may be put into some corresponding motion by the
same or different means. Thus, when a large bell
is rung, or caused to sound" by a blow, a person near
enough to its mouth is quite sensible of a peculiar
agitation of the air around him ; and in some cases,
as of bells of an enormous size, the vibrations of
the atmosphere are so great as to prove very unplea-
sant. When a gong, or any such instrument, is
sounded, the hand applied to the oj^ening, even at
some distance from the edges, is sensible of a tremor
being communicated to it. In all such cases, and a
tliousand might be mentioned, it is most manifest,
that the motion with which sound is, somehow or
other, connected, is of a tremulous or vibratory na-
ture, and that it is not confined to the body from
vehich the sound seems to proceed, but is propagat-
ed to the contained fluid and ambient atmosphere.
That the nature of the body put into this sort of
motion is comparatively of little consequence as to
tile production of sound, is proved by the fact, that
every substance capable of being brought into a
state of tension or elasticity, so as to admit of vibra-
tions, is capable also of giving out sound. The na-
ture of the substance must, of course, be considered
so far, as that the proper condition for its vibrations
may be effected, as this varies in different substan-
ces ; but furtlier it is unimportant in the general phe-

nomena now considered. Metals, and other hard
substances, must be in the state of thin pieces, or
of hollow shapes, or in certain situations. Soft and
very flexible substances, on the other hand, require
to be stretched, or drawn tight. Hair, silk, catgut,
strings of various materials, metallic wires, &c. when
thus treated, become sonorous in so remarkable a
degree as to be peculiarly adapted, and to be com-
monly employed, for musical instruments. The last
class of substances we have mentioned, deserves
still greater attention, as affording an excellent il-
lustration of the conclusion we have already arrived
at, as to the connection between sound and vibra-
tion, and as giving some curious information with
regard to the modifying effect of changes in the lat-
ter, on the kinds and duration of the former. The
examination of the action and musical product of
strings, in fact, has brought Acoustics within the
range of mathematical reasoning, and raised it, in
consequence, to a place among the accurate sci-
ences. It has not proved ungrateful for the eleva-
tion ; — but, on the contrary, by suggesting some im-
provements and facilities in calculation, has afforded
another example of that mutual subserviency of in-
terests, by which the progress of the sciences has
been so rapidly accelerated in modern times.

We shall now advert to the most important facts
respecting this branch of our subject, and state,
with as much simplicity as possible, what are the
conclusions to which they lead. First, however, it
is necessary to apprise the reader, that sounds are
said to have strength and tone, and that these words
mean very different qualities. To the first we apply
the epithets, loud, soft, forcible, gentle, &c. ; the
latter we denominate high or low, sharp or flat,
acute or grave, &c. ; and by a little attention to the
application of these terms, the qualities themselves
will be better understood than by any definition we
could assign. The distinction is of some importance.
Lord Bacon seems to allude to it when he says,
" The strength of a voice or sound makes a differ-
ence in the loudness or softness, but not in the tone."
Tone, pitch, key, are often used synonymously.

Fundamental tone. — If a string that is stretched be-
tween two points, or that is suspended from a peg, hav-
ing a weight attached to the lower end, be drawn a lit-
tle out of the perpendicular line, and then let go so that
it maj' return to its former position, it will be observ-
ed to vibrate several times on both sides of that posi-
tion. During its vibration it also emits sound, va-
rying in strength from greater to less as the vibra-
tions become fainter, and at last totally ceasing to-
gether with the vibrations. If all circumstances re-
main the same, the sound thus produced has always
the same tone, though it differ much in point of
strength. This is generally denominated t\\c Jun-
damental sound or tone of the string. All strings
have not the same fundamental tone ; and, even the
same string varied, as we shall immediately specify,
is capable of giving out very different tones. Thus,
if it be made longer or shorter, thicker or smaller,
or be stretched by a greater or less weight or force,
its sound will be altered. Universally, changes in
any of these three circumstances, the length, weight,
and tension of the string, are accompanied with cor-

AGO

responding changes in the sounds produced. What
tiiose changes are, may be briefly stated. If we di-
minish the length, we heighten the tone, thiu is,
make it sliarper. The same effect is caused by re-
ducing tile weight of the string, or by increasing
the force that distends it. On tlie contrary, length-
ening the string, increasing its weight, and dimi-
nishing its tension, make the tone deeper, i. e. more
grave. Obviously, therefore, a difference in any
two of these circumstances, may be compensated
for by a variation of the third, provided we are ac-
quainted with the exact proportions in which they
are related to each other ; and hence we can cause
several strings either to give out the same notes, or
to sound very different ones. On this fact is found-
ed the construction of most of the stringed instru-
ments used in music.

Now, the only particular in which these three
modifying circumstances are found to agree, or, in
other words, the only thing common to them all, is
the power of varying the time in which a vibration
of the string takes place. This is a most important
observation, as it subjects the vibrations of musical
strings to a calculation similar to that used in the case
of pendulums, and of course gives rise to certain
rules, or formuliE, which are of great utility in the
practice of Acoustics. In alluding to these, which
it is necessary we should do, we shall study to avoid
mathematical intricacies either in substance or form,
lis our object is not to appear learned, but to be ex-
tensively useful ; for which purpose, to be readily
comprehended, is an essential condition.

The motion of any part of a string, from a point
where it has been drawn out of its original or qui-
escent position, to a corresponding point on the op-
posite side of that position, is called a single vibra-
tion ; so also is the motion from this last point to
the former one, or the return. Both together, that
is, the motion of the string from its point of inflec-
tion to its return to it, after having reached a cor-
responding point on the opposite side of the plane
of inflection, constitute what is denominated a dou-
ble vibration. Perhaps the terms semivibration and
vibration, would be more appropriate, as there does
not appear to be good reason for varying from the
language applied to the parallel case of pendulums.
We shall not, however, contend for words, and
therefore abide by the current expressions.

Harmonkal curve Now, it is found, that the times

of the vibrations of a string are always the same, what-
ever may be the distances to which it is inflected from
its quiescent or initial position. The times, in other
words, areindependentofthedistances, a stringalways
accomplishing its vibrations in equal portions of time,
whatever may be the amount of its departures on
eitlier side of its original position. The velocity,
therefore, must be different, being greater in the
larg^er distances and less in the smaller ; and this
may be made obvious to the eye, in the case of a
string continuing for some time to sound the same
tone, but becoming gradually fainter as its vibra-
tions occupy less space. The tone is dependent, as
we have said, on the time of the vibration. Whilst
the vibration, therefore, is performed in the same
time, the tone is the same ; and vice versa, if the

59

AGO

tone be the same, the vibrations are effected in the
same time. These two things are inseparably con-
nected. The distance, thurefore, or space through
which the string vibrates, like the weight of a pen-
dulum, does not form an element in any mathema-
tical expression oi' the time of the vibrations, which,
accordingly, is stated in terms of the length of the
string, its weight, its tension, and the velocity which
a body acquires in falling, for a second of time, by
the action of gravity. If we substitute letters or
numbers, therefore, in place of these terms, we may
obtain certain algebraical or arithmetical equations,
constituting the problem of the musical chord, which
agrees exactly with the results of experiments on
strings whose vibrations admit of being numbered.
The problem was first resolved, in an intricate man-
ner certainly, by our countryman, Dr Brook Tay-
lor, and afterwards more simply by the illustrious
D'Alembert. The particular curve which a string
must form in order that ail its vibrations be isochro-
nous, or performed in the same time, has been
called, from the former gentleman, who ascer-
tained it, the Taylorean curve, and sometimes, from
its properties, the Harmonicnl curve. A knowledge
of its nature unfolds all the intricacies of vibrating
strings and aerial pulsations, and is consequently
the very basis of musical science. We shall content
ourselves at present with a few deductions from the
formula above alluded to. If two strings hare the
same length and weight, their times of vibration will
be inversely as the square roots of the forces stretch-
ing them ; and the number or frequency of their vi-
brations will be directly as these square roots. If
the length and tension be the same, the number of
the vibrations will be inversely as the square roots of
the weights of equal lengths of the strings. If the
weight of equal portions and the tension be the
same, the frequency will be inversely as the lengths.
We can tell, therefore, the number of vibrations
which a string will make in a second of time ; and,
as the tones are dependent on the times, we can de-
termine them also, and compare them together, on
mathematical principles.

Comparison of Sounds. — Having ascertained so much
with respect tonmsical strings, we are obviously in pos-
ssession of a measure to which we can refer the tones of
other sonorousbodies; for the sound of anybody can be
compared with that of a string of knoAvn length, weight,
and tension. On adjusting the latter to the former,
so that the two may be in unison, we conclude, on
the genera! principles now estabUshed, that the num-
ber of vibrations performed in a given time is equal
in both cases. A well practised ear is quite compe-
tent to this adjustment in all cases ; and occasionally
some phenomena occur, of a very striking nature, to
point it out, even to those persons who cannot boast
of such an acquisition. We mean the consentaneous
vibration and corresponding tone of two or more bo-
dies in unison, if near to each other, when only one
of them is touched so as to sound. For example, we
have observed the human voice, when raised to a
certain tone, to be accompanied by the sounding of
a guitar-string that happened to be in unison with it.
A drum, when beat on, will occasion the vibration
of another drum at a distance, as may be seen by

Acou«icj.

AGO

40

Aceustic!. t^G motion of dust or sand put on it. The deep tones
of an organ not unfrequently produce vibrations in
the wooden form* used in cliurch-pews. Tiiere are
many other instances of the same sort. May not the
inclination, sometimes scarcely resistable, wliich per-
sons of a musical talent and voice feel to join in a
concert, depend, in great degree, on some involun-
tary principle of a kindred nature ?

The analogy between the vibrations of strings, and
those of other sonorous bodies!, is obviously greatest
when the latter are brought into a state of tenuity
and elasticity, so as most to correspond with the for-
mer. We have already specified wire. To this may
be added rods, rings, cylinders, and thin plates of
metal, membranes of any kind when drawn tight, in
short, all bodies which can be brought into a state
admitting vibrations, as strings do, on both sides of a
fixed axis. Other bodies, however, nay, even the
same bodies, by particular management, may be made
to vibrate in a different way ; viz. longitudinally, or
from end to end; and somebodies, perhaps, scarcely
ever vibrate in any other manner.

Here a new field of inquiry opens upon us. We
can scarcely imagine, that the same laws which we
have hitherto contemplated, will apply to circum-
stances apparently so widely different. The densi-
ties and elasticities of the bodies, not to mention the
modes in which they may happen to be fixed during
our examination, may reasonably be expected to re-
quire consideration, and, of course, to modify the
formula used to denote the vibrations. Additional
difficulties present themselves ; and this part of Acous-
tics, in consequence of the comparatively recent and
limited attention bestowed on it, is still very imper-
fectly understood. A few general observations are
all we shall hazard on the subject.

Modifications of Sound. — The circumstances affect-
ing the pitch or tone of bodies vibrating longitudinally,
independent of the mode in which they are fixed, are
conceived to be four ; viz. their length, their specific
gravity, their elasticity, and the rate at which this last
quality is varied, by compression and expansion. The
three first are principally concerned in the case of solid
bodies, though not excluded from those of fluid and
aerial bodies, to which, again, the last mentioned cir-
cumstance has almost an exclusive reference.

These modifying causes, it will readily be under-
stood, do not all equally affect the tones of bo-
dies. Generally, the tone is made acute by an in-
crease of the elasticity of the sonorous body ; and the
diminution of the length and specific gravity has the
same effect. The precise proportions are not easily
determined ; but it has been remarked, that a dimi-
nution of the length to one-half, of the specific gra-
vity to one-fourth, and augmenting the elasticity
four times, have nearly corresponding power. The
length is commonly much easier varied than either
of the other circumstances, and is more usually had
recourse to. An increase of elasticity, indeed, is
readily enough accomplished by an elevation of tem-
perature. But this is confined to narrow limits, and
cannot be used in general as a source of permanently
heightened tone, at least to a great degree. We
may see the effect of increasi.'d temperature to raise
the . tone, in the case of such instruments as the

AGO

flute, hautbois, &c. WTien long played on, or held
to the fire, they give out much sharper sounds, to >
the great vexation of violin performers, who fre-
quently break their strings in attempting, by addi-
tional tension, to preserve the unison. The tight-
ening of tambourines, drums, battle-doors, &c. by
the application of heat, on the same principles, raises
their tones.

As the different elastic fluids operated on in some
of Mr Dalton's experiments were found to ex-
pand, and to suffer contraction, with the same
increase or diminution of temperature, it is evi-
dent, that the last of the four circumstances enu'-
merated may be assumed as equal, in the case of
different bodies of this sort, at the same tempera-
tures. These bodies, therefore, may be considered as
differing in density only. The difference of tempe-
rature, however, is clearly an element in any expres-
sions used to denote the relation subsisting between
the same or different elastic fluids. Hitherto, we
may notice, the utmost obscurity pervades this part
of Acoustics, which, at best, perhaps, can only be
considered as simply curious. That many singular,
and, probably important facts, remain to be disclos-
ed, however, may be confidently believed. Expe-
rience teaches us to be cautious in setting limits to
discovery ; and accident often reveals what no wis-
dom or science on the part of man could have pos-
sibly anticipated. A very striking fact, noticed, we
believe, by Dr Higgins, may probably lead to result*
of no ordinary import. We allude to the peculiar
sound occasioned by the combustion of a small
stream of hydrogen gas, when surrounded by a glass
or porcelain tube. This, as far as we know, has
neither been satisfactorily explained, nor followed
up by suitable experiments on other elastic fluids.
The tones of bodies vibrating longitudinally, are as-
certained to be more acute than those of the same
bodies when vibrating laterally. We infer, there-
fore, that their vibrations are quicker in the former
case, and, as they are not so loud, that they occu-
py less space. But it is, perhaps, impossible to de-
termine the number of vibrations in these cases, es-
pecially in solids. Some conclusions have been as-
certained, of a very general, but still a very useful
nature. Two or three may be specified.

li" any given body be either fixed or free at both
extremities, the number of longitudinal vibrations
performed by it in a second of time, will be the same;
and consequently, on the general principle, the tone
will also be the same. If it be free at one end, and
fixed at the other, we must reduce its length one-
half, in order to make it give out the same tone.
The case of elastic fluids is similar, and hence, we
establish a very important analogy between aerial
pulsations and the longitudinal vibrations of solid
bodies. It would perplex most readers, perhaps, to
pursue tlie comparison throughout, and to apply the
modifications which the different natures of the two
classes of bodies require. Nor is it necessary to en-
ter upon it for any practical purposes. We shall
merely mention, therefore, that the column of air in
a tube or wind instrument is to be considered as the
sonorous body, and that its vibrations are occasion-
ed by the alternation of condensed and rarified par-

A C O

41

AGO

Acoustic", t'cles or layers throughout its length, whilst the
whole is moved longitudinally by the original impel-
ling cause. The fact noticed by Dr Higgins, to
which we have already alluded, may be conceived
to confirm this solution, and to be itself, in turn, ex-
plained by it.

Harmonics. — Thus far of the fundamental tone or
sound of bodies, as connected with their vibrations,
whether laterally or longitudinally. An additional
fact, curious in itself, and presenting difficulties of a
peculiar nature, leads us to the consideration of what
iiave been termed harmonics. The fundamental tone
is not the only sound given out by a musical string.
On the contrary, this expression is used to discrimi-
nate it from other sounds, with which it is often, and,
in some cases, invariabl}' associated. To these ad-
ditional sounds, from the circumstance of their con-
currence with the fundamental note in the produc-
tion of an agreeable effect on the ear, the term har-
monics has been applied. Every ear, it ought to be
remarked, cannot distinguish them. But a little at-
tention will generally enable a person to obtain this
power, particularly as to what are called the twelfth
andjseventeenth, the octave usually coalescing with
the fundamental note, so as only to be discovered by
a well practised observer, whereas the other two,
which arise later, are easily enough detected. If the
harmonic notes be very acute, they will not easily
be recognised, as the ear is not familiar witli their
range of tone ; on the other hand, where the funda-
mental note is extremely grave, it is ai)t to escape
being noticed in the liarmonics associated with it.
The reason plainly is, that the ear, thougli it may be
accommodated to a vast variety of tones, is com-
monly much more acquainted with those which are
intermediate between the very high and the very
low, and is consequently better able to compare
them together.

We can scarcely Imagine that these harmonics are
dependent on any thing else than the principle to
which, after a most unexceptionable induction, we
refer the production of the fundamental tones. Na-
ture, we may be allowed to say, is sparing in causes,
and fruitful in effects, contrary to the puny wisdom
and limited agency of man, who has to multiply his
instruments, and vary his plans, in order to accom-
plish a small variety of purposes. On tills presump-
tion, then, we might even, a priori, decide, tliat these
harmonics are regulated by the general laws of vi-
brations, which we Inve ascertained to exist in every
case of tlie original or parent sound ; that they are,
in short, modifications of the greater vibrations of
the strings. Experiment fully warrants this conclu-
sion ; and, accordingly, it may now beheld as an au-
thentic part of the science. The observations of Pro-
fessor Robison, Dr Thomas Young, and others, put
it beyond doubt, that besides the vibration of the
whole string, on which the fundamental note depends,
th*e take place several vibrations of parts of the
string, either in the same or in different planes, and
that these are the source of the fainter, but acute
sounds, which we are now considering. Still it must
be allowed, the subject has not received that eluci-
dation which its curiosity, at least, would prompt
one to desire. In concluding it, we shall briefly ob-

VOL. I. PART I.

serve, that strings are not the only sonorous bodies Acousiirs.
which are capable of producing harmonics ; for those v.^rr^i.'
bodies which vibrate longitudinally, and also wind
instruments, have been discovered to yield such
sounds. The experiments of Dr Chladni on the for-
mer, have afforded no slight confirmation of the
views above stated, as to the connection of harmo-
nics with subsidiary vibrations of the sonorous bodies.
The secondary sounds of wind instruments may be tra-
ced to similar minute vibrations of the columns of air,
from whose greater movements the fundamental
sounds derive their origin. This last remark leads
us to regard the atmospherical air as itself capable
of vibrating, and, consequently, of giving out sound ;
and we may enquire, whether other fluids, elastic or
nonelastic, may not produce similar effects? The
subject has been partly anticipated already, but de-
mands additional remarks.

The proposition, that all fluids, whether elastic or
nonelastic, may be made to vibrate and to become
instrumental in the production of sound, seems the
just inference, from most extensive observation.
We shall not specify particular examples. It is of
more consequence, perhaps, to remark, that this
proposition is, in fact, but part of a general conclu-
sion, which every reader will be prepared to admit,
on the ground of his own experience, in addition to
what has been said, viz. that all bodies, by proper ma-
nagement, are capable of giving out sound ; and that,,
in producing this effect, they suffer vibrations. Far-
ther, it is an obvious deduction from this, in con-
junction with- a well known fact, that sound requires
time to be propagated from one place to another,
that the vibrations of the sounding body are first
communicated to the adjoining portion of the am-
bient medium, thence to another portion, and so on
successively, till it reach the car of the observer.
The impression there made, it will, at once, be con-
ceived, excites the sensation of sound, and, accord-
ing to its force, and kind, and frequency, occasions that
varietj- of sensation wliich is so important in our in-
tercourse with the external world. That the same
medium between the sounding body and the ear is
requisite for the production of this sensation, ap-
pears from the fact, that the sound of a bell, placed in
the receiver of an air pump, becomes gradually more
and more fiunt as the air is withdrawn, and, at last,-
is scarcely audible ; it would, no doubt, be com-
pletely lost, if a perfect vacuum could be formed ;
and, on the admission of the air, the sound of the
bell again becomes distinct.

That water conducts sound, is easily shewn, and
must be known to most persons. Professor Ro-
bison made a decisive experiment on the sub-
ject. He immersed his head under water, at the '.
distance of 1200 feet from a bell made to ring in
the same medium. The sound of it reached him.
Divers, a few feet under water, hear what is said to
them. The sound occasioned by a stone struck for-
cibly on the bottom of a river or pond, can be per-
ceived. The gurgling of rivulets, &c. nuiy be re-
ferred to the same principle. A caim sea is known
to convey sound- to an immense distance. Thus,
whales can frequently discover tlie boats that go in
pursuit- of theaa ; and, ^ccortUngly, a breeze pro-

AGO

42

AGO

Acoa«ics. ducing a ruffled sea, is preferred by the Greenland
Var'Y^v' fishermen. Lastly, we may notice, that fishes are
provided with organs of hearing, which would be
useless if water did not convey sound ; and they
may, in fact, be easily perceived, at times, to be af-
fected by it.

Certam solid bodies, it is well known, propagate
sound with great rapidity, and that, apparently, with-
out the medium of the air or any other fluid ; and,
universally, those solids answer the purpose best,
which are most adapted to transmit impulses or vibra-
tions. Metals are peculiarly fitted for it, but not all
in the same degree ; and, to these, may be added
glass and wood, and many other substances. The
experiment, as far as we know, has not been per-
formed ; but it cannot be doubted, that if the end of
a rod were placed so as to be struck or scratched
when under an exhausted receiver, it would vibrate,
and consequently communicate sound at the other
end, out of the receiver, as readily as in the open air.
This experiment, and a similar one in the case of a
condenser, both of which, we think, might easily be
contrived, would go far, perhaps, to determine whe-
ther or not the tone or pitch of sonorous bodies con-
tinued unchanged in different degrees of density of
the inclosed fluid.

Velocity of Sound. — The velocity of sound, as may
easily be collected, from what we have already men-
tioned, is different in different media. The genius
of Newton subjected it to calculation, at least in the
most important case, that of the atmospherical air.
His reasoning was not altogether unexceptionable,
and his conclusion made the velocity less than what
experiment proved it to be. On the whole, however,
his principles have been confirmed ; and a sugges-
tion of La Place has pointed out a reason for the
difference of results, founded on a chemical princi-
ple of known and very extensive agency, viz. the
effect of the condensation of the aerial particles con-
cerned in vibration, in giving out heat, and so in-
creasing elasticity, or diminishing density. New-
ton's calculation brought out the velocity at 1057
feet per second. The experiments of Dr Halley de-
termined it to be 1142 ; those of the Florentine aca-
demicians, 1148; of the French, 1109; Bianconi,
so low as 903 ; Walker, so high, at one time, as
1526 ; and of others, very variously. The mean has
been taken at 11 30 ; and this tolerably well corres-
ponds with La Place's suggestion in favour of New-
ton's hypothesis. Whatever estimate we take, it
seems certain, that the velocity of sound through
air, is the same as that of an impulse ; and hence a
confirmation of the opinion, so often stated, that
sound and vibration are intimately connected. If
additional support were needed, we have it afforded
in the case of every substance through which we
can trace the velocity of both. This, indeed, is so
great, in' general, and more particularly in the case
of solids, that it is perhaps impossible to compare
any of them together in this respect. One thing,
however, is clearly to be ascertained, that the sound
and the impulse are transmitted, i. e. proceed with
equal or the very same velocity. On the whole,
then, it seems absolutely impossible to hesitate for a
moment, in admitting the general inference to which

all the facts we have enumerated point, and with
which every reasoning we have thought ourselves
justified in making on them concurs, that sonorous
bodies communicate their vibrations to the adjoin-
ing medium, and that these, being conveyed to the
ear, occasion the sensation of sound. But here we
pause, and abandon all attempts at explanation. How
these things are brought to pass, we cannot say.
The speculation, we conceive, is utterly fruitless,
and we are little disposed to indulge in conjecture. We
must confess our ignorance ; for we reallj' cannot tell,
why impulse produces vibration, not colour ; or what
is the reason, that vibrations, communicated to the
ear, are followed by the sensation of sound, and not
by that of taste. We have reason to be contented
with the constitution that the Creator has given us,
and its adaptation to the circumstances in which we
are placed. But we should think it presumptuous
in this, or any other case, to say to Him, " Why hast
thou made us thus ?" or, " Why is the world thus
formed?" though it be our employment to investi-
gate his works, and our happiness to discover their
perfection.

Practice of Acoustics. — The practice of Acoustics
is plainly deducible from the ascertained laws of the
vibrations of sonorous bodies, and the reflection of
sound. To the former, might properly enough be
referred Music, which may be considered as, in
fact, a part of Acoustics. Its importance, however,
and its magnitude, in conjunction with certain cir-
cumstances, dependent, apparently, on peculiar prin-
ciples in the human mind, have occasioned it, and
perhaps advantageously, to be always treated of in a
separate treatise, to which we refer. But a few re-
marks fall in with the present subject. The sounds
employed as the elementary parts of this delightful
art, are the product of different sources, in all of
which, however, vibration appears to be the proxi-
mate cause. The tension oj strings, the elasticity of
solid bodies, that property of the air by which it is
rendered susceptible of vibrations, and the conjunc-
tion of two or all of these ngents, furnish us with
all the variety of notes, which, when succeeding
each other, according to certain rules, constitute
melody, or, when associated together, and similarly
arranged, form the still more powerful and nicer
branch of the musical art, denominated harmony.
Tension may be held as the chief agent in many of
the stringed instruments ; as, the harp, guitar, vio-
lin, piano-forte, &c. Though, even in these, to a
certain degree, another agent is employed, the elas-
ticity, and perhaps the reflecting power, of what is
called the sounding board. We have other examples
of tension as a musical power in the case of the
drum and the tambourine.

Elasticity seems the only agent in the musical
tones of the bell, harmonica, gong, stacada, musical
glasses, &c. We have examples of simple wind in-
struments, in the flute, flageolet, syrinx, &c. and of
mixed ones, in the clarionet, hautbois, trumpet,
bugle, &c.

The same sonorous body, as -we have already re-
marked, may produce a variety of sounds at one
time. These are generally such as might result from
the vibrations of aliquot parts of the body, but they

AGO

45

AGO

AaoBstics. are not the same in every individual substance. In
chords and open pipes, the series of parts concerned
in this effect may be represented by the natural
numbers ; in stopped pipes, by the odd numbers on-
ly; whilst, in the case of rods and bells, it is scarcely
possible to discover any determinate proportion be-
tween the fundamental and secondary or harmonic
sounds, and, therefore, between the entire and the
partial vibrations which occasion them. It is singu-
lar, that, in the cry of the peacock, certainly far from
being a musical bird, there are two notes, one grave,
the other acute, and that the latter is the octave to
the former. The braying of the ass appears to be
an assemblage of a great many notes, concords and
discords, uttered all at once. A selection from these,
or the proper management of them in series, would
undoubtedly be very agreeable. Tlie animal, how-
ever, has not the art requisite for this effect. In tlie
feathered tribes we have many examples of great
musical power, and exquisite taste. The instrument,
in all of them, is to be sought for in the muscles of
the larynx, made elastic seemingly by an effort of the
will, and caused to vibrate by the forcible ingress and
egress of the air. These muscles, according to Mr
Jo'in Hunter's observation, appear to be the strong-
est in the best singers. The nightingale has been
particularly noticed in this respect ; and this accounts
for the great distance at whicli its notes can be heard,
not less, it is said, than half a mile, in a calm even-
ing. The science of this bird has been long cele-
brated. Mr Barrington was able to discover sixteen
different beginnings and endings, in the compass of
its song; and he remarked also, that the intermedi-
ate notes were varied in their succession with so much
judgment, as to give a most pleasing effect. The
warbling of many birds may be said to yield har-
monic sounds, which differ m different species, and
appear to be dependant on some conscious exertions
of the songster. The shake of some of them may be
remarked not to consist of the alternation of two con-
tiguous notes, as is usual in instrumental music, but
of notes separated by a wider distance, as thirds,
fifths, iS:c. This is done so rapidly at times, as to
have nearly the effect of chords. At other times,
the notes thus connected do not naturally harmo-
nize, and the effect is consequently disagreeable.
Here we speak of human auditors only, as it is pro-
bable that both the performer and his kindred are
highly gratified by the exercise.

It IS when the sounds combined together are re-
lated to each other, in a manner so that the vibra-
tions admit of a common period after some alterna-
tions, that we experience a pleasing concord. Where
the proportions between the associated sounds are
simplest, in general we have the greatest satisfac-
tion. And yet the ratio of equality in the freouen-
cy of vibrations, which constitutes unison, is not par-
ticularly agreeable. A little greater difference even
thah the proportion of two to one, or the octave, as
it is called, is requisite to high musical power.
Thirds and fifths, when conjoined with the funda-
mental tone, produce the finest harmony. But this,
when long continued, or frequently recurring, be-
comes wearisome, and hence the necessity, as com-
posers and performers well kaow, of occaaiooally

changing both the fundamental sounds, and the pro ■
portions of the associated ones. The judicious in-
troduction of discords, on the same principle, and as
giving a peculiar expression or character to a com-
position, must be allowed a high place in the excel-
lencies of the modern science.

JEolian Harp. — There is on^ instrument which so
strikingly illustrates and exemplifies what we have
now said, and which is really of so pleasing and re-
markable a nature, that we must be allowed to oc-
cupy a little room in its description. The reader
will perceive, we allude to the j5iolian harp or lyre.
This instrument has been denominated j'Eolian after
j'Eolus the god of the winds in the ancient heathen
mythology, from the circumstance of its being play-
ed on by the impulse of a stream or current of wind,
independent altogether of any voluntary performer.
It consists simply of several catgut or wire strings
stretched over a sounding board, and brought into
unison by an equal but slight degree of tension. In
this state, when exposed to a gentle breeze of air,
as at a chink of a window, it yields the richest va-
rietj' of sounds, in almost every possible association
and series, according to the variable force by which
it is made to vibrate. Several modifications of the
structure of this instrument have been proposed and
carried into effect, but, in all of them, it may be re-
marked, the same principle, of having the strings in
unison, has not been retained. Now, as it has been
distinctly proved, that a single string can yield every
change of harmony, according to the mode in wliicli
its various parts are affected, it is obvious that a
combination of strings, brought into unison, and
caused to vibrate by the ever-varying influence of a
current of air, will produce an almost infinite variety
of sounds. The strings, however, rarely vibrate
throughout their whole length, so as to yield the fun-
damental notes, but most commonly are occupied
with some of the harmonics. As any part of a string
by the peculiar manner in which the wind blows
on it, may become, as it were, a whole, and so give
out a fundamental note, which again has its own har-
monics, arising from the vibrations of its aliquot
parts, it is evident, that a source is opened, in this
very simple instrument, of almost every variety of
concord, and every wildness of discord that may be
requisite for the most enchanting eHects. Perhaps
the only thing necessary to render the /Eolian harp
one of the finest musical instruments, is the expres-
sion of design, or the production of air, as it is cal-
led. But of this, it is probable, from the mode in
which its powers are excited, it will ever remain des-
titute. The only metliod that seems likely to re-
deem it from this great deficiency, is, to subject it in
some suitable modification of structure, to the pipes
of an organ. We hint this wiiliout having any con-
siderable expectation that the due attention to all
the circumstances of the case will ever be bestowed
to render it even subsidiary to the powers of that
noble engine, far less to raise it to supreme rank
among manageable agents of music.

Ii(jiection (if Sound.- — The reflection of sound is,
apparently, obedient to the laws which regulate that
of light. In both cases, the fundamental proposi-
tion holds, that the angle of reflection is equal to

Acou«lic<.

AGO

'Acou!^tics. the angle of incidence. On this principle, then, it
A_,-^ ,_< is easy to explain some curious and well-known phe-
nomena.

Echo. — An echo is simply the repetition of sounds
occasioned by the reflection of vibrating portions of -
air. Tiie bodies producing it may be either plane
or curved ; and the circumstance of roughness and
.smoothness of surface, seems little to modify the ef-
fect. Hence, walls, rocks, the sides of hills, groves
of trees, &c. are found to answer the purpose, per-
haps, equally well. As sound moves very rapidly,
it is evident, that the reflecting surface must be at a
certain distance, in order that a portion of time may
elapse between the original sound and the reflection
of it to the ear of the observer that admits of being
appreciated. If the distance be under 50 feet, the
two sounds come so closely after each other as to
be confounded together, and, therefore, it is imagin-
ed there is no echo. A distance of about 90 feet
from the reflecting surface is sufficient for a single
echo, that is, for one that repeats a single sellable
immediately after it has been pronounced. For an
echo that may repeat a dissyllable, double tliis dis-
tance is required, &c. Compound echoes, or those
which repeat the same sound several times, are oc-
casioned by diflerent reflecting surfaces, situated at
proper distances. We have good examples of them
when cannon are fired in the neighbourhood of
woods, mountains, and the sea. Tiie sound may be
distinctly observed to recur at short intervals for se-
veral seconds. It is highly probable, that the clouds
are reflecting bodies. Tlius, the rolling of thunder
seems to be a reverberation from them, aided by some
of the other bodies already mentioned on the sur-
face of the earth ; and it is quite easy to understand,
how a single electrical discharge may occasion all
the noise we hear in one peal. The distance at
which this discharge takes place, it may be worth
noticing, is pretty readily ascertained, by reckoning
the time between the flash of lightning and the first
of the noise. About four and a half seconds, or,
which is nearly equivalent, five pulsations of the ar-
tery at the wrist of a person in good health, may be
allowed for the passage of sound over the space of
one mile. The same remark is, of course, applicable
to the case of discharges of fire-arms, &c.

The third or fourtli repetition of a sound is not
necessarily weaker than the preceding ones, but, on
the contrary, is sometimes louder. This has been
noticed, for example, in the echo at the lakes of
Killarney in Ireland. It is observable also, in cer-
tain situations, when thunder or a cannon is heard.
The reason is obvious. There are more reflecting
surfaces in the wider sphere, than are sufficient to
compensate, by returning pulsations, for the superio-
rity of distance gone over.

Whispering Galleries, — Sounds striking on concave
surfaces.are reflected from them, and after reflection
converge to points which are the foci of these surfa-
ces. It follows, therefore, that the ear may be so
placed in one, as that it shall hear a sound better
than when situated nearer to the point of the first im-
pulse : again, in the case of two concave surfaces
placed opposite to each other, persons in their foci
may carry on a discourse which shall be inaudible

44 AGO

to others who are intermediate. The construction
of whispering galleries is founded on this principle.
It has been usually found, that buildings of an ellip-
tical or octagonal form answer best for this purpose.
Speaking Trumpet, Sfc. — The operation of speak-
ing and hearing trumpets has been attempted to be
explained on the principle of the reflection of sound.
But there is some difficulty in the application. In
general, indeed, we may remark, too much stress
has been laid on the analogy between the reflection
of sound and of light. On the great scale, no doubt,
the resemblance is very striking ; but we shall pro-
bably err, if we conclude, that the laws of light are
perfectly appropriate to every minute portion of
sound. INlany experiments, and some very nice ob-
servations, are needed, to ascertain the peculiar dif-
ferences in the two cases, or to warrant us to ex-
plain any phenomenon of the one on the known
principles of the other. If analogy alone were to
govern us, why, we would ask, do we give the pre-
ference to light ever sound ? Ought we not to give
fair play to both, and so explain the phenomena of
the former by what we have discovered as to the
vibrations, &c. connected with the latter? The thing
is absurd. Analogy, then, may mislead us.

The speaking trumpet is intended to convey the
sound ot the voice in a particular direction, and to a
greater distance than it can reach without sucii aid.
A hollow cone, or cylinder, of almost any kind of
substance, will answer ; and seems to produce the ef-
fect, principally, by preventing the diffusion of the
aerial particles, till they have been subjected to a
greater impulse in one direction than they would
sustain if unconfined. Tlie hands, it is well known,
can be applied to the mouth so as to accomplish this
purpose to a certain degree. Sailors commonly have
recourse to this natural auxiliary.

The hearing trumpet somewhat corresponds in
form, &c. to the speaking trumpet. It has the effect
of augmenting the intensity of sound, and is there-
fore employed by persons who hear imperfectly.
The pulsations collected by it, at the larger opening,
are conceived to be directed through the tube in a
condensed form, so as to come upon the ear at the
smaller end with a more forcible impulse. A good
deal of the effect, however, ought to be ascribed to
the circumstance of the ear being secured from the
distracting influence of any lateral sounds. The
hand applied hollow over the ear, with an opening
in front, is found to assist the hearing, probably, on
both principles, but more particularly the latter.

Invisible Girl. — Wliat are called acoustic tubes,
are merely pipes, usually made of metal, employed
to convey sound to a distance. They are applicable
to a variety of purposes ; and when combined, as they
may" readily be, with reflecting surfaces, are capable
of producing very amusing effects : The singular de^
ception, called the invisible girl, which was exhibit-
ed some years ago, is of this sort, and excited no
small degree of interest in the attempts to explain
the nature and construction of the apparatus.

A short description will easily make it understood.
A large hollow metallic ball, in which are inserted
four trumpets, is suspended by ribbons or slender silk-
en cords within a frame of wood ; and between this

Acoustic!.

ACQ

45

A C R

Acoustici.

frame and the ball and trumpets, all connection
seems to be cut oft', excepting by means of the cords
or ribbons. But in two of the upper raiU of the
frame, there is a small opening directly opposite to
two of the trumpets. Tliese openings are covered
with a fringe, or concealed by any other contrivance,
^o prevent them from being observed; and they
communicate with a tube which passes through the
two horizontal rails, is continued through one of
the upright rails of the frame, and under the floor
of the apartment to an adjoining room. At the ter-
mination of this tube, the accomplice, generally a
lady, sits, and applying her ear to tlie tube, hears
what is said by any person speaking near any of the
trumpets ; and, as the reply comes in a weak and ra-
ther indistinct voice througii the tube, and is reflect-
ed from the hollow ball, it seems to proceed from
the ball itself; and in this consists the deception.
To see what is passing in the room, an opening is

made in the partition, and filled with glass, which
also is carefully concealed.

IStmnd- Boardx. — The sound-boards sometimes used
in churches, &c. in order to aid the speaker's voice,
are to be considered as operating entirely -by the re-
flection of sound which they occasion. They are
not found advantageous in theatres, as their distance
from the speakers is necessarily too gf eat to admit of
their being sufficiently operated on by the voice.
They are generally constructed of a thin broad piece
of wood. But the best shape fo^ them does not ap-
pear to have been accurately determined. The pre-
cise purpose for which they are intended, and the
nature of the building in which they are to be erect-
ed, require particular consideration. The sound post
of a violin, and some other instruments, is not only
useful as a prop between their two sides, or back and
front, but seems to have a musical effect, both as a re-
flecting surface, and as being susceptible of vibrations.

AcousifJ.

Lcquapen. AC(3tJAPENDENTE, a town in Italy, which is
deme situated on a mountain, derives it name from a
II fall of water in its vicinity, and is 57 miles north
^"'- Irom Rome.

""■'V"*' ACQUARIA, a small town in the district of Mo-
dena in Italy, is 12 miles south from the city of Mo-
Uena, and celebrated for its mineral waters.

ACRA, or AcAKA, in Geogra-jihij, formerly a se-
parate kingdom on the coast of Guinea in Africa.
Before the French revolutionary war, the English
and other powers had strong forts and factories on
this coast, with each of which was connected a se-
parate village. These villages or towns, it is said,
are all known by the name of Acra. N. Lat. 5° 40'
W. Long. 0 14'.

Acra, one of the hills of Jerusalem, supposed to
derive its name from the fortress erected upon it by
Antiochus.

AC RAG AS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Si-
cily, derives its name from its situation on a steep
rock. This place was called Agrigentum by the
Romans ; and the inhabitants are represented as hav-
ing magnificent houses, and being immersed in lux-
ury.

ACRE, the ancient Ptolemais, a sea-port town of
Syria, is situated on an extensive plain, which is
surrounded by a ridge of mountains on the north
and east ; on the south by a semicircular bay ex-
tending to mount Carmel ; and on the west by the
Mediterranean. Acre is celebrated, both in ancient
and modern history, as the scene of many splendid
warlike deeds, and, consequently, has often changed
masters. Ptolemy, from whom it derived its name,
surrendered it to his mother Cleopatra; The Sara-
cens were in possession of Acre at the beginning of
tU^ 12th century, and in the holy war they were
driven from it by the Christians. Saladin, tlif sul-
tan of Egypt, had obtained possession of it in 1 187 ;
and in 1191, it yielded to the united arms of the
Christians, after a siege of three years, and the loss
of 100,000 men. In the course of the succeeding
century. Acre acknowledged various sovereigns ; and
when the Christians were driven from Jerusalem, it

became their principal town in Syria, and consti-
tuted the general emporium of trade between the "^^
eastern and western parts of the world. But, in
consequence of the excessive licentiousness which
prevailed in the city, plunder and robbery became
common in the surrounding country. To correct
these abuses, tha sultan Kahlil proceeded against
Acre with a great army, and, after a siege of 33 dayis,
took the town by storm, when 60,000 Christians
were either massacred or reduced to slavery.

From the time of the expulsion of the Crusaders,
Acre remained in a state of desolation till it was for-
tified in 1750, by Daher, an Arabian Scheik, who
long maintained his independence against the Otto-
man government, and was at last basely put to death
by its emissaries, in the 86th year of his age. In
1799, Acre again became the scene of war. The
French advanced to it in the spring of that year;
and as the fortifications were in a ruinous state, and
mounted with a few rusty iron cannon, some of
which burst every time they were fired, the pacha,
Djezzar, was about to abandon the place, wlien Sir
Sidney Smith, with a squadron, anchored in the
road of Caifla. The I'ritish admiral encouraged the
pacha to hold out, and sent an engineer to assist him
in fortifying the town. Acre was invested by Bo-
naparte himself, but all his exertions were repulsed
by the activity and bravery of the British ; and at
the end of 61 daj's, having suffered many severe
losses, the French raised the siege. In 1759, Acre
suffered considerably from an earthquake ; and in
the succeeding year, 5000 persons fell victims to the
plague. ■

Acre is one of the chief towns on this coast ; the
houses are built of stone, with terraced roofs ; tlie
streets are very narrow ; but some of the public
edifices are distinguished by their grandeur and ele-
gance. The mosque is described as one of the finest
specimens of eastern architecture ; the splendid foun-
tain is reckoned superior to the celebrated build-
ings of a similar description in Damascus ; and the
Bazar, or covered market, is spacious and elegant.
The heavy rains of winter produce accumulations of

Acre.

A C R

46

A C R

Acre water, forming lakes in the vicinity of the town ; and
II tlie exhaiations in summer, render the air unwhole-

Acridophagi some. The soil is fertile, and, in some places, well
"^■•Y^*^ cultivated.

The harbour of Acre is commodious and well shel-
tered. The chief part of the trade consists of corn
and cotton, but it is entir^'ly monopolized by the
pacha. Acre is 24 miles S. from Tyre, and 45 N.
from Jerusalem. N. Lat. 82. 40. E. Long. 39. 23.

Acre, in its original signification, from the word
acher, Saxon, or aker, German, a field, was applied
to any open ground of no determinate extent ; but it
is now used as the universal measure of land in Bri-
tain. The English acre contains four square roods of
40 perches or poles each, and each perch of 16|
feet. The English acre includes 10 square chains,
of 22 yards each, or 4840 square yards. The Scotch
acre contains four square roods, each rood equal to
40 falls, and each fall equal to 36 square ells. The
Scots acre is also divided into 10 square chains, and
the chain is 24 ells in length, divided into 100 links.
The English acre is about three roods and six falls
of the standard measure of Scotland. The Irish
acre is equal to one acre, two roods, and about 19|
perches English.

AcRE-^ght, an ancient form of duel, fought by the
Scotch and English, with sword and lance, on the
frontiers of the kingdoms. It also obtained the
name of camp-Jtght ; and hence the appellation of
champions, because the combatants engaged in the
open field.

ACRIDOPHAGI, or Locust-eaters, as the
Greek words of which it is formed import, an an-
cient people of Ethiopia, who lived on locusts, ac-
cording to the exaggerated narrative of Diodorus
Siculus, a credulous historian, who lived about half
a century before the Christian era. The following
description of the unfortunate locust-eaters of Ethi-
opia, is given by that author : " Their complexion
was deep black ; they were of small stature, and, in
general, short lived ; but they were, at the same
time, extremely active. They had neither herds nor
flocks, but depended entirely on locusts for their
food. The close of their life was most miserable.
Winged insects of different kinds were ingendered
in their bodies, at first about the breast, and after-
wards over the whole frame ; and, while the insects
forced their way through the skin, an intolerable
itching, which terminated in the most excruciating
pains, was produced; and, at last, the miserable suf-
ferer expired, under the most severe agony, and ut-
tering the most dreadful cries." The same author
records, that this people collected immense quanti-
ties of locusts, and having abundance of salt in the
country, they preserved them for future use. The
marvellous part of this relation has undoubtedly a-
risen from the groundless belief, that the production
of insects- in the body was the necessary consequence
of feeding on locusts.

The term, locust-eaters, which has been a copious
subject of discussion, both in ancient and modern
times, ought not to be limited to any particular na-
tion or people ; for, whether from inclination or ne-
cessity, no such people could possibly exist. Those
countries wliich are subject to the caliuuitous visita-

tions of the locust, furnish also the richest crops of
grain and herbage ; so that the ordinary animal and
vegetable food, when it can be had, must be prefer-
red to that of anjj of the tribes of insects. But, if
the subsistence of any nation depended solely on the
locust, it would, indeed, be most precarious ; since,
fortunately, in regions that suffer most from the ra-
vages of that insect, intervals of several years hap-
pen, during which not one makes its appearance.
In tliis period, therefore, the locust-eaters, liaving no
other resource, must perish. But the difficulty ad-
mits of an easy solution, from the consideration, that
the accounts of all authentic travellers agree in stat-
ing, that locusts are eaten chiefly in times of scarci-
ty ; and, in some parts of Africa and Arabia, tliey
arc sometimes sold in the public markets. The lat-
est account of the use of locusts as food, is given by
Mr Campbell, the missionary traveller in Southern
Africa ; who says, that the Bosjesmen or Bushmen,
are supplied in summer with locusts, which they
dry and pound into powder, to be used as a substi-
tute for flour. The terra barlc-caters would not be
less appropriate to the poor Norwegians, who, in
times of famine, use the bark of certain trees, either
alone or mixed with a scanty portion of grain, than
that of locust-eaters to the people inhabiting those
countries which are visited by that, destructive in-
sect.

The passage of Scripture which narrates, that St
John the Baptist Jid on locusts, has been a frequent
subject of discussion among commentators. While
some have supposed, that the word, translated locust,
signifies the tops of certain trees, others think that
it refers to quails or some other birds. But the pre-
vailing practice in eastern countries, in times of
scarcity at least, removes the difficulty, and shews
that the literal import of the words may be at once
admitted. And perhaps the simple fare, and hum-
ble garb, of the forerunner of Christ, were meant to
be expressive of the unobtrusive character of the dis-
pensation of the Gospel.

ACROATIC, or Achoamatic, denoting some-
thing profound or abstruse, is the denomination of
those instructions which Aristotle delivered to the
favoured or more advanced disciples ; and is used in
opposition to exoteric, which was'applied to his public
lectures, which, it is probable, were of a more po-
pular character.

ACROCERAUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a
range of mountains which divide the Ionian from
tlie Adriatic sea, so called from being often struck
with lightning, and frequently referred to by classi-
cal writers. Monti della Ciumera, is the modern
name.

ACROPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, the citadel
of Athens, and one of the divisions of that city, as
its name imports, was built on an eminence, and had
nine gates or entrances, the principal of which was
by a magnificent flight of steps of white marble.

ACROSPIRE, an old term in Vegetable Physio-
logy, denoting the shooting or germination of grain,
is cliiefly applied to the process of malting, and cor-
responds with radicle and plamula, -which are more
commonly employed.

ACROSTIC, derived from two Greek words, sig-

ACT

47

A C U

Auostichum nifying extreme and verse, is a species of poetical
|{ composition, in which the first letters of the verses

Action, form the name of the person or place intended to
Viw-Vj^""-' be commemorated. But this artificial effort of the
muse is rarely recognized, even in the humbler de-
partments of modern poetry.

ACROSTICHUM, Fork-fern, Wall-rue, or Rusty-
back, a genus of plants belonging to the class Cryp-
togamia, and order Filices.

ACT, in the language of the English universities,
denotes the thesis defended in public by candidates
for degrees. For degrees in arts, it is denominated
a philosophical act; for those in divinity, a theologi-
cal act. At Cambridge, the appellation of corti-
mencement is given to the same solemnities.

Act, in dramatic poetry, denotes the parts or di-
visions of a play, in which the progress of the story
is interrupted for the purpose of relieving the audi-
ence and the actors. The division into regular acts
formed no part of the drama of the Greeks ; but the
necessary pauses were filled up with choruses and
similar interludes. The Romans first divided dra-
matic pieces into five acts, of which there are ex-
amples in the comedies of Terence, and the trage-
dies of Seneca ; the same division has been adopted
by modern writers. See Poetry.

Act of Faith, or auto daje, in the church of
Rome, denotes a solemn day, appointed by the In-
quisition, for the punishment of those convicted of
heresy, and the absolution of those who have been
acquitted of that charge. The day fixed for this
purpose usually falls on some great festival. See
Inquisition.

ACTA DIURNA, or Acta Populi, is the name
given to a Roman news-paper, which, under the au-
thority of government, detailed such occurrences as
usually appear in similar periodical works of modern
times. The following extract from Petronius, is a
specimen :

" On the 26th July, a slave was put to death for
uttering disrespectful words against his master.

" On the same day, a fire broke out in Pompey's
gardens ; it began during the night, in the steward's
apartments."

ACTiEA, herb Christopher, or Baneberries, a
genus of plants belonging to the Polyandria class.

ACTIAN GAMES, in Roman Antiquity, were
instituted by Augustus, in memory of the victory
obtained over Mark Antony at Actium. They were
celebrated in honour of Apollo every fifth year.

Actian years, called also the era of Augustus,
commenced at the time of the battle of Actium.

ACTION, in its general acceptation, denotes the
exertion of power, and is usually employed in the
same sense with act, although some grammarians
apply the first to common or ordinary transactions,
and the last only to such as are remarkable ; and
others suppose that the former properly belongs to
th* power that acts, while the latter has a reference
to the effect produced.

Action, in Law, is a suit or process in a court of
justice, and is employed in the same sense as it was
by the Romans, from whom the phrase is derived.

Action, in Mechanics, denotes either the exer-
tion which one body or power produces upon ano-

ther, or the effect which is the result of that exer-
tion. See Mechanics.

Action, in Oratory, is the accommodation of the
countenance, voice, and attitudes of the body of a '
public speaker, to the emotions of the mind, or to
the subject on which he addresses an audience. See
Oratory.

ACTOR, in the drama, is one who represents
some part or character on the stage. Among the
Greeks, with whom dramatic exhibitions originated,
a simple chorus only, who sung hymns in honour of
Bacchus, constituted the whole entertainments. A
declaimer, who recited the adventures of heroes, was
introduced by Thespis, for the sake of variety.
j'Eschylus changed the declamation into the form of
dialogue between two persons, and Sophocles added
a third, that the performance might assume a more
natural aspect. To this number, the actors in the
Greek drama were limited ; and the Romans adopt-
ed the same rule in tragedy. In comedy, the num-
ber of actors was not restricted. In modern times,
the number is regulate^ by the nature and incidents
of the piece to be performed.

Among the Greeks, actors were greatly respected
and highly honoured. The Roman actors were de-
graded from their rank as citizens, and, in a great
measure, excluded from society ; and it is curious to
observe, that a similar diversity of public opinion pre-
vails in modern times. In Britain, the degree of respec-
tability attached to the profession of an actor, de-
pends on his moral character ; but in France, actors
are despised, as they were formerly at Rome.

ACTRESS, a woman who performs a character
on the stage. Actresses were not known among the
ancients ; for female characters were performed by
men, who wore masks for the purpose.

It is supposed that female actors first appeared on
the English stage in the time of James I. ; for it is
recorded, that his queen performed a part in a pas-
toral ; but professional actresses were probably first
iutroduced during the licentious reign of Charles
II. At that period, female performers were regard-
ed as persons of infamous character ; but, in the pre-
sent day, the same remark is here equally applicable
as to actors ; for the degree of respect in which they
are held corresponds with the propriety of their
moral conduct,

ACTS OF THE Apostles, the name of one of the
books of the New Testament, which contains the
history of the Church during the first 30 years after
the ascension of Christ, to the year 63. It was writ-
ten by St Luke, and dedicated to Theophilus ; to
whom also he addressed his gospel. It contains the
accomplishment of several promises made by Christ
to his followers, and a beautiful representation of the
manners of the primitive Christians ; it is written in
purer Greek than some of the other books of the
New Testament : it was allowed to be canonical by
the council of Laodicea ; and, in all subsequent ages,
this has been universally admitted. See Scrip-
tures.

ACUNA, Christopher D', a Spanish Jesuit,
born at Burgos, and, while in his 15th year, admit-
ted into the society; in 1612, was employed as a
missionary in South America ; and, under the aus*

Actio*

Acuna.

ADA

pices of the Spanish government, explored the great
river Amazons, from its source to its junction witli
the Atlantic ocean. Soon after his return to Spain
in 1640, he published an account of the discoveries
of his voyage on this magnificent strean;. This voy-
age occupied ten months, from the time he left Quito
till he reached Para, at the mouth of the river. This
book was suppi'essed by the Spanish government,
to prevent, it is supposed, the Portuguese, who had
become masters of the Brazils, and tlie regions con-
tiguous to the river Amazons, from deriving any ad-
vantage from the information which it contained.
A French translation was afterwards published.

ACUPUNCTUllE, which signifies pricking with a
needle, is a surgical operation, not unusual in Japan,
China, and some other eastern countries. It is per-
formed by pricking the parts aifected with a silver
needle. This operation is employed in head-ach,
lethargy, and many other diseases, and seems to be
analogous to the operation of scarifying and cupping
in European countries.

ADAGIO, in Mtmc, is a term which signifies,
that the passage thus marked should be performed
m slow time ; when the word is repeated, the move-
ment is to be slower ; when it is used as a substan-
tive, as, " to play an adagio," it is expressive of a
slow movement.

ADAM, the first man of the human race, was
formed by God on the sixth day of the creation.
The et3'mology of the name has often exercised the
ingenuity of the learned ; and it has been variously
traced to words in the eastern languages which sig-
nify red earth, to resemble, to be beautiful, and to be
Jirst. Adam was made of the dust of the earth,
and God breaihed into his nostrils the breath of life.
The garden of Eden, or paradise, in which grew
every thing that could delight the eye, or was
necessary for subsistence, was prepai'ed for his
reception. In this garden all the inferior animals
which had been created were assembled. God gave
Adam dominion over them, and made them pass
before him, to receive names according to their na-
ture and kinds. But Adam was still without a com-
panion : to supply this defect, God cast him into a
deep sleep, took a rib from his side, and out of it
formed a woman. When Adam awoke, and the
woman was presented to him, he knew her to be
bone of his bone, and flesh of his flesh ; on which
account she was called Koman, expressive of being
taken from man. Our first parents being created in
the image, and after the likeness of God, were ori-
ginally in a state of innocence and purity. Placed
in the garden of Eden, under the divine favour, they
were permitted to enjoy all the fruits which it yield-
ed, excepting the fruit of the " tree of the know-
ledge of good and evil, " which they were commanded
not to touch, under the sanction of being subjected
to toil and pain, and death itself. The woman, de-
ceived by the persuasive insinuations of the tempter
under the form of a sprpent, seduced her husband ;
and by eating the forbidden i'ruit, they were both
guilty of transgressing the divine command. They
had now. lost their innocence ; their eyes were open-
ed ; they were asliamed of their nakedness ; and,
overwhelmed with conscious, guilt, they attempted

48 ADA

to withdraw from the presence of God, and vainly
sought to conceal themselves from the all-seeing eye v
of the Almighty. The threatened punishment was
pronounced. The man was doomed to toil and sor-
row ; the woman, to subjection to her husband, and
to suftlr the pains of child-bearing; and both be-
came liable to death. God prepared for them the skins
of beasts as a covering, drove them from paradise,
and, on the east side, placed " cherubims and a
flaming sivord, xvhich turned every ivai/ to keep the xmy
to the tree of l[fe.' Adam now called his wife Eve,
which signifies life, because slie was to be tlie mo-
ther of ail mankind. The ofi'spring of Adam men-
tioned in Scripture consisted of Uiree sons, Cain,
Abel, and Seth, the latter of whom was born to
him while he was in his 800th year. Adam died at
the age of 930 years.

The traditionaiy history of Adam, as it is pre-
served in difl'erent countries, abounds with fable and
extravagance. While some ascribe to him incom-
parable beauty, others suppose that he wiis of the
most gigantic stature ; and on the summit of Adam's
Peak, the loftiest mountain of Ceylon, the mark of
a foot of extraordinary magnitude, which is said to
be that of Adam, is shewn to this day ; and this moun-
tain is noted, in the traditions of the inhabitants, as
the residence of our first parents. Of the knowledge
of Adam, it is asserted that he was profoundly skill-
ed in all sciences and arts; that it exceeded the
knowledge of Moses, Solomon, and even excelled
that of the angels themselves. Concerning the bu-
rial-place ol" the progenitor of the human race, great
diversity of opinion prevails. Noah, according to
some, placed the body of Adam in the ark, and his
grandson, jMelchisedech, deposited it in the earth
on mount Calvary at Jerusalem ; others think that it
was interred in the cave of Machpelah ; and the
Arabians assert that he was buried near Mecca.

ADAM, Robert, an eminent architect, was the
second son of William Adam of Maryburgh in Fife,
and was born at Edinburgh in 1728. Mr Adam,
the father, has left some respectable specimens of
his genius as an architect, in Hopetoun-house, and
the Royal Infirmary at Edinburgh, which were
erected from his designs. To this fortunate cir-
cumstance, perhaps, young Adam was indebted for
the first bias to those studies in which he afterwards
obtained such high celebrity. During the time of
his education at the university of Edinburgh, he had
an opportunity of associating with some of the most
distinguished literary characters of the age. Having
directed his thoughts to the study of architecture as
a profession, Mr Adam visited the Continent in
1754-, for the purpose of extending his knowledge
and improving his taste ; and he resided three years
in Italy, where he surveyed and studied the magni-
ficent specimens of architecture which are still ex-
hibited even in the ruins of the public edifices of
ancient Rome. In tracing the progress of archi-
tecture, and the kindred arts among the Romims, Mf
Adam perceived that they had suffered a visible
decline previously to tlie time of Dioclesian ; but in-
contemplating the design and construction of the
public baths at Rome, which were erected by that
emperor, he. was convinced that his munilk-ence auil

Adam.

ADA

Adam, liberal encouragement and patronage of the fine
_,- -^-i arts liad revived a better taste for architecture, and
liad produced artists who were capable of imitating
a purer and more elegant style ; and wliile he ad-
mired the magnificent structures which afforded such
ample proofs of the extent and fertility of genius
of the artists from whose designs they had been
executed, he was anxious to see and study whatever
remains might yet exist of those masters whose
works present the most striking monuments of an
elegant and improved taste. Witii this view he un-
dertook a voyage to Spalatro in Dalmatia, to exa-
mine the private palace of Dioclesian, to which that
emperor retired, when he resigned the government,
in tlie year 305, and which was his residence for
nine years previously to his death. Accompanied by
Clerisseau, a French artist, and two experienced
draftsmen, Mr Adam sailed from Venice, in July
1754. On his arrival at Spalatro, he found that
the palace had sustained much from the injuries of
time, but it had suffered more from the dilapidations
of the inhabitants, and even the foundations of the
ancient edifice were covered with modern buildings.
The jealous vigilance of the government soon inter-
rupted their labours, from a suspicion that their ob-
ject was to view and make plans of the fortifica-
tions ; but through the friendly mediation of General
Graeme, the commander of the Venetian forces,
they were permitted to proceed in the undertaking ;
and having resumed their labours, in five weeks
plans and views of the fragments were finished, from
which perfect designs of the entire building were
executed.

Mr Adam returned to England, and soon rose to
considerable professional eminence. In 1762, he
was appointed architect to the King ; and in tlie
succeeding year he published his splendid work, con-
taining engravings and descriptions of the ruins of
the palace of Spalatro. In 1768, he was chosen to
represent the county of Kinross in Parliament ; at
the same time he resigned his office of architect to
the King. In the year 1773, in conjunction with
his brother James, whose eminence as an architect
was also considerable, he presented to the public
another splendid work, consisting of plans and ele-
vations of public and private buildings, which were
constructed from their designs. Among these are
Caen-wood, the seat of Lord Mansfield ; Luton-
house, in Bedfordshire, belonging to Lord Bute ;
the new gateway of the Admiralty-office ; the Re-
gister-office at Edinburgh ; and many others, which
have been universally admired, as excellent speci-
mens of elegant design and pure taste. The Adel-
phi Buildings, in London, are also striking monu-
ments of the fertile genius of the Messrs Adam ;
but so extensive an undertaking was too great for
private citizens, and therefore proved an unsucess-
ful speculation. The unlimited extent of Mr Adam's
invehtion is not less obvious in those edifices which
have been more lately erected from his designs.
Those parts of the New University of Edinburgh
which have been completed, bear ample testimony
to this remark ; and those who admire the rare union
of perfect symmetry and elegant disposition of parts,
united with inexpressible beauty and lightness into

VOL. I, PAHT I.

49 A IT A

one whole, will find this happy combination fully ex-
emplified in the Infirmary at Glasgow. Mr Adam's
genius and refined taste for architectural design con-
tinued unimpaired to the last year of his fife. In
the year preceding his death, the designs of eight
great public works, and of twenty-five private build-
ings, various in style, and beautiful in composition,
were the fruit of his labours. The powers of Mr
Adam's genius were not limited to the external de-
coration of buildings. They were exercised with
similar effect in the internal arrangement and dispo-
sition of the apartments, as well as in adding variety,
elegance, and beauty to the ornaments of ceilings
and chimney-pieces. It will scarcely be doubted,
that the improved taste which now generally pre-
vails in the public and private edifices of this coun-
try, is in no small degree indebted to the pure and
correct style introduced by Mr Adam, His ta-
lents extended beyond the line of his own profes-
sion ; for, in his drawings in landscape, he exhibit-
ed a richness of composition, and an effect of light
and shadow, which have been seldom equalled. Mr
Adam died in March 1792, in the 64th year of
his age. The elegant buildings, public and private,
which have been erected in different parts of the
kingdom from his designs, are lasting monuments of
his genius and taste ; and the natural sweetness of
his manners, united to the excellence of his moral
character, secured to him the affection and regard
of his friends, and the esteem of all who had the
happiness of enjoying his acquaintance.

ADAMS-BRIDGE, a ridge of rocks and sand-
banks, which stretches from the north coast of Cej'-
lon to the coast of Coromandel.

ADAM's-PEAK, or Hamaleel in the native
language, a lofty mountain, of a conical form, in
Ceylon, on which it is supposed the first man was
created. This mountain is seen at the distance of
40 or 50 leagues ; the sunmiit is clothed with wood, ■
and terminates in a plain, part of which is occupied
by a lake, which is the principal source of the larger
rivers of the island. It is held in great veneration
in the East ; is a great resort of pilgrims from all parts
of India ; and, for performing their devotions, chapels
are erected in places which are only accessible by
means of chains and ropes attached to the rocks.

ADAMANTINE SPAR, a mineral substance,
which in its composition approaches nearly to that
of emery, and, when reduced to powder, is applied
to the same purposes of polishing hard bodies. See
Mineralogy.

ADAMI POMUM, or Adam's Apple, in Anaio-
my, a protuberance in the anterior part of the throat,
formed by the projection of a cartilage, and whim-
sically supposed to have been produced by part of
the forbidden fruit sticking in Adam's throat.

ADAMS, in Geographu, a township in the state
of Massachussets, 140 miles N. W. from Boston, in
North America, which is remarkable for a romantic
natural bridge over Hudson's Brook, in the northern
part of the district. This stream has excavated a chan-
nel for itself in a bed of white marble ; and the pro-
jecting rocks form a bridge of fifteen feet in length,
ten in breadth, and sixty feet above the surface of
the water.

Adam'»»
Bridge

II
Adams.

ADA

50

ADA

Adimwn. ADAMSON, Patrick, a learned Scottish di-
vine and poet, whose history exhibits a striking in-
stance of the vicissitudes of life, of elevation to the
liighest dignity in the church, and of depression to
a state of poverty and want, was born in 1536, iu
Perth, where he finished the early part of his edu-
cation, and afterwards studied philosophy at the
nniversity of St Andrew's. In 1566, while he re-
sided at Paris in the capacity of tutor to the son of
a Scotch gentleman, the muse of Adamson celebrat-
ed the birth of James VI. in a Latin poem, in which
tJie infant prince was panegyrised as king of France
and England. The assumption of this title, even in
tlie language of poetry, gave oft'ence to the French
court. He was arrested, thrown into prison, and
detained six months in confinement. Through the
intercession of the Scottish Queen he obtained his
liberation, and retired to Bourges, where he lay con-
cealed during the dreadful massacre of St Bartho-
lomew, when the demon of persecution raged with
the most relentless fury in France. Immured, as he
himself expresses it, for seven months in a sepul-
chre, his mind was actively occupied ; for, during
this period, he composed a Latin tragedy, and a
poetical paraphrase on the Book of Job in the same
language. He returned to Scotland in 1573 ; and
being admitted to holy orders, he was appointed mi-
nister of Paisley.

The struggle between the partizans of Presbyte-
rian and Episcopal church government, which long
agitated Scotland, and finally burst forth into the
flames of civil war, hud now commenced ; and A-
damson, whether from ambition or versatility of opi-
nion, had his full share of the miseries which were
thus entailed on the kingdom. In the General As-
sembly which met in 1575, he took an active part
in the deliberations concerning ecclesiastical juris-
diction ; and he was one of the commissioners chosen
to report its proceedings to the Earl of Morton, re-
gent of Scotland. About this time he was appoint-
ed chaplain to the regent-; and soon after, when the
see of St Andrew's became vacant, he was elevated
to the archiepiscopal dignity. This high promotion
seemed to increase the rancour and violence of the
Presbyterian party, to which he was now opposed.
Various charges were brought against him, as being
the adviser of the oppressive and tyrannical mea-
sures which were adopted towards those who main-
tained that form of church government; and al-
though lie came under a humble submission to the
General Assembly, the persecuting spirit of his ene-
mies was not abated. Even circumstances in them-
selves of trivial import, and which would have at-
tracted no notice in a more discerning age, were
magnified into serious offences. A poor old woman,
who had recommended a remedy which proved be-
neficial in a severe disorder under which the arch-
bishop laboured, was charged with witchcraft, and
thrown into prison ; and having found means to e-
scape, she was, at the end of four years, again ap-
prehended under tlie same charge, condemned, and
brought to the stake.

In 1583, during a visit of King James to St An-
drew's, the arclibishop distinguished himself greatly
by pr-eaching before the learni'd monarch, as well as

by his success in a public disputation in the royal
presence. Having become a favourite with Jamesi
he was appointed embassador to the English court ;
and both in his diplomatic and clerical character, he
seems to have laboured assiduously in promoting the
interest of his master in his expected succession to
the crown of England. His sermons, which were
remarkable for eloquence, attracted great crowds to
the places where he preached ; and according to the
usual practice of the times, mixing the praises ot
his prince with religious instruction, he succeeded'
in impressing the minds of the English with sucb
favourable sentiments of the Scottish King, that the
jealousy of the prudent Elizaljeth wa* awakened,
and he was prohibited from entering a pulpit during
his residence in her dominions.

The return of the primate to Scotland was fol-
lowed by a short repose. In a provincial synod
which assembled at St Andrew's in 1586, he was
charged with exercising episcopal functions, in op-
position to former decrees of the church ; and sen-
tence of excommunication was pronounced against
him. An appeal to the King and States failed in
obtaining any mitigation of his sentence ; and the
clamours and irritation of the populace became so
violent, that he was not secure from personal injury.
In consequence of a submissive apology presented
to next General Assembly, he was absolved from
the excommunication ; but two years only elapsed
when he was again harassed with prosecutions. He
had fallen under the displeasure of the King ; a fresh
appeal, in Latin verse, accompanied with poetical
paraphrases of the Books of Jeremiah and Revela-
tions, which promised to be the most successful way
of moving the compassion of that pedantic monarch,
had no effect ; and the archbishop, being now de-
prived of the revenues of his see, was reduced to
such poverty, that he was actually supported by the
charitable contributions of his friends till his death
in 1592.

The character of this prelate, as it is drawn by
the hand of a friend and an enemy, presents very
different features. While in the sunshine of royal
favour, it seems probable that he did not at least
discourage the tyrannical measures of an arbitrary
government. He was deficient in that vigour and
decision of mind which are always the surest found-
ation of consistency of conduct, but especially in
the turbulent times in which he lived. His learn-
ing was respectable ; he was an eloquent and popu-
lar preacher ; and his versions of different books of
Scripture afford ample proofs of his facility in the
composition of Latin poetry. Mr Wilson, an advo-
cate, who was his son-in-law, and the editor of his
Poemota Sacra, or Sacred Poetry, has pronounced
an extravagant panegyric on the archbishop. " He
was," says he, " a miracle of nature, and rather
seemed to be the immediate production of God Al-
mighty, than born of a woiTian."

ADAN A, a town of Natolia in Asia Minor, which
is adorned with a fine bridge and splendid fountains,
and enjoys an agreeable and healthy climate. The
surrounding country is rich and fertile, producing
corn, fruits, and wine in abundajjce. Adana is 30
miles N. E. from Tarsus.

Aitnt.

ADD

51

AD ANSONIA, Ethiopian sour-gourd, or African
cabbage-tree, a genus of plants belonging to the
Monadelphia class.

ADAR, the name of one of the Hebrew months,
corresponding with the end of February and be-
ginning of March, the 6th month of their civil, and
the 12th of the sacred year. A 13th month, called
second Adar, is added every third year, to make up
the annual deficiency of eleven days in the lunar
year.

ADDER, or Viper. See Coluber, Ophiolo-
GY, Index.

Adder, Sea, a species of fishes under the genus
Syngnathus. See Ichthyology, Index.

ADDISON, Joseph, one of the ornaments of
English literature, was the eldest son of Launcelot
Addison, dean of Litchfield, and author of several
respectable publications. He was born at Milston
in Wiltshire, on the 1st of May 1672. At the Char-
ter-house he formed an acquaintance with Sir Rich-
ard Steele, which continued through life, and pro-
duced one of the characteristic features of his lite-
rary history. In the year 1687, he entered Queen's
College, Oxford, being only fifteen years of age, but
quite competent, by his attainments and industrious
habits, to avail himself of whatever advantage an
university presented to his ambition. Here he wrote
some Latin verses on the inauguration of King Wil-
liam, which procured him the patronage of Dr Lan-
caster, then one of the fellows, and afterwards pro-
vost of this college. By his interest, Addison was
elected into Magdalen College, where he obtained,
in 1693, the degree of Master of Arts. He conti-
nued to cultivate Latin poetry with assiduous parti-
ality, to the improvement, no doubt, of his classical
taste, but little conducive to originality of senti-
ment or boldness of fancy ; qualities in which his
muse remained defective to the end of his poetical
career. There are few men who have not rather
encumbered natural perfections, by assuming the
garb of antiquity, than enhanced their superiority by
the acquisition. Addison is not an exception. Even
the mightier genius of Milton struggles with a foreign
attire ; and so, probably, would Homer or Virgil,
had they affected the appearance of a generation a
thousand years older than their own.

In his twenty-second year, Addison ventured to
publish some English verses addressed to Mr Dry-
den, whose approbation was, perhaps, more the ef-
fusion of complacency, than the result of just criti-
cism. In a translation of the •ith Book of the Ge-
orgics, printed in that poet's Virgil, Addison was
more successful. An " Essay on the Georgics,"
that accompanies it, exhibited him to some advan-
tage as a prose writer ; a character on which alone
his reputation with posterity is founded. The " Ac-
count of the greatest English Poets," soon follow-
ed. This poem has some happy lines, but does not
indicate great depth of judgment : The extraordi-
nary omission of Shakespeare and Otway in the list,
is still less pardonable. Till lately it had been be-
lieved, that the person to whom Addison inscrib-
ed this work, indicated by the initials H. S. was
Dr Henry Sacheverel, of political notoriety. This,
however, is a mistake. The friend was, indeed.

ADD

a Henry Sacheverel, but one far less known to AMiton.
fame.

Addison's poetry was not at war with prudence.
He shewed sagacity in using it towards the promo-
tion of his interest. His inspiration, therefore, is
somewhat problematical, since worldly wisdom is
not held a companion of ttie muses. Lord-keeper
Somers, and Montague, afterwards Earl of Halifax,
shared in its eulogiums, and befriended the author.
The former procured him a pension of L,300, which
enabled him to undertake a visit to the continent.
Previously, however, he had relinquished the intention
of entering the church, in which his advancement
might have been confidently expected. On his tra-
vels he wrote his famous epistle to Halifax, and
commenced his still more famous tragedy of Cato.
It was in Italy that the spirit of Addison was tuned
to the praise of liberty, so congenial to the consti-
tution of his countrymen, at that time boasting the
recovery, or at least the possession of a free go-
vernment. Well might he say,

Thee, Goddess, thea, Britannia's isle adores ;
How ha! she uft exhausted all her stores,
How oft in fields of death thy presence sought.
Nor thinks the mighty prize too dearly bought !

But it is one of the consequences of the blessing,
that certain perpetuity is denied to the possessors 5f
official dignity. This Addison found to his cost be-
fore he returned home. His friends, on the death
of King William, were removed from power ; Ha-
lifax was impeached by the Commons, and his own
pension was discontinued. This was the only time
of his life in which he experienced an approach to
poverty. The grievance taught hira to ssjt a higher
value on money than, it has been idly imagined, ig
consistent with greatness of character. They who
object to the estimate, are not aware of the misery
from which pecuniary means have the power to re-
deem ; or that the magnanimity which is in alliance
with rags and hunger, would have but a sorry chance
for their admiration.

A ray of hope unexpectedlj' beamed upon Addi-
son in 1704, and pointed the road to affluence. Go-
dolphin, the Lord-treasurer, at the instigation of
Lord Halifax, employed him to celebrate the battle
of Blenheim. The immediate reward of liis poem,
The Campaign, was the appointment of a commis-
sioner of appeals, in which he succeeded the illus-
trious John Locke. Other advantages followed in
train. In 1706, he was chosen Under-secretary of
State to Sir Charles Hedges ; was retained in this
office by the Earl of Sunderland ; went over to Ire-
land in 1709, as secretary to the Marquis of Wliar-
ton ; and obtained from the Queen the place of
keeper of the records in that kingdom, with ati
augmentation of the salary annexed to it. For this
last favour he was indebted to the recommendation
of the Duchess of Marlborough, to whom he had
prudentially enough, but with little consideration of
taste, inscribed his poem of Rosamond.

Addison's attachment to Whig principles did not
prevent an honourable friendship between hira and
Swift, so violent for Toryism. These men could
esteem each other through the medium of their po-
litical dissentions, though, at last, their increasing

ADD

52

ADD

AHdison. zeal precluded intimacy. Some of their correspond-
ence is preserved, and is mutually kind and respect-
ful. Pope, somewhat younger "than Addison, was
not quite so indulgent, and on the whole, perliaps,
had less reason. The connection with Steele was
of most consequence to literature.

This gentleman commenced the Tatler during Ad-
dison's residence in Ireland. The publication, which
originated without his knowledge, having, however,
indicated its author, by the insertion of a criticism
with which Steele had been entrusted, acquired his
powerful and continued aid. To this succeeded the
Spectator, which commenced on the 1st of March
1711. Addison's papers in theSpcctatoraremarkedby
one of the letters in tha word Clio, and in the Guar-
dian, another periodical work in which he was af-
■ terwards engaged, by a hand ; his papers in tlie Tat-
ler have no such distinctions.

The success of Cato, which appeared in 1713, ex-
ceeded the author's hopes ; Whigs and Tories unit-
ing to applaud it, — the former, because it yielded
fuel to the flame of liberty ; the latter, because they
tttouM not be mortified by the high-toned triumphs
of their opponents. Fashion and habit now enjoin
its commendation, as an evidence of good taste,
though the morality of the Christian religion con-
demn the pride of its hero, and criticism object the
poverty of its subordinate characters, and the unsub-
dued dulness of its story. Lofty sentiments, couch-
ed in glowing language, impose on minds aspiring
after the sublime of life ; but reason, if unbiassed by
excellencies in the representative republican, abates
the credit of the delusion. In our sober moments,
we cannot behold a man " lord it so," over the best
and most amiable feelings of our nature, without en-
tertaining a degree of indignation at his cold blood-
ed arrogance, and something like contempt of those
who can so far estrange themselves from common
sense and humanity, as to hail sucli conduct " god-
like."

About the same period, Addison, thoroughly wed-
ded to his political creed, and suffering for it in the
loss of his [)laccs, produced the IVhig Examiner, and
some pamphlets, in defence of his party. The Free-
holder, also a political paper, appeared somewhat lat-
er. These have lost their interest in the lapse of
years, but the purity of style, conciseness of thought,
and felicity of allusion wliich characterise Addison,
are no where in his writings more discernible.

On the accession of George I., his political labours
were rewarded by the office of secretary to the Earl
of Sunderland, Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. This
he soon gave up to become a Lord of Trade ; and,
in 1717, he reached liis highest elevation as one of
the principal Secretaries of State, an honour, how-
ever, which his ill health did not permit him long to
enjoy. He resigned it on a pension of L.1500, in-
tending to occupy the remainder of his time in lite-
rary pursuits which might conduce to human hap-
piness and improvement.

The chief production of his retirement was an es-
say on the " Evidences of the Christian Religion,"
in which be avowed his stedfast belief. He died on
the 17th of June 1719, when entering on his 54th
year, and left an only daughter by the Countess of

Warwick, whom he married in 1716. Uncontra-
dicted report has assigned much unhappiness to this
union, occasioned by the lady's conceit of her supe-
rior rank, which even the singular worth of her hus-
band could not restrain into decency. Yet whether,
in common style, from a wish to make things look
better than they were, out of real affection, or the
distinguishing benevolence of a dying man, Addison
mentions her in his will with the greatest tenderness
and respect. An incident in his departing struggle,
has always been noticed with admiration. Finding
his end near, he sent for Lord Warwick, his wife's
son, by a former marriage " a youth," as Dr Young
modestly expresses it, " finely accomplished, but not
above being the better for good impressions from a
dying friend." The interview was sliort. After a
pause, the young man said, " Dear Sir ! you sent for
me, I believe : 1 hope that you have some commands ;
I shall hold them most sacred." To which Addison
replied in a soft voice, whilst he grasped his hand,

" SEE IN WHAT PEACE A CHRISTIAN CAN DIE," and

soon expired.

Addison's talents were not ready ; they sought
time, and retirement, and indulgence. He was unfit,
therefore, for the public duties of his ministerial si-
tuation, or, at least required unusual conditions for
their fulfilment. But we must not ascribe the defi-
ciency to a distrust in his own abilities ; this is a
common mistake. As to Addison, it is irreconcile-
able with the fastidiousness of his taste, which was
undoubtedly subservient to the preservation of the
consequence he had already acquired ; and it is alike
disproved by the unaccommodating tone of his politi-
cal publications, and the easy gaiety with which he
could converse where his influence was allowed to
be supreme.

His writings, which seem a fait reflection of bis
character, claim respect rather than elicit admira-
tion ; they scarcely ever need indulgence. Their
morality is polite, not authoritative. They recom-
mend the kindly affections and the graces which
everj' one applauds ; and they dissuade from vices
and rudenesses which every one condemns. Addi-
son and his reader, accordingly, arc always on good
terms. Even his religion is agreeable — to the pro-
fligate, because it discloses some excellencies in their
heart, whicli need but a little encouragement to re-
trieve and surpass their transgressions — to the pure
in^eir own eyes, and wise in their own conceit, be-
cause it is readily available to a dear delusion, and
inculcates no self-denial — to all, because its simpli-
city solicits the meanest understanding, its specioujs
importance employs the highest, whilst it garnishes
the path of duty with so manj' fruits and flowers
that neither fancy nor the heart desires to wander.

His style abounds in beauties, which, though not
superlative, never fail to attract. It is easy, perspi-
cuous, concise, elegant, — free from the blemishes of
his time, indecency, antithesis, and conceit, — but free
also from the wild and loftier excellencies which
marked an earlier period of our literature ; it wants
soul, and it wants passion, — it has mind, indeed, al-
ways, and sometimes feeling, but the former is un-
ruffled to wearisomeness, like the sea in a calm, and
the latter is so nicely adjusted by rule and compass,

ADD

55

A D J

Addition

Adel.

that we never have a moment's interest or apprehen-
sion about its issue. Addison frequents the court,
the drawing-room, the tavern, — is familiar with all,
paints all so faithfully, so naturally, so humorously,
tliat we seem to be one in every party as much as
himself, and to have a common right to judge, ad-
mire, dislike, laugh, in short to retain all the incon-
testible privileges of our own fire-side. But he rare-
ly quits the city, and when he does, it is but to visit
the garden or the meadow, where every thing is re-
gular, nicely trimmed, and well fenced, and constant-
ly reminds us of the encroachments which industry
and skill have made on the dominions of nature. Of
wildernesses, forests, cataracts, the Alps, or the An-
des, he has no knowledge ; storms, whirlwinds, and
earthquakes, never disturb his creation : even his
visions and dreams have the method and monotony
of civilization ; his calamities and prosperities, his
misfortunes and rejoicings, like the items in a mer-
chant's book, are all appreciated in the pounds, shil-
Hngs, and pence of Old England. On the whole, he
is a writer of good sense and good manners ; he in-
structs a little, amuses more, — he may be said to
have refined our language at the expence of its
strength, to have given it clearness, but to have de-
prived it of its elasticity and power, — he inculcates
by example, perhaps the best mode for general adop-
tion, a hesitating and cautious reserve in composi-
tion, which may escape blunders and absurdities,
but which must repress vigorous conception, and
stifle heart-born eloquence.

ADDITION, in Arithmetic and Algebra, is the
rule by which two or more numbers or quantities are
brought into one. See Mathematics.

ADEL, a kingdom of Africa lying on the eastern
coast of that continent, bounded by the Indian O-
cean on the east, by Abyssinia on the west, and ex-
tending about 500 miles from east to west, and about
300 miles from north to south. This kingdom was
formerly tributary to the sovereigns of Abyssinia ;
but an Abyssinian prince having escaped from the
confinement to which the branches of the royal family
excluded from power are doomed, found an as3'lum
in Adel, married the daughter of the king, and
erected it into an independent state. Since the be-
ginning of the 16tli century, the open warfare which
then commenced has been seldom interrupted. I'e-
ligious enmity has probably had no small share in
continuing the struggle for conquest and power ; for
the Abyssinians are Christians, and the people of
Adel profess the Mahometan faith, and acknowledge
the sovereignty of the Grand Siguier.

The temperature of the air is very considerable ;
rain seldom falls ; and the climate is in general un-
wholesome. The interior districts of the kingdom
flre unknown to strangers : in some places, nothing
is seen but extensive barren desarts ; others are co-
vered with rich soil, which produces abundance of
corn, and feeds numerous herds of cattle, and, par-
ticularly, that singular variety of sheep with broad
tails, some of which exceed twenty pounds weight.
5ome of the inhabitants are of a black, and others
of a tawny complexion. Adel and Zeila are the
chief towns, from which, and others on tlie coast,
there is a considerable trade in ivory, gold dust, and

valuable drugs, which are exchanged for the rich
productions of Arabia and other eastern regions.
Adel, the capital, which gives name to the kingdom,
is in N. Lat. 8° 5. and E. Long. 4't. 20. and 300
miles south from Mocha.

ADEN, is the chief town of a country of the
same name near the southern extremity of Arabia
Felix, and to the eastward of the straits of Babel-
mandel. The town is nearly encompassed with lofty
mountains, from which it derives an ample supply of
water by means of a splendid aqueduct. Aden, suc-
cessfully resisted an attack of the Portuguese in
1.513; but soon after fell under the dominion of the
Turks, who were dispossessed by the king of Ye-
men, by whom its trade was transferred to Mocha.
Before this period, Aden, from its local position, had
become a celebrated emporium. N. Lat. 12. 40. E.
Lonij. 46. 13.

ADENANTHERA, Bastard Flower-fence, a ge-
nus of plants belonging to the Decandria class.

ADERBIJAN, a province of Persia, part of which
is bounded on the east by the Caspian Sea.^ Tauris, .
or Tebriz, formerly the residence of the Persian mo-
narchs, is the principal town, the trade and popula-
tion of which are considerable.

ADIIA, a solemn festival celebrated by the Ma-
hometans on the tenth day of the last month of their
j'ear, on which a sheep is offered in sacrifice at Mec-
ca, but no where else. This festival is denominated
the Great Bairam ; and, from the numerous ceremo-
nies observed by the pilgrims in this month, it is
called the month of pilgrimage.

ADHERENCE, action of, in the Lain of Scotland,
an action which is commenced at the instance of a
husband or wife, to compel either party to return or
adhere in case of desertion.

ADHESION, signifies the sticking or adhering of
two bodies which are naturally separate ; but is often
employed to denote the force of attraction between
the surfaces of two solid bodies, as the polished sur-
faces of glass, marble, or metal ; or between a solid
and a liquid, as glass and quicksilver. See Affi-
nity, under Chemistry.

ADIANTUM, Maidenhair, a genus of plants be-
longing to the Cryptogamia class.

ADJECTIVE, a word joined with a noun, and
expressive of some accident, property, or quality ex-
isting in any thing, as, a good man, in which the ad-
jective good denotes the quality of goodness in the
man to whom it is applied. See Grammar.

ADIPOCIRE, from two Latin words, which sig-
nify Jilt and max, is applied to a substance whose
properties are intermediate between these two sub-
stances. Adipocire is formed by a certain change
of the soft parts of animal bodies, subjected for some
time to running water, or when a great quantity of
animal matters is accumulated ;n a moist place. It
was found in abundance, when the remains of the
bodies were removed from the burial-ground of the
Innocens, in Paris,, in 17S7, and seems to have been
generated by the great mass of animal matters, twelve
or fifteen hundred bodies deposited in tlie same pit.
See Chemistuy, Index.

ADJUDICA'TION, is the act of adjudging or
determining the right or property of a thing, by the

Aden

11
Adjudica-
tion.

ADM

54

ADO

Administra'
tion

II
Admiral.

decision of a judge, in favour of some partjr. In the
law of Scotland, it is an action by which a creditor
obtains possession of the heritable property of his
debtor, or the debtor's heir ; or, it is an action by
which a person possessing an heritable right, may
supply any defect in that right in point of form.

ADMINISTRATION denotes, in general, the
government or management of siffairs, and, particu-
larly, the exercise of distributive justice. Among
ecclesiastics, it is employed to express the dispen-
sation of the sacraments. The same word is used
by the Spaniards, to denote tlie warehouse or maga-
zine at Callao, and other ports in South America, in
which foreign ships deposit their cargoes, on the
payment of certain duties.

ADMINISTRATOR, in the Lwx of England, is
a person to whom is entrusted the management of
the goods of another who has neglected to appoint
an executor, and who possesses similar powers. In tlie
law of Scotland, it is applied to a person who is au-
thorised by law to direct the affairs of another, who
is incapable from age or mental imbecility of acting
for himself. A father, who is empowered by law
to have the charge of the persons and property of
liis children, during their minority, is denominated
their administrator.

ADMIRAL, an officer or magistrate who presides
in the court appointed for the regulation and trial of
all maritime aitairs, and to whom is entrusted the
command of the whole or part of a navy. The ori-
gin of this high office, which has existed from a very
early period, in almost every maritime state, and
even the etymology of the name, are undetermined.
Some antiquarians trace it to the word amir or emir,
which is a general appellation among the Saracens
or Arabians, for a chief ruler, governor, or com-
mander, and, in confirmation of this opinion, assert
that the name and office were introduced into Eu-
rope during the Crusades. The Sicilians, it is said,
were the first, and the Genoese the next, who be-
stowed the name of admiral on the commander of
their fleets. It does not api>ear, from the researches
of antiquarians, that this name was known in Eng-
land before the latter end of the long reign of Henry
III. The first title of Admiral of England was giv-
en in 1387, by Richard II. to the Earl of Arundel
and Surrey.

To the High Admiral, or Lord High Admiral of
England, the sole management and direction of ma-
ritime affairs are entrusted. He has the command
of the royal navy, the appointment of admirals and
all other officers, and he possesses a civil and crimi-
nal jurisdiction in all maritime matters. But the
administration of this high office has been long dis-
continued, and is now delegated to six persons, who
are denominated Lords Commissioners of the Ad-
miralty, and who, by statute of William and Mary,
have the same power and privileges as the Lord
High Admiral.

A similar officer, with extensive powers, formerly
existed in Scotland ; but the duties of this office fell
under the cognizance of the Lords of the Admiralty
for Britain, and a vice-admiral is appointed by the
crown, who possesses a civil and criminal jurisdic-
tion ; and die duty of the office is executed by a de-

puty called the Judge- admiral, in wiiose cotitt afl Admirtlty
cases connected with maritime affairs are tried. ||

Admiral is the denomination of the highest rank Adonii.
of officers in the British navy. Admirals are divided *«^y''^^
into three classes, which are distinguished by the
coloiu- of their flags, red, white, and blue ; and each
admiral has a vice and rear-admiral subordinate to
him. The admiral carries his flag at the main top-
mast head ; the vice-admiral at the fore top-mast
head; and the rear-admiral at the mizen top-mast
head.

ADMIRALTY, court of, a supreme court, held
by the Lord High Admiral, or Lords of the Admi-
ralty, for the cognizance of all maritime affairs, whe-
ther of a civil or criminal nature. All offences com-
mitted on the high-seas, or on great rivers, below
the first bridge, or on the shores of all countries
subject to Great Britain, are tried in this court. In
England, the Lord Chancellor appoints commission-
ers for the trial of all criminal cases before a jury.
These commissioners are the judges of the court of
admiralty. From the sentence of this court, an ap-
peal lies to the King in Chancery.

In Scotland, the supreme court of the Judge-ad-
miral grants commissions to admirals within certain
jurisdictions to hold inferior courts ; and from their
decisions an appeal may be made to the supreme
court.

Admiralty Bat, a spacious bay on the west
coast of ('ooke's Straights, in the southern island of
New Zealand. This bay affords good anchorage,
and, on many parts of the coast wood and water
can be obtained in abundance. S. Lat. 40° 37' E.
Long. 174° 54.'.

Admiralty Islands, a cluster of between 20
and 30 islands, lying in S. Lat. 2° 18' and E. Long.
146° 44', which were discovered by Captain Carte-
ret, by whom they are described as exhibiting a rich-
verdure of lofVy and luxuriant woods, interspersed "
with plantations, in which appear groves of cocoa-
nut trees, and houses of the natives, who seem to be
very numerous. The state of the ship prevented
him from landing, but the climate, which seemed to
be the same as that of the Moluccas, is favourable
for the production of spices.

ADMIRATION is that emotion of the mind
which is produced by the contemplation of superior
and rare excellence, as, uncommon wisdom or inge-
nuity.

ADNOUN is a word synonimous with adjective,
because it is added to or conjoined with a noun.

ADOLESCENCE, denotes that period of life be-
tween infancy and manhood, which is usually reckon-
ed between 1,5 and 25 or 30 years of age. The pe-
riod of adolescence among the Romans was reckon-
ed from 12 to 25 in males, and from 12 to 21 in fe-
males.

ADOM, a small state or principality of the Gold
Coast in Africa. The country, which is rich and
populous, abounds in corn and fruits, and feeds nu-
merous herds of cattle. Gold and silver collected
in the interior, form articles of trade, and a conside-
rable revenue was formerly derived from the negro
slaves brought from the northern parts of Africa.
ADONIA, solemn feasts which were celebrated

ADO

Adonii by many eastern nations, in honour of Venus, and
Ij in memory of Adonis, with whom she was deeply

Adoption, enamoured. Adonis was the son of Cynaras, king
^•»>y'"^i^ of Cyprus, was slain by a wild boar, and changed in-
to a flower of a blood-red colour : but, according to
another fable, he was a beautiful shepherd, and, after
being killed by the boar, was converted into a river,
the waters of which, during the annual inundations,
were stained with a red earth which was washed
from the contiguous soil, and were supposed to be
tinged with blood from the wound bleeding afresh.
According to one account of these festivals, they
lasted two days ; one of which was occupied in ex-
pressions of grief, by weeping, wailing, tearing the
. hair, and beating the breast ; and the other was de-
voted to rejoicings, in which the praises of Adonis
were celebrated, as if he had been restored to life.
But, according to another explanation of these ce-
remonies, the days of mourning and joy constituted
two distinct festivals, kept at diffei'ent periods of the
year, with an interval of six months. From this
consideration, it seems probable, that the fabulous
history of these festivals is connected with certain
natural occurrences, as the change of seasons, or
periodical inundations, which are not unusual in
eastern countries. Might not tliis view afford some
light to the researches of antiquarians in trac-
ing their nature and origin ? The Egyptians, it is
said, observed festivals of a similar character, to
commemorate the sickness, recovery, or death of
Osiris ; by some, their origin is derived from the
slaughter of the first born in Egypt in the time of
Moses ; and the prophet Ezekiel refers to something
of the same kind, when he says, chap. viii. that
he saw women sitting in tlie temple, and weeping
for Adonis.

ADONIS, Birds or Pheasant's Eye, a genus of
plants belonging to the Polyandria class.

ADONISTS, a name applied to certain divines
or critics, who assert, that the natural points of the
word Jehovah are not usually annexed to that word,
but the points belonging to Adonai ; because, it is
said that the Jews were prohibited from pronounc-
ing the word Jehovah, for which Adonai was substi-
tuted and read. To the Adonists are opposed the
Jehovists, who maintain a contrary opinion.

ADOPTION, the act by which a person receives
another into his family, acknowledges him for his
son, and admits him to all the privileges of that re-
lation. The indulgence of the natural feeling of
leaving a name and memorial, has introduced the
practice of adoption into all countries ; and, that it
might not be indiscriminately followed, laws and
certain formalities have been established for its re-
gulation. This custom prevailed greatly among the
ancient Greeks and Romans. It was requisite that
the person who adopted should be without children,
should be advanced in life, and, at least, 18 years
oTiier than the son to be adopted, that the new rela-
tion might appear natural.

Adoption, or filiation, as it was called among the
Greeks, was permitted to such as had no offspring
of their own, excepting those who were incapacitat-
ed from managing their own affairs, as idiots, infants,
siaves^ 5fc. When the ceremony of adoption was

55 ADO

performed, the name of the adopted was enrolled in Adoptios
the tribe of his new father. To give it more solem- ii

nity, this enrolment took place on a particular fes- Adoration,
tival; and, by a law of the Lacedaemonians, the ce- Va^-Y"**/
reniony was partly performed, or at least received
confirmation, in presence of their kings. The adopt-
ed, possessing all the privileges of children, were
bound to observe all their duties ; they ceased to
have any claims of inheritance on the family which
they had left ; and they were not permitted, by the
laws of Solon, to renounce their adoption, without
having offspring to remain as substitutes. A law of
tlie Athenians prohibited the person who adopted
another from marrying, without permission from
the magistrate ; and, in case of children by marriage,
the adopted shared equally with them in the inheri-
tance.

Two forms of adoption were observed among the
Romans ; the one in presence of the praetor, when
the natural father resigned all authority over his son,
and expressed his consent to his being adopted by an-
other. The other mode was practised during the re-
public, at an assembly of the people, and afterwards
by an order from the emperor ; and in this case, the
party adopted was already free.

Among the Mahometans, adoption forms no im-
pediment to marriage. The ceremony of adoption .
among the Turks consists in drawing the adopted
person through the shirt of the adopting father; and
hence the phrase which expresses adoption among
that people, to draw another tlirongh my shhi. The
resemblance of this ceremony is traced to the prac-
tice of the Hebrews, as in tlie case of Elijah adopt-
ing Elisha for his son and successor, and communi-
cating the gift of prophecy, by covering him with
his mantle, and then by letting it fall while he was
ascending in the chariot of fire. The exchange of
girdles is a simple form of adoption equally valid,
which in modern times is sometimes practised among
the Turks, Greeks, and Armenians.

Adoption is regulated by law among the Gentoos ;
and the ceremony is performed in presence of the
magistrate, by giving gold and rice to the father of
the child to be adopted, which are the symbols of a
purchase. But no person having a son or grandsotf,
&c. or whose brother has a son, is permitted to adopt.

Adoption by arms, was when a present of arms
was made by a prince to any person on account of
his merit and services. The obligation laid on the
adopted son, required him to defend and protect the
father from all kinds of injury and insult. Frorti -
this practice the ceremony of dubbing knights, ac-
cording to some, derives its origin and name.

ADORATION, an act of worship, or the exter-
nal expression of the sentiments of veneration and
regard towards the Supreme Being ; but it refers also
to a similar act performed to othei- objects. The
word is derived from two Latin words, signifying to
apply the hand to the mouth, or to kiss the hand ; in al-
lusion probably to a common custom in eastern counf-
tries of kissing the hand in token of respect and sub*-
mission.

In the religious worship of the ancient Romans,
adoration was performed with the head covered, and
the right hand applied to the mouth ; by boM ing th<e

ADR

56

ADR

Ac'ouT head, and turning the body from left to right. But
II in the adoration of Saturn and Hercules, the head

Adrastnj. was uncovered ; and this was called the Greek mode
of adoration. Bowing, kneeling, and prostration,
were the'usual modes of adoration among the Jews ;
and, among Christians, this act is performed with the
head uncovered. The usual posture of the ancient
Christians was kneeling in private, but in the public
assemblies they stood. Presbyterians have general-
ly adopted the standing posture ; while the form of
kneeling is observed in the Lutheran churches. In
eastern countries, it is common to take off the shoes
or slippers, before entering a place of worship ; and
the Persians, and some other nations, direct their
iUces towards the sun, or to the east, in the act of
adoration.

Similar marks of honour and respect were paid to
persons of high rank. The Roman and Grecian em-
perors were adored by bowing or kneeling at their
feet, touching the purple robe, withdrawing the hand,
and applying it to the lips. The Persian mode of
adoration, which was introduced by Cyrus, consisted
in bending the knee and falling on the face, striking
the earth with the forehead, and kissing the ground.
In the English court, the ceremony of kissing the
hand of the sovereign, as an acknowledgment of
lionours conferred or favours received, which is per-
formed in a kneeling posture, may be regarded as
an act of adoration of a similar character.

Adoration, in the court of Rome, is the ceremony
•of kissing the Pope's feet, the origin of which, it is
supposed, has been derived from a similar practice
iimong the Roman emperors. That the people might
be less reluctant in this mark of respect, Dioclesian,
it is said, had gems attached to his shoes-; and the
Roman pontiffs have the figure of a crucifix on their
slippers, that the adoration paid to the Pope may
seem to be transferred to Christ.

ADOUR, a river of France, which rises in the
mountains of Bigorre, in the upper Pyrenees, and
running in a northerly direction through Gascony,
turns afterwards to the east, passes by Dax, and
falls into the Bay of Biscay, below Bayonne.

ADOWA, the chief town of Tigre in Abyssinia,
is Isituated on the declivity of a hill, on the side of a
plain which is surrounded by mountains. The name,
which signifies pass or passage, is descriptive of its
situation, for it is the only passage from the Red
Sea to Gondar. Adowa is the residence of the go-
vernor, contains about 300 houses, and has a manu-
factory of coarse cotton cloth, which is employed as
the circulating medium in Abyssinia. N. Lat. 14°
7' E. Long. 38° 5a.

ADOXA, tuberous moschatel, or hollow-root, a
genus of plants belonging to the Octandria class.

ADRASTUS, a king of Argos, is celebrated in
history as one of the seven warriors who conducted
their forces against Thebes, in support of Polynices,
who was excluded by his brother Eteocles from his
share of the sovereign authority. Adrastus, who
escaped by the swiftness of his horse, was the only
one who survived the expedition. After the lapse
of ten years, the sons of the seven chiefs renewed
the war, and became masters of Thebes. The only
leader who fell, was the son of Adrastus, for whose

loss he was so afflicted, that he died of grief at Me-
gara, as he was returning with his victorious army.
The first war is celebrated by Statius, in the The-
baid ; and the last, called the war of the Epigones, or
descendants, forms the subject of Wilkie's Epigoniad.

ADRIAN, or Hadrian, Publius ^^^lius, a
celebrated Roman emperor, was born at Rome, in
the 76th year of the Christian era. Deprived of his
father in his tenth year, he was placed under the
guardianship of Trajan. He soon discovered a strong
predilection for literature, in the acquisition of which
he was greatly distinguished, and particularly in the
knowledge of the Greek language, which was now
assiduously cultivated by the learned Romans. A-
drian commenced his military career in early life,
and served as tribune in the army, by whom he was
chosen to announce the death of Nerva to Trajan,
and to congratulate him on his accession to the im-
perial throne. Adrian, it has been asserted, on ac-
count of some peculiarity of temper or character, or
from his attachment to learning, was disliked by Tra-
jan. But this seems little consistent with his pro-
motion to places of high trust and confidence, which
he held under that emperor. In almost every expe-
dition which Trajan undertook, Adrian accompa-
nied him as quaestor ; and he was afterwards ap-
pointed tribune of the people, pra;tor, governor of
provinces, and pro-consul. But if Adrian really
failed in securing the attachment of Trajan, he was
fortunate in obtaining the favour and influence of the
Empress Plotina. Through her means, his marriage
with Sabina, the Emperor's grand-niece, was accom-
plished ; an event which probably opened the path
to his future greatness. On the death of Trajan,
which happened when Adrian was governor of Sy-
ria, and commander of the army, the empress, in a
communication to the senate, declared that her hus-
band had adopted him as his heir. When the news
reached Adrian, he caused himself to be proclaimed
emperor.

Adrian was invested with the imperial dignity in
the year 117. The first act of his government was
the restoration of the conquered countries to the
Persians ; and the remission of the enormous sum of
more than L.7 ,000,000 sterling, in debts due to the
state by individuals, cities, and provinces, acquired
for him a high degree of popularity, and is comme-
morated in medals struck on the occasion, in which
he is represented with a flambeau in his hand, setting
fire to the bonds which his extraordinary generosity
had cancelled. On his return to Rome in 118, a tri-
umph, and the affectionate title oi Fattier of his coun-
try, were decreed to him bj' the senate. But he had
the magnanimity to decline the proffered honours.

Two years afterwards, Adrian visited Germany,
Gaul, and Britain. To give greater security to the
Roman power in Britain, he contracted the limits of
his dominion ; and, to restrain the irregular warfare
of the native Caledonians, he constructed the cele-
brated wall which still bears his name. This stu-
pendous work extended from the river Tyne at New-
castle, to the Solway Frith, a distance of 60 miles ;
and its remains are still visible in diflerent parts of
its course, as in the vicinity of Hexham, westward
from Carlisle, and near its termination at the village

Aflri'an.

ADR

Adrian. ofBo^i'ness. Adrian, on his return to Rome, was
■ _„■- ^' greeted with the title of Restorer of Britain, and me-
* dais were struck in honour of this event.

From this period to his death, he was constantly
occupied in visiting the widely extended provinces
of the empire. The activity of his mind was not
solely confined to the political affairs of his adminis-
tration ; for, white he was in Sicily, he ascended
j^itna to contemplate the striking appearances of
that celebrated volcanic mountain ; and he spent
a night on its sunmiit, that he might enjoy the glow-
ing beauties of the rising sun. During the active
and vigorous reign of this wise and prudent prince,
it must ever be regretted, that the Christians had
been subjected to severe persecution ; and the wan-
ton indignities, and studied insults, heaped on the
Jews, are altogether irreconcileable with the gene-
rous conduct of a magnanimous conqueror towards
a subjugated and depressed people. Tlie images of
swine, an animal held in abhorrence by the Jewish
nation, were engraven on the gates of Jerusalem ;
the statues of the heathen divinities were erected in
the most sacred places ; and they were not permit-
ted to revisit the holy city, excepting on one day of
the year, which was fixed for the anniversary of their
subjection to the Roman power.

Adrian was seized with a dropsical disorder which
terminated his existence in the 63d year of his
age, and the 22d of his reign. His character ex-
hibits a singular assemblage of virtue and vice.
He was generous, affable, and courteous ; but, in his
natural disposition, he was suspicious, envious, and
cruel ; capricious in his attachment, and violent in
his resentment ; distrusted by his friends, and dread-
ed by his enemies. Adrian is represented as an ex-
cellent scholar, and as a liberal patron of learning.
Fragments of his Latin poetry are still extant ; and
a Greek poem, entitled Alexandriad, of which fa-
vourable specimens have been quoted by the an-
cients, was the production of his muse. A prose
work, the history of his own life, to which the name
of his freed man Phlegon is prefixed, has been ascrib-
ed to Adrian. But the following verses addressed
to his soul, composed, it is said, on his deathbed,
and in a strain of tender levity, have been often read
and admired, and have been the subject of numerous
translations and imitations by modern poets :

Animula, vagula, blandula,
Honpes, comesgue, corporis,
Qua nunc abibis in loca
PaUidula, rigida, nudula,
Nex, ut soles, dabisjocos ?

Ah ! fleeting spirit ! wandering fire,
That long hast warmed my tender breast,
Must thou no more this frame inspire,
No more a pleasing cheerful guest ?
Whither, ah whither, art thou flying?
>^To what dark undiscovered shore ?
Thou seem'st all trembling, shivering, dying,
And wit and humour are no more? — Pope.

Adrian IV. Pope, the only Englishman who en-
joyed the papal dignity, and whose original name
was Nicolas Brekespere, was bom at Langley, near

VOL. I. PART I.

sr

ADR

St Albans, in Hertfordshire. His father had assum-
ed the monastic habit in the monastery of St Albans ;
but his own application, whether he was urged to it
by the pressure of poverty, or by motives of piety,
to be admitted into the same religious establishment,
was rejected. Driven from his native country by
this disappointment, he fixed his residence in Paris,
where he soon attained, by his assiduity and indus-
try, considerable distinction for theological learn-
ing. Still inclined to a monastic life, he retired to
Provence, became a regular clerk in the monastery
of St Rufus, was afterwards promoted to the canoni-
cal order, and, by his learning, prudence, and rigid
observance of the rules of the institution, was, on
the death of the abbot in 1137, elected superior of
the establishment. The monks beheld the elevation
of a foreigner with a jealous eye, and were little dis-
posed to submit quietly to his authority ; and the
Pope, anxious to secure the tranquillity of the mo-
nastery, saw that it was necessary to remove him :
but holding his talents and merit in high estimation,
he immediately conferred upon him the dignity of
Cardinal Bishop of Alba, and afterwards the ap-
pointment of legate to Denmark and Norway, where
he succeeded in converting the natives to the Ca-
tholic faith, and established the archiepiscopal see of
Upsal. Soon atler his return to Rome, Pope Anas-
tasius died, and he was unanimously chosen to be his
successor in the papal chair, when he assumed the
name of Adrian.

Henry the Second of England, gratified to s«e
an Englishman promoted to the holy see, appoint-
ed a splendid embassy, composed of the abbot of
St Albans and three bishops, to offer sentiments
of congratulation, along with many rich presents.
The presents were declined ; but the abbot obtain-
ed for his monastery some valuable privileges ; and,
in particular, an entire exemption from all epis-
copal jurisdiction, except to that of the see of Rome.
Adrian's elevation to the papal throne brought with
it much anxiety and disquietude. Political discus-
sions with the Roman magistrates, produced an in-
terdict from religious worship for several months,
which was removed by the banishment of Arnold of
Brescia, a popular leader, who was afterwards recal-
led, and condemned for his sedition or heresy to be
burned alive. The sentence was executed, and his
ashes were thrown into the Tyber, that his followers
might be precluded from seizing and preserving then*
as precious relics. Adrian was involved in constant
struggles with kings and princes, one of whom, tlie
king of the Romans, performed the humiliating pe-
nance of holding his stirrup while he mounted his
horse ; and another, the king of Sicily, was excom-
municated for encroaching on the territory of the
church. The troubles of a short reign of four years
and nine months, which terminated in 1159, although
not unmarked by vigour, prudence, and dignity,
drew from the dying pontift' a sentiment similar to
that which is expressed by the bard of Avon ;

" Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown."

Shakespeare.

ADRIANOPLE, a city in the province of Ro-
maoia, in the European part of the Turkislji domi-
H

Adrianoplf.

A D V

58

A D U

Adriatic nions, derives its name from the Roman emperor
II Adrian, by whom it was built or improved, stands in

Adyentnte. a plain on the banks of the river Mariza, and is en-
compassed by mountains. It is six or seven miles
in circumference, and is surrounded by a wall.
Many of the houses are low and built of mud; some
are constructed of brick, in a better style. The
streets are irregular, narrow, and dirty. The num-
ber of inhabitants of all nations exceeds 100,000.
It contains three bazars or market-places; one of
which is an arched building, half a mile in length,
and divided into 365 splendid shops ; a second, a
mile in length, is also well provided with shops of
an inferior description ; and the third, in a different
quarter of the city, is covered with boards, support-
ed by a double row of massy columns, and is appro-
priated to the sale of works in gold and silver, jew-
els, and warlike instruments. The palace of the
grand vizier, in the Turkish style, is remarkable for
its extent and the beauty of its situation. But the
chief ornaments of Adrianople are four mosques, of
elegant construction and unrivalled execution, whose
lofty spires, galleries resting on beautifully sculptur-
ed columns, with pedestals and other embellishments
of cast brass ; cupolas surmounted with gilded balls ;
gates of the finest marble, most exquisitely carved ;
magnificent porticos, and splendid fountains, present
altogether one of the most impressive scenes of eas-
tern grandeur. The Greek emperor was disposses-
sed of Adrianople in 1362, by the Turks, and it con-
tinued to be their metropolis till Constantinople, in
1452, yielded to the arms of Mahomet II. It is now
governed by a Mullah cadi with absolute authority,
is the seat of a Greek bishop, and, in times of com-
motion, is the residence of the Grand Signior. N.
Lat. 41. 41. E. Long. 26. 27.

ADRIATIC SEA, or Gulf of Venice, an arm
of the Mediterranean, which is bounded on the east
by Dalmatia, Sclavonia, and Turkey, and on the
west by Italy, extends from south-east to north-west
about 200 leagues, and is about 50 in breadth. The
temperature of the Adriatic is considerable in sum-
mer ; but in the vicinity of Venice it is frequently
frozen over in winter. The dominion of this sea is
claimed by the Venetians.

ADUAR, a travelling village, common in eastern
countries, particularly among the Moors and Ara-
bians. The inhabitants of which it is composed
dwell in waggons and tents, for the conveniency of
removal from place to place, on account of pastu-
rage for their cattle. It is said that 30,000 villages
of this description exist in the kingdom of Algiers ;
but this is perhaps an exaggerated statement.

ADVENTURE BAY, a bay in Van Diemen's
Land, near the southern extremity of New Holland,
was discovered by Captain Furneaux in 1773, and
was \'isited by Captain Cooke in 1777. The bottom
of this bay- is bounded by a beautiful beach two miles
in length, and covered with a fine white sand thrown
up by the sea, and probably produced by the decom-
position of sandstone rocks which appear on different
parts of the coast. The elevated land in the vicinity is
clothed with thick forests. The i'ew natives who were
seen, seemed to be extremely ignorant and barba-
cous. Their huts were miserably constructed ; and

no trace of boat or canoe was observed. The ani- Adventarers
mals, especially birds and insects, of rich and beau- ||

tiful colours, are numerous ; the only quadrupeds Adultcra-
are supposed to be the kangaroo, and a small species ♦'""•
of opossum ; snakes and lizards are common; the ^•*V'*»'
sea abounds with fish ; and a lake of brackish water,
situated in a plain not far distant from the beach,
afforded bream and small trout to the voyagers.

ADVENTURERS, a society of merchants, form-
ed for the discovery of new territories and sources of
trade ; had its origin in Burgundy, and was first es-
tablished at Antwerp by John duke of Brabant,
about the middle of the 13th century, where it was
distinguished by the appellation of the Brotherhood
of St Thomas a Becket. This association, which was
partly composed of English merchants, derived va-
rious immunities from the sovereigns of England, —
the privilege of exporting wool, from Edward I. a-
bout the end of the 13th or beginning of the 14th
century; — a charter from Henry VI. in 1430; — the
name of Merchant-adventurers of London, from Hen-
ry VII. in 1505 ; — and the form of an English corpo-
ration from Queen Elizabeth, in 1564. Such was the
monopolizing spirit of the times, that this company
claimed and exercised the right of granting licences
to all other English merchants for the privilege of
trading in the great fairs on the continent. The sum
at first demanded for this licence was only 6s. 8d. ;
but in the time of Henry VII. it was raised to the
enormous sum of L.40. Another association had now
been formed, denominated the Merchant-adventurers
of England ; their application to parliament to be
relieved from this heavy imposition was successful,
and it was reduced to nearly the original tax.

ADVERB, a word conjoined with an adjective
or verb, and expressive of some modification in that
quality or action in the words with which it is asso-
ciated; as very rich, highly favoured; he walks quickly.

ADVERSATIVE, a conjunction, denominated
di^unctive, because it separates, or sets in opposition,
different clauses of a sentence ; as, he is extremely
rich, hut a great miser ; in which hut is the adversa-
tive conjunction.

ADUL A, the ancient name of one of the summits
of St Gothard, one of the Swiss Alps, which gives
origin to the river Rhine.

ADULARIA, a crystallized and transparent va-
riety of felspar, derives its name from the mountain
Adula, which affords fine specimens of this mineral.
See Mineralogy.

ADULTERATION, from a word signifying to
corrupt, is the act of debasing or corrupting any sub-
stance by an admixture of something of inferior va-
lue. Adulteration of the necessaries and luxuries of
life is subjected to tlie penalties of fine and imprison-
ment. Adulteration of the coin is effected by for-
ging another stamp or inscription ; by increasing the
pi-oportion of alloy with the gold or silver ; by sub-
stituting a different metal ; or by diminishing its size,
by clipping, filing, Src. This offence is severely pu-
nished among all nations. By the Egyptians, the of-
fender had both hands cut off"; and b}' the Romans,
at one period, he was thrown to wild beasts. In the
time of Constantine, it was declared to be treason, as
it is at the present day in Britain.

A D U

m

A D V

Aaultery ADULTERY, the violation of conjugal fidelity,
II by an unlawful connection between a married and

Advocate, an unmarried person, or between two married per-
"•^"ym^ sons. The different degrees of criminality or moral
turpitude, in the estimate formed of this offence by
different nations, and by the same nation at different
periods of barbarism and refinement, have produced
a remarkable diversity in the penal enactments a-
gainst it. Among early nations, the severest punish-
ment was inflicted. It was punished by death among
the Jews ; by death or mutilation, by the loss of nose,
eyes, or ears, among the Greeks ; by a similar mu-
tilation, at one period, among the Romans, and at
another period by death. By the older laws of al-
most all European nations, tlie punishment was also
capital ; but the laws have become obsolete, or are
greatly mitigated. In England, death, banishment,
mutilation, and, in the present day, a pecuniary fine,
have been the different punishments annexed to this
crime. In Scotland, in the 16th century, open coha-
bitation or notour adultery, was punished by the for-
feiture of goods ; but it was soon after rendered ca-
pital ; and in the succeeding century, several offen-
ders of this description were actually executed. In
cases of simple adultery, pecuniary damages are a-
warded, as in England. The injured party may ob-
tain a divorce by act of parliament in England, and
by an action in the commissary or consistorial court
in Scotland. The offending wife loses her rank or
title acquired by marriage ; and tlie offending husband
must return the dowry of his wife. The law of Scot-
land prohibits the offending parties from marrying.
The marriage between such parties is permitted in
England, unless, as we believe happens in some cases,
a special enactment to the contrary be introduced
into the act of parliament authorising the divorce.

The prevalence of this offence, for it is scarcely
regarded as a crime, and the mitigation of the penal-
ties annexed to it, form a striking feature in the
manners of modern times, and might afford useful
employment to the researches of the moralist and le-
gislator in investigating its causes, and considering
the means of its prevention. It would appear, at first
sight, that those who have been guilty of deliberate
seduction, — of embittering the sweets of domestic
joy, — of entailing misery, not on one, but on several
innocent families, could not be too severely punish-
ed. But, on the other hand, it is strenuously main-
tained, that excessive severity of punishment is not
the surest and most effectual means for the preven-
tion of crimes ; and on this principle the penal prac-
tice of this country, in such cases, proceeds. The
expression of public opinion in reprobating the guilt
of adultery, is altogether disproportionate, in the es-
timation of the sober-minded and dispassionate, to
the enormity of the offence. The female offender, it
is true, is, in some degree, avoided by the virtuous
of her own sex ; but tlie male delinquent, in few in-
stances, suffers any degradation in society : his ho-
nour, in the fashionable meaning of the term, has
contracted no stain, and he is freely admitted and
courteously treated in all polished circles.

ADVOCATE, a person who pleads or defends
causes in courts of law. In England, the term coun-
sel, or barrister at law, and ia Ireland counsellor, Is

applied to persons of this profession ; but advocate Advocate
is the common appellation in Scotland. The mem- ||

hers of the faculty of advocates have the exclusive Auv )WJon,
privilege of pleading before the supreme civil and W^-- >^
criminal courts in Scotland, as well as in every civil
and ecclesiastical court. They enjoy the right also
of pleading before the king in council, and the two
houses of parliament. From this body, the judges of
the supreme civil and criminal courts, and those of
the court of exchequer, as well as the sheriffs of
counties, which latter must be advocates of three
years standing, are appointed. The faculty of advo-
cates consists of nearly three hundred members, and
possesses an excellent library, containing not fewer
than 70,000 volumes. This library is entitled to a
copy of every book entered in Stationer's Hall ; and
L.lOO sterling of the admission-money of new mem-
bers is appropriated to the purchase of books.

Candidates for the profession of an advocate un-
dergo three trials. The first is an examination, which
is conducted in the Latin language, of their know-
ledge of the Roman or civil law ; the second exami-
nation, after the lapse of a year, refers to their know-
ledge of the law of Scotland ; and in the third a La-
tin thesis is defended.

ADVOCATE, Lord, or King's advocate, one of
the officers of state, and principal crown lawyer in
Scotland. He is the public prosecutor before the
Court of Justiciary, or supreme criminal court. The
Lord Advocate has the power of determining, from
the evidence of facts and circumstances laid before
him, whether persons charged with crimes shall be
prosecuted ; and in crimes of a capital nature, he has
the power of restricting the sentence to an arbitrary
punishment, or a punishment at the discretion of the
judge, which does not extend to death.

ADVOCATION, Bill of, in the law of Scotland,
is a petition of appeal of a party in an action before
an inferior court to the supreme court. Letters of
advocation are the decree or warrant of the Court of
Session, discharging the inferior court from fur-
ther proceedings in the cause, and advocating it to
itself.

ADVOWEE, anciently the advocate of a church,
or religious house, who was the guardian and admi-
nistrator of its temporal affairs. This office Is said to
have been first introduced about the fourth century ; *
and persons of the highest rank were appointed to it,
for the purpose of defending with arms, or of pro-
jecting with power and authority, tlie establish-
ments to which they were nominated. The Emperor
Charlemagne held the title of advowee of St Peter's ;
and the Pope constituted Edward the Confessor and
his successors advowees of the monastery of West-
minster, and of all the churches in England. Sub-ad-
vowees were sometimes appointed in monasteries as
substitutes for the advowees.

ADVOWSON, is the right of presentation to a
vacant benefice in England. An advowson is said to
be presentative, when the patron presents a person
to the bishop to be instituted in his church. It is
called collative, when the benefice is given by the bi-
shop as the original patron, or by means of an ac-
quired right ; and donative, when the patron, by a
single donation in writing, grants possession, without

iEacea

J/E lile.

^ A C

presentation, institution, or induction. Advowson is
equivalent to patronage in Scotland.

jliACEA, were solemn festivals and games, which
were celebrated in tlie island of JEgina, in honour of
ilsacus.

jEACUS, the son of Jupiter and JEgma, and king
of the island, named after his mother. According to
fabulous history, after the island of j^gina was depo-
pulated by a plague, the grief of jlJacus drew forth
the compassion of Jupiter, who converted all the ants
into human beings, who were hence called myrmi-
dons, from the Greek word which signifii^s an ant.
But the story, divested of fable, is supposed to refer
to ^acus, a wise and prudent prince, who roused
the exertions of the inhabitants, to recover, by in-
dustry and commerce, the losses which they had sus-
tained by the plunder of pirates. jEacus was so high-
ly esteemed for his love of integrity and justice, that
Pluto, the god of the infernal regions, appointed him
one of the judges of the dead : — another moral les-
son wrapped up in fable, which teaches that the prac-
tice of virtue will be honoured and rewarded hereafter.

^BUDj'E, or Haebudae, the ancient name of the
Western Islands of Scotland. The more modern name
Hebrides, is supposed to have originated from the
conversion of the u into ri, by the inattention of
some transcriber.

j^iDILE, a magistrate among the Romans, to
whose superintendance almost the whole of the pub-
lic police of the city was entrusted. Two aediles
were originally chosen from the plebeian order, to as-
sist the tribunes of the people in their duties. The
office of the <xdiles, as the word, signifying a build-
ing, from which it is derived, imports, was to take
care of, and superintend the city, its public build-
ings, roads, markets, weights and measures, prices
and quality of provisions, the censorship and inspec-
tion of books, particularly of dramatical performan-
ces. They possessed also a certain jurisdiction in de-
termining causes of an inferior nature. It was also a
part of the duty of the ffidiles to guard against any
innovation in religious ceremonies ; and to see that
the ordinances of the people, and the decrees of the
senate, were safely deposited in the temple of Ceres.
■Tlie exhibition of public games, at their own ex-
pence, was also required from the same magistrates,
wJiich was attended with the ruin of many individu-
als who held that office. But when the senate had
decreed, on the occasion of the differences between
the patricians and plebeians being settled, that games
should be celebrated in a splendid manner, in grati-
tude to the gods for this event, the aediles declined
to undertake the task, on account of the enormous
exponce. The patricians came forward, and offered
to take c-liarge of the festival, if they were admitted
to the office. Two a;dilcs of the patrician order were
tlien elected, about the year of Rome 388, and were
caWeA. cediles curules ; because in the administration
of justice they sat in a chair ornamented with ivory,
while the plebeian adiles sat on plain benches. Be-
sides these four aediles, Julius Caesar created two
otherg, who were distinguished by the name of cediles
t.ercales ; because to their management and inspec-
tion were committed the public granaries, and all
matters relative to corn.

60 ^ G E

i^G^, or ^GEA, or Edessa, the modern Vodl-
na, was so called by Caranus, the first king of Mace-
donia, who had been directed by the oracle to esta-
blish his empire under the conduct of a flock of
goats. He arrived in Macedonia during a storm, and
pursuing a flock of goats, which ran to the city for
shelter, he surprised and took it. He then changed
the name to ^gea, derived from a word which sig-
nifies a goat ; and hence, too, it is supposed, the he-
goat, mentioned by the prophet Daniel, is the sym-
bol of the kings of Macetlon,

j'EGEAN SEA, is the ancient name of that part of
the Mediterranean which separates Europe from
Asia, and now called the Archipelago.

jEGEUS, in fabvdous history, was king of Athens,
and the father of Theseus. The Athenians having put
to death the son of Minos, king of Crete, Minos made
war upon them, was victorious, and concluded a
peace, with the severe condition of seven noble Athe-
nian youths being annually chosen by lot, and sent
to Crete, to be devoured by the Minotaur. On the
fourth year, the lot fell on Theseus. The ship ia
which he departed was ordered to have black sails ;
and, in case of his death, it was to return with the
same ; but if he should be fortunately victorious,
they were to be changed into white. Theseus killed
the Minotaur, and returned, but neglected to change
the sails; and the father, concluding that his son
was dead, threw himself into the sea, and from this
event it derived its name. Divine honours were de-
creed to ^geus by the Athenians, who performed
sacrifice to him as a sea god, the adopted son of
Neptune.

A(tINA, an island in the Saronic gulph, or bay
of Engia, about 20 miles distant from Athens, ^a-
cus changed its name from CEnopia to iEgina, in ho-
nour of his mother, who, according to the fable, was
the daughter of ^sopus, king of Bceotia, was sedu-
ced by Jupiter, in the likeness of a lambent flame,
and was carried from Epidaurus to this island, then
a desert. The industry of the ancient inhabitants, in
communicating fertility to a barren soil, obtained
for them the name of viyrmidons, or ants. They also
applied themselves successfully to commerce, and
are said to have been the first who coined money.
They were rivals of the Athenians in naval power,
and disputed the palm of victory with them at the
celebrated naval engagement of Salamis. The re-
mains of a magnificent temple, which was dedicated
to Jupiter, and erected on a lofty mountain, at a
distance from the sea, are still visible, j^igina fell
under the power of different states of Greece at dif-
ferent periods. In 1 536 it was conquered by the Turks ;
the capital was taken and burnt, and, after a dread-
ful massacre, the surviving inhabitants were reduced
to slavery. TEgina produces corn, wine, olives, and
almonds ; and it abounds with pigeons and partridgef.
The latter are said to be so numerous, that the inha-
bitants, to avoid a famine, annually destroy their
eggs.

^GINA, now called Engia, is the capital of ^^gi-
na, and only remarkable for a castle, which is ca-
pable of admitting about 800 troops, and thirteen
churches, of mean appearance, some parts of which
are supposed to be fragments of a temple of Venus.

^ G I

61

The remains of temples, theatres, and public works,
some of which are now under the surface of the wa-
ter, afford ample proof of the ancient magnificence
of this place.

i?i!GlPHILA, Goat-friend, a genus of plants be-
longing to the class Tetrandria.

/EGIS, a word signifying a she-goat, is the name
of the shield of Jupiter and Minerva. Upon the
death of the goat Amalthca, by which Jupiter was
suckled, he covered his shield with its skin, and pre-
sented it to Minerva, and hence Minerva's shield
was called eegis. Jupiter, according to the fable, re-
stored the animal to life, covered it with a new skin,
and placed it among the stars. Some antiquarians
suppose that the aegis is not a shield, but a breast-
plate, as it is described by Virgil, ^neid, lib. viii.
435 and 354.

AEGOPODIUM, Goat-weed, or Goat's-foot, a
genus of plants belonging to the class Pentandria.

i^GOSPOTAMOS, the ancient name of a small
river of the Thracian Chersonesus, which falls into
the Hellespont. The road for ships near its mouth
is famous, in ancient history, for a victory gained by
the Lacedemonians under Lysander, over the Athe-
nians under Conon. This complete overthrow was
followed by the capture of Athens, the destruction
of the naval power of the Athenians, and the termi-
nation of the Peloponnesian war.

^LIA CAPITOLINA, the name of the city
built by the emperor Adrian, near the site of the an-
cient Jerusalem. In the year 134, when he visited
the eastern parts of the Roman empire, the city be-
ing in ruins, he established a Roman colony in it, and
dedicated the temple which he erected in place of
that of Jerusalem, to Jupiter Capitolinus. To this
was prefixed his own family name, which he gave to
the city.

JULIAN CLAUDIUS, a learned Roman who
was born at Praeneste, in Italy, and flourished in the
veign of the emperor Adrian. He was greatly dis-
tinguished as a Greek scholar, and was so perfect a
master of that language tliat he could speak and
write it with much facility and fluency. He was the
author of numerous works on different subjects, the
chief of which. Various History, and a History of
Animals, in seventeen books, written in Greek, have
been frequently quoted.

j^iNEAS, a celebrated Trojan prince, was the
son of Anchises and Venus ; jEneas and Antenor
were the only persons among the Trojans who pre-
ferred peace to the long war which terminated in the
destruction of Troy, and strongly urged that Helen,
whose detention was the cause of the war, should be
restored. This prudent counsel brought upon them
the suspicion of treachery. When Troy fell into the
hands of the Greeks, jEneas and his friends fought
bravely against the assailants ; and being overpower-
ed by superior numbers, he escaped from the flames
which raged in the city, carrying his aged parent,
Anchises, on his shoulders, and leading his .son As-
canius by the hand ; but in his flight he lost his wife
Crcusa. ^lineas and some of his surviving country-
men retired to mount Ida, built a fleet, set sail in
search of a new settlement, and after many perilous

^ O L

adventures by sea and land, arrived at Sicily, where jEiwid.
he lost his father. Driven by a storm to the coast of ||
Africa, he was most hospitably entertained by Dido, jEolic.
queen of Carthage, who fell desperately in love with v^^y"^
him, and solicited his acceptance of a share of the
government of her kingdom. Rejecting her offer, he
departed from Africa, landed in Italy, married Lavi-
nia, the daughter of Latinus, king of the Aborigines,
and built Lavinium, for the residence of his country-
men. But Turnus, king of the Rutuli, to whom La-
vinia had been betrothed before the arrival of iEneas,
being disappointed, and enraged at the preference
given to a stranger, made war on Latinus and his
new son-in-law. Latinus fell in battle, and the army
of Turnus was routed. Mneas succeeded to the
throne of Latium, and united both nations under the
common name of Latins. Four years had only elap-
sed when ^neas was slain in battle with Mezentius,
king of the Tuscans. The Romans trace their descent
to jEneas ; and after his death he was invoked as a
god by the name of Jupiter Indiges.

j^NEID, the name of Virgil's celebrated epic
poem, which relates the adventures of i^neas and
the Trojans, their establishment in Italy, and the
foundation of the Roman empire. The jEneid is
divided into twelve boolis, the first six of which are
generally allowed to be the most interesting. It is
said that the last six books were in an unfinished,
state, or, at least, had not received the last correc-
tion of the author at his death, and that he ordered
the whole poem to be committed to the flames. Had
the order been obeyed, polite literature would have
sustained an irreparable loss. And whatever inferi-
ority may be discovered by critics m tlie descriptions
and characters of Virgil, when compared with the
bolder and more striking beauties of Homer, of which
they are obviously an imitation, the lovers of poetry
must ever admire the yEneid on account of the cor-
rectness and elegance of its diction, and the smooth-
ness and melody of its versification, as one of tlie
most splendid and finished compositions.

.ENIGMA, from a Greek word, which signifies
to hint a thing darkly, is an obscure manner of ex-
pression, or representation, in v/hich the words or
figures employed convey a different meaning from
their obvious and literal import. Exercises of this
kind, from the prevalence of false taste, were at one
time frequent among the learned ; and, when alche-
my flourished, the adepts described their processes
in this ambiguous mode of expression, that their true
nature might not be easily discovered.

iEOLIAN HARP, or lyre, a musical instrument,
from which the most delicate and agreeable tones arc
obtained by the impulse of the wind. For a descrip-
tion of this instrument see Acoustics-. ,

.[■EOLIAN ISLANDS, are seven islands which
are situated between Sicily and Italy, and derive theic
name from iEolus, who is supposed to have reigned
about the time of the Trojan war. They are now
called Z.^fl;i Islands, See Lip.tRi.

7E0LIAN SEA, is part of the ^ligeaii sea wliich
washes the shores of jKoUs, and is now called the
guliih of Smyrna.

iEOLIC, one ot the fire dialects of the Greek,

A E R

62

A E R

jEjh.

^o!ipil« tongue, was first used in Boeotia, from whence it
" passed into JEolia. It approaches nearly to the Do-

ric dialect.

iEOLIPILE, signifying the ball of jEolus, is a
IwUow metallic ball, with a cylindrical pipe. When
the ball is nearly filled with "water, and the pipe
screwed in, it is exposed to heat, and when the
water boils, or is converted into steam, the steam
rushes out with great violence and noise. When al-
cohol is introduced into a similar apparatus, a lower
degree of heat converts it into vapour, the current
of which is sometimes employed as a blowpipe.

iEOLIS, or ^oLiA, a country of Asia Minor,
which was formerly occupied by a colony of Greeks.
According to some geographers, it now forms part
of Anatolia.

iEOLUS, a king of the ^olian islands, according
to ancient history, succeeded his father-in-law in the
government of these islands, and gave them his name.
In the heathen mythology, iEolus is represented as
the god of the winds, which he kept confined in a
vast cavern ; but the origin of the fable is said to be
derived from the wisdom and prudence of jEolus, and
from his skill in astronomy, and observing natural
appearances, by which he could predict changes of
weather, and the approach of storms. The Romans
paid divine honours to yEolus, and he was consider-
ed as the son of Jupiter and Acesta.

^ON, a word signifying an age, or certain period
of duration, was'employed by the Platonists to denote
any virtue, attribute, or perfection ; and hence the
Deity was represented as an assemblage of all possi-
ble eeo)ts. This Platonic doctrine was introduced in-
to the Christian faith in the first ages of the church,

by different sects, and particularly by the Valenti- ^ra
mans. {|

iERA, or EH A, a certain fixed point of time which Aeronautics,
is distinguished by some remarkable event, and to
which both preceding and future events are referred.
For example, the Christian aera, which commenced
at the birth of Christ.

j^RARIUS, a name given by the Romans to a
citizen degraded on account of some oftience. Per-
sons of this description could not make a will, inhe-
rit property, vote in assemblies, or hold a place of
emolument or honour ; but while they were preclud-
ed from the privileges, they were still subjected to
the taxes of the state.

AERIAL, in its general acceptation, signifies some-
thing which partakes of the nature and properties of
air.

Aerial, Perspective, denotes the appearances of
visible objects, as they are modified by distance, and
varieties of light or shade ; or, it is the art of imitat-
ing these appearances in painting. See Painting.

AERIFORM, a term expressive of something in
the form or state of air ; as the airs or gases, which
are different from the common air of the atmosphere,
are called in chein«try aeriform fiuids.

AEROLITES, a word trom the Greek, signifying
air and stone, is applied to those mineral bodies which
have fallen from the atmosphere, in which, accord-
ing to some naturalists, they have been formed.

AERONAUT, a name applied to a person who
sails through the air by means of a balloon.

AERONAUTICS, from two Greek words, signi-
fying air, and the art of sailing, is the art of navi-
gating the atmosphere with balloons.

AEROSTATION.

Aerostation, in its original meaning, signifies
the pressure or equilibrium of the air ; but, in a more
general acceptation, it has been applied to the art of
navigating the atmosphere by means of balloons.

Early History. — Those who are fond of retracing
the progress of arts to remote antiquity, may probably
think their researches rewarded with the discovery
of the origin of aerial navigation, or, at least, of
the first attempts at flying in the air, in the story of
Daedalus, who, it is said, constructed wings for him-
self and his son ; and, to escape the resentment of
Minos, king of Crete, by whom they were kept
In durance, flew from that island to Sardinia, and
afterwards to Cuma?, in Italy. But, perhaps, the
whole of this ancient fiction ought merely to be
regarded as the expression of an ingenious invention,
or an arduous enterprise, clothed in fable. Few na-
tions, however, exist, among whom, even in the ear-
liest times, certain vague notions have not prevailed
of the practicability of traversing the air ; but this
power was generally ascribed to the agency of su-
pernatural beings. Roger Bacon, an English monk,
who died before the termination of the thirteenth
century, seems to be the first who speculated on
this arduous enterprise upon rational principles.
He says, that a machine had been constructed

for the purpose, and that the experiment had been
successfully made by a person whom he knew. This
machine is said to have consisted of two large hollow
globes of thin copper, exhausted of air.

About the middle of the seventeenth century, John
Wilkins, bishop of Chester, who had distinguished
himself by his mathematical and physical learning,
published a treatise, entitled " The Discovery of a
New World ;" in which he asserts, that it might be
possible to reach the moon, if the earth's attraction
were once overcome. He states also the general prin-
ciple, that a vessel filled with lighter air, will float
and rise in heavier air ; but he refers particularly to
mechanical contrivances for traversing the air, and
thinks that a flying chariot might be constructed on
mechanical principles.

Francis Lana, a Jesuit, who was contemporary
with Bishop Wilkins, proposed a method of flying in
the air, similar to that of Friar Bacon. His method
was to construct four globular vessels of thin copper,
each twenty feet in diameter, and these vessels being
exhausted of air, would float in the atmosphere, and
support a certain weight. But although the principle
be correct, it could not be put in practice, as no ves-
sel sufficiently thin to float in the air, could resist its
pressure when exhausted.

A E R

Aetortafion. In the year 1709, a singular and complicated flying
machine was constructed by a Portuguese friar, of the
name of Gusman. This machine was in the form of
a bird, was furnished with tubes, through which the
air passed, to fill its sails or wings, and, when the wind
was deficient, by means of bellows concealed within
its body, for the purpose of raising it in the air.
Pieces of amber were fixed in the upper part of the
machine, and magnets were inclosed within spheres,
that its elevation might be assisted by electric and
magnetic attraction. It does not appear, nor indeed
is it probable, that this machine answered the pur-
pose ; but the inventor was rewarded with a liberal
pension during his life. In the year 1736, it is said
that Friar Gusman constructed a wicker basket, of
seven or eight feet in diameter, which was covered
with paper, and which rose about 200 feet in the air ;
and, it is added, that this effect was generally ascrib-
ed to witchcraft.

In the year 1755, Joseph Galien published a small
treatise at Avignon in France, entitled, " The Art
of Navigating the Air," in which he mentions, that a
bag of cloth or leather, containing air lighter than
that of the atmosphere, might be employed for the
purpose of aerial navigation ; but the knowledge, or
means of preparing such an air, were not within the
reach of the author.

The discovery of inflammable air, or hydrogen gas,
by Mr Cavendish, in 1766, was the first approach to
any successful attempts in aerial navigation ; and Mr
Cavallo was the first who made experiments with this
air. But having tried bladders and Chinese paper,
both of which failed, he succeeded only in blowmg up
with this air soap-bubbles, which rose rapidly to the
ceiling, and burst, by striking against it. This ex-
periment was made in the year 1782. In one ac-
count of the origin and early history of balloons, it
is stated, that a similar experiment with bags of thin
«ilk and paper, filled with hydrogen gas, was devised
and attempted by the brothers Montgolfier, and that
the bags thus prepared ascended rapidly to the ceil-
ing ; but, from the sudden escape of the gas, in a few-
seconds fell to the ground.

First Fire Balloon. — The brothers now alluded to,
Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, were proprietors of a
paper manufactory near Annonay in France, and had
particularly directed their attention to this subject, a-
bout the middle of the year 1782. The ascent of smoke
and clouds in the atmosphere, seems first to have sug-
gested theplan of including an artificial cloudin alarge
bag, of a thin and light material, which being speci-
fically lighter than the air, would float in it. In the
month of November of the same year, the experiment
was made by Joseph Montgolfier at Avignon. He
prepared a silk bag, of a parallelopiped form, and con-
taining about forty cubic feet. Burning paper was ap-
plied to an aperture of its lower extremity, the internal
air was rarified, and the bag expanding, rose rapidly
to^he ceiling of the apartment in which the experi-
ment was made. A similar experiment was repeated
in the open air, and the bag rose to the height of seven-
ty feet. In another experiment, a bag of 650 cubic
feet capacity was constructed, and when the air was ra-
rified, it expanded,and burst from the ropes by which
it was held, and reached an elevation of 600 feet.

65

AE R

On the 5th of June 1783, the first public exhibl- Aerostation.
tion of the ascent of a balloon took place at Anno- '^^•.t^^
nay, in presence of an immense assembly of specta-
tors. A bag of a globular form, constructed of li-
nen, lined with paper, and having a capacity of
more than 23,000 cubic feet, was found capable
of raising 500 pounds, including its own weight.
Chopped straw and wool were burnt under the aper-
ture of the balloon. It immediately began to swell ;
and in five minutes, when it was fully expanded, its
ascensive power could scarcely be counteracted by
the united strength of eight men ; and when it was
liberated, it rose rapidly, amidst the enthusiastic ac-
clamations of a countless multitude, to the height
of a mile, was carried along by the current of wind,
and, after being suspended in the air ten minutes, it
fell to the ground a mile and a half distant from the
place of ascent. This extraordinary exhibition made
a strong impression on those who witnessed it ; and
as the news was circulated through Europe, various
sentiments were excited ; for, while the accuracy of
the statement was doubted by some, the relation
was altogether disbelieved by others.

First Balloon tdtk hydrogen gas. — In August fol-
lowing, a subscription was set on foot at Paris, to de-
fray the expense of an inflammable air balloon. Two
brothers of the name of Robert, under the direction
of M. Charles, a professor of experimental philosophy,
constructed a balloon of thin silk, varnished wI'aI a
solution of elastic gum. It was of a globular shape,
about thirteen feet in diameter, and it was distended
with hydrogen gas obtained from 1000 pounds weight
of iron filings, and 500 pounds of sulphuric acid dilut-
ed with water, and conveyed into the bag through
leaden tubes. But as this was the first attempt at the
preparation of so large a quantity of hydrogen gas,
from their inexperience in the proper manipulations,
several days elapsed before it was filled ; and as the
gas was introduced into the bag without having passed
through water, the heat and fumes of sulphurous
acid with which it was impregnated greatly injured
the silk. The distension was at last completed, and
it rose to an elevation of 100 feet, where it was kept
suspended ; but as the public exhibition of its ascent
was not to take place till next day, it was conveyed
at the still hour of midnight, by torch light, and
under a military escort, to the Champ de Mars, two
miles distant. The day following, which was the
27th August 1783, an immense multitude of specta-
tors assembled from all quarters, and covered every
accessible spot, to witness a spectacle so new and
unexpected. In the afternoon, the discharge of a
cannon announced the completion of the prepara-
tions ; and when loosened from the ropes, it instant-
ly rose ; and its rapid ascent to the height of 3000
feet was followed by one universal burst of accla-
mation from the astonished multitude. It passed
through a mass of clouds, reappeared at a great-
er elevation, was again lost to view in another
cloudy region; and having floated in the air for three
quarters of an hour, fell in a field at the distance
of fifteen miles from the place of ascent. A rent
was observed in its upper part by the peasants who
took it up ; and to this the fall was ascribed.

Fire Balloon ascends from Versaiiks—-lay\\tAhj.,

A E R

64

A E R

Afroitation. ^c Royal Academy of Sciences to exhibit the
experiment in their presence, and at their ex-
pense, Joseph Montgolfier arrived in Paris about
the beginning of September of the same year,
and constructed a balloon of coarse linen, lined
with paper. It was of an oval form, 75 feet in
height, and 43 feet wide ; was fully inflated in ten
minutes, by burning 50 pounds of chopped straw
and 12 jwunds of wool, and was found capable of
raising 500 pounds from the ground. The succeed-
ing day was fixed for the public exhibition ; but a
stormy night intervening, entirely demolished the
imichine ; and it required five days to replace it
with another, which was painted and ornamented
with various figures and devices. On the morning
of tile 19th of September, it was brought forward
and placed upon a scaffold, in front of the palace of
Versailles ; and, in a short time, every place from
which the ascent was expected to be seen was crowd-
ed with an immense multitude of spectators of every
rank and description, not only from the capital, but
also from the surrounding country. After the royal
family and their suite had examined the apparatus,
the discharge of a mortar announced the commence-
ment of inflating the balloon. In ten minutes it
was completely filled ; and a basket, in which were
placed a sheep, a duck, and a cock, was attached
to it. Another discharge of the mortar was the sig-
nal of cutting the ropes, when it ascended with a
majestic motion, and somewhat in an oblique direc-
tion, to the height of 1500 feet. At that point it
seemed for a short time stationary ; and after being
eight minutes in the air, fell to the ground at the
distance of two miles. The animals, the first carried
through the air by this new vehicle, escaped uninjured,
and the sheep, when found, was quietly feeding.

De llozier the Jirst aeronaut Another balloon,

nearly of the same dimensions, was afterwards pre-
pared;, of a stronger and better construction, by M.
Montgolfier ; and Pilatre de Rozier, an enterprising
young naturalist, offered himself to be the first aerial
adventurer. When the balloon was inflated, and the
car attached, de Rozier placed himself in it, and it
rose to an elevation of 300 feet, as high as it was per-
mitted by the length of the ropes by which it was held.
It remauied suspended for a few minutes at this height,
and with a gentle motion returned to the ground.
Similar experiments were repeated by the same na-
turalist ; and daring his descent in one of them, the
balloon fell among some trees, in the branches of
which it was entangled ; but by feeding the fire with
fuel, he dexterously extricated himself, rose to a
greater height, and at last descended in a more com-
modious spot.

The successful issue of these experiments shewed
that the dangers of navigating the air, by machines
of this description, were of a less formidable nature
than was at first apprehended, and that the aeronaut
possessed the means of rising in the atmosphere, by
supplying the balloon with rarified air, and throwing
out ballast, and also of descending, by allowing the
air within the machine to cool and be condensed ;
and afforded sufficient encouragement to bolder and
more arduous attempts. It was justly supposed, too,
tliat the balloon being held down by cords, subject-

ed it to irregular motions, and thus exposed the Aerostation,
voyager to serious accidents. With all this in view, ^^*^/•^v'
an aerial voyage was determined on, in which the
machine should be at full liberty, or left to the
guidance of the navigators. And here the adven-
turous Pilatre de Rozier presented himself to un-
dertake the arduous task.

First aerial xoyatrc. — The 21st of November 178"
was the day fixed for this grand experiment. The
weather was unfavourable ; and the balloon was
nearly destroyed by the violence of the wind ; but
in two hours, by the activity of the workmen, the
injury was repaired ; and the preparations being
completed, De Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes,
who accompanied him, seated themselves in the car,
which was also furnished with ballast and materials j

for fuel. The weight of the whole apparatus was es- 1

timated at 1600 pounds. At two o'clock the ballooit
was liberated, and its majestic ascent excited the
varying emotions of anxiety, wonder, and amaze-
ment, from the astonished spectators ; and when the
adventurers, soaring aloft, waved their hats, the sa-
lutation was returned with a general burst of accla-
mation from the admiring multitude. The balloon rose
to the height of 3000 feet ; was visible to the hiha-
bitants of Paris during the greatest part of the voy-
age ; and having traversed a space of more than five
miles in 25 minutes, it descended safely to the earth.

The happy termination of this daring expedition
could scarcely fail to excite feelings of the deepest
interest. All who witnessed the exhibition were gra- -
tified with a most impressive spectacle ; but the phi-
losopher hailed it as the era of a new acquisition to
the power of man. He had long beheld him familiar
with the bold enterprise of penetrating the depths of
the ocean ; and now he could contemplate the same
adventurous spirit in pursuing his excursive flights
through the regions of the air. But those who saw
and described this extraordinary scene, were not re-
strained by such sober reflections. The volatile fan-
cy of the Parisians magnified the fleeting shadow of
the balloon on the towers of a lofty edifice of the ci-
ty into the exact representation of a total eclipse of
the sun ! And a historian of the same expedition, af-
ter the lapse of more than 30 years, indulging in the
reveries of a heated imagination, has discovered an
apt illustration of this aerostatic voyage, in the flight
of the arch-fiend from Milton's infernal abodes ; and
the French aeronauts, like the Satan of that sublime
poet, are uplifted " in the surging smoke J"

But, amidst the general exultation which pervad-
ed all ranks of the French nation, a more substan-
tial remuneration than empty applause awaited the
brothers Montgolfier. The Academy of Sciences
bestowed upon them the annual prize of 600 livres ;
the elder brother was raised to the rank of nobility ;
and the younger, while he was rewarded with a pen-
sion, had 40,000 livres placed at his disposal to sup-
port the expence of farther experiments.

Second voyage. — A keen rivalship now arose be-
tween the partizans of aerial navigation by means of
rarified air, and those who preferred the method of
filling balloons with hydrogen gas. The complete
success of the late experiment gave a considerable
preponderance in public estimation to the first syg-

A E R

tion. tein ; but those who opposed it, conjfident of the su-
' perior advantaKes and ultimate result of their own
method, determined to bring the matter to a practi-
cal test. The undertaking was entrusted to M.
Charles and the brothers Robert ; and the expence
of the exhibition, which amounted to L.4(X), was de-
frayed by subscription, A balloon, of a spherical
form, and 28 feet in diameter, was constructed of
thin silk, or tiftany, varnished with a solution of elas-
tic gum, A net was stretched over the upper hemi-
sphere, and \yas fastened to a hoop, or band, which
surrounded the middle of the balloon ; and, a. few
feet under it, a car, for the reception of tlie voyagers,
was suspended by ropes attached to the hoop. The
car, constructed of wicker work, which was co-
vered with painted linen, elegantly ornamented,
was eight feet in length, four feet in breadth, and
tliree and a half in depth. A valve was placed in the
upper part of the balloon to permit the free escape
of the gas ; and a long silken tube was attached to
its lower part, by which the balloon was to be filled.
Various difficulties retarded the exhibition till the
1st of December 1783; when the balloon, and the
apparatus for the preparation of the gas, were brought
to a spot near the Thuillerios, which was chosen as
the place of ascent. The materials employed in the
production of the hydrogen gas, were diluted sul-
phuric acid and iron turnings. They were introdu-
ced into several wooden casks, arranged round a
large cistern of water, in which was inverted a ves-
sel for the reception of the gas, which, having pre-
viously passed through the water, was conveyed by
leaden pipes to the balloon. The weight of the whole
Hiachine, including the ballast and travellers, a-
moimted to 640 pounds ; and, by calculation, it
was found, that the air with which the balloon was
distended was only 5| times lighter than atmosphe-
ric air.

It was near two o'clock before the preparations
were fully completed. Messrs Charles and Robert
then seated themselves in the car ; and the balloon
being unloosened, rose witli a slow and steady mo-
tion. In the enthusiastic- description of the narrator,
it ascended " amidst profound silence and admiration,
and permitted the spectators, of which the number
was immense, to follow with their eyes and hearts
two interesting men, who, like demigods, sought the
abode of immortals, to receive the reward oC intelli-
gence, and carry the imperishable name of iVIontgol-
tier." The balloon soon reached the height of 2000
feet ; and, by discharging a quantity of ballast, or
opening the valve to allow the air to escape, they
rose or descended at pleasure ; but during the whole
excursion, which continued for an hour and three
cpiarters, they kejit pretty nearly at the same height
from the eartli. At last tliej' resolved to terminate
their excursion, and they alighted safely, at the dis-
tance of 27 miles from Paris.

Bui although the balloon had become flaccid by
the expenditure of air, when the voyagers dismount-
ed from the car, it appeared still to possess a consi-
derable ascensive power. This determined M. Charles
to attempt alone another voyage. The machine be-
ing lightened l.'JO pounds, by M. Robert leaving
the car, it ascended with such velocity, that, in ten

VOL. I. PART I.

65 A E R

minutes, ft reached an elevation of 9000 feet. At Aefoitttlo*.
this height, every object on earth disap[>eared from v^i^y..^
his view. When he left the earth, the sun had just
set ; but as he rose in the atmosphere, that luminary
became again visible ; and he had an opjiortunity of
watching his parting rays as he sunk a second time
below the horizon. An impressive scene now pre-
sented itself: vapours ascending from the earth, col-
lected into clouds, of various fantastic fornis : and
the pale light of the moon, which had just risen,
communicated a thousand varying hues. At this'V'
time he observed the balloon having a whirling mo- "
tioB, and, by the eifect of a contrary current of air,
returning in an opposite direction ; and when the
progress was horizontal, he was surprised at seeing
the streamers of his banners pointed upwards, — an
effect which must have been produced by an ascend-
ing current of air. When the balloon first rose,
the thermometer stood at 41°, but at its greatest ele-
vation it sunk to 21°. This great change of temper-
ature produced considerable inconvenience ; his fin-
gers were benuml ed with cold, and he experieuced
a violent pain in the jaw and ear of one side. Dur-
ing the higher part of his ascent, the balloon was
greatly distended, and, to avoid the danger of burst-
ing, he frequently opened the valve, when the air
escaped with a rushing noise, and, being of a higher
temperature than the air of the atmosphere, diffused
a considerable warmth around ; but the approach of
night, and the recollection of the promise to his
friends of returning in half an hour, warned him to
discontinue his excursion. He therefore opened the
valve, and descended slowly. The discharge of a
few pounds of ballast within 200 feet of the eartli,
rendered the balloon nearly stationarj- ; and having
performed, in 35 minutes, a circuitous course of
nine miles, he alighted safely in a field, at the dis-
tance of three miles from the place of ascent.

Third I'oi/ane. — On the 19th of January 17S4, Jo-
seph Montgoifier, Pilatre de Rozier, ami four other
persons, ascended from Lyons in the largest balloon
which has yet been constructed. This balloon was
of an oval form, above ISO feet in height, and 105
feet in width ; it was formed of a double fold of linen,
having three intermediate layers ofpaper. The ex-
pence of this exhibition, which amounted to L. 180
Sterling, was defrayed by sul scription. This im-
mense balloon, when distended «ith rarified air, had so
great an ascensive power, that it required the strength
of 50 men to retain it. In seventeen minutes it was
sufficiently dilated by the combustion of 550 lbs. of
alder fajjgots ; and the six adventurers having plactd
themselves in the car, it rose into the atmosphere,
and continued for more than half an hour over the
city; but having observed a large rent in the upper
part of the balloon, they found it necessary to return
to the earth, which they reached without sustaining
any injury.

Blanchard's voi/age. — M. Blanchard, who was dis-
tinguished afterwards by his aerostatic excursions,
and who had long occupied his ingenuity in mecha-
nical contrivances for the purposes of flying in the
air, now contemplated tlie successful application of
the same principles in the direction of balloon^. In
his first attempt on the 2d of March, from Paris, with

A E R

66

A E R

Aerojtation. a balloon filled with hydrogen gas, through the of-
ficious interference of a person who insisted on being
the companion of his voyage the apparatus was in-
jured, and the balloon, after rising a few feet, return-
ed to the earth with a severe shock. The curiosity
of the intrusive stranger was now fully gratified, and
he resigned the entire possession of the car to Blanch-
ard, who ascended alone, and rose rapidly to an ele-
vation of more than a mile ; and after a voyage of an
hour and three quarters, in different currents of air, he
descended safely to the earth. But it did not appear
that he derived any other advantage from his appa-
ratus of oars and rudder than being able to commu-
nicate a whirling motion to the balloon.

Guuton-Morvcaii s ascension. — In the month of A-
pril the same year, M. Guyton-Morvcau, celebrated
for his chemical researches, and the Abbe Bertrand,
ascended from Dijon, with a balloon constructed of
varnished silk, and filled with hydrogen gas. The
balloon was of a spherical form, 29 feet in diameter,
and was furnished with an apparatus for the purpose
of directing its course. It was launched at five o'-
clock in the evening, and soon rose to the height of
more than 10,000 feet, where the cold was pretty in-
tense. In this lofty situation, they heheld an exten-
sive ocean of clouds floating below them, and enjoy-
ed the splendid spectacle of a parhelion, or mock sun,
composed of numerous concentric circles of varied
hues; and having continued tlieir excursion for an
hour and a half, they returned safely to the earth,
at the distance of 18 miles from Dijon. In their at-
tempts to steer or direct the course of the balloon,
they were not more successful than Blanchard. The
same chemist, accompanied by another person, a-
scended with the same balloon on the 12th of June,
at seven in the morning. They reached the height
of 6,000 feet, and alighted 12 miles from Dijon.

Voyage of the Duke of Orleans. — A similar attempt
was made in directing the course of a balloon, in
the construction of one by the brothers Robert, at
the expence of the Duke de Chartres, and after-
wards better known as the Duke of Orleans. This
balloon was 56 feet in height, and 36 in diameter;
and it was supposed that this form would render it
more manageable, at the pleasure of the voyagers.
Itwas also furnished with oars and a rudder ; and, be-
sides, a small balloon was introduced, for the pur-
pose of being filled, by means of bellows, with com-
mon air. The object of this small balloon was to sup-
ply the means of descent, without the expenditure of
the hydrogen gas, with which the large balloon was fil-
led. On the 19th of September, when the preparations
were completed, the Duke of Orleans, the two bro-
thers, and a fourth person, placed themselves in the
cur, which was also loaded with 500 pounds of bal-
last. The balloon rose slowly ; and when they had
reached the height of 1400 feet, the aeronauts were
in no small degree alarmed at the gloomy appearance
of thick clouds rolling along the horizon, and indicat-
ing the near approach of a thunder-storm. Some
distant peals of thunder were heard, and they were
driven about for some time by a whirlwind. A sud-
den change of temperature, of not less than 16°, pro-
duced a rapid descent of the balloon, which at one
time was only about 250 feet from the tops of the

trees of a forest ; but the discharge of 40 pounds of Aerostation,
ballast instantly reversed its progress, and it soon
ascended to the height of 6,000 feet. A sublime
scene now presented itself. A wide ocean of clouds,
exhibiting every fantastic shape, extended below
them, and seemed to preclude their return to the
earth, while the balloon continued to be great-
ly agitated. In the alarm excited by their perilous
situation, the cords by which the interior balloon
was suspended, were cut, and it fell upon the aper-
ture for the escape of the gas from the large balloon,
and shut it up closely. Ascending higher, they sur-
mounted the stormy region, and the sun, unobscured
by a cloud, shone full upon them. But the influence
of his rays produced such an expansion of the hy-
drogen gas, that they were every moment apprehen-
sive of a rupture of the balloon. To permit the escape
of the inflammable air, the Duke of Orleans pierced
the lower part of the balloon in several places with
his sword. The descent now was extremely rapid,
and they narrowly escaped falling into a lake, by
quickly discharging a considerable quantity of bal-
last ; but after an excursion of five hours, and hav-
ing traversed a space of 150 miles, they reached the
earth in safety. In this voyage, a remarkable diffe-
rence in the temperature of the external air, and of
the air within the balloon, was observed. The hy-
drogen gas was at 104°, while the air of the atmo-
sphere was only 63°.

First Female aerial voyager. — A fire balloon, or
Montgol/ier, as aerostatic machines on this principle
were sometimes denominated, of an oval form, and
75 feet high, was constructed at Lyons, and ascend-
ed on the 28th of June 1784, in presence of the
King of Sweden, who was then travelling in France.
The adventurous aeronauts were Madame Thibl6,
the first female who attempted such a voyage, and
M. Fleurant. The balloon rose with such velocity,
that in six minutes the objects on the earth were
scarcely visible ; its utmost elevation exceeded 13,000
feet ; and having traversed six miles in three quar-
ters of an hour, they alighted safely on the earth.
The falling of a flag with its stafl", of 14 pounds
weight, affords some notion of the great height which
they had reached ; for it required seven minutes from
the time of being projected from the car till it reach-
ed the ground. In this voyage, the different cur-
rents of air, in different regions of the atmosphere,
were distinctly perceptible ; and when the balloon
passed from one current to another, it acquired an
irregular or undulatory motion. In the succeeding
month of July, another large fire balloon was con-
structed by order of the French king, and ascended
from Versailles in presence of the Swedish monarch.
De Rozier and Proust were the enterprising voyag-
ers. They soon rose to the height of more than
12,000 feet, and were involved in an ocean of white
clouds. The thermometer sunk to 25° ; and, at this
temperature, as might be expected, they were co-
vered with a thick shower of snow, while it rained
on the earth. Leaving these wintry regions, they
descended to contemplate the more agreeable scenes
of the verdure and luxuriance of summer ; and, af-
ter an hour's excursion, alighted safely at the dis- «
tance of 26 miles from Versailles.

A E R

,•• First Balloon in England. — The exhibition of bal-
loons was not now confined to France, but, long be-
fore the period to which our narrative reaches, had
extended over the greater part of Europe. Count
Zambeccari, an Italian, sent up the first balloon in
England, nearly a year after the earliest attempts
had been made in France. This balloon was of a
spherical form, ten feet in diameter, and was con-
structed of oiled silk ; and being all over finely gild-
ed, it presented, on its full expansion, the attractive
appearance of a golden ball floating in the air. It
was filled with hydrogen gas at one o'clock on the
2,5th of November 1783 ; it ascended from the artil-
lery ground in London, in presence of an immense
multitude of spectators, and having remained in the
atmosphere for the space of two hours and a half,
it came to the earth, in Sussex, at the distance of
48 miles. In December of the same year, Mr Sad-
ler constructed a balloon, which was filled with hy-
drogen gas, and sent up from Oxford ; and, in the
summer following, the same aeronaut prepared an-
other balloon, which was 18 feet in diameter, was fil-
led with hydrogen gas, and was sent up from the
same place with a dog. The balloon burst in the
air, but the animal came to the ground unhurt, at
the distance of a quarter of a mile.

First aerial voyage iyt Britain. — Beside those which
we have noticed, other experiments of a similar
description were made in different parts of this
country. But the first aerial voyage in Britain was
performed by Lunardi, an Italian, who ascended
from London on the 21st of September 1784. The
balloon which he employed on this occasion was con-
structed of alternate stripes of red and blue oiled silk.
It was 33 feet in diameter, of a pear shape, and was
filled with hydrogen gas. The same active adven-
turer repeated the experiment in various parts of
England ; and in the succeeding year he ascended in
Scotland ; and he was the first jierson who gratified
the inhabitants of Glasgow and Edinburgh with the
interesting spectacle of an aerial excursion.

Aerial voyage across the English Channel. — Blanch-
ard, whose ascension with a balloon from Paris, and
his contrivances for directing its course, have been
already noticed, had arrived in England for the pur-
pose of exhibiting similar experiments. His most
adventurous excursion from Dover to Calais was ac-
complished on the 7th of January 1785. In thisvoyage
he was accompanied by Dr Jeffries, an American
gentleman. The morning was clear and frosty, and
the wind, which was scarcely perceptible, was from
N. N. W. The preparations for filling the balloon
with hydrogen gas commenced at ten o'clock ; and in
two hours and a half it was thought to be sufficiently
distended for the voyage. At one o'clock, M. Blanch-
ard and his companion being seated in the car, it
was pushed off from Dover Cliff; and they were no
sooner launched into the air than they found it ne-
ce'Ssary to discharge a considerable portion of their
ballast. The balloon then rose with a slow and gentle
motion, and aft'orded them a charming prospect of
the southern coast of England. But their progress
towards the French coast was greatly retarded by
the stillness of the air. Having passed over several
ressels, and after being nearly an hour in the atmos-

67

A E R

phere, th6 balloon began to descend, which required Aeroetatlon.
a fresh portion of ballast to be discharged; and, as \^,ymt^'
the descent still continued with accelerated velocity,
the whole was thrown out ; but as this had no effect
in retarding their progress towards the water, they
threw out a parcel of books. This produced a tem-
porary ascent ; and they were now midway between
England and France. In a short time, the balloon
began again to descend, when the remainder of their
books and provisions, and every thing that could be
spared, were thrown out. A bottle, in its descent,
emitted, with a rushing sound, a steam nn.t smo^if
and when it struck the water the shock was percep-
tibly felt on the car and balloon. The ascensive
power of the balloon was now so greatly diminished,
that all this loss of weight was insufficient to counte-
ract its descent ; they therefore parted with their an-
chors and ropes, and having stript off their clothes,
they secured themselves with slings, with the inten-
tion of cutting away the car. But they had now the
satisfaction to observe the balloon rising and ap-
proaching the French coast ; and, as they passed
over the high land between Cape Blanc and Calais,
it attained a greater elevation than in any part of
their course. After a perilous voyage of nearly
three hours, they descended safely on a vacant spot
in the forest of Guiennes, not far distant from Calais,
where they experienced the kindest and most hospi-
table reception.

Disastrous fate of De Rozier and Romainc. — It
seems to have been a considerable object of atten-
tion with the French naturalists, to construct aeros-
tatic machines in such a manner as to give the aero-
naut the power of remaining in the atmosphere, or
of descending at pleasure, without the expenditure
of the hydrogen gas, or of the necessary ballast.
The introduction of a small balloon filled with com-
mon air, had been tried, and failed. A combination
of the principles of the two kinds of balloons was
now proposed, and the plan was unfortunately exe-
cuted by the adventurous Pilatre de Rozier. It
seems probable, too, that the perilous voyage of
Blanchard and his companion might have led to the
adoption of the contrivance, which, in the end, prov-
ed fatal to the voyagers. The aerial excursion
which, on this occasion, was projected by De Ro-
zier, was to cross the channel from France to Eng-
land. For this purpose, two balloons were employ-
ed ; one of them, about 37 feet in diameter, was fil-
led with hydrogen gas, and the other, which was
distended with rarified air, had an ascensive pow-
er equal to 60 pounds. The fire balloon was
suspended below the other, and at such a dis-
tance as to remove every apprehension of danger
from the fire ; but a short time only had elapsed after
their ascent, when the spectators perceived, not with-
out anxiety, the upper balloon, which was filled with
hydrogen gas, rapidly distending, while the aeronauts
were observed pulling the valve, and making other
exertions to allow the hydrogen gas to escape.
Soon after, the whole apparatus appeared to be on
fire ; no explosion was heard, and the fire balloon
continued for about a minute expanded ; it then sud-
denly collapsed, and the remains of the machine de-
scended from the height of three quaiters of a mile.

A E R

Atroftatior. and fell to the ground, with the unfortunate travel-

^^^•Y^mi Icrs, who were killed on the spot.

Aerial voyage of'M. Testu. — The aerial excursion
of M. Testu, for the time which he continued float-
ing in the atmosphere, a period of twelve hours, is
une<|ualled in the history of aerostation. With a
balloon 2',< feet in diameter, filled five-sixths with
hydrogen gas, and fitted with wings and other ap-

• .paratus for steering, he ascended from Paris, at four
o'clock in the afternoon of the 18th June I78(i.
The da^ was cloudy, and there was some appear-
ance of raiii. "\Alicn the balloon attained the eleva-
tion of nearly 3000 feet, it became so much distend-
ed as to excite in the voyager considerable appre-
hensions of a rupture ; and as he was anxious not to
lose any part of its ascensive power by an expendi-
ture of the gas, he made great exertions with his
mechanical machinery to reach a lower region. His
efforts were successful, and he descended safely in
tlie middle of a corn field, in the plain of Montmor-
ency. All who witnessed the descent of so unex-
pected a visitor, ran eagerly to the spot ; and the
possessor of the field, exasperated at the injury which
liis crop had suffered by the crowd whom curiosity
had collected around the aerial traveller, actually
seized him, and demanded indemnification. M. Testu
quietly submitted, and persuaded the angry peasant
that, having lost his wings, he was deprived of the
means of escape. A number of persons seized the

^ ropes of the balloon, and, as it floated at the height

of twenty feet from the ground, dragged it through
the air towards the village. But as this extraordinary
prisoner was conducted in triumphal procession, he
perceived that his machine had acquired additional
buoyant power by the loss of weight ; he cut the
cord, and instantly soared aloft, leaving the disap-
pointed peasants in silent amazement fixed to the
spot, and in a few minutes, dashing into a mass of
clouds, eluded their astonished gaze. Here the tem-
.pcrature was at the freezing point ; for he observed
icy particles floating around, while the thunder roll-

• ed at a distance below Inm. As the day declined,
the balloon began to descend, and a little before se-
ven o'clock it had nearly reached the ground ; but
the discharge of a quantity of ballast enabled it to
regain its ascensive power, and in twelve minutes it
Mas at an elevation of 2400 feet, when the thenno-
meter indicated a temperature of 66°. The blast of
a horn here attracted his attention ; and seeing a
party of huntsmen keenly engaged in the chace, he
allowed some gas to escape, and about eiglit o'clock
descended towards the place. Having resigned his
wings as a useless encumbrance, and collected some
stones for ballast, this enterprising adventurer ascend-
ed a third time, and was soon involved in a thick
mass of clouds loaded with electric matter. The
thermometer fell to '15° ; but when he reached an
elevation of 3000 feet, it rose to 66°. From . this
lofly station he beheld, between nine and ten o'-
clock, the sun sinking below the western horizon,
and soon after the shades of night closed around.
Shrouded in darkness, he was wafted about for the
sp^ce of three hours in the gloomy region of the ga-
thering storm. All the terrors which surrounded
him, tne lightning's flash, and the roar of the tbuu-

68 A E R

der, accompanied with copious showers of sleet and Aerottation.
snow, did not for a moment damp his courage, or >_, -^'
induce him to abandon his perilous situation :

Unusual darkness broods ; and growing, gains
The full possession of the sky, surcharg'd
With wrathful vapour, from the secret beds.
Where sleep the mineral generations, drawn.
Thence nitre, sulphur, and the fiery spume
Of fat bitumen, steaming on the day,
With various tinctur'd trains of latent flame,
Pollute the sky, and, in yon baleful cloud,
A reddening gloom, a magazine of fate,
IVnnent : till, by the touch ethereal rous'd,
The dash of clouds, or irritating war
Of fighting winds,-

They furious spring.

Thomson.

By means of an artificial light which he struck,
he observed that the thermometer had sunk to 25°.
The different kinds of electricity were indicated by
a sliarp iron point fixed on the car ; a luminous spot
sometimes rested on the point, denoting the electri-
tricity to be negative; and sometimes a pencil of
rays, or stream of light, seemed to issue from it,
riiarking its character to be positive. A flag, embel-
lished with ornaments in gold, frequently sparkled
with fire, and was at last torn by the lightning ; the
clothes and apparatus of the aeronaut, when he re-
turned to the earth, emitted a sulphureous smell,
shewing that he had been immersed in a torrent of
electric matter ; and, during the storm, the balloon
seemed to be agitated with a kind of undulatory
motion, in a perpendicular direction, arising, it might
be supposed, from the sudden collision of adverse
clouds.

At length this tremendous scene of awful sublimity
closed ; the " war of elements" ceased ; the vapours
dispersed, and the stars appeared :

As from the face of heaven the shattered clouds
Tumultuous rove, th' interminable sky
Sublimer swells, and o'er the world expands
A purer azure. Tiiomsos.

Having escaped the dangers of the storm, the in-
trepid voyager began to feel the cravings of hunger,
and now indulged in a solitary repast. Between two
and three o'clock, the ruddy streaks of light in the
east announced the approach of day. A little before
four he contemplated from his lofty station the rising
of the sun ; and his ballast being exhausted, he re-
treated from the airy regions, which he had occu-
pied for twelve hours : he descended in safety near
the village of Campremi, 70 miles distant from Paris.

Ciiriaus Incident. — Among the numerous aerial
excursions performed by Blanchard, by which, it is
said, that enterprising voyager amassed a consider-
able fortune, his ascent from Strasburgh, in August
1787, was attended by a curious incident. In this
voyage, an experiment with the parachute was pro-
posed, and for this purpose he took a dog with him.
When he had attained an elevation of 6000 feet,
the parachute, with the dog in a basket suspend-
ed from it, was detached from the balloon. Soon
after its separation it was carried upwards by a whirl-
wind, and disappeared among the clouds. Sonit;-

A E R

60

A E R

Aerostation.

time afterwards Blanchard fell in with the parachute,
still floating in the air, and the dog, in hopes of re-
joining his master, began to express his satisfaction
bv barking ; but when the aeronaut attempted to lay
hold of it, a sudden gust of wind carried it far beyond
his reach. Blanchard continued his voyage, and
having passed over the city of Zell, descended safely
to the earth ; but it was not till after the lapse of
twelve minutes from the time of his descent, that the
dog and parachute reached the ground.

Garnerin's aerial voyage?. — M. Garnerin, whose
aerostatic exhibitions, whether in number or perilous
adventures, have been exceeded by none, undertook
an aerial excursion from Paris in October 1797, for
the purpose of descending with a parachute detached
from the balloon. The parachute, half expanded,
was placed between the car and balloon, and formed
a kind of canopy. When he attained an elevation of
iiOOO feet, the parachute was separated along with
the aeronaut : its descent was slow and steady, while
it gradually unfolded ; but when it had reached its
utmost expansion, it assumed an oscillating, and some-
what of a circular motion, during which JNI. Garne-
rin was not altogether free from serious apprehen-
sion of being thrown out of the car. As it ap])roach-
ed the earth, the motion became more steady and
vertical, and he at last descended in safety.

The same aeronaut visited England in 1S02; and
on 28th June of that year, accompanied by an Eng-
lish gentleman, ascended with a balloon of 20 ieet
diameter, from Ranelagh Gardens. They passed over
London, rose to the heighth of 1 0,0(X) feet, and hav-
ing traversed the space of 60 miles from the [ilace of
ascent, they alighted on a conmion near Colchester,
having sustained some injury from the violence of
the wind. The weather during this voyage was un-
settled and stormy : in their ascent the adventurers
passed through a mass of dense black clouds, where
the thermometer sunk 15 degrees lower than at the
surface of the earth. When they attained a greater
elevation, the temperature became perceptibly mild-
er ; and in their descent through a similar cloudy re-
gion, the balloon was nmch agitated and tossed about
by conflicting currents of air.

Accompanied by another person, M. Garnerin en-
countered another heavy gale, in an aerial excursion
on the 4th of the following July. In this voyage he
rose to the heighth of nearly 8000 feet in the space of
fifteen minutes ; and the balloon in its descent, at the
distance of nine miles, came down with such velocity,
that when it struck the earth it rebounded nearly
200 feet above the surface.

In the month of Se|)tember of the same year, this
enterprising adventurer ascended from London about
•ix o'clock in the afternoon, during clear and serene
weather, for the purpose of exhibiting his experi-
ment of a descent M'ith the parachute. When be
had reached an elevation of about 8000 feet in the
^pace of eight minutes, the parachute «as detached,
and the circumstances which attended his progress
downwards were nearly similar to those already re-
lated in a former experiment. For half a minute the
tlescent was extremely rapid, but when the parachute
was fully expanded, the motion became gentle aiid

slower. Soon after, the oscillation commencing, Aero«t«'ion.
increased to such a degree as to render his situ- N^^y^^
ation for some time most perilous ; but as it ap-
proached the earth it descended with a more steady
motion, and he at last alighted without sustaining any
injury.

Zamheccari's voyage. — Count Zambeccari, who ex-
hibited the first balloon in England, undertook a peri-
lous aerial excursion from Bologna, in October 180^.
The companions of his voyage were Dr Grassetti and
Signor Andreoli. The preparations were not com-
pleted before midnight ; and although the aeronauts
expressed a wish to delay their ascent till next morn-
ing, the outrageous clamours of the disappointed
spectators counteracted their intention, and obliged
them to proceed on their voyage. The balloon rose
with great rapidity, and very soon floated in a region
where the cold was so intense that the Count and
the Doctor were overpowered, and fell into a pro-
found sleep. Between two and three o'clock the
balloon began to descend, and Signor Andreoli, who
had resisted the lethargic propensity, seeing the
threatened danger, roused his unconscious compani-
ons, which he had scarcely accomplished when they
were precipitated into the sea. To extricate them-
selves the whole of their ballast, and every thing
that could be spared, were instantly discliarged;
and the machine, thus lightened, again rose into the
atmosphere, and carried them through a mass of
clouds, where tlie cold condensed the vapour, and
covered their clothes with lioar-frost. Half an hour
only elapsed, when the balloon descending, was driv-
en by a severe squall towards the coast of Istria, and
almost across the Adriatic sea. The ascensive pow-
er of the machine was now so much exhausted, that
they remained on the surface of the sea for nearly
five hours, with little hope of being rescued from a
watery grave. But at eight o'clock in the morning,
when at the distance of twenty miles from the coast,
the crew of a vessel, perceiving their perilous situa-
tion, with considerable exertion took them on board.

Another aerial voyage from Bologna, attended
%vith still more formidable dangers, was undertaken
by Count Zambeccari and Signor Andreoli, in the
month of August in tlie following year. The as-
cent took place at ten o'clock in the forenoon ;
in three hours afterwards, when the voyagers were
six miles distant from Bologna, they attempted ta
descend; but the anchor being entangled in a tree,
deranged their apparatus, and overturned a spirit of
wine lamp in the car ; the spirit was set on fire, and
the flames communicating to a farge quantity of the
same spirit in another vessel, spread to the clothes of
the adventurers, who were instantly in a blaze, and
threatened with innncdiate destruction. The Count
was fortunate in extinguishing the flames ; his com-
panion retreated from the car, by sliding down to
the tree by the anchor rope ; and the balloon liglit-
ened, rapidly mounted into the air, and was soon lost
in the clouds. Driven by the wind towards the Ad-
riatic, the balloon descended to the sea, twenty-five
miles from the shore, and the half-burnt car sunk in-
to the water, while the aeronaut seized the ropes of
the ballooB, aod secured hioiself by fastening one ofc

A E R

70

A E R

Arrottacwn; them round his body. A number of fishing boats,
>^^/^Bi^ whose crews had descried the balloon, approached ;
but some of them, struck with so unusual a sijjht,
took it for a monster of the deep, and fled for safe-
ty; others, with more courage and humanity, exerted
tnemselves, and succeeded in delivering tlic sinking
adventurer from his perilous situation, after he had
been four hours in the water.

Robertson's voyage. — On the 30th June 1803, Pro-
fessors Robertson and Sacharoff ascended from Pe-
tersburgh with a balloon of thirty feet in diameter.
The weight of the whole macliine, including the tra-
vellers, exceeded 700 pounds. The balloon was
launched about seven o'clock in the evening, mount-
ed slowly, and passing over the course of the Neva,
began to descend, when, on the discharge of a quan-
tity of ballast, it rose again. In this excursion, a
kind of log, constructed of tvo sheets of thin paper,
suspended by a thread, was employed for the pur-
pose of observing the sudden rising and falling of the
balloon, with more precision than is indicated bj' the
barometer ; and, to view objects on the surface of the
earth, a telescope was fitted in the bottom of the
car. During a calm, which continued for a short
time, the motion of the balloon was altogether im-
perceptible ; but several times it assumed a rotatory
' motion. As this aerial excursion was projected for

scientific purposes, the adventurers intended to pro-
long it through the night ; but being uncertain to
what point they were now carried, and seeing the
whole of their ballast expended, they were compell-
ed to return to the earth ; and before eleven o'clock,
after being nearly four hours in the air, they alighted
safely, at the di«tance of forty miles from Peters-
burgh.

Voyage of Gay-Lussac, SfC. — With a similar end in
view, M. M. Gay-Lussac and Biot, two French na-
turalists, ascended from laris in August ISOi. They
were furnished with instruments for observing the
temperature, pressure, and moisture of the air. 'fhey
first passed tlirough a region of clouds composed of
light fogs, in which the hygrometer indicated a slight
degree of humidity ; but reaching a greater elevation,
the air became drier ; and when they looked down-
wards, the floating vapours presented the same blue-
» ish tint as when they are seen from the earth. In the
course of this voyage, as had been observed by others,
the balloon occasionally assumed a rotatory motion,
differing in the direction. After ascending to the
height of more than 13,000 feet, they returned in
safety to the earth, nearly fifty miles distant from
Paris.

In September following, M. Gay-Lussac ascended
alone; and when he had reached the height of
22,965 feet, he beheld, with astonishment, a mass of
clouds floating at a still greater elevation. In his
former expedition, the clouds were not higher than
5000 feet. He now mounted to a greater height, and
' at one time was not loss than 23,100 feet above the

surface of the earth. He alighted safely twenty miles
from Rouen.

Fatal accident. — It is not a little remarkable, that,
among so many aerial excursions, few serious acci-
dents have happened to the aeronauts. The voyage
now to be noticed, is one which terminated fatally.

In April 1806, M. Mosment, who was no untried ad- Aerostation.
venturer in the regions of the air, ascended from ^t- -^r*
the city of Lisle, at 12 o'clock, mid-day, in presence
of a vast concourse of spectators, whose tumultuous ,
acclamations accompanied his progress, while he
waved a splendid banner, decorated with the insignia
of the emperor of France, in token, as it might seem,
of the abject subjugation of those who witnessed the
exhibition, and of the uncontrouled dominion of that
ambitious power. He mounted with great rapidity,
and in a short time disappeared from the sight of
the populace. An animal which he carried with hira
was sent down with a parachute, and reached the
ground in safety; but about an hour after his ascent,
something was seen floating in the air, and moving
slowly towards the earth ; and when it came down, it
was immediately recognised to be the flag of the ae-
ronaut. This excited very alarming apprehensions
for the safety of M. Mosment himself ; and the disco-
very of his lifeless body, covered with blood, in one
of the ditches of Lisle, afforded a melancholy proof
that they were not groundless. It cannot be certain-
ly known to what this unfortunate accident was ow-
ing ; but it was conjectured, that the car being very
shallow, he might have lost his balance in detaching
the parachute for the descent of the animal, or in
performing some other necessary manoeuvre in the
voyage. 'The balloon was wafted more than 70 miles
from Lisle, and came to the ground the same day.
A small portion of bread, a bit of flesh meat, and
an unloaded pistol, were the only things found iathe
car.

Nocturnal excursions. — The French, whose curio-
sity was probably in some degree satiated with the
repetition of aerial voyages in the ordinary form,
now sought gratification in varying the exhibition ;
and the resources of that ingenious people were not
exhausted in diversifying this interesting spectacle.
The daring spirit of M. Garnerin fitted him for un-
dertaking a nocturnal aerial excursion ; and the first
voyage of this description which he attempted took
place on the 4th of August 1807, which might be re-
garded as an aerostatic festival, in honour of the
treaty of peace which had been concluded between
France and Russia , and in compliment to the latter
power, he ascended under its flag. The balloon was
splendidly illuminated by twenty lamps, which were
suspended at least fourteen feet below it, that the
danger of communication with the inflammable air
might be avoided ; and to obtain still greater securi-
ty, tubes were so arranged for its escape, that it
might pass off in an opposite direction from the burn-
ing bodies. At eleven o'clock at night the balloon
was launched into the air from Tivoli near Paris, and
soon rose to such a height, that rockets sent up fi-ora
the same place seemed to the voyager to be a very
short way above the earth, and the lofty buildings of
Paris, with its numerous lamps, appeared to present
only a plain surface marked with shining spots. In
forty minutes he had attained an elevation of more
than 13,000 feet, when the balloon was so much dis-
tended, that it became necessary to permit part of the
gas to escape. At midnight he had descended to a
region not higher than 3600 feet above the earth,
when the barking of dogs was distinctly heard ; and

A E R

71

Aerostation, i" One part of the voyage, meteors were seen darting
>_,^ -,_ ' from one quarter of the heavens to another. Between
three and four o'clock, the sun, emerging from a sea
of clouds, rose in radiant splendour, and the influ-
ence of his rays expanding the included air, the bal-
loon mounted rapidly to the height of 15,000 feet, a
region of intense cold ; and having pursued his de-
vious course in the atmosphere for more than seven
hours, the voyager terminated his expedition at
Loges, 1 40 miles from Paris.

A similar enterprise had nearly proved fatal to the
same intrepid voyager. In this excursion, INI. Garne-
rin had agreed to admit a companion to share his ad-
ventures ; but the lowering aspect of the heavens in-
dicating a storm, induced him to encounter its dan-
gers alone, and to refuse compliance with the urgent
solicitations of his disappointed friend. On the 21st
of the following September, at ten o'clock at night,
he ascended from Tivoli, and darted upwards with
astonishing rapidity, to a great elevation, where the
expansive force of the included air became so great
as to threaten an immediate rupture of the balloon ;
and as the eager curiosity and pressure of the crowd
had interrupted the aeronaut in the regulation of his
apparatus for the escape of the gas without risk of
communication with the burning lamps, he was com-
pelled, in this perilous extremity, to make an opening
two feet in diameter with one hand, while he extin-
guished with the other all the lamps within his reach.
The storm increasing, the machine was driven up-
wards at one time with great violence, and at ano-
ther sunk suddenly towards the earth. Having ex-
pended the whole of his ballast to recover the power
of ascent, and the valve for the escape of the gas
being rendered useless, he was altogether at the
mercy of the tempest. Now tossed about in the
midst of the boisterous elements, — now dashed to
the ground, and rebounding to a great height in the
air, — and now driven with great fury against the
mountains, — the unfortunate aeronaut was for some
time thrown into a state of insensibilitv. When he
recovered his senses, he had reached Mont Ton-
nerre, while the thunder-storm continued with all its
violence ; his anchor was entangled in a tree ; and,
after a most perilous voyage of more than seven
hours duration, he alighted on the ground 300 miles
distant from Paris.

Mr Sadler ascends Jrom Bristol. — On Monday the
24th September 1810, Mr Sadler, accompanied by
Mr Clayfield of Bristol, performed his 16th aerial
voyage. They ascended from that place at twenty
minutes past one o'clock. The wind blew fresh from
the N.E. The machine rose majestically ; and al-
though the ascent was extremely rapid, the aero-
, nauts were not sensible of any motion. When at the
heightofhalfamile, the balloon was involved in athick
black cloud, which concealed Bristol and its vicinity
from their view. Soaring rapidly aloft, they soon pass-
ed through the cloud, and, looking downwards, saw
in its centre the shadow of the balloon, surrounded
by a beautiful halo or circular rainbow. The balloon
Btill continued to ascend, and soon entered a second
cloud. Having passed over the river near Redcliff,
a parachute, with a cat in a basket, was detached.
For some time the descent v-as very rapid ; but when

A E R

the parachute had reached its full expansion, it as- Aerostation,
sumed a slow and graceful motion. >«»y^^

Leaving behind the Somersetshire coast, the voy-
agers were carried over the Channel ; and when a-
bout mid-channel the valve was opened ; soon after
which they descended so low as to hear the shouts of
the people and the sound of the breakers between
Barry and Scilly islands. But as the current of air
now impelled them towards the sea, and they were
apprehensive of not being able to reach the main
land, a quantity of ballast was thrown out. The bal-
loon still continuing to descend towards the sea, a
quantity of sand was shaken from a bag ; but as this
produced no effect in retarding the descent, several
bags v.-ere thrown out, when the motion was instan-
taneously reversed, and in its ascent the balloon
came in contact with the sand first projected, which
fell in a copious shower on the car. The occurrence , ,
of this curious incident shews the great velocity of
the balloon's descending motion, which far outstr;;)-
ped the descent of the sand, and having acquired an
ascensive power by the discharge of ballast, met the
sand proceeding towards the earth, comparatively
with a slow motion. The balloon continued its
ascent till 40 minutes past three o'clock, when it ap-
proached the Devonshire coast, the whole of which,
with Lundy island, and part of Cornwall, appeared
before them ; on the right was seen St George's
channel, with part of the Irish and Welsh coasts ;
and the Flat and Steep Holmes, and tlie coast of
INIonmouth, were observed behind.

It was now past four o'clock, and the aeronauts
were anxious to reach the land. For this purpose
they threw out almost every thing in their posses-
sion,— all their instruments, — a great coat, — a grap-
pling-iron,— and even part of the interior covering
of the car ; but the dissipation of the gas was so
great, that they saw the machine could not rise to a
sufficient height to surmount the lofty cliffs on the
coast. The balloon descending rapidly towards the
sea, the voyagers secured themselves with life-pre-
servers ; and in a few minutes afterwards the car
dashed violently into the water, at the distance of
four miles from land. The car nearly filled with
water, was dragged by the balloon, which was im-
pelled along the surface of the sea by the wind,
and was drifting fast from the shore. In this peril-
ous situation they continued for an hour, when a
well-manned boat, dispatched by some gentlemen
from the clifTs of Lymouth, approached, and receiv-
ed them on board ; but two hours elapsed before
they could exhaust and secure the balloon. Fatigued
with the toils and dangers of the aquatic part of
their excursion, the voyagers did not reach the pier
of Lymouth till nine o'clock at night. They were
hailed with acclamation in every town through which
they passed on their way to Bristol, where they ar-
rived on Wednesday, and were greeted with the
most joyous welcome which the warmth of friend-
ship could express.

Mr Sadler's ascent from Dublin The same en-
terprising aeronaut undertook an excursion from
Dublin, for the purpose of crossing the Irish chan-
nel. The balloon was of a spherical form, 55 feet in
diameter, mid was only two-thirds filled, to allow

A E R

73

A E R

Afrontiiion B^Qce for the expansion of the hicluded gae in the
v^vpy^v' higher and rarer regions of the air, and the car was
loaded with 1100 pounds of ballast. He ascended
from Belvidere-house, in the vicinity of Dublin, a
little before one o'clock, afternoon, on the 1st of Oc-
tober 1812, in presence of the ladies of the vice-regal
court, a great assemblage of beauty and fashion, and
an immense concourse of spectators. When he
launched into the atmosphere, the barometer stood
at 29° 9,5, and the thermometer at 63° ; but in eigh-
teen minutes he liad attained such an elevation, that
the barometer sunk to 25°, and the tlierniometcr to
49°. He was now approacliing to the regions super-
incumbent to the Irish sea. The balloon was greatly
distended, and the voyager was in no small degree
alai'incd, when he perceived a rent in tlie silk, where
the tube through which the valve cord passes is united
witli tlie balloon, and a copious stream of gas issu-
ing from it. The distension of the balloon liad given
i* more of a globular form, so that the lower part of
it was beyond his reach, even when he stood on tlie
hoop to which the car was suspended. With some
difficulty he made a ladder of ropes, by tying cross
pieces to the net-cords, and, with great hazard,
mounted this temporary structure, by placing a foot
on each side to preserve his balance, and succeeded
in closing the orifice, by passing his neckcloth seve-
ral tunes round the tube and contiguous parts of the
silk. A giddiness, produced by the stream of gas
rushing in his face, while eng'aged in this necessary
operation, rendered his situation stUl more perilous ;
but although he was nearly overpowered, and the
effects of it continued for some time, he regained the
car without accident. The gas, as it issued from the
opening, felt warm ; and when examined by the
thermonieter, which in tlie air stood at 42°, it raised
it to 71°, indicating a difference of 29 degrees.

The balloon, still continuing to ascend, had reach-
ed a current of air from the N.E., but the valve be-
ing opened, it sunk, and regained the current from
the S.W. ; and being carried obliquely across the
channel, about two o'clock the voyager had a distant
view of the Isle of Man ; in the short space of ele-
ven minutes, he sa^v distinctly the towns, villages,
and enclosures ; and in twenty minutes more, float-
ed above its south-eastern shore. This course pro-
mised a speedy arrival on the Cumberland coast ;
but as the aeronaut was anxious to terminate his ex-
cursion in Lancashire, he discharged some ballast,
«rul again mounted into the north-cast current. At
four o'clock lie was over the island of Anglesca,
when the barometer teJl nearly to 15°, and the ther-
nioiuetor to 31°. He was now jnore than three miles
;above the surface of the earth.

Disappointed of a favourable current of air to ena-
ble him to reach the land, and observing the ar-
{)roach of .evening, Mr Sadler determined to avail
limself of the assistance of several vessels in the
channel. He opened the valve, and in a few minutes
was precipitated into the sea ; but how greatly was
he mortified to find, that the vessels, not more than a
mile distant, and from which so conspicuous an ob-
ject could not be unnoticed, continued their course,
and left him to seek elsewhere more friendly aid. He
threw out some ballast, reascended to a considerable

height, and from his lofty station regained another xerostttlon.
prospect of the orb of day in full splendour, while i_| - -,_'
to the world below that luminary had sunk below ~ ^ ~
the horizon, and with a few reflected rays had form-
ed over sea and land a twilight scene. But this tem-
porary accession to the day was nearly spent ; the
voyagerseeing anothervessel from whose signals kind-
er intentions might be expected, pulled the valve and
descended to the sea. But the force of the wind im-
pelled the floating macliine with considerable veloci-
ty along the surface of the water ; and the grappling
iron, with great part of his clothes which he had
stripped oft', being sunk, to retard its progress till the
vessel should reach it, and still proving insufficient,
the valve was opened to diminish its buoyant power
by the escape of a quantity of gas, when instantly
the loaded car, no longer supported, sunk, and left
the aeronaut to secure himself, by seizing the cane-
hoop and al'terwards the netting of the balloon. In
this perilous situation he was for sometime dragged
through the water, and frequently immersed under its
surface, till at last the vessel approached, and no
other resource being left to save the exhausted and
sinking adventurer, the bowsprit was run through
the balloon, a rope was thrown to him, he was
taken on board nearly in a state of insensibility, and
the aerostatic apparatus being secured, he arrived
at Liverpool next morning.

When Mr Sadler descended the second time, and
the moment that the car touched the water, a flock
of sea fowl crowded around the balloon, and eager-
ly pursued the floating machine as it was wafted
along. He supposed that they were attracted by the
fragments of bread which were scattered on the sur-
face of the sea; and in this he was soon confirmed,
by their boldly rushing upon him in a body, and vo-
raciously devouring what remained of his stock of
provisions. The description of these birds corres-
ponds with the species known by the sailors under
the name of Mother Carey s chickens, the procellaria
pelagicn, Lin, or stormy petrel.

This aerial excursion affords a fine illustration of
the opposite currents of air in diff'ercnt regions of
the atmosphere. In the higher region, the direction
of the current was from the south-west ; but in a less
elevated region a north-east current prevailed steadi-
ly for several hours. The same fact is al^o exempli-
fied in an aerial voyage performed by Mr Sadler,
junior, in which he was accompanied by a lady, in
July 1815. He ascended from Norwich, rose to a
considerable height, was carried over the sea eigh-
teen miles, discharged some ballast, by which he
reached a greater elevation, and floating in a diffe-
rent current, retraced his course, and alighted safe-
ly not more than two miles distant from the place of
ascent.

It would be easy to extend our narrative of the
history of aerial navigation to a nuicli greater length ;
but without variety of incident or novelty of observa-
tion, we should indulge in useless repetition, and con-
tribute nothing to the instruction or amusement of
the reader. We now proceed to treat briefly of the
construction, management, and uses of aerostatic
machines.

Construction of Balloons For the purpose of ex-

A E R

75

A E R

Artosiation. hibiting the ascensive power ofballoons, they may be
S^>^^^^v' constructed of thin paper, varnishetl with lintseed oil,
when they are to be filled witli hydrogen gas. But
if they are to be distended with rarefied air, it has
been recommended to impregnate tlie paper with a
solution of alum, sal ammoniac, or some other salt, by
which the danger of fire from the materials employed
in sustaining the rarefaction of the air is greatly dirni-
iiisjied. The paper is cut in the usual way, and pasted
together at the edges. An opening is left at the low-
er end of the balloon, in proportion to its size, for ad-
mitting the rarefied air or the introduction of the
matters by the combustion of which the heat is kept
up. A small wire is passed round the orifice, and se-
cured at its edges, to preserve the distension ; and
cross wires are placed within to support a light vessel,
containing the spirit of wine, which is usually em-
ployed, or what answers better, a piece of sponge or
a quantity of cotton thoroughly soaked with the same
.fluid. When the balloon is distended by bringing it
_near a fire, or holding a heated body under the a-
perture, the vapour of the spirit of wine from the
sponge or cotton is set fire to; and when the included
air is sufficiently rarefied, the machine makes an ef-
fort to ascend in proportion to its size and the rare-
faction of the air. Balloons intended merely to il-
lustrate the principle, should not be constructed of
a smaller magnitude than two feet in diameter ; but
this depends on the weight of the covering employ-
ed ; for if the weight of the covering should exceed
the difference of weight between the included air and
.*he same bulk of atmospheric air, the balloon will not
•jjrise.

^ Fire balloons of a large size, or such as are in-
. tended for aerial voyages, have been usually con-
structed of an oval form, or in the form of an invert-
ed and truncated cone. This shape, it is supposed,
allows the rarefied air to expand as it ascends from
its natural tendency towards the top, while the cold-
er air occupies the lower and narrower part. Bal-
loons constructed on this principle, have been usual-
ly made of a large size. The covering is linen cloth,
soaked in a solution of alum, to preclude as much
as possible the danger of fire, and varnished to pre-
vent the escape of the air. The aperture at the low-
er part, to admit the heated air, is recommended to
be of a cylindrical form, to extend at some distance
from the body of the balloon, and to be at least one
third of its diameter, when it exceeds 50 feet. The
fire-place for burning the fuel is placed within the
tube, that the rarified air may ascend to sustain the
expansion. The fuel usually employed was chopped
straw, wool, loppings of vines, and other matters
which yield a great deal of smoke. But as balloons
of this nature have been superseded by those filled
with hydrogen gas, it would be needless to enter
more minutely into their description.
V Balloons filled with hydrogen gas are generally of
a globular form. The covering is a fine silk, called
• tiffany or lutestring, with a network interwoven in its
texture, which gives it additional strength; and to
add to the attractive appearance of the macKine, it
is sometimes composed of alternate stripes of diffe-
rent colours. To render the silk less permeable to
the gas, iP-is carefully varnished. Different Idnds

VOL, I. PART I.

of varnish have been recommended. A varnish of Aerostntm-
elastic gum, or caoutchouc, is, we believe, now ge- v^^y"*
nerally employed, and is prepared by the following
process. The caoutchouc, or Indian rubber, is cut
into small pieces, and dissolved in five times its
weight of spirits of turpentine. Several days are ne-
cessary to complete the solution; when this is effect-
ed, one ounce of it is added to eight ounces of dry-
ing lintseed oil ; the mixture is boiled for a few mi-
nutes ; it is then strained, and is fit for use. This is
the method for preparing the elastic gum varnish
which was adopted .by Blanchard, who had great ex-
perience in the construction of aerostatic machines.
The solution is applied warm, and with a flat brush, to
the silk well stretched. One coat of varnish is found
sometimes to answer ; but if two are required, the
first must be allowed to dry before the application of
the second. It was usual to cover both sides of the
silk with varnish. But it appears from the experience
of the superintendants of the Aerostatic Institute fn
France, to be afterwards noticed, that balloons var-
nished only on the outside are the most durable ; for
the elastic gum varnish is corroded by the gas, and
leaves the silk in a flabby state. The silk being var-
nished is cut into pieces or gores for forming the bal-
loon, exactly in the same way as the paper for co-
vering globes. The different pieces are cut larger
than the pattern, that the edges may overlap ; and
they are united by passing a heated iron with an in-
tervening fold of paper along them, which slightly
melts the gum and makes the pieces adhere ; and to
give the joining greater strength and security, it is
stitched with a thread along the scam.

To find the quantity of cloth. required for the co-
vering of a balloon of a spherical form, the square of
the diameter is multiplied by the number 3.1416.
7^hus, in a balloon of thirty feet, the square of the
diameter is 900, and this number multiplied by
3.1416, gives 2827 1 feet nearly for the superficies ;
and this last number being divided by 9, the quotient
is SW, or the square yards in a balloon of that size.
The weight of the whole covering is found by weigh-
ing one^yard of the silk, and multiplying the num-
ber of yards employed by that weight. The capaci-
ty or solid contents of a balloon of a globular form is
estimated by multiplying the cube of the diameter
by the decimal .5236 ; as, in the balloon of 30 feet
diameter, the cube is 27,000, and this multiplied by
.5236 gives 14,137 cubic feet. The balloon with
which Mr Sadler ascended from Dublin had a sur-
face of 9503 square feet ; and its solid contents a-
mounted to 87,133 cubic feet. ■ ' •' i,v '

To ascertain the ascensive power of a balloon, the
difference of weight between the hydrogen gas and
an equal bulk of atmospheric air must be calculated.
The weight of a cubic foot of atmospheric air is esti-
mated at one ounce and two-tenths nearly. The
weight of a mass of atmospheric air equal in bulk to
a balloon of SO feet diameter, whose solid contents
are 14,137 feet; amounts to 1060 pounds. The hy-
drogen gas with which balloons are filled, is about 6
times lighter than common air. This makes the
M'eight of a balloon of 30 feet diameter filled with
hydrogen gas, to be 176 pounds nearly; and if the
yard of silk be estimated at one pound, the weight

K

A E k

74

AtU

Aerostation, of the covering is SH pounds, ihe number if yards
NM»y«w/ required for a balloon of this size. The weight of
the covering and the included gas being subtracted
from 1060 )>ounds, the weiglit of an equal bulk of
atmospheric air, leaves 570 pounds as the power of
:)Kcent of such a balloon. In the same way tne ascen-
sive power of balloons of any other size may be cal-
culated.

The balloon is furnished with a valve usually placed
at the upper part of the sphere, but sometimes at its
«idc. The valve presses on the orifice, of several
mches in diameter, by means of a spring ; and it is
opened by pulling a cord which passes througli the
balloon and the silken tube to the, car, to permit
the gas to escape when necessary. The silken tube,
ofsix or eight inches in diameter, receives the gas
irom the apparatus in which it is prepared, and con-
veys it to the balloon ; and when the latter is sufficiently
distended, the tube is secured with a ligature. A net
made of the best materials, usually we understand of
Italian hemp or of French cambric thread, to com-
bine lightness and strength, is spread over the whole
balloon, and the cords which terminate the net at
the lower part are fastened to a light cane hoop.
To this hoop the ropes by which the car is suspend-
ed are attached. The car, somewhat in the form of
a boat, is made of wicker work, or some other light
material, covered with well varnished leather. The
splendid and costly car which Mr Sadler exhibited at
Glasgow and Edinburgh in 1815, and in which itissaid
that aeronaut proposed to ascend at the coronation of
the king of France, has a double covering of elastic
gum, between which there is a stratum of included
air, which gives it additional buoyancy ; and from
this construction it has the advantage of being a
life-boat in case of falling into the water. The car
is of sufficient magnitude commodiously to admit of
two persons, besides the instruments for making ob-
servations, and the necessary ballast, which is com-
monly sand put up in small bags. When the aerial
voyage is in the vicinity of the sea, the aeronaut
provides himself with a life-preserver. A convenient
form of this necessary apparatus, is a cylindrical
hoop of thin copper, divided into air-tight cells,
andso constructed as to fit the trunk of the body, un-
der the arms, where it is attached.

Preparation of hydrogen gas. — The gas whicTi is
employed in filling balloons, is usually obtained from
iron, sulphuric acid, and water. About 2000 pounds
weight of the turnings or borings of cannon, and an
equal weight of sulphuric acid, or the oil of vitriol
of the shops, diluted with six times its weight of
water, is supposed to yield a sufficient quantity of
gas to fill a balloon of thirty feet in diameter. Lu-
iiardi had a very simple apparatus for preparing the
gas. Two casks were sunk m the earth, to strengthen
them, and precliide the risk of bursting. The iron
turnings were put into the casks, and, to expose a
greater surface to the action of the acid, they were
separated into layers, by a quantity of straw inter-
ppscd. Tlie diluted acid was added ; and the gas,
as it arose, was directly conveyed to the balloon,
without passing through water to cool it, or to se-
parate the sulphurous acid, which, it is probable, was
copiously evolved by the action of the vegetable mat-

1

ter during tlie process. This method was greWly Aerostation,
improved, by having a number of casks communica-
ting with a large one inverted over water, from which
the gas, after passing through the water, is intro-
duced into the balloon. In this way it is both cooled
and purified from those substances which increase its
specific gravity, or tend to corrode the silk. A quanti-
ty of quick-lime is mixed with the water for the same
purpose. The number of casks and coolers is to be
proportioned to the size of the balloon, or 'the time
allowed for filling it ; and it is found convenient to
have the casks in which the ingredients are placed
lined with tin-plate. The apparatus which Mr Sadler
employed in procuring hydrogen gas for his ascent
at Edinburgh in 1815, consisted of a leaden cistern
inclosed in a wooden box, and covered with loose
boards kept down with weights, to resist the expan-
sive force of the gas. The cistern was about eighteen
feet in length, three feet in breadth, and two in
depth. A tin-plate tube, of seven or eight inches in
diameter, conveyed the gas from the cistern to a cool-
er ; and having passed through the water, it was con-
ducted through a similar tube to a second cooler,
from which it passed into the balloon. With this
apparatus, a balloon of thirty -six feet in diameter wag
filled in two hours and a-half. It is scarcely neces-
sary to add, that the balloon must be held down as
the distension proceeds, to prevent its escape, as has
happened in some cases, and that the compressed
covering is introduced into the net before the filling
commences.

The Aerostatic Institute, at Meudon in France, ob-
tained the hydrogen gas from the decomposition of
water, by means of red-hot iron. For this purpose,
six or eight hollow iron cylinders are set in brick-
work in a furnace. The projecting ends of the cy-
linders are stopped with strong iron covers, through
which pass metal tubes for introducing the water at
one end, and conveying the gas, as it is formed, frbrti
the other. The cylinders are partly filled with coarse
iron filings ; 4nd when they are sufficiently heated,
boiling water is admitted through a valve, and as it
comes in contact with the red-hot iron, it is decom-
posed ; the oxygen combining with the iron, and the
hydrogen passing off by the other end, is first con-
veyed through water in which some alkaline matter
is dissolved, and then into the balloon in a cool and
purified state. By this process, which appears to
possess the advantage of being economical, a bal-
loon of thirty feet in diameter is filled in eight hour*.
To allow space for the expansion of the included
gas in the higher and rarer regions of the atmos-
phere, the balloon Should not be filled more than
five-sixths, or perhaps not more than three-fourths,
according to the elevation which the aeronaut pro-
poses to reach.

Management of Balloons. — In conducting a balloon,
the whole art of the aeronaut is nearly limited to its
ascent or descent in the atmosphere ; and here he
has complete power over his machine ; for, by pul-
ling the valve, and ])ermitting a quantity of gas
to escape, its buoyancy is diminished, and it de-
scends, and by discharging ballast the machine is
lightened, and its ascensive power increased, so
that it attains a greater elevation. The course of a

A E R

^0

A E R

Aerostation, balloou in the air is exactly the same as the current
\^0r-^j<^^ of air in wliich it floats. No attempt yet made has
succeeded in giving it a different direction. Tiie ap-
plication of wings, oars, and rudders, has been tried
in vain ; no sensible effect is produced, except a ro-
tatory motion, which, Mr Sadler informs us, can be
communicated merely by waving the flag.

Parachute The dangers of aerial navigation,

which, it ought to be observed, are far less formid-
able than might at first be expected, and the fatal
accidents which have befallen some aerial travellers
have probably suggested the invention of the para-
chute, by whicli the aeronaut might descend safely
to the earth, when his situation with the balloon be-
came dangerous. The construction of the parachute
is sinn'lar to that of an umbrella. The parachute
which M. Garnerin employed, when he came down
from a balloon at London, in 1802, consisted of
thirty-two pieces of canvas ; and the whole, when
united and expanded, presented a diameter of twenty-
three feet. Each gore, or piece of canvas, was fasten-
ed with a cord to a round piece of wood, ten inches in
diameter, and perforated in the centre ; and between
four and five feet from the top of the canvas, a
wooden hoop was secured, by small cords from each
seam. From the edges of the parachute a number
of ropes, about thirty feet in length, passed down-
ward, and were united at their extremities ; and the
circular basket for the aeronaut was suspended by
shorter ropes proceeding from the common joining.
Witli a parachute of this description, M. Garnerin
descended near London, in September 1802, from an
elevation of 8000 feet. The same enterprising aero-
naut has frequently repeated the experiment ; and in
summer 1815, Madame Garnerin, who has been his
companion in many aerial excursions, boldly attempt-
ed, and successfully achieved, the same daring ex-
ploit at Paris.

In most cases the adventurers have reached the
ground in safety by this mode of conveyance. But
parachutes of tliis construction are subject to the
serious inconvenience of an oscillatory motion in one
part of their descent. This motion, which is not alto-
gether free from danger to the aeronaut, commences
when the full expansion of the parachute takes place,
and is no doubt owing to the air compressed in the
concavity, and escaping unequally under the edges.
To obviate this inconvenience and danger, a perfo-
ration of two or three feet in diameter, in the centre
of the parachute, to allow the compressed air, before
it accumulates, to escape, has been proposed. It has
been suggested also, that a parachute constructed in
a form exactly the reverse of that now described,
namely, by presenting the convex surface downwards,
would descend with an undeviating vertical motion.
This suggestion, first started, we believe, by Sir
George Cayley, who has published some ingenious
■speculations on aerial navigation, (Nichol. Jour. vol.
24.^ is confirmed by experiments on a small scale.
Mr Kerr, of Edinburgh, has favoured us with a com-
munication, in which a still more plausible improve-
ment is proposed, and has been also submitted to the
test of experiment. The parachute, according to
Mr Kerr's construction, is in the form of an inverted
cone, from the point of wliich proceed the ropes by

which the basket for the aeronaut is suspended. The
edge of the parachute is turned downward, forming
a circular concavity. 15y this construction there can
be no accumulation of air in the central parts of the
parachute ; and the compression which takes place in
the concavity near the outer rim, promises to give it
greater stability in its descent.

Uses of aerial navigation. — -The advantages of navi-
gating the air with balloons, if we except the additions
made to the stock of meteorological knowledge, are fai'
less considerable than the first discovery of this won-
derful art seemed to hold out. The most material facts
which have been observed in the upper regions of
the atmosphere, are already noticed in the detail of
particular voyages in the preceding narrative. But
although the utility of this art has been hitherto ex-
tremely circumscribed, and its improvement has
been long stationary, it would be rash to conclude
that some fortunate discovery may not render it one
day a valuable acquisition to science, and highly be-
neficial to mankind.

It has been proposed to employ balloons in mak-
ing surveys of countries, a purpose for which they are
surely but ill suited, on account of their instability.
It has been also suggested, tliat they might be suc-
cessfully employed in communicating signals. The
first actual application of this art was made by Coutel,
who, accompanied by an adjutant and a general, as-
cended with a balloon on the 26th of June 1794, to
reconnoitre the hostile armies at the battle of Fleurus.
Twice on the same day he mounted to the height of
440 yards, to observe the position and manoeuvres
of the enemy ; and each time he remained four hours
in the air, and, by means of signals, held a correspon-
dence with General Jourdan, the French command-
er. When the balloon first arose, the enemy opened
the fire of a battery against it, and one ball passed
between it and the car. In the subsequent discharges
the aeronauts had reached such an elevation as to
be beyond the range of cannon shot, and saw the
balls flying beneath them. Arrived at their intended
height, it is added, the observers, remote from dan-
ger, and undisturbed, viewed all the evolutions of the
enemy, and, from the peaceful regions of the air,
commanded a distinct and comprehensive prospect
of two formidable armies engaged in the work of
death.

An aerostatic telegraph has been constructed by
the French. It consists of eight cylinders of varnish-
ed black silk, stretched on hoops, each three feet in
diameter, and of a proportionate length. These
moveable cylinders are suspended from the bottom
of the car, connected together with cords, and hang-
ing one above another at the distance of four feet.
By means of cords passing through the bottom of the
car, the observers direct the cylinders, give them
different positions at pleasure, and thus conduct their
telegraphic correspondence from the regions of the
atmosphere. M. Conte, from whose ingenuity this
invention derives its origin, has projected another
kind of aerostatic telegraph, with which a person on
the ground may carry on an aerial correspondence,
by means of cords, and this may be managed with
the apparatus suspended to a balloon of ten or twelve
feet in diameter.

A.eroUat'O'i.

A E R

76

The only public establishment for the improve-
ment of aerial navigation, was the Aerostatic Institute,
founded by the committee of public safety, during
the period of the French republic. This establish-
ment, which was fixed at Meudon, not far from Paris,
was placed under the superintendance of Guyton
Morveau, the celebrated chemist, and under the im-
mediate direction of 7f/l. Conte, already alluded to
as the inventor of the aerial telegraph. The corps
of aeronauts, who were destined to serve in the ar-
mies ofthe republic, was composed of fifty 3'oung men.
With this estal^lishment was connected a camp for
the exercise of artillery ; and all its affairs were con-
ducted with the utmost precaution, and the most pro-
found secrecy. The doors were kept shut not only
against all foreigners, but also against the public,
whom curiosity might attract to witness the methods
of instruction and training. Duripg the summer sea-
son, the pupils were daily engaged in the performance
of aerostatic exercises, as well as in the acquisition
of those branches of natural philosophy which arc
closely allied with the objects of the institution. The
exercising balloon was of a spherical form, and thirty-
two feet in diameter. The upper half was covered
with a linen case to protect it from the rain. The
car and other apparatus were arranged and secured
in the usual way. The balloon was kept constantly
full and ready for ascent, and, being held down by
means of ropes, preserved its buoyant station in the
atmosphere. When the weather was favourable, the
aeronautic exercises commenced ; a colonel mounted
with one of the pupils, and the machine was allowed
to rise to the height of 160 or 2 iO yards. The pupils
wore formed into divisions for the purpose of regula-
ting the ascent of the balloon in the air, by means of
three principal ropes proceeding from the net and
branching into others. In directing these manoeuvres
the aid of a capstan was employed; for when the
balloon was recently filled, and had lost nothing of
its buoyant power, the strength of twenty persons
was requisite to hold it, and then it was capable of
-iBupportir.g 800 pounds ; and even at the end of two
ifjhonths, the nscensive power was so little exhausted,
that it wa« capable of rising to the same height in the
air with two persons, ail their instruments, and a con-
siderable quantity of ballast.

A E R

The French nation, whose mad career of military Aerojution.
enterprise had just commenced, seem to have cher- — — ■
ished the most ardent hopes of the advantages to be
derived from this establishment in accomplishing
their wild scheviies of ambition; but these hopes were
never realized : the iivstitution was of short duration;
it has been entirely abandoned, and it does not ap-
pear that it has bequeathed any benefit to the art of
aerial navigation. No similar institution has ever
arisen under the fostering care of public patronage.
The improvement of the art is at jiresent exclusively
confined to the fortuitous observations of aeronautic
adventurers, whose chief object, it is most natural to
suppose, is immediate emolument ; and although the'ir
efforts, in exhibiting the gratifying spectacle of an
aerial voyage, have been in general pretty liberally
rewardeu, yet the great expence of such experiments
precludes their frequent repetition, and consequent-
ly narrows the bounds of useful discovery by which
its progress might be advanced. The art of aerosta-
tion may be regarded as yet in its infancy ; the won-
der and astonishment excited by an aerial voyage
have scarcely subsided ; and the contemplation of the
long intervening period from the rude essay of float-
ing down the stream on an unformed mass of wood,
to the high degree of perfection which the art of navi-
gating the trackless ocean has attained, encourages the
hope, that the resources of ingenuity in the improve-
mentof sailing in theatmosphere are far from being ex-
hausted. It is true, the fluid in which the airy vehicle
floats and the moving power are the same ; but still, the
difficulty of directing the machine may be surmounted
by some happy contrivance, some fortunate appUca-
tion of the very means at this moment within tlie
power of man.

Explanation of Plate I.

Fig. 1. represents the rarefied air balloon, 76 feet
in height, and 4.5 feet wide, with which Pilatre de
Rozier and the Marquis D'Arlandes ascended from
Paris, and performed the first aerial voyage.

Fig. 2. M. Blanchard's balloon, furnished with the
apparatus'of wings, or oars,for the purpose of steering.

Fig. 3. The balloon of Mr Sadler, junior, with a
view of the buildings of the College of Edinburgh,
from which place he ascended in November 181,5.

V

jERUSCATORES, a name applied by the an-
cients to strolling beggars, or gypsies, who supported
' themselves by fortune-telling, A similar denomina-
tion was given to the collectors of the revenue, and
also to the priests of Cybele, the mother of the gods
in heathen mythology, who went about the streets
soliciting alms ; a practice which seems to resemble
that of the mendicant orders of certain establishments
connected with religion in modern times, and from
which, perhaps, it may have derived its origin.

jESCIIINES, a celebrated Grecian orator, and
the formidable rival of Demosthenes, was born at
Athens, .'527 years before the Christian era. His own
account traces his descent from an illustrious family ;
while that of Demosthenes, perhaps not strictly im-
partial, represents him as the son of a courtezan, and

at one period of his life a humble perfomcr on the ^^^l^l^
stage. The talents and acquirements of .1>;;schines, ^■^^'^^
which raised him to the rank of competitor with the
great Grecian orator, could not be of an ordinary
kind; and the rivalship which subsisted between
them, and which at last burst out into violent
and open hostility, forms the most memorable e-
vent in the life of TEschincs which has been trans-
mitted to posterity. The two orators had become
the leaders of opposite parties ; and urged by mutual
jealousy and animosity, were probably not slow in
finding matter of accusation against each other. De-
mosthenes charged yEscliines with taking bribes
while employed in an embassy. yEschines indirectly
retorted the charge, and accused Ctesiphon, the friend
of Demosthenes, for proposing an illegal decree to

AEROSTATION,

PLATE. L

BAL LOONS

FitJ.l. Mo>;TGOLriKR'8

Fig. 2. Bi.ANCiiAra>'8

^ s c

T7

jEscTiylus confer a golden crown on the latter as a mark of
II public approbation. The matter carae before the

jEscuia; ius. judges, and a numerous assembly of citizens. The
orators exerted all the powers of eloquence ; and on
this occasion Dimosthenes pronounced his most
splendid oratioi, wliich derives its title, — Concerning
the Crown, — from its subject. j'Eschines was con-
demned to exile ; the resentment of his opponent
melted into kindness : Demosthenes presented him
with a sum of monej', which produced an expression
of regret to leave a country in which lie found so ge-
nerous an enemy, that he despaired of ever meeting
such a friend, Alschines taught eloquence at Rhodes,
and afterwards removed to Sanios, wliere he died, in
the seventy-fifth year of his age. Three only of his
orations are extant. The eloquence of j^ischines is
acknowledged to be energetic ; but it is diffuse, load-
ed with ornament, and more suited to please than to
rouse the passions.

iESCHYLUS, a Greek tragic poet, was a native
of Athens ; but the time of his birth is variously fixed
by different authors, in the sixty-tliird, the sixty-fiftli,
and the seventieth Olympiad. The father and two
brothers of il^schylus acquired great renown in the
famous battle of Marathon, mid the equally celebra-
ted naval engagement of Salaniis. The poet, also,
it is said, shared the glory of these splendid victo-
ries ; but the younger brother, Aminias, peculiarly
signalised himself by deeds of heroism. To this l)ro-
ther iEschylus was indebted for liis life ; for being
charged with impiety, he was condemned to l)e ston-
ed to death. At the moment when the sentence was
to be executed, Aminias came forward, threw open
his cloak, and presenting his arm without a hand,
which he had lost in defence of his country, roused
his fellow-citizens to a recollection of his own bra-
very, and obtained a remission of the punishment,
and pardon for his brother.

iEschylus is to be regarded as one of the first re-
formers of the stage : He introduced the dialogue
between two persons, as well as the mask and buskin,
with appropriate dresses for the actors ; and he ar-
ranged the chorus, which formerly held a chief place,
in a subordinate station in the action represented.
Of a great number of tragedies composed by ^shy-
lus, seven only are known to be extant. They have
been universally admired in all ages. They are dis-
tinguished by a simple and natural plot, grandeur and
sublimity of thought, and bold and vigorous language,
abounding in striking and uncommon metaphors.
jEschylus withdrew from his native country towards
the close of his life, in consequence, it is said, of the
indignity to which the prosecution had exposed him,
or of the rising fame of Sophocles, another tragic
poet, whose works had acquired great popularity. He
retired to Syracuse ; and it is. recorded that he was
killed in the sixty-ninth year of his age, as he was
^alking in the fields, by the strange accident of a tor-
toise dropped from the air by an eagle, and falling on
his head. The Sicilians paid great respect to his me-
mory ; he was honoured with a pompous funeral, and
theatrical entertainments were exhibited at his tomb.

^SCHYNOMENE, or Bastard Sensitive 'Plant,
a genus of plants belonging to the class Diadelphia.

jESCULAPIUS, according to the heathen my-

^ T H

thology, was the god of physic, and the son of Apol- ^-culer
lo and the nymph Coronis, received his education ||

ftom the centaur Chiron, and became so skilful and ^ther.
celebrated for the cure of diseases, that Pluto, alarm-
ed that his domain should be deprived of its popula-
tion, complained to Jupiter, who slew ^■Esculapius
with a thunderbolt, and banished him to the infernal
regions. Apollo revenged the death of his son, by
destroying with his arrows the Cyclops who forged
the thunderbolt. The fabulous records of antiquity
describe three deities of the same name, as the re-
puted authors of useful inventions or valuable disco-
veries in medicine and surgery ; or perhaps the same
personage is referred to under a different form and
character. TEscu'apius was worshipped under the form
of a serpent, at Epidaurus, where his most celebrated
temple was erected. This famous shrine contained a
statue of the god in gold and ivory, which represents
him as an old man with a long beard, and clothed in
a loose robe, the head surrour.ded with rays, and a
rugged stick in one hand, while the other is entwined
with serpents. Games instituted in honour of the
god of physic were celebrated, with great pomp, at
Epidaurus every five years ; and the cock, the raven,
and the goat, were sacred to the same deity.

iESCULUS, the Chesnut and Horse-chesnut, a
genus of plants belonging to the class Heptandria.

.(ESOP, the celebrated author, or supposed au-
thor, of the fables which have loig afforded delight
and instruction to childhood, was a native of Pliry-
gia, and was born nearly 600 years before the Chris-
tian era. According to some accounts, ^sop was
deformed in person, and, being a slave, continued in
a state of servitude with many masters. Having ob-
tained his liberty, the fame of his wisdom procured
him an invitation to the court of Crresus, king of Ly-
dia ; and by that monarch he was entrusted with an
important mission to Delphi, to offer a sacrifice to
Apollo, and to distribute a large sum of money amofig
the people ; but, in consequence of a dispute, the
money was retained, and returned to Cra'sus. The
disappointed inhabitants charged iEsop with saurilege,
and he was convicted, and thrown headlong- Tiom a
high rock. The allusions to be found in the works of
Greek and Roman writers to iEsop, as the author of
compositions in the form of fables, afford probable
proof of such a person having existed ; but no con-
nected or consistent sketch of his life has been dis-
covered in any ancient historian. The compilation of
the biographical notices prefixed to the modern fa-
bles of j'Esop in the fourteenth century, renders its
autlienticity doubtful ; and even the collection of the
writings which appear under his name, is supposed to
have been made at no very distant period ; and as it
is well known to be a popular mode of conveying mo-
ral instruction in eastern countries, it may have been
drawn from very different sources.

iETHER, from the Greek verb to shine or hum,
is a term of frequent occurrence in the writings of
ancient pliilosoptiers and poets, and denotes a fluid
of extreme tenuity, or the pure element of fire great-
ly attenuated, which was supposed to occupy the ut-
most bounds of space, beyond the regions of our at-
mosphere, and to be in a state of constant revolution
round the globe. It seems also to have been regard-

JET O

73

A F G

J€:tM«

ARecdor.

ed 83 Bbmething of a divine or immortal naturSi and
the principle of life, and even the soul of man, " a
portion of the divine spirit," were thought to be
emanations from this a;tnerial matter. It would be
in vain to search for any definition, or precise mean-
ing of this term, in the works of ancient authors; and,
perhaps, considering the variety of significations under
which it has been employed, it ought rather to be re-
ceived as an agreeable poetical fiction, than a philoso-
phical truth. IJut in whatever sense it is used, when ap-
plied to natural objects, it invariably expresses some-
thing which is exceedingly pure and refined ; and
when it refers to animated or rational beings, it con-
veys the notion of the most placid enjoyment, the
highest felicity.

^THER, a light, volatile, and inflammable liquid,
which is prepared by the action of acids on alcohol,
when subjected to the process of distillation. Thus,
sulphuric or vitriolic aether is obtained, by distilling
sulphuric acid and alcohol together. SeeCHEMisTnv.
AiTHUSA, Fools Parsley, a genus of plants be-
longing to the Pentandria class.

^TITES, or E(iLEST0NE, an argillaceus ore of
iron, s\ipposcd to have been found in the eagle's nest,
to whicli it was carried by the bird, to aid the pro-
cess of incubation, and hence it derived its name.

^TKA, a lofty mountain of Sicily, celebrated
from I'le earliest ages on account ot its volcanic
eruptions. See Sicily.

iETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, includ-
ing what is now called Little Greece, the southern
boundary of which extends to the bay of Corinth.
The TEtolians are described in different periods of their
history, as a turbulent and restless people, — as plun-
derers or robbers, and in a state of constant hostility
with their neighbours, — as inured to hardship, and
patient of fatigue, dauntless in danger, and bold and
enterprising in war ; — as strongly attached to the re-
publican form of government, jealous defenders of
their liberties, and highly conspicuous among the
other states of Greece for their bravery and perse-
verance in resisting the ambitious schemes of the Ma-
cedonian princes. But they were at last forced to
submit to the overwhelming power of Philip, and
yield up part of their territory to his dominion. The
j^tolians, after a long struggle, and various success,
were at last subdued by the Romans, and, with the
other free states of Greece, were included in the pro-
vince of Achaia ; and the descendants of that brave
people are now in a state of the most abject servitude
to the Turks.

AFFECTION, when applied to matter, is nearly
synonymous with property or quality, or it signifies
those changes which are produced on bodies by the
action of physical or chemical agents ; but affection,
considered as a mental operation, is a strong tenden-
cy of the atiind, produced by some cause or agent, to
communicate to others pleasure or pain, enjoyment
or suffering. Moral writers have divided the affec-
tions into two classes, the benevolent and malevo-
lent : — love, friendship, gratitude, belong to the first ;
hatred, jealousy, envy, revenge, fall under the second
class. The exercise of the benevolent affections is
accompanied with the most agreeable emotions, the
most soothing delight; but inward agitation and

disquiet, often depicted on the countenance, are the
certain consequences of the indulgence of those of a
contrary character.

AFFIDAVIT is a term cliiefly confined to Eng-
lish law, and signifies a declaration upon oath, emit-
ted before a magistrate, and commuted to writing.
Synonymous with affidavit is the oath of verity required
from creditors, according to the Scotch bankrupt act.
AFFINITY is a term in law, expressive of that
degree of kindred between a husband and the blood
relations of the wife, or the contrary. By such con-
nection, no real kindred is created ; for no person
can legally succeed to an inheritance in consequence
of this affinity, wliatever be its degree. The degrees
of affinity are computed in the same way as those of
consanguinitj', or relationship by blood.

Affinity is employed to denote that property in
the particles of matter by which they unite to form
masses or new compounds. That property by which
bodies are acted on at sensible distances, and are
drawn towards each other, as the sun and planets, or
a stone falling to the earth, is known by the general
term attraction, or the attraction of gra%yitation ; but
the mutual action of bodies at insensible distances, is
distinguished by the name of chemical attraction, or
affinity. The latter term is now in general use in the
language of modern chemistry. When the action be-
tween two polished surfaces of glass, marble, or me-
tal is referred to, it is denominated adhesion ; when
the particles of the same kind of matter are united in
masses, as a piece of stone or wood, it is called cohe-
sion, or the affinity of aggregation ; and when the
particles of different kinds of matter combine toge-
ther, and form a new compound, as sulphuric acid
and lime, the union of which is plaster of Paris, it
receives the name of the affinity of composition, che-
mical affinity, or simply affinity. See Chemistry.

AFGHANS, or Afghauns, a warlike people, who
inhabit the mountainous regions on theborders of Per-
sia, and occupy that district of country which lies
between the Caspian sea and the Indus on the east,
and between the same river and Cachmere on the
west. As the Afghans have scarcely any resemblance
to their Tartar neighbours, in tlieir persons, man-
ners, or language, the opinion is prevalent that they
are descended from the Arabs. Sir William Jones
was led to suppose, that the origin of this singular
people was probably derived from the Jews ; and he
thinks this opinion receives confirmation from the
accounts of the best Persian historians, from the
traditionary history of the Afghans themselves, from
the names of the Jewish tribes, by which many of
their families are distinguished at the present day,
although, it is said, they carefully conceal their ori-
gin since their conversion to Mahometanism, and
from the affinity of their language to the Clialdaic.

Inhal)iting a country inaccessible by nature, and
enjoying none of the riches or luxuries which excite
avarice or tempt ambition, the Afghans have retain-
ed their early customs and original character almost
unchanged; and, secure amidst the rugged fastnesses
of the mountains, have preserved their independence
nearly unshaken. For, although they have nominally
acknowledged their subjection to Persia, they were
never conquered. Fierce and restless in their dis-

Afghans.

A F R

wr

A F R

Afehans. positions, they have been always more distinguished
.^,1 ^- by their warlike achievements than by their love of
^^1^ the arts of civilized life. In the year 1712, they threw
off the Persian yoke ; advanced into the province of
Candahar ; took possession of the principal city, and
afterwards of the whole province. Another tribe of
Afghans revolted in 1717, and formed themselves in-
to an independent republic. Mir Mahmud, a bold
leader, united the different tribes of the Afghans
with his own forces, for the purpose of subduing the
whole of Persia, seized Ispahan, and established his
own authority. Under the conduct of Mahmud's

successor, the Abdollees, one of the tribes of Af-
ghans took the field against the Turks ; concluded a
peace with them in 1727, and acknowledged the Otto-
man emperor as the lawful sovereign of Persia. When
Nadir Shah became master of Ispalian, he drove the
Abdollees from their possessions ; forced them to re-
nounce their claims ; in 1736, invaded their terri-
tory, and, having lost many of his troops, offered
them peace, and invited them to join his army; and of
all the Persian forces, the Afghans are distinguished
as the bravest and hardiest soldiers.

Afghans.

AFRICA.

Africa.

Among the modern dirisions of the globe, Africa
'' ranks as third in point of size, though now inferior to
all the other great continents in moral and political
importance. Its boundaries are more clearly defined
than those of the three other great divisions. They are,
on the north, the Mediterranean sea ; on the west,
the Atlantic ocean ; on the south, what is called the
Southern ocean ; on the east, the Indian ocean ; and,
on the north-east, the Arabian gulf, or Red sea,
which separates it from Asia. Thus it is surrounded
by water on all sides, except the narrow neck of land
called the isthmus of Suez, by which only it is joined
to Asia. In form, it has been represented as trian-
gular, though it more nearly resembles a trapezium,
the eastern border forming an acute angle at Cape
Guardafui. Its general extent is not easily deter-
mined. From north to south, it occupies about 70°
of latitude, equal to about 4900 British miles; while
from Cape Verd on the west, to Cape Guardafui
on the east, it extends through the same number of
degrees, making its greatest breadth nearly equal to
4690 British miles.

Divisions,— Africa is divided among a great num-
ber of distinct tribes, or nations, of many of whom
little more than the name is known. They may be
classed as follows : On the north lie Egypt, Barca,
Tripoli, Biled-ul-Gehid, Tunis, Algiers, Fez,
Tafilet, Morocco, and tlie great desert called
Sahara. Along the western coast lie the Foulahs,
Feloops, what is more particularly called the coast
of Guinea, including Sierka-Leone, the Grain
coast, the Ivory coast, the Gold coast, and the Slave
coast; the countries of Pombo and Congo, compre-
hending LoANGO, Angola, Matamba, and Ben-
GUELA. In the southern division are situated the
Great and Little Nam aquas; the Hottentots ; the
colony of the Cape of Good Hope, and C a ffr aria.
The south-eastern coast comprehends the territories
of Biri, Inhambane, Manica, Sabia, Sofala,
and Mozambique; and along the eastern coast lie
the kingdoms of Mongalla and Quiloa ; the coun-
try of the MoNOMUGi ; the territories of Brava,
AzANiA, andADEL ; while the eastern shores of the
Red sea are occupied chiefly by the extensive empire
of Abyssinia, and the territoriesof Sena ARandDoN-
GOLA. Beside these nations on the coast of Africa,
the central parts of this great continent are inhabited
by several tribes of whom a few only can be here noti-

ced. These territories are SouOAN, or NiGRiTi A, in- Afticp.
eluding the empires of Hovssa and Tombuctoo,
and the kingdoms of Bornou andDARFUR, the king-
dom of Agadez, the territory of Donga, and the
country of the Gagas.

Mountains. — In a tract of land so extensive as
Africa, we might expect the face of the country to
to be extremely various ; this, however, is not in ge-
neral the case. The greater part of the interior is
composed of vast deserts, one of which comprehends
a space of nearly two millions of square miles. The
coast is in general low, except in Morocco, at the
Cape of Good Hope and near the Mozambique chan-
nel; but a very remarkable chain of mountains is supr
posed to extend right across this continent from
Cape Verd to Abyssinia.

Besides this extensive ridge of mountains generally
called the Mountains of Kong, and the Mountains of
the Moon, Africa boasts of Mount Atlas, which
passes from Biled-ul-Gerid, in a westerly and south-
easterly direction, till it terminates in tlie southern
boundary of Morocco. Another ridge runs along the
the western shore of the Red sea, and is supposed
to have formed the quarries from which the ancient
Egyptians derived the materials of their obelisks. A
considerable ridge traverses the kingdom of Darfur;
and another called the Mountains ofLupata and some-
times the Spine of the viorld, forms the western boun-
dary of Zanguebar, extending nearly to the Cape
of Good Hope. The only other high land of impor-
tance is the celebrated Table Mountain at the Cape^
There are some volcanoes in Africai but these are
little known.

Capes. — From the indentations of the African
coast, there arise numerous capes and gulphs. The
principal capes are the following, viz. Cape Bon, in
the territory of Tunis ; Cape Spartel, forming the
south-western coast of the straits of Gibraltar ; Cape
Geer, in the kingdom of Morocco ; Cape Bojador,
remarkable only as being the first new cape doubled
by the Portuguese in the commencement of their
maritime discoveries ; Cape Blanc, in north latitude
21° ; Cape Verd, latitude 15°; Cape Palmas, on the
Ivory Coast ; Cape niree-Points, on the Gold
Coast; Cape Formoso, in the territory of Wari;
Cape Lopez Gonzalvo, a little south of the equator ;
Cape Voltas, between the Great, and Little Nama--
quas ; Cape of Good Hope, forming the most south--

A FR

80

Afiis*. em promontory ; Cape Sebastian, on the Mozam-
•^rym^ bique channel ; and Cape Guardaftii, forming the
most eastern promontory of Africa.

Gulphs. — The gulphs are very numerous. The
most remarkable are those : Sidra, or Syrtu Goulet-
ta, and Cabes, in the Mediterranean ; the gulf of
Guinea, in the Atlantic ocean ; the gulf of Sofala,
in the Mozambique channel ; and the bay of Ze-
ila, on the southern shore of the straits of Babel-
mandeU

Rivers. — The rivers of Africa, considering the
great extent of this division of the globe, appear not
to be so numerous as those of either Asia or Ameri-
ca. The interior of the country, in particular, seems
nearly devoid of navigable streams, if we except the
Nile and the Niger, — those two great approbria of
modern geographers, of which neither the source of
the former, nor the termination of the latter, has been
■»«./- ascertained with certainty.

'. The Nile is supposed to derive its source from

that ridge of the Mountains of the Moon that tra-
verses the territory of Donga, whence, under the
name of Bahr El Abiad, it takes an easterly and
north-f>:isterly course to the borders of Abyssinia.
From tbis it runs nearly due north, between Kordo-
fan and Senaar ; traverses Nubia and Dongola, in a
winding course ; enters Egypt, and passes directly
north to the Mediterranean sea.

Of the Niger, much less is known than of the
Nile. We know that it originates in the western ridge
of the mountains of Kong ; from which it flows east-
erly, north-easterly, and easterly, through the king-
dom of Bambara, and the empires of Houssa and
Tombuctoo ; but whether it terminates in a consider-
able lake to the west of Darfur, or takes a southerly
direction through the Mountains of the Moon, and
finally disembogues itself into the southern Atlantic
ocean, by one of those openings which are now
known under other names, is not yet determined. It
seems probable, however, that the Niger does pass
to the southward ; and if it do not form one conti-
nued stream, that it unites itself with the large and
rapid river denominated Congo, or Zayr.

The river Congo may be considered as the third in
point of importance. Its source is not known, though
it evidently comes from the northward, and, after tra-
versing the kingdom of Congo, joins the Atlantic at
about the 12th degree of south latitude. Here it is
about 15 miles wide, and so rapid as to repel the wa-
ters of the ocean to a distance of many miles from
the coast. Near its mouth it is a hundred fathoms
deep ; and at ninety miles above its mouth, its width
is a mile and a half, and its depth above thirty fa-
thoms.

The other African rivers of note are, the Senegal
and the Gambia, both rising in the mountains of
Kong, and flowing into the northern Atlantic, oppo-
site the 'Cape de Verd islands; the Orange river,
which probably rises in the southern ridge of the
mountains of Lupata, and flows westerly for nearly
1000 miles, till it meets the southern Atlantic, be-
tween the Great and Little Namaquas ; the Zambe,
opening into the Mozambique channel, and the Ha-
wash into the straits of Babelmandel.

Lakes. — It is probable, that such an extensive tract

A F R

of country contains numerous and considerable lakes,
though few of these are known to modern geogra- v
phers. The most considerable with which we are ac-
quainted, are. Lake Maravi, to the west of the
mountains of Lupata ; Tzana, or Denibea, near Gon-
dar, in Abyssinia ; Menzala, in Berlos ; and Elko,
in Egypt ; and Maberia, in Nigritia, which is said to
give origin to the river Senegal. •

Islands. — Several important islands are described
as belonging to Africa ; especially, Madagascar, rec-
koned the third island, in point of size, on the globe ;
the Canary islands, opposite the coast of Morocco ;
the Cape Verd islands ; the island of St Thomas, al-
most at the equator ; and St Helena, which, though
insignificant in point of magnitude, is now become of
no small importance in the eyes of Europe, as the
future residence of Napoleon Buonaparte.

Oases. — Similar to the islands in the Atlantic and
Indian ocean, are those remarkable isolated spots of
cultivated land in the midst of the extensive African
deserts, which give shelter to a few wandering tribes,
and afford welcome resting places to the trading
caravans. These are called Oases, and are pretty nu-
merous. The most remarkable are those of Fezzan,
Agadez, Augila, Gualata, Tuat, Taboo, Gadamis,
and Berdoa.

Climate and scaso7is. — As Africa is almost equally
divided by the equator, by far the greater part of
this continent lies between the tropics. From this si-
tuation, added to the immense arid deserts of the in-
terior, the climate of Africa is, in general, the hottest
of any part of the globe. Even the natives can
scarcely endure the scorching rays of the mid-day
sun ; and many Europeans have, in vain, attempted
to advance far beyond the coasts. The sands are so
parched with the continued influence of the solar
rays, that even the wind which passes over them pro-
duces effects on the skin and lungs almost equal to
those of the blast of a furnace ; and the scarcity of
water is so great, that caravans sometimes perish
from thirst, or are compelled to slaughter their ca-
mels for the small quantity of water contained in
the reservoirs of those animals. Along the coasts the
air is somewhat]more temperate; though in the neigh-
bourhood of the large rivers, the climate is still injuri-
ous to health. It is said, that the districts to the south
of the equator are less torrid than those within the
northern tropic, which is accounted for from the for-
mer being more within the influence of breezes from
the sea.

Almost the whole of Africa lies in the torrid zone ;
and the year, as in other intra-tropical regions, is
nearly equally divided between the dry and the rainy
seasons. The latter is peculiarly unfavourable to the
human constitution, so that during that season no ex-
peditions of any consequence, either warlike or com-
mercial, are undertaken.

Natural History. — The natural history of Africa is
copious and interesting, and will be particularly no-
ticed in describing the empires and kingdoms of
which this continent is compos ;'d. We shall here
confine ourselves to very general riinuvks. Among
the mammalia found in Africa, the most remarkable
are the Barbary and Pigmy apes, the great baboon,
the rhinoceros, especially the two horned species,

AfH

A F R

»l

Affict. which is common at the Cape of Good Hope ; the
^'•ymm^ elephant, which Is most abundant in the island of Bu-
lama, and in South Africa ; the hj'ena, the fennec,
the lion, who appears in Africa in his greatest strength
and terrors ; the cat of Angora ; the ichneumon, found
chiefly in Egypt ; the porcupine, the Madagascar
squirrel, the jerboa, the hyrax ; the camel, the ca-
melopardalis, or giraffe, sometimes seen at the Cape
of Good Hope; numerous species of antelopes, the
Guinea sheep, the buffalo, the zebra, the quagga, the
hippopotamus, or river horse, and the Ethiopian and
Cape de Verd hog : it seems probable, from Mr Bar-
row's account, that even the unicorn, generally sup-
posed a fabulous animal, may exist in Southern Af-
rica.

The species of birds found in Africa are almost in-
numerable. We may, however, particularize the gol-
den eagle, the ibis, the vulture, the flamingo, and the
ostrich. Of these the ibis is said not to be at present
met with in Egypt, though sometimes seen about the
Cape of Good Hope. Of the reptiles, the most re-
markable is the crocodile, a native both of Egypt and
Abyssinia.

The insects found in various parts of Africa are so
numerous, that a bare catalogue of tliose that are
known would occupy a very considerable space ;
and every succeeding traveller, since the time of
Vaillant, is continually adding to the number. A-
mong the most extraordinary may be noticed the
termes, or white ant.

Progressive Geography. — There are few subjects
more interesting than the progressive geography of
Africa. The knowledge which the ancients possessed
of this large continent, was confined almost entirely
to what is now called Northern Africa. The princi-
, pal ancient divisions of Africa were, Egypt, Cyrenai-
ca, the modern Barca, regio Syrtica, now Tripoli, Af-
rica Propria, chiefly confined to the territories of
Carthage, the modern Tunis, Numidia, now Algiers,
Mauritania and Getulia, the modern Morocco and
Fez. The northern part of the interior was called
Lybia, and the southern Ethiopia. The idea formed
by ancient geographers of the form of this continent,
was, however, extremely inaccurate. They supposed
that its breadth increased gradually towards the
south. Of the interior almost nothing was known,
though even Herodotus mentions the river Niger,
and describes it as flowing towards the east.

Attempts were made, at a very early period, to im-
prove the geographical knowledge of Africa. The
earliest of these appears to have been that of the Phoe-
nicians in the reign of Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt,
about 604 years before the Christian era. These
Phoenician navigators, according to Herodotus, set
out from a port in the Red sea, and passing the straits
of Babelmandel, entered the southern ocean. On the
approach of autumn, they landed in what Herodotus
tails Lybia, where they remained for nearly a year,
so as to reap corn which they had sown on their first
arrival. Hence they again set out, and coasted round
Africa, till, in the third year, they passed the co-
, lumns of Hercules, and returned to Egypt by the
Mediterranean. Much doubt is entertained with re-
spect to the authenticity of this account of the Phoe-
nician circumnavigation of Africa. There is only

vol.. 1. PART ).

A F R

one circumstance which might induce us to believe Afrlci.
that it really took place, viz. that it is related of these »^,»k>.^
voyagers, that in the latter part of their voyage they
had the sun on their right hand, which could have
happened only from their crossing the equator. On
the other hand, when we reflect on tiie imperfect
state of navigation at that early period, and tlie dif-
ficulties and dangers which must have attended such
an undertaking, we can scarcely believe it would
prove successful.

Voyage of Hanno. — Posterior to this attempt of
Pharaoh Necho, and some centuries before Christ,
the Carthaginians fitted out a fleet, under the com-
mand of Hanno, for the purpose of exploring the
western coast of Africa, and establishing a traffic
with the natives. As this is the first voyage of dis-
covery of which we have any authentic record, we-
shall hero introduce the account of it, which was
drawn up by order of the Carthaginian government,
and deposited in the temple of Saturn.

The fleet consisted of sixty ships, having on board
thirty thousand souls, well provided with all necessa-
ries. After passing through the straits of Gibraltar,
and sailing for two days southwards, the navigators
landed, and built a city called Thymaterium, suppo-
sed to be the modern Azamor. Hence coasting to-
wards the west, they came to the promontory of So-
loeis, supposed by Major Rennel to be tiiat now cal-
led Cantin ; and having here built a temple to Nep-
tune, they sailed half a day eastward, along a coun-
try abounding with elephants. After proceeding one
day's sail to the south, they again landed, and built
six towns ; and again setting sail, came to a river
which they called the Great River Lixus, the mo-
dern site of which is not certainly ascertained, though
it is probably the Lucos, near Santa Cruz. Pursu-
ing their voyage for one day toward the east, they
came to a small island, which they called Cerne,
where they staid some time. Departing hence, and
sailing by a great river called Chretes, they came to
what is called a lake, or large opening of the sea, in
which were several islands. In this opening they
sailed for the space of a day, and saw several high
mountains inhabited by savage people clothed with
skins. This lake or opening is, by Major Rennel,
supposed to have been the mouth of the Gambia ; so
that if his opinion be correct, Hanno and his compa-
nions must have proceeded pretty far to the south.

Discoveries of the Moderns. — From the voyage of
Hanno, nothing seems to have been done towards in-
vestigating the geography of Africa till the fourteenth
century, when, in consequence of a grant from Pope
Clement VI., by which the Canary islands, then
little known, were bestowed on Louis de la Cerda, of
the royal family of Castile, these islands became an
object of serious consideration. Accordingly, about
1395, they were taken possession of by John de Be-
tancourt, who made a pretty accurate survey of
them.

In the beginning of the fifteenth century, in the
reign of John I. king of Portugal, a voyage of dis«
covery was undertaken by direction of Prince Hen-
ry, fourth son of that monarch. Hitherto the western
coast of Africa had been explored only as far as Cape
Non or Nun ; but this expedition advanced consi-

Africa.

A F R

derably to the south of tliat promontory, and disco-
vered Cape Bojador. In several successive voyages,
during the esu-ly part of tlie fifteenth century, the
maritime discoveries of the Portuguese were conti-
nually extended. In ltl8, the island of Porto Santo
was first seen; in 14'20, the island of Madeira, disco-
vered the preceding year, was explored; in HS4;
Cape Bojador was doubled ; in 1446, Cape de Verd
was discovered and doubled; in the following )'ear
the discoveries had reached the river Gambia, then
called Rio Grande ; in l-liQ were discovered the isl-
ands called Azores ; about liSG, the Cape de Verd
islands appear to have been' first noticed ; in 1460
the coast of Sierra Leone was first observed ; in 1471
several small islands were discovered, especially that
of St Thomas ; in 1480 the Portuguese navigators
proceeded as far as the river Congo, or Zayre ; and in
1487 our knowledge of the western coast of Africa
was completed by the discovery of the Cape of Good
Hope; in 1498 the intrepid Vasquez de Gama doub-
led the Gape of Good Hope, and examined the coast
of Zanquebar ; and thus, in the course of a few years,
the whole outline of the African continent was com-
pletely traced.

Still the interior of the continent was scarcely
known. The Portuguese merchants and missiona-
ries from time to time published accounts oi the na-
tions on the eastern and western coasts, and the
Dutch afforded considerable information respecting
the country immediately contiguous to the Cape, but
none of these accounts extended our knowledge a
hundred miles within the country. The importance
both to commerce and to science of an accurate ac-
quaintance with the interior of Africa, at length, to-
wards the conclusion of the eighteenth century, rous-
ed the attention, and excited the genius both of pub-
lic bodies and private individuals. Abyssinia was ex-
plored by Bruce, Egypt by Volney and Sonnini, the
Cape of Good Hope by Sparnnan and Barrow, Ma-
dagascar by Rochou, Darfur by Browne, and Nigri-
tia and the western nations by later travellers, of
whose journies we shall now proceed to give a more
minute account.

Journey of Ledyard. — In the year 1788, a society
was formed at London of about ninety -five gentlemen
of rank and learning, for promoting discovery in tlie
interior parts of Africa. To this African Association,
as it is generally called, we are indebted for much
valuable information, though their laudable exertions
have not been attended with iill the success that
could have been desired ; and several gentlemen have
fallen victims to their enterprising spirit, in endea-
vouring to execute the office assigned them by the
society.

The first traveller who offered his services in pro-
secuting the views of the African Association, was
Ledyard, an American, a man of great intrepidity
and penetrating genius, who had alretuly passed
many years in travelling over various parts of Asia
and Europe, and had accompanied Captain Cook in
ene of his voyages round the worltL In consequence
of a recommendation from Sir Joseph Banks, Mr
Ledyard was appointed by the Association to explore
the interior of Africa, from Egypt to the Niger, in the
Erection of Senaar, and left London, for this pur-
2

82

A F R

pose, on the 30th of June 1788. In little more than
a month, he arrived at Alexandria, in Egypt, where
he procured the habit of an Egyptian traveller, with
such instructions as might enable him to act up to the
character he had assumed. He then repaired to Cai-
ro, which he reached on the 19th of August; and
where he remained, till, by conversing with the tra-
velling merchants who formed the caravans that an-
nually traverse the African deserts, he had acquired
considerable knowledge of the countries through
which he had to pass, and the manners and customs of
their inhabitants. Before he could set out from Cairo,
however, in further prosecution of his journey, he
was seized with a bilious complaint, which soon put
a melancholy period to his existence, and deprived
the public of those services which he appeared so
well qualified to perform.

From the observations made by Mr Ledyard while
at Cairo, as published in the proceedings of the Af-
rican Association, we collect the following parti-
culars : The travelling merchants, or Jalebs, traffic
to Senaar, Darfur, Wangara, and Abyssinia. To
the first of these places, they generally carry trink-
ets, which they barter with the natives for elephants'
teeth, gum, ostrich feathers, slaves, and camels.
Much of the trade between Senaar and Cairo is car-
ried on in the name of the king of Senaar, who is
himself a merchant, and has a factor at Cairo. From
Darfur, the Jalebs also bring gum, ivory, and slaves.
The inhabitants of Darfur were represented to Mr
Ledyard as being in the lowest state of savage socie-
ty. From Wangara these merchants bring gold,
with which that kingdom is said to be abundantly
supplied, though the king is generally careful not to
make an ostentatious display of the riches of hi»
country, for fear of attracting the notice of his poor-
er neighbours. The caravans estimate the distance
of places in tlieir route by the days required to travel
from one to another ; and as these journies are ge-
nerally performed on camels, whose ordinary rate of
travelling is 20 miles per day, these distances are
easily computed. Thus, from Cairo to Senaar is 30
days journey, or 600 miles ; to Fezzan is 50 days, or
1000 miles ; and from Fezzan to Tombuctoo is 90
days journey, or 1800 miles.

Mr Lucas. — In the same year, (1788,) the Asso-
ciation engaged Mr Lucas, who, afler having passed
three years as a slave in Morocco, had resided in
that empire for 16 years in the character of British
vice-consul, to explore the great desert from Tri-
poli to Fezzan, from which he was to return by the
river Gambia on the coast of Guinea. Mr Lucaa
sailed from Marseilles on the 18th October 1778,
and a week after landed at Tripoli. He here met
with two shereefs who had brought from Fezzan
slaves, senna, and other commodities. Under the
protection of these shereefs, who, being descended
from Malioramcd, were regarded as sacred both in
their person and property by the predatory tribes of
the desert, he set out from Tripoli on the 1st of Fe-
bruary 1789, provided with a good mule from the
bashaw of Trijioli, and a letter of recommendation
from the bey to tlie king of Fezzan. After passing
two days and a half in travelling among drearj' hills
of loose sand, which was agitated by every breeze,

Africa.

A F R

A F R

A frica. they csmc to a spot in which were a few fields of
' corn, diversified with date and olive tree* ; and, on
the fourth day, after a tedious march of three liours
among rocky hills, they arrived at an extensive plain
abounding in those fruit trees, which here grow in
great luxuriance. This plain ij not far from the sea
coast, and near it lies the town of Lebida, wliere
Mr Lucas saw the ruins of a Roman temple, of seve-
ral triumphal arches, and a large aqueduct by whicii
water had once been conveyed to Libida from a
neighbouring hill. On the seventh day of their jour-
ney, they encountered a party of Arabs whom they
suspected to be enemies, and prepared to attack
them ; but fortunately the Arabs and the shereefs
were known to each other, and the threatened battle
was exchanged for a scene of festivity. On the ev-
ening of this day, they reached Mesurata, where
Mr Lucas was politely received by the governor ; but
finding it impossible to obtain a sufficient number of
camels for the journey to Fezzan, he abandoned tlie
journey for that season, and returned to Tripoli,
from which he set out by way of Malta and Mar-
seilles, and arrived in England on the 26th of July.

It does not appear that much information was ob-
tained by Mr Lucas, either on his journey from Tri-
poli to Mesurata, or during liis stay at this latter
place. He observed, indeed, that the merchants of
the caravan seldom encumber themselves with tents,
hut when they encamp for the night they unload
their beasts, arrange their goods and baggage in a
circle, within which they light fires, and repose them-
selres on mats, without any other covering than their
alhaiques or blankets ; and he learned from Ben Ali,
a native of Morocco, some new intelligence respect-
ing the route of caravans from Fezzan to the Niger,
by the way of Bornou and Kashna.

Major Houghton. — The next adventurer who un-
dertook to explore the interior of Africa, was Major
Houghton, an officer in the British service, who had
passed some time as fort-major in the African island
of Goree. The African Association had received
from an Arab, named Siiabeni, a very interesting and
extraordinary account of the empire of Houssa, ad-
jacent to Tombuctoo, the capital of which was de-
scribed as not inferior to London or Cairo in extent
and population, while he represented the inhabitants
as arrived at a high degree of civilization and refine-
ment, living under the government of a limited mo-
narchy, and the restrictions of written laws, and even
possessing a considerable share of literary knowledge.
For the purpose of ascertaining the truth of these
surprising reports, Major Houghton was engaged by
the Association ; and he was instructed to proceed
by the shortest route to the Niger, of which he was
to ascertain the course, and, if possible, the rise and
termination ; to visit the cities of Tombuctoo and
Houssa ; and liaving acquired all the information in
Irts power, he was to return by way of the desert, or
by such other route as should be most convenient.

In compliance with these instructions. Major
Houghton left England on the 16th of October 1790,
arrived at the mouth of the Gambia on the lOtli of
the following November ; and was hospitably receiv-
ed by the king of Barra, to whom he was known,
and who assured him of all the assistance and pro-

tection in his power to afford. Having procured an
interpreter, he sailed up the river to Junkiconda,
wliere he purciiascd a horse and asses for tlie pur-
pose of conveying his goods to Madina the chief
town of the kingdom of Woolli. Here he arrived af-
ter a difficult and dangerous journey, and was kind-
ly received by the king of the country ; but before
he left the town, his farther progress was nearly ar-
rested by a fire which broke out in the habitation
where he had fixed Iiis residence, and consumed the
greater part of his merchandize, while his interjireter
ran oft' with his horse and most of his asses. He left
Madina on the 5th of May, and pursuing a north-
easterly course for five days, arrived at the frontier
of the kingdom of Bondou, adjoining to Woolli. He
now traversed a tract of 450 miles, till he arrived at
the banks of a river called Faleme, which constitutes
the south-western boundary of the kingdom of Bam-
bouk. In consequence of a war between the king
of this country and the sovereign of Bondou, the un-
successful termination of which had compelled th«s
former to relinquish a part of his territories. Major
Houghton fouiul himself under very unpleasant
circumstances. The king of Bondou was now re-
siding in his newly acquired possessions, and not
only received our traveller in a very ungracious man-
ner, but either authorised or permitted his son, with
a body of armed men, to rob him of almost all his
baggage and eftects. At length he found means to
escape, and was proceeding on his way to the capi-
tal of Bambouk, when he missed his road in the
midst of a forest, and was compelled to pass the
night on the ground, exposed to all the inclemencies
of the rainy season. The consequence was a violent
fever, accompanied with delirium ; under which he.
would have sunk, but for the kindness and hospitality
of a negro family, to whom he had been conducted
by his guide. His reception by the King of Baip-
bouk was flattering, and such as seemed to promise
future advantages to the cause in which he was em-
barked. In the course of July he became acquainted
with a respectable Bambouk merchant, who agreed to
conduct him on horseback to Tombuctoo, and return
with him to Junkiconda, for which the merchant was
to receive L.150 Sterling, on their arrival at the
British factoiy. We have no further authentic ac-
count of Major Houghton's adventures ; but it was
reported by the natives of Ludamar, that on arriv-
ing at Jarra, he was prevailed on by some Moor-
ish merchants to accompany them to the salt mine
of Tissheet, considerably to the north of his in-
tended course, and it is supposed that he was either
murdered by his treacherous conductors, or, after be-
ing rifled of his remaining effects, was left to perish in
the woods or the desert.

Much curious information has been derived from
Major Houghton's dispatches. He describes the king-
dom of Woolli as a delightful country, abounding with
all the necessaries and convenieneies of life, and well
situated for an extensive and profitable commerce.
The inhabitants of BondoiK like the Arabs, have
long black hair and coppOT-coloured complexions,
and belong to the tribe of Foulahs, who occupy the
greater part of the district between the Senegal and
Gambia. The inhabitants ofBamboukjagainjar^ofthr-

Afi<ca.

A F R

Africa, negro race, are engaged chiefly in agriculture, and
have made little progress in arts and manufactures.
Like almost all the other negro tribes, they are a na-
tion of robbers.

Mr Park — We now come to the most enterprising,
and, on the whole, the most successful of the travel-
lers who have undertaken to explore the banks of the
Niger, the celebrated Mungo Park. This gentle-
man had just returned from India, and as the African
Association were then looking out for a proper person
to supply the place of Major Houghton, Mr Park
eagerly ofFered his services, and, after some enquiry
into his qualifications, his offer was accepted.

He sailed from Portsmouth on the 22d of May
1795, and arrived at JiUifree, on the north bank of
the Gambia, on the 2Ist of the following month.
Hence he proceeded to Pisania, a British factory, a-
bout 200 miles up that river. He was most kindly re-
ceived by Dr Laidley, and remained for several
months, collecting information respecting his intend-
ed journey, and learning the INIandingo language.

Leaving Pisania, on the 2d December 1795, and
directing his course to the Niger, or Johba, he soon
found it necessary, in consequence of a war between
two chiefs of the interior, to make a turn to the
northward, towards the territory of the Moors ; and,
on the 7th March, was taken prisoner by Ali, a
Moorish chieftain. After a series of unexampled
hardships, he escaped, with great difficulty, in the
following July ; and, after wandering for three weeks
through a wilderness, arrived at Sego, the chief town
of the kingdom of Bambarra, situated on the banks
of the Niger, and containing, by computation, about
30,000 inhabitants. Finding it would not be safe for
him to remain long at Sego, he proceeded by San-
sanding to Silla, a town on the south side of the Ni-
ger, about 70 or 80 miles farther down the stream.
Here he found that, in his unprotected situation,
there were insurmountable obstacles to his farther
progress, and therefore returned up the current of
the Niger, till he reached Bammakoo, on the fron-
tiers of Bambarra, on the 23d of August. The Niger
was here no longer navigable, and he was obliged to
travel for several weeks on foot, in the worst of the
rainy season, wandering alone, anddeprived of every
convenience that might alleviate his distress, thi ough
a mountainous and pathless country; and on the IGth
of September arrived at Kamalia in the kingdom of
Manding, situated at the foot of some rocky hills,
and noted for the gold which is collected in its neigh-
bourhood. The fatigue and hardships to which he
had been exposed, brought on a severe .'md danger-
ous illness, by which he was confined for several
weeks, and appears to have owed his life to the be-
nevolent attentions of his host, a negro slave-mer-
chant, called Karfa Taura, whose family nursed him
with the kindest solicitude. He had still 500 miles to
travel, chiefly through a desert country, before he
could reach any friendly district on the banks of the
Gambia, and no opportunity occurred that could afford
any chance of accomplishing so long and perilous ft
journey till the month of April 1797, when he heard
of a caravan ot slaves who were moving to the west-
ward. These he joined, and left Kamalia on the
19th of April. On the 3d of May they entered

84 A F R

Malacotta, a small unwalled town, consisting of liuts Africa,
formed of split cane, plastered with mud. There
they remained four days, and on the Pith of May
crossed the river Faleme. On the 4th .June they
reached Madina, the capital of Woolli ; and on the
10th of the same month arrived at Pisania, which he
had left. 18 months before. After remaining about
five days, he embarked in a slave ship bound to Ame-
rica ; and being by stress of weatlier driven to An-
tigua, he left the ship, sailed from Antigua on the
.24th November, in a British vessel ; and on the 22d
Deceinber arrived at Falmouth, having been absent
two years and seven months.

It must be confessed, that the objects for which Mr
Park undertook his first journey were not complete-
ly fulfilled. He ascertained neither the origin nor the
termuiation of the mysterious Niger, though he had
ocular demonstration of the truth of the assertion
made by Herodotus, that the course of this river is
towards the east. He has also fixed the boundaries
of several moorish and negro nations, and brought us
acquainted witli many interesting circumstances re-
specting their manners and customs. In particular,
he has admirably depicted the character of the Man-
dingo tribes, and of those wanderinghordes of Bedouin
Arabs that rove through the extensive district of Lu-
damar. In short, he has fixed the geographical position
of a great number of towns and villages on the banks
of the Gambia, the Senegal, the Faleme, and the Niger;
and although he was unable to ascertain the truth of
the Arabian reports respecting the empires and cities
on the banks of this great river, he saw and describ-
ed enough to convince us that they are at least highly
probable.

Mr Horneman. — Before Mr Park's return from his
first journey, another gentleman had presented him-
self to the African Association. This was a young
German, of the name of Horneman, of respectable li-
terary attainments, of athletic form, vigorous consti-
tution, and temperate habits ; qualifications which
certainly fitted him in an eminent degree for execut-
ing the arduous task he was about to undertake. He
came to London in the spring of 1797, was soon
appointed by the Association, and in the autumn of
the same year left England for the south of France.
He sailed from Marseilles in a Cyprus vessel in the
month of August, and landed at Alexandria in Kgypt
on the 10th September. He soon left this city for
Cairo, where, like his predecessor Ledyard, he pas-
sed some time waiting for the departure of the cara-
van for Fezzan ; and acquiring such information as
might assist him in his future progress. It appears
tliat he set out for Fezzan ; but as no authentic ac-
counts have arrived of his proceedings after that pe-
riod, it is to be apprehended that he has fallen a prey
to tile insalubrity of the climate, or the treachery and
inhumanity of tlie natives.

Mr Park's second journey Afler the peace of

Amiens, it was resolved iiy the British government to
dispatch a mission to Africa, under their inmiediatc
authority and direction, for the purposes of ascer-
taining how far it might be practicable to establish «
commercial intercourse, through the medium of our
settlements on the Gambia, between this country and
the nations that inhabit the banks of the Niger. U

A F R

85

A F R

Africa, is not surprising that Mr Park should have been se-
lected as the fittest person to carry into effect this
important resolution ; nor, considering his enthusias-
tic turn of mind, it is not to be wondered at that he
should eagerly embrace the offer. This offer was
made in the autumn of 1803, and he came to London
at the end of that year to arrange measures for his
journey. In consequence, however, of the change
of government which took place in May 1801', the
business of the African mission was successively de-
layed, first till the following September, and after-
wards! till January 1805.

On the 30th of tliis month, Mr Park embarked at
Portsmouth, and took his final leave of his native
country, to which he was destined never to return.
He was accompanied from Britain by Mr Anderson,
his brother-in-law, a respectable surgeon, by Mr
Scott, a draughtsman, and four ship-carpenters ; and
it was settled that, on his arrival at Goree, he was to
be joined by a detachment of volunteers from the
royal artillery. It was naturally supposed, that, pro-
tected by such a guard, our travellers would have
nothing tofear from the undisciplined savages tlirough
whose country they had to pass ; and indeed there is
every reason to believe, that had the expedition tak-
en place some months earlier, it would have been at-
tended with complete success.

The Crescent transport, having on board Mr Park
and his companions, touched at Porto Praya in St
Jago, one of the Cape dc Verd islands, on the 8th of
March, for the purpose of supplying themselves with
asses ; and having obtained a sufficient number, they
left the island on the 21st, and seven days after land-
ed at Goree. They speedily procured their compli-
ment of soldiers, consisting of Lieutenant Marty n and
34 privates, forming part of the garrison of Goree.
By the 26th of April our little army had reached
Kayee, a small town on the banks oi the Gambia,
from which they set out in good health and high spi-
rits, on their eventful journey towards the Niger.
It soon appeared how just had been the apprehen-
sions which Park had frequently expressed, of under-
taking this journey at such a season of the year ; and
it is much to be lamented that the arduous kader of
the party had not delayed his final departure from
the British settlements till the tropical rains and ex-
cessive heats which attended them had subsided. It
would be a melancholy task to follow this devoted
party in their march through the woody and moun-
tainous districts that lie between the (janibia and the
Niger. It is sufficient to observe, that, by the time
they reached Sansanding on the latter river, only
five out of 4'4' Europeans who left Goree survived.
These were Mr Park, Lieutenant Martyn, and three
of the soldiers. Their number had almost daily di-
minished from the 8th of June, when they encoun-
tered a heavy tornado near Dentila, till the 28th
^October, when Mr Anderson was laid in the grave.
All the carpenters had died ; and it was with great
labour and difficulty that Mr Park, aided by one of
the remaining soldiers, joined together two halves of
a Bambarra canoe, so as form something like a schoo-
ner, which he denominated the Joliba.

Mr Park'sdeath. — With this schooner and his small
remaining party, one of whom was in a state of de-

rangement, Mr Park determined to undertake a Africa,
voyage down the Niger till he should reach its ter-
mination or " perish in the attempt." Unfortunate-
ly he did perish longbefore he reached its termination.
There are no certain accounts of the particulari of
this melanclioly event ; but it appears from the jour-
nal of his guides Isaaco and Amadou Fatouma, that the
party, after leaving Sansanding on or about the 17th
November, (the date of Mr Park's last dispatch,) pro-
ceeded down the Niger till they reached Yaour, m
the kingdom of Houssa, near which they were at-
tacked by the natives, and either put to death by
their spears or drowned in the river.

The second journey of Park has added but little
to our geographical knowledge of the interior of A-
frica. Sansanding, from which government received
the last authentic dispatch, is several miles higher
up the river than Silla, to which place the accounts
of his former journey extended. Several additional
circumstances are, however, to be gleaned from the
journal that accompanied the last dispatch, and the
most important of tliese we shall here notice.

The river Gambia at Kussai, nearly 300 miles above
its mouth, is at least 100 yards across, and has a re-
gular tide, rising about four inches. It swarms with
crocodiles and river horses, so that 13 of the former
and 3 of the latter were seen at one time. The
woods in this neighbourhood abound with wild bees,
and honey is of course very plentiful. At Dentila,
the tree which produces the astringent drug kino, is
so plentiful that tliey use it for smelting iron. At
Shrondo and Dindikoo are gold mines, which are
merely pits sunk in the earth, in a marshy soil, to the
depth of 10 or 12 feet, and the gold is obtained in
minute particles by washing the soil. The mountains
here consist chiefly of a coarse reddish granite, bufc
their surface is so fertile that they are cultivated to
their very summits. Several of the tributary streams
passed by Mr Park are very large, particularly that
called Ba-fing, at Konkromo, where a canoe in
which were three soldiers was upset, and tlio Ba-
Woolima, in which the guide Isiiaco was nearly killed
by a crocodile. Almost through their whole joui'ney
they were continually pestered by the thievish dis-
position of the natives. Indeed, according to their
own account, they considered the cofHe " as a dum-
midqfong, a tiling sent to be eaten : in English, fair
game for every body." The main stream of the Ni-
ger, is separated from the remote branches of the
Senegal by a ridge of mountains at the south of
Toriba ; and a little to the east of Bammakoo, the
Niger is at least a mile in breadth, and the current
sets nearly five miles an hour. Nothing can be con-
ceived more beautiful than the views of this immense
r'.ver, some times as smooth as a mirror, sometimes
rufiled with a gentle breeze, down the current of
which the cailoes moved, without exertion, at from
five to seven miles an hour.

The town of Sansanding is not so large as Scgo,
containing only about 11,000 inhabitants. It has no
public buildings except the mosques. There is a
large square market-place ; and the different articles
of merchandise are exposed for sale on stalls covered
v/ith mats to shade tiiem from the sun. The mark-
et is crowded with people from morning to night.

A F R

Africa. The article* sold are chiefly beads, indigo, ^rood,
ashes, cloth from Houssa and Jinnie, antimony, sul-
phur, rings and bracelets of copper and silver, scarlet,
aniber, Morocco silks, tobacco, and salt. Besides the
ordinary market-places, there is a very large space
appropriated to the weekly market, held every Tues-
day, on which day astonishing crowds of people
come from the country to purchase articles in whole-
sale, which they retail in the neighbouring villages.
From the experience we now possess, and from the
observations of the lamented Park, there can be no
doubt that it is practicable to open a commercial in-
tercourse between the great trading cities on the
banks of the Niger, and tiie British settlements on
the Senegal and the (iambia ; but for this purpose
the traders must be supported by a sufficient force,
and must make their expeditions during the dry sea-
son. The British governmt nt have had it long in
contemplation to renew the attempt in which Park
so unavoidably failed, adopting such measures of pru-
dence as shall, so far as human exertion is concern-
ed, ensure success ; and according to this system of
precaution a mission has been appointed, and is now
(November 1815) about to depart for the coast of
Africa.

A F R

Before concluding this sketch of the discoveries Africa.
in this extensive continent, we must notice the mis-
sion of Messrs Trutter and Sonierville from the Cape
of Good Hope in 1801 and 1802, the travels of Dr
Liclitenstein, a German, at a later period, and the
missionary journey of Mr Campbell, of a still more
recent date ; from all of whom much curious and in-
teresting information, relative to Southern Africa,
has been obtained. These travellers explored a con-
siderable extent of countr}-, and between the 20th and
28th degree of south latitude discovered a very po-
pulous region, inhabited by a tribe called Boshuanas,
who have made some progress in civilization and the
arts of life, and reside in villages and towns of no
trifling magnitude. Leetakoo, or Latakoo, the ca-
pital of the Matchappin tribe, contains from 10 to
15,000 inhabitants. Agriculture is an object of as-
siduous attention in this part of Africa, and has made
such advances, that corn and bean crops are success-
fully raised in inclosed fields. Southward from Lee-
takoo, are the Wanketzens, who are described as a
more numerous tribe, have reached higher degrees
of perfection in agriculture, lire in larger towns, and
are not meanly skilled in the manufacture of arms
and other works in iron.

Aga AFRICAN COMPANY. See Company.

II AFRICAN INSTITUTION. See Institution.

Agamemnoo AGA, a title of distinction among the Turks ; as,
the aga, or commander of the janizaries ; the sjiahi-
clar aga, or general of the horse ; and the agas, or
chief officers of the seraglio. • The principal officers
of the khan of Tartary, and the governors of towns
and garrisons among the Algerines, are distinguish-
ed by the same title.

AGADEZ, a region in the interior of Africa, si-
tuated in the eastern part of the Great Desert, of
which the northern district is a barren sandy waste ;
the southern contains rich pastures, is fruitful in
com, and abounds with cattle. Three towns of this
district are considerable for their wealth and popu-
lation. Agad, the capital, is placed between two
lofty mountains, near the source of a stream which
falls into the Niger. It is surrounded with walls, and
the houses are built in the Moorish style. The na-
tives of the country resemble the wandering Arabs
in their mode of life, and have some trade in manna
and senna. Agad is situated in N. Lat. 20. 15. E.
Long. 13. H.

AGALMATOLITE, or Figure Stone, a species
of mineral belonging to the Magnesian genus. See
Mineralogy.

AGAMEMNON, king of Argos, and the cele-
brated commander of the Greeks in the Trojan war.
Agamemnon drove Thyestes, and his son ;Egisthus,
from the government of Argos, which they had
usurped ; and having ascended the throne, married
Clytemnestra, daughter of Tyndarus, king of Sparta.
As Agamemnon was the most powerful prince in-
Greece, he equipped the greatest number of ships
and men for the expedition against Troy ; and, dur-
ing that famous siege, his courage, prudence, and
perseverouce were always conspicuous. After its

fall, the prophetess Cassandra, the daughter of Pri- Aganippi
am, became the prize of Agamemnon ; and by her II _

he was warned against returning to Mycenae, on ac- Ag»ric.
count of the plot which was formed against his life ;
but he disregarded tlie advice, and was basely mur-
dered by his wife and her lover ^Egisthus, who,
duriHg his absence, had seized the throne of Ar-
gos.

AGANIPPE, a fountain of Mount Helicon, sac-
red to the muses, and celebrated by ancient poets ;
and hence Aganippides is one of the designations of
the muses.

AGAPANTHUS, signifying love-flower, a genus
of plants belonging to the class Hexandria.

AGAPE, from the Greek word which signifies
love ; the love-feast or feast of charity which was in-
stituted among the primitive Christians, and was pro-
vided by the rich to supply the necessities of the
poor. It is said that the feast of love was established
when the practice of having all things in common
ceased. This festival was ^held after the service of
the church ended, and also at the time of the cele-
bration of the Lord's supper. But, about the end of
the fourth century, the licentious abuses which had
crept into the institution, required the interference
of the council of Carthage, and occasioned a direct
prohibition of its observance in churches. Among
certain rehgious denominations, as the Baptists and
Glassites, feasts of a similar nature exist at tlie pre-
sent day, and are conducted with great propriety
and decorum.

AG APETiE, the denomination of certain widows
and virgins, who, from motives of piety and charity,
attended ecclesiastics, and aided them in their func-
tions in the early times of the Cliiistian church.

AGARIC, Mineral, a carbonate of lime found in
the fissures of rocks. See Mineralogy.

A G A

8T

AGE

Ag»ri«us AGARICUS, or Agaric, a genus of plants be-
ll longing to the class Cryptogamia.
Agathorlei. AGATE, a mineral composed chiefly of jasper
and calcedonj', with some other simple minerals,
usually disposed in concentric layers. See Mine-
ralogy.

Agate, is also the name of an antique gem, on
which are engraven representations of events relative
to ancient history and mythology. Some of these
gems are beautifully executed, hare been preserved
with great care, and are still held in high estimation.

AGATHOCLES, the tyrant of Sicily, holds a
conspicuous place in history, on account of the event-
ful scenes of his varied life. He is described as the
son of a potter, and was born 361 years before the
Christian era. After a succession of adventures, in
which he appeared in tlie character of a common
soldier, a robber, and a pirate, as suited his necessi-
ties, or accorded with his bold designs, he rose to
the high rank of commander in chief of the army of
Syracuse. The death of TImoleon, through whose
vigorous measures the expulsion of the tyrants, and
the restoration of the libertj' of the Sicilians had
been accomplished, opened the path of ambition to
Agathocles, who now aspired at sovereign authority.
But he was not permitted to assume the reins of go-
vernment till he came under a solemn engagement
to preserve its democratic form unimpaired. With
supreme power in his hands, the obligation of an
oath proved a feeble restraint on tlie cruelty of an
unprincipled ruler. Four thousand of the nobles and
principal citizens, who were not disposed to acknow-
ledge the absolute authority which he assumed, fell
victims to his barbarity and ambition. The Cartha-
ginians, who at this time Jield part of the Sicilian ter-
ritory, became jealous of his power, declared war
against him, and, after a successful engagement in
the field, drove him within the walls of the city.
But while he was deserted by his allies, and harassed
with all the jirivations and miseries of a siege, his
spirit remained unbroken, and turned for aid to new
and extraordinary resources. He planned and exe-
cuted one of the boldest manoeuvres of which the
annals of history furnish any record. He assigned
the command of Syracuse to his brother, transport-
ed an army to Africa, burnt his fleet, and ravaged
the territory of the Carthaginians to the very walls
of their city. After this success he was recalled to
Sicily ; but during his absence the fortune of war had
changed. His army, weakened by desertion and re-
peated skirmishes, was driven from its strong holds ;
and the return and exertions of Agathocles left him
no hope of retrieving his affairs. Like a celebrated
modern leader and usurper, his own personal safety
became his only concern in the day of disaster.
With a small train of attendants, he retired to Syra-
cuse, and abandoned his army, and even his own fa-
mily, to the mercy of the enemy. The army, enrag-
ed at the baseness of his treachery, murdered his
children, and surrendered to the Carthaginians. But
Agathocles was not slow in satiating his revenge, for
he put to death all the relations of the soldiers whom
Jie could discover ; soon after met his own fate by
poison, which was secretly administered by the in-
Muence of his own grandson ; and, after a reign of

28 years, terminated a life stained with cruelty and
crime, by a painful death.

AG ATHOPH YLLUM, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the class Dodecandria.

AGAVE, or American Aloe, a genus of plants
belonging to the class Hexandria.

AGDE, a small to^vn in the department of Herault,
in France, is situated on the banks of a river from which
the department takes its name, about a mile from its
junction with the sea in the gulf of Lyons. The
town enjoys some trade, and is a great resort of pil-
grims ; and the surrounding country, which is a ba-
saltic region, produces fine wool and silk, and is fer-
tile in corn, wine, and oil.

AGE, in its most general acceptation, denotes either
the whole period or a portion of the time of the exist-
ence of any being. The same term sometimes marks
the period of thirty years, and then it seems to be
synonymous with generation, and sometimes it is e-
quivalent to the period of a hundred )ears, or a cen-
turij. The duration of the world has been divided
by historians into different ages ; and the beautiful fic-
tion of the ancient poets, which divides the progres-
sive history of mankind into the ages of gold, silver,
brass, and iron, is expressive of the state of inno-
cence and purity, the decline and degeneracy of the
human race.

AGEN, a city of the province of Agenois, and in
the department of Lot and Garonne in France, con-
tains a population of nearly 1 1 ,000, is chiefly remark-
able for the venerable remains of Roman antiquity,
and is 520 miles south-west from Paris.

AGENOIS, a province of France, forming part
of tlie department of Lot and Garonne. Great
part of the valley through which the rivers Lot and
Garonne 9io-w, is rich and fertile in corn, wine, and
fruits, and the number of inhabitants in the province
amounts to 353,000.

AGERATUM, Base Hemp, Agrimony, a genus
of plants belonging to the class Syngcnesia.'

AGESILAUS, icing of Sparta, and a celebrated
military commander, was born about 444 yciirs be-
fore the Christian era, and was raised to th' Jirone
in prcfci'ence to his nephew, the son of an elder bro-
ther. The invasion of the Greek cities in Asa by
the Persians, roused the Lacedemonians to arm in
their own defence, Agesilaus was appointed com-
mande)', obtained some signal victories, and finally
defeated Tissaphernes, the Persian general. The
bravery and success of Agesilaus in this expedition
obtained for him the supreme conunand, by sea and
land, from the Spartan government ; an extent of
authority which no individual had before enjoyed.
An interview which took place between Agesilaus
and the Persian governor of I'hrygia, a person of il-
lustrious rank, presents a striking contrast between
the simple manners of the former, and the luxurious
habits of the latter. Agesilaus seated himself on the
grass, under the shade of a tree, while, with all the
pomp of eastern magnificence, rich carpets were
spread for the Persian ruler, who, struck with the
simplicity of a prince of such distinguished valour,
relinquished for a time the splendour of rank, placed
himself on the grass by his side, and entered into a
cloee friendship.

Agatho-
phjrllum

II
Agesilans.

A G G

88

Aggethuyi Agesilaus was recalled to take tlie field against the
II combined forces of the Athenians and Tliebans. He

Agircourt. yf^g •yvounded in an engagement on the plains of
Cheronsea, and, failing in an attempt on Corinth, ra-
vaged the surrounding country. The wanton acts
of aggression in which the Spartans had indulged
on their defenceless neighbours, j)roduced a power-
ful combination against that people ; and the The-
bans, under their celebrated general Eparainondas,
defeated them under the command of Agesilaus, first
at the famous battle of Lcuctra, and afterwards at
Mantinsea.

The last exploit of Agesilaus was an expedition to
EgyjJt, to support a competitor for the throne of that
ancient country. Anticipating from the warlike re-
putation of the Spartan leader, to be gratified with
the sight of a person of impressive appearance, the
Egj'ptians were astonished and disappointed to see
an old man, of diminutive stature, in a homely garb,
sitting on the sea shore. A personal aftront which
he had received from the competitor whose interests
he had first espoused, induced him to throw his in-
fluence into the opposite scale ; and thus the king of
Span,!, a small Grecian state, at the head of his ar-
my, bicame the arbiter of the fate of the mighty king-
dom of Egypt. Agesilaus, in his voyage home, was
driven into a port on the coast of Africa, where he
died, in the 42d year of his reign, and the Slth of
his age.

AGGERHUYS, the richest diocese of Norway,
has a population which exceeds 2 1. 5,000 souls, and
is the residence of the chief governor of the king-
dom. A fortress and city of Norway are also dis-
tinguished by the same name.

! AGGLUITNANTS, an old term in medicine, ap-
plied to such substances as were supposed, according
to a justly exploded theory, to have the property of
healing wounds, or of uniting separate parts.

AGGREGATE, is a tenn applied to such flowers
as are composed of florets included within the same re-
ceptacle or calyx; as dandelion, the common daisy, &c.
AGHRIM, a small village in the county of Gal-
way in Ireland, thirty-two miles distant from DubHn,
and celebrated by the total defeat of the army of
James II. consisting of 25,000 foot and horse, 7000
of whom, with their general, M. St Ruth, perished
on the field of battle, and the army of King William,
composed of 18,000 men, under the command of
General Ginkle, whose loss is stated at 600 men.

AGIMERE, an extensive region of the East In-
dies, stretching 5000 miles along the eastern banks
of the river Indus, and varying in breadth from 60
to 150 miles. It is divided into diflcrent districts ;
and Agimere, the capital of the country, situated in
a delightful valley, encompassed by mountains, is
described as six miles in circumference, protected by
walls and a strong fortress, and in N. Lat. 26. 24:.
E. Long. 75. 20.

AGINCOURT, a small village in the French
Netherlands, celebrated in history on account of the
victory gained in^41 5, over tlie French, by Henry V.
of England, who, in support of his claim on the French
crown, had conducted an army of 24,000 foot, and
8000 men at arms, to France, and after a desperate
resistance, became master of Harileur ; but his army

A G N

was greatly weakened and diminished in numbers ;
and having sent back his transports on his first land-
ing, no alternative remained but to march to Calais
in the face of an opposing army of 100,000 men.
The small band of the English, scarcely amounting
to 10,000 men, offered a feeble resistance to such an
overwhelming force. Henry, it is said, apprehensive
of his critical situation, offered to resign his conquest
on condition of being permitted to return to England
unmolested. But the French commander, confident
of an easy victory, haughtily rejected the proposal.
When thie English advanced to the village of Agin-
court on the 24th of October, the French army was
so posted that an engagement was unavoidable.
Next morning, by day-light, the battle commenced
with a furious onset. The conflict became dreadful,
by the desperate valour of the English, and the dis-
order which soon prevailed in the crowded ranks of
the enemy. The French lost 10,000 men on the field
of battle, among whom was the Duke d'Alen^on, the
commander in chief, with many persons of the most
illustrious rank ; and 14,000 prisoners fell into the
hands of the victorious army, of which, it is said, not
more than 40 men perished in the engagement.

AGIO, derived from the Italian, and signifying
aid, is a term used in commerce, to denote the differ-
ence between the value of bank money and the cur-
rent coin. The agio in Holland was formerly at
three or four per cent. ; at Venice 20 per cent ; at
Genoa 15 or 16 per cent. ; and at Hamburgh 14 per
cent.

AGNANO, a lake near Pozzuoli, to the west-
ward of Naples, and about two miles in circumfe-
rence. The sides and bottom of the cavity of this
lake are interspersed with fragments of lava and pu-
micestone, and it has the shape of an inverted fun-
nel, from which it is inferred that it is the crater or
mouth of an extinct volcano. The waters of this
lake abound with tenches and frogs, and numerous
flocks of ducks swim on its surface.

AGNATE, a term used in law to denote ai\y
male relation by the father's side.

AGNES, St. one of the Scilly islands, on the
western coast of England ; is of small extent, but
is well cultivated, and fertile in corn and grass.
On the most elevated part of the island, a lighthouse,
constructed of stone, and 51 feet in height, is erect-
ed. The inhabitants do not exceed 50 families. N.
Lat. 49. 56. W. Long. 6. 46.

AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, a lady of extraor-
dinary talents and acquirements, and particularly
distinguished by her mathematical learning, wa«
born at Milan in 1718. Her father, a man of some
rank, gave every facility to the improvement of a
mind, which, from her earliest years, afforded re-
markable indications of powerful talents. She made
rapid progress in the acquisition of languages. In
her ninth year she delivered a Latin oration, before
an assembly of learned men, which met at her fa-
ther's house, to prove that literary studies ai-e not
inconsistent with the female character. In her ele-
venth year, she not only read, but spoke Greek with
ease and fluency ; she had also acquired some know-
ledge of the oriental languages, and was quite fami-
liar with French aad German. But her studies were

Agio

II
Ajnesf.

A G N 8

AgTiesi. not limited to literature alone. Mathematics, Natural

i^^-y^^ Pliilosophy, and even metaphysical discussions, fell

equally within the grasp of this intellectual prodigy.

While in her 15th year, she maintained theses on
various subjects of philosophical speculation with
the learned persons who at stated times assembled
at her father's house, and also occasionally with
learned foreigners, discoursing with them in the lan-
guage in which she was addressed. It is little to be
wondered at, that a young lady, in the bloom of
youth, of an agreeable person and graceful manners,
exhibiting all the profundity of knowledge, acute-
ness of observation, and power of argument of the
maturest and most experienced age, should be the
object of universal admiration. For the period of
three years she held the most conspicuous place in
these philosophical discussions ; but slie seems to
have exercised her wonderful talents in this public
manner more to indulge her father's vanity in enjoy-
ing the reflected glory of her reputation, than to
gratify her own ambition for learned fame. The last
splendid display of her argumentative powers took
place in 1738, in presence of a numerous assembly
of the most illustrious persons for rank and learning,
when she finally retired from the field of disputa-
tion ; and the subjects of extemporary discus-
sions, in which she had been engaged, appeared in
a quarto volume, and were published in the same
year.

The vigorous mind of Agnesi was now wholly oc-
cupied with mathematical studies ; and she had not
long entered on the pursuit, when she composed a
commentary on the Conic Sections of de I'Hospital.
But she carried her researches into the higher de-
partments of the science, and afforded ample proof
of her profound skill in the doctrine of the modern
calculus, by publishing, in IT'iS, in two 4to volumes,
Anal^ical Instil utioiisjbr the Use of the Italian Youth,
a work of great merit, exhibiting a most perspicu-
ous view of tlie subject, and still regarded as an ex-
cellent introduction to the works of the continental
mathematicians. This work was translated into Eng-
lish, many years ago, by the late Mr Colson, profes-
sor of mathematics at Cambridge. The manuscript
was discovered among the papers of the ingenious
translator, by the industry of Baron IMaseres, in
1801, through whose liberality it was presented to
the world. This remarkable production procured
for its author the honour of being elected a member
of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna, and the dis-
tinguished nomination of Professor of Mathematics
and Natural Philosophy in that university ; an ap-
pointment which she received from the Pope. A
doubt has been expressed, whether she ever entered
on the active duties of the professorship ; but it
seems probable that it was altogether intended as an
honorary mark of distinction. We are gravely told,
indeed, by some of the biographers of this wonder-
iuH" lady, that female professors were by no means
uncommon in Italy ; and one, throwing aside all the
delicacy of the sex, filled the anatomical chair in
the same university. The most careful inquiry, we
suspect, could produce but a scanty list of female
teachers ; and of such professors as Agnesi, she yet
remains, perhaps, a solitary instance.

VOL. I. PART I.

} A G R

But the well-merited honours of learned reputa- Agnm
tion faded before her ; worldly distinctions lost their |i
charms ; and the desire to spend her remaining years Agra.
in the exercises of devotion, induced her to retire to ^■^^v'^
the gloom of a convent. She became a member of
the order of Blue Nuns ; exchanged the pursuits of
abstract science for the study of the scriptures in
the original tongue, and the ancient fathers of the
church ; and lived in such rigid seclusion, that the
most urgent solicitations of learned foreigners, to
see and converse with so extraordinary a person,
were altogether fruitless. The last 40 years of her
long life were devoted to religious retirement ; and
she died in 1799, at the age of eighty.

In the opinion of certain critics, this lady affords
a striking vindication of the intellectual capacity of
her sex, and an ample refutation of the degrading
notion of the inferiority of the female mind. But it
seems to be forgotten, that such extraordinary en-
dowments and splendid attainments are of rare oc-
currence ; and with all the advantages of education, '
the talents and accjuirements of Agnesi are but sel-
dom equalled even among the other sex. The com-
prehensive genius of Newton is not to be considered
as the common measure of mental perfection ; and
perhaps the only parallel of the Italian female phi-
losopher, recorded in history, is Hypatia, of Alex-
andria, who lived in the ith century, and who, it is
curious to observe, was also a mathematician, a com-
mentator, and a professor. But although we do not
allege that the female mind is unequal to scientific
researches, nor do we assert that they are inconsist-
ent with the female character, yet it may be fairly
doubted whether such avocations be at all compa-
tible with the domestic duties of wives or mothers.

AGNUS DEI, or Lamb of God, is a cake of wax,
on which is impressed the figure of a lamb support-
ing the banner of the cross. This cake, haying re-
ceived the Pope's consecration, is distributed to the
people, who ascribe to it numerous virtues, and be-
lieve that those who have it in their possession are
protected from evil and prompted to do good.

AGOWS, a people of Abyssinia, who, although
possessing a country abounding in the necessaries of
life, are reduced by oppressive burdens to great po-
verty and wretchedness. The Agows seem to be a
pastoral people ; the care of their cattle, and the
management of bees for the honey and wax, are
their chief occupations. Hides, tanned in a peculiar
manner, constitute their only dress ; and in religion,
manners, and customs, they approach nearly to the
other nations of Abyssinia.

AGRA, a very extensive province of Hindostan,
liaving Delhi on its northern boundary, and the pro-
vince of Oude on the east. The productions of Agra
are, rice, cotton, and indigo, which is esteemed the
best in the east, with all the fine fruits of tropical
climates; and its chief manufactures . are muslins,
silk stuffs, and gold and silver lace. The revenue of
this province exceeds 16,000,000 rupees ; and its
military force is composed of nearly 600,000 infan- '
try, 50,000 cavalry, and more than 200 elephants.

AGRA, the capital of the province of the same
name in Hindostan, is situated on the river Jumnah,
300 miles to the eastward of Surat. Agra became

A G R

SO

A G R

the seat of empire in the time of Akbar. From
an inconsiderable place, it gradually rose to wealth
and splendour ; and towards the close of the long
reigns of that emperor, and of his son and successor,
it was justly regarded as the most magnificent city
in the east. The city is built in the form of a cres-
cent, and surrounded by a stone wall, and a ditch
of a hundred feet wide. The streets are narrow and
irregular, with low and mean houses ; but the palace
and castle are remarkable edifices for extent and
grandeur; The palace, which was erected at an ex-
pence of tliree millions of rupees, and employed a
thousand men for twelve years, is situated within
the castle, contains three courts, is encompassed with
splendid porticoes and galleries, finely painted and
gilt, and affords accommodation to the imperial
guards and their officers. The spacious and magni-
ficent apartments of the emperor and his seraglio
appear m tlie third court of this vast structure.
The grandeur and magnificence of Agra are increas-
ed by eight hundred public baths^ sixty caravanse-
ray^ or lodging-houses, and numerous mosques and
sepulchral monuments, among which the mausoleum
of Akbar is not the least conspicuous, as well as
another erected to an empress, which cost £ 75,000
Sterling. N. Lat. 27. 15. E. Long. 78. 29.

AGRARIAN LAWS, from a word which signi-
fies a field, are those laws which were enacted at
Rome to regulate the division of the conquered lands,
and to limit the extent to be held by each person.
The most celebrated of these laws was promulgated
by Spurius Cassius, about the year of Rome 268.
INrany laws of this description were passed at differ-
ent periods, and they referred to the partition not
only of the territory taken from the enemy, but also
of lands purchased with the public money, or of
such as had been usurped by powerful inclividuals.
Many of the attempts to introduce and establish
Agrarian laws excited, as might be expected, great
dissension between the Roman people and their ma-
gistrates, eend frequently terminated in violent com-
motions.

AGRICGLA, Cneius Julius, one of the most
celebrated of the Roman generals who conducted the
war in Britain, and contributed to its subjugation to
t!ie Roman power, was born in the year 40, in Pro-
vence, studied philosophy and law at Marseilles, and
afterwards served in a subordinate capacity in the
Roman armies iu Britain. His return to Rome was
immediately succeeded by an appointment to the
quastorship of Asia, during which his conduct was
greatly distinguished by honour and integrity. Agri-
cola supported Vespasian when he assumed the im-
perial power and dignity, was himself raised to pa-
trician rank, and was appointed governor of Aqui-
tania. Ai\Br the lapse of three years he returneti to
Rome, and was admitted to the consulship along
with Domitian, and in the year 78 was elevated to
the important station of governor of Britain ; and in
the aflairs of this country, the prudence, address,
and vigour of Agricola's administration were soon
highly conspicuous.. Having suppressed several re-
veJts, and terminated successfully different campaigns
in which lie had engaged, he wisely attempted, by
eonciHatory measures, to secure the conquests which

he had made ; and the schemes which he proposed
to a certain extent succeeded. Civilization made
some progress among the Britons. They adopted
the customs, imitated the manners, assumed the
dress, and studied the language of the Romans.
The cessation of hostilities was favourable to the
arts ; and during this period of tranquillity, many of
the splvndid works of the Romans m Britain were
erected. Baths, temples, and other magnificent edi-
fices arose, to adorn the rugged aspect of the coun-
try. But this was only a temporary calm ; the Bri-
tons were yet unacquainted with peaceful habits, or
their love of liberty and independence would not
suffer them to submit quietly to a foreign yoke ; and
Agricola resuming offensive operations, proceeded
northward in his career of victory.

In the third campaign in Britain he advanced to
the river Tweed ; in the next he subdued the whole
region between the Tweed and the Forth ; and in
the fifth he crossed the Forth, and carried his victo-
rious arms into countries hitherto unknown to the
Romans. Having proceeded beyond the Tay in
his sixth campaign, in the following spring he ad-
vanced with an army of 11,000 men towards the
Grampian mountains, to attack the Caledonians,
amounting to 30,000, under Galgacus, an able ge-
neral. The battle was severe and bloody ; and the
Caledonians, after leaving 10,000 dead on the field,
were completely routed, and their country was iq-
ducetl to a desolate waste.

Domitian, who had now attained the sovereignty
of the empire, although he encouraged the triumph
which was decreed to Agricola, and ordered a statue
to be erected to his honour, on account of the splen-
did ac(juisitions which he had made to the Roman
territory, became jealous of bis glory and popularity,
and recalled him from Britain, under the false pro-
mise of promotion to the government of Syria. But
the promise was itudiously evaded ; and Agricola
was no longer permitted to hold any place of trust
and authority. He died soon after his retirement
from public life ; and his death was ascribed to poi-
son, administered, according to a prevailing suspi-
cion, at the instigation of the emperor. Tacitus, the
celebrated historian, who married the daughter of
Agrieola, has transmitted to posterity a liighly inte-
resting biographical sketch of his father-in-law ; and
while classical taste remains, and elegant comix)si-
tion is admired, the memory of Agricola will not be
forgotten. The glow of affection which his virtues
excited while living, and the tender effusions of
mournful regret occasioned by bis death, have pro-
duced one of the finest specimens of pathetic ex-
pression.

Agricola, George, a physician and maieralo-
gist, was born at Glauchen, in Meissen, or Misnia,
in Germany, in 1494-, received his medical educa-
tion in Italy, and entered on the practice of his pro-
fession in his native country. Accompanying the
train of some German princes in the expedition of
Charles V. into Bohemia, he seems to have imbibed
a strong desire to acquire a knowledge of minerals
and metallurgical operations, which continued to be
his favourite pursuit, and afterwards his sole study,
through life. Having relinquished the medical pro-

Agiicolt.

A G R

Airricoli. fession, lie removed to the celebrated mining district
of Chemnitz, where he not only devoted his whole
attention to the prosecution of mineralogy, but spent
his patrimonial property, as well as the pension which
he enjoyed from the German princes, in the ardent
pursuit of the same object. Agricola is generally
supposed to be the first German author who profes-
sedly wrote on minerals ; and his works on this and
kindred subjects are not destitute of elegance and
ease of expression. His writings, composed in La-
tin, treat of the Origin and Causes of Subterranean

91

A G R

Mailers; o^ihe Nature of Fossils; of Mineral Springs ; Apicolt.
of Metallic Matters, &c. " ~

At one period of his life, it is said, Agricola was
inclined to the Protestant religion ; but he died steady
in the faith of the church of Rome. His death hap-
pened at Chemnitz in 1555; and so violent was the
bigotry of the Lutherans, against whom it was al-
leged he had at one time uttered severe censures,
that his body remained unburied for five days. It
was afterwards removed to Zeits, and consigned to
the grave in the principal church.

AGRICULTURE.

Juction Agriculture, in its strict acceptation, signifies the
cultivation of the ground, for the improvement and
increased production of such vegetables as are em-
ployed directly for the support of man, or for the
nourishment of those animals which are destined for
the purpose of food or domestic labour ; but, in a
more enlarged sense, it includes the whole business
of Husbandry, or whatever is connected with Rural
Economy.

The principles of agriculture and gardening may
be regarded as nearly the same. The object of both
is the culture of certain vegetable productions in the
greatest abundance and in the utmost perfection of
■which they are susceptible. But the former proceeds
on a large scale, and is employed in rearing plants of
a hardy nature, while the latter is occupied with the
cultivation of more delicate vegetables, which require
more miniite attention and nicer management. The
industry and ingenuity of the Chinese, in their more
populous provinces, where land is greatly subdi-
vided and held in small possessions, have cari-ied
agriculture to a state of perfection which is not far
distant from that of gardening in some other coun-
trieR.

To prove the importance of husbandry, it is scarce-
ly necessary to refer to ancient nations, who ascribed
divine honours to those to whom they conceived
themselves indebted for the invention or discovery of
different branches of the art. The kings of ancient
Persia, once every month, laid aside the pomp and
grandeur of state, and relinquishing the luxurious
banquet to partake of the simple fare of the hus-
bandman, afforded a striking expression of the high
estimation in which it was held by that people ; and,
in modern times, a practice somewhat similar prevails
. among the Chinese ; the monarch, as it were, divests
himself of his imperial dignity, condescends annually,
in the commencement of spring, to put his hand to
the plough, and offers a solemn sacrifice to secure a
favourable season and an abundant crop.

With that prepossession which a favourite subject
On which the mind has long dwelt usually inspires,
s©me writers who have assigned to agriculture an ex-
traordinary pre-eminence over other arts, seem to
have left altogether out of view the intimate connec-
tion and mutual relation which subsist among all the
branches of human industry. Without the aid of me-
chanical ingenuity, what progress could agriculture
make towards improvement? Without the plough

and the spade, the operations of the husbandman History,
would be clumsy and awkward. Mechanical contri-
vances are not less essential to the successful ad-
vancement of agriculture, than bread-corn is a ne-
cessary requisite to the manufacturer and artizan. It
is needless to dilate on this topic ; a very slight con-
sideration must render it obvious, that the arts of life
are not to be contemplated in an independent or insula-
ted state, for they mutually cherish and support each
other. No profession could be long exercised with-
out its proper objects. The labours of the husband-
man would soon cease, if the productions of tlie soil
found no market, or could not be commuted with the
industry of those engaged in the multiplied processes
of arts and manufactures. But laying aside this fan-
cied rank, this presumed antiquity and preference,
when the professionof husbandry hasattainedsome de-
gree of perfection, such as it exists in Britain at the
present day, if we consider the extent of intelligence,
the varied knowledge, the accurate discrimination,
the unwearied industry, the minute details, and the
economical management which its successful prac-
tice requires, it cannot fail to occupy a high place in
our estimation.

We shall not attempt to trace the history of agri-
culture among ancient nations. The works of He-
siod and Xenophon on the husbandry of the Greeks
are yet extant ; various Roman authors, as Cato,
Varro, Columella, Pliny, and others, have treated
largely of the same subject ; and none, who is at all
acquainted with classical literature, can bo ignorant
that the beautiful poem, the Georgics of Virgil, is
devoted to the illustration of the different branches
of rural economy. Aware of the importance of agri-
culture in a state, the Romans were greatly distin-
guished by their knowledge and industry in this pur-
suit ; and it is not a little curious to remark, that mo-
dern husbandry has added only two plants, the po-
tatoe and buck-wheat, to the number of species,
amounting to forty or forty-three, which were culti-
vated by that people.

The state of agriculture in Britain, previously to
the Roman invasion, was extremely rude. But as the
Romans never neglected to introduce their own im-
provements into the countries which became subject
to their dominion, the agriculture of Britain flourish-
ed greatly under their knowledge and experience of
the art ; and the produce of corn was so abundant,
that large quantities were exported. It is said that

92

AGRICULTURE.

H'story. 800 vessels, •ach supposed equal to 300 quarters,
were employed in the export trade of corn.

The progress of agricultural improvement in Bri-
tain was interrupted by the inroads of the Saxons, a
rude people, and chiefly devoted to a pastoral life.
The native inhabitants were driven from the low-
lands, and took refuge in the mountainous districts
of Wales. But the limited possessions and increasing
population of the new settlers, required them also to
direct their attention to tillage, for the purpose of
raising corn. The Norman conquest, in the year
1066, proved another serious interruption to the pro-
gress of agriculture as it existed in Britain at that
period. The invaders introduced their own hus-
bandry ; and it appears, from the description of Wil-
liam of Malmsbury, that the vine was successfully
cultivated, and extensive vineyards established in the
vale of Gloucester, from which wine little inferior to
tlie wines of France was produced.

In several succeeding centuries, the numerous re-
ligious houses which arose in this country were rich-
ly endowed by pious donations, and acquired those
vast possessions, which included many of the most
lertile spots in the kingdom. With whatever indo-
lence and luxury the monkish proprietors may be
charged, they were not inattentive to husbandry.
They introduced and cultivated some of the best
fruits, planted the finest orchards, the remains of
some of which are objects of admiration at the pre-
sent day, and, with great humanity and moderation,
exercised a paternal care over their fanners and te-
nants, altogether worthy of patriarchal times.

Agriculture was greatly mterrupted and depres-
sed during the severe struggle for power between the
houses of York and Lancaster which deluged Eng-
land with the blood of her citizens. It revived in the
time of Henry VIII., and the first English writer on
this subject appeared in his reign. This was Fitz-
.herbert, one of the judges of the court of Common
Pleas, who published, in ISS^, The Book oj Ihisban-
dry ; and, in 1539, The Booh of Survemng and Im-
■proivemcnU. In some succeeding reigns it was cheek-
ed' by injudicious and oppressive laws. But it was
encouraged and promoted during the Protectorship
of Cromwell ; and the writings of Gabriel Plattes and
Walter Blythe seemed to have contributed not a lit-
tle to its improvement. About the same period Sa-
muel Hartlib, the friend and contemporary of Mil-
ton, appeared as a writer on agriculture ; and the
hint thrown out in the preface to his work, entitled
tlie Lcfiacy, in which he regrets the want of a public
establishment for the improvement of husbandry,
procured for him, it is said, a pension of L. 100 a-
year from the Protector.

The writings of Evelyn on Earth, or Soil, and
Plantations, subjects closely allied to agriculture,
contributed to its improvement ; and the celebrated
- work, published in 1713, by Jethro Tull, the father
of the horse-hoed or drill-husbandry, forms a remark-
able era in its progress, aud confers a singular be-
nefit on the art by the introduction of so valuable a
practice, although the author carried his specula-
tions much too far when he fancied that his system
would supersede the application of fertilizing sub-
stances, or tiie use of tnanures to au exhausted soil.

The dawn of still higher degrees of agricultural
improvement in Britain, began to appear about the
commencement, but its brighter day did not break
forth till towards the close of the eighteenth century.
During this period, the spirited exertions of some of
the first noblemen and gentlemen, wlio had formed
themselves into a society for the advancement of in-
ternal economy, introduced a better system of hus-
bandry in many districts of the northern part of the
kingdom ; under the fostering care of the Dublin so-
ciety, a powerful, liberal, and enlightened body, the
state of rural economy has been greatly meliorated in
Ireland, whose genial climate and rich soil are pecu-
liarly favourable to every judicious improvement
in husbandry ; and the British Board of Agriculture,
established about 1794, by the zeal and patriotism of
Sir John Sinclair, baronet, has been the means of
amassing a most valuable collection of information on
all branches of rural ai&irs from every district of the
United Kingdom.

The institution of the agricultural professorship in
the university of Edinburgh, and the fortunate ap-
pointment of Dr Coventry, whose numerous scientific
acquirements so eminently qualify him to fill that
chair, may be regarded as an important era in the
history of the rural economy of this country. With
the happy talent of deducing, from extensive and ac-
curate observation, precise and rational rules of prac-
tice, that enlightened professor, not only by his valu-
able public lectures, but also by the judicious system
of management in every department of husbandry,
which, at his suggestion and recommendation, have
been adopted by individuals, must soon have the high
gratification of witnessing the beneficial effects of his
excellent instructions rapidly and widely diffused
throughout the nation.

In closing this historical view of the progress of
agriculture, we must not omit noticing the writings
of Anderson, Young, Marshall, the numerous reports
of its present state in counties and districts, chiefly
drawn up by intelligent practical farmers, and the
essential services which they have contributed to its
improvement in their ample illustrations of its vari-
ous branches ; and also the provincial societies, of
which scarcely a district of the kingdom is without
one, by whose influence, in the frequent communi-
cations among the members themselves, and the oc-
casional publication of memoirs, read and discussed
at their stated meetings, in different periodical works,
agricultural knowledge has been in no small tlegree
promoted. A liber;»l spirit of communication is a dis-
tinguishing feature in the character of the British
agriculturist. No concealment, no secrecy, no mys-
tery, as in other arts, appears in his profession. With
the most unreserved confidence, he submits all his
plans, and operations, and discoveries, however bene-
ficial to himself, to the inspection and examination of
his countrymen, and, with the most laudable zeal, he
liastens to make them known to the world.

Objects of Jgriculiure We have already hinted at

the variety of information requisite for the success-
ful practice of agricultlire. An accurate knowledge
of the climate, including the variations of temperature
and pressure of the atmosphere, the prevailing wiixis,
the quantity of dew, rain, and snow, and tlie changes

History.

AGRICULTURE.

93

Draining, of the Seasons, may often regulate the proper branch
~ ~ ' of husbandry which is adapted to particular situa-
tions. This kind of knowledge is undoubtedly of
great importance, and merits ilie attentive consider-
ation of husbandmen. But as the method of observ-
ing and recording these phenomena, will be fully
treated under Meteohology, we must avoid repeti-
tion, and omit it in this place. The objects which come
under discussion in a system of agriculture, may be
enumerated under the heads of Draining — Inclosures
— Soils — Manures — Implements of Husbandry —
Tillage — Grass-lands — Live-stock ; and topics of si
miscellaneous nature — as the accommodation in Dwel-
ling-houses and Offices — Leases — Rent.

Chap. L Of Draining.

To whatever purpose land is destined, whether for
tillage or pasture, when water, as it falls in the form
of rain and collects on the surface, or as it arises from
springs in the bowels of the earth, stagnates upon it
for any length of time, it becomes comparatively of
little value. Even the temporary stagnation of water
on arable land may interrupt the necessary operations
of tillage in their proper season, and occasion a scan-
ty crop and a precarious harvest ; while it may give rise
to those diseases which are induced by a wet soil and
a moist atmosphere. The produce of grass lands, al-
so, in which water is redundant, is herbage of a coar-
ser and hardier kind; hence it must appear, that
draining is the first and one of the most important
improvements in husbandry : The processes for the
management of arable lands are rendered more sea-
sonable and certain, the herbage crops change their
character and afford more nourishing pasture, and
the climate itself is essentially improved.

Sect. I. Of Surface Drainhig.

The drainage of fields, or inclosures of mode-
rate size, is effected by means of the ordinary fur-
rows which are formed in the operations of til-
lage ; and the ditches which usually surround such
inclosures, and receive the superabundant water
from the furrows, are the main drains. In sub-
dividing and inclosing land, this important object
should be always kept in view ; for the limits may be
fixed in such a way, as at the same time to accom-
plish the valuable purpose of draining. But in ex-
tensive flats which are covered with water during the
whole or great part of the year, a more expensive
operation is required. A mam drain conducted from
the intended outlet, must be formed with such a slope,
and of such a depth, as shall be sufficient to relieve
the soil from all redundant water. The course of a
drain of this description, when the inclination of the
ground is not perceptible, is found by the ordinary
process of levelling, and in most cases by the use of
the spirit-level alone. But, without any instrument,
those who are familiar with practical draining, can
discover the dechvity of the ground and tlie course
of the water, even in land which seems nearly fiat,
by examining the ditches when they are almost dry
in summer, and by observing to what point the leaves
of aquatic plants are directed. When the extent of
land to be freed from water is considerable, a single
•drain is seldom sufficient; branches from dili'erent

parts of the field uniting with the main drain are ne- Draining,
cessary ; and the number and direction of these
branches must be determined by the extent and ine-
qualities of the surface. The subordinate drains or
branches should form the junction with the main
drain in the direction of the current, to avoid the
danger of sand or earth accunmlating and forming
obstructions when they enter it transversely.

The declivity of the ground in many cases regu-
lates the slope of drains ; but where the outlet and
other circumstances afford an opportunity of marking-
its limits, it should neither, on the one hand, be too
great, when the sides and bottom, exposed to the ra-
pidity of the current, are apt to be injured, and to
require frequent and expensive repairs, nor, on the
other hand, should the inclination of the drain be
too small, by which the current becomes sluggish
and stagnant, and.the land is not fully relieved from
water.

No precise rules can be laid down for the dimen-
sions of open drains, as they must be varied accord-
ing to the nature of the soil, the situation, and the
quantity of water to be carried off. The width at the
bottom of the drain must be regulated by the pro-
portion of water to be discharged ; and it may be
stated as a general rule, that the width at top should
be at least three times greater than the bottom, to
admit of sufficient slope and solidity to the sides.
But in soft and mossy soils a greater slope is requi-
site ; and when the drain is not proposed to be a
fence as well as a sewer for conveying the water,
the earthy matters thrown out should not be left on
the sides to form an elevated bank, but spread on
the field, or removed. In soft marshy grounds,
where the drain is also required to be a fence, the
bank of earth, which should always be thrown out
on the lower side, may be allowed to remain, and a
. small parallel cut may be opened to receive the sur-
face-water from that side, and to conduct it to a
convenient place, where it may be admitted into tlie
larger drain.

Wherever there is much lisk of surface-water being
greatly increased in the time of rain or floods, open
drains must always be preferred, to avoid the danger
of being entirely obstructed, to which covered drains
are liable. But as such drains, constructed in the
usual way, would disfigure an improved field, and
interrupt tillage operations, they ought to have a
greater slope, and a green sward should be permit-
ted to form on their sides. If the direction of the
ridges be parallel to the drain, the lultivation of the
field is uninterrupted ; and when it is in pasture, it
presents no obstacle to the free passage of cattle.
But it ought to be observed, that whatever be the
slope of such drains, tlie sides should never be
plouglied ; for any increased flow of water would
carry off the loosened soil.

Surface-water is removed from lawns and smooth
sheep pastures by means of a simple operation with
a strong common plough. Let a deep furrow be
turned up through the hollow parts of the field w'here
water stagnates, pare off the earth from the i;»verted
sod, leaving it about three inches thick, and return
it to its natural position. In this way a small hollow-
drain of three or four inches is left in the bottom of
the furrow, which is found sufficient to discharge a.

M

AGRICULTURE.

considerable quantity of watef. By this easy pro-
cess, a great extent of drain can be executed in a
short time ; and when any part is obstructed, it can
be repaired at a small expense. The earth which is
pared oft" may be removed to hollow parts of the
field, or spread on the ground.

Lands which are airpropriated to woods or planta-
tions of any kind, derive no less benefit from drain-
ing than what is destined to corn or herbage crops.
For this purpose, open or surface drains are the
most suitable : for, in covered drains, the roots of
the trees and underwood, stretching along horizon-
tally, insinuate themselves among the stones, and
thus interrupt, and at last entirely obstruct, the pas-
sage of the water.

Draining stiff', Jlat Soils — In many cases, where
the surface is flat, and the soil of a stiff and reten-
tive nature, attempts to dry the ground by means of
covered drains are found to be ineffectual. In most
of the central counties of England, and in the flat
land of Flanders, the land is relieved from surface-
water by forming high and broad ridges of twenty,
thirty, and even forty feet wide, and having the
crov.u three and sometimes four feet higher than
the bottom of the furrows. The beneficial effects of
this method of draining are fully confirmed by the
successful practice of the Fleramgs ; for when fur-
rows are kept free from water, the land is always
dry, and the crop healthy and abundant. But in
some parts of England, from the improper direction
and flatness of the ridges, and the shallowness of
the furrows, these good effects have not been ob-
tained ; for the water, stagnated in all the hollow
places, renders those parts of the field useless, has
even brought some degree of discredit on the me-
thod itself, and has led to the adoption of other less
perfect methods of draining. The indiscriminate
formation of high ridges has been justly censured.
On a dry, loaitiy soil, they are altogether unneces-
sary ; but when they are well rounded, not too much
elevated, and the furrows kept clear, they aftbrd the
best and most efficacious method of rendering land
of a retentive surface perfectly dry.

In some cases, from the peculiar nature of the soil,
the practice of combining open and hollow drains
has been found extremely beneficial. The following
is the method adopted by Mr Goade of Cossington,
in Leicestershire. The soil on which he operated is
sandy on the surface, from six to ten inches deep,
red clay at the bottom, and in some places gravel,
from which the water is thrown upon the surface of
the land. Finding it difficult to drain the soil, he
formed hollow drains in the furrows. The ridges
are from five to ten yards broad, and varying in
height, being raised, for summer corn, only six inches,
but for winter crops twelve inches at the crov/n,
above the bottom of the furrows. In turf ground,
the hollow drains are dug fifteen inches wide, and
two feet deep, sloping downwards. The turf is first
cut out, and with another implement, which is seven
inches wide at the top, and becoming narrower to
the length of sixteen inches, the other materials,
whether sand, gravel, or clay, are thrown out. When
the bottom of the drain is of clay, it is cut four
inches deeper in the middle, and only four inches

wide, leaving two inches on eftch side, or what ate
called shoulders, to support the turf, which is laid
flat upon it, with the grass side downwards. The
upper part of the cavity is then filled up. When
the land is of a mixed soil, thorns, or elder boughs,
are laid, and trodden doiVn in the drain ; after which
the turf is laid upon them as before, and close to
the sides of the drain : but where slate, or thin slabs
of stone can be obtained, the construction is more
solid, and the operation more complete. In clear-
ing out the bottom of the drain, which is about four
inches wide, an instrument somewhat resembling a
hoe, of the form of the letter L, and half rounded at
the lower end, is employed. Drains of this description
have operated for fifteen years without interruption,
and even when filled with bushes ; it is expected that
they will continue uninjured for a much longer period ;
and it is added, that the improvement ought not to be
estimated at less than one-fourth increase of the crop.

The method of relieving a retentive soil from wa-
ter, by means of surface-di-aining, as it is practised
in the Carse of Gowrie, in Perthshire in Scotland,
and described by Mr Paterson of Castle-Huntly, is
also worthy of notice. This simple operation is the
only means which is employed in draining that ex-
tensive flat. Large common drains, traversing the
district in different directions, and of sufficient ca-
pacity to receive the water conducted from the fields
by the surrounding ditches, discharge their collected
waters into the river Tay. Every farm is surround-
ed or traversed by ditches, as may suit the particular
situation, all of which are so directed and arranged
as to form a communication with every field on the
possession. The breadth of these ditches is from
two to four feet at top, and from a foot to a foot
and half at bottom, and with such a slope as to
prevent their sides from falling in. If the fields
be of an uniform level surface, the common furrows
between the ridges, with sufficient depth at their
extremities, serve to carry off the redundant water ;
but in a field of unequal surface, the last operation,
after the sowing and harrowing are completed, is to
draw a furrow with the plough through all the hol-
lows which lie in such a direction that it can be
guided through them, and thus form a free commu-
nication with any of the furrows between tlie ridges,
which latter are conductors of the water to the sur-
rounding ditches. When this furrow is formed by
the plough, it is widened, cleared out, and dressed
with the spade, that the risk of filling up may be
avoided. The width is from six inches to a foot, ac-
cording to the deptli ; but the breadth of a spade at
bottom is generally found sufficient. It often hap-
pens that inequalities, or hollows, do not extend
across the field, or pass through it in any direction
to be followed by a plough, but are limited to one
or two ridges. In such cases, the furrow is to be
made by tlie spade, and the communicatioH formed
with the nearest furrow in the vicinity.

In the Carse of Gowrie, it is yet the general prac-
tice to have head ridges at the extremities of each
field. These transverse ridges, on which the plough
turns, are higher in the middle, and fxill off at each
side ; and the inner furrow, communicating with all
the furrows of the longitudinal ridges, receives all

Dr»ini^f.

AGRICULTURE.

95

Dr-'ini

"ir-

their surface-water, anil discharges it by- an open
drain, cut through the head or transverse ridge, into
the adjoining ditches. But the same writer observes,
that the surface-water passes off more freely, and
tlie drain is mor.-" perfect, when no transverse or head
ridge is formed ; and this method Mr Paterson has
successfully followed on all the fields which he has
levelled. To avoid these head ridges, he lays up
the earth uniformly to the ends of the longitudinal
ridges ; and this, although with a little more trou-
ble, is easily effected, by returning with an empty
plough. In this ^vay, there is no depression between
the longitudinal and tranverse ridges, but the longi-
tudinal fiuTow is carried fairly through the head
ridge. Besides this management, it is found by am-
ple experience, in this rich district, that by careful
ploughing, laying up the land equally, and rounding
the ridges properly, so that they are neither too high
nor too low, all the surface-water is easily removed ;
and while the crowns are neither too much enriched,
nor the furrows impoverished, the whole becomes
equally dry and fertile, and is frequently earlier ac-
cessible to the plough in the spring than more ele-
vated grounds in the vicinity.

Sect. II. Of Under-ground Draining.

The wetness of land, it has been already remai-ked,
arises, either from rainwater collecting in hollow
places on the surface, or from the water of springs,
forced up from below ; and it is easy to discover from
which of these causes the moisture proceeds, by the
nature of the plants which are produced on the wet
soil. Wlien the land is kept in a soft and spongy state
by surface-water, that species of rush known by the
name of spret, fjunats a>iiciilalux, Linn.) grows up
in abundalice ; but the common rush (juncus cnn-
glomeratus, Linn. J ajipearing in hollows or the sides
of declivities, affords a sure indication of the soil be-
ing drenched with water rising from below. The
method of drying the soil in the latter case, which
is one of the most essential improvements of which
modern agriculture can boast, depends on an accu-
rate knowledge of the distribution of the strata, and
of the circulation of water in the bowels of the earth,
or of the nature and origin of springs.

Origin of springs — The water which falls from the
clouds, in the form of rain or snow, to the earth,
partly returns to the atmosphere by the process of
evaporation ; partly flows from the higher to the
lower grounds, to form rivers ; and partly sinks into
the soil, and passes through various kinds of strata,
to give origin to springs. If, in going downwards, a
bed of gravel or sand succeed to a loamy or sandy-
surface soil, and repose on a stratum of clay, the
rain-water innnediately filtrates through the open
soil, and accumulates in the sand or gravel ; for its
passage is interrupted by the bed of clay. If one
extremity of this bed of gravel or sand be more ele-
-yated than the other, a pit, dug in the lower extre-
mity, is soon filled with water ; and, according to
llie difference of elevation, may rise to the surface,
or overflow. When the extent of surface from
■which a bed of gravel, or any other porous stratum,
is supplied with rain-water, is considerable, the
springs are perennial ; when of smaller extent, the

flow of water ceases during the dry season ; and,
when still more limited, the springs yield water only
in the time of heavy rains.

The materials of which the earth is composed, as
far as human research has extended, are very diffe-
rent with regard to the property of retaining water,
or of allowing it to pass freely through them. Great
diversity, in this respect, prevails in the soil, or im-
mediate covering of the earth, in which vegetables
grow ; and hence soils are characterised as wet and
dry according as they are more or less retentive or
porous. A stiff, clay soil, which allows no water to
pass through it, and a sandy soil which retains none,
may be regarded as the extremes in the description
of wet and dry soils. A similar diversity is observed
in the under stratum or subsoil, as it happens to be
clay, gravel, or sand, as well as in the strata of solid
rocks. Beds of clay, or of gravel and clay, argilla-
ceous rocks in general, and rocks in which there are
few fissures or openings, retard, or entirely interrupt
the progress of water through them. But strata of
gravel and sand, sandstone, basaltic or whinstone
rocks, calcareous rocks, as chalk beds, different va-
rieties of limestone and marl, from their absorbent
or porous nature, or from the fissures or caverns
which abound in some of them, readily receive wa-
ter, and often as freely allow it to escape. The whole
art of draining, according to the new method, de-
pends on a precise knowledge of these materials,
whether they refer to the soil and subsoil, the allu-
vial strata, or the solid rocks, and of their mode of
distribution and relative position.

The first thing to be considered in draining land
is the source of the wetness ; whether it be surface-
water, which, from some obstruction, is not permit-
ted to pass off freely, or water thrown up i'rom some
of the inferior strata. If a hollow piece of ground
be covered with water, or if it should be only wet
and spongy during great part of the year, and even
during the dry season ; and when this ground has
been for some time retained in pasture, if the com-
mon rush begin to shoot up and thrive on the edges
of the wet spot, where the soil is somewhat m '-y" so-
lid, and if it stretch upwards on the sides of the de-
clivity, or more particularly to a greater height on
one side, — then the conclusion is pretty certain that
the water proceeds from the underground strata,
from a bed of gravel, or other porous matter, at some
depth under the surface, and supported by an im-
pervious stratum, as a bed of clay. But the cer-
tainty of this conclusion can be easily put to the
test by a simple experiment. If a pit be dug at the
upper edge of the space occupied by the rushes, to
the depth of two or three feet, which must vary ac-
cording to the thickness of the different strata and
the depth of the porous bed through which the wa-
ter filtrates as soon as the latter stratum is penetrat-
ed, the water rises in the jjit, and perhaps in a short
time overflows and runs along the surface. But if a
cut, of sufficient dimensions to convey the whole
of the water to the nearest ditch, be made, it is pro-
bable the wet ground will be relieved from the wa-
ter, the rushes will disappear, and plants of a very
different character take their place. In case no wa-
ter slu)uld appear in the pit, after digging to a tiie- ,

96

AGRICULTURE.

Dfiining. derate depth, or if it should not be convenient to
penetrate deeper than one foot and a half or two
feet, recourse may be had to the borer or auger, an
instrument employed for this purpose, to iorm a
communication with the porous stratum containing
the water, to the depth of many feet or fathoms.
When the borer reaches the porous stratum, and is
withdrawn, those who witness this interesting and
beautiful experiment, will be gratified with seeing
the water burst up with considerable force, and soon
fill the pit ; and if the communication tlms formed
coatinue uninterrupted, the ground becomes dry,
and is rendered fit for all the purposes of tillage.
The cause of the wetness at the place where it ap-
pears is easily explained : The water accumulates in
the porous stratum, increases the pressure on all
sides, and having burst the upper covering, forces a
passage for itself, and oozes through the soil along
the declivity, and, when the spring is copious, col-
lects in the hollow ground, and forms a marsh. This
operation, however simple and obvious it may ap-
pear, now that it is well known and distinctly under-
stood, must always be regarded as one of the most
beneficial agricultural improvements, because it is
the foundation of every other ; and if it must be
less ascribed to accident than to observation and rea-
soiiii'..:;, the merit of the successful discoverer has
not yet been sufficiently appreciated.

Discoverif of tapping springs. — Two competitors
have appeared, claiming the merit of this valuable
discovery ; and, after all that has been said and writ-
ten on the controversy, it is difficult to say to whom
the claim of priority ought to be allowed. Dr James
Anderson, so well known for his numerous writings
on rural affairs, published essays in 1775, in which
he gives a full and clear statement of the nature and
effects of the operations which he practised on his
own property in Aberdeenshire in the year 1764'.
The first published account of Mr Elkington's claim
to the merit of the discovery, appeared in an excel-
lent work on draining, by Mr Johnstone, surveyor,
who, in 1796, had visited Mr Elkington, and ac-
companied him in an extensive tour through different
parts of England to see and examine the effects of
nis new system. According to the account of the
origin and progress of his operations, given in the
work just alluded to, Mr Elkington was left by his
father in possession of the farm of Princethorpe, in
Warwickshire, in the year 1763. The poverty and
wetness of the soil occasioned the rot among his
sheep, and several hundreds perished. This severe
loss naturally led him to attempt to obviate the
cause, by draining his grounds ; and in the succeed-
ing year (1764') he commenced his first operation on
a clay-soil, approaching nearly to the state of a
swamp or shaking-bog, in consequence of the water
discharged from the springs of the contiguous bank
of gravel and sand, and overflowing the low ground.
For the purpose of draining this field, he cut a
trench, four or five feet deep, a little below the up-
per side of the bog, where the wetness first appear-
ed. Proceeding in the same direction, and at the
same depth, he was disappointed in his expectation
of reaching the reservoir from which he suspected
the water arose. A servant came to the field at this

time with an iron crow or bar for another purpose. Drilnin?.
Mr Elkington, thinking the trench too shallow, or
wishing to examine the nature of the strata below,
took the iron bar, forced it to the depth of four feet
below the bottom of the drain, and was not a little
astonished to see a great quantity of water burst up
through the opening, and run along in a copious
current. Thus, it is said, chance was the parent of
a discovery, which led Mr Elkington to the know-
ledge, that wetness of the soil is often produced by
water proceeding from a greater depth than any
drain can reach ; and also led him to the use of the
auger, a most valuable instrument in the operation
of draining. Mr Elkington not only succeeded in
relieving his own farm from water, and producing
sound pasture, but became a professed drainer ; and,
after the lapse of more than thirty years, had the
good fortune to receive a reward of L.IOOO Sterling
from the British parliament for his discovery.

Principles of the neiv system. — The principles of
draining, according to this mode, are few, and ex-
tremely simple. Three circumstances require to be
attended to : 1st, The discovery of the main spring;
2d, The determination of the course and inclination
of the strata ; and, 3d, The use of the auger, in cases
where the spring is beyond the reach of the ordina-
ry depth of a drain.

In proceeding, according to this method of drain-
ing, the neighbouring high grounds are to be exa-
mined, to ascertain precisely the nature, composi-
tion, and inclination of the strata, and their relative
position with the ground to be drained ; from which
an opinion can be formed of the nearest point where
the water may be cut off and discharged by the level
of the spring. To obtain this necessary information,
the beds of the nearest streams, the face of steep
banks, pits, wells, and quarries, are to be minutely
surveyed. Having discovered the main spring, the
next object is to determine accurately the line of
level in which the drain is to be conducted. This is
one of the most important parts of the operation,
and requires particular attention. The last part of
the operation is the application of the auger, which
is employed in all cases where the outlet, or the ex-
pense, or difficulty of execution, does not admit the
drain to be cut so deep as to reach the spring.

Spring bogs. — The application of tlie principles
now laid down, will not, we apprehend, be difficult,
when all the circumstances are fully considered.
Suppose there is an extensive flat of swampy land,
lying on the bank of a river, and from the examina-
tion of the appearances, it is concluded that the sup-
ply of water is derived from numerous springs, indi-
cations of which are distinctly observed on the de-
clivity of the adjoining elevated bank, which forms
the boundary of the bog on one side ; and suppose,
first, that all the springs arise along the upper edge
of the wet ground, — then it will be found, that a single
drain, conducted in the direction of these springs, will
effectually carry off the redundant water. But let it
be supposed farther, that on examining the surface
from which the springs issue, they appear at different
levels, that the upper series of springs is exhausted
in the dry season, while those in the lower part of
the declivity continue to flow,, the conclusion in tliis

AGRICULTURE.

97

Draining. Case is pretty certain, that the whole springs are de-
~ 'rived from the same source. The lowest are to be
considered as the main springs, and the hne of the
drain is to be conducted in tlieir direction, by which
the supply of water is completely intercepted. If
the drain were carried in the direction of the up-
per line of springs, it would also answer the purpose,
but it would r<i(jiiire deeper cutting, and therefore a
greater expence would be incurred ; or the use of
the auger might be required, which is superseded by
the first method in such cases. It is scarcely neces-
iai-y to add, that extensive bogs or swamps may re-
quire subsidiary trenches in different places, to carry
off the whole of the water.

Drainaae (if hiJh. — The irregular distribution of
the strata of which hills are composed, i'requently
produces alternate portions of wet and dry ground
on the surface. The general aspect of the ground,
the nature of the plants, and the degree of wetness
which prevails, may often indicate the kind and ar-
rangement of the strata, as well as the proper direc-
tion of the drain. When the rock is horizontal, or
is only slightly inclined, all the springs may derive
their waters from the same source, and this being
exhausted, the object is attained. But in cases
where the rock is nearly in a vertical position, and
contains partial collections of water in (issurcs and
cavities, it is necessary to carry a drain to each
outlet.

When hills are composed of alternate strata of rock,
sand, and clay, the surface of the clay is sometimes
soft and spongy, while the soil incumbent on the
rock and sand is sufficiently dry to produce good
herbage. Here a drain is required for every division
of wet and dry soil. Figures 1. and 'Z. Plate 2.
will serve to illustrate the method of draining in such
a case. Fig. I. a plan of the ground, in which AAA
represents the dry porous soil ; 15B, BB, BB, the
wet soil. A drain C is cut under the upper line of
Bprings aa ; a second drain C along the next lower
line aa ; and a third C is cut along the lowest aa ;
and a communication being formed between each of
these drains, the whole collected waters are conduc-
ted to the nearest outlet. Fig. 2. is a section of the
same hill; AAA the dry and porous strata; BBB the
clay or impervious strata, on the surface of which the
wetness appears ; C the upper line of springs, with
the drain or cut immediately below it; D the second
line, with their drain ; E the third line, with their
drain ; and F the lowest drain, by which the whole
water is discharged- We have sot mentioned the
boring operation in this case ; but it may be equally
efficient when particular circumstances require it.

Drainage nj land-locked hop^s. — A most important
and beautiful application of the same principles has
been made in the draining of bogs, or niorasses, which
are surrounded on all sides by high impervious banks.
Fig 3. Plate 2. represents a bog, or morass, of this
description. ABCD is the high bank, of clay, or o-
ther impervious substance ; EFG the wet or boggy
ground; HIKL the points where the transverse drains
meet the longitudinal drain. Fig. 4. is a section of
the same bog, and of the contiguous strata. AB
the high impervious bank, connected at NOP, and
containing the water as in a bason ; CD a porous stra-

VOL. 1. PAHX J.

turn below, under which EF is a stratum of impervi-
ous clay ; GHIK are the drains, at the bottom of
which the auger is inserted.

In carrying off a collection of water in such circum-
stances, the tirst step is to form a drain in the middle
or lowest part of the boggy ground ; and to this drain
all the others, the number and direction of which re-
gulated by the extent of surface to be drained, are con-
ducted. When the drains have been carried to the
impervious stratum of clay, the use of the auger is
had recourse to, to perforate the stratum, and to al-
low the water to escape to the porous stratum below,
from the loner part of which it may be discharged
by some convenient outlet. It is not necessary that
the drains in such cases as the present should be
wide ; they may be cut as narrow as can be conve-
niently executed ; they should be filled up with small
stones to within a foot and a half of the top, that the
water may be permitted to ooze freely through the
peaty soil and escape downwards ; and they should
be covered, that no earthy matters may be washed
into the auger holes and choke them up. A bog of
this description has been successfully drained in this
way in Dumfries-shire, on Mount Annan, belonging
to General Dirom. In the counties of Peebles and
Roxburgh, in Scotland, similar attempts have been
made ivith equal success.

Sect, III. Of the Construction of Drains.

In planniiig and executing drains, various objects
must come under consideration; as, the dimensions,—
the implements to be employed, — the materials for
filling them, — the expence, — and the season in which
the work should be done. On the first point little
need be said. The dimensions should be such as
to allow the water to pass off freely, and the sides
should have a greater or less degree of slope, accord-
ing to the nature of the soil and strata through which
the drain is carried.

Implements. — In many cases the usual implements,
as the spade, shovel, and mattock, are all that are re-
quired. But in cutting narrow drains to a consider-
able depth, a spade whose lower extremity is consi-
derably narrower, and another which terminntes in
a point, are very useful instruments. A scoop, v. hich
forms nearly a right angle with the handle to which
it is attached, is a necessary implement for clearing*
out earth or gravel from the bottom of drains. The
auger, or wimble, employed in draining, resembles the
wimble of the carpenters; the diameter is 3 inches, the
length of the hollow part is 18 inches, and the open-
ing at the sides is only 1 inch. The rods to which
the auger is screwed are 1 { inches square, and 4 feet
long, and they are also serev/ed to each other. The
construction and management of the boring appara-
tus are exactly similar to that employed in searching
for coal. A ehissel 2} inches broad at the point, and
well sharpened, is necess.iry for cutting through
stone; a punch 1-| inch square, also with a sharp
point, is requisite for perforating gravel ; and a kind
of scoop should be made for cleaning the auger.

The operation of boring is conducted exactly in
the same way as in boring for coal ; and the only
precaution to be recommended is, that the perfora-
tion should never be carried deeper than the length

Driinirg.

98

AGRICULTURE.

Dfa^n'tT^. of the auger without withdrawing and cleaning it ;
for the eartli and gravel are apt to fill up the vacant
space above and render it extremely difficult to pull
it up.

Materials for constructing holloxo drains. — The se-
lection of the materials for constructing or filling
drains is not always led to choice ; and as the quan-
tity required is often very considerable, such as are
most abundant are preferred to what arc of a more
jlurable nature, from motives of economy. V^ery
different materials have been employed for this pur-
pose, as bricks, stones, wood, brush-wood, straw, lic.
But the various methods which have been adopted
may be readily understood by a short reference to
the figures.

Fig. 5. represents a drain of 2i feet wide at top,
and 18 inches at the bottom, cut through one foot
of porous upper soil at A, one foot of sand and
gravel at C, and six inches of clay at D. The pas-
sage for the water at D, of six inches square, is form-
ed by a line of stone, and is covered with a flat stone,
four iachos thick. A layer of rounded land stones,
one foot tliick, replaces the sand and gravel at C.
An invested sod, two inches thick, covers the stones,
and the space above is filled with loose mould.

Fig. (). is a drain nearly of the same dimensions,
and cut through similar strata. The opening for the
passage of the water is triangular, and six or eight
inches wide ; it is covered with a flat stone, four inches
thick at D. The space at C is filled with rounded
land stones, or faggots of brushwood ; the covering
at B is an inverted sod, straw, heath, or rushes, and
the loose mould at A fills it to the top.

Fig. 7. is also of the same dimensions, and is filled
with the same materials ; the opening of six or eight
inches being triangular, or coupled, is formed by
two flat stones, placed on the stratum of clay, and
brought into contact at the top.

Fig. 8. is a drain of 2^ feet wide at top, and one
foot at bottom, cut entirely through clay soil. It is
filled up with a stratum of land stones of 20 inches
in thickness at C, which is covered with four inches
of sod, straw, heath, or rushes ; and the remaining
foot to the surface is filled up with loose mould or
gravel.

Fig. 9. is a drain of the same dimensions as the
last, in which brushwood is placed lengthways, and
supported by cross billets of wood, leaving a triangu-
lar passage at the bottom, and the sides open to the
height of the cross billets, which is 18 inches at C.
The brushwood is covered with a layer of strong
heath or rushes at B, and the loose mould is thrown
in to the top.

Fig. 10. is a drain cut into clay soil, having a tri-
angular opening C, of one foot deep, and eight inches
wide at the shoulders, formed by the pointed drain-
ing spadei It is covered with six inches of inverted
sod B, and the upper part is filled with gravel or
loose mould.

Fig. il. is a drain formed in 1 foot of gravel or por-
ous soil, and a triangular opening C is formed a foot
deep in clay. The opening is filled with three large
straw ropes, placed length ways. A layer of six
inches of clay is trodden down, and the drain is filled
with gravel to tlie surface.

A simple and ingenious method of constructing a
pipe drain has been practised, by digging it to the
depth required, and making it very narrow at liot-
tom. A smooth cylindrical piece of wood is pre-
pared, of ten or twelve feet in length, of six inches
diameter at one extremity, and five inches at the other.
A little sand is scatteredi in the bottom of the trench ;
the tree is then laid in ; and, after a little more sand
has been thrown on its upper side, the clay, or most
adhesive part of the materials, is first replaced ; the
trench is then filled, and the whole is firmly trodden
down. By means of a ring or rope attached to the
tree, it is drawn out, leaving only a foot or two of •
the smaller extremity covered, and the repetition of
the operation is continued till the work be completed.
This clay pipe, which in one case has remained in
good repair for above twenty years, is supposed to
answer better for the conveyance of water than for
drying the soil.

The best season for executing work of this de-
vcription is summer or autumn, when the surface of
the soil is most free from moisture. The expense of
draining, it is obvious, must vary according to the
price of labour in different districts, and the abun-
dance or scarcity of the requisite materials. But it
has been stated, that the expense of draining in few
situations has exceeded L.IO per acre ; in many it is
much less ; and this must always render it an object
of economical management.

Sect. IV. Of Emhanlcvients.

A great deal of valuable land has been protected
or reclaimed from inundations of rivers, the sea, or
lakes, by judicious embankments. In this way ex-
tensive tracts of the very best kind of land have been
gained, and in many cases at a very trifling expense.
The ingenuity and industry of the Dutch, in execut-
ing works of this kind, are well known. A large pro-
portion of the flat country of Holland has been
gained in this manner ; and in England, Scotlandj
and Ireland, a great extent of the richest soil has
been brought to a cultivated and productive state.
Embankments for protecting or reclaiming land are
employed against rivers, lakes, and the sea.

Embanking of rivers The embankments against

rivers are intended to prevent their encroachment on
the lands contiguous to their banks, or for protecting
the adjoining flat country from being overflowed in
the time of floods. A river running nearly in a
straight line, rarely encroaches upon its banks, unless
when it is large, and rises above its ordinary level,
by an increase of its water, or by an influx of the
tides of the ocean. When any injury is threatened
to the bank from these causes, it may be secured
with stones, or by driving a row of long piles pretty
close together, at a small distance from the shore.
The piles must be of such a length, that their tops
shall be always above the highest rise of the wa-
ter. Very remarkable effects have been produced
by such a construction in resisting the force of the
waves ; and an example of a successful operation of
this kind, executed by Mr Beatson, to defend the
walls of a fort near Portsmouth from the waves of
the sea, has been often particularly mentioned. The
same simple method is recommended to protect the

AGRICULTUHE.

m

Draining, banks of large rivers which are exposed to the vio-
_ -^ ' lence of the waves.

' But the most common injury to which the banics

of rivers are subjected, arises from abrupt turns in
their course, in consequence of which the whole
force of the stream is directed against a small space.
In rivers v/Iiich flow through flat countries, and
are of no great magnitude, tlie most effectual me-
thod of proceeding to prevent the injury would be
to straighten their course. But when the size of the
stream, and the particular situation, render this plan
impracticable, the force of the water is either to be
diverted to another point where it can produce no
injury, or is to be divided, or as it were spread over
a larger surface. The force of the current may be
directed to another point, by forming some obstruc-
tion at a short distance above tl»c place where the ob-
struction has commenced. This is usually doneby means
of a wall of stone carried out from the bank towards the
middle of the current, and pointing down the stream in
such a way that it shall form with it a prett}' obtuse an-
gle. But it would be a more eftectual method, where it
is practicable, to enlarge the turn or bend of the river ;
by which the force of the water, acting on a wider sur-
face, is greatly diminished at particular points.

Rivers are embanked to prevent them overflow-
ing and inundating large tracts of flat country. In-
undations of this kind may sometimes be obviated,
by giving the current as much space as possible, by
widening the bed of the river at narrow places, and
by removing every kind of obstruction, as shoals,
Stones, trees, or bushes. But where embanking is
unavoidable, tlie banks should be erected at such a
distance from each other as shall allow sufficient
space to contain the whole water in the time of the
greatest floods. It rarely happens that rivers which
flow with a free and uninterrupted current, even
during the greatest floods, rise higher than five or
six feet above their ordinary level. An embank-
ment, therefore, of six or seven feet in height, will,
in general, be a complete security against inundation.
The base of an embankment should be three times
the breadth of its height, and the width at top should
be at least one third of the height, and the slope
should always be greatest towards the stream, by
which the force of the water is diminished. If an
embankment be six feet high, the base should be
eighteen feet, and the top is diminished to two feet.
Thejine of an embankment should be at a proper
distance from the edge of the river ; and the whole
materials of which it is formed should be taken from
the land side, that the surface next the river may
not be loosened and exposed to its encroachments.
All trees and bushes should be removed from the
space between the embankment and the river, that
no interruption may be opposed to its current ; and
none should be allowed to remain in the line of the
f embankment. ■

In the construction of an embankment, the ma-
terials of which it is composed should be made as
solid and compact as possible, by being trodden or
beaten down with heav^ mallets ; and when there
are any substances of a tough nature, as clay, they
should be employed on that side next the river.
When the slope is finished, the same side is careful-
1

ly covered with well swarded turf, the first layers of Draining,
which, next the foundation, it may be necessary to v^p-y^^
pin down ; and in dry seasons it may be proper to
water them, to make them adhere more firmly toge-
ther. The land side of the embankment is sown
with grass seeds ; and it may be useful in thickening
the sward to do the same on the ether side. Em-
bankments of rivers should commence at the upper
part, and be carried downwards ; and each day's
work should, if possible, be entirely completed, to
prevent the injury from sudden swells of the river ;
and, that the embankment may be uniform and re-
gular through its whole course, a wooden frame, of
the exact form and dimensions, is constructed for the
direction of the workmen. A back drain, at the dis-
tance of two or three feet from the inner edge of the
bank, is necessary to receive the surface water ; and
the whole water collected in the adjoining fields
should be discharged by one outlet only, at the low-
est part of the embankment, by means of a jiipe or
square wooden box, having a valve or lid attached
to the mouth, by hinges on the upper side. This
valve, shutting in the time of floods, excludes the
water of the river ; and opening by the pressure of
the water from the land, allows it to escape when
the river subsides. No trees or shrubs that penetrate
deep with their roots, or grow to any considerable
height, should be planted on the sides or top of an
embankment ; for they loosen the earth, and shake
the whole mass : but rushes, flags, colt's-foot, and
some other plants,, may be sown and encouraged to
grow, because their roots, stretching along the sur-
face, and forming a kind of close mat, increase the
solidity of the construction. Embankments, even
when they are finished in the best and most careful
manner, should be frequently examined, that the
slightest breach which appears should be instantly
repaired ; and mice or mole holes, which give free
admission to the water, and may be the commence-
ment of the most serious injury, should be immedi-
ately shut up.

Embanhnetit of lakes. — The waters of many lakes
cover a much greater extent of surface in winter
than in summer. It would therefore be an innicrtant
object, and some valuable land might thus he ac-
quired, to confine them within the narrowest limits.
In some cases, this may be effected by widening and
deepening the principal outlet ; but if the level of
the ground should not admit of this method being-
pursued, or if an intervening mass of rock should
render the operation too expensive, the water may
be confined by an embankment. The summer sea-
son, when the water is lowest, is undoubtedly the
best time for attempting an operation of this kind ;
and the dimensions of the embankment, and the ne-
cessai-y precautions in proceeding in the work, com-
pleting and securing it, are similar to those already
stated. A back-drain, to carry off the surface-wa-
ter, is also required in this case ; and when the lake
is surrounded by elevated ground, it may be proper
to conduct another drain along the line of springs
which burst out from the adjoining bank.

Embankment of the sea. — The sea increases on the
land, either by destroying and washing away the ma-
terials, when tliey are of a loose and soft nature, <»r

100

AGRICULTURE.

Inrtosirg. by Overflowing flat grounds during high tides. When
~ ~ perpendicular cliffs of clay, or other alluvial soil,
mixed with loose stones, are opposed to the force of
a stormy ocean, its ravages are almost irresistible.
The usual mode of defending the land, in such cases,
is by constructing a bulwark of stone in front of the
bank. To give complete security to such bulwarks,
the base should be broader, and the slope greater,
than they are usually made, while the top of the
building should be so elevated as to be above the
reach of every tide. Piles driven into the shore, in
front of the bulwark, have been found a very effec-
tual expedient in breaking the force of the waves ;
but one of the most important precautions, in bul-
warks of this kind, is, to secure the whole line of
coast which is exposed to the action of the waves ;
for if the water be admitted at any one point behind
the embankment, it produces a double injury, not
only by its pressure on the stones while it recedes,
but by washing out the earth from behind them, and
loosening their foundation.

When it is difficult, or ver}' expensive, to procure
proper m:iterials for such works, and when the force
of the water is not very great, an embankment may
be constructed of small stones, coarse gravel, or bro-
ken bricks. By spreading them about a foot thick
on the surface, and beating them well down, a safe
and durable fence is formed. But embankments of
this description must have a greater degree of slope.

Some of the richest, and most fertile land in
the kingdom, has been reclaimed from the sea by
means of embankments. Such land is generally situ-
ated at the mouths of rivers, or on the shores of
bays, or arras of the sea. The facility of reclaiming
land which is covered every tide, in bays, creeks, or
on the side of a large river, must depend on the
depth of the water, the rapidity of the current, and
the prevailing winds, and its expence and success
on the nature of the soil, or materials of which the
beach is composed. If the materials be of a sandy
consistence, the embankment nnist be faced with
stones on the side next the sea ; but where the ma-
terials of the bank ere of clay, or some adhesive
matter, strong turf may be employed ; but it must
be well beaten, and secured with pegs. The height
and solidity of embankments of this kind are deter-
mined by the rise and force of the ^vatcr. In the in-
side of sea embankments, drains are to be cut to
cai-ry off the surface water, and sluices are to be con-
structed, to allow it to escape during the ebb-tide.
In some cases the course of a stream has been ad-
vantageously changed, to allow it to discharge its
waters where it is less liable to injure the soil ; and
in one case the course of a river was reversed, by
conducting it in an opposite direction.

Chap. II. Or Inclosing Land.

The whole of a farm is rarely or never under the
same species of crop at the same time. One part is
under arable culture, and is appropri»ted to the pro-
duction of corn, and another is in the state of pas-
ture land : and while the latter is consumed by live-
stock, the former must b^ protected from their ra-
vages. Hence inclosures and fence* become an ob-

ject of great importance in all well managed lands, Inclosing.
and contribute essentially to the successful prosecu- v^'V^te'
tion of every regulated system of husbandry. In the
present chapter, which is devoted to that subject, wc
shall treat first of inclosures, and secondly of fences.

Sect. I. Of Inclosures.

Number of inclosures. — The situation and extent of
a farm, the nature of the soil, and the kind of hus-
bandry to be adopted, must in a great measure direct
the number and extent of the divisions or inclosures
into which it ought to be formed. If the same spe-
cies of crops, and a similar system of rotation, are
pursued on two farms, one of which is double the ex-
tent of the other, the number of divisions for the con-
veniency of management must be the same ; but the
size of each division on the farm of smaller extent
can only be one half.

In the general division of arable and pasture land«
on any possession, it is always found convenient to
have a few inclosures in the state of grass, near the
house or farm offices. Such inclosures may be con-
sidered as exclusive of the more general distribution
of the farm into arable and pasture lands ; for while
such portions of it as are usually cut for hay, or are
employed as pasture for store cattle and sheep, may
be, without inconvenience, laid out at a distance,
those which are usually under arable crops should
be near at hand, that time and labour may not be lost
in the travelling of the te.ams and the cartage of the
various kinds of produce.

The quality of the lands must have considerable
influence in regulating the size and number of inclo-
sures. In farms which have a sufficient extent of
land of opposite, qualities, as those that are porous
and absorbent, and such as are retentive of moisture,
it may be a convenient and judicious plan to have
two sets of inclosures, by which means the whole
operations connected with arable culture may suffer
less interruption from the extremes of wet and dry
weather, and the live stock may have an ample pro-
vision of pasturage during all seasons. If, for in-
stance, in the system of rotation, a six years course be
adopted, the division of the farm into twelve inclo-
sures will be found extremely commodious. By this
arrangement, two inclosures of different kinds of soil,
of different degrees of fertility, and in different parts
of the possession, may be under the same crop, and
thus equal distribution of labour, and equal returns
of produce, which are no inconsiderable advantages,
are attained. In cases where the turnip husbandry
forms part of the rotation, two inclosures in different
situations, the one in a distant part of the farm, and
the other near the offices, afford the means of obviat-
ing the great expense and trouble of conveying the
produce from any unnecessary distance. The fields
of turnips near the house may be reserved for con-
sumption in the straw yard, while the more distant
crop may be conveniently eaten on the ground. The
diversity of soil which often prevails in the same field,
when it is of large extent, freq\iently occasions con-
siderable variation in the quantity of labour required
in working it, as well as in the amount of produce
which it yields. One part of a field of this descrip-
tion may have a poor soil, and require great labour

AGRICULTURE.

101

Incloiing. and exertion in its preparation, while another part is
of a richer quality, and is wrought with greater faci-
lity. One part of a large field may be of such a na-
ture, or so favourably situated, as to admit of all kinds
of operations during a great part of the season, while
another part can only be attempted in the most fa-
vourable periods. But when such fields are divided
into one or more inclosures, one which is of a poor
soil may be combined with another of a richer soil ;
one which is easily cultivated may be joined with
another which requires much labour ; and thus the
quantity of labour, and the amount of produce, may
approach nearly to the same point during all ordina-
ry seasons.

" In the distribution of pasture land, it has been re-
commended to have two or more inclosures, in pre-
ference to the same extent in a large field. By this
subdivision, the stock may be separated into small
parcels, and that portion of it which is first intended
for the market may be introduced to the earliest and
best pasture. In the most celebrated grazing coun-
ties of England, inclosures of a moderate size are
found to be highly advantageous : but at the same
time it is recommended that sheep pastures should he
of large extent ; for as this species of stock is more
restless, and more easily disturbed than any other,
and as they are apt to be impatient of heat, and often
greatly annoj'ed by insects, when they are confined
in small sized inclosures, surrounded by high hedges
and trees, they ought to have a wider range in larger
fields.

Form, &;c. — The shape or form of inclosures is, in
some measure, regulated by the form of the farm,
the nature, surface, and^si)ect of the grounds, and
the direction of the roads and water-courses by
which it is traversed ; but, in general, when it can
be managed, inclosures in the form of a square, or
long square, should be preferred, and all crooked
and irregular shapes should be avoided. The two
sides of the inclosure should lie parallel to each
other, for the conveniency of arranging the ridges ;
but it is equally, if not more necessary, tliat atten-
tion should be paid to the uniformity of soil in the
same field.

The direction of inclosures, when it is compatible
with the form of the farm and other circumstances,
should be the same as that in which the operation of
ploughing can be most conveniently accomplished.
The direction of an inclosure, on a level surface, or
one with a gentle inclination, where the retentive
soil requires to be laid up in rounded ridges, should
be nearly north and south ; because, by such an ex-
posure, the crop on the ditferent sides enjoys more
equally the influence of the sun, and comes more re-
gularly to maturity. But in situations where the sur-
face is steep, and the soil also retentive, the direc-
tion of the inclosure is regulated by the nature or
face of the slope, winding to the right, when stand-
ing on the brink of it, for the purpose of arranging
the ridges in the same direction, and of more easy
ploughing them. But when the soil is of an absorb-
ent or porous nature, and the slope very steep, the
direction of the inclosure should be turned down-
wards of the declivity.

In laying out watered meadows, where the situa-

tion admits of such, attention must be paid to the inMotin;
nature of the ground, that a full command of water
may be at all times within reach. And, in inclosures
destined for pasture or grazing lands, it is scarcely
necessary to add, that an abundant supply of water
is of essential benefit to the stock ; so that, in the
subdivision of the grounds, the means of obtaining
it should be always kept in view. In the subdivision
of land, some advantage m.ay be obtained, by com-
bining the means to be adopted in draining, with tlis
arrangement of the inclosures ; and this advantage
ought not to be overlooked.

Advantages. — Inclosures are not only useful, in
ascertaining and securing property, but they aftbrd
the utmost facility to improvement in all systems of
management. In consequence of the shelter which
is thus obtained, the quantity and value of the pro-
duce are increased. When under arable culture,
and when in the state of pasture, the greater num-
ber and superior value of the live stock reared on
an equal extent of ground, are universally admitted.
Inclosing is stated as the first step towards effecting
improvements in the breeds of the different species
of live stock ; but the additional rent, which is ob-
tained for inclosed land of equal extent and quality
with that which is in the state of open field, affords
the most satisfactory proof of its advantages.

Sect. II. Of Fences.

Fences are not only useful in affording shelter to
inclosures, but are necessary for confining live stock,
and protecting arable crops from their depredations.
Fences have been divided into two kinds, simple and
compound. Ditches, hedges, palings, walls, &c. be-
long to the first kind ; and under the second, are in-
cluded such as require the assistance of another kind
of fence, either to protect or render them secure, as
hedge and ditches, or banks, hedge and wall, &c.

Ditch-Jence. — In some cases, ditches are not only
employed for the purpose of carrying off water, but
also for that of a fence to the inclosure. With this
view, it is necessary that they should be deep and
wide ; and the earth thrown out being formed into a
bank on one side, adds considerably to the depth of
the ditch, and forms a tolerable fence. Ditches are
made of various forms ; but the sloping form is to be
preferred, as it is not only constructed originally at
less expence, but is more durable. But ditches of
this description are more generally employed in con-
junction with another kind of fence. The simple
ditch, with a bank of earth, is a fence consisting of
a sloping ditch, and of the earth taken from it form-
ed into a bank on one side. A scarcement, or va-
cant space of six or eight inches broad, is left be-
tween the bank and the edge of the ditch, to pre-
vent the loose earth from falling in and filling it up.
The double ditch, with a bank between, is but rarely
employed, excepting where hedges or trees are tci
be planted on the intervening bank. It affords a
better fence than the single ditch, and it is highly
useful as an open drain of lands on the sides of high-
ways, where there is a considerable declivity toward*
the road. The field-ditch receives the waters from
that side, and the road-ditch prevents it from being
overflowed ancj injured. In dividijig high from low,

102

AGBICtlLTURE.

Jnck»ing, fla^ lands, and especially where the liigh grounds
tave a sudden slope, the double ditch is extremely
iiscfuJ. The ditch on the side of the high ground
preserves the lower fields from inundation in the time
pf heavy riiins, and the ditch on the other side is a
ilrain for the flat land. When ditches of this descrip-
tion arc constructed near high grounds, or on the
*ides of high ways, tlie precaution of altering the di-
xection of the furrows, or side ditches, by giving them
a gentle curve a few yards from their junction with
the main ditch, cannot be too strictly observed ; other-
wise the water falling into the ditch with the force of
(u\ 'jnbroken current, is apt to undei-rnine the bank,
/and w^h away the loosened eartli.

A fence composed of a sloping bank of earth, with
g perpendicular facing of sod, is very useful in mak-
ing folds for sheep or cattle, for defending grounds
adjoining to high ways, for laying off clumps or belts
iof planting in the niidiUe or corners of arable fields,
pr for inclosing cottages, gardens, or stack-yards.
In constructing this fence, the sod pared from the
surface of the sloping ditch forms the front of the
Ibank, and the earth thrown out forms the bank itself.
When this kind of fence is employed for the purpose
of a fold, the perpendicular front, as it presents a
more formidable appearance, should be placed on the
inside of the inclosure,but in general the bank is in the
inside, and the front on the outside of the field. Fen-
ces of this description arc to be regarded only as of a
temporary nature, but may be employed as a useful
substitute for paling where wood is djcar, or for other
materials for the slielter of young hetlges.

The Ha-ha, or sunk fence, resembles the preceding
in its mode of construction ;but in this case the front
or facing is composed of brick, dry stone, or stone
and lime. The height varies according to the na-
ture of the grounds, and otiier circumstances. Fen-
ces of this kind are chiefly suited for gai'dens end ex-
tensive lawns, for the purpose of preserving the pros-
pect uniform and uninterrupted ; but without a hedge
planted on the top, the sunk fence scarcely affords
any shelter.

The double ditch, with a hedge in front of each
bank, is employed in different parts of Britain, and
particularly what are denominated cold lands, from
a prevailing opinion that a single hedge would not
form a sufficient fence ; and, besides, it is supposed
the advantage of additional shelter is derived from a
row of trees planted on the middle of the bank. But
the expence of a fence of this kind, and the quantity
of ground required being double, are serious objec-
tions to its use ; and, besides, the bank in the middle
is cut off by the ditches from the adjoining grounds,
and the nourishment of the double hedge and the
row of trees is limited to the insulated mound, so
that they are liable to be affected by drought or frost.

Hedge fences are either formed of living plants or
of dead materials. Dead hedges are constructed
with the pruning* of trees, of the tops of old thorn
er beech hedges that have been cut over, and are
chiefly employed and well adapted for the temporary
purpose of protecting young hedges. In some cases
dead hedges are the only fence ; but being of a per-
ishable nature, the necessary repair, after the first or
second year, is attended with great expence. When

the protection of a young live fence, planted upon
the common surface, is the object of the dead hedge, \
it is made in a trench or furrow immediately behind,
that the sheep or cattle grazing in tlie inclosure may
be prevented from injuring it. When the quick
fence is planted upon the side of a ditch, the dead
hedge is generally made on the top of the bank.

Dead hedges are variously constructed. In some,
the thorns, or brushwood, of which they are compos-
ed, arc cut into certain lengths, and fixed into tlie
earth. These are called plain, dead hedges. In o-
ther dead hedges, tlie upright stakes are let into the
«arth about tv/elve or i'ourteen inches, and fastened
at the top with willows or hazels. The wattled dead
hedge has strong upright posts, and is well known
in Scotland by the name of stake and rice. But it
has been justly observed, that fences of this nature
are a very unprofitable substitute for a live hedge,
for they are attended with the constant expence of
repairs ; and there are scarcely any situations where
some species of living plants would not only grow
and thrive, but the original expence would perhaps
even be less than for these temporary constructions ;
and it may be added, that the live hedge growing
annually stronger, would afford shelter to tlie inclo-
sure, and become an ornament to the country.

Live hedges. — Various trees and shrubs have been
employed, for the purpose of constructing livehedges;
but it is a matter of great importance to select such
plants as seem best suited to the soil and climate ;
and in this choice some aid may be obtained by ob-
serving the native trees or shrubs which thrive most
vigorously, and attain the largest size, in particular
climates, and on certain soils. But in situations
where such plants do not appear, recourse must be
had to experience, to ascertain what kind of plant
is best suited to the soil and situation. The haw.,
thorn, for instance, whicli has been often very in-
judiciously employed in such cases, is extremely ill
adapted to lofty situations ; but beech, birch, larch,
and the Huntingdon willow, can be reared in a short
time, and i'orm good fences in hilly countries, or
upon cold wet soils. The first three should be pre-
ferred when the soil is dry ; and the willow, with the
addition of poplars, may be successfully planted in
wet and marshy places. In the low countries, or in
less elevated upland situations, birch, poplar, alder,
and Huntingdon willow, are best suited for cold,
wet, and marshy grounds. Beech, crab, and some
other plants, answer well on stiff clays; but on loamy,
sandy, or gravelly lands, where the soil is dry, the
white thorn, hazel, sweet-briar, and rowan tree, are
most advantageously employed in the construction
of hedges.

It rarely happens, whatever may be the quality of
the soil, that it is equally suitable for the vigorous
growth of every kind of plant ; and, besides, the
growth of different species of plants is seldom the
same on the same soil, so that the certain conse-
quence of different plants in the same hedge, is, to
produce inequalities and defects. But although the
soil were equally favourable to the growth of the dif-
ferent species employed, when planted separately,
those of a climbing nature, as the ivy and honey-
suckle, by twisting round the thorns or otlier plant*

Inclosing.

AGRICULTURE.

105

Inclosing. Hear them, in a short time entirely interrupt their
growth. The different kinds of'sweetbriar and bram-
bles, have a similar effect ; for in the end, hy over-
shadowing and smothering the thorns, they never fail
to produce an unseemly gap.

Preparation of the soil. — In planting hedges, by
far too little attention has been paid to the prepara-
tion of the ground ; from which it has often hap-
pened, that a stunted and useless hedge appears in
a situation where a vigorous and excellent fence
might have been reared. When it is intended to
plant a hedge, the ground should, in every instance,
be previously prepared by a complete summer fal-
low, for the destruction of weeds. A certain pro-
portion of lime, dung, or compost, is next to be laid
on the tract upon which the hedge is to be planted.
The manure being properly mixed with the soil, a
furrow is drawn with a common plough about the
end of November, and in this furrow the plants are
arranged, and the earth drawn close to their roots.

Time, Sfc. nf planting. — WHiatever be the nature
of the plants of^ which the hedge is intended to be
made, they should be put into the ground before the
approach of winter, or early in the spring, before
vegetation commences. The beginning of Novem-
ber, or any time during the month of January, is
found to be the most proper season for planting
thorns; and if they have been carefully removed
from the nursery ground, with their roots uninjured,
they are scarcely checked in their growth ; and they
shoot out more vigorously in the first year than in
tlirec or four years by less careful treatment.

When a hedge is made in the face of a ditch,
bank, or wall, the plants are generally laid horizon-
tally upon the surface, or upon a paring of sod taken
from it. They are then covered to the length of
from seven to nine inches from the root end, while
three inches only are left to project. In this way
the roots have sufficient room to stretch out, and the
projecting part produces only two or three good
shoots, which become healthy and vigorous. The
future strength and value of the hedge depend on
the number and vigour of the^first shoots ; so that no
care should be omitted in preparing and manuring
the soil.

In planting a hedge upon the common surface,
a furrow of eight or nine inches deep is made with a
common plough, upon the tract previously prepared ;
and that the furrow may be clean, the plough is twice
drawn along it. A labourer then, with a bundle of
plants, goes along the furrow, and drops them in
handfuls of six or eight, at certain distances. Hav-
ing finished 100 yards in this manner, he returns to
the spot where he commenced, takes up the first
handful, and places each plant in the bottom of
the furrow, leaning against its^ perpendicular side,
and at the distance of from four to six inches from
each other. The whole plants being thus arranged,
they are covered with the earth which has been turn-
ed up i)y the plough. He then sets a foot on each
side of the hedge, and moving slowly along, treads
the earth close to the roots of the plants, after which
the operation is finished, by pointing the soil with a
spade on each side. When the ground is properly
prepared, a single labourer is capable of planting

several hundred yardi* of thorns, 6r other hed^e indjsia)?.
plants, in a day. In some cases the dibble is em- '^

ployed in planting hedges ; but by this practice the
fibres of the roots are greatly injured, by being
pressed together, or, if they arc pruned, theii' growth
receives a severe check.

Age and size oj plants. — It is a common practice
to plant thorns of three years old, and it seldom hap-
pens that they are allowed to exceed this age ; and,
with proper preparation of the soil, regular weeding
and digging, a good fence is obtained ; but it cannot
be doubted, that plants of six or seven years old
would afford an earlier and better fence. When
plants of this age are employed, the precaution of
preserving the roots entire should be particularly ob-
served. It is no small advantage to arrange thorns
or other hedge plants according to their size and ap-
parent strength, because plants of the same size and
strength keep pace with each other, and the growth
of the whole is regular and uniform ; but when strong
and weak plants are brought together, the stronger
soon outgrow and overtop the weaker, so that ine-
qualities and gaps soon make their appearance. By
assorting hedge plants in this manner, the strongest
and healthiest may be planted upon the poorest part
of the soil, in the line of the fence, and the smallest
and weakest upon the richer and more fertile parts.
By this management, a strong and equal hedge may
be reared through the whole line.

Pruning before planting. — The practice, which is
by no means uncommon, of pruning the tops, and
cutting off the greater part of the roots of thorns, is
extremely injurious to their future progress and
growth ; and it is also not unusual to take them up
in great quantities, tie them up in bundles, and allow
them to remain in this state for many weeks. It is
not generally known, that plants derive their nourish-
ment from the earth, by means of the extremities of
the small fibres, and when these are cut off, the
growth of the plant is completely interrupted, till a
new set of fibres shoot out. To avoid this and other
injuries, thorns should not be raised from the nursery
ground till the day on which they are to be planted
out ; and, instead of the spade, they should be tak-
en up with a dung fork, having strong round prongs ;
and while the roots are carefully separated from the
soil, the smallest fibres should be preserved. The
topof the plant only, if that be necessary, should be
pruned.

Weeding hedges. — Wliatever attention may have
been paid to the preparation and planting of a hedge,
its vigorous growth depends greatly on its future
treatment ; and one of the first requisites in the ma-
nagement of a hedge is weeding. Annual weeds are
removed by a slight scuffle with a hoe, and the ope-
ration is to be repeated as often as a new crop ap-
pears. Perennial or biennial plants, which have
strong roots, are most conveniently eradicated by
means of the dung-fork already recommended for
raising thorns from the nursery. This implement is
preferable to the spade, because, without cutting the
roots of the hedge, it loosens the ground, to allow
the weeds to be removed. Tlie first weeding of a
young hedge should be performed early in the spring.
Loosening the earth at this time is also advantage-

104

AGRICULTURE.

It;«J.*iiijt. ; ous, when the roots begin to spre.id and extend
~ themselves. Annual cleanings and loosening of the
soil about the roots are essentially necessary, to pro-
mote the growth and vigour of every hedge. I5ut,
bcisi<les this advantage, it is not less necessary to keep
hedge banks free from weeds on account of the ad-
joining fields, which are soon overrun by plants sj)ring-
ing up from seeds produced in the hedges or high-
ivays. It would, therefore, be a public benefit to
have the whole weeds round the line offences, as well
as in the high-roads and uncultivated spots of ground,
fut down before the time of flowering and running
to seed.

Prtining hedges, — Much of the future value and
beauty of a hedge depends on the proper pruning
and after-management. But concerning the mode
of pi uning, and the season of the year when it should
be performed, great diversity of opinion prevails.
To have the best and most useful hedge, it should be
pnuied in such a way as to be broad at the bottom,
and should taper gradually towards the top. The
summer season, the most improper that can be chos-
en, is often selected for the operation of pruning,
wlien the plants are full of juice and vegetation is in
its most vigorous state, in preference to the com-
mencement of spring or the end of autumn, when
they are less liable to injury from bleeding. After
the first pruning, already noticed, when the hedge is
planted, it should scarcely be touched with the knife
or shears tor some years. When the main stem of a
thorn, or indeed any other plant, is cut over, it sends
out lateral shoots, or a number of small stems, at the
place where it is cut ; and if this injudicious opera-
tion be rej)eated once or twice every year, each small
stem is again subdivided, and the upward progress of
the hedge is completely interrupted. A hedge thus
treated cannot be recovered but by cutting over close
to the ground, when healthy and upright stems shoot
up vigorously, and soon form a sufficient fence.

The first general rule that can be given for the
management of a young hedge, is to leave the main
stem untouched till it has reached the heighth of five
or six feet. Whatever pruning it has received should
he entirely confined to the side branches, those next
the root being left pretty long and tapering gradual-
ly towards the top. The side branches thus pruned
send out new shoots from their extremities, which
become so thick as to fill up all the interstices, while
the main stems are left untouched, and shoot upwards
to the necessary height. Regular switching with a
hedge bill, is all that is afterwards required in the
proper management of such a hedge.

. CuUitig down old hedges. — Wlien hedges are neglect-
ed, they shoot up to e^ great height, become open be-
Iqw, and often useless as a fence. The only method of
recovering hedges treated in this way, is by cutting
them down to obtain a new set of shoots from the
stumps. In fields surrounded by such hedges, if they
are alternately in pasture and tillage, the proper pe-
riod for cutting them down is when the field is under
corn crop. Different methods are recommended for
performing this operation. In the first, the hedge is
cut over a yard above the surface, and is left in that
State ; this mode of treating a hedge originally good,
fully answers tlie purpose, and in a few years, with pro-

per management, it becomes an ex cellent fence ; but if inclosinj .

there has been a deficiency of plants, nimierous gaps ^ ~ '

appear, which it is extremely difficult to fill up. But

it is a more serious objection to a hedge being treated

in this way, that live stock attempting to leap over it,

run the risk of being destroyed by the sharp points

of the stakes.

A second mode of managing an old hedge, is, to
cut over a fourth-part of the hedge to the intended
height of the fence, and to bend down and warp the
remaining three-fourths with the upright stems. In
this way the gaps and vacant places below are effec-
tually filled up, and, with proper attention, a good
fence is soon obtained.

A tliird way of treating old hedges is, by cutting
them close to the surface ; when there are no gaps,
this method answers sufficiently well, but otherwise
the defect soon appears. This method is inferior to
the one last mentioned, but is preferable to tlie first ;
for the young shoots from the stumps, by being near
the ground, in some measure supply the deficiencies
occasioned by the want of original plants.

The last method of managing old hedges is to cut
them down even with the surface, and to cover the
stumps completel}' with earth from the ditch or the
road side. By this treatment every single root sends
out a great number of young vigorous shoots, each
of which branches out from the stump below the sur-
face, sends out roots, and acquires aa establishment
for itself. In this way the bottom of the hedge be-
comes so thick, that no kind of animal can force its
way through it. In the future management of such
renovated hedges, the same directions as- for young
hedges must be attended to, and particularly the pre-
caution of saving the upright shoots till the hedge
has attained the proper height, should be strictly ob-
served. The proper season for cutting over old
hedges, as well as for pruning and switching them,
is either at a late period in the autumn, or very early
in the spring.

FilliHgtipgapsin /iet/gw.-To prevent the occurrence
of gaps in a hedge, it should be carefully examined
about the end of the first autumn after it is planted,
and dead and decaying plants should be removed,
and replaced by the strongest and most vigorous that
can be found. With such attention for the first two
or three years, the hedge becomes uniformly thick
and strong, and few defects ap])ear. But when old
hedges are to be cut down, some means must be a-
dopted to fill up the open spaces. The common
method is, to select a strong plant next to the gap,
and, with a gentle stroke of the hedge-bill to bend it
across the opening, and entwine it with the thorns on
the opposite side. WTieu the old hedge is cut down
close to the <>arth, gaps are effectually filled up by dig-
ging the ground pretty deep w ith a spade, and taking
one of the strongest plants on each side of the opening,
that have been left uncut, removing the earth from
the roots, so as to loosen them, that they may be
bent down and laid close to the earth in the gap.
They are then fastened down with wooden hooks,
and covered throughout tlieir whole length with earth.
Young shoots soon appear from the old stems to fill
up the vacancy. This method answers well with a
hedge that is cut over close to the surface, but whea

AGRICULTURE.

105

Fence?, it 'S cut at the height of three or four feet, a temporary
.^^'"^fc/ paling, to protect the young shoots till they become
a suftkient fence, must be erected.

The gaps of a hedge \vhich has been cut over at the
height just mentioned, may be effectually repaired by
planting old thorns, when such can be obtained, the
earth in the gap being previously stirred up and ma-
nured. The end of autumn, or the beginning of win-
ter, is the proper season for this operation.

Strong beeches have been successfully employed
to remedy the defects of grown up hedges. The
plants should be six or seven feet in height, and sup-
ported by a couple of pieces of coarse paling, pla-
ced across the opening. Beeches of this description,
planted early in the winter, suffer no check, and
shooting out vigorously in the spring, fill up the
opening during the first season.

It is a common practice to fill up gaps in hedges
with dead wood, such as the prunings, and other
brushwood ; and for the same purpose stones are
sometimes employed : but the use of such matters
is at best only temporary, while they serve to con-
tinue and enlarge the opening.

Plashing hedges. — In performing this operation, the
old hedge is first cleared of all dead wood, brambles,
and other straggling plants, leaving along the bank
the straightest and best growing stems of thorn, haz-
el, elm, oak, ash, beech, drc. about five or six in a
yard ; but where there are gaps, a greater number is
left. The ditch is then repaired, and the earth
thrown on the bank. Such of the stems left in cut-
ting the old hedge as are found growing in the line
of the new hedge, are cut off three feet from the
top of the bank, and are employed as hedge stakes
to the new hedge. This is an essential part of the
practice ; for these stakes being inunoveable, and ne-
ver rotting, prevent the new hedge from falling, or in-
clining to any side. Dead hedge stakes, such as sal-
lows, or willows, which may grow, are driven into
vacant spaces. The wood left standing in the remain-
der of the line is then plashed down ; the stem is cut in
two places ; it receives one stroke near the ground,
and the other about ten or twelve inches higher. The
cuts should be of sufficient depth to admit part of the
wood between the two being slit out, the stem itself
being supported by little more than the bark, or a-
bout a quarter of its first size. It is then laid along
the top of the bank, and interwoven with the hedge
stakes. In plashing hedges, the cuts should be di-
rected upwards, instead of downwards, by which the
heart of the plant is exposed to the weather. In all
cases where old hedges are either cut over or bent
down, the ground on each side, as soon as it can be
accomplished, should be well dug, cleared of weeds,
and the earth laid up to the roots of the plants, by
which means they soon send out luxuriant shoots.

Black thorn hedge. — A cheap fence may be con-
structed with this plant, in exposed situations, where
' the white thorn would not thrive. Full grown sloe,

or black thorn plants, are set pretty thick, and mix-
ed with hazel, withy, large briar, &c. the tops being
cut off to the height of three feet, on a bank raised
from two to three feet, with ditches of sufficient
depth ; but this method should only be adopted in
bleak situations. In such situations, however, the

VOL. I. TART I.

black thorn, which abounds in most places, with the
assistance of the briar, soon forms a close and imper-
vious fence.

Beech hedge. — As the beech plant seems to resist
the effects of sea air, it is found suitable for such situ-
ations w hero the white thorn does not thrive. The
bank for a beech hedge should be six or seven feet
high, and four or five wide at the top. The young
plants are set in two or three rows, at the distance,
of a foot from each other, and sufficiently thick in
the rows. A ditch is seldom required, but the bank
or mound is supported by a low stone wall. The
beech grows rapidly, and soon forms an excellent
and beautiful fence ; and, besides, it affords shelter to
a late period of the season, while the profit is consi-
derable, from the alternate cutting of one of the rows,
when they come to maturity, while the others are
plashed or trimmed, yielding wood for fuel or other
purposes. This kind of hedge is attended with one
inconvenirnce, that it requires a large quantity of
earth for the bank.

Furze hedges. — In similar situations, furze, or whins,
are often employed for a fence. By sowing the seeds
thick, on high and broad banks, with ditches on the
sides, the young furze grows easily and quickly. To
guard against the thinness produced by the decay of
the old parts of the plant, the best method is to
cut them close down, first on one side and then on
the other, every two or three years. The broad
bank recommended admits of this management, and
a fence always remains on one side or the other, in
some degree of perfection. In situations where fod-
der is scarce, the bruised cuttings may be employed
as food for animals. But a hedge of this kind ought
only to be adopted as a substitute in places where
other plants do not succeed ; for it requires a large
space of ground, and the seeds scattered over the in-
closures soon fill them with plants, which are not
easily eradicated.

Diseases of hedge plants. — On certain soils, as ou
cold wet clay, the white thorn, as well as other woody
plants, are apt to be covered with moss, which great-
ly impedes their growth, and, as it increases, entirely
destroys them. In planting young hedges, it has
been recommended to prepare the soil by manuring
it ; and if a sufficient quantity of lime be incorporat-
ed with the earth, the young hedge is secured from
this malady. To recover old hedges from this evil,
and render them good fences, they should be cut
down close by the surface, cleared of weeds, and the
earth well dug to the extent of half a yard on each
side. After this operation, which should be perform-
ed about the end of autumn, the spaces which have
been dug are to be well limed on the surface, and
remaining in that state during the winter, the earth
should be dug again early in the spring, and the lime
well mixed with the soil. Where this method has
been jjroperly practised, the plants push out vigor-
ous shoots, which soon form good hedges, and the
moss no longer appears. The use of lime in the same
way is recommended as a certain remedy to destroy
moss on other kinds of trees.

Hedge-roiv of trees — Hedge-rows, planted in the
direction of the live fence, are recommended by some
as affording shelter and beauty to a country ; but al-
o

Fence*.

106

AGBICULTURE.

Ftnccs.

though this practice is by no means uncommon,
especially in England, it is objected to by others,
because it deprives the fence of part of its nourish-
ment, and greatly injures the plants by the shade,
as well as by the drop, in rainy weatlier. Where
hedge-rows accompany stone walls, and when they
attain a considerable size, they are sliaken by strong
winds, by which the wall is loosened and cracked,
and requires constant repair. But the inconvenience
is not confined to the I'tnce only. The drop and
shade of such trees, when the branches extend to any
great lengrii, arc also injurious to the corn and her-
bage crops. But it rarely happens that trees planted
in this way arrive at any great size to afford such
emolument to the proprietor as may counterbalance
the disadvantages with which they are attended.
Hedge-rows, therefore, may be considered more as
an ornamental than an useful improvement.

Compound hedge fences are of different kinds, as
a single hedge and ditch, with or without paling ;
hedge and bank ; hedge with post and rail ; hedge
and wall fence, and some others ; and paling or
timber fences are constructed either with simple nail-
ed, jointed, horizontal paling ; upright lath paling ;
horizontal paling of young firs ; paling of growing
trees, or rails nailed to growing posts, and others of
the same description : — but for a particular account
of such fences, we refer to Dickson's System of Agri-
culture, or to the General Dictionary of Agriculture
and Husbandry.

Wall-fences are either constructed of dry stone, of
stone and lime, of brick, or of turf.

Dry-stone wall Walls of this description are

sometimes constructed by common labourers, with
round stones, collected from the fields, and coped
with sod. Sometimes they are made with quarried
stones, brought somewhat into shape. Of fences of
this description, the Galloway dike, so called from
being extensively used in that district of Scotland,
seems to be in most repute.

Galloway dike. — This kind of fence is not uncom-
mon in many parts of Scotland, and in some parts
of England; and it seems well calculated for inclos-
ing high grounds pastured with sheep. It is regu-
larly and compactly built with dry stones, in the
same way as a dry-stone wall, with a broad base, and
tapering gradually upv.'ards to the height of two feet,
or two feet and a half. The building is then level-
led with a course of flat stones, resembling a coping.
These flat stones project two or three inches over,
the wall on each side. A course of rugged round
stones succeeds, and they are placed upon each
other in a way sufficiently secure for the stability of
the building ; but so open as to allow a free passage
to the wind and light. The rough open part of the
building is usually raised three feet above the regu-
lar part, and gradually tapers upwards till it termi-
nates in a top of nine inches broad ; every course of
the rough stones being smaller than tliat immediate-
ly below it. The tottering appearance of this wall
prevents every kind of animal from approaching it ;
so that, where stones fit for the purpose are abundant,
it becomes a valuable fence. In many places where
the fields are covered with large stones, the expence
of a wall of this kind but little exceeds the wason
2

work ; but the expense must vary according to the
price of labour, and the facility or difficulty of pro-
curing stones. This fence answers equally well, if
not better than more expensive fences, in most si-
tuations, where the confinement of the stock, or the
protection of a crop, are the principal objects. But it
affords neither shelter nor ornament to the country ;
so that it seems most eligible in lower districts, where
land is valuable, and little shelter is required.

atone and lime xvnlls. — To render walls of this kind
durable, they should have a good foundation, deep
enough to prevent the effects of frost, with a broad
base, gradually tapering upwards. Next to hedges,
this is the most durable fence ; but it is expensive,
and possesses few advantages over the dry-stone
wall. Stones from the quarry arc always to be pre-
ferred to land stones. Like other stone fences, it
ought to be secured at top with a substantial coping
of stone and lime. Flag-stones, inclining towards
each other, and meeting at the top, with the inter-
mediate space filled with small stones and mortar,
forms a most durable coping, which, from its wedge-
like shape, and solid, impenetrable surface, seems
well calculated for the preservation of the building.
The end of spring, the summer months, or the early
part of autumn, are the best seasons for such opera-
tions.

Stone and clay uialls. — In the construction of such
walls, the clay is employed as a substitute for lime ;
and in the dry stone wall, lipped with lime, the dif-
ference from the ordinary wall, in having about two
or three inches on each side lipped with lime, which
gives it the appearance of an entire building of stone
and lime ; but it is found to be little more durable
than the common dry stone wall. Walls of this lat-
ter description are sometimes dashed with lime after
the work is finished ; which adds something to their
appearance, but contributes little to their utility.
Dry stone walls are primed and harled, by filling up
every vacant space on the outside of the building,
and barling afterwards, which gives a finished ap-
pearance, and produces a durable fence.

Frame-xvalls. — The construction of such walls fs
accomplished, by preparing a frame of deal-boards,
of the intended width and height of the fence. A
foundation is dug ; the frame is placed upon the line,
and filled with stones of all kinds, collected from the
fields. When the frame is filled to the top, liquid
mortar is poured in to fill up the interstices, and the
whole remains in that state till the mortar has ac-
quired a sufficient degree of firmness to give stabili-
ty to the building. This is accomplished in a day or
two, during the warm and dry weather of summer;
the frame is then removed, carried farther along the
line, and the same operation is repeated. In this
way the whole line of fence is gradually completed,
and, with well-tempered lime, and proper attention
to incorporate it with the stones, the wall presents a
smooth surface, with a firm and subsUmtial appear-
ance.

Every kind of stone-wall possesses considerable
advantages. The inclosure is completed at once ;
little space is occupied, so that a considerable por-
tion of land is saved ; and even that part near the
sides of stone walls, which is usually waste, may ho

Fences.

ACRICULTI3RE.

lor

OiSotli. profitably employed in raising grain, potatoes, or
^m^-^/ttm/ Other vegetables. But these advantages are accompa-
nied with some detects. The most substantial fences
of this kind are more or less perishable, according to
t!ie materials employed and the mode of construc-
tion. After a certain time, the attention and ex-
pense to keep them in repair are considerable. They
afford but little shelter, and are rather a deformity
than an ornament to the country.

Chap. III. Of Soils.

Soil is the layer of loose, earthy matters, which
constitutes the upper covering of the globe, affords
a station to the roots of innumerable tribes of vege-
tables, and supplies them with nourishment to pro-
mote their growth and bring them to maturity. It
consists of the primitive earths which enter into
the composition of the prevailing strata or rocks,
from the disintegration of which it is obviously form-
ed. The succeeding layer, on which the vegetable
soil reposes, whatever be its nature, whether it be
composed of less coherent or more solid materials, is
usually distinguished by the name of under-soil, or
subsoil. In treating this subject, the formation, com-
position, and classification of soils may be considered.

Sect. I. Of the Formation of Soil.

1 The formation of soil is a beautiful natural pro-

cess, which is accomplished by the combined influ-
ence of moisture and vegetable action on the solid
strata of the globe. The changes which take place
in this process succeed each other with more or less
i-apidity, according to the nature of the rocks, and
the power of the agents which operate in their de-
composition. In a warm country, and a moist cli-
mate, where vegetation is powerful and vigorous, it
proceeds with astonishing ra))idity ; but in the colder
regions of the earth, it advances with slower and
more progressive steps. But, whatever be its pro-
gress, the hardest rocks, as well as those of less dur-
able or less coherent materials, are subject to disin-
tegration and decay, and contribute to the formation
and increase of soil.

First process. — It is not difficult to trace the steps
of this process, by observing what is dail)' going on
around us. A bare rock, when it is uncovered, or a
mass of stone which has been lately dug from the
quarry, when full}' exposed to the air, soon loses its
fresh appearance, and assumes a different aspect.
When the change that has taken place is investigat-
ed, it is found that the surface of the stone is cover-
ed with a thin crust, of a substance very difl'ercnt in
its nature from the stone itself. A closer inspection
shews that this crust is a vegetable production, be-
longing to the tribe of plants known by the name of
Lichens, and supposed, perhaps from ignorance or
. . inability to examine them, to be less perfect in their

structure than other plants. The seeds of plants
of this description are extremely minute, easily
wafted about by the wind, and, floating in the at-
mosphere, attach themselves most readily to those
bodies which are somewhat moist. Porous rocks,
which are most apt to absorb moisture from the earth
or from the air, are the first on wliich lichens make

their appearance. By means of this vegetable co-
vering, a larger portion of moisture from the atmo-
sphere is absorbed, and a smaller portion of what
rises through the rocky mass from the earth is lost
by evaporation. This affords additional nourishment,
and increases tlie power of vegetation. A thin Wer
is soon detached from the surface of tlie rock, and
reduced to the earthy form. The first vegetable
productions, in the changes of the seasons, decay ;
and hence the first thin stratum of soil is formed by
the decomposition of the vegetable matter, and the
disintegration of part of the mass of stone on which
it was produced. Plants of a larger size, and more
vigorous growth, v.hose seeds are carried about iu
the air, find a fit receptacle in this mixed mass of
matter for their vegetation and growth. Thej', in
their turn, decay, and contribute a fresh portion
of vegetable substance, while another accession of
earthy particles, derived from the stone, is made to
the general mass. Insects and worms, which make
their abode in the earth or on plants, in the progres-
sive changes to which they are subject, and in the
various stages of their existence, deposit animal re-
mains in the places which they frequent, serve glso
to increase the quantity of organized matter in the
new soil. Tracing the progress of the formation of
soil in this way, we may see how a thick bed is pre-
pared, which shall, in time, be fit for the reception
of the largest plants.

Every kind of rock, even of the densest and hard-
est nature, is subject to this change. The purest
rock-crystal when exposed to the v.-eather, in no
long period is deprived of its brilliant lustre and fine
polish ; but the extent and rapidity of the change
correspond with the nature of the rocky mass and
the heat and moisture of the climate. In the warmer
regions of the earth, the surface of a bare rock is
soon converted into friable, earthy matter, covered
with verdure, and clothed with trees ; but in colder
Climates, or in more elevated situations, the process
is slower as well as more limited. The vegetables
which spring up are of smaller magnitude, and of a
diminutive growth, and thus afford a more scanty
supply to the production of soil.

Diversity of' soil. — The diversity of earthy matters
contained in the soil, depends on the nature of the
constituent parts of the rocks from which it is deriv-
ed. Rocks in which the prevailing constituent is
siliceous earth, afford a sandy soil ; these rocks in
which alumina, or pure clay, is predominant, yield a
clay soil ; lime abounds in the soil which is formed
in the vicinity of limestone-rocks; and the just pro-
portion of these earths, which may be considered as
the basis ofa good soil, is derived from those rocks in
which the}' naturally exist.

Carse soil — But the soil, as it is formpd by the
disintegration of rocks, does not always remain on
the spot from which it originated. It is carried by
rains and floods, from the higher to the lower ground,
where it is deposited, and, in a succession of ages,
forms a thick bed. When the earthy matters are
swept away by rivers with a slow current, they are
deposited on their flat banks, or at wide estuaries.
In this way some of the richest soils have been form-
ed. The fertile lands at the mouth of the Nile, and

Of Soils.

108

AGRICULTURE.

Of Soils, the flat grounds in the vicinity of the Forth and the
Tay in Scotland, well known by the name of carse
lands, are of this description.

Gravelly soil — Gravel, which abounds in many
soils, and constitutes entire beds, derives its origm
from those rocks whose lofty precipices are exposed
to tlic weather ; but especially from such rocks as
contain many fissures and cavities, and admit and re-
tain water. This water, when it is near the surface,
is frozen during the winter, and, by its expansive
fprce in the state of ice, tears off and throws down
immense masses of the rock. These masses, broken
down in their fall, are reduced to pieces of still
smaller magnitude by the current of rivers, or the
agitation of the waters of lakes, or of the ocean. In
. the progress of those changes which the face of the
earth everywhere exhibits, the river changes its
course, — the sea recedes, — the lake is dried up, — and
the bank of gravel becomes dry land. The seeds of
vegetables fall on its surface, — grow up, and decay ;
they are succeeded by other generations, which run
the same course ; a portion of earthy matter is ob-
tained from the stones on which the vegetable re-
mains are deposited, and being mixed with the loose
stones, forms a gravelly soil.

Moorish soil. — The nature of the climate, and wa-
ter stagnating in low grounds, have a powerful
effect in producing a diversity of soil. In elevated
situations, the chilling influence of cold permits
plants only of a coarse and hardy character to spring
up ; when they die, the same influence retards or in-
terrupt* their complete decomposition ; and in such
places the soil consists of a mass of half-decayed
roots and stems of different species of heath and ca-
rex, or sedge-grass, with which it is almost entirely
occupied. This is the origin of heathy or moorish
soils.

Mossy soil. — In places where water stagnates, a
different tribe of plants is produced. The bog-moss,
or sphagnum palustre, first makes its appearance ; a
new race of tlie same species succeeds ; other species
and plants of a different character find a convenient
station in the floating mass ; and, from the accumu-
lation of innumerable generations of various kinds of
vegetables in a state of imperfect decomposition,
peaty or mossy soil derives its origin.

Saline matters in soil — Besides the ingredients al-
ready mentioned, which may be considered as the
base of soils, other substances enter into their compo-
sition. Some of these, as magnesia, which is sparing-
ly met with in soils, and certain metallic matters with
which they are frequently impregnated, originally ex-
isted in the strata, from the disintegration of which the
soil is formed. Saline substances, which are also
sometimes found in soils, have the same origin, but
are occasionally deposited by the water of springs,
as it filtrates through the earth.

Subsoil'. — The stratum which immediately supports
the soil in which vegetables grow, is distinguished
from its relative position by the name of subsoil, or
undersoil. It sometimes happens, but rarely, that
the rock which furnished the materials for the soil
constitutes the subsoil ; but it consists more frequently
ef a bed of gravel, or clay, or sand. A knowledge
of the nature and character of the subsoil is of no

small importance in conducting improvements in a- of Soils,
griculture. It is ofteii a guide to the means to be
adopted in draining ; and in tillage operations, when
it is within reach of the plough, it may be avoided,
or partially turned up, as the ingredients of which it
is composed, when mixed with the soil, seem to be
salutary or injurious.

Sect. II. Of the Component Paiis of Soils.

The ingredients of which soils are composed, are
certain combinations of some of the primitive earths,
witli organized matter in a decomposing state, along
with a portion of iron, and some saline compounds.
The proj)ortion of these matters is extremely vari-
able, and from this arises the endless diversity of
soils. The predominant earths in soils are, alumina
or pure day ; silica, or pure sand ; lime, or calcare-
ous earth ; and, more rarely, magnesia.

Alumina, or clay, when in a state of purity, is in
the form of a white powder ; it adheres strongly to
the tongue, is insoluble in water, but soluble in acids,
and in watery solutions of the fixed alkalies. It is
the prevailing earth in clay soils, in which it is ge-
nerally of a reddish colour, from an impregnation of
the oxide of iron.

Silica, or the earth of flints, or pure sand, when
in a state of perfect purity, is also in the form of a
white powder. It is infusible in the fire, and inso-
luble in water, and almost all the acids. Sandy and
gravelly soils, and hard stony lands, are chiefly com-
posed of silica.

Lime is obtained from the burning of limestone,
in which state it is known by the name of quicklime.
As it exists in soils, it is commonly in combination
with carbonic acid, or fixed air. It is also in the
form of a white powder, when it is perfectly pure.
Chalk is limestone, with a slight degree of coher-
ence ; and marble is the same substance in its most ,
compact form. Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, is lime
in combination with sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol ;
and phosphate of lime is a compound of lime and
phosphoric acid.

Magnesia, in a state of purity, is a white, light
powder, which is soluble in acids, but not in alkaline
solutions. It is a rare ingredient in soils ; but when
it appears, it is in combination with carbonic acid,
or with some of the earths.

The saline matters which have been detected in
soils are, common salt, Epsom salt, muriate and sul-
phate of potash, nitrate of lime, and some of the
alkalies ; but they exist in very small quantities, and
their occurrence is rare.

Rust of iron, or ochre, or oxide of iron, is met
with in almost every soil ; but in the red and yellow
clay soils, and the red and yellow sihceous sands,
it is in greatest abundance.

Vegetable and animal matter, in a state of decom-
position, forms an essential ingredient in all good
soils. Vegetable matter exists in very different states,
contains a large proportion of carbonaceous sub-
stance, and yields no volatile alkali. It is the chief
ingredient in peats, and is abundant in rich moulds.
The state of animal matter in the soil is as different
as the substances from which it is obtained. It usual-
ly contains less carbonaceous substance than vege-

AGRICULTURE.

109

of Soils.

table matters ; and, when exposed to heat, affords
ammonia, or volatile alkali, and carbonic acid. It
is abundant in soils to which manure has been lately
applied.

A fertile soil in the vicinity of Turin, analysed by
M. Giobert, coiiUiintd, in a pound weight, from 20
to 30 grains of extractive matter, which flamed and
burned, and 70 grains of water, and about 1 9 grains
of air, one-third of which was carbonic acid, and the
rest heavy infiamraable air. It yielded no volatile
alkali. The earths existed in the following propor-
tions in 100 parts :

Silica from 77 to 79

Alumina 9 — 14

Lime 5—12

In a less fertile soil, the proportions were found
to be,

Silica from 48 to SO

Alumina 7 — 22

Lime 6 — 11

And in soils accounted barren, the proportions
appeared to be.

Silica from 42 to 88

Alumina 20 — 30

Lime 4 — ?0

But, if these analyses be correct, the difference be-
tween rich and poor soils must depend more on the
proportion of organized matter existing in them,
than on the diversity of the earthy ingredients.

The more improved state of chemical science, and
the ingenious researches of Sir Humphry Davy,
have enabled that distinguished philosopher to throw
a clearer light on the nature and properties of soil.
The following are the results of his analysis : — A
good turnip soil from Norfolk afforded eight parts
out of nine of siliceous sand. Of the finely divided
matter, 100 parts consisted of.

Carbonate of lime - 63
Silica - - - 15

Alumina - - - H
Oxide of iron - - 3
Vegetable and saline matter 5
Moisture ... 3
A soil in which oaks grow vigorously, taken from
a field in Sussex, was composed of six parts of sand,
and one part of clay and finely divided matter. A
hnndred parts of the entire soil, analyzed, yielded,
Silica - - - 54

Alumina . - - 28

Carbonate of lime - 3

Oxide of iron - - 5

Decomposing vegetable matter 4
Moisture and loss - - 6
An excellent wheat soil from Middlesex afforded
three parts in five of siliceous sand. The finely di-
vided matter was composed of

Carbonate of lime - - - 28

SiUca - - . - 32

Alumina - . - 29

Animal or vegetable matter, and moisture 1 1

In his remarks on these results. Sir Humphry

Davy observes, that the first soil examined possessed

the least, and the last the greatest cohesive property ;

that the finely divided matters, in all cases, give te- of Soils,
nacity to the soil, and this quality depends on the S^-y^
proportion of alumina ; and that a small quantity of
finely divided matter fits a soil for turnips or barley,
11 parts sand out of 12 yielding a good crop of the
former ; that a much larger proportion ol sand in-
duces absolute sterility, as in the soil of Bagshot-
heath, which has no vegetable covering, 400 parts
heated red yielding 380' parts coarse siliceous sand,
9 parts fine siliceous sand, and 1 1 parts impalpable
matter, which was a mixture of ferruginous clay
and carbonate of lime ; that the vegetable or animal
matters, when finely divided, give coherence, soft-
ness, and penetrability ; that none of the ingredients
of a soil ought to be in too great proportiort; that
a soil composed entirely of impalpable matters is
unproductive ; that none of the earths in a state of
purity, as alumina, or silica, or carbonate of lime, or
of magnesia, is capable of supporting healthy vege-
tation ; and that no soil whatever is fertile when it
contains 19 parts out of 20 of any of its ingredi-
ents. *

Analysis of soils. — It would be of little use to the
practical agriculturist, who is not always an experi-
enced chemist, to enter into a minute detail of the
method of analysing soils. For this information we
refer to Chemistry, or to Sir Humphry Davy's
work already quoted ; and we shall here notice some
of the simpler processes from which a knowledge of
the constitution, character, and more essential pro-
perties of soils, may be obtained.

In whatever way a soil is to be examined, whether
by a ruder, or a more minute and accurate method,
specimens of it should be collected from different
places of the field, and two or three inches below the
surface ; and it should be carefully observed whether
these different specimens possess similar properties.
On extensive plains, the whole of the soil is found
to be pretty uniform in the nature and proportion of
the ingredients of which it is composed ; but in val-
lies, and near the beds of rivers, which are supplied
with materials of the soil from the higher grounds,
and these being very different in their nature, treat
diversity of soil prevails. One part of the fi J J is
covered with a calcareous soil, and another part is
siliceous. The specific gravity of a soil is an indica-
tion of the quantity of organized matter which it
contains ; for such matter is most abundant in light-
er soils. To ascertain the specific gravity of soil,
an equal bulk of water and of soil may be intro-
duced into a phial of a determinate capacity. If
a bottle containing 400 grains of water be half filled
with that hquid, and if the remaining half be filled
with the soil to be examined, and if tlie bottle gain
200 grains of weight more than when it is entirely
filled with water, the specific gravity of the soil is
double that of water, or 2. The colour, feel, and.
some other physical properties of soils, may in some
measure lead to a knowledge of their composition.
A siliceous soil is rough and hard to the touch, and
when rubbed on glass scratches it. A red or yellow
colour denotes a ferruginous soil ; and softness is or.C;
of the characteristics of a calcareous soil.

• Element! of AgricuUura! Chemistry, Isi.

110

AGRICULTURE.

Oi'Soi'«. The power of absorbing and retaining hent and
moisture, seems to be closely connected with the ler-
tilit}' of the soil. Certain soils are move easily heat-
ed than others, and when brought to the same de-
gree of heat, cool more rapidly. A soil of a stift'
white clay is heated with difficulty ; and from the
moisture it contains, retains the heat but for a short
time. A chalk soil is also heated with difficulty ; but,
containing less moisture, the heat is retained longer.
A black soil, in which soft vegetable matter is pre-
dominant, is most heated by the sun and air. Deep
coloured soils, and such as contain a large proportion
of carbonaceous and ferruginous matter, exposed to
the sun, acquire a higher temperature than soils of a
pale colour. A rich black mould, containing nearly
a fourth of vegetable matter, exposed to sunshine,
increased in temperature, in the space of an hour,
from 65" to 88° ; but a chalk soil, under similar cir-
cumstances, was heated only to 69°. The mould
being removed into the shade, where the temperature
vfas^(j'2°, in half an hour lost 15°; while the chalk
soil, i-.i the same situation, lost only 4°. A cold fer-
tile soil, and a cold barren clay, being previously
dried, were heated to the temperature of 88°, and
afterwards exposed to a temperature of 57° ; the
brown soil lost in half an hour 9°, while the clay had
lost only 6°. An equal portion of the clay, contain-
ing moisture, was heated to 8S°, and then exposed
to a temperature of 55° ; in a quarter of an hour it
gained the temperature of the room. In conduct-
ing these experiments, which were made by Sir
Humphry Davy, the soils were placed in small tin-
plate trays, two inches square and half an inch in
depth.

■Absorption of moisture. — The temperature of the
soil, or its power of combining with and retaining
heat, is greatly modified by the property of absorb-
ing and retaining moisture ; and the power of the
soil to absorb water, depends, in a great measure,
on the state of division of its parts ; for the more
they are divided, the greater is its absorbent power.
This power is greater in vegetable than in animal
substances ; the latter possess it in a higher degree
than compounds of the earths, and a considerable
diversity prevails in the different proportions of the
earths themselves.

The fertility of a soil depends much on its power
of absorbing water from the atmosphere. Soils pos-
sess this power in very different degrees, and it is al-
ways greatest in the most fertile soils. Experiments
can be easily made to ascertain this property; so that
it affords a simple method of determining the fertility
or barrenness of land. We shall quote the experi-
ments of Sir Humphry Davy on this subject. 1000
parts of a rich soil froui Orniiston in East Lothian,
containing more than half its weight of finely di-
vided matter, of which 1 1 parts were carbonate of
lirae, and nine parts vegetable matter, were dried at
the temperature of 212°, were exposed for an hour to
air at 62°, and saturated with moisture, and gained
18 grains. 1000 parts of a fertile soil from Somer-
setshire, treated in the same way, gained 16 grains ;
1 000 parts of a soil from Essex gained 1 3 grains ;

1000 parts of fine sand from Essex gained 1 1 grains ; of
1000 parts of the soil of l?agshot-heath increased on-
ly three grains in weight *.

Proportion qforgdniwd matter ascertained. — An ea-
sy method of discovering the comparative proportions
of organised matter in soils, is recommended by Dr
Coventrj', iu his Lectures on Agriculture. This
method ejnsists in the simple process of deflagrating a
certain quantity of the soil with nitre. In conducting
the experiment, a determinate quantity of nitre is
fused in a crucible, and while in that state the dry
soil is projected upon it, in divided portions. The
addition of the soil is continued till the deflagration,
or sudden inflammation, which takes place when any
carbonaceous matter comes in contact, ceases. Sup-
pose it requires one ounce of a fertile soil to produce
this effect, and that it requires two ounces of a diffe-
rent soil to produce the same effect, it follows that
the latter soil contains only one half the proportion
of carbonaceous matter which exists in the former,
and therefore it must be greatly inferior in fertility.

Uses of' ea)ihy matters in soils. — Besides affordmg
a station to plants, the earths which enter into the
composition of soil have a kind of mechanical action
in retaining water, and supplying it in proper pro-
portion to their roots ; they also tend to the equal
distribution and supply of the vegetable and animal
matter for their nourishment. But there seems to be
some degree of chemical affinity between the earths
and the earthy carbonates, and some of the principles
of vegetable and animal substances. If an acid solu-
tion of alumina or pure clay be mixed with a solu-
tion of soap, the alumina unites with the oil of the
soap, and forms a white powder, which sinks to the
bottom of the liquid. When pipe-clay or chalk is
boiled with the extract of decomposing vegetable
matter, the compound formed renders the decompo-
sition and solution of the vegetable matter more dif-
ficult. Siliceous sands have little effect in this way ;
but the soils which have the greatest chemical power
in preserving manures, are those in which iilumina
and carbonate of lime are' the predominant earths.
Such soils are well characterised by the name of
rich soils ; while sandy soils are properly denonii-
nated hungry, because they have little or no affinity
for the organised matters which are soon carried off
by water or dissipated in the atmosphere. The black
and brown rich vegetable moulds are supposed to be
combined with a peculiar extractive matter, derived
from the decomposition of vegetables. Tliis matter
is slowly taken up by water, and appears to be one of
the chief causes of the fertility of the earth f .

Ejfccts rif the sub-soil Soils which repose immedi-

atel}' upon a stratum of rock or stone, become much
sooner dry by the process of evaporation, than when
the sub-soil is of clay or marl. The contiguity of the
rocky strata to the soil, is supposed to be one of the
principal causes of the remarkable fertility of the
land in the humid climate of Ireland. A sub-soil in
which clay predominates is sometimes highly bene-
ficial to a sandy soil, in aiding its deficient absorbent
power, and supplying the moisture v.hich is lost bj'
evaporation and the consumption of plants ; and, on

Soi'j.

* Elements of A|rricultu»l ChemistrTi p. 161.

t Ibid. 262.

AGRICULTUEE.

Ill

loils. the other hand, the excessive degree of absorbent
'"^•* power in a soil, is often corrected by a sub-soil of a
sandy or gravelly nature. In calcareous countries,
where the surface appears to be a species of marl,
the limestone is only a few inches from the soil ; but
the contiguity of the rjck impairs not its fertiiity,
although a less absorbent soil would, in such circum-
stances, be rendered sterile. This is finely exempli-
fied in the appearance of the sand-stone and lime-
stone hills in Derbyshire and North Wales during the
summer season ; the grass of the former usually exhi-
bits a brown and parched aspect, while the latter
are clothed with a rich verdant covering.

Plants indicate the nature of the soil The method

of judging of the nature of soil, Irom the growth and
character of plants, which is sometime had recourse
to by practical persons who have little knowledge of
botany, might, we apprehend, be greatly improved,
by more extensive and more accurate observation.
When plants, which are the natural ])roductions of a
good soil, appear in a healthy and flourishing state
in other situations, it may be concluded that there is
a near resemblance in the two soils. Thus, for ex-
ample, the thistle of different species is a mark of a
good soil; the dock grows in an inferior soil, of the
stiff kind ; the nettle prefers that of a dry, loamy de-
scription ; the common rush appears only in a wet,
cold clay soil ; the fox- glove [^digitalis j)urpjtrea'\ af-
fects a sandy and gravelly soil, and the common fern,
\^pteris aquilina~\ shoots up only from a deep rich
soil. It has been suggested, that a catalogue of such
plants as grow spontaneously in different situations,
might be useful in determining the fertility and pro-
perties of soils, in the same way that the period of
flowering in different climates denotes the tempera-
ture of the season. The growth and healthy aspect
of different kinds of forest trees, may be also em-
ployed as a pretty good test of the nature of the soil ;
and the sudden decline and decay of trees, particu-
larly oi Jruit trees, after thriving well for some time,
shew that the roots have reached a cold wet sub-soil,
which is unfriendly to healthy vegetation. The lux-
uriant growth of the quick thorn hedge, may be re-
garded as a certain indication of a good dry soil.

Sect. III. Of the Classification of Soils.

The different ingredients which enter into the com-
position of soil, and the great diversity of the pro-
portions of these ingredients, must obviously give rise
to an endless diversity of soils, which have been dis-
tinguished by various names, derived sometimes from
the supposed predominant material, sometimes from
the colour, and sometimes from the texture or cohe-
rence of the particles of v/hich they are composed. No
attempt which has yet been made to classify soils
can be considered as altogether unexceptionable ; and
perhaps a successful arrangement of this kind, if the
nature of the subject admit of it, is only to be ac-
complished in the progressive improvement of che-
mical science. But for practical purposes, the classi-
fication of soils which has been usually adopted,
may be considered as sufficiently precise. Soils have
been usually divided into clayey, loamy, chalky, gra-
velly, sandy, boggy, mossy, or peaty, and heathy or
moorish soils.

Clayey soils. — Clay is never found in a state of pu- of Soif».
rity in any soil, so that the name given to a soil of ^^,-y.^»l
this description must denote the predominance of
this ingredient, or the character which it communi-
cates to the soil. And. indeed it seems probable, that
some soils, which have the property of absorbing and
retaining moisture, or of becoming soft and ductile
with water, may derive this peculiar character from a
smaller proportion of clay than is usually supposed.
The clayej' soils of some districts, it has been ob-
served, are very fruitful and productive, while those
of others are extremely barren and unmanageable. In
such cases, a remarkable diversity in the nature or
proportions of the constituent parts must exist ; and
this, it is evident, must direct to different processes,
and different applications, for their improvement.
But whatever be the constitutien of a soil of this na-
ture, it invariably requires greater power, labour,
and attention, to bring it into a condition suitable for
improvement and the production of good crops than al-
most any other. Such soils, from their cohesive nature,
are usually barren. In wet seasons, the plants which
grow in such soils are chilled with excessive moisture,
and in dry seasons the tender roots are unable to
penetrate the solid ground. The vigorous appear-
ance of the vegetable productions of such a soil, af-
fords a pretty good proof of its fertility ; but if they
appear languid and stinted in their growth, the soil is
cold and barren. The thinner kinds of lands of this
description are almost universally poor, and such
land is ill adapted for the plough, either in winter or
summer ; for it cannot resist the alternatives of frost
and rain in winter ; and if it should be a wet season
before seed-time, the prospect of a crop is doubtful ;
and if ploughed late in spring, the whole depth of the
soil is parched during the dry season, and the grain
is depiived of nourishment. The end of February, or
the beginning of March, is the proper time for
ploughing such land.

Lnprovemeid of clayey soils. — Many of these soils
are capable of essential improvement by the judicious
application of manure, and a proper course of iia-
nagement. For the purpose of altering and iiij-.-c.v-
ing the texture of a clayey soil, limestone or marl is
found to be the most efficient substance. Gravel also
has been successfully applied in some cases, wi;h the
same view ; but where these mineral matters cannot
be obtained in sufficient quantity, a mixture of dung
and sand, and especially of sand from the sea shore,
greatly contributes to its fertility. Various other sub-
stances, such as composts of chalk and dung, tail-
ners' bark, and other materials, which are fancifully
supposed to promote a strong fermentation, have been
advantageously employed. Gravel from neighbouring
soils, sea or pit coal ashes, rubbish of old buildings,
nnd peat-ashes, arc useful ingredients in enriching
clayey soils. In cases where a c'ayey soil contains
little or no animal or vegetable matter, and when it
also appears to be equally deficient of calcareous
matter, a large proportion of dung is the requisite in-
gredient lor its improvement ; but where this cannot
be procured, a preparation of peat, with a moderate
proportion of lime, is the best application. But where
such means of improvement are wanting, the growth
of pasture grasses should be encouraged and promot-

112

AGRICULTURE.

Of Soili. ed, for the purpose of supplying it with the necessary
^ quantity of organised substances.

Loamy soils The niaterialsofwhich soils of this de-
scription are chieflyconvposed, areclay, chalk, sand,and
gravel, with variable proportions of organised matter.
Some of these soils are stiff and compact, while others
are loose and porous, and hence they have been dis-
tinguished by the names of heavy, stiff", and light
loams ; and, from the predominance ol the ingredi-
ents they have been denominated clayey loams, chalky
loams, sandy loams, and gravelly loams. The first of
these is a liioderately cohesive soil, in which the ar-
gillaceous material predominates. It has less cohe-
rence than pure clay, but greater than any other loamy
soil. The chalky loam is less cohesive than the for-
mer ; it is composed of clay, coarse sand, and chalk,
and the calcareous ingredient predominates. The
sandy loam is composed partly of coarse and partly
of fine sand, and is less cohesive than the two for-
mer. Gravelly loams, as the name imports, contain
a largL^r mixture of coarse sand or gravel, and, when
the soil happens to be shallow, this variety, as well as
tlie tuo last, come under the denomination of hungry
soil-^. Some of the light loams have been distinguish-
ed by the name oi' sharp lands.

Improvement of loamy soils. — Soils of this descrip-
tion are improved with greater facility, and at less
expense, than those of a clayey nature. Those of the
lieavier and more adhesive kinds, require a compost
of lime and dung, or lime in combination with ani-
mal matters, as ground bones and blood. Loams
near the banks of rivers, or the sea-coast, are usually
so fertile as to demand less aid from manure ; but, in
general, manure proper for such soils must be varied
according to the proportions of the ingredients they
contain, or the different degrees of their fertility.
Loamy soils, when properly managed, are capable of
yielding almost every kind of crop, and not only
those of the grain and root kind, but also pulse,
hemp, and flax.

Chalky soils. — Extensive tracts in some of the sou-
thern districts of England, are occupied with chalky
soils ; and here, as well as in others, a considerable
diversity prevails, both with regard to the thickness
and constituent parts of the soil itself, and the nature
of the subsoil. When the clayey and loamy ingre-
dients are predominant, the heavier kind of chalky
soils are formed ; but sand or gravel abounding,
constitutes the lighter chalky soils. When the quan-
tity of eatthy matter is small, and not reduced to the
state of perfect mould, the soil is poor and thin ; but
where the thickness of the superficial layer is consi-
derable, and the organized matter is almost entirely
decomposed, the soil is rich and heavy. When the
subsoil is compact, and blended with siliceous mat-
ter, it is less favourable to the fertility of the soil
than when it is of an open or brittle nature.

Improvement oj chalky ^ soils. — Vegetable matters,
deposited and accumulated in wet or swampy situa-
tions, are beneficially applied to the thinner or light-
er calcareous soils. The addition of sandy and clayey
loams to those of a heavier description, alters, and
greatly improves their texture, and the same good
effects are obtained from the use of composts of ve-
getable and animal matters, farm-yard manure, and

ashes, soot, and malt dust. The proper season for of SoiU.
breaking up such land should be particularly attend-
ed to ; for if the operation be deferred till dry wea-
ther, the soil becomes so hard as to be almost un-
manageable, till it be softened by the rain.

Gravelly soils Soils which come under this deno-
mination are very different, according to the nature
of the earthy matters which enter into their compo-
sition, and the size of the stony particles from which
they derive their characteristic property. These sto-
ny particles vary in magnitude, from the size of the
smallest pea to that of the egg of a pullet. When
they are larger, the soil is denominated a rocky soil.
Beds of gravel are chiefly composed of siliceous or
calcareous matters, while the rocky and stony sub-
stances are of different qualities. Li some cases, the
gravelly mixture has been found to approach nearly
to the surface, while, in others, it is at a considerable
distance below it. W^lere the stratum of gravel is
near the top, a full crop of broom covers the ground,
when the land is under grass ; and a crop of sheep
sorrel is equally abundant when it is in tillage. Some-
times springs are observed to burst out near the sur-
face, at other times they can only be discovered at a
great depth. A similar diversity prevails in the sub-
soil, consisting sometimes of rocky masses, and some-
times of clay, of rocky gravel, or sand. From the
porous nature of gravelly soils, they readily absorb
moisture, and with the same facility part with it,
from which it happens that, in dry seasons, they ex-
hibit a parched and withered aspect.

Improvements of gravelly soils. — The materials to be
added to gravelly soils of a calcareous nature, to in-
crease their fertility, are clay and clay loam. A mix-
ture of carbonate of lime or chalk, with claj', has al-
so appeared beneficial to such soils. Chalk is parti-
cularly recommended for those kinds of gravelly soil
which contiguity to springs is apt to render moist in
the winter season. The application of chalk is stat-
ed as having a powerful effect, not only in counter-
acting the redundant moisture, but in correcting the
tendency to become parched in the summer, an evil
to which most gravels are in some degree liable, and
which is often so injurious to the crop.

The defect of vegetable and animal matters is to
be supplied by means of dung from the farm-yard,
in its reduced state ; and much benefit is derived
from other animal matters, prepared in the form of
composts, with good loamy mould, ashes, clay, depo-
sitions of rivers and ponds, with other substances of
a similar nature. The proper alternation of green
vegetable, and other crops, also contributes greatly
to improve the fertility of such lands.

Sandy soils. — The varieties of soils of this descrip-
tion de[)end on the nature of the rocks from which
they derive their origin, and the different proportions
of other matters of which they are composed. In
gome districts, soils of this kind are found, varjing
from the lightest species of loam to the naked sand,
composed almost entirely of small siliceous particles ;
but the proportion of other earthy matters renders
them more or less favourable to vogotatiou. When
that proportion is nearly equal to the sand, the mix-
ture affords the heavier kinds of sandy soils ; but
when they are in smaller quantities, a light sandy soil

AGRICULTURE.

113

is formed ; and when composed entirely of siliceous
particles, it constitutes a loose blowing sand, usually
of a white or brownish appearance. The variety of
texture and composition in such soils, is closely con-
nected with the power of absorbing and retaining
heat and moisture.

Improvement of sandy soils. — The want of cohe-
rence is one of the chief defects of sandy soils. This
defect is supplied by the application of clay or loamy
substances ; and the other great defect, the want of
animal and vegetable matters, is to be supplied by
the free use of dung. For this purpose, clay and
loam, either alone or in the form of compost, with
animal and vegetable manure, or good mould, or peaty
earth, either alone or in combination witli other
substances, may be successfully employed. It is
scarcely necessary to add, that the proportion of in-
gredients to be applied, must correspond with the
quality of the soil to be improved. The treading of
sheep, folded upon sandy soils, has been found to in-
crease their tenacity and firmness, while the dung
and urine of these animals contribute much to their
fertility. The author of the Agricultural Report of
East Lothian, observes, that " considerable tracts of
this soil, formerly of little value, have been brought
under the plough, and made to produce excellent
crops of turnips, clover, barley, rye, &c. ; but the
most valuable improvement on this description of
soil has been made by laying it into grass, and treat-
ing it with top-dressings of diiferent kinds of soils,
which, when liberally applied, have, in not a few in-
stances, changed the appearance, and so much alter-
ed its nature, as to render it capable of bearing a
succession of valuable crops of grain."

Boggy soils. — Soils of this description chiefly exist
in low confined situations, are frequently met with
in Ireland, and sometimes in low meadows in the vi-
cinity of large ponds or lakes in this country. The
formation of these soils depends on the gradual de-
cay and deposition of the more luxuriant aquatic ve-
getables, and the stagnation of water, by which their
roots are destroyed and reduced to the state of earth ;
the state of putrefaction and decay to which the
plants have advanced, and the nature of the earthy
materials with which they are mixed, diversifyisg
their appearance with regard both to colour and tex-
ture. Sometimes the colour is of a lightish brown,
when the fibrous and ligneous matters have been but
slightly changed ; but when the process of decompo-
sition has proceeded farther, they become of a dark
or black colour.

Improvement of boggy soils. — Draining is the first
obvious practice in the improvement of such soils,
%vhile the application of chalk, gravel, sand, or shell-
marl, serves to bind and correct their texture. Par-
ing and burning has been sometimes employed with
advantage ; planting such vegetables as have spread-
ing roots, counteracts the excessive porousness of
boggy soils ; and flooding, where water is within
reach, has been successfully practised. Soils of this
description have been sometimes converted into mea-
dow pasture, with the best effects, when other means
of iniproveuieut had failed.

Mossy and peati/ soils. — Considerable tracts of
country in the northern parts of Britain, and in many

VOL. I. PART 1.

parts of Ireland, are covered with this kind of soil, of Soik
which varies in its qualities, according to the diversi- v^»>^^a^
ty and proportion of the ingredients which enter into
its composition. When the vegetable material is in
small proportion, the lighter kinds of peaty soil are
formed ; but when the peaty matter predominates, the
deep and heavy mossy soil appears. The peaty mat-
ter is of various depths, and of various densitj', aris-
ing, probably, from original difference in the vege-
table substances from which it was formed, or from
diiferent stages of its decomposition.

In many of the deep mossy districts, the subsoil is
of a clayey nature, over which the mossy matter is
deposited m a kind of stratified order. The first layer
is usually about a foot thick, and has the appearance
of a rich brown earth, from a mixture of the loamy
or clayey substance with the vegetable earth ; the
succeeding layer is of a dark colour, considerable
thickness, and of various degrees of density. The
uppermost stratum is of a pale colour, and a spongy
texture, arising from a less perfect state of decay.

Improvement of mossy soils. — To render mossy soils
productive, the first step is, to remove the redundant
water by proper draining. But certain precautions
are necessary in conducting this ofjeration ; for, when
the whole of the moisture is suddenly withdrawn, the
surface becomes so dry and hard as to resist the ac-
tion of the spade or plough. The draining, then,
must proceed gradually, and as much of what may
be called the natural moisture should remain in the
soil, till the necessary operations of tillage are com-
pleted, and the first crops have so far advanced as
to cover the ground, and protect the surface from
excessive evaporation.

Wlien moss rests on a good subsoil, and when wa-
ter can be procured in such quantity, a method of
improving such soils by floating away great part of
the mossy substance, has been successfully pursued.-
By this method, a great extent of most valuable land
in Blair-Drummond moss, in Perthshire, in Scotland,
has been completely reclaimed within the last 50
years, and is now covered with all kinds of luxuriant
crops.

But when the moss is shallow, and the inferior
soil of indifferent quality, after draining and forming
the surface into ridges, in such a way as to allow the
stagnant water to pass off, the next object is the ap-
plication of such substances as shall promote the en-
tire decomposition of the vegetable matter, and im-
prove the texture of the soil. With this view, quick-
lime, soapers waste, chalk, marl, shell sand, differ-
ent gravelly substances, sand, and coarse earthy mat-
ters, may be advantageously employed. When the
quantity of vegetable matter is abundant, and of
coarse quality, paring and burning may be an essen-
tial improvement; but the application of earthy rub-
bish produces powerful effects on such a soil. The «
species of crop raised on mossy soil, have no small
share in promoting their fertility. Plants, as the
turnip and potatoe, which have large leaves or
branching stems, cover the surface, preclude the ac-
tion of the air, and retain the necessary moisture.

Heathy or moory soils — This kincl of soil is of
great extent in different parts of the kingdom ; and _
although, in many of its characters, it is very di^fe- '
p

114

AGRICI3LTURE.

Mannres. rent from the preceding, it resembles it in some of
its properties. Two kinds of heatliy soil have been
described. The first is of a black, soft, porous na-
ture, is very absorbent, and the stones which are dis-
tributed on the surface have the remarkable appear-
ance of being bleached ; the process of disintegration
seems to be completely interrupted ; for they are al-
together destitute of the incipient vegetation which
is rarely absent from stones of a different quaUty, or
in a diftcrent situation. The most prominent quality
in this kind of soil is its unaccountable sterility. No
methods of improvement yet attempted have been
followed with success, or have brought any adequate
returns for the requisite labour and expence.

The second kind of moory soil presents very dif-
ferent characters. The vegetable remains are in a
dry state, intermixed with earth, have many of the
properties common to all vegetables, and, under pro-
per management, may be converted into fertile soil.
The stones on this kind of moor land have not the
bleached appearance, but resemble those which are
found in the best soils.

Improvement of heathy soils. — The proportion of
vegetable matter, and the depth of soils of this kind,
serve to direct to the proper means of improvement.
When the remains of heath and of other coarse plants
are abundant, and the thickness of the bed is consi-
derable, paring and burning may prove the most ef-
fectual process in the operation, in reclaiming them ;
but when the soil is shallow, and the quantity of ve-
getable matter deficient, other means must be adopt-
ed. In many cases, quicklime, which destroys the
coarse herbage, and promotes the growth of pasture
grasses of a superior quality, is highly beneficial.
Marl <Jf different kinds may be also applied, with
much advantage, to soils of this description. Such
soils are also susceptible of great improvement by
the application of animal and vegetable matters, as
dung and the mud of ponds, in the form of earthy
composts, as well as by a judicious alternation of
grain iuid green crops.

Chap. IV, Of Manures.

When land, however rich and fertile it may be,
is continued under', a course of cropping, without
receiving any addition to the soil, it soon becomes
less productive, or, in common language, it is ex-
hausted. The value of tlie produce is at last so
greatly diminished, as to afford no compensation for
the expence of tillage ; and no management can in-
crease it, or restore the fertility of the soil, without
the application of certain matters, which are well
known by the name of »)M««res. Manures, then, are
substances artificially r.iixed with the soil, for the
purpose of increasing its diminished fertility. Tlie
eifects of m^inure may refer either to the improve-
ment of the texture of the soil, or to the supply of
those matters which constitute the food of plants,
to the correction of noxious ingredients in the soil,
or to the increase of the usefulness of such as alrea-
dy exist in it..

The substances which have been usually employed
for the purpose of manures', are either of a mineral,
.vegetable, or aniraafnature, certain saline substances,
1

and compounds, formed of two or more of these sub- Minurei,
st.ances. They have been divided into earthy, pu-
trescent, or putrescible, saline, and compost manures.
The nature and properties, with the preparation and
application of these substances, shall be treated of
in the four following sections.

Sect. I. OfEarlhij Manures.

The earthy matters which have been employed as
manures, are, calcareous earth, clay, sand, loam, &c.

1. Calcareous earth.

Calcareous earth, either united with other sub-
stances, or in an uncombined state, is extensively
applied to the improvement of land ; and in many
cases it is one of the most essential ingredients that
can be mixed with the soil. It is used in the state
of quicklime, or lime, combined with an acid in the
form of carbonate, as limestone, chalk, sea-shells,
or that of sulphate or gypsum, and blended with
other earthj' bodies, as in the different varieties of
marl.

Lime.

Lime, as it exists in nature, is always in a state
of combination, and by far the most common com-
pound is that of carbonate, in which it is united
with carbonic acid, under the well-known forms of
limespar, marble, limestone ; and in lime-spar, and
the purer kind of marbles, the carbonate of lime
is almost the sole constituent ; but in limestone,
the mineral from which lime, for the purposes of
agriculture and of cement, is derived, is rarely free
from a certain portion of clay and siliceous earth,
and sometimes it is contaminated with metallic mat-
ters.

When limestone is subjected to strong heat, the
carbonic acid with which it is combined is driven off,
and it is found to have lost a portion of its weight
equal to the elastic fluid which has escaped. When
the burnt mass is exposed to a moist air, it absorbs
water, swells, and falls down into a powder, which is
lime, or quick-lime, more or less pure according to
the purity of the limestone. But the limestone,
when it is reduced to this powdery state by calcina-
tion and the absorption of moisture, has acquired
new properties. Limestone, in the state of the finest
powder, has no perceptible effect on animal or vege-
table matters, but quick lime is acrid and corrosive ;
and this is the foundation of the distinctive charac-
ters of lime in the two states, under the denomina-
tion of mild and caustic. By the calcination of lime-
stone, the object of which is to separate the carbo-
nic acid, it is deprived of from seven to eight parts
out of twenty of its weight, or from 3j to 40 per
cent., and when it is very pure the loss of weight is
nearly equal to one-half the weight of the stone ;
but it is obvious that this lo.ss of weight must vary
according to the variable proportions of other earths.
When water is gradually added to fresh burnt lime,
great heat is produced, and the water enters into
combination with the earth, which is called the
slaking of lime, in which process it combines with
about one-third of its weight of water.

Analysis oflimestorU As common limestones ha\»

AGBICULTUHE.

115

Manure.', very cliRerent degrees of purity, it is obviously of
>_i -a^' great importance to ascertain the quantity o*' calca-
reous matter wliich enters into their composition. In
general, it may be observed, that the greater the
loss of weight which they sustain in burning, the
greater is the proportion of pure lime. A pretty ac-
curate comparative estimate may be made of the
quantity of calcareous matter in any limestone, by
observing, first, how much diluted nitric or muriatic
acid is required for the complete saturation of a de-
terminate portion of a specimen of the purest lime-
stone ; and, secondly, by ascertaining how much of
the limestone to be examined will saturate an equal
portion of the same acid. If, in the latter case, a
double quantity is found necessary, then the stone
contains only half the quantity of the calcareous
earth which is in combination with the purer speci-
men. The comparative purity of different limestones
may be also estimated, by dissolving a small portion
of the stone to be examined in muriatic acid, and
observing the quantity of undissolved matter, if any
remain, and the smaller the proportion of residue
which is not acted upon by the acid the greater is
the proportion of calcareous matter contained in the
limestone. A simpler and more obvious test is ge-
nerally had recourse to by practical agriculturists,
which consists in the comparative measurement of
the burnt limestone in the unslaked state, and of
the lime in the state of powder after it is slaked,
the latter being three times the quantity of the for-
mer, when the limestone is of a good quality.

But a more accurate method of analysis may be
pursued, according to the following process : Dis-
solve a determinate portion of the limestone in twice
its weight of muriatic acid, diluted with double its
bulk of water; filter the liquid, and add a solution
of carbonate of potash till the effervescence ceases,
and till the taste and smell indicate the excess of
the latter salt. The precipitate is carbonate of lime,
which, being collected on the filter,*is to be dried at
a heat below that of redness. Boil the remaining
fluid for fifteen minutes ; and if any magnesia exist
in solution, it falls down in the form of carbonate,
when, by similar treatment, its quantity may be as-
certained. If any alumina should be dissolved by
the acid, it may be detected in the precipitate with
the carbonate of lime, by boiling for a few minutes
with soap-ley, which dissolves alumina, but has no
action upon carbonate of lime.

As carbonate of limo contains a determinate pro-
portion of carbonic acid, which amounts to about 43
per cent., when the amount of this elastic fluid, ob-
tained during the solution of its calcareous matter in
an acid, is known, the quantity of carbonate of lime
is easily ascertained. If two parts of the acid, and
one part of the mineral, be weighed in two separate
bottles, and if they are slowly mixed together till all
effervescence ceases, the difference between their
weight before and after the experiment indicates
the quantity of carbonic acid lost ; and for every
four grains and a quarter of loss of weight, ten grains
of carbonate of lime are to be estimated.

The bulk of carbonic acid given out by a determi-
nate portion of carbonate of lime, is estimated, by an
ingeniousapparatus, described by Sir Humphry Davy.

The limestone to be exareined is introduced into a Winurei.
bottle with two orifices ; a bottle for containing the v^^y*""^
acid, and furnished with a stop-cock, is fitted by
grinding to the upper orifice. From the orifice in
the side proceeds a glass tube, to the end of which
a flaccid bladder is fixed, which is introduced into
another vessel filled with water, and to the side of
this vessel is fixed a spout. When the acid comes
in contact with the limestone, the carbonic acid»
which is driven off, is received into the bladder, and
displaces a quantity of water equal to its own bulk.
This water is received into a graduated measure,
that the amount may be ascertained ; and for every
ounce measure, two grains of carbonate of lime are
to be estimated.

Magnesian limestone. — The constituent parts and
action of magnesian limestone on the soil, are very
different from those of the common limestone. This
variety is very abundant in some of the northern and
midland districts of England; and, from its active na-
ture, it is distinguished by the name of hot lime. The
colour of this stone is usually pale yellow or brown.
It effervesces very slowly in acids, and communicates
a milky appearance to diluted nitric acid. The com-
ponent parts of this limestone are from 20 to 22 of
magnesia ; from 29 to 31 of lime ; about 47 of car-
bonic acid ; and a small portion of clay and oxide of
iron.

Burning lime. — In the preparation of lime by cal-
cination or burning, a good deal of attention is ne-
cessary to the nature of the stone employed. And
here the aid of chemistry, in ascertaining its consti-
tuent parts, might be highly beneficial. It is stated
by Sir Humphry Davy, that one bushel of coal is,
in general, sufficient to make four or five bushels of
lime ; but the proportion of the fuel and the product
must vary according to the nature of both. It ap-
pears, that the magnesian limestone requires less fuel
than common limestone. In burning the less pure
limestones, or those which contain a large propor-
tion of alumina or sand, the management of the fire
must be particularly attended to ; for a heat of too
great intensity produces a vitrified mass. Good lime
is obtained at a low red heat ; but if the fire be rais-
ed to a white heat, the mineral melts into a glass.
The purity of common limestones, it has been already
noticed, may be estimated by their loss of weight in
burning ; for the quantity of calcareous matter cor-
responds with the loss of weight. If the limestone
is not apt to run, or become vitrified in burning — ^if
the calcined stone or shells be extremely light, and
require a great deal of water to slake them fully — if
it swell much in slaking, and if the lime be light, fine
to the touch, and of a pure white — it may be safely
concluded that the lime is of a good quality. The
magnesian limestones, when subjected to calcina-
tion, lose more than half their weight.

Soils requiring lime. — The soils which are essen-
tially improved by the use of lime, are such as are
denominated cold, stiff soils, as strong clays and deep
loams, or such as are combined with a large propor-
tion of vegetable matter, but contain no portion
of calcareous earth in their composition. Lime may be
regarded as of singular advantage in all soils and situ-
ations, excepting on thin loams, sandy soils, or those

116

AGRICULTURE.

Minures. wliicli are already replete with that earth. To
ascertain whether any calcareou* matter exist in a
soil, recourse may be had to a very simple experi-
ment, proposed by Mr Young. Let a small quanti-
ty of the soil to be examined be collected by going
over the field, and taking up from different parts of
it a few grains with the finger and thumb. The
whole being put together, and introduced into a
wine-glass, add first a little water, and after stirring
it, and allowing any air tliat may adhere to the par-
ticles of earth to escape, pour on a little muriatic
acid ; if no effervescence take place, the soil may be
accounted destitute of lime.

Apjilkation of lime. — Considerable diversity of
opinion prevails with regard to the time and circum-
Ktances of the soil in which lime should be applied.
In whatever way lime operates, whether by its me-
chanical effects on the soil, altering and improving
its consistence and texture, or by certain chemical
changes on the organized matter in the soil, or on
its vegetable productions, by which they are render-
ed more healtliy and vigorous, one of the first ob-
jects in its application is its equal and uniform dis-
tribution, that it may be brought into contact with
overy part of the soil on which it is to operate. But
with all our improvements in rural economy, in many
parts of the country, at the present day, no work is
performed in a more slovenly and imperfect manner.
To insure this equal distribution, the lime must be
in the form of powder, and in as dry a state as pos-
sible. For this purpose the calcined stones should
be laid together in considerable heaps ; and as they
absorb moisture from the earth or atmosphere, they
gradually swell and fall to pieces. But in case
this process of spontaneous slaking, as it may be
called, should not go on with sufficient rapidity, it
may be promoted by throwing water on the heap.
Too much water must be avoided ; or, in case of
heavy rains before the lime is spread out on the
field, it has been very properly recommended to co-
ver up the heaps to prevent it from running together
into clots, or forming a kind of mortar. Might it
not be suggested as a useful and convenient method,
for the equal application of lime, to mix it carefully
with a quantity of dry earth ; and if earth of a dif-
ferent kind from the soil to be improved could be
easily obtained, the increased value of the compost,
in contributing to the fertility of the land, would un-
doubtedly be an ample compensation for the addi-
tional labour ? But perhaps the smaller quantity of
lime which might be necessary in consequence of
its more equal distribution, might, in some measure,
counterbalance the extraordinary expense.

When lime is to be applied to land in fallow, a dry
season should be selected, when the surface is in
proper condition for its reception; and as much in-
convenience and some injury arise to men and horses
when this work is performed in windy weather, which
also renders it difficult to spread the lime equally, a
day should be preferred when a moderate breeze
prevails, which, m some degree, assists in its uniform
distribution. All the operations of tillage, after the
application of lime, should be conducted when the
soil is perfectly dry ; and, to prevent the horses' feet
from being corroded, they should not come in contact

with water till the lime is brushed off; but in case Mtnures.
of accidents, from its acrid effects, to men or horses, v^»^>^
washing the part affected with sour-milk or whey
is an effectual remedy ; and the longer the milk or
whey is kept the better it answers the purpose. Vi-
negar or stale urine is recommended as a substitute.
As lime cannot produce its effects without being
intimately mixed with the soil, the time and condi-
tion of the land when this object can be fully attain-
ed, require attentive consideration. But on this point
great diversity of opinion prevails. The most gene-
ral rule that can be given for the application of lime,
is, that the soil which is to receive it should be as
dry as it can be made, and in as complete a state of
division as can be accomplished by the operations of
tillage. The dry season of the year, it is obvious, is
the most suitable for the strict observation of this
rule ; for then the soil is in the best condition, and
the operations alluded to are best performed. The
spring, summer, and autumn months, when the wea-
ther is favourable, are the most proper for this kind
of work.

Another general rule to be observed in the use of
lime, is, that it should be mixed with that part of the
soil which is nearest to the surface. The most pro-
per time for its application, then, seems to be at the
conclusion of the operations for fallowing, when all
that is necessary, after it is equally spread, is a slight
harrowing, or, if ploughing be required, it should be
performed with a very shallow furrow, that the lime
may not be buried too deep. With the same view of
retaining this manure near the surface, lime is advan-
tageously applied to lands destined for turnips, wheat,
and other crops, immediately before the insertion of
the seed, so that a moderate harrowing is the only
operation that remains to be performed. Repeated
ploughlngs are recommended by some, for the pur-
pose of mixing the lime laid on fallow intimately
with the soil ; but there is some risk of part of it be-
ing carried beyond the reach of vegetation ; and the
same effect seems to follow when lime is laid on grass
lands which are to be broken up ; for the lime is car-
ried to the bottom of the furrow ; and its beneficial
effects, if they are ever so powerful, are not experi •
enced till it be again turned up by the plough in the
operations for succeeding crops.

When lime is to be employed as a top-dressing for
pasture-lands, it should be applied early In the spring
or autumn, rather than in summer or wmter ; because
in a dry summer the grass is apt to be burnt up, and
in winter the effects of the lime are supposed to
be diminished by frost. The same rule is perhaps
equally applicable to the use of lime on moorland
pastures.

ylpplicatio7i a second time irijuriojis. — When the ef-
fects of lime have disappeared. It might at first sight
be expected, that a repetition of the dose would be
equally beneficial, in restoring the exhausted fertility
of the soil, witJi the first ajiplicatlon. But, from very
general experience, it appears, that unmixed lime
added a second time to the same soil, even after an
interval of many years, is injurious to vegetation ;
and hence it seems to be an established rule, in all
cases where the use of lime seems to be indicated, to
apply it in smaller proportion, and always in the form ~

AGRICULTURE.

117

of compost with dung. This practice is higlily ad-
vantageous.

Qjiantitij of lime. — No precise rules can be given
for the quantity of this manure which should be
applied to any particular soil ; it seems indeed to
be more regulated by accident, or by vague opinion,
than by any fixed principle. It appears to be a pret-
ty general notion, that light, sandy, or loamy soils,
require a smaller proportion than stiff clays ; but in
no case is the determinate quantity accurately ascer-
tained. From this unsettled practice, it may be ex-
pected that the quantity of lime used as manure
is extremely variable, and perhaps often regulated by
its abundance in the district, or the expense at which
it can be procured. The quantity of lime employed
in different parts of the kingdom, and on different
soils, varies from one hundred to five and six hun-
dred, and even to a thousand bushels, for the Eng-
lish statute acre. But from an hundred to an hun-
dred and fifty bushels are stated to be the average
quantity commonly employed throughout the king-
dom. In the Peak of Derbyshire, from three hun-
dred and sixty to one thousand bushels are applied
to the heath and moorlands, by which they are con-
verted into excellent pastures. But, as it has been
justl}' observed by Dr Coventry, that an excessive
quantity, or an over-dose of lime, does not appear to
have been in any case injurious, yet it is not bene-
ficial, and is therefore to be considered as a useless
expenditure.

The beneficial effects of a small quantity of lime
in the improvement of hilly or outfield land, are ful-
ly illustrated in the practice of the late Mr Dawson,
one of the most intelligent and judicious farmers in
the south of Scotland. A few years after 1754, Mr
Dawson wished to lime some outfield land in fallow,
previously to laying it down in pasture. A sufficient
quantity of lime, which was supposed necessary for
the whole, could not be obtained in proper time ; but
observing the effects of fine loam on the surface of
similar soil, he was induced to try the effects of a
small quantity on the surface of the fallow, instead
of a larger quantity ploughed down. Twenty acres
were well harrowed in the autumn ; after which, a-
bout 56 Winchester bushels of unslaked lime were,
after being slaked, carefully spread, and immediately
well harrowed in ; and in three or four days after-
wards the land was again harrowed, to mix complete-
' ly with the soil those pieces of the lime which were
slowly reduced to powder. In this state the land re-
mained during the winter. In the spring it was sown
with oats, with white and red clover, and rye-grass
seeds, and well harrowed, without ploughing. The
crop of oats was abundant; the grass grew luxu-
riantly, and continued to be a fine pasture, until it
was broken up some years afterwards for a corn
crop.

A similar experiment made twelve years afterwards
by the same agriculturist on another hilly farm, af-
fords a farther illustration of this excellent practice.
Many parts of the land were too steep and elevated
for tillage, although the soil had a tolerable depth of
earthy mould. The lands were greatly exhausted by

cropping, and were full of couch grass. They were Manurtj.
fallowed ; received the same quantity of lime ; were
harrowed, and sown with oats and grass-seeds in the
spring : As in the former case, the oats were a full
crop, and the herbage plants were abundant. Some
of these fields were more than thirty years in pas-
ture, and were still clothed with white clover and
other excellent grasses, without the appearance of
bent or fog. But the comparative view which ig
given of this experiment, merits particular notice.
More than three times the quantity of lime was laid
upon adjoining fields of a similar soil ; but, being
more calculated for tillage, the lime was ploughed
in. Oats and grass seeds were also sown on these
fields, which, during the first year, were covered
with a fine pasture ; but afterwards the bent spread
so rapidly, that, in the course of three years, it was
more abundant than the finer grasses.

The following practical inferences, drawn from Mr
Dawson's experience in the use of lime and dung, are
highly important.

1. That animal dung, dropt upon coarse benty
pastures, produces scarcely any improvement ; and
that when sheep or cattle are folded, as they are con-
fined to a small space, their dung, after a few years,
has no effect, whether the land be in pasture or til-
lage.

2. That when land of this description is well fal-
lowed and dunged, but not limed, the produce of
the grain crop, and of grass for two or tliree years, is
improved, but afterwards the effects entirely disap-
pear.

3. That when this land is limed, if the lime be kept
on the surface, or well mixed with it, and then laid
down to pasture, the finer grasses spring up and
thrive, even in high and exposed situations, to the
exclusion of coarse herbage, for many years. In one
of the experiments mentioned above, the pasture had
continued of a good quality for more than thirty
years.

4. That when a large quantity of lime is applied
to such land, and ploughed down deep, the same if-
fects do not follow, either with regard to the peniui-
nency of good pasture, or the fertility of the soil un-
der tillage. On the contrary, unless the surface be
well mixed with lime, the coarse grasses in a few
years cover the soil, and the land is not enriched for
future tillage by pasturing with cattle.*

Magncsian lime. — This variety of lime has been
long used in those parts of England where it is a-
bundant ; but it was found, from general experience,
that when it was employed in the same quantity with
common lime, it injured the crops for many years.
The cause of this remarkable diversity in the effects
of lime were not discovered till 1800, when Mr Ten-
nant examined this species of limestone, and found
that it contained magnesian earth, which, when em-
ployed in large quantities in its caustic state, is hurt-
ful to vegetation. From this circumstance it has
been called hot lime. The quantity employed with
good effect is from 25 to 30 bushels for each acre ;
and when the land is rich, and contains a large pro-
portion of vegetable matter, it may be employed iu

• Farmers' Magazine, vol. xiii.

118

AGRICULTURE.

larger quantities. But when the magnesia is in its
mild state, or in that of carbonate, it seems to be an
useful ingredient in the constitution of soils. The soil
oftlie Lizard Downs, in Cornwall, which bear a short
and green grass, which is an excellent pasture for
sheep, and, when under tillage, produces the best
corn in the country, contains mild niagnesian earth.

Effects and operation of lime. — The effects of lime
in improving the texture of the soil, and in contribu-
ting to its fertility, are so well known as scarcely to
require any elucidation. It has been stated, indeed,
that the improvement of a stiff soil by the use of lime,
is such, that the saving of labour is almost a full
compensation for the expcncc. The effects of lime
ai'e observed, not only in increasing the quantity of
the produce, but also in improving its quality. Those
who are accustomed to deal in wheat, entertain the
opinion, that the husk or skin is thinner when it grows
on land which has been limed, that is, that it yields
a larger proportion of fiour, and of better quality.
It seems also to be a well established fact, that no
kind of pease succeeds well, even on the richest and
best manured soils, without the use of lime. The
pease vegetate, and for sometime grow vigorously,
but btfore they begin to ripen they become blighted,
usually die away entirely before the pod is formed,
and but rarely produce a few half formed peas ; but
when lime has been applied to the soil, an abundant
crop of full formed pease is obtained. The same fact
has been noticed in the southern counties of Scot-
land, particularly in the Galawater district. It has
been observed, that the soil, however richly manur-
ed, without lime, throws up a profusion of straw in
the corn and pease crops, but the grain is extremely
deficient. This is completely remedied by the use
of lime. The luxuriance of the straw is checked,
and the seed, whether grain or pulse, becomes full
and plump. In the same district, observation has
established another important fact. It appears that
one-third, and, in some cases, only one-fifth of the
quantity of lime employed in other parts of the coun-
try, produce as powerful effects as the larger propor-
tion. But perhaps it is more equally spread, or other-
wise more carefully managed, in consequence of the
great .expense attending a long land carriage.

But although the eft'ects of lime be obvious and
certain, its mode of operation is yet a secret. Nu-
merous speculations have been indulged on this sub-
ject ; but till chemistry and physiology shall have
made farther advances in unfolding the changes which
take place in the soil, and in developing some of the
secrets of the vegetative process, we must consider
the whole as doubtful conjecture.

In the following remarks by Sir Humphry Davy,
an attempt is made to explain the operation of lime
in fertilizing the soil : " When lime, whether freshly
burnt or slaked, is mixed with any moist vegetable
matter, there is a strong action between the lime and
the vegetable matter, and they form a kind of com-
post together, of which a part is usually soluble
in water. By this kind of operation, lime renders
matter, which was before inert, nutritive ; and as
charcoal and oxygen abound in all vegetable matters,

it becomes at the same time converted into carbonate
of lime.

" Mild lime, powdered limestone, marls, and chalk,
have no action of this kind upon vegetable matter ; by
their action they prevent the too rapid decojnposi-
tion of substances already dissolved, but they have
no tendency to form soluble matters. It is obvious,
from these circumstances, that the operation of quick
lime and marl, or chalk, depends upon principles al-
together different. Quick lime, in being applied to
land, tends to bring any hard vegetable matter that
it contains into a state of more rapid decomposition
and solution, so as to render it a proper food for
plaiUs. Chalk and marl, or carbonate of lime, will
only improve the texture of the soil, or its relation
to absorption ; it acts merely as one of its earthy in-
gredients ; quick lime, when it becomes mild, oper-
ates in the same manner as chalk, but, in the act of
becoming mild, it prepares soluble out of insoluble
matter. It is upon this circumstance tliat the oper-
ation of lime, in the preparation for wheat crops, de-
pends, and its efficacy in fertilizing peats, and in
bringing into a state of cultivation all soils abound-
ing ii\ hard roots, or dry fibres, or inert vegetable
matter.*

Chalk.

Chalk is also a carbonate of lime, usually in a state
of greater purity than common limestone. The pro-
portion of clay, or siliceous earth, with which it is .
combined, is in general very small. Chalk, from the
slight degree of coherence among its particles, is light,
porous, and easily reduced to powder. These pro-
perties render it valuable as a manure in the southern
counties of England, where it abounds. Its effects
must be in a great measure similar to those of the other
calcareous matters in the same state of combination.
It answers well for deep soils, and thin poor clays ; but
when employed on light soils, the usual mode of ap-
plication is in the form of compost with dung, either
as fallow for wheat, or as a top-dressing on grass,
from which the moss, rushes, and other coarse plants,
where previous draining has been performed, are soon
banished.

Mode of application. — Chalk is sometimes burned,
and then it is in the state of quick lime ; but when it
is employed unburnt, it should be reduced to small
pieces, an operation of no great difficulty when it is
dug from the pit about the end of autumn, and im-
mediately afterwards laid on the land. From its po-
rous nature it readily absorbs moisture, which freez-
ing in the winter, causes the mass to swell and fall to
pieces. It has been stated, that chalk applied to the
soil, in excessive proportion, may prove injurious ;
but the remark surely proceeds from inaccurate ob-
servation, for the effects of chalk arc not more pow-
erful than those of lime ; and it has been mentioned,
from good authority, that an overdose of the latter
is not prejudicial.

Sea Shells.

Shells, or the covering of testaceous animals, are
composed of carbonate of lime and a portion of ani-

Manures.

Agricultural Cfiemittry, p. 377.

AGRICULTURE.

119

Manures, mal matter, ingredients which must render tliem
liighly beneficial as a manure. Extensive beds of
broken sea shells are found on the shores of the o-
cean, in different parts of the kingdom, and ai'e valu-
able sources of excellent manure to all soils which
require lime in its mild state. When shells are burnt,
their effects are similar to quick lime. Oj'ster and
mussel shells in their fresh state are frequently spread
on land, and are found to produce very beneficial ef-
fects. Might it not be an improvement in their
mode of application, to have them bruised or pound-
ed, by which both the calcareous and animal ingre-
dients in their composition would be sooner incorpor-
ated with the soil?

Marl.

*

Marl is of great use as a manure where limestone
and fuel are scarce or liigh priced. According to
its composition or consistence, it is distinguished by
different names, as clay-marl, slone-marl, slate-man,
shell-marl.

Clay-marl has some resemblance to clay, of which
it often contains a considerable proportion, and it
readily absorbs water. Stone-marl derives its name
from its hardness, and is less soluble in water than
the preceding. Slate-marl is of a laminar structure,
is of an intermediate consistence between the two
former varieties, and is not of a very absorbent quali-
ty. Shell-marl is distinguished by the shells in dif-
ferent stages of disintegration with which it is inter-
mixed, and the slighter cohesion of its parts. This
kind of marl is found deposited in places which have
been covered with water, and the shells appear to be-
long to fresh water animals.

The value of marl as a manure depends chiefly on
the proportion of calcareous matter v.ith which it is
combined. This may be discovered by the process
already described in the analysis of limestone, and it
is of some importance to ascertain the proportion of
its constituent parts, if it be any object to apply a
determinate quantity of calcareous matter to the soil
to be improved. Some shell-marl has been found to
contain 84 per cent, of carbonate of lime, along with
some vegetable remains, v/hich renders it peculiarly
valuable as a manure. Marl is highly beneficial to
certain soils which have lime in their composition
naturally, or to which it has been formerly, applied,
by improving their texture and increasing their
thickness, with the addition of the clay and other
earths which it contains. It is particularly recom-
mended for grass lands on a thin gravelly soil, in ele-
vated situations where wild or sheeps sorrel abounds.
The use of marl in different parts of England is very
extensive. In Norfolk and Suffolk the quantity a))-
plied to light sandv soil is from 50 to 70 cubical yards
tlie acre ; and in tne Isle of Man, clay-marl, to the
amount of 200 tons for each acre, is employed.

Gypsum. '

The use of Gypsum as a manure was first propos-
ed by a German clergyman about the year 1 7G8 ;
since that time it has been extensively, and it is
said most advantageously employed in America ;
but the result of experiments made in this coun-
try scarcely warrants the high commendation which

it has received. Gypsum is a compound of sul- Manures,
phuric acid and lime. It is better known by the '^m- -k^'
name of plaster of Paris. In some accounts of ■
the remarkable effects of this substance in fertilizing
the soil and improving the crop in America, it is
stated, that the lands on which this wonderful change
is produced are situated at the distance of 80 or 90
miles from the sea ; and it is supposed, on the ground
of doubtful speculation, that the benefit derived from
gypsum as a manure in this country, may be counter-
acted by the muriatic acid and soda, or common salt
in sea air, preventing or retarding its decomposition,
or entering into new combinations with its elements,
unfavourable to vegetation.

Qiianfify. — The quantity of gypsum employed in
this country is from six to eight bushels per acre ;
and it has been stated, that it might be beneficial to
turnips in dry seasons, to the amount of two bushels
only for the acre, when the crop is in drills.

2. Clay.

Clay is sometimes advantageously employed in
improving the texture and consistence of the soil,
and particularly n light kind of sandy soil, which
seems to be deficient in that earth. The quantity
must be regulated by the nature of the soil to which
it is applied, and the time recommended for its ap-
plication is in the summer and autumn months, or
before the winter frosts set in, that it may be broken
down and well incorporated with the soil.

Burnt Clay.

The use of burnt clay as a manure has been long
known in this country. It was communicated by Lord
Cathcart to the Scottish Agricultural Society which
existed before the middle of the 18th century. It was
employed in the form of compost, in the year 1786,
by Mr Arbuthnot, near Peterhead, in Scotland ; by
Mr Parsons, near Sherborne, in England, in 1794 ;
by Mr Buckley, near Loughborough, in 1796; and it
has been lately brought forward in the south of Scot-
land as a new discovery from Ireland. In the year
alluded to, Mr Parsons burnt 1600 loads at lea: r. in
one week, and not less than 500 loads in a single
heap. The expense did not exceed If d. per load, and .
it proved a powerful and permanent manure to a cold
retentive clay soil.

Preparation. — The mode of preparing and using
this manure is thus described by Lord Cathcart, in a
letter dated 1756 : " Another piece of improvement
which I had from the Earl of Halifax, is that of
burning clay. Wherever he meets with heaps of clay
in his grounds that have been raised when there
has been occasion to make ponds or things of that
kind, or when he has occasion to take out clay or
mud out of the bottom of ponds, lakes, or ditches,
all this he burns in this manner. He takes a long
stretch of green ground nearest to the heaps. This
stripe of ground he pares. The turfs are set up to
dry ; which being gathered into heaps at a good dis-
tance one from another, serve for kindling of the cla^
and mud. The driest of the clay is first laid on the
kindling, and when that is well in fire, men con-
tinue to add of the clay and mud, even wet as they
are out of the ponds or ditches, to the kindled heapsj

120

AGRICULTURE.

Manures, till the quantity is burned. In September or Octo-
ber the ashes are led out, at the rate of forty tons to
an acre of the poorest grass, and spread immediate-
ly, so as to have the winter rains wash them in. My
Lord reckons the charge of managing one acre in
this fashion costs him 15s. Last year, that acre that
formerly was not worth half-a-crown, produced him at
the rate of two loads and a-half of hay, which was
worth 50s."(

The method of burning clay recommended by
Mr Parsons, is the following : In the month of
3Iarch, trenches about 3 feet deep, and 2\ wide,
with small ones 18 inches deep, and I'i wide, are
formed in the ground to be improved. The turf or
surface-soil is first taken off, and equally spread on
the ground ; but the clay dug out is laid in heaps by
the sides of the trenches to dry. The burning com-
mences in May ; a few loads of the worst clay are
employed as a circular floor or foundation, about a
foot thick, to prevent the burning of the surface of
the earth under the heap. Three or four large billets
of wood are placed upright in the middle of the floor,
and leaning against each other; and round these, and
over the whole floor, small faggots and brushwood
are intermixed, and raised to the height of about 6
feet. Construct a turf wall, at least 3 feet thick, a-
round the heap of wood, and of the same height ;
three or four openings about 2 feet wide and 2 feet
high, and at equal distances, are formed over the bot-
tom of the kiln, by placing three or four sticks across
the top of each ; throw a quantity of dry turf on the
top of the pile, and then kindle the fire with wisps of
straw at all the openings, and when the whole pile
is on fire shut up the vent holes with turf. Supply
the heat with the necessary quantity of turf and clay,
which is to be regulated by the smoke emitted. When
it is abundant, an addition of clay is required, but
when dinriinished, air must be admitted by forcing a
sharp stake through the crown of the heap. When
the heap is raised to a convenient height, and the fire
has nearly' reached the top, rake down the red-hot
ashes, and cover them immediately with turf. Before
the sod-wall is entirely consumed, it must be replaced
by a new one, which confines the heap, and by often
pulling it almost flat, prevents its burning too fast.
A heap of 60 or 70 feet in circumference, produces
500 loads of ashes. The fire must be carefully watch-
ed at all times. Sometimes it burns so fast, that the
labour of five or six men is required to supply it with
clay. A dry season is the most suitable for this kind
of work ; but a wet season only retards it a little, for
large fires, after two or three days burning, are not ex-
tinguished by rain; and the ashes are of a superior quali-
ty when the process of calcination is slow and'gradual.
The method of \)urning clay, as it is practised by
Mr Craig at Cally, in Galloway, is to form an oblong
inclosure of 15 feet by 10, of green turf sods, and
raised to the height of three or i'our feet. In the in-
side of the inclosure, air pipes, communicating with
openings at each corner of the wall, are drawn dia-
gonally, and formed of sods, placed on edge, and of
such a width as can be easily covered with another
sod. A fire is kindled with wood and dry turf in the
spcaes between the air-pipes and the outer wall. The
whole kiln is then filled with dry turf, and when it is

well kindled, the clay is thrown upon it in small
quantities. The pipe on the weather side of the kiln
only is kept open ; the other three being closed up,
unless it should be necessary, from a change of wind,
to re-open one of them. As the kiln is filled with
clay, the outer wall must be gradually raised, and
kept at least 18 inches higher than the top of the
clay, to protect the fire from the action of the wind.
When any breach is made in the outer wall by burn-
ing, it must be immediately repaired. The wall may
be raised to any convenient height for throwing on
the clay, and the kiln may be increased to any size
by forming a new wall on the outside. Some of the
kilns constructed by Mr Craig, afforded more than
100 loads of ashes. The proper management ,of a
kiln of this descriptlbn, depends on the exclusion of
the air by the outer walls, and the attention that is
given to have the top always lightly but completely
covered with clay. The masses of clay are of various
sizes, some as large as a man's head ; and it burns
better by being dried for a day or two before it be
thrown on the kiln.

Effects and quantity used. — In a comparative expe-
riment, by Mr Craig, of raising turnips by means of
stable-dung and clay-ashes, the crop in the ground
manured with the ashes sprung earlier, was more vi-
gorous, and the turnips were double the size. In an-
other experiment by Mr Wallace, in the same dis-
trict, a very abundant crop of turnips was also ob-
tained. The quantity of ashes employed was from
30 to 50 single cart loads for the acre. Mr Parsons
applied from 50 to 60 bushels to the acre, on a cold,
wet, cohesive soil. Mr Buckley employs about 70
cart-loads to the acre of a stiff soil, on which he
thinks its effects in improving the texture, and com-
municating permanent fertility, are more striking than
in any other. The ashes of burnt clay have been also
applied as a top-dressing to grass lands, and, ac-
cording to Lord Cathcart's statement, at the rate of
40 tons to each acre, they produced very powerful
effects.

* 3. Coal Ashes, SfC.

Ashes, or the product of the combustion of dif-
ferent substances, are found to be useful as manures
to certain soils, and chiefly coal and peat ashes.

Coal ashes. — Coal ashes, although rarely employed
unmixed with other substances, afford an abundant
source of manure in the neighbourhood of popul-
ous cities, where coal is the principal fuel. The in-
gredients of coal ashes vary in their nature and pro-
portions, but they consist chiefly of aluminous and
siliceous earth, with a portion of lime, and some-
times of magnesia. These ashes are found to be high-
ly beneficial in correcting the tenacity, and opening
the texture of clayey soils. They are in particular
use in the neighbourhood of London, for improving
those grounds from which brick earth has been dug
out. After spreading the ashes on the clay bot-
tom, horse-beans, or some varieties of the garden
bean, are planted ; and sometimes such lands are laid
down with rve grass. Coal ashes answer well, when
spread on clover, in March or Aj/ril, on dry chalky
soils ; and the quantity employed is from SO to 60
bushels to the acre.

Manures.

AGRICULTUHE.

m

Manures.

Peat ashes. — The Berkshire, Wiltshire, and New-
bury peat ashes, liave been long celebrated in Eng-
land as an efiBcient manure. They contain a con-
siderable proportion of gypsum ; and the other con-
stituents arc calcareous, aluminous, and siliceous
earth, a small portion of common and Glauber salt,
and sometimes a little oxide of iron, which is in-
dicated by the red colour after calcination. Dutch
ashes, the fertilising properties of which have been
commended by Sir John Sinclair, in his Account
cf the Husbandry of the Netherlands, are composed
of nearly the same ingredients. In the Netherlands,
the Dutch ashes are applied as a manure to clover,
which is succeeded by wheat. Nineteen bushels to
the English acre afford an abundant crop of both.
The English peat ashes are employed as a top-
dressing for cultivated grasses, particularly sainfoin
and clover, in the quantity of from 30 to 40 bushels
to the acre.

4. Sand, Loam, ^c.

Sand has been successfully employed in improving
the texture of stiff clay soils. But sand taken up from
the mouths of rivers or the shores of the ocean, as it
frequently contains a portion of animal and some-
times vegetable matter, may also serve to promote
their fertility. The sands of flat shores covered with
water only during high spring tides, and which are
strongly impregnated with common salt and other
saline ingredients, are in some places collected and
washed for the extraction of the salt, and afterwards
spread on the land as manure. This double manu-
facture is pretty extensive on the northern shores of
the Solway frith ; and it seems probable that the
latter practice might be advantageously adopted
in many places where the situation is favourable.
The rubbish of houses, or of old walls built with stone
and lime, which is a mixture of sand and lime,
■with other earthy and sometimes saline matters, con-
stitutes a valuable manure, and in all cases ought to
be carefully collected and preserved. Loam, mould,
or any mixture of different earths with a portion of
organized substances, when added to a bare and
sterile soil of a different quality, produces wonderful
effects in throwing up a luxuriant race of vegetables.

Sect. II. Of Piitrescent Manures.

The manures which come under this denomina-
tion are obtained from the decay and decomposition
of various matters which are furnished by the vege-
table and animal kingdoms. Manures of this de-
scription are sometimes entirely composed of vegeta-
ble matters ; sometimes they are chiefly of an animal
nature, and often they consist of both. Passing over
minute distinctions, we shall consider them under
the two heads of vegetable and animal substances.

1. Vegetable Matters.

Vegetable substances are applied to the soil for the
purpose of contributing to its fertility, either in a
fresh and green state, or when they have been sub-
jected to complete decomposition.

Ploughing down green crops. — The practice of turn-
ing down crops of succulent green vegetables, as
clover, buck-wheat, vetches, beans, turnips, that

TOI.. I. PART I.

they may undergo the process of putrefaction on the Manures.
the soil, and afford nourishment to the growing crop,
has been recommended by some writers on agriculture,
and is occasionally followed. When this method is
to be adopted, a portion of lime, or of peat and lime,
or rich vegetable earth, may be spread upon the crop ;
and after rolling, it may be buried with the plough.
This work should be performed in the summer or ear-
ly part of autumn, that the decay of the vegetable mat-
ters may be more speedily promoted. In cases where
manure is scarce, this practice may be found useful.
But it has been observed by Dr Coventry, that its
advantages upon the whole are doubtful ; for although
it is probable that the quantity of vegetable matter is
increased, the expence of the acquisition seems too
great ; so that facts are yet wanting to prove its
economy.

River weeds, Sfc. — ^Weeds taken from rivers, ^onds,
and ditches, and other places, when collected in their
most succulent state, and thrown togetherin heaps that
the process of putrefaction may be promoted, afford
excellent manure. The heaps should be formed by
throwing the materials together as lightly as possible ;
and sprinkling them with water in a dry season is use-
ful. A small quantity of lime or a portion of good
vegetable or peat earth mixed with the heap, en-
larges the quantity of manure, and increases its va-
lue. When these materials are in a dry state, the pro-
cess of decomposition is slower ; they must be kept
moist, and liquid matters from the farm-yard would
be found greatly to promote their dissolution. The
mud taken from the bottom of rivers, containing a
large proportion of vegetable matters, may be fre-
quently employed as useful manures. A portion of
lime or rotten dung may be added to the mass,
which being frequently turned over, is reduced
to a proper state of preparation as a top-dressing
for grass lands. But the precaution of spreading
manure of this kind thinly, or in small proportion at
one application, should be strictly observed.

Malt dust, &;c. — The dust of malt, along with the
tails or coombs, which are the radicles of the seed
protruded by vegetation during the malting procfcss,
when they can be got in large quantity, are a useful
manure. They are greatly improved, and the quan-
tity increased, by strewing them in the bottom of
poultry and pigeon-houses, dung heaps, and neces-
saries, and also in the bottom of reservoirs into
which the urine of cattle and soap-suds are disi-
charged. Malt dust is sown by the hand, from
24 to 32 bushels to the acre, along with barley, and
is harrowed in with the seed. It is suitable to most
soils.

The husks or ashes which remain after the pres- '
sure of rape, cole, and other seeds, to obtain the
oil, are also used as manures. They are either re-
duced to the state of coarse powder, sown by the
hand, and hairowed in with the seed, or blended with
the materials of the dunghill which has been collect-
ed from lean stock, with a great deal of litter. A
ton of oil cake, mixed with 20 or 30 tons of dung-
hill compost, constitutes a rich manure. The proper
time for the application of this manure is immediate-
ly before showery weather ; for the process of de-
compositioa seems to be retarded, till it has absorbed
Q

isi2

AGRICULTURE.

Minur«. moisture. When in the state of coarse powder, from
30 to 40 bushels are applied to the acre.

Bark, sawdust, Sfc. — Bark, after being employed
in tanning leather, is used as a manure ; anil for this
purpose it should be collected into heaps of a mo-
derate size, while it retains some moisture ; and then
by mixing lime with it, and sprinkling with water,
the decomposition is promoted. Bark should be re-
duced nearly to the state of vegetable mould when
it is applied to grass lands. It is a prevailing opi-
nion, that this manure is more suitable to stiff and
heavy soils than those of a lighter description.

Saw-dust or shavings of wood, when applied to
soil, without addition, are slow in their operation ;
but when they are mixed with animal matters, as
blood and garbage, a more rapid decomposition is
effected, and substances of this kind may be convert-
ed into useful manures.

Sea-weed ^^Sea-weed of different species, asfiicus

vesicii/osus, digitahis, sriccharinns, and some others,
is employed both for the purpose of making kelp and
manure, on those parts of the sea-coast wliere it a-
bounds. As a manure, it produces speedy and powerful
effects ; and those who neglect it, when it is within
their reach, are little attentive to their own interest.
Sometimes it is spread on the land as soon as it is cut
from the rocks where it grows, or collected from the
shores as it is washed in by the tides ; and in this
case it should be ploughed down immediately, for
otherwise, in a dry season, its valuable properties are
soon dissipated.

Another method of preparing sea-weed for manure
is, to cut it in its most luxuriant and succulent state,
and to collect it in large heaps, where it remains till
it bo completely rotten, and in a condition to be
spread on the land. But, in this way, it is probable
some saline matters are washed away by the rains,
and its volatile parts are dissipated in the air. It
would, therefore, be a more profitable plan of manage-
ment, in the preparation of this active manure, espe-
cially when the plant is in its fresh state, to form a
layer of fresh earth on the spot on which the heap is
to be raised, and to mix the whole with a portion of
quick-lime, and some other earthy matters ; and per-
haps it would be a useful precaution to cover the
whole, to prevent the effects of the sun and air.
By this last method of preparing sea-weed for ma-
nure, the quantity is not only increased, but its ef-
fects on the soil are more permanent. In the islands
of Guernsey and Jersey, sea-weed is much employed
as a manure. It is cut in the early part of the spring,
and immediately applied to the barley and pasture
lands.

2. Animal Mailers.

The constitution of animal matters is more com-
plicated than that of vegetables ; and as the number
of their elementary ingredients is greater, so their
decomposition or putrefaction, when the vital prin-
ciple ceases to act, proceeds with greater rapidity by
the united agency of their component parts. The
diversity of constitution, and of the proportions of
the' elements of animal matters, exhibit very different
degrees in the progress of the putrefactive process,
evea when the circumstances of moisture, heat, and

air are equally favourable. The decomposition of Manurti.
the liquid and soft parts is extremely ra})id, while
the more solid and harder parts remain for a long
time unchanged. These remarks are worthy of at-
tention, in considering the nature, properties, and
changes of the animal matters which are employ-
ed as manures. The excrementitious matters of
animals are in most common use for this purpose ;
and of these matters, the produce of the live-
stock supported on the farm, as it is most abundant,
is of greatest importance as a subject of rural eco-
nomy. When mixed with straw, or other vegetable
matter which has been used as litter, it is well known
under the name ot farm-yard dung; in the collection
and preparation of which, it has been often asserted,
and we fear with too much truth, that no branch of
agriculture is so carelessly and slovenly conducted.

Farm-yard ^?/«g. — In the present mode of manag-
ing this kind of manure, little attention is paid to the
situation of the dunghill, the means of promoting the
decomposition of the animal and vegetable matters
of which it is composed, or the preservation of those
ingredients which are dissipated in the air, absorbed
by the soil, or washed off by the rains.

Siluafionjbr a dunghill The proper situation for

a dunghill is that where its bottom is nearly on a le-
vel, and is composed of such materials as are capable
of retaining the moisture. For this purpose, it should
be laid with clay, covered with broad flags, or com-
mon paving stones. The whole ought to be inclosed
with a wall four or five feet high, and with an open
space at one extremity, for removing the dung. At the
opposite extremity, a reservoir is dug, which is either
to be lined with clay, built round with stones, or fit-
ted with a wooden cistern, into which a pump is in-
troduced, for discharging the liquid as it accumu-
lates. The reservoir must be placed at the lower
part of the dunghill, and an opening is made in the
wall opposite to it. Beside a main channel, which
runs through the whole extent of the floor occupied
by the dunghill, and terminates in the reservoir by
the opening in the wall, a number of similar channels,
of five or six inches deep, and of equal width, tending
obliquely towards the main channel, is to be formed,
well paved, and filled with brushwood, before the
dung be laid down. Through these channels the re-
dundant liquid is conveyed to the reservoir.

In -laying out and constructing a dunghill, its long-
est side should run from east to west, should he sur-
rounded by a wall, and covered with a thatched roof.
To prevent the effects of the sun's rays, the wall on
the south side is raised to the height of the roof; but,
on the other three sides, it is sufficient to raise it five
or six feet from the ground ; and the roof may be
supported with pillars of wood or stone. The upper
part of the building may be employed as a poultry-
house, a pigeon-house, or in some other useful way.
By this construction, the dung is prevented from be-
ing scattered about, the action of the sun and air is
obviated, and every soluble matter that escapes passes
into the reservoir, from which it is dr;i\vn up by the
pump, to be carried to the field, mixed with other
substances, or returned to the dunghill itself.

Decomposition promoted. — In laying up the mate-
rials of which farm-yard dung is composed, with the

AGRICULTURE.

iias

Marures. view of promoting its speedy decomposition, it is of
S^^-y-^^ no small importance that they should be intimately
mixed ; and here, although it is attended with addi-
tional labour, the method of constructing hot-beds,
in which the materials are carefully blended, and
lightly laid together, may be advantageously imitat-
ed. By laying it up in this way, and moderate wa-
tering, it is well known tliat the dung of a hot-bed is
as completely decomposed in three or four weeks, as
that in a farm-yard, by the usual management, in four
or five months. No animals, not even poultry, should
be allowed to go upon it. The cart-load, as it is carried
out, should be laid down by the side of the dung-
hill, and afterwards laid regularly and lightly upon
it with a fork ; and when it is laid up in this way,
with a sufficient quantity of moisture, the decompo-
sition proceeds rapidly. In dry weather it may be
necessary to water it, or a sufficient degree of mois-
ture might be kept up by means of the urine, which
might be conveyed from the offices into reservoirs,
from which it might be thrown upon the dung. By
this management, the complete decomposition of the
whole maybe effected in six or seven weeks, and the
produce will turn out to be one- half more valuable.
But where greater attention can be paid to this im-
portant business, it has been suggested, that no
greater quantity should be formed into one dunghill
than what can be collected in the course of a month.
At the end of the month, it is to be turned over,
thoroughly mixed, left to heat for another month, and
again turned over, when it is fit for being applied to
the soil.

But in the means employed to promote the decom-
position of the mass of vegetable and animal matters,
some attention is requisite to prevent the process
from going on too rapidljf, or advancing too far. Ob-
servation and experience may decide what is the most
proper temperature ; and, when this is once known,
the whole preparation may be precisely regulated by
the thermometer, a convenient form of which, for
this and similar purposes, has been invented by Mrs
Lovi, glass-blower in Edinburgh.

Quantity of manure increased. — Various methods
have been proposed for increasing the quantity of
manure. Two of these have been mentioned. The
first is, by securing the liquid as it drains from the
dunghill, and either spreading it on the soil or mix-
ing it into compost; and the other is, by collecting
the urine of the horses and cattle in a barrel or cis-
tern, to which it is conducted by a proper channel.
The quantity of manure may be greatly increas-
ed by collecting earth, moss, turf, the cleanings
of ditches or drains, some of which are found on
most possessions, and either laying them in the bot-
tom of the dunghill, by which they are saturated
with the moisture which soaks downwards, or by lay-
ing them in heaps by themselves, and pouring the
. liquid of the dunghill and the urine of the cattle up-

on them. In this way an excellent manure is prepar-
ed ; and by this management the quantity, in almost
every instance, may be doubled.

The quantity of farm-yard dung which is obtained
from a given proportion of straw, when the business
is properly managed, has been estimated at three to
one, or three tons of manure for every ton of straw

employed. The weight of straw produced on each Manun
acre, varies from a ton to a ton and a half; so that
taking the different crops on an average, every acre
of ground under a corn crop may afi'ord a quantity
of straw sufficient for the preparation of four tons of
manure.

Night soil This matter forms a very rich manure,

and, when applied immixed, it ought to be used in small
quantities ; but it is recommended to mix it with saw-
dust, peat-moss, or a portion of earthy matter, by which
it maybe more equally distributed. \\'hen a certain
proportion of lime is added, it is soon deprived of its
offensive smell, and rendered so dry that it can be
easily applied as a top-dressing. Two cart-loads of
night-soil, with ten loads of earth, and one of lime,
are a sufficient quantity as a top-dressing for an acre.
This compost forms an excellent manure to a light
soil, destined for wheat or barlej'. It should be em-
ployed early in the spring for wheat, and it may be
either harrowed in with the seed, or spread on the
young barley crop. A compost of this kind is pecu-
liarly adapted to drill crops.

Pigeons' dung, Sec. — The excrementitious matter of
birds, and particularly of pigeons, has been long ac-
counted a valuable manure, and is found peculiarly
beneficial for a cold, stiff soil. For the purpose of
equal distribution, it should be broken down small,
or mixed with earthy matters. The proper time for
its application is during moist weather, and, as well as
other manures, should be covered in by harrowing,
when that work can be conveniently executed. The
dung of poultry is somewhat of a similar nature, and
may be employed in the same way.

Bones Bones are advantageously employed as a

manure in many parts of England. Sometimes they
are applied alone, and sometimes conjoined with o-
ther substances. Bones are composed chiefly of phos-
phate and carbonate of lime, and oily matters, so that
they afford, by their decomposition, valuable ingre-
dients for enriching the soil. The bones are used by
being bruised, and broken down into small pieces, or
reduced to powder. These operations are performed
by mills, similar to those for reducing hard substan-
ces to powder. Af^er this preparation, they are laid
upon the field in small heaps, at regular distances,
and covered with earth ; having remained for some
time in this state, they are spread on fallow, grass, or
turnip land. This manure succeeds best on a deep
clay, or loamy soil. Powdered bones are extremely
convenient for drill crops, because they can be in-
serted at the same time with the seed.

Horn, &c This substance, containing a larger

proportion of animal matter than of lime, is a still more
powerful manure, and particularly in the form of
shavings or turnings. The composition of hair, wool-
len rags, and fecthers, is somewhat similar, so that
these substances may be applied to the same useful
purpose. The refuse of manufactures of skin, lea-
ther, and glue, as furriers clippings, curriers shav-
ings, &c. is also valuable manure.

Putrid animal matters Dead animals being co-
vered up with five or six times their bulk of soil, mix-
ed with one part of lime, after a few months become
an excellent manure. The offensive smell may be ob-
viated by adding a little fresh quick-lioie when they

124

AGRICULTURE.

Munurej. are removed. The refuse of shambles may be treat-
ed in the same way. An active manure is obtained
from different kinds offish, as herrings and pilchards,
but it must be employed in small quantities, or
mixed with sand or soil, otherwise the crop may be
too luxuriant ; and in some cases, where such mat-
ters were applied in excessive quantity, it has been
entirely lost. Greaves, or the refuse of the candle-
manufacturer, and blubber, are valuable substances,
when mixed up with earthy matters, for enriching
the soil.

Sect. III. Of Saline Manures.

Various saline substances are employed for the
purpose of manure, but they are chiefly in a state of
combination with other matters, as the refuse of dif-
ferent manufactories. The refuse of bleachers con-
tains a portion oi alkaline matter ; and, from the active
nature of this ingredient, it is necessary that it should
be well mixed with eight or ten parts of fresh mould,
or peaty earth, and with a certain proportion of rot-
ten dung. From a compost of this kind a valuable
manure is obtained. Soapers waste, beside the alka-
line matters in its composition, contains a consider-
able quantity of lime, and may be treated in the same
way. A manure of this description is of great use
on stiff, clayey, and loamy soils. The ashes of fresh
vegetable substances contain also some alkaline mat-
ter ; and being mixed with vegetable mould, or peaty
earth, in large proportion, they afford a rich manure,
and are very effectual as a top-dressing to grass-lands.
Soapers waste spread on mossy or peaty soils, has
proved one of the most active and speediest applica-
tions for promoting their decomposition, and con-
verting them to vegetable mould.

Soot. — Soot, in consequence of the carbonaceous
and oily matters, and the ammonia, or volatile alkali,
which It contains, is also a very active manure. The
.quantity employed for the acre is from 20j to 40
bushels ; but in the neighbourhood of London, where
it is extensively used, 30 bushels are considered as a
complete dressing; but if dung, or any other manure,
have been applied to the same crop, the quantity of
soot is reduced to a half, or about 15 bushels. Soot
is said to answer best for wheat when applied in the
month of April, or on pease or clover at the same
time, or when sown with barley and harrowed in. It
is recommended as a useful application, at any period
in the spring, for the destruction of grubs or worms,
and when thinly distributed on newly sown turnips,
iust before they come up, prevents the injury which
they sustain from the fly. The soils to which this
manure is most suitable are those of a liglit, dry,
and chalky nature, and the best time for inserting it
is during showery weather. .

Common salt. — The use of common, or sea salt,
has been strongly recommended by some as a pow-
erful manure, while others, keeping in view its anti-
septic property, consider its effects to be of a doubt-
ful nature. The high price of salt in this country
must be a serious objection to its extensive use ; but
it is generally employed in combination with other
matters, as the refuse of the salt manufactory in Che-
shire, or of the processes of the curing of pilchards
in Cornwall, or of herrings in other places. The ani-

mal matters, in the latter instances, tnay be supposed Maanre*.
to contribute their effects ; but those who have had
experience of these substances as a manure, always
select such as contain the largest proportion of salt.
A portion of sea-salt adhering to sand collected from
flat shores, or mud in the vicinity of rivers and salt
marshes, has been often found highly beneficial in
enriching the soil, and improving its productions. In
Cornwall, abundant crops of turnips have been pro-
duced by the use of salt ; but some doubts are enter-
tained, whether part of the effect ought not to be as-
cribed to the destruction of the slugs, which was the
consequence of its application. In some cases, where
salt was employed in large quantities, its effects were
injurious, but in a smaller proportion they appeared
to be highly beneficial.

Sect. IV. Of Compost Manures.

Two or more of the various earthy, vegetable, ani-
mal, and saline substances which have been mention-
ed, being blended together in different proportions,
form compounds which are extremely valuable as
manures. In this way, not only the quantity of the
manure is greatly increased, but its quality is much
improved. Some of the ingredients which, when em-
ployed singly, would be almost useless, after being
mixed with other matters, and subjected to certain
changes, form a most excellent application for im-
proving and enriching many soils.

All manures may perhaps be considered as com-
pounds, at least after they are applied to the soil ;
and it might be a question, whether the benefits which
they afford to vegetation could not be increased, if
some of the changes which they undergo were pre-
viously completed, or whether these benefits arise at
the time when the new combinations are effected ?
but this question, which is of great importance, and
of no small difficulty, must depend for its solution
on a more perfect knowledge of the process of vege-
tation itself, as well as those changes and combina-
tions which are effected by the mutual action of the
different matters employed as manures.

Some of the methods of forming composts, and of
increasing the quantity of manure, have been already
described ; and, in general, it may be remarked, that
they are formed of almost every kind of vegetable
and animal matter, mixed with earthy and saline
substances, which being throwni together in consider-
able masses, promote the decomposition of the or-
ganised materials ; and it is scarcely necessary to add,
that the collection and preparation of such compound
manures must be regulated by the nature and abun-
dance of the matters which can be obtained.

In making a compost with one kind of manure,
and a portion of soil, the two substances are placed
in alternate layers, in the form of a long ridge ; and
it should be so covered at the top, that the rain may
be prevented from washing through it ; but if both
lime and dung are used, a layer of earth should be
interposed between every two beds of lime and dung,
that the excessive action of the lime may be obviat-
ed. When the decomposition of tlie dung is com-
pleted, the whole should be turned, that the ingre-
dients may be well mixed, and the same operation is
to be repeatetj till the mass is sufficiently reduced.

AGRICULTURE.

125

Msrurci. The qiiantity of this compost may be increased, by

v^„.»,^^ collecting all the weeds before they run to seed from

the neighbouring fields, and adding them to the heap,

and the weeds which grow upon it should be buried

down in it before they flower and produce seeds.

A compost is also formed, by ploughing and har-
rowing a head land till the soil is well divided. For-
ty bushels of lime, fresh from the kiln, are arranged
in an equal number of heaps, along the middle of the
head land, at the distance of four feet from each o-
ther. The heaps are covered with four or five times
their quantity of pulverized earth, which is clapped
close down with the shovel, to prevent the access of
rain or air. Tlie lime is slaked in a few days by
the moisture of the earth, and when any cracks or
fissures appear, by tlie swelling of the heap, they are
to be covered up with more earth. When the lime
is reduced to powder, it is intimately mixed with the
earth. This is done in the form of a long bank or
ridge, in the middle of which a large furrow is left,
capable of receiving five cart-loads, of forty bushels
each, of farm-yard dung. The mixture of earth and
lime is thrown over the dung, that the whole may be
entirely covered. In this state it remains for some
months, when it is to be turned over, well mixed, and
formed into a heap.

Sweepings of streets and roads. — Tlie fertility of
the lands in the neighbourhood of great towns, is
kept up by the manure which is collected from the
streets and houses. The high price which is paid for
this manure, is an ample proof of its value. Made
up of almost every kind of vegetable and animal sub-
stance, it is perhaps the most compound manure that
is employed.

The value of the sweepings of roads depends part-
ly on the ingredients of which the road is formed,
and partly on the quantity of excrementitious matter
which is dropped by animals ; and as the latter is most
abundant in the neighbourhood of large towns, the
best manure of this description is collected in such
situations. When the stones of which the road is
constructed are of basalt, or whin-stone or lime-stone,
the decomposition of these earthy matters forms of
itself a good manure ; but its value is greatly increas-
ed in the form of compost with vegetable and animal
matters, with which it is usually combined. By col-
lecting these matters, the advantages, in preserving
and improving the roads, would not be less consider-
able than in enriching the lands in their neighbour-
hood-

Compost of peat-moss. — As peat-moss consists
chiefly of vegetable matter, when its entire decom-
position is effected it constitutes a very valuable ma-
. nure. Considering it in this view, Lord Meadow-
banV has particularly described the methods of its
preparation, of which the following is an abstract.'
The compost of which the peat -moss is to be formed,
should be dug out for some weeks or months, that
the redundant moisture may evaporate, whicli, by
rendering it lighter, duninishes the expence of carn-
age, and requires a smaller proportion of dung. The
peat-moss is then carried to a dry spot, convenient
for constructing a dunghill to serve the field to be
manured. It is laid out in two rows, with an inter-
mediate row of dung, which occupies the space of

the compost dunghill ; and the rows should be Manures.
so near, that the woi-kman may be able to throw '^•^r-y^t*
them together with the spade. A layer of peat, 6
inches deep and IS feet wide, if the breadth of tlie
ridge admit of it, is first formed. A layer of 10 inches
of dung next succeeds, then 6 inches of peat, then
4 or 5 of dung, and then 6 more of peat ; then another
thin layer of dung ; then cover it with peats at the
end where it was begun, at the two sides, and above.
The height should not exceed i or 4i foct, othei'-
wise the weight may be too great, and check the de-
composition. The workmen continue adding to the
compost as they are furnished with the three row«
of materials ; they must be careful not to tread on
the mass, which would render it too compact. When
the peaty earth is wct, it should be made up in
lumps, and less broken.

Proportion of ingredients. — \Mien the weather is
mild, 7 cart-loads of common farm-yard dung, in a
fresh state, are sufficient for 21 cart-loads of peat-
moss ; but in cold weather a larger proportion of
dung is required, because more heat is necessary.
To every 28 cart-loads of the compost, it is useful to
throw above it a cart-load of coal, peat, or wood-
ashes ; but when such ashes cannot be procured, half
the quantity of slaked lime, in fine powder, is a good
substitute. The dung employed should be fresh, or
kept in a fresh state by compression, as by the tread-
ing of cattle, or of carts passing over it. If the quan-
tity of 'htter be small, a smaller proportion of dung
answerj the purpose, provided any addition of vege-
table matter can be made, as fresh weeds, rubbish of
a stack-yard, stems and leaves of potatoes, the saw-
ings of timber, &c. A greater or less quantity of
compost is obtained by the state of the dung, as it is
more or lessadvanced in the process of decomposition.
By employing the refuse of shambles, six times the
quantity of moss may be converted into manure. A
similar proportion is obtained from the dung of pi-
geons, and of domestic fowls ; and to a certain extent,
from the dung collected in towns, and made by ani-
mals that feed on grains, the refuse of distilleries, &c.

Progress of decomposition. — When the compost
is made up, the temperature increases according to
the state of the weather and the condition of the in-
gredients. The heat comes on in summer in about
ton days, but in the severe cold of winter it requires
as many weeks. In summer sometimes the tempe-
rature rises so high as to consume the materials,
when what is caWeA Jire-fangiiig takes place. When
such a change is apprehended, a stick should be kept
in different parts of the mass, which being occasion-
ally examined, indicates the increase or diminution of
temperature ; or what answers better, is the thermo-
meter, constructed by Mrs Lovi of Edinburgh, which
we have already recommended, and with the aid of
which the changes of temperature can be precisely
ascertained. If the temperature approach to or ex-
ceed blood-heat, the mass should be watered, or turn-
ed over, and at the same time an addition of fresh
moss may be m.ide. In the progress of decomposi-
tion, the heat, according to various circumstances,
at last subsides ; the mass remains untouched till with-
in three weeks of the time of applying it to the land,
when it should be completely turned over, and all

1-26

AGRICULTURE.

Manures, tile lumps broken dovra. It heats a second time,
N— ^^/^^ but soon after cools, after which it is fit for use. Ex-
'ccpting the pieces of decayed wood, the whole ap-
pears a black free mass, which spreads like garden
mould. When this compost is employed weight for
weight as Hirm-yard dung, it has been found, in a
course ofciopping, fully to stand the comparison.

AVhen a compost is made up before January, if the
frott be not severe, or long continued, it is ready for
the spring crops ; in sunmier the preparation is com-
pleted in eight or ten weeks, and the decomposition
is greatly promoted by adding lime, rubbish of old
buildings, or lime slaked with foul water.

QiiaiilUy ajjpUed. — The richness and condition of
• the soil, and the season in which the manure is ap-

plied, have varied the quantity of this compost ; but
from 23 to 35 double cart-loads include the extremes
of the proportion which has been used for the acre.
The smaller proportion has been given to fallows and
ground in good condition, and the larger proportion
when it is ploughed in with the sward of poor soil.
The intermediate quantities were used with crops of
tares, pease, and potatoes.

It is properly stated by Lord Meadowbank, that
too much attention cannot be given to the prepara-
tion of the ground to which this compost manure is
to be apphed. It should be clean, dry, well mixed,
and friable ; for, in any other state, it requires a larg-
er proportion of manure. The addition of asmall quan-
tity of well prepared compost, has produced a wonder-
ful effect on land well prepared by a fallow. The tex-
ture, colour, and other qualities of the soil, undergo
a verj- preceptible change. All this, it is added, must
proceed from the mutual action of the different in-
gredients in the manure and in the soil, and the
various decompositions and combinations which are
the result of that action ; and it is quite obvious, that
all this must be greatly promoted by bringing the
minute particles in the soil and manure into contact
by intimate mixture.

Compost of peat, lime, and clay, — In the year
17S6, Mr Arbutnnot, mentioned above, collected 1000
cart-loads of peat-moss (about 300 tons',) of which
was formed an oblong square, 70 or 80 feet long,
from 14 to 18 feet broad, and 6 feet high. To this
were added 30 bolls lime-shells from Sunderland.
The shells were introduced by cutting trenches across
the bed of moss, and covering up one trench with the
moss which was thrown out of the other. Wlien the
whole lime was covered up, a considerable quantity
of water was added, and in two or three days the mass
took fire. About 150 tons of wet clay, in lumps,
were then thrown on at random. At the end of four
or five days, the bed was covered up with clay sods,
and it remained untouched for eleven months ; at the
end of which time, when it was carried to the field,
the heat was so great that it could scarcely be handled.
The compost thus prepared was laid on 7| acres of
grass land, sown with clover and rye-grass three
years before. The grass was greatly improved, and
the land was not broken up for six years afterwards.
The field was several times in corn and grass ; and the
grass was always cut and never pastured, without re-
ceiving any manure till 1810.

In concluding the history and application of dif- Minnres.
ferent manures, we shall give a short view of some ^_,- -M^r*
curious experiments conducted by the Reverend
Mr Cartwright, which shew the effects of differ-
ent manures on the same soil, and for the same crop.
One object of these experiments was, to ascertain
the effects of salt in promoting vegetation. The soil
was a ferruginous sand, which was brought to a pro-
per texture and consistence by a liberal covering of
pond mud. Four hundred grains of this soil con-
tained 280 of siliceous sand, lOl grains of finely divid-
ed matter, and IG of loss in water ; of the 104 grains,
18 were carbonate of lime, 7 grains of oxide of iron,
17 grains lost by burning, and the remainder silica
and alumina.

On the I4th of April 1804, a portion of this soil
was laid out in beds, a yard wide, and 40 yards long.
Of these, 25 were manured, the first excepted, as
follows.

No.

1 . No manure.

2. Salt, I peck.

3. Lime, 1 bushel.

4. Soot, 1 peck.
Wood ashes, 2 pecks.
Sawdust, 3 bushels.
Malt dust, 2 pecks.
Peat, 3 bushels.
Decayed leaves, 3

bushels.

Fresh dung, 3 bu-
shels.

Chandlers greaves,
9 lbs.

Salt, lime.

i3.
6.

7.
8.
9.

10.

11.

No.

li. Salt, lime, sulphuric
acid.

14. Salt, lime, peat.

15. Salt, lime, dung.

16. Salt, lime, gypsura,

peat.

17. Salt, soot.

18. Salt, wood ashes.

19. Salt, saw-dust.

20. Salt, malt dust.

21. Salt, peat.

22. Salt, peat, bone dust.

23. Salt, decayed leaves.

24. Salt, peat ashes.

25. SaltjChandlersgreaves.
ingredient was the same as

12

The quantity of each
when they were used singly. On the same day a sin
gle row of potatoes was planted in each bed ; and
that the experiments might be accurately conduct-
ed, the number of sets was the same. A few days
after, the plants appeared above ground ; on the
14th of May they were carefully examined, and
the comparative excellence of each row, according
to appearances, was noted. The best row was No. 7.
from malt dust ; the next was from chandler's greaves ;
bnt we shall not detail the farther results of this ex-
amination. On the 28th of May, 14 days afterwards,
the rows of plants from malt dust and chandler's
greaves still retained their superiority. The most
backward row at this time was that manured with
saw-dust.

On the 21st of September the potatoes were taken

up, when the produce of each row was as follows :

No. 17. Salt and soot, produced - 240

11. Chandlers greaves - 220

18. Salt, wood ashes - - 217

16. Salt, gypsum, peat, hme - 195

15. Salt, lime, dung - 199

2. Salt - - - - 198

25. Salt, greaves - - 291

4. Soot - - 192
10. Fresh dung - - 192
20. Salt, malt dust - 189

5. Wood ashes - - 187
2?. Salt, decayed leaves - - 187

AGRICULTURE.

127

Minurt). '24^. Salt, peet Siiib&l . -

'm^^'.^ 7. Malt dust

H. Salt, lime, peat

19. Salt, saw-dust

22. Salt, peat, bone dust

9. Decayed leaves ,
13. Salt, lime, sulphuric acid
21. Salt, peat

8. Peat
12. Salt, lime

1. No manure
6. Saw-dust

2. Lime

1S5
ISi
183
180
178
175
175
171
159
1G7
157
155
150

It is observed by the author of these experiments,
i^s a remarkable circumstance, that of 10 different
manures, most of which are of acknowledged effica-
cy, salt, whose effects were doubtful, is, with one ex-
ception, superior to them ail ; and, in combination
with other substances, no other manure besides ciiand-
lers greaves wa^^ injured by it. The effects of salt
combined with soot were very striking ; and Mr Cart-
wright is disjiosed to ascribe these effects rather to
the power of attracting moisture from the atmosphere,
than to any chemical action between tlie two sub-
stances ; for the beds on which salt was used con-
tinued visibly moister, even for weeks after its appli-
cation. Another circumstance noticed is, that the
plants which grew on the beds manured with the
salt were of a paler green than the rest, but equally
luxuriant, which appearance, he at first concluded,
indicated a want of vigour ; and wherever salt was
applied, either by itself, or in combination, the roots
were perfectly clean, which was not tlie case with
those in the other beds.

Tiie same ingenious agriculturist instituted two
sets of experiments with turnips and buck-wheat,
on a soil so poor that it produced only dwarf heath
and lichen. Of 400 grains, 320 consisted of siliceous
sand, 68 of finely divided matter, and 12 of loss in
water. The finely divided matter lost nearly half
its weight by incineration, and the remainder was
composed chiefly of aluminous and siliceous earths,
coloured with oxide of iron. Scarcely any calcareous
matter appeared. On the Gth July ISOt, the beds
selected for each set of experiments were respective-
ly sown v/ith turnips and buck-wheat. They were
numbered and manured exactly in the same way as
in the first set of experiments with potatoes. On the
20th July, numbers 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 19, 20, 21, 22,
Si, 25, shewed little or iio marks of vegetation; the
remainder were merely in the seed leaf. On the
16th of August four only were alive, and in rough
leaf, viz.

No. 12. Salt and lime.

13. Salt, lime, and sulphuric acid.

14'. Salt, lime, peat.

16. Salt, lime, gypsum, peat.

These four continued in a sickly state till the mid-
dle of September, soon after which they disappeared.
The appearance oi' the turnips and buck-wheat was
very nearly the same ; but no certain conclusion can
be drawn from these experiments with regard to the
effects, of salt as a manure for such crops, for other
manures of undoubted efficacy also failed. The in-
ference to be deduced from the whole, is, that a pro-

per texture and consistence of the soil is an essential implemfnt*.
requisite in promoting the health and vTgour of plants, >_ -,_'
which was abundantly obvious in the greater luxuri- ^
ance of tliose plants where the manure tended to im-
prove that texture and consistence.

These experiments may serve ts a model to those
who have the inclination or leisure fo investigate the
effects of different kinds of niiuiure on the crops to
which they are applied; and although many of ;lie
experiments were made on substances which are 'pro-
cured with difficulty, or are to be had only in sinail
quantity, and therefore cannot come into gcncrsl iise,
yet the results obtained are curious and interesting,
and, if farther examined, may lead to some valuable
practical application.

Chap. V. Of the Implements ob AoiucultIike.

The alincst endless variety of ireplcniCntsv/hich have
been invented and proposed for the purpofe'.- of abridg-
ing agricultural lalsour, or cf performing it with grea-
ter accuracy and neatns.ss, could not even be enu-
merated within a moderate space ; but such enumera-
tion « ould be an idle waste of time. Many instru-
ments of this description have been laid aside as soon
as they were tried ; and the existence of others has
been only prolonged by the fond partiality of their
inventors, the desire of novelty, or t!ie power of fa-
shion. It seems no arduous task to form an opinion
of tlie real utility of such implements. A machine
of a cumbersome form, of a complicated construc-
tion, or of difficult management, may be at once pro-
nounced unfit for the purposes of husbandry. For
simplicity of construction and facility of application
may be regarded as their essential character, and in-
deed of all others from which any practical advantage
is to be expected.

Sect. I. 0/ the Plough.

The plougli is an instrument for turning up the
soil, by the power of horses, or othei" animals, and it
is contrived to save the time and labour of man in
preparing the ground and fitting it for the reception
of the seed. The plough may be considered as a
most important and valuable substitute for the spade.
Diversity of soil, and of local circumstances, may
protluce variations in the manner of using the plough,
but still there is a similarity in the operation, which
gives a certain uniformity to the chief parts of the
instrument, from which the principles of its construc-
tion are to be deduced. The seeming coarseness of
the operation, or the clumsiness of the task of turn-
ing up the soil, has probably been the cause of tlie in-
attention and neglect which this implement long ex-
perienced. It has been considered as a rude instru-
ment, because it could not be supposed that there
was any nicety in a business which is succcsfully per-
formed even by the most ignorant. The importance
of the machine is admitted by others ; but from the
complicated nature of the operation, ai\d the uncer-
tainty of the resistances to be overcome, or the lit-
tle knowledge which we possess of e»timating the
kind and quantity of these resistances, the difficulty
of constructing a plough upon undoubted principles
is regarded as insurmountable, and its improvenieni

1S8

AGRICULTURE.

TmpIcmcDts. is consigned either to experience or accident. This
difficulty, it is acknowledged, is great ; but it is not
beyond the reach of mechanical ingenuity to over-
come it. The preparation which the ground requires
for the reception of the seed, and for the support and
nourishment of plants, is pretty distinctly known ;
and though no instrument of the plough kind, can,
by its operation, bring it into this state, yet none is
ignorant that some ploughs greatly excel others in per-
forming this task. The imperfections of their perform-
ance, or what defects remain to be supplied, are suffi-
ciently understood ; and as the operation depends on
mechanical laws, the soli'.tion of the problem is
brought within certain limits.

Action of the plough. — A distinct description of
the operation of the plough, will serve to indicate
what the general form and construction of this im-
plement ought to be, the material parts of which must
be found under every variety to which particular
circumstances can give rise. The operation of the
plough is not conducted by digging, but by being
pulled along. The reduction of »lic soil to that fria-
bility and uniformity of which it is susceptible by
means of the spade, is not aimed at ; but it is brought
into such a state that the ordinary influence of the
season may finish the task. A slice or sod is cut
from the nnn land, which is pushed to one side, that
the plough and the ploughman may proceed in their
labour ; the sod is turned over, that the grass and
stubble may be buried and rot, and a fresh soil may
be left on the surface, which should be so loose and
open that it may become friable from the effects of the
weather, without running to lumps, or retaining wa-
ter. The first action is performed by the coulter,
which makes a perpendicular cut ; the point of the
fock follows, and its edge passing under the sod lifts
it up, and at the same time heels it over away from
the firm land. The mould-board advancing, pushes
it aside, and gradually turns it over as far as may
be required.

Form of the plough. — The general form of the body
of a plough is that of a wedge or blunt chisscl. To
render this form intelligible, it is necessary to des-
cribe the different parts of which the plough is com-
posed. In Fig. 1. Plate 3. AB is called the beam;
CD the stilts or handles, one of which is fixed in
the beam ; EF is the coulter, which is firmly fixed by
its shank E. into the beam ; GI is the sheath, the
front of which is sharp, forming the edge of the
wedge ; HK is the mould-board ; HL the base or
sole, which is pointed at H, to receive a hollow shoe-
ing of iron called the sock, and tapers towards L,
which is called the heel. This piece is called the head
of the plough. The back of the plough is usually
called by ploughmen the land side, and the side form-
td by the mould board, is called the furrmv side.
The wedge-like form of the plough maybe still more
distinctly understood from Fig. 2. in which a plan of
the same plough is given. AB is the beam ; CD
the stilts; EFI the mould-board; GH tlie sock.
This form bting, attentively considered, it will appear
^at if the wi dge be drawn or pushed along, keeping
the edge in the perpendicular cut which has been
previously made by the coulter, the point will raise
the earth, turn it to one side, and throw it over ; but

as the wedge raises the earth, the earth presses down ■
the wedge, and, as the wedge pushes the earth to the
right hand, the earth presses the wedge to the left.
In this way the plough is strongly pressed, not only
to the bottom of the furrow by its sole, but also to
the solid land by its back or land side. It is pressed
into an angle formed by the perpendicular and the
horizontal plane of the implement ; and hence the
furrow becomes a firm groove, directing the motion
of the plough, and giving it such a resistance as shall
enable it to perform all parts of the operation. This
circumstance should be kept in mind, because it sug-
gests a fundamental maxim in the construction of
the plough, which is to make the land side an exact
plane, and the sole, if not plain, at least straight from
the bottom to the heel.

Breadth of the sole. — The width of the furrow is
determined by the breadth of the sole at the heel,
and nine inches afford sufficient room for a horse and
man to walk in. A greater breadth is of no advan-
tage, so that force is lost in pushing the earth aside.
A broad sole, as has been supposed, does not give
more room for the turned slice to stand on ; for what-
ever may be the breadth of the furrow, the succes-
sive slices are left at their former distances, because
each is pushed aside at the same distance. When the
breadth of a slice is greater than its depth, and is
turned on its side, it stands on a narrow base, but
higher and looser, which is desired by the farmer.
When this happens, it generally falls on its back be-
fore it has been far enough removed, and is then
turned aside, and left with its sward downwards,
which is wished to be avoided ; but, on the other
hand, when the depth considerably exceeds the
breadth, the sods, being turned on their sides, are
squeezed home to the ploughed land, which breaks
and tosses them up, produemg coarse work ; and if
the soil be a wet clay, it is apt to be kneaded toge-
ther. It appears, then, upon the whole, to be the
best rule to have the breadth and depth nearly e-
quai. The sole is generally level from right to left
at the heel ; and, from this construction, a furrow
with a flat or level bottom is formed. With the
same view, the land side of the plough should be
held perpendicular, instead of heeling it over to that
side, as is sometimes done, by which a ribbed furrow,
or an irregular formed sole is produced.

Length of the plough. — Various opinions have been
entertained with regard to the length of the plough.
Considering it as a pointed or cutting instrument,
acting obliquely on a given length of sod, its length
being increased, adds to its power, for it requires
less force to draw it through the ground ; but as the
earth must be turned aside at the same time, if the
length be doubled, it must act on a double quantity
of earth at once. It is found that the force required
for pushing a mass of earth horizontally along the
rough ground, is nearly equal to its weight. No-
thing, therefore, seems to lie gained by lengthening
the hose of the plough, except a greater facility in
the first penetration, which is chiefly performed by
the coulter and sock ; and, besides, a greater length
renders the plough cumbersome and heavy. A long
plough, which has a more extensive support, both
on the land side and below, is lees affected by ine-

mpleateat!.

AGRICULTURE.

129

Implements, qualities, and has therefore a great advantage in the
>_i - - _ ' steadiness of its motion. It is now usual to make
' them considerably longer than formerly; and, ac-
cording to the most approved construction, it has
been assumed as a just proportion to have the length
33 inches by 9 inches in breadth.

Some advantage is derived from making the plough
taper forward, where it acts as a boring and cutting
instrument. For this purpose it is convenient to give
the coulter a slope o!" 45°, by which the stones and
roots, which it wouid otherwise push before it through
tlie firm ground, are thrown up. For a similar rea-
son, the edge of the feather, which is an appendage
to the sock, having a cutting edge on the furrow side,
extending back about ten inches, and to the right
hand of the furrow side about six, for the purpose of
cutting the sod below, and detaching it from tlie
ground, as the couher separates it from the unplough-
ed land, has a great slope. But this advantage can-
not be pushed too far, without other risks ; for as it
is sometimes necessary to incline the plough to the
right, to get over some obstruction, the coulter must
be raised, and a slanting cut made by the feather
becomes the directing groove for the plough. When
the slope of the feather is very long, this groove has
force enough to guide the whole plough ; and it is
scarcely possible for the ploughman to prevent it
from running out of the ground, to the land side.
The length of the feather, then, should not exceed
10 or 12 inches.

Construction of the mould-hoard As the chief re-
sistances are exerted on this part of the plough, and
must be overcome, it requires the nicest considera-
tion what is the best form for diminishing these re-
sistances, while the operation is well performed. The
task required is, to raise, push aside, and turn over,
to a certain degree, a slice, which is already cut off
from the solid ground. M every inequality of the
cohesion or tenacity of the eartii cannot be estimat-
ed, it may be considered as uniform, which is always
the case with its weight ; and as every proportion
between the tenacity and the weight cannot be pro-
vided for, an average, or medium proportion, which
is not far from that of equality, may be taken. If,
then, the slice be conceived at first as only tenacious,
and without weight, it is not difficult to determine
the form which gives it the intended twist and re-
moval witli the least force. In the same way, the
weight of a slice, v/ithout tenacity, may be deter-
mined. Both may be easily combined in any pro-
portion ; and the composition on the supposition of
equality of weight and cohesion, is easiest made. If
the slice be supposed to be in the form of a brick,
the greatest force is required to begin to raise it on
one edge, and the force diminishes as it rises, till the
centre of gravity is perpendicular to the supporting
angle. No force is required to raise it farther, for,
in pushing it in the smallest degree beyond this po-
sition, it falls over of itself, unless retained by the te-
nacity of what is not yet raised. But observing the
form or plan of the soi k, it will be found, that when
the weiglit of the sod has the strongest resistance,
there is less of it in this situation actually rising, and
this nearly in the same proportion with the trouble
of raising it. After the sod has attained that posi-

VOL. I. PABT I.

tion in which it is ready to fall over, it has reached implement!,
the wider part of the rest, and is now pushed aside, '•■^-v'^-'
which requires nearly the same force as to raise it.
All these circumstances being considered, it seems
probable, that the compound resistance changes little
•from first to last, and, if this be the case, it may be
adopted as a maxi.m, should proceed equally. If it
does not, there must be some part of the sod that
makes a resistance greater than the medium ; and,
as the resistances in this kind of motion increase
nearly as the squares of the velocities by which they
are overcome, it may be demonstrated, that power is
lost by rendering them unequal. Hence is deduced
the maxim, that as the plough moves through equal
spaces, the twist and lateral sliding of the sod should ^
increase by equal degrees. This is the principle ac-
cording to which Mr Small constructed his ploughs,
which have deservedly attained so much celebrity.
But, for the particular rules of constructing the
mould-board, we must refer to iMr Small's treatise
on the subject.

Bridle of the plough Tire bridle or muzzle of the

plough is a curved piece of iron, which is fixed to
the end of the beam, by means of a bolt, and to this
bridle the swingle-tree, or cross-tree, is attached
by a hook. Sometimes the bridle is ftxed to the
beam by two bolts, and has notches, by which the
hook of the cross-tree may be placed either to the
right or to the left of the beam ; and tl#ire are dif-
ferent holes for the hinder bolt, by which means the
line of draught is directed, either above or below the
beam. In this way, by shifting the hook of the cross-
tree to the right or to the left, a broader or a nar-
rower furrow is taken, and by shifting the bolt,
the bridle or muzzle is raised above or sunk below
the beam, and the plough gpes deeper or shallower,
as shall be required.

Trirri of the -ploiish. — The plough is said to be in
triyn, and to sxvim fair, when it goes on steadily, with-
out any effort of the ploughman; for then the pres-
sure before and behind the centre of action is ba-
lanced. To know whether the plough be under this
management, the draught-rope is to be hooked as
high as possible, and in this state th.- plough should
have a continual tendency to rise at the heel, and to
run into the ground. When the rope is liooked as
low as possible, the plough should press hard on the
furrow with the heel, and have a tendency to run out
of the ground. If both these circumstances aie ob-
served, the construction of the plough is, in this
point, correct ; if otherwise, the position of the sock,,
or of the beam, requires alteration. Th.e tendency
of the plough to go deeper, is corrected by lowering
the end of the beam, or raising tha point of the sock;
and as the point of the sock should not be removed
from the plane of the sod, the alteration by the beam
should be preferred. The slope of the coulter has
also a considerable effect, but it cannot deviate far
from an angle of 45° without danger of choaking
the plough with roots and stones driven before it. If
the coulter of the plough be out of the direction of
the plough's motion, it must tend to twist it into its
own track, and as it must be fixed in the middle of
the beam's thickness, to give it strength, it is remov.
ed a little from the plane of the land side ; and t».

R

130

AGRICULTURE.

Ia>p!cmfnts. compensate for this, it was usual formerly to point it
to the left ; but this position did not obviate the ten-
dence to twist. The remedy for this inconvenience,
contrived by Mr Small, is to give the coulter a short
knee to the left, innnediately below the beam, and
thus to point it downwards in the perpendicular of
the land side.

Rothcrham plough.— Tiiis plough, it is said, was in-
vented or improved by Mr Foljambe, of Eastwood, in
the West-Riding of \orkshire, about the year 1730;
and from bearing the name of the Dutcli plough, it is
supposed tjiat it was originally introduced into Eng-
land from Holland. It is still in very general use in
Yorkshire. Mr Foljambe obtained a patent for this
plough ; but it was afterwards set aside, on the ground
that it was only an improvement, and not an original in-
vention. Fig. 1. Plate 3. is a representation of this
plough, of which a description has been already given.
Fig. 2. is a plan of the same plougli. A B is the beam ;
CB fhe larger handle or stilt fixed to the beam : DE
the smaller handle ; EFGI the mould-board ; GH the
feather of the sogk or share ; K an iron rod to give
strength to the handles.

iSmaU's plough — James Small, the improver of the
plough which bears his name, was born about the
year 174-0, in the county of Benvick in Scotland ;
finished his apprenticeship under a country carpen-
ter and ploughmaker in the same county; went to
Doncaster, Sid wrought for some time with a waggon
and wheel-carriage-maker; and, after his return in
1763, settled at Blackadder Mount, in Berwick-
shire, where he commenced the business of agricul-
tural implement maker. At the same time he had a
considerable farm in his occupation, which gave him
the best opportunity of carrying on his experiments.
At this time the old Scotch plough was the sole im-
plement in use in that county. Some writers, who
seem disposed to detract from Small's merit in the
improvement of the plough, are anxious to prove
that his claim is to be limited to the introduction of
the llothcrham plough, or merely to its revival ; for
it is asserted that it was known in Scotland as early
as 1730, about the time that it was improved by
Foljambe in England, by means of an itinerant
ploughmaker of the name of Lumnias, or Lummis.
Wlien Mr Lummis constructed his ploughs we are
not informed ; but it is added, that tlie same kind of
plough was made by Mr Dalziel in Linlithgowsliire,
who had been sent to England at the expence of
Lord Stair, to be instructed in the best methods of
constructing agricultural instruments. From this it
appears that Mr Lummis's improveniont in the plough
had twice fallen into oblivion, and was fir^t restored
by Mr Dalziel, and afterwards by Mr Small. But
there is something not very distinct in this account of
the origin and progress of Small's improvement.

On the other hand, it is strenuously contended by
the friends of-Small, that the old Scotch plough was
the foundation on which he proceeded; and in sup-
port of this opinion, the similarity of construction be-
tween the Scotch and the improved plough, and the
testimony of those who were witnesses of the experi-
ments which he conducted, are adduced. But, at the
same time, it is admitted that he was well acquaint-
ed with the Rotherham plough ; and is it not ex-

tremely probable, that, in contemplating the means of implements,
improving that implement, he would be desirous of stu-
dying the advantages and effects of every plough which
hehad anopportunity of subjectingto his examhiation?

Fig. 3. Plate 3. is a view of Small's plough. AB is
the beam, CB the left handle, DE the coulter, GH-
the sheath on which is fixed the sock or share DFG ;
GHIK the mould-board ; AF the sole. - Fig. 4. is a
plan of the same plough : AB the beam ; BC the left
handle, DE the right handle; FG the mould-board;
I an iron rod which connects the two liandles.

The materials of which Small's plough was origi-
nally constructed were similar to those of other
ploughs ; but about the year 1780, he added another
improvement, by forming the mould-board and the
land-side plates of cast iron; and findingthese to answer
the purpose so well, he extended the use of tlie same
metal to the sheath and head. The most difficult
parts of the plough being put into the hands of the
workman ready made, the construction became easy,
and its use spread rapidly over Scotland. But the
introduction of this plough, like many other useful
inventions and valuable improvements, at first met
with great opposition. When this was overcome, many
ploughmen in Berwickshire were so convinced of
the superior advantages of this plough, that for their
own ease and satisfaction they offered to be at the
sole expence of the wood work, if their masters would
furnish them with Small's plough, and defray the
other charges. After the use of Small's plough be-
came general in his native county, he settled in Mid-
Lothian ; and the attempt to introduce it met with si-
milar opposition. A comparative trial of his plough
with several others took place near Dalkeith, in pre-
sence of a great assemblage of gentlemen and farmers
from the surrounding counties. It was decided that
his plough did the best work with the least power.
The superiority of his plough being thus publicly ac-
knowledged. Its use spread rapidly over Scotland,
and it has since been extended to many parts of Eng-
laiul, as well as to Wales and Ireland, and even to
some foreign countries. The late Lord Karnes was a
warm patron of Small, and in his Gentleman Farmer
strongly recommended his improved plough, which he
says is now in great request, and with great reason,
as it avoids all tlic defects of the Scotch plough. Be-
fore the introduction of this improved instrument,
every plough in use required not fewer than four
horses or oxen, or a couple of each of these
animals, and sometimes more, besides a driver and
other attendants ; but with Small's plougli, two horses
and the ploughman are only necessary.

AdviiHtages of Small's plough. — The great superiori-
ty of Small's plough arises from the neater and light-
er construction of its different parts, the improved
combination of these parts, and the exact coincidence
of the line of draught and the centre of gravity of
the plough. The sock and nio\ild-board are form-
ed according to strict mechanical j;rinciples; those
parts which enter the earth, have an equally taper-
ing or sharpened wedge like form, which produces
the least resistance in raising the furrow-slice ; and
the mould-board is so curved or twisted, that the
frictiori is diminished, and the furrow-slice is raised
and turned over into its most proper place. The an-

AGRICULTURE.

151

Implements, terior part of this plough is a very thin wedge, so
~ ~ / that it cuts the furrow-slice from the fast lan:l with
the smallest possible resistance. Aided by the broad
thin feather of the sock, which separates the slice
below from the sub-soil, and the mould-board gradu-
ally increasing the wedge form, the slice is gradual-
ly turned over, so that the whole resistance is not
met at once.

But the superiority of Small's plough has been fully
■Established hy variini? comparative trials. In an ex-
-periment beibre tiie Dalkeitii Farming Society, it
was found, that Small's plough when it operated on
an old ley, was drawn with a force of from nine to
10 Cwt. while the old Scotch plo' gh in the same
tield required a force of 16 Cwt. to execute the same

■ work. In another experiment made before the same
society,' January 18. 1810, in which a plough im-
proved' by Mv Veiteh was brought in competition
with Small's, it appeared, tliat a power of drauglit
equal to 3| Cwt. measured by the dynamometer,
applied to the former, produced a furrow of 7 1 inches
deep ; and the same pov/cr applied to the latter form-
ed a f\u-row of 81 inches deep, and of the same
breadth. Another experimental trial of Small's
plough in competition with one brought forward by
Mr Simpson, exhibited before some members of the
same society on .Tune 19. 1813, afforded a still
farther proof of its superiority ; for it appeared that
the latter required a greater power of draught, a-
niountiugto nearly | Cwt. to perform the same work.
Small's ploughs are still made by the sons of the im-
prover, at their manufactory, Leith Walk, Edinburgh.

This plough is sometimes entirely constructed of
'iron. The chain which was ap])lied to it, seemed to
serve no other purpose than giving strength to the
beam, and is now very generally disused.

M>- Liston's plough A plough invented by the

Rev. Mr Listen of Ecclesniachan, and for which

that gentleman has obtained a patent, differs from

' others, first in the form of the mould-board, and, se-

■ cond, in the application of a wheel. 1. The different
mould-boards, it is observed by the patentee, which
are made by tradesmen, are formed rather by guess
than according to any fixed rule ; and although they
all perform tlie work proposed, it occurred to him
that a mould-board constructed on the principle of
adapting the curve to the varying resistance of the
furrow to be turned over, would possess many ad-
vantages. The undoubted superiority of the work
executed by this plough, and the ease of draught
obtained, are properly stated as satisfactory proofs
of the correctness of the principle on which the con-
struction has proceeded.

2. The diminution of friction is another advantage
connected with this plough. This is effected by
means of a wheel set at an angle to the horizon, run-
ning in the corner of the furrow, and answering the
ends both of sole and side-plate, although we under-
stand that some practical farmers have used the
plough without the wheel, and have not perceived
much difference in its operation.

The advantages of this plough are stated to be, the
better performance of the work, with less labour to
the horses. The superiority of work consists in the
tlepth of the furrow, and in the complete manner in

which the slice is 'taken out from side to side. On Implemenu.
examining the operation of other ploughs, it appears,
that although the furrow may be pretty deep on one
side, yet great part of the soil is left fast on the other.
Wherever deep ploughing is required, as in fallow,
the superiority of this plough is universally acknow-
ledged ; and it is said that his ploughs, in fallow, can
execute as much work as three of any other descrip-
tion, with a clean furrow, and half as deep again.
These are valuable properties, and, from authority
which we deem unquestionable, we have been assur-
ed that they belong to this implement, the advan-
tages of which we suspect have not yet been fully
appreciated. Mr Liston's plough is constructed by
]\lr Morton, agricultural implement maker, foot of
Leitli Walk, Edinburgh.

An objection has been made to the use of this in-
.'^trument, in ploughing ley gi-ouiid for a seed furrow,
that the work is too large, or ti'.at there are too few
semrn for the reception of tli.' oats or other seed.
The objection, it is admitted, is not altogether inap-
plicable to the plough, as it is at present construct-
ed ; for it was calculated solely for strong soils, with
a det'p and large furrow. But a smaller instrument
could easily be made on the same principles ; and
this task, should leisure and encouragement offer, we
undcrstand the ingenious inventor has it in contem-
plation to undertake.

Sect. II. Of the Hariow.

After the operation of the plough, the fresli sur-
face frequently requires to be broken down and pul-
verized, for the reception of the seed ; and when the
seed is inserted, it must be covered up. Tor tlicse
purposes, harrows of different weight, and somewhat
different in construction, are employed.

Brake harrow. — The brake is a large and heavy
harrow, which is used in breaking down stiff soils, as
in fallow operations, where the ordinary harrow would
have little effect. Some of these have been con-
structed with four square bulls, each side 5 inches,
and 6t feet in length. Tlie teeth are 17 inches long,
12 inches free below, with a heel close to the under
part of the bull, to prevent them from being pushed
back, and tlie}' are secured above with a screw nut.
Five teeth are inserted into each bull, so that the
whole number is 20. The teeth bend forward like
a coulter ; but a brake composed of five bails, and
liaving six teeth inserted in each, is now more com-
monly employed ; and a harrow of this descrivticm
is drawn by two horses. The construction of tlie
brake with joints, renders it more commodious for
the rounding of the ridge.

Uses of the brake. — In the operation of fallowing
stiff clay soil, where a repetition of ploughing is ne-
cessary, a braking between each ploughing is of great
advantage in pulverizing the soil, and in facilitating
the succeeding parts of the labour. In March or
April, when strong soil which is overrun with couch-
grass and other weeds, !s prepared for barley, a cross
braking is considered preferable to cross ploughing;
and the exper.ce is much less. After ground which
has been broken up for tiic first time, has been cross
ploas;hed, the apj-iicatiou of the brake is very efl'ec-
■ tual m reducing the whole to a proper texture.

15-2

AGRICULTURE.

Implement!!. The harrowhas been constructed of different forms
and sizes according to the nature of the soil, and the
work to be performed. The following is a descrip-
tion of an improved harrow.

Improved Scotch harrow. — Fig. 5. Plate 3. is a plan
of an improved harrow. ABCDEFGH, are two har-
rows connected together by a crank or hinge at L and
O, at the extremities of the iron bolts KL, LM, NO,
and OP, which jJass through two of the bulls in each
harrow, and are secured by a nut. Each harrow
consists of four bulls, each bull containing five teeth,
or tines, making altogether, in the pair of harrows,
40 teeth. A cross bar, AT and CW, in each har-
row, is fixed to three of the bulls, to give sufficient
strength to that part from which it is drawn. V W
is the chain to which the cross-trees are attached.
The rhomboidal fonn of this harrow prevents the
teeth behind from running in the track of those which
have preceded them. Each tooth has its own dis-
tinct track, and all the tracks are at equal distances,
as will appear by casting the eye on the figure, from
which, and the annexed scale, the proper dimensions
may be obtained. Fig. 6. is a profile view of one of
the bulls : AB the bull ; C the end of the chain
which is attached to the cross tree ; DF and EG
the first and the last teeth. This set of harrows ob-
viates the defects of those of the common form ; and
being connected by the hinge, they accommodate
themselves to the curve of the ridge. For the pur-
pose of covering grass seeds, smaller harrows, with
short teeth, are recommended by some, while, by
others, the common harrow is supposed to be quite
sufficient for this work.

Operation of harrotving. — In the operation of har-
rowmg different soils, and in different conditions,
two or more implements, as it may be thought ne-
cessary, are wrought together. On stiff sods, two
only should be employed, otherwise the work is less
perfectly executed by their irregular action ; and, on
strong coarse soils, as the velocity adds to the effect,
the horses should proceed as fast as they can easily
walk.

When the harrowing is for the purpose of covering
the seed, the greatest attention should be paid to
perform the work in a regular and steady manner ;
and particularly to keep the teeth of the harrov^
clear from all obstructions, such as grass roots, un-
broken masses of earth, and stones, by which the
seed is thrown together in crowded patches in some
parts of the field, while bare spots appear in others.

To perform the operation of harrowing perfectly,
the furrow should be broken, and the surface ren-
dered smooth. The first harrowing is usually in the
direction of the ridge lengthwise ; the second is con-
ducted transversely or across the field ; and the ope-
ration is finished by repeating the longitudinal course.
Those who are anxious to have the work neatly exe-
cuted, take' care to have the last harrowing precisely
in the direction of the ridge.

Sect. III. Of Drilling Machines.

"Various macliines have been constructed for the
purpose of depositing grain, pulse, or other seeds,
in rows, at equal distances ; but few of those which
)»ave been invented at different tiiaea are found to

accomplish the task with the requisite degree of ac- Impleihrnti.
curacy and regularity. In the construction of ma-
chines of this description, simplicity of form, that they
may be easily managed by ordinary labourers ; cheap-
ness, to admit of being generally employed; regula-
rity in dejiositing the seed, without bruising or break-
ing it, and being accommodated to different distan-
ces, to suit the size of different seeds, — are the prin-
cipal circumstances which ought to be attended to.
Drill macliines vary in form, according to the num-
ber of rows which they sow at one time, the distan-
ces between the rows, and the kind of seed deposit-
ed. In general they are drawn by horses, but some-
times they are moved by the labour of man. The
choice of implements of this kind must be regulated
by the nature of the soil and situation, the size of the
farm, and the kind of grain cultivated ; but simphcity
of construction, from which the best work may be
expected, should be always kept in view.

Numerous instruments have been constructed for
facilitating the drill husbandry, as drill-ploughs, drill-
rakes, universal sowers, horse-hoes, &c.; but as many
of these implements are extremely complicated, and
are therefore deficient in the essential character
which can render them useful, we shall only describe
the drill-roller, the drill-harrow, and the drili-barrow.

Drill-roller. — This roller, which it is supposed was
invented in Norfolk, is so contrived as to form regu-
lar incisions, or drills in the soil, of a proper depth
for the seed. It is a common roller of iron, of about
a ton weight and seven feet long, about which are
put cutting wheels of cast-iron, which turn round the
common cylinder, and are unconnected with each
other. The roller is drawn by three or four horses
abreast, and driven by a man raised behind them.
The cutting wheels are moveable, and, by moans of
washers, may be fixed at any requisite distance.

The length of the roller may be variod, according
to circumstances, and the ribs may be deep or shal-
low, according to the depth of the drills, and the
distances of the rows. The common length is from
seven to eight feet ; and, if the distances are eight
inches, the roller contains 12 ribs. The usual diame-
ter of the roller is 12 inches.

Mode of operation. — The method of operating with
this implement is the following : When the ground is
ploughed which is intended for setting or dibbling,
the roller is drawn across the furrows, and divides the
whole field into drills, according to the distance be-
tween the catting wlieels. The seed is then sown
broadcast, in the usual proportion, and the land is
bush-harrowed. In this way the seed is deposited at
an equal depth, as in drilling, and tlie crop rises free
from the I'urrow-seams, which is always an inconve-
nience connected with the common method of broad-
cast sowing.

Advantages The use of this simple implement is

held out as a great saving of bota timo and expense,
and affords all the benefits which are derived from
the operation of drill-ploughs, or other complicated
apparatus, or from the practice of dibbling, and setting
corn by the hand. A man and three horses, it is said,
can cover five or six acres of corn in one day. The
drill-roller was at first chiefly employed on clover or
other grass leys, on the first ploughing ; but it is stat-

AGRICULTURE.

jjnpisrnsnts. ^^ to be equally applicable to land which lias been
several times ploughed.

Drill-harrow Figi 7. Plate 3. is the profile or ele-
vation of a harrow which answers well for cutting
weeds and pulverising the soil between the drills : B
is the plan of the same machine ; C is the profile, and
E the plan of the front share ; D is the profile, and
V is the plan of the hinder share. These shares can
be placed at a greater or less distance, according to
the width of the drills, as may be seen by consulting
the plan B, Fig. 7.

The drill-harrow is a useful instrument for clean-
ing potatoes, turnips, and other crops in drills ; for it
both cuts the weeds and harrows them to the surface.
Comparing it with the scraping and paring plough,
one-half of the expense is saved.

Drill-barroixi This implement is for the purpose

of sowing grain in drills. Fig. 8. Plate 3. is a repre-
sentation of the various parts of a machine of this
description : A is a profile or elevation : B is a plan
of the same implement ; C is an end view ; D is an
edge view of the seed-wheel ; E is the profile of the
same wheel with flutes or channels to receive the
beans, and also a brush made of stiff bristles, placed
above the wheel, to cause the seed to drop regularly
into the bottom of the furrow ; F and G, different
views of the seed-wheels for sowing oats, barley,
wheat, and pease. These different wheels may be
placed on the axle or taken oft' at pleasure, according
to the kind of grain to be sown.

This drilling implement is constructed by Messrs
Small, Leith Walk, and by Mr Merton, at the same
place, at the price of from two to three guineas. The
box should contain from a peck to a peck and a-half
of grain. The iluted rollers are made either of wood
or of cast-iron, which is preferable to having the
brushes closen

Sect. IV. Of the Grubher.

Various implements, under the denomination of
scarifiers, extirpators, cultivators, &c. have been in-
vented for the purpose of stirring the surface of
land and preparing it for the seed, with the view of
saving the time and expense of a ploughing. The
following is a description of a machine of this kind,
called the grubber, which has been successfully em-
ployed by Mr Dudgeon, in Prora in East Lothian,
in Scotland, and is drawn up, at the desire of the
Highland Society of Scotland, by Mr John Sliirreff.
Construction. — This implement consists of Vno
strong rectangular frames, the one including the o-
ther, and nine bars mortised into the inner one, with
11 coulters or tines, with triangular, sharp-edged,
dipping-feet; four cast-iron wheels, two handles, &c.
Tiie machine is made of various sizes, and elm is
reckoned the best wood for the frames and bars. The
dimensions of Mr Dudgeon's grubber are the follow-
ing : See Plate 3. Fig. 9. which is a profile of the
implement, and Fig. 10. which is a plan of the same.

T. I.

Length of the outside frame - 6 9

Breadth of the frame - 3 6

Square of wood of frames and bars 0 3

Long hinder swing-tree, K K 5 10

Short hind do. N N - 3 6

Coulter's length

brsadth

thickness

F.

2
0
0

I.

2

H

Oi

Impiemcntt.

The inner frame is moveable on hinges, fixed oa
the front beam of the outer ; and it has two sides or
beams, into which are mortised nine cross-bars,
about eight inches distant from each other. The
coulters are fixed in these bars, excepting two, which
are placed in the side-beams of the outer frame. Thf
openings for the coulter have plates of iron, abovf
and below, for strengthening the wood, with top and
heel wedges attached by chains ; and when the ma-
chine is at work, these wedges are firmly fixed, to
steady the coulters. The machine is supported by »
four cast-metal wheels, each 20 inches in diameter,
and they prevent the coulters from going deeper in-
to the soil than the pitch at which they are set by
the pins and wedges. The wheels are also necessary
for moving the machine from one place to another ;
and in going down a declivity, the fore-wheels sliould
be dragged, to prevent it from running against the
horses. When the instrument is to be removed from
one place to another, the screws AA, Fig. 10. are
turned to allow the inner frame to rise on the hin-
ges near EE. The inner frame is raised by the
handles B B, andsupportedby small iron-stays, which
are hung on staples CC, and stretch to others o»
the under side of the bars DD, Fig. 9. When the
implement is at work, these staj's lie across the frame^
and are fixed in other staples at EE, Fig. 10. To
strengthen the inner frame, two rods of malleable iron,
headed at both ends, run frohi near DD to near EE,
Fig. 10. Thetwocoultersfixed in the side-beams of the
outer frame must have the wedges slackened, and be
raised close up to the under side of these beams, and
fixed there, when the instrument is moved from one
place to another. At FF, Fig. 10. in the outer
frame, bolts are driven upwards, with screwed points,
and fastened with corresponding screws. The lower
ends of these bolts have eyes or round holes, for fas-
tening the extremities of the chains HH, which are«
attached to the large swing tree at KK. Thesoam L
is fixed betow the inner frame at G, passing through
a strong staple under the outer frame at M. NN are
small swing-trees, to which the two hindmost horses
are yoked. The coulters stand rqplined, and have
steel triangular feet, as may be seen at Fig. 9, and
under different views in the separate figures Q, Q, Q.
The}' are from three to four inches broad at the base,
and from five to six inches long from the base to the
point of the triangle. The beam PO, Fig. 9. of the
inner frame, must have the under edge rounded off,
to allow it to rise by the handles.

Use of the grubber To work, and thoroughly stir

summer fallows, or land on which potatoes or turnips
have been raised, or lands ploughed in autumn or
the winter, and which are intended to be sown with
grain or ))ulse in the spring, with the exception of
clover and otlior leys, are the important purposes te
which the grubber may be applied. Sowing on the
winter furrow has been objected to, because the ef-
fects of a spring ploughing to clean the ground are
lost. It is no favourable indication of the state of tlie
ground whicii renders spring ploughing necessary,

134

AGRICULTURE.

Imp!ementi. witli this view ; but in such cases the grubber will be
found a valuable instrument : For grounds in sucli a
condition can be effectually stirred as deep as the
plough goes, and all root weeds which have remain-
ed in the soil arc cut up, and drawn to the burface,
by the reclining position of the coulters, and sharp
edges of their feet, instead of being partially buried
by the operation of ploughing. The grubber acts as a
• powerful harrow, with the additional eflect of its sharp
' ctlged triangular feet ; and it does not materially alter
the relative position of the particles of the soil ; and
hence it affords a decided advantage over the plough
for working winter ploughed lands in the spring, par-
ticularly those of a strong nature, for the valuable
part of the mould is retained on the surface for the
reception of the seed. By the use of this instrument,
time, and consequently expense, are saved ; early sow-
ing is obtained ; no fresh seeds of annual weeds are
brought near the surface ; and a drilling apparatus
might be connected with it, to deposit grain or other
'kinds of seed.

Advantages. — In cases where lands have been laid
tlown with cultivated herbage soeds, as red-clover,
&c. and have been broken up and cropped with oats,
'which are to be succeeded by beans, if the oat stubble
have been ploughed do-,vn in the autumn, or early in
vinter, the land may be afterwards advantageously
wrought by the grubber in spring, and the beans put
in by a separate drilling apparatus, or one attached
to the grubber itself; and if a skim-coulter were em-
ployed to bury the oat stubble under a strong deep
iurrow, the grubber would afterwards complete the
operation. Beans, pease, and tares, have been sown
on the winter furrow, merely by working the land
■ with the grubber ; and in some cases the land," after
sowing, has been wrought and cleaned very effectu-
ally with this instrument. The feet were so set as not
to reach the seed, which was drilled ; but if the ope-
ration be not delayed till the roots have taken hold
of the soil, it may be employed without injury, both
in drill and broadcast crops.

The grubber is also found extremely useful in aid-
ing the operations in the preparation of land for po-
tatoes or turnips, as well as for summer fallow. Land
which has been previously ploughed in winter, or
early in the spring, when it is of a friable nature,
may be cleaned and pulverised as soon as the dry
weather sets in, by means of the grubber. When the
ground is foul, the instrument may be set to work
only a few inches deep in going over the field the first
time, and the coulteTs may be placed deeper and
deeper as they can be applied. After two operations
of the grubber, in very foul land, it is found neces-
sary to use the plough, which is to be followed by
the grubber again, till the land be as clean as can be
effected. In a strong soil, a second ploughing, to be
succeeded by rollbg, may be required before the
cleaning process of the grubber can be repeated.
When stiff' soil has been twice ploughed and rolled,
the root weeds are, in almost all cases, loosened and
brought to the surface by the grubber. When there
18 much couch-grass in the soil of a field, it may be
divided into several compartments by plough fur-
rows ; in crossing these, the inner frame of the in-
'Btrument can be raised up, and the root weeds,. col-

lected by the coulters, disengaged from tliem. These Impfements.
weeds, being deposited in parallel rows, are collect- ^^r- -m^'
ed by a rake, to be scorched or carried off the field.
An instrument of this kind may be applied to
work across and level down the ridgelets formed in
horse-hoed drilled beans, after the crop is removed,
and jn-eviously to ploughing down the stubble. The
grubber effectually exterminates ooucJi-grass or other
root weeds left in a bean fallow, and which are usual-
ly found on the tops of the ridgelets, lurking among
the stems of the beans. The levelling of the ridge-
lets, which adnnts of the land being ploughed with
more facility, correctness, and expedition, is effec-
tually accomplished by means of the grubber.

If seed Can be advantageously inserted in a very
dry autunni, in strong land, by means of the scari-
fier instead of the plough, it cannot be doubted
that it may be more easily done on nu)derately loamy
soils by the grubber, and in all soils of a softer tex-
ture, early in spring, before they are liardened by
the drought. If fewer coulters were employed, if
it had only five or six instead of 11 , and if it were
only half the breadth, and the same power app.licd,
this instrument might probably be used in the prepa-
ration of land after turnip, i'or the reception of bar-
ley and grass-seeds, to better purpose than the
plough, by stirring the soil completely, while tJie
seeds of annual weeds are not brought near the sur-
face.

These implements are drawn by four horses, and
they are constructed by Messrs Brown and Carrick,
farm implement makers in the village of Athelstone-
ford, East-Lothian. The price of grubbers of the ,
strongest construction is ft-om L.ll to eleven gui-
neas ; and they are also made b^ Mr Morton, Leith-
Walk, Edinburgh.

Sect. V. Of the Roller.

Rollers are constructed of wood, cast-iron, or
stone ; and they are drawn over the surface of the
land by means of horses, for the purpose either of
reducing lumps or clods, or for compressing porous
soils that their texture may be improved. The roller
is employed both for tillage and grass lands ; and the
weight and size are different, according to the dif-
ferent uses to which they are applied.

The common roller is about five or six feet long,
and from 15 to 30 inches in diameter ; but when it
is intended for flattening one boict ridges, to prepare
them for drilling turnips, it is made shorter and of
smaller diameter. A roller of cast iron, and divided
into two parts, is recommended as one of the best
construction. "The length of each of the parts is
from three to three and a half feet, so that a surface
equal to six or seven feet is covered. It exceeds 10
Cwt. ; the frame is strongly made, with shafts for a
single horse, to be fixed on the near side, and hooks
placed on the other side for an additional horse
when necessary. The gudgeons, or pivots, act upon
small case-hardened friction wheels, two of which
are fixed on each side of the frame, with a small
roller of hard wood, about nine inches long and three
inches in diameter, bound with iron at the extremi-
ties, and fixed to the back part of the frame, that
both rollers may act with each other in the centre

AGRICULTURE.

1 f,^

Impicn'ents. wheel. In this way, wliile the large roller is kejit
>,«i»>/i.iB^ steady, the draught is at the same time greatly dimi-
nished. The ohvious advantage of this roller is, that
it rises and falls in the centre, and thus accommo-
dates itself to the slopes of the ridges.

As rollers do not move upon their axis, but are
drawn along the surface of the ground, they are apt
to tear it up, and to make cavities and depressions
before they come into the line of drauglit, to which
they are brought with some exertion, when they are
turned at the ends of ridges or fields ; the roller now
described, from being constructed in two pieces, is
supposed to obviate these inconveniencies; and when
formed in this way, it is recommended that the cy-
linders be made of cast-iron.

The spike-roller, which is constructed in the same
way as the common roller, except that it has a num-
ber of spikes inserted in it, is considered a very eHi-
cient implement in reducing strong stiff soils, break-
ing down the lumps, and bringing the land into a
fine state ; and a compound roller, composed of the
plain and spike rollers, which may be used either
singly or together, is also found highly beneficial in
producing the same effects. Its powers, it is said,
are wonderful, in pulverising stift" clay soils. It gives
the farmer a command over dry seasons, and enables
him to sow his spring and fallow crops in proper
time, and to clean his arable land of root and annual
weeds. A roller of this kind, passed over the land
once, twice, or thrice, with drag-harrowing between
every rolling, renders it sufficiently fine for every
purpose. This roller is also found extremely useful
in restoring degenerated sward.

The furrow roller, which is a double cone, united
at the base, has been constructed lor the purpose of
rolling the furrows in hilly and other lands which
are not accessible to the common roller.

The size and weight of rollers, it is obvious, must
be varied according to the nature of the soil and the
particular purpose for which they are intended.
When the roller is of large size, a greater weight be-
comes necessary to make an3' impression, because it
is divided over a morn extended surface, and when
the roller is small, it is apt to produce depressions
and inequalities on the softer and more yielding
parts of the soil. It would therefore be of great ad-
vantage to have rollers of different sizes, and by in-
creasing or diminishing their weight they can be ac-
commodated to all purposes.

Operation of rolling. — In rolling ground with a
roller composed of a single piece, the operation is
most conveniently performed by going round the
whole field in a kind of spiral direction ; for in this
way the necessity of making short turns is obviated.
This is the best method of rolling down grass seeds
with corn crops. Grass lands may be rolled in any
direction ; but perhaps, in all cases, the most conve-
nient and effectual practice is, to roll transversely
or across the field, so that the benefit may be extend-
ed to the land next the furrow, which is rarely the
case when the-operation is conducted along the ridge.
Advantages of rolling. — As the object of rolling is
to render the soilmore solid and compact, and thus
to improve its texture, as well as to give it a smooth
and even surface, the operation should never be per-

formed in wet weather, particularly on adhesive soils. Implements
which are apt to stick to the roller, and to render the '-»- i^-'
surface rough and uneven ; but when it is employed
in a favourable season, it is of great use in breaking
down the hard masses of earth which are turned up
in fallowing. It is not less beneficial in the prepara-
tion of land for turnips, and it is equally useful to
grass lands after they are cleared of stones. A heavy
stone-roller, drawn by two, or even by threejiorses,
is required for strong clay soils ; but for grass or tur-
nip land, a wooden or cast-iron roller, drawn by a
single horse, is sufficient.

Sect. VI. Of Reaping Machines.

The usual methodof reaping corn by means of manual
labour with the sickle or scythe, is often attended with
much inconvenience and loss, not only from a defi-
ciency of hands when the crop is fully ripe, but also
from the shaking of the grain before and during the
operation. These circumstances have suggested the
notion of constructing a machine, by which that im-
portant work might be accomplished with more safe-
ty and expedition. Many attempts have been made
for this purpose, but till lately none of them pro-
mised to be successful. The splendid premium of
L.500 Sterling, which was offered by the Dalkeith
Fanning Society, a few years ago, to the person who
should invent and construct an effective machine for
reaping corn, roused mechanical ingenuity, and
brought forward a great number of models and ma-
chines ; but few of them, even from a slight exami-
nation of their principle and construction, were cal-
culated to produce the effect. Some of these mo-
dels or machines operated by means of knives ; some
by means of scissars, and others by circular cutters ;
but they were all deficient in one or both of the es-
sential properties of such an apparatus, namely, in the
perfect cutting and regular laying of the gram. The
only machines of this description which appeared to be
constructed on a correct principle, and have been
found upon trial to answer the end, are those of Mr
Smith, manager of the Deanston cotton-v.'orks, near
Doune, in Perthshire, and of Mr Kerr, mathematical
instrument maker in Edinburgh. Of these machines,
the principle of whicli is exactly the same, we shall
give a short description.

Mr Smith's reaping machine. — Fig. 1. Plate 4. is
a perspective view of Mr Smith's reaping machine.
AB is the frame work, which supports the cutter
D, and the machinery by which it is put in motion.
C is a conical drum, made of tin-plate or basket
work, two feet deep, and about five feet diameter at
its lower part, to which the circular cutter D is at-
tached. The drum is covered on the outside with
canvas ; and perpendicular pieces of soft rope, about
an inch thick, and three or four inches distant from
each other, are stitched upon it, to increase the fric-
tion in carrying round the cut corn. The circular
cutter D consists of six segments, which are secured
in their place by screw-nails, and can easily be taken
off to be sharpened. They are made of German steel,
and project five inches beyond the lower part of the
drum. The motion is communicated to the drum and
cutter by the wheels E E, through the intermediate
action of the horizontal shaft FF; and this latter puts i«

13(3

AGRICULTURE.

Impleiscntsi motion the upright sliaft, to which the drum and cut-
ter are attached. The horses whicli propel the ma-
chine are yoked to a transverse bar, which is fixed
at the extremity of a pole, running back from the
frame of the carriage, and they draw by means of
common plough chains directly from the cross-bar,
or, what is considered as an improvement, by cross
or swingle trees. The back weight of tlie carriage is
supported on common cart saddles, witli an appara-
tus similar to that used in curricles.

Operalion. — An inspection of the figure vnW shew
that the carriage wheels, by a series of wheels,
pinions, and shafts, communicate, in proceeding
forward, a rapid rotatory motion to the drum and
cutter ; and as the cutter projects beyond the
carriago-wlieels on each side, a sufficient breadth
is cut down to permit the carriage and horses to pass
along without injuring the uncut corn. The corn is
cut by the rapid motion of the cutter ; and as the
lower ends of the stems rest upon the edge of the
cutter, and the heads come in contact with the drum,
the whole is carried round, and regularly laid by the
side of the machine. The lower extremities take
the ground first, the heads fall outwards, and tlie
stalks are- laid parallel to each other, and nearly at
right angles to the line of motion of the machine.
The man who drives the horses walks behind, and
guides the whole machine by the end of the pole.
By a particular apparatus he can raise or lower the
cutter, when any obstacle comes in the way, or in
going from one field to another. The cutters require
to be sharpened four times in reaping an acre ; and
this operation is performed in two mmutes with a
common scythe stone.

When the machine is to be removed to a distance,
the upright spindle, with the drum and cutter at-
tached, is taken from its place, and secured on the
top of the carriage. The cross bar at the extremity
of the pole is removed, and fixed in a mortice near
the frame of the carriage, and the horses are turned,
to draw from it, so that the machine may travel to
any distance, and over any kind of road.

In the trials which have been made with Mr
Smith's machine, it appears that it is capable of cut-
ting down an English acre of corn in the hour, dur-
• ing which the cutter, as already mentioned, requires
to be sharpened four times. The expence of a ma-
chine of this description is calculated at L.30 or L.35
.Sterling ; but it is supposed that, with proper care, it
'may be kept in use for many years. The only addi-
tional expence will be a new set of cutters every se-
cond or third year.

Mr Smith made the first trial of his machine on a
small scale, during the harvest of 1811, and it was
then wrought by two men. In 1812, he constructed
a machine upon a larger scale, wrought by a horse.
Several acres of oats and barley were cut down with
considerable ease. It was fbund that the power of a
/single horse was unequal to push it forward on rising
ground. During this harvest, Mr Smith exhibited
'his machine in operation in the neighbourhood of
Dalkeith, before a committee of the Dalkeith Farm-
ing Society, from whose report it appeared that tlie
corn was well cut, but was not laid with sufficient
regularity. In the succeeding year, 1813, the ma-

chine was still farther improved, when it was wrought impiementij
by two horses and one man. It was again exhibited ^_ji- -^jii
before a committee of the Dalkeith Farming Society, '*
who reported that the corn was better laid, but was
imperfectly cut. In the harvest of 1814, some addi-
tions were made to the apparatus, for the purpose of
regulating the application of the cutter whtn it is
employed on unequal ground. This addition con-
sists in wheels or rollers, placed under the cutter, by
which it is prevented from sinking into the earth on
a rough surface. But the most successful trials with
Mr Smith's machine were made in the harvest of
1815, some of which were in the presence of a cont-
mittfce of the Highland Society of Scotland, who
gave a most favourable report of its operation; and
as an acknowlctlgmcnt of their opinion of Mr Smith's
ingenuity, a piece of plate of 50 guineas value, was
presented to him by that respectable body. In the
trials alluded to, a Scotch acre of beans was cut
down in an hour and a quarter. Satisfactory trials
were also made in reaping wheat and oats, the latter
of which was laid with the most perfect regu-
larity, at right angles to the path of the machine.
The operation of this machine in cutting corn is at-
tended with the great advantage, that the grain is
not in the least degree shaken ; so that the loss which
is frequently sustained by the common mode of reap-
ing with the sickle ii entirely avoided.

Mr Kerr's reaping machine. — This machine, of J

which a perspective view is given at Fig. 2. Plate 4. \

consists of two principal parts, 1st, the carriage, and,
2d, the Arum, with its appendages. The carriage is
mounted on three wheels, and is partly of wood and
jjartly of iron. The two front wheels are made very
heavy, in order to give power to the cutter. The
rim is about six inches broad. These wheels move
upon a strong axle, which has a catch to carry round
the axle with the wheels when the machine is pushed
forward, but so fixed as to leave the axle free when
the machine is drawn backwards. Upon this axle
the two bevil wheels are fixed, only one of which is
shewn in the figure at D. They are so placed that
either of them may be brought into action, and thus
the motion may be reversed at pleasure. The ends
of the main axle move in couples, connected with a
strong bar, or bars, passing below the cutter to the
frame of the machine. A broad upright beam, or
frame work, E, is attached to the bar immediately be-
hind the cutter, on the top of which the long beam
EF rests, and the whole is bound together with straps
and bolts of iron, so as to form a strong and durable
carriage. The third small wheel is placed near the
bottom of the upright frame-work E, arid the ma-
chine thus resting on the three points, sufficiently
distant, is not easily overturned. The horses are
yoked to the end of the long beam by swingle-trees at
F. The horse was yoked by a swingle-tree at the first
trial of the machine in harvest 1811, and this method
is found to jjroduce by far the most steady motion.
The two guards GG prevent the horses from com-
ing forward on the cutter, in the event of any of the
liarness giving way.

The drum A forms the other part of the machine,
and it consists of a frame with iron arms, which are
bgunded by a circular rim. The arms are covered

AGRICULTURE.

i5r

Impiements.

on the outside with thin wood, or basket-work, wliich
commences immediately above the cutter B, and is
continued as high as the heads or ears of the growing
corn. The cutter, or perpetual scythe, B, is fixed
to the bottom of the rim. It is sharp on the outside,
or outer edge, and is divided into a convenient num-
ber of segments, all of the same size, so that a cor-
responding part may be easily put on, in case of any
of the segments being damaged. The drum is car-
ried round upon an upright shaft or axis D, pass-
ing through its middle. There is a pinion fixed
upon this axis, which pitches in one of the toothed
vertical wheels on the main axle, so that when the
carriage moves the drum is immediately put in mo-
tion. The lower end of the pinion-sliaft or axis rests
on a part of the frame directly over the middle of the
main, axle, and the upper end of it is kept in its
place by the end of the long beam above, which is
produced to E for that purpose.

By this arrangement, the whole forms a strong,
compact, and simple machine, of which the new in-
vention of the drum, with the circular cutter attach-
ed, makes the most important and distinguishing fea-
ture. Many machines have been constructed for
reaping corn, by some of which the cutting process
has been accomplished ; but none of these machines
can cut and at tlie same time lay down the corn re-
gularly, so as to be afterward* operated upon by the
thrashing machines now in general use. Both these,
however, are done in the most perfect manner by this
niacliine. The stalks of corn after being cut, are laid
down with their heads away from the machine, so as
to form a right angle with the line of operation, or
path of the horses, aiid by this means they may be
easily gathered into sheaves.

Mr Kerr's new invention of the drum and circular
cutter attached, was not made very public till the
month of February 1811, at which time he exhibited
liis model in its present complete and simple form.
Soon after this, we find it was laid before one of the
first agricultural societies in Scotland, and they en-
tered the date of the exhibition upon their minutes,
in order to secure to him the merit of tlie invention.
This appears by the following excerpt from the mi-
nute-book of the Dalkeith Farming Society, dated
II th April 1811 : " One of the members having
mentioned that he had seen a very ingenious model
of a reaping machine, which the inventor, Mr Kerr,
mathematical instrument maker in Edinburgh, was
desirous to exhibit to the Society, for the purpose of
securing to himself the priority of invention, in the
event of an effective machine being afterwards con-
structed on the same principles ; the meeting agreed
that the secretary should inform Mr Kerr that they
would examine his model at next meeting." The
model was accordingly presented in the month of
May following, before a very full assembly, being the
anniversary meeting of the Society, and the commit-
tee delivered their report, which is also inserted in
their minute-book.

In the harvest of the same year (1811) Mr Kerr
constructed a large operative machine, and proved
the efficiency of the principle of his invention on a
field of corn near Edinburgh. The price of this ma-
chine it is supposed will not exceed L.20 Sterling.

VOL. I. PART I.

Mr Kerr obtained a premium of 20 guineas from the impicmcntfc
Highland Society for his model, which was examin-
ed by a committee of the directors ; and he is to re-
ceive a farther sum of 20 guineas when he constructs
an improved machine on a large scale. To those
who are interested in the perfection of such an im-
plement, it will be gratifying to be informed, that he
is now occupied in this labour ; and to those who
are acquainted with his talents and ingenuity, it is
needless to state, that something effectual may be
expected from his exertions, and particularly when
the various improvements which he has in contem-
plation have been arranged and embodied. It is pro-
per to add, that Mr Kerr has already taken the pre-
liminary steps to secure the right of his invention by
a patent, and we believe it is still his intention to
complete the process.

The slightest inspection of the figures of the two
reaping machines now described, is sufficient to mark
the identity of the principle in both. The construc-
tion is somewhat different. But whether the com-
plicated apparatus in tlie one be necessary to its suc-
cessful operation we presume not to decide ; nor
should we deem ourselves free from equal presump-
tion were we to pronounce any decision on the mer-
its of a controversy, which we regret has appeared
before the public with regard to the priority of in-
vention and certain improvements on these machines.
On one point we have no hesitation in expressing, a
decided opinion. Since we had an opportunity of
seeing Mr Kerr's model, and of witnessing the opera-
tion of Mr Smith's machine at Dalkeith, in 1813, we
have never entertained the smallest doubt that an
efficient reaping machine could be constructed.

Sect. VII. Of the Thrashing Machine.

The invention of the thrashing machine has been
productive of more real benefit tp the agriculturist
than perhaps any other instruiiicnt at present in
use. Besides the imniense saving of grain, not only
in regard to quantity, but its improvement in quality,
he can at all times command a sufficient supply, either
for an increasing demand in the market, or in the
field in seed-time. From the rapidity with which thei
operation can be performed, he has it now in his
power to attend to it at all times, which formerly,
from its very nature, when executed by the flail, be-
came impossible, as it generally commenced imme-
diately after harvest, and continued, according to
circumstances, frequently during nine months or the
year. Independent of seeing the whole process per-
formed in the most satisfactory manner, under his
own eye, the grain is not now required to be in the
chaff heap, during the thrashing of a stack, for per-
haps ten or fourteen days, on a damp f^oor, until it is
winnowed, but is in general immediately passed
through the fimners a second time, which operation,
with the thrashing, seldom occupies more than two
days, and in many cases it is finished in a sliorter time.
The advantage derived from the quickness of this oper-
ation is perhaps greater with regard to wheat than any
other grain; for by lying so long in the chaff heap,
it contracted a degree of toughness which rendered
it difficult to grind immediately after thrashing; sa
that it becitiue necessary either to remain on a well
s

138

AGRICULTURE.

ImnVmrn". aired floor for some time, or to mix it with a larger
quantity which had been dried in a similar situation.
The grain also acquires a kind of roughness to the
touch by lying in the chaff, so perceptible, that few
persons who are in the habit of judging of the quality
of grain, are at a loss to know whether it has been
thrashed by the flail or the machine ; an accurate
observer assures us, that he has frequently made the
experiment in the public market, and has been sel-
dom disappointed in the result.

Origin and history — The first attempt to construct
a thrashing machine seems to have been made about
the middle of the 18th century, by Mr Michael Men-
zies, advocate. This machine, for which the invent-
or obtained a patent, was erected in the vicinity of
Edinburgh, and, after being examined by a commit-
tee of the Society of Improvers in Scotland, was ap-
proved and recommended by that body. The ma-
chinery was driven by water, and the operation was
performed by a number of flails, somewhat similar to
those which are used in thrashing by manual labour;
but it did not answer the purpose, and soon after-
wards was laid aside.

• The next attempt to construct a machine of this
kind was made, about the year 1758, by Mr Michael
Stirling, a farmer near Dumblane, in Perthshire.
The principles on which this machine was construc-
ted are similar to those of the flax or lint mill. An
upright shaft or axle, driven by a water-wheel, has
four arms fixed in it, which are inclosed in a cylin-
der, about 8 feet in diameter and 3f feet in height.
The shaft and arms are moved with great velocity
within the cylinder, and the corn, which is presented
by the hand, is let down through an opening in the top
of the cylinder, that it may receive the strokes of the
arms or switchers by which the grain is beaten out,
and the straw passes outwards through an opening
in the side of the cylinder. The corn falls down in-
to the fanners to be separated from the chaff. This
kind of machine, although it is not considered of the
best construction for separating the grain from the
straw, is still in use in some parts of Scotland.

Two thrashing machines were erected in Northum-
berland about the year 1772. One of them was in-
vented by Mr Ilderton, at Alnwick, and acted upon
the principle of pressing or rubbing out the grain ;
but it would appear that the work was very imper-
fectly executed. The other machine alluded to, was
constructed by Mr Oxley, at Flodden, and its ope-
ration, it is said, was more successful. By some it
has been alleged, that Mr Meikle, who is generally
considered as the inventor of the thrashing mill, de-
rived the first hint from this machine, which was
moved by horses, and the corn was introduced be-
tween two fluted rollers, and struck by .switchers
liung on .hinges. The defect of this machine was,
that it did not thrash out the grain completely, aris-
ing, it is supposed, from the want of sufficient velo-
city. Before this time, a thrashing machine, upon
the principle of the flax mill, was erected in North-
umberland, by Mr Gregson, who, it is said, borrow-
ed the idea from a small flax mill, with which a
Scotchman travelled the country, for the purpose of
swingling the flax which the farmers grew for their
own use. Mr Gregson's machine was wrought by a

man, who could thrash with it twelve bushels of fniplementi.
wheat in a day ; but it was found to be hard labour, ~
and the machine was soon afterwards laid aside.

It appears that models of some of the thrashing
machines erected in Northumberland, were brought
to East-Lothian, one of which was sent to Mr And-
rew. Meikle, civil engineer at Houston Mill, near
Haddington, for the purpose of ascertaining its ef-
fects ; but on the trial being made, the model was,
in a few minutes, broken to pieces ; and the machine
constructed on a large scale, some years afterwards,
shared the same fate. From these unsuccessful at-
tempts, Mr Meikle was probably led to turn his
thoughts to the construction of a thrashing machine,
upoii a different principle from any which had been
yet adopted. He employed a cylinder or drum,
placed in a horizontal position, and having the switch-
ers fixed upon its circumference, so that it might be
enabled to bear the necessary motion ; for he was
convinced that the corn could not be perfectly de-
tached from the straw without a very considerable
velocity in the thrashing drum. The attempt com-
pletely succeeded.

The first thrashing machine was erected by the son
of the inventor, about the year 1786, at Kilbagie, in
Clackmannanshire ; and it is not a little curious t«
observe the doubts which were then entertained of
the successful operation of such a machine ; for a sti-
pulation was entered into, that the materials were to
be furnished by the proprietor, and if the machine
did not answer, no remuneration was due to Mr
Meikle for his labour. When the machine was com-
pleted, it performed the work in a satisfactory man-
ner. Other machines were erected on the same prin-
ciples ; and their utility and advantages being fully es-
tablished, a patent for the invention was obtained,
but proved of little benefit to the ingenious inventor,
in consequence of the numerous machines which had
been constructed in different parts of the country.
Not long since, the ingenuity of Mr Meikle, then in
his 89th year, was rewarded by a pretty liberal
subscription, which was encouraged and promoted
chiefly among the landed proprietors and farmers in
the northern part of the kingdom.

Since the invention and first construction of the
thrashing machine, various important improvements
have been introduced, both by the inventor himself,
and by other ingenious mechanics. When it was first
erected, although the corn was well separated from
the straw, yet as corn, straw, and chaff, were thrown
together into the same heap, the operation was only
half performed ; but by means of shakers and fan-
ners, which have been added to the original machine,
and are driven by the same power, the operation of
thrashing, shaking, and winnowing, is executed at
the same time, and the grain is immediately prepared
for the market.

For the following description, as well as for the ele-
gant drawing from which our engraving is taken, of a
very complete and perfect thrashing machine, we
are indebted to Mr Clark, of Mayfield, near Dal-
keith, on whose farm it was erected by Mr Charles
Umpherston, mill-wright at Loanhead.

A, Fig. 1. Plate 5. is a table* feet long by 3^ feet
broad, elevated from the opposite side of the rollers

AGRICULTURE.

139

Implfments. about 6 Or 7 inches, on whicli the corn is regularly
and evenly spread, and, by being pressed gently for-
ward, is taken in by the rollers B, (i inches in dia-
meter,) and by their weight and triangular edges is
held fast, while tlie switchers c ccc, fixed to the cylin-
der D, and projecting about 3 inches from its sur-
face, passing with great velocity, beats the grain out
in an upward direction against the plate E and breast
of the machine F, made moveable by hinges at G.
Tlie breast of the machine, from the plate E to the
hinge at G, is covered with plate-iron; the cylindrical
drum D, and switchers c c, are also covered with the
same metal. The straw and grain are thrown a-
gainst the circular shaker or rake H, and by it made
to pass over the skreen I, through which the grain
falls into the hopper K, while the straw is carried
forward to the second rake, or cylindrical skreen L,
which separates the remaining grain, and throws the
straw upon the inclined skreen M, to the floor of the
straw-house N. The grain, by passing through the
hopper K, is made to fall into the fanners O, which
separate the chaff and grain in the usual manner.
After being properly riddled, and the chaff removed,
the grain is again passed through the same fanners,
which are then moved by a small water-wheel, (en-
tirely distinct and separate from the thrashing ma-
chine,) placed under the troughs ; the velocity of the
wind required is regulated by a valve, allowing a
greater or lesser quantity of water to fall upon the
wlieel, which completes the operation.

The whole machine is put in motion by the water-
wheel P, I* feet 4 inclies in diameter, and 3 feet 9
inches in breadth, made entirely of cast-metal, ex-
cepting the arras, which are of hannnered iron, and the
buckets of wood, pitched ; and which, to thrash the
grain in a proper manner, requires to make four and
a half revolutions in a minute. The requisite velocity
is obtained by the quantity of water allowed to fall
into the buckets, by raising or depressing a sluice,
which is so constructed as to be near the hand of the
person who conducts the operation.

On the inner edge of the water-wheel are placed
a number of cast-metal segments, containing '2,iO
teeth, which drives the pinion Q, (2 feet 7 inches in
diameter,) of 43 teeth, also made of cast-metal, and
placed on the axis of the spur-wheel 11, (5 feet 9
inches in diameter,) made of the same materials, hav-
ing 108 teeth, that drives the pinion of the cylinder
D, having 12 leaves. On the axis of the spur-wheel
R, are also placed two pinions or sheaves S, (1 foot
10 inches in diameter,) which in the plate are seen
through the pinion Q, so constructed as to move
the chain-belt T, of the rake H and Y, of the roller
pinion or sheave W ; the motion of the second rake or
.skreen, L, is communicated from the rake H, by the
two bevelled wheels XX, fixed on the axis Y, and
working into the two faced wheels ZZ. The chain-
belt V, puts in motion the pinion or sheave W, which
by a faced wheel a, (see Fig. 2.) working into the small
pinion b, turns the spindle c, to the upper end of which
is attached the pinion d. ivliich, by the lever e, can be
made to give motion to either of the face-wheelsyor
g, fixed on the axis h, by which means the mo-
tion of the rollers B can be made to feed in tlie corn,
or the reverse, at pleasure. This contrivance is par-

ticularly useful in thrashing grain when the straw is implcmrit
damp, as it has then a great tendency to warp round
the rollers, by reversing the motion, which is done
by moving the pinion d, (see fig. 2.) by the assistance
of the lever e, from the face wheel f, to that of f^ ;
the rollers are then made to move in a contrary di-
rection, and to return the straw on the feeding table,
with the same celerity tiiat it was taken in bj' them
to be exposed to the switchers of the cylindrical
drum. All this is accomj)lished while the machine
moves on in the usual manner ; and as soon as the
straw has mound off the rollers, the operation pro-
ceeds, by again moving the pinion d into the pitch
of the face-wheelyj as formerly.

Another advantage attending this construction, is,
that the pinion d, by being left out of the pitch of ei-
ther wheels, as in Fig. 2., the motion of the rollers
is stopped ; and as it seldom happens that the wa-
ter can be entirely excluded by the sluices from
the water-wheel, should the machine be set in mo-
tion from such a circumstance, or any other, no
danger is to be apprehended from any thing left
on tlie feeding table being taken into the machine,
which from the negligence of servants may occasion-
ally take place.

On the same axis h, with the bevelled wheels /and
g. Fig. 2. are placed two small spur-wheels, of difterent
diameters, (5 and 6\ inches) fixed together by the
box i, and, being made to move along the axis, can
be fixed at any particular point of it by the screw
k ; as these are made of different diameters, and also
to work into either of the two, of different diameters,
fixed on the axis /, to which the rollers are at-
tached, it is obvious that, by these means, the roll-
ers can be made to deliver the corn to the switchers
either in a slow or rapid manner, as may be thought
necessary from the length of the straw, the propor-
tion, in tliis case, being as eight to twelve.

In the machine which we have described, the
rollers, drum, a»d rakes, are made four feet m
length ; this size has been found, by repeated ob-
servations, to be preferable to their being made of a
greater length. When the water-wheel moves with
that degree of celerity necessary to give the proper
velocity to the switchers on the cylindrical drum, it is
found fully to occupy one man in feeding the corn to
the machine (with his assistants to unbind and place it
on the table) in a proper manner ; and also sufficient ,
employment to the other persons who are engaged
to remove the straw and to riddle the grain. When
this is exceeded, nothing but confusion takes place,
which it is always adviseable to avoid. The quan-
tity which is generally thrashed by this regular me-
thod of working amounts to about six bolls per
hour ; by employing a greater number of persons,
and applying more water, double the quantity could
be done in tlie same time, the corn being supplied
in a proportionate manner.

The fanners are moved by a crossed rope passed
over a sheave about 1 1 inches in diameter, placed on
the axis of the cylinder D, and two others on tlie
axis of the fanners, of eight and ten inches in
diameter, and the rope placed on either of them as
occasion may require.' The rope is directed by the
assistance of the two pulleys, n and o ; and as the one

140

AGRICULTURE.

Impjtm^nts. at 0 is made to move up and down in a frame, the
rope is by that means kept in the degree of tightness
that is requisite. As the axis of the fanners make
47 revolutions for one of the water-wheel, the num-
ber is 211 per minute.

In calculating the velocity of the above machine,
excluding fractions, it will be found that the cylin-
drical drum makes about 50 revolutions for one of
the water-wheel ; and as the water-wheel requires to
make 4-J- turns per minute, the number of the revo-
lutions of the cylinder is 225 per minute ; and as
the diameter of the cylinder, including the breadth
of the switchers, is Sf feet, the circumference then
is nearly 11, making the velocity of the switch-
ers about 2.')t)0 feet per minute.

As the rakes make five revolutions for one of the
water-wheel, the number, per minute, is 22i, clearing
the skreeii (having four arms) 90 times per minute.

The rollers are so constructed by the chain-belts,
&c. as to make, when upon the slowest motion, eight
revolutions for one of the water-wheel, and when the
quickest motion is necessary 12 revolutions ; by this
it appears, that they will, on the former, make 36 re-
volutions per minute, and the latter 54 ; and as they
are four inches in diameter, the circumference is
somewhat more than 12} inches, which being mul-
tiplied by the number of revolutions per minute,
makes, when on the slowest motion, 450 inches of
straw to pass through the rollers, and when on tlie
quickest 675; which 675 inches will receive 900
strokes of the switchers in that time, or nearly a
stroke and a half to an inch. On the slowest mo-
tion, the number is exactly two strokes to an inch ;
and tliis has been found, by the present machine, al-
ways to beat out the grain in the most satisfactory
manner.

As the segments containing the teeth for moving
the spur-wheel are placed on the inner edge of the
water-wheel of the machine, which we have de-
scribed, and as it is constructed with eight double
arms of malleable iron, a considerable improvement
was made in erecting it (from those wheels hitherto
made on the same principle,) by placing four stays
from the outer arms near the gudgeon to the arms
on the opposite side immediately under the buckets,
by which means the lateral motion from the spring
of the arms is prevented, and the machine moves
with a more steady and equable motion. It was
found that a stay to every second arm completely
answered the purpose.

In erecting machines of this description, it is of
consequence, as in the case of the present, where
(situation and circumstances will allow, to convey
the water under ground from the mill-pond to the
water-wheel ; and as the moving part of the sluice
is made so as always to be immersed in the water, no
interruption takes place in the time of frost ; the
water-wheel being at the same time defended from
it as much as circumstances j)ermit.

"When the water in the pond stands at five feet
])erpendicular height from the level on which it
strikes the wheel, the sluice requires to be elevated
only one inch ; and as the sluice is exactly 24 inches
in breadth, the water, under that pressure, issuing
through an aperture of 24 square inches, is sufficient

to do the work which has been already described ; as Implement',
the water subsides in the pond, it becomes of course
necessary to elevate the sluice in a corresponding
degree.

If, from a scarcity of water, or any other cause, it
should be necessary to apply a horse-power to move
the machine, we have subjoined the following de-
scription of a horse-wheel and shal"t, applicable to
the construction of the other parts of the machinery,
and which may be employed either with a small
quantity of water, assisted by horses, or entirely by
horses.

Fig. 3. A A cross beams; BBB cross bridges for
lying shafts ; C coupling box ; D barn wall ; E wall
between arch and horse-way ; F water-wheel ; G part
of horse-wheel.

When the thrashing machine is driven by horses
or other animals, it is of great consequence that it
should move uniformly and steadily ; but this is rare-
ly accomplished, except by well-trained animals, or
great attention on the part of the driver ; and when
any irregulari^jr in the motion arises, from the un-
equal exertion of the horses, no small degree of care
is requisite in the person who feeds the machine to
obviate its imperfect operation ; but as the labour of
working the thrasliing machine, when long conti-
nued, is severe, the fatigued and languid animals, ex-
ert themselves unequally, and when urged forward
make sudden jerks and strains, which is a great waste
of their own strength, and produces a considerable
interruption and injury to the machine. To obviate
these inconveniencies, a very ingenious and simple
apparatus has been constructed by Mr Samuel, of
the village of Long-Niddry, in Linlithgowshire. The
principle of this apparatus depends on the resistance
which a horse or other animal invariably makes to
be drawn backwards ; and it is so constructed by
means of sheaves and pullies, that a connection is
formed between the draught-chains or ropes of each
animal, whether yoked abreast or at different arms
of the machine ; and in consequence of this connec-
tion, when any one relaxes his exertion, he is pulled
back by the shoulders, so that he immediately re-
sists and pushes forwards ; and in this way the action
of the whole is rendered equal.

Fanners The fanners, or winnowing machine,

which is now in very general use, was introduced
into Scotland by the father of Mr Meikle, the in-
ventor of the thrashing machine, about the begin-
ning of the 18th century. In 1710 he was engaged
by Mr Fletcher of Salton, a celebrated character in
Scottish history, to proceed to Holland for the pur-
pose of being instructed in the art of making pot-
barley, and of erecting barley-mills. After his re-
turn, he constructed the first fanners for separating
the chaff from the grain that were known in Scot-
land. The original construction was only a wheel
with four vanes of thin boards or sheet-iron, which
were made to revolve with considerable velocity
within a drum, by which a strong current of air is
produced, and the chaff ar.d light grain are blown
backwards, while the good grain falls downwards
by its superior weight. This machine, which has
been also greatly improved, is now very extensively
employed, and is usually connected with the thraslv-J

AGRICULTURE.

141

ImpIemfBts. ing-mill ; SO that when it is properly fitted with rid-
y^r^Y^^ '^''^*' "'' harping apparatus, the grain is cleaned,
measured, and made quite ready for the market as
it comes from the machine.

Small thrashing machine — On the principle of
Meikle's thrashing-mill, Mr William Jolinson, an in-
genious mechanic, of Langholm, in Dumfries-shire,
has constructed a small thrashing machine, which is
driven by manual labour, and with two men is stat-
ed to be capable of thrashing out 10 or 12 bushels
of grain in tlie course of an hour. The expence of
such a machine dops not exceed L.8 or L.IO ; from
which it seems well calculated for small farms, if, as
some suppose, the moving power required be not too
much for human exertion.

.. . Sect. VIII. Of the Hay-turner.

A machine for turning hay has been invented hy
Mr Salmon, of Woburn, in Bedfordshire, which is
said to be extremely useful for the purpose for
which it is intended, as a man and a horse can do
the work of 10 or 12 men in the ordinary way of per-
forming this labour. The following is a description
of this implement.

This machine consists of a number of rotative rakes,
which are set in motion by one of the wheels which
support the whole frame. These rakes are furnished
with teeth, which, revolving with great rapidity, raise
the hay as they come in contact with the surface of
the field, and throw it backwards. The iron teeth
are attached to the arms by means of a hinge, and
they are kept in their place by the force of a spring,
which, yielding to any pressure or obstacle, returns
them to their place when the pressure is removed.
The machine is so constructed, that longer or shorter
teeth may be applied, or a part, or the whole, as the
surface of the ground or the nature of the crop may
require. This peculiarity of construction is conve-
nient when the machine is moving on a road, or
when it is unemployed ; for, by turning the teeth in-
wards, there is no danger of accident to cattle or
other animals approaching it. It is stated as another
advantage, that the same machine may be made to
act as a horse-rake for gathering the hay into wind-
rows, or for raking up stubble.

Fig. 4. Plate 5. is a plan of this machine, somewhat
dilFerently consttucted. A A are the shafts ; BB the
frame ; CD the wheels, one of which, D, communi-
cates the motion, by the toothed-wheel and pinion
tb, to the axle EE of the rotative rakes; FFF the
arms of the rakes.

Fig. 5. is the profile, or elevation of the same ma-
chine. A one of the shafts ; B the frame ; D the
wheel, Avhich puts in motion the rotative rake ; aa
the arms of the rake; bh the teeth ; cc the springs,
' which return the teeth to their place when the ob-
stacle or resistance is removed ; E a third wheel or
roller, turning on a centre bolt or pivot.

These machines are manufactured and sold by
Messrs Wilson and Company, iron-founders and pa-
tent thrashing-machine makers at Leicester; and they
are sold also by Messrs Cooke, Fisher, and Company,
at their Repository, Winsley Street, Oxford Street,
London.

Sect. IX. Of Wheel-carriages.

Implement?.

As a large proportion of agricultural labour is per-
formed by means of wheel-carriages, it is of great im-
portance that they should be so constructed as to be
capable of accomplishing the purposes for which,
they are intended, with economy, facility, and de-
spatch. The character of the draught animals, the
nature of the work, and the condition of the roads,
must, in some measure, affect the form and construc-
tion of the carriages emplo3'ed ; but these circum-
stances, it may be suspected, have often less influ-
ence in regulating the form and size of machines of
this description, than the prevailing practice in par-
ticular districts. As an example of this, the heavy
waggons, which are still extensively in use in many
parts of England, have been adduced by writers on
this subject ; but, for the more ordinary purposes of
husbandry, where the conveyance is short, carriages
of a large size are by no means suitable. More time
is required in loading and discharging, and more in-
jury is done to the roads, than when carriages of a
lighter construction are employed. The only case in
which such carriages can be usefully preferred, andp
even here the advantage is doubtful, is, when a heavy
load is to be conveyed to a great distance, through a
level country, and over a good road.

Carriages of a smaller size, drawn by one or two
horses, are justly supposed to be by far the most
convenient for the purposes of husbandry, when the
quantity of labour performed is taken into account,
with the despatch which is thus obtained. Such are
the carriages which are in general use in Scotland,
and such, too, are preferred in some of the best
cultivated districts of England ; and perhaps the
single horse cart, on every account, merits the pre-
ference ; for it has been shewn, that the same num-
ber of horses, when employed in single carts, can
draw almost a third more weight than when 3U)ked
together in the same waggon. A single horse, with
one of these carts, properly constructed, draws from
12 to 24 Cwt., and, when the roads are good, even a
heavier load. In the most improved cart of this de-
scription, the bottom, as it rests on the axle, projects
over the inner heads of the naves, and approaches
nearly to the spokes of the wheels. By this extension
of the breadth, the capacity of the cart is increased,
and the perpendicular position of the lateral stand-
ards enables them to sustain a much greater weight.
The dimensions of such a cart are usually about five
feet three inches in length, four feet in breadth be-
low, four feet three inches above, and one foot three
inches in depth. It contains about a cubic yard.
Tlie height of the wheels is usually about four feet
two inches, and the axle is commonly reade of iron.
This is called the close cart ; and what is denominated
the coiq) cart, which is pretty common in many dis-
tricts of Scotland, is so constructed, that the body
turns on hinge>s, and falls down behind, so that the
entire load can be at once discharged without un-
yoking the horse.

It has been justly observed by a practical WTiter,
that single hprse carts, which are in use in various
parts of England, are the best calculated for everj^

142

AGRICULTURE,

kind of carriage, except large masses of wood or
stone, which cannot be conveniently divided into se-
parate loads ; and, as a proof of the economy of such
carts, theyare employed in almost all places where the
roads are bad, either arising from soft mud and clay or
large stones, and where there are deep ruts, especially
in the mountainous districts both of England and
Scotland. The same writer, the author of tlie Agri-
cultural Report of Middlesex, after noticing the
large and expensive teams which are indulged in,
seemingly for parade and show, in a country which
is level, the roads good, and the people rich, adds,
that he employs four one-horse carts, each of which
carries 25 cubical feet of the gravel of flints, and
from 30 to 4-0 of manure. If farther proof were ne-
cessary of the superiority of single horse carts, a
striking example is recorded of a carrier at Carlisle,
wiio, after having many years employed a waggon,
laid it aside, and now uses single horse carts only,
because in this way, with the same number of horses,
he can convey a much greater load.

Besides the advantages which single horse carts
possess, of being loaded and unloaded with more ease
and convenience, and of being more manageable for
almost all purposes, the size of the wheels may be
adapted, with the greatest exactness, to the height of
the horse, and be placed more suitably to the centre
of gravity, of the load, by which the draught is great-
ly diminished. For as those parts of the neck and
shoulder-blades, on which the collar rests in draught
liorses, have that degree of slope which forms an
angle with the horizon of about l^" or 15^, it is ob-
vious that the line of draught should form a similar
angle, because in that case they pull in that line of
direction which coincides most with the shape of the
shoulders, and consequently tlie different parts of the
shoulders are equally pressed upon; and hence it is,
that horses draw more in a sloping than horizontal
line of direction. The power or advantage which
they have in overcoming the resistance of obstacles,
in this direction, is likewise considerable. From these
principles it is justly inferred, that single horse carts
are far more advantageous than teams, because in the
latter many of the horses draw in a horizontal direc-
tion, and consequently in a way that is inconsistent
with their mechanism. From this consideration, too,
it appears, that the wheels in every sort of cart should
be properly adapted to the size of the horse or other
animal which is employed.

In places wliere small carriages are in use, diffe-
rent kinds arc frequently employed for different pur-
poses. The close and coup cart, which has been de-
scribed, is chiefly used for carrying out dung, com-
post, and such compact, heavy, or loose materials ;
but when bulky loads, such as corn in the straw,
hay, &c. are to be conveyed, it is not unusual to have
aframe-work,,which is fitted for the same-wheels, and
this kind of carriage is called a corn or hay cart ;
but it has been stated, that the farmer's cart, as it is
denominated in England, as well as most of the small
sized carts, and all those of the larger kind, by hav-
ing ladders attached to them at the ends and sides,
is quite sufficient for every agricultural purpose,
without the additional expense and trouble of such
a number of different carriages.

Irish Car. — This kind of vehicle, which ia very Implemenn.
generally employed, not only in the business of hus- »_,- -^'.
bandry, but tor many other purposes, in Ireland, from ~ ^ "
its peculiar construction possesses numerous advan-
tages. It is easily filled ; it may be drawn over soft
meadow, or ploughed lands, with less injury and in-
convenience, and it passes through confined gate-
ways with facility. As the length is but a few in-
ches more than the breadth, it approaches nearly to
a square form ; the wheels, which are low and broad,
are placed under the body of the carriage, and, from
the cylindrical form of their rims, the resistance in
the draught is supposed to be greatly diminished, by
which a heavier load can be drawn.

According to the opinion of many intelligent agri-
culturists, tlie wheels of carriages which are employed
in husbandry should not be of too large diameter, be-
cause low wheels are not only cheapest in their ori-
ginal construction but are also strongest and most
durable. In determining the breadth of carriage-
wheels, the preservation of the roads has been gener-,
ally an object of consideration, and it Jias been sug-
gested, that the rims of the wheels, even of single .
horse carts, should not be less than five inches broad ;
and the breadth should be increased in proportion to
the load to be carried, and the number of horses re-
quired. The form of the rim has been also a sub-
ject of speculation. While some suppose that it
ought to be conical, it is more generally recommend-
ed by others to be of a cylindrical construction.

Sect. X. Of the Bruising-machine, Straw-cutter, SfC.

Brtdsing-machine. — Various machines have been
invented for bruising grain, for the purpose of feed-
ing horses and other animals ; and from this prac-
tice great advantage is derived ; for it appears that
seven parts of the same grain, when bruised or split,
are equal, if not superior, to 8 parts employed whole,
in feeding animals. One of these machines is com-
posed of two cast-metal rollers or cylinders, from 12
to 16 inches long, and from 6 to 9 inches in diameter,
placed in a horizontal position, in one frame. When
these cylinders are driven round, the circumference
of each rolls upon that of the other, by which the
grain passing between them, is bruised or crushed.
The frame in which the cylinders revolve, is furnish-
ed with screw-bolts, so that they c^n be placed at a
greater or less distance, as the grain is to be more or
less bruised. Above, a hopper is placed for con-
taining the grain, and from this it is conveyed by a
suspended board to the cylinders. This machine is
driven either by manual labour, or by the applica-
tion of any other convenient power. Mr Pasmore
of Doncaster, in Yorkshire, has invented a mill for this
purpose, and for which he has obtained a patent. This
machine, from the simplicity and durability of its con-
struction, is recommended as not being liable to be put
out of order, while its performance is such, that with
exertion it will crush a bushel of malt in less than four
minutes, and beans, oats, and barley in proportion.

Straw-cutter. — Machines, under the names of straw
or chaff-cutters, are employed for the purpose of cut-
ting straw and hay for feeding cattle. They are va-
riously constructed. In some, a strong box, open
above, is fixed on the top of a wooden frame, about

AGRICULTURE.

143

Arable land. 6 feet long, 2 feet 9 inches in height, and from 13
' J i,-i_' to 15 inches in breadth. In this box are placed two
■ ~' • small wooden rollers, round which passes a piece of

double canvass, and when the rollers are turned round
5 by the motiori of the cutting wheel, the straw, which

is spread upon the canvass, is carried forward, ac-
cording to the length at which it is to be cut. Some-
times the knives or cutters are fixed upon a wooden
wheel, about four feet in diameter, and sometimes
they are attached to the arms of a cast-metal wheel.
In some of these machines there are three cutters,
in some two, and in others only one. Sometimes the
k'.iives cut in a sloping direction outwards, and some-
times inwards to the centre, which is considered as
the best mode of operation. A straw-cutter, invent-
ed by Mr Salmon, costs about twelve guineas.

A machine for the same purpose, invented by Mr
Macdougal of Oxford street, London, is represented
as possessing, in a superior degree, facility in work-
ing, so that much time is saved in labour ; and it has an-
other advantage, that if injured, through accident or
carelessness, it can be easily repaired. Mr Pasmore,
already mentioned, is the inventor of a patent machine
for the same purpose, the different parts of which are
so constructed and arranged, that it is not liable to be
put out of order, or to be choaked or clogged ; and
It is obvious that its power of operation is consider-
able, when it is stated that it is capable of cutting a
bushel of chaffin a minute.

The bone-mill is a useful piece of machinery, for
the purpose of bruising or crushing bones, where
such can be had in sufficient quantity, to be employ-
ed as manure. The construction of such mills is
sufficiently simple, as they generally consist of tooth-
ed or indented rollers ; but it is obvious that they
must possess, at the same time, considerable strength
and solidity.

The turnip or potatoe sheer is a valuable instru-
ment for preparing these roots, as the food of some
animals for which they are less proper in their en-
tire form. A machine of this kind has been lately
invented in Lancashire, and is considered a great
acquisition to those who think this mode of prepar-
ing turnips and potatoes advantageous to their live
stock. The roots to be cut are placed in a hopper
on the upper part of the machine, from which tliey
fall down upon the knife or cutter, which has a
double edge, and is moved horizontally. The oper-
ation of the machine is stated to be so powerful that
more than two Cwt. of potatoes can be sliced in a few
minutes. The price of this machine is about L.7.

Chap. VI. Of Arable Land.

In forming any system for the management of
arable land, various circumstances must come under
the consideration of the husbandman, — as the prepa-
ration of the soil, — the kind of crops to be cultivat-
ed,— and the order in which these crops should suc-
ceed each other. The requisite preparation of land,
for the reception of seed, is regulated by the nature
and condition of the soil, whether it has been for-
merly under culture, or whether it be for the first
time brought into an arable state ; and the situation
and pecuUar character of the soil direct to the pro-

per selection of the crops to be cultivated, as well as Arable larid.
to the order of their succession. These topics may v^pry^^
be conveniently discussed under the three following
heads of tillage, kinds, and rotation of crops.

Sect. I. Of Tillage.

Under the general denomination of tillage are
included all those operations which are performed by
the plough, the harrow, and other implements, and
which are necessary in ths preparation of the soil for
the reception of seeds, and for promoting their ve-
getation and growth. For these purposes, lands
which have been long under cultivation, and are in
the best condition, require some preparation. This
comprehends the ordinary operations of tillage ; but
in certain conditions of the soil, as when it becomes
foul with weeds, extraordinary labour is requisite to
restore it to the proper degree of cleanness ; and in
certain cases, when a different culture, or a nicer
management of certain crops is adopted, as when
they are raised in rows or drills, corresponding va-
riations in the treatment and preparation of the soil
must be pursued. This suggests the method of con-
sidering the operations of tillage under the heads of
ordinary tillage, fallowing, and drill husbandry ; but
as it rarely happens that land which has never been
in a state of cultivation is fit for the operation of
the plough, it is necessary to attend to the means of
removing those obstructions which, in a greater or
less degree, exist in almost every soil.

1. Obstructions to Tillage.

The obstructions to the tillage of lands which have
not been subjected to the plough, arise chiefly from
inequalities of the surface, — from woody or shrubby
plants covering it,-;-from stony masses in the soil, —
and from an excess of moisture, proceeding from
springs, or from collections of rain-water ; and be-
fore any successful operation can be attempted, it is
necessary that such obstructions be effectually re-
moved. The means of removing the last obstruc-
tion have been fully treated of under the chapter ou
Draining ; so that our attention is now to be con-
fined to the consideration of the proper methods of
preparing land encumbered with any of the former,
and relieving it from such obstacles as either retard
or altogether interrupt the necessary operations. It
is scarcely necessary to add, that the more perfectly
this preliminary work is completed at first, the great--
er is the saving of labour, and the ultimate advan-
tage, in every step of the future management.

Wood. — Various methods must be adopted in clear-
ing land from wood, according to the nature of the
trees to be removed. Large trees of the timber kind
must be grubbed up in the proper season of the year.
Trees, such as the oak, whose roots penetrate deep
in the earth, may be removed by clearing away the
earth all round, cutting a few of the stronger lateral
roots, and pulling by a rope from the top. But in
such trees as have roots shooting laterally along the
surface of the ground, these roots must be almost
entirely removed before the removal of the tree can
be accomplished. Trenching with the spade, and for-,
cing up the roots with the pick-axe, are recommend-
ed by some writers as tlie most effectual means to be

144

AGRICULTURE.

Arable lind. pursued in such cases ; and by this management, al-
"^ ^ ' though expensive, the obstructions are not only re-
moved, but the land is advanced in its preparation
for future operations- When the roots are of large
size, and Uttle decayed, blasting with gunpowder, for
which a particular apparatus has been contrived, has
frequently answered the purpose. The ashes pro-
duced by burning the brushwood, cut and collected
on the surface along with the roots, may afford a
quantity of useful manure as some compensation for
the extraordinary expense. When the larger roots
and most of the shrubby plants have been removed,
previously to the first ploughing, the ground is sown
with such crop as is adapted to the soil and situa-
tion ; and after that crop is removed, the unfinished
operations of clearing the land may be completed
by repeated ploughings and harrowings, till the ex-
tirpation of every root and plant which obstructs til-
lage is effected ; but when time or expcnce, or other
circumstances admit of it, it is by far the preferable
method to complete the clearing process before any
crop is attempted to be' raised.

In removing the roots of large trees, it has been
thought that a good deal of injury is done to the
ground'by breaking it up and leaving large openings,
and by mixing the rich surface-soil with the less fer-
tile and sometimes hurtful undcr-soiJ. To remedy
these inconveniencies, it has been recommended to
allow the roots or stools of different kinds of plants,
after their tops are cut off, to remain in the ground
and undergo a spontaneous decay, while the larg-
er roots may be taken up some time afterwards,
and this with little disturbance of the under-soil,
and their places filled up with stones and other use-
less materials from the surface. When the land
is thickly covered with leaveg, or other vegeta-
ble matters, they may be collected in heaps to decay
naturally, or they may be burnt and the ashes spread
over the soil. The surface, where it may be neces-
sary, being levelled, and those places which are bare
of vegetation, after being superficially harrowed, be-
ing sown with the suitable kinds of grass seeds, a
second harrowing is given, and then a complete- rol-
ling of the whole to admit the «cythe. After this
preparation, such land is to be stocked with sheep ;
and, continuing the operations of the scythe when
any woody shoots appear, it is to b» kept in close
pasturage till the smaller roots that were left shall
yield to the plough, and then a succession of grain
crops may commence.

A portion of lime, or some other calcareous mat-
ter, addetl to the vegetable materials, promotes their
decomposition and decay, and produces a quantity
of valuable manure, which, being spread on tlie sur-
face, encourages the growth of the better kinds of
herbage. This is more relished by the sheep, is eat-
en closer, and soon forms a finer sward. By pro-
ceeding in this way the expence is not very consi-
derable, where tliere is a scarcity of fuel, more par-
ticularly when the large trees have been properly
cut down, and the brushwood cut off a little below
the surface. In some cases the larger roots and the
stubs of .the copse wood are more than sufficient to
meet the expence of clearing and levelling the sur-
face.

Shrubby plants — In clearing land of various kinds Arable
of shrubby plants, advantage may be taken of chang-
ing the nature and texture of such soils as are pecu-
liarly suitable to their growth. Thus, the different
kinds of willows which aftect moist places, have their
growth interrupted by draining the land ; and the
improvement of a sandy or gravelly soil, which is fa-
vourable to the broom and the bramble, checks the
luxuriance of plants of that description. For this
purpose the application of clay marl, loamy earth,
composts of peat and lime, or other manures, accord-
ing to the nature of the soil and the object of the
change to be effected, is to be regulated. But when
such shrubs have attained a considerable size, the
usual method is to cut them close to the ground,
to dig round the roots, and to grub them up. The
practice of burning furze before grubbing up should
be avoided, on account of the loss of a large portion
of vegetable matter on the surface.

It frequently happens, that lands which have been
thickly overrun with brushwood, and particularly with
furze and broom, are again infested with the same
troublesome plants when under grass, from the seeds
and small roots which lurk in the soil; it is recom-
mended to keep such lands under tillage for a suf-
ficient length of time, and, with the aid of lime and
other suitable manures, the risk of their recurrence
is greatly diminished. But if they are laid downi
with grass, and pastured with sheep, every slioot,
as it appears above the surface, is destroyed, and the
ground in a short time is entirely cleared.

Heath. — In preparing ground covered with heath
for the operations of tillage, the heath, which is slow
in its progress towards decomposition and decay, and
affords but a scanty addition to the soil when it is
converted to vegetable mould, may either be burnt
down in the dry season of spring, particularly when
it grows high and close, or it may be pared off with
a thin slice of the surface, or cut down with a strong
short scythe, collected into heaps and consunicd by
fire. In whatever way the heath has been removed,
a large proportion of quick lime is recommended to
be applied to the surface before ploughing, when its
effects, according to some writers, are most visible
in destroying the remaining roots of heath and coarse
herbage, or it may be spread on the ploughed sur-
face.

Paring and burning. — Analagous to one of the
processes just mentioned for the reduction of heathy
ground, to a state fit for tillage, is that of paring and
burning certain lands with the same view. This sub-
ject has excited a good deal of diversity of opinion,
and even some degree of controversial discussion
both among practical and speculative M'riters ; for,
while some have extolled its advantages without pro-
per discrimination, others, observing its injurious ef-
fects in particular cases, have greatly underrated its
benefits when judiciously conducted. After all that
has been said and written on the subject, there seems
to be little difficulty in forming a correct judgment
in what circumstances such a practice may prove
beneficial. One of the objects of the process of par-
ing and burning is, to prepare the surface of ground
which is covered with shi-ubby plants and coarse her-
bage for tlie purpose of tillage. This object is fully

land.

AGRICULTURE.

145

Arai^l'' 'and. attained by such means. But this is to be regarded
as only the mechanical part of the operation. It is
necessary to consider the changes that take place in
the combustion of a large proportion of vegetable
and earthy matters, — whether something noxious be
not removed from the soil, or whether something un-
der a new form be not added to it, which is salutary
in promoting healthy vegetation. The earthy matters
in the soil exposed to burning, undergo no farther
change than being deprived of their moisture, from
which probably arises a considerable dilierence in
their texture or consistence ; but the whole of the
organized matters, which are chiefly of a vegetable
nature, are decomposed, their volatile parts are
driven off, and the more fixed ingredients only re-
main. Some of the products of the combustion, al-
though small in quantity, are of a very active quality,
and, mixed with the soil, contribute very essentially
to its improvement.

As no soil is fertile which is destitute of animal or
vegetable matter, it is obvious that any process by
which it is deprived of the necessary proportion of
tliat matter must be injurious, in producing sterility.
But the destruction of a large proportion of the organ-
ised substances in the soil, is the certain consequence
of the process of combustion. If, then, it appear that
the quantity of vegetable matter is deficient, paring
and burning, by which the deficiency becomes great-
er, ought to be avoided. " All soils, (says Sir
Humphry Davy,) that contain too much dead vege-
table fibre, and which, consequently, lose fiom o)ie-
third to one-half of their weight by incineration, and
all such as contain their earthy constituents in an
impalpable state of division, that is, the stiff clays and
marls, are improved by burning ; but in coarse sands,
or rich soils, containing a just mixture of the earths,
and in all cases in wliich the texture is already suffi-
ciently loose, or the organizable matter sufficiently
soluble, the process of burning cannot be useful.
All poor siliceous sands must be injured by it ; and
the operation is never performed by good agricul-
turists upon siliceous sandy soils after they have once
been brought into a state of cultivation.' The soils
adapted for paring and burning are such as contain a
redundancy of vegetable matter, some of which, by
the process of combustion, is brought into an active
state, and serves as a valuable manure in promoting
the decomposition of the remaining organised sub-
stances, and thus enriches and improves the natural
soil, by rendering it less compact, less adhesive, and
less retentive of moisture.

It may perhaps be useful to the chemical agricul-
turist to know the nature of the products obtained
by paring and burning ; and this may lead to some
conclusions with regard to the effects of the process.
Specimens of ashes from different soils were examin-
ed by Sir Humphry Davy. Two hundred grains,
from a chalk soil in Kent, afforded

80 Carbonate of lime.

11 Gypsum.
9 Charcoal.

15 Oxide of iron.

3 Saline matter, sulphate of potash, muriaTe
of magnesia, with a minute portion of
potash.

VOL. I. PART I.

The remainder consisted of alumina and siliceous Arable lanJ.

earth. Some of the ingredients in this specimen of '

ashes are very active manures. The charcoal was in

a state of minute division, and the gypsum and oxide

of iron are supposed to produce very powerful effects

on soils which contain an excess of carbonate of

lime.

The second specimen of ashes was the product of
a soil from Leicestershire, in which only four per
cent, of carbonate of lime appeared ; the quantity of
the other earths amounted to three-fourths of light
siliceous sand, and about one-fourth of clay. One
hundred parts of the ashes yielded

6 Charcoal.
3 Common salt and sulphate of potash, with

a trace of potash.
9 Oxide of iron.
The third specimen was from a stiff" clay from
Cornwall ; the land was brought into cultivation from a
heath, by burning, ten years before, but having been
neglected, the furze plants were springing in different
parts of it, so that it required a second paring and
burning. One hundred parts of the ashes gave
8 Parts charcoal.

2 Saline matter, chiefly common salt, with a
little potash.

7 Oxide of iron.
2 Carbonate of lime.

The remainder of this specimen consisted of alumina
and siliceous earth. It is observed, that the quanti-
ty of charcoal was greater than in the other cases.
The portion of common salt in the ashes of this soil
is ascribed to tlie vicinity of the sea, which is only
two miles distant ; but common salt was also found
in the specimen of ashes from Leicestershire. In the
land from which the last specimen of ashe»was ob-
tained, there was an excess of dead vegetable fibre,
as well as a portion of unprofitable living vegeta-
ble matter ; and a very essential improvement was
the consequence of the burning. In the specu-
lations concerning paring and burning, attempts
have been made to explain the effects, by referring
to causes of a very obscure nature. Some suppose
that clay, during the burning, absorbs nutritive prin-
ciples from the atmosphere which may be afterwards
supplied to plants. According to another writer,
carbonic acid, which, in its combination with iron, is
injurious to plants, is expelled during the operation
of burning. But the whole immediate effects seem
more properly to be referred to the diminution of the
coherence and tenacity of clay soils, and to the des-
truction of inert and useless vegetable matter, and
the conversion of the ingredients of which it is com-
posed into an active manure.

Lands Jit Jbr paring and burning. — All lands which
are overrun with furze, broom, brambles, and coarse
herbage of any kind, and which have not been before
reclaimed from a state of waste, are brought into a
state of cultivation, with expedition and certainty, by
the process of paring and burning. The same me-
thod is successfully practised on boggy, moory, and
peaty soils ; on mosses containing calcareous matter,
either in the soil or subsoil, or a considerable propor-
tion of clay ; or such as have been top-dressed with
clay ; or on a shallow mossy seil, resting cm a day

146

AGRICULTURE.

Arable 1»nd« Subsoil. An experiment by Mr Young, on a cold,
wet, poor loam, with a clay-marl bottom, shews the
yemarkable effects of paring and burning. An old
grass field, of 4} acres, was the subject of the expe-
riment. Four acres were ploughed four inches deep,
which was the whole depth of the soil. Four heaps
were formed in the field, and, from particular circum-
stances, the calcination was supposed to be carried
too far, but the ashes were spread and ploughed in
with a shallow furrow ; turnip seed was sown, and
slightly bush-harrowed ; the crop was luxuriant, and
the produce on the biu"nt part was double of that on
the half acre which was not pared. At the end of
three years, when the whole field was in grass, the
burnt part of the soil, if any difference existed, ap-
peared the best.

The practice of paring and burning is com-
mon on chalky soils in different parts of England,
as, on the Cotteswold hills in Gloucestershire, in
tlie sheep-walks and warrens on the Wolds in the
East Riding of Yorkshire, in Hampshire and Wilt-
shire ; and in the West Riding of Yorkshire, lime-
stone lands,^ with only four inches depth of soil have
been pared and burnt for ages, without any appear-
ance of that waste or destruction to the soil, which is
apprehended by those who think unfavourably of this
practice. The same process has been found equally
beneficial in Kent, where a great extent of laud
produces abundant crops of wheat, barley, and oats,
after being several times subjected to it. Paring and
l>urning are particularly recommended as the best
metliod of breaking up old, worn out, sainfoin leys ;
for if the plough be merely had recourse to, the
red worm, which is often abundant in leys of this
description, is exceedingly destructive to the corn
crop. Paring and burning for turnips is considered
the safest and most successful husbandry in such cases.

Operation of paring. — Different in&truments have
been employed for separating the sward from the
surface of the soil. When the sod is pared off, the
instrument in use in most districts, is the breast spade,
or breast plough, or what is called in Scotland the
flaughler spade. The thickness of the sod cut off
is about an inch, or 14 inch, about one foot broad,
and three in length. When the operation is conduct-
ed on a large scale, as in the fenny districts on the
eastern coast of England, the horse paring plough,
which is differently constructed, but varying chiefly
in the breadth and sharpness of the share or sock, is
an implement well calculated for paring off the sward
of level grounds, and such as are free from stones.
In the fenny and peaty lands of Cambridgeshire,
which are free from stones and large roots, the par-
ing is economically and effectually performed by a
particular plough, which turns off a furrow from 12
to 16 and 18 inches in breadth, with little more than
an inch in depth ; but in some of the western coun-
ties, the common plough is used when the sward of
old grass fields is to be pared. They are rib or slob
furrowed about the beginning of winter ; are again
cross ploughed the succeeding spring, and the sods
are collected and burnt. When the plough is em-
ployed in this way, a wing turned up on the furrow-
side of the share is added, by which the breadth of
the furrow is regulated. Another method, which is

practised in Devonshire and CornwaH, for breaking Amble land.
up grass lands, and distinguished by the name of — — •
skirting, is performed by leaving part of the sward
or surface alternately unturned, and upon this the
next thin furrow slice is laid, so that the swards of
each are brought into contact, by which means the
decomposition of the vegetable matter is promoted,
and what remains, after cross ploughing and harrow-
ing, is separated from the soil, collected into small
heaps, and burnt. This operation is called beat
burning.

Depth of soil pared, — The nature and thickness of
the soil must, in a great measure, regulate the depth
or thickness of turf to be separated. A light thin
soil ought not to be pared so deep as a stiff heavy
soil, covered with a close mat of vegetable matter.
The usual depth of paring is from one to three or
more inches, while some, who are zealous advocates
•for this practice, take off turfs, even from thin chalky
lands, as thick as the nature of the soil admits, and
assert, that the thicker they are the better, if they
contain a sufficient quantity of vegetable substance
to make them burn vtell.

Burning. — The operation of burning is differently
conducted in different districts. According to some
writers, stiff and clayey soils would derive consider-
able advantage from the fire being brought into con-
tact with the whole surface, while, in soils which are
thin and light, the sward pared off is collected and
piled up in heaps, to undergo combustion, without
permitting the fire to act upon the mould over the
whole surface. If the first method be adopted, the
sods must be collected into very small heaps, so that
they may be burnt upon as great an extent of surface
as possible ; but, according to the other method, they
are formed into small circular heaps, the sods being
placed with the grass side downwards, for the admis-
sion of air. But, as soon as the combustion has
fully commenced, the openings both at the bottom
and top should be closed up, that it may proceed in
a slow, smothering manner, and the heaps are allow-
ed to extinguish themselves. In paring heaths, downs,
moors, and old sainfoin leys, it is recommended that
the heaps should not be larger than to yield from 12
to 15 bushels of ashes, otherwise the turfs are apt to
be too much burnt ; but when the weather is unfa-
vourable, the heaps should be increased in size, to
promote the combustion. It should be observed
also, that thin sods burn in smaller heaps than those
of greater thickness.

If the season be not very wet, the sods are suffi-
ciently dry for burning in about a fortnight or three
weeks ; but in rainy weather a longer time is requir-
ed, and they must be turned more than once, to pre-
vent the roots and shoots from striking out, by which
the combustion would be interrupted.

When the process of burning is fully completed,
and the whole is reduced to the state of ashes and
earthy matter, it should be spread on the land as
soon as possible, and in as regular and equal a man-
ner as can be effected ; and the application of the
ashes to the soil should always be made before rain
falls, otherwise the saline portion of the ingredients
is carried off, and its beneficial effects are lost. It is
recommended also, to secure the full influence of the

AGRICULTURE.

ur

AraSle?art!. aslies, to give the land a slight ploughing immediate-

s^^s/^^ ]y after they are spread.

Season for paring and burning. — Dry weather, it is
obvious, is most favourable for this operation. It is
most extensively practised in the months of April,
May, and June ; but the particular period is oftener
regulated by the state of the weather, and the na-
ture of the crop which is to follow. In the northern
districts, the end of May, or the beginning of June
is considered a very convenient season, when green
vegetable products are in their most succulent state ;
but in the southern counties, an earlier period is fix-
ed upon, or the interval between the hay and harvest
time is chosen, if the hind to be improved be not of
great extent. If a large tract of land is to be im-
proved by this operation, the autumn may be the
most convenient season for performing it. When
l)arley or oats is to be sown after paring and burning,
it is necessary to have the process completed as early
in the spring as the weather will admit ; but if the
crop intended be rape or turnips, the end of May,
or the beginning of June, is a proper time ; and
when it is proposed as a preparation for wheat, the
month of July, or the beginning of August, may, in
a good season, answer the purpose.

Stones Stones which are either in a loose state,

or fixed in the soil, form serious obstructions to the
cultivation of land. Deep and alluvial soils rarely
contain large masses of concealed stones ; and, if
smaller stones should appear on the surface after
harrowing, and particularly when the land is to be
laid down with grass to be cut for hay, they should
be picked off by the hand, belbre the application of
the roller, or they may be forced into the soil by
means of heavy rolling ; but when the stones are col-
lected, they should not be thrown into heaps in the
furrows, but completely removed, otherwise they may
be again dispersed over the ground. This work can
be most conveniently and effectually done when the
land is under summer tillage. When the soil is wet,
the stones may be collected into heaps, and removed
during the first opportunity of a dry season. Tlie
removal of small stones from certain lands, has been
supposed to be injurious to the crop, from depriving
the plants of shelter in the early stages of their
growth, or from some change in the power of ab-
sorbing or giving out heat or moisture ; but perhaps
a; closer investigation would discover that the dimi-
nution of fertility might be traced to some other
cause.

When the stones are of a large size, and fixed
firm in the ground, or are sit-fasts, as they are called
in some districts, and when they appear above the
surface, it is recommended as the best practice, to
dig them completely out of the earth, after they
have been blown to pieces by means of gunpowder.
This latter expence may be saved when they are of
smaller size, by digging round, splitting them with
wedges, or breaking them with large hammers.
Stones are sometimes removed from the surface, by
sinking large pits, but as the stone is entirely lost,
and the business cannot be conducted without dan-

^ger to the workmen, this method should only be had
recourse to when others are impracticable.
When the stones are concealed below the surface,

their situation must be discovered, either by forcing Arable !»ni1.
a sharp instrument into the ground, or by marking ^w^y^*'
the spot where the plough is obstructed ; but if the
stones are very numerous, and the price of labour
low, the use of the spade, in preference to the plough,
is recommended as the most economical method of
preparing such land. In whatever way the land is
cleared, the whole business should be completed be-
fore the operations of tillage commence, because the
loss by the destruction of the implements, and the
unavoidable delay from such obstructions, more tlian
counter-balance the necessary labour and expence
in removing them.
The expence of clearing land from stones may be di-
minished by appljing them to various useful purposes,
as in the construction and filling up of hollow drains,
or in building walls for fences, or some of the farm-
offices ; and it has been stated, that in situations
where any useful application can be made of large
surface stones, the most rugged lands may be pro- *

fitably reclaimed.

In preparing land for the operation of the plough,
it is scarcely necessary to add, that the surface should
in all other respects be so adjusted, by filling up
hollow places, and reducing every kind of inequality,
that it shall meet with no obstruction in its progress.
In some cases, advantage may be taken of the stones,
or other useless and rugged materials, by collecting
and throwing them into hollow spots, and covering
them to a sufficient depth with good soil.

Sect. II. Ordinary Tillage.

After the obstructions which have been noticed
are removed, the soil is turned up and loosened for
the reception of the seed. But before the opera-
tion of the plough, which is the implement in uni-
versal use for this pui-pose, is admitted, it is of no
small importance to consider the soil, the season of
the year, and the nature of the crop proj)osed. It
is a prevalent opinion, that there are few soils which
are not improved by ploughing about the end of
autumn or beginning of winter; because it is sup-
posed they absorb and retain a large proportion of
moisture for the approaching summer ; but when
they are turned up in the spring or summer months,
the rapid evaporation which follows occasions an
excessive waste of moisture, and renders the land
too dry. It is supposed, too, that the soil exposed
during the winter season becomes mellow, as it is ex-
pressed, and derives some beneficial influence from
the atmosphere. But before any decided opinion
can be formed of the advantages of this practice, it
would be necessary to inquire what is precisely un-
derstood by melloxving of the soil, and atmospherical
influence, phrases which are in frequent use among
agricultural writers — what are the changes which
are thus induced, — what is absorbed by the soil,-i-and
what is extracted from it during this exposure. The
exposure of the water, by freezing in winter, tends
to reduce stiff adliesive soils to a friable state ; and
this, although somewhat of a mechanical nature, is
undoubtedly a considerable benefit.

The peculiar condition of the soil ought also to
be considered before any operation of tillage is at-
tempted. No land, of whatever description, should

148

AGRICULTURE.

Arable itud, ^^ ploughed when it is loaded with wetness. Tena-
'fc^V^^ clous soils when subjected to the operation of the
plough in such a condition, are apt to cake and run
together in lumps, which it is afterwards difficult to
reduce and pulverize ; and besides the additional la-
bour which is necessary, the ground is greatly injur-
ed by poaching, or the treading of the feet of the cat-
tle. Slarshy or mossy soils which have been brought
into cultivation, can rarely admit tlie plough when
in a wet state; so that such soils can only be advan-
tageously wrought during dry weather. An inter-,
mediate condition of the soil, which is neither too
wet nor too dry, which is neither so tenacious as to
adhere to the horses feet, or to the implements em-
ployed in the tillage processes, nor so friable as to
fall into the state of loose earth when it is turned up,
is the most suitable for the successful and perfect
operation of the plough. But when the nature of
the crop requires it. the precise regulations of times
and seasons cannot be always rigidly observed.

Operation of plouohing By the peculiar con-
struction of the plough, which has the mould-board
en the right side, the mass of soil, or the furrow-
slice, is turned over during its operation to the same
«ide. In this description, which refers to tlie plough
drawn by two horses, the horse on the right side,
or the oif-side horse, walks in the furrow, or the
Fpace which is left vacant by the removal of the for-
mer plit. The near-side horse, or the horse on the
left hand, walks on the fast land, and the ploughman
walks in the new furrow, or the space which is left
by the furrow-slice just formed. In careful plough-
ing, no part of the land should be left unturned up,
and the furrow-slice should not be permitted to fall
back into the furrow, which sometimes happens when
the breadth of the slice is too great, or when the left
handle of the plough is too much depressed. To pre-
vent this, the ploughman who is attentive to perform
his work neatly, walks with his left foot only in the
furrow, while he presses down with the right foot
the newly formed furrow-slice. This management
is peculiarly requisite in ploughing old leys, and es-
pecially in striking the ridges.

Breadl/i of the furrow-slice, S)-c The breadth, as

well as the depth of the furrow slice, is regulated at
pleasure, by varying the draught on the bridle of
the plough. When a broad slice is wanted, the line
of draught of tlie plough is directed to the left or
land side, and when a greater depth is required the
plough goes deeper ; but the regulation of the plough
IS so managed, that if merely kept in its working po-
sition, it cuts a little broader and deeper than what

V is wished. The coulter also has a slight inclination

towards the left side, and the point of the sock is
somewhat directed downwards. Tliis arrangement
•f the different parts is called in Scotland the tem-
pering or setting of the irons. TJic dexterity of the
ploughman .consists in making his horses move in a
straight line, and in keeping the plough in the same
uniform direction. Artful ploughmen, to save them-
selves attention and labour in performing their work,
give the plough too great a tendency to dip into the
ground, and this they counteract by pressing with
their own weight on the handles, at the expence of
utinecessafy additional labour to the horses.

The furrow slice is turned over to a greater or Arable land,
less degree, according to the proportion between the >^^«>^>^^
breadth and depth. When the breadth and depth are
nearly equal, the furrow-slice turns over at an angle
of aljout ^.S" : and a field ploughed in this manner
presents the appearance of angular drills or ridge-
lets. When the breadth of the slice much exceeds
tlie depth, it is almost entirely turned over, with its
former surface downwards, and each successive slice
somewhat overlaps the preceding ; but when the
depth is much greater than the breadth, the slice
falls over on its side, and is somewhat overlapped by
the next, leaving the original surface bare, and slight-
ly inclining to the horizon. The nature and condi-
tion of tlie land determine the preference to be given
to each of these modes of ploughing. The square
slice is considered best adapted for laying up stubble
land after hiu'vest, to be exposed during the winter,
as a preparation for fallow or turnips. Tlie shallow
slice, witli considerable breadth, is convenient for
breaking up old leys, because it covers up tlie grass
turf, and the fertile soil is not buried too deep. Tiie
method of ploughing, by making the depth exceed
the breadth of the furrow-slice, is not approved of.

In determining the depth of the furrow in plough-
ing land, the quality of the soil, and the kind of crop
to be cultivated, are to be considered. Some shal-
low soils, which are extremely fertile, rest on a sub-
soil which is injurious to vegetation. In such cases,
deep ploughing would be highly improper ; but, on
tlie other hand, when the subsoil contains ingredi-
ents, sucli as calcareous or vegetable matter, which
serve to increase the fertility of the soil, it may be
useful to the crop to have a portion of it occasional-
ly turned up by the plough. Mr Young recommends
that one deep ploughing, when the soil admits of it,
should be given in the course of 12, 18, or ai months;
and when this is completed, shallow tillage, by the
operation of implements which merely stir the sur-
face, is a better practice than working deeper; but,
in general, for ordinary corn and grass crops, no
great depth of furrow is required ; nor is deep plough-
ing necessary even for cleaning land ; since it is found
that a clean, shallow ploughing, or hand- hoeing, is
the most eftectual method of destroying weeds. From
four to six or eight inches may be considered as a
sufficient depth of furrow in ordinary cases.

For certain crops, such as carrots, a deep plough-
ing is requisite. In soils which admit this kind of
crop, what is called /rcncA-ploughing, is practised.
This is executed by means of two ploughs, which
follow each other in the same furrow ; and the se-
cond plough throws its furrow-slice on the top of the
first. The first plough goes to the depth of seven or
eight inches, and the second increases the depth four
or five inohes more, so that a furrow of 12 or 13
inches deep is formed in this way. According to
the views of some agriculturists, deep ploughing is
beneficial, by bringing up a portion of fresh soil,
which promotes the growth and increases the quan-
tity of different crops, such as clover, turnips, beans,
and potatoes. It is also considered as of no small
importance in obviating the effects of too wet or too
dry a season. The ground is more effectually clear-
ed of weeds by the same oieans ; animal and vege-

AGHICULTUEE.

149

Arable land, table manures are supposed to be more useful by be-
t_j- -t_ ' ing well covered up, and the staple of the soil is in-
creased, so that the roots of the crop are less liable
to be injured by wetness, and can resist longer the
effects of drought.

Ridges. — In ploughing a field, tlie furrow-slices
are arranged into beds of different breadths, which
are denominated ridges, or lands, and they are di-
vided from each otlier by open furrows. By this ar-
rangement, the future operations, as the regular ap-
plication of manure, the equal distribution of tlie
seed, and the cutting down of the crop, are con-
ducted with greater facility and uniformity. The
furrows which form the divisions of the ridges are
necessary, in strong and retentive soils, for carrying
«ff surface water ; and hence they are sometimes
tailed water-Jurroxcs.

Direction of the ridges. — As far as the situation of
a field admits of it, the direction of ridges should be
north and south. Deviations from this position, for
the purpose of draining the land, or on account of
the particular form of the inclosure, may be often ne-
cessary ; but it seems always advantageous to bring
the course of the ridges as nearly in this direction
as possible ; for it appears, that in ridges which have
an east and west direction, even when the elevation
is not considerable, the crop on the south side has
ripened a week earlier than that on the north ; and
at the time of reaping, the wheat has been observed
too ripe on the south side, while, in many spots, it was
green on the north. On ridges which have a north
and south direction, the ripening and drying of the
grain, after it is cut down, are more uniformly ac-
complished, because the shocks are more fully ex-
posed to the influence of the sun and wind.

Breadth of the ridges. — Great diversity of opinion
and practice prevails with regard to the breadth of
ridges ; and it has been observed that the breadth
and flatness of ridges should be increased, as the
soil is more of a light sandy quality ; while, on the
other hand, they should be narrower, higher, and of
a more rounded form, on a stiff clay soil, that the
redundant water may be freely discharged. In loamy
soils, the ridges are recommended to be broad and
flat, or narrow and round, according as they ap-
proach to the sandy or clayey soils. Broad ridges,
or even, in some cases, altogether flat, without any
furrow, are formed on soils of a sandy nature, that
the moisture, which is apt to pass off too rapidly,
may be more effectually retained.

In wet, clayey, or stiff and adhesive loamy soils,
with a sub-soil of clay, narrow ridges are recommend-
ed, to preserve the crop from excessive moisture. In
such soils, a ridge of three or four feet is considered
.fully sufficient ; and in Essex, a ridge of three feet
in breadtli is found to answer the purpose effectual-
ly, and is preferred to ridges of greater breadth, for
allowing the water to pass off' without washing the
land. In some of the best cultivated districts of
Scotland, the ordinary breadth of ridges is 15 or 18
feet. On tliin clays, with a retentive bottom, some
agriculturists prefer a ridge of nine feet, as most
convenient for removing the excess of moisture ;
while others think that a ridge of 18 feet carries oft'
the water as effectually as the narrow ridges which.

are adopted in some parts of England. On dry tur- Arahleland
nip soils, with an open sub-soil, the land is formed in- •'.^0^-y'^.
to ridges of double the breadth, as 30 or 36 feet ;
and in completing the tillage operations on a soil of
this description, especially before it is laid down for
grass, it is usual to cut up a narrow ridgelet, or
single-bout drill, between the broad ridges, to direct
the process of sowing ; and when the seed is cover-
ed in by the harrow, all the ridgelets are nearly de-
stroyed, so tliat the field presents a smooth, uniform
surface.

Forming ridges. — When a field is to be formed in-
to ridges, the ploughman to whom this work is en-
trusted is furnished with three or more poles, shod
with iron, and each 7| feet long, when the breadth
of the ridges is determined to be 15 feet. The head
ridges, on which the horses and plough are turned,
are first formed, and a breadth of 18 feet is the least
to afford convenient space for this purpose. The in-
tended breadth of the head land is measured oft' with
the poles, at right angles to the boundary of that end
of the field, or at right angles to a straight furrow
drawn by the plough, when the boundary itself is ir-
regular. The breadth of one head ridge being mea-
sured off, and three poles at least set up in a straight
line, a furrow is drawn in the line of the poles, from
one side of the field to the other, and the plough is
returned in the same furrow to correct any inequa-
lity. The limits of the other head-ridges are laid off
in the same way. One straight side of the field be-
ing assumed as the direction in which the ridges are
to run, the ploughman measures off one length of a
pole from that side, either at the top or bottom of
the field ; and at right angles to this straight side he
sets up one of the poles at the point where the plough,
is to enter ; a second pole is fixed in the same man-
ner, at such a distance in advance as to be distinct-
ly seen, and a third at the intended termination of
the ridge. All the three poles are in one straight
line ; and sometimes, from the great length or ine-
qualities of the field, a greater number than three
poles is required. The plough is entered at the first
pole, and the line of poles being kept prtcisely be-
tween the horses, the furrow-slice is formed ; and
when the first pole is ploughed down, the horses are
halted, and two lengths of the pole are measured off
for the middle of the second ridge, '\^'hen the se-
cond pole is ploughed down, two lengths are mea-
sured oft' in the same way ; and the plough having
reached the extremity of the field, the last pole is
set up in the same line with iIk; two former, and all
the three poles are in the line of the crown of the
second ridge. To insure the correct execution of
these operations, it is necessary to draw three cross
furrows at right angles, otherwise there is some dan-
ger that the breadth of the ridge may not be exactly
the same at the different extremities. This operation
is called striking Jurrows in England, ax^d Jeiring in
Scotland.

After the first furrow-slice is formed through the
length of the field, some ploughmen return in the ,
same track, and throw a furrow on the other side;,
that there may be no firm land left below, and then
the two sides are thrown back to form the crown of '
the ridge. But it is more usual to turn tlie plough

150

AGRICULTURE.

Arable l^nd. short to thc right, and to draw a second slice direct-
ly to meet or overlap the first, while any inequalities
which have been occasioned by the irregular motion
of the horses, in drawing the first slice, are correct-
ed. The ploughman next proceeds to the second
line of poles, and repeats the same series of opera-
tions till the whole field is worked off. When other
ploughmen are employed, they fall in successively
as the first has marked out the proper spaces, and all
the slices are turned inwards or towards the crown
of the ridge.

Another method, which answers less dexterous
ploughmen, is sometimes practised for the purpose
of marking off ridges. A strong pole, whose length
is exactly equal to the breadth of the intended ridge,
is attached to the plough at right angles to the line
of draught. One end is placed across the stilts, ex-
actly opposite to the coulter, when the other end
projects towards the left hand of the ploughman,
and is retained in its place by means of a rope, ex-
tending from the outer extremity of the pole to the
collar of the near-side horse. A coulter, or harrow-
tooth, is fixed in a perpendicular position, at the
outer end of the pole, and as the plough moves for-
ward, it makes a mark on the ground, parallel to the
line of draught. By this contrivance, while the
plough is going along the crown of one ridge, the
marker traces the line upon which the furrow of the
next ridge is to be drawn.

In consequence of inequalities in different parts of
the same field, it is sometimes necessary to change
the direction of the ridges, for the convenience of
discharging surface water. When such deviations
are required, an oblique furrow, either quite straight
or waving, is drawn at the place where the change
of direction is made ; and at this oblique furrow all
the ridges of the original direction terminate, and
from it a new series of ridges commences, which is
marked off in the same way as if it were a new field.
The new oblique furrow is either made the crown of
a ridge or a water-furrow, according to circumstan-
ces ; and the oblique ridges thus formed are deno-
minated butts.

Steep land. — In ploughing steep land, the ridges
should be drawn in an easy sloping direction, that
the water may be allowed to pass off in a gradual
manner. In this way, there is not only advantage in
the economy of labour, but the injury and inconve-
nience of heavy rains washing down the soil are in a
great measure obviated. In such cases, the ridges of
steep lands are neither to be formed parallel to the
declivity, nor at right angles, but in a diagonal direc-
tion, in which the slope shall be such that the furrow-
slice falls easily away from the mould-board, both in
ascending and descending the field. This mode of
directing the ridges on steep land, has another advan-
tage,—that cross ploughing, when such is required,
iB readily accomplished by reversing the diagonal.
When extremely steep land is brought under tillage,
the {doughing must be conducted directly across the
kill, and all the furrow-slices are turned downwards.
When this work is performed with the ordinary
plough, it must be carried back empty in the open
furrow ; but time may be saved and a great waste of
labour avoided, by employing a turn-wrest plough, in

which the mould-board shifts to either side. In ArsblelaBiI.
ploughing a hill of a conical form, it is recommended
to begin at the bottom, and, with the left hand al-
ways to the hill, to go round in a spiral direction. By
this method of proceeding, any number of ploughs
may work at the same time, with this precaution,
that the lowest, which enters first, shall always keep
in advance, all the rest succeeding each other in re-
gular order.

Different kinds nf ridges. — Various methods are
practised in forming ridges. On dry soils, the fur-
row-slices of each ridge are all turned in the same
direction, while those of the contiguous ridges are
laid the contrary way. This is called casting. Some-
times the ridges are split out, so that the crown of
the old ridge becomes the furrow of the new one.
This method of ploughing is denominated ridge and
Jiirrow, and in Scotland crofwn axiAJiir. On all strong
soils the ridges are necessarily formed by twice ga-
thering all the furrow-slices inwards, in the direction
of the crown ; and in this case the ridges and furrows
retain their original situation; but when these double
gathered ridges are broken up for summer fallow, it
is usual to split or cleave them down, by reversing
the former operation, and turning all the furrow-
slices outwards^beginning at the furrows and ending
at the crowns. In this way the ridges are reduced to
half of their original breadth. The practice of rib-
bing, or rice-baulking, which is now rarely followed,
was a kind of half-ploughing, in which the land in-
tended for barley the succeeding year was thrown
up after harvest into one bout of ridgelets or drills, a
slip of fast-land being left unploughed between the
furrow-slices, which were turned over to cover it.

Crown ridges. — Broad, high, and irregular ridges,
which were at one time common, are now rarely met
with, where improved cultivation has been adopted,
excepting in stiff', wet soils, with a retentive sub-soil.
On soils of this description, and in thin, weak clays,
some danger may probably arise from reducing high
crooked ridges to straight lands of moderate breadth
and height ; but in all fertile soils of sufficient depth,
no doubt can be entertained of the convenience and
profit to be derived from such improvement. The
elevated crown, unequal breadth, and crooked direc-
tion of ridges, which Ibrmerly prevailed in some of
the most fertile and populous districts of the country,
seem to have had their origin, accordingirto Mr Do-
naldson, in the manner in which lands were cultivat-
ed in the open field or run-ridge state.. The small
portion of land held by each tenant, precluded any
attempt at proper draining ; the furrows, which were
the boundaries of each possession, were also thc
drains for carrying off tlie water, and the ridges were
raised high in the middle, to secure the crop from
wetness. The ridges are observed to be broader at
one extremity than at the other. The narrowest end
is usually the wettest ; and it is supposed that the
breadth was purposely diminishtd, that the furrows,
the only drains which existed, might have the great-
er effect in drying the land. As the most crooked
ridges are on the steepest and most sloping grounds,
the same writer presumes, that this deviation from a
straight course was adopted to prevent the soil from
being washed down in heavy rains. But the original

AGRICULTURE.

151

and. formation of the ancient crooked ridges, which are
observed to have the curvatures at the extremities
invariably reversed, is accounted for in a different
way by others. As the old plough was itself of great
length, and as it was drawn by three or four pairs of
oxen, and cvtn at this day, in some parts of England,
by six horses Ibllo-.vii i^^ each other in a hne ; if the riiiges
had been drawn in a straight direction through their
whole length, the unwieldy implement, and the nume-
rous team, could only be turned on a very broad head
ridge. To obviate this difficulty, the team moved in
a curved direction at both ends of the ridge, that the
plough might be drawn out on a head ridge of mode-
rate dimensions ; and as the ridges were gathered in-
to high crowns, sometimes to a great height, the in-
clination to the left and the turning to the right, af-
ter the plough was drawn obliquely out on the head-
ridge, answered the ploughman's purpose much bet-
ter than if the deflection had been to the right, in
which case it would have been necessary to drag
back the plough to make it enter at the proper place,
— a task to which tlie strength of one individual was
altogether unequal, especially with the heavy and
cumbersome implements then in use.

Levelling; ridges The operation of bringing ele-
vated, curved, and unequal ridges into a more level,
regular, and straighter form, is attended with some
difficulty. When this work is performed by the
plough, the best time for executing it is when the
land is under summer fallow, and is then subject to a
course of repeated ploughings. Wiien the elevation
of the ridges is not very great, they are readily
brought into proper form, by splitting or cleaving
them down in the middle. The plough enters at the
old furrows, and terminates at the crown of the
Ibrmer ridge ; so that tiie former furrows become
the crowns of the new ridges, and the new furrows
are drawn in the middle of the old ridges. In open,
light, or gravelly soils, the jilough may be success-
fully employed in levelling the ridges, without any
bad effects to the future crop ; although, in soils of
this nature, as well as in every other, the precaution
of avoiding the risk of turning up too much of the
sub-soil, when it contains useless or hurtful ingredi-
ents, should be strictly observed.

To preserve the vegetable surface-mould, and to
avoid the injury that may arise from bringing up any
of the undcr-soil, the following method of levelling
ridges, by means of the spade, is recommended by
Dr Anderson : A furrow is drawn with a plough a-
tross the ridges of the whole field to be levelled.
This fuiTow is divided into as many parts as there
are workmen ; and each having a ridge or two allotted
to him, as soon as the plough passes his division, begins
to dig in the bottom of the furrow which the plough
has just made, about the middle of the old ridge, and
keeping his face to the old furrow, works backwards
till he come to the middle of the old ridge, and goes
deeper as he proceeds, according to the height of the
ridge to be reduced. Turning towards the other fur-
row, he repeats the same operation on the other side
of the ridge, so that the bottom of the trench thus
formed may be as nearly level as can be conveniently
made. That part of the furrow allotted to him, which
is made by the plough in going, being finished, he

proceeds to finish in tlie same way his own portion of Arable lard
the furrow which is formed by the returning plough. ><^>~^^«^b/
In levelling ridges in this way, it ought to be recol-
lected, that allowance should be made for the sub-
sidence of the loose earth, and therefore the old fur-
rows ought to be raised higher than the middle of
the old ridges. These temporary, or cross ridges,
are recommended to be made forty or fifty yards
broad ; for although some time is lost in turning at
the ends of the broad ridges, the advantage of few
open furrows overbalances this loss ; and, to keep
down the height in the middle of each of these great
ridges, it may be proper to draw the furrow which is
to be the middleof each some time before theoperation
of levelling with the spade commences, that all con-
fusion or loss of labour may be prevented. This
breadth of ridge is convenient where the land is in
a sufficiently dry condition ; but in wet stiff soils
it must be gieatly diminished. From a compara-
tive estimate of the expense of levelling by the
spade and b}' the plough, it appears that it can be
accomplished at one-fourth of the expense by the
former method.

Another method of levelling ridges is described in
the Report of the State of Agriculture in the county
of Perth. The good soil on the crown of the ridge
is removed to one side by two or three ploughings in
the same direction, and turning the furrow always
the same way. A sufficient quantity of the buried
soil is then thrown with the spade fiom the crown of
the ridge to fill up the old furrows, and the good soil
is equally spread over the whole surface. Should it
be thought necessary to save the soil over the whole
ridge, one side may be taken first, and then the same
operation may be repeated on the other. A summer
fallow, with a copious application of lime to the new
soil, completely restores its powers of fertility. For
the purpose of leveHing the uneven surface of land,
a machine which, it is said, effectually answers the
purpose, has been invented by Mr Charles of West-
Mead, Langhorne, in Carmarthenshire, a description
of which is given in the 21st Volume of the Trans-
actions of the Society of Arts. Whatever method is
followed, it is of no small importance to have the
ground reduced at once to that degree of smooth-
ness of surface which renders every future tillage
operation convenient and efficient. But in lands
whose surface has been so much changed, its firm-
ness is for some time very unequal. It may be there- '
fore necessary to lay it into narrow ridges for some
years after such operations, and to keep the furrows
quite clear, to prevent the stagnation of the water
among the loose earth with which the old furrows
were filled. Ttuo bnut ridges, as they are denominat-
ed, when the condition of the soil and the situation
of the land admits of their formation, are the most
suitable for this purpose.

Extent ploughed in a day. — As agricultural labour
of every description in which men and horses are
employed, is always attended with a heavy expense,
it is then of consequence to be able to determine the
quantity of work which can be performed, without
imposing too severe a task on the labourers, but
particularly without oppressing the horses by exces-
sive exertion. In ploughing, the quantity of land >

152

AGRICULTURE.

'Arable land, which Can bc tumed up in a day, witli one man and
a pair of horses, and with the improved implement
which is generally used in Scotland, must depend on
the tenacity and condition of the soil, — the breadth
and depth of the furrow-slice, — and the strength
and vigour of the horses. In Scotland, to which the
estimate now made refers, the period of a day's work
on heavy soils extends to about nine hours — five
hours in the morning and four in the evening,
with an interval of two hours for rest ; but wiien the
soil is of a lighter nature, the horses are wrought
ten hours. An English statute acre is 220 yards
long and 22 yards broad ; and if the acre be plough-
ed in regular slices of nine inches each in breadth,
it will be divided into 88 furrow-slices, of 220 yards
each in length, so that the whole series of slices ex-
tends to 19,360 yards ; and if 12 yards be added to
each of these slices for the ground travelled over by
the plough in turning, the whole work of one acre
extends to 20,1'16 yards, or 11 miles and nearly five
furlongs. In the stiffest lands where ploughing is
admissible, and the chief obstructions to tillage have
been removed, a pair of strong horses, in good con-
dition, ought to plough three-fourths of an acre in a
day's work of nine hours. In the succeeding plough-
ing of a summer-fallow, even at the full depth, one
acre may be easily executed in a day ; and when the
land is in fine tilth, in giving the seed furrow with a
shallow slice of about four inches, 1 i acre may be
accomplished. During the short days in winter the
horses are rarely employed longer than six hours,
during which about half an acre may be easily plough-
ed. Hence it appears, that, in ordinary circum-
stances, an acre may be regarded as a full average
for a day's work throughout the year.

In estimating the expence of ploughing, it is stat-
ed, that one efficient farm draught, consisting of a
ploughman and a pair of good horses, cannot be kept
up at less than L. 11 5, on the average, per annum ;
and proceeding on the supposition that this draught
is employed through the whole year, excepting the
days on which no work is executed, the average ex-
pence of ploughing an acre of land appears not to be
less than 8s. 6d. ; and, in many cases, the real expence
exceeds that sum. This estimate also refers to the
improved method of ploughing in Scotland ; and com-
paring it with the practice still followed in many parts
of England, where the expence of ploughing the land
with a four-horse team, supposing wages and horse-
keeping to be the same in both countries, is stated
at no less than 17s. or double the expence at which
the same work is executed in Scotland, and with six
horses not less than L.l, 4s. the advantage in point
of economy is obviously in favour of the Scotch me-
thod. The simplicity, however, and economy of the
improved plough, and the dexterity and accuracy
with whicli it can be managed, give it a decided pre-
ference over the heavy, cumbrous, and often ineffi-
cient implements, which require great expence and
power of draught to put them in motion.

Scarifying, S^c For the purpose of saving the la-
bour and expense of working land with the plough,
after it has been subjected to its operation, as after
a ploughing in autumn to prepare the soil for re-

ceiving the seed in spring, various implements have Aratle Jan*.
been invented, for stirring the surface, without ex-
posing much fresh soil to the atmosphere. These
instruments have been distinguished, from their mode
of operation, by the names of scarifier, sctijfler, culti-
vator, and grubber, under the last of which an imple-
ment of an improved construction has been introdu-
ced into Scotland. A description of this implement,
with the method of using it, and its advantages, have
been already given in the preceding chapter. A
scuffler, wrought by two horses, is capable of loosen-
ing the surface of four acres in a day, and, if the soil
be in good condition, even to the extent of six acres.
The expence, therefore, of scuffling or scarifying an
acre of land, may be estimated at from oue-fourth to
one-sixth of the expence of ploughing.

Harrowing, &;c. — The operation of harrowing is an
essential part of the labour of tillage. Harrows are
employed for different purposes, as the heavy brake
harrow, which is drawn by two horses, and is used
for reducing strong land, or where the soil is full of
the roots of weeds. The common harrow, which is
drawn by a single horse, and is employed in covering
the seed, and a lighter description of harrow, is in
use for covering in grass seeds among grain which
has already appeared above ground. The improved
mode of harrowing is practised nearly in the same man-
ner as ploughing. A man or a boy leads or drives,
with long whip reins, two or three horses, each of which
drags an ordinary harrow. The preferable mode of
driving is with whip reins, because, in leading young
and restive horses, which are frequently employed in
this work, before they are fully trained, the person
who leads is sometimes exposed to danger ; but the
driver, who is beliind the harrows, is always at hand
to remove obstructions from weeds, clods, or stones,
among the tines, or by the harrows riding on each
other. Three harrows to one driver are considered
as the most economical method of contlucting this
kind of labour, for they cover a ridge of 18 feet in
breadth at twice. In Scotland the operation of liar-
rowing is distinguished by tiie expression single time,
double time, and double double, as the ground is gone
over once, twice, or four times ; and as it is the usual
practice to overlap each of these successively at their
edges, they are then called close single, close double,
&c. Harrowing is said to be end-long when the har-
rows are conducted in tlie direction of the ridges,
and cross-harroiving when they proceed transversely.
It is the usual practice to complete the operations of
the harrow in the direction of the ridges ; but some
agriculturists finish off a field by cross harrowing,
jjarticularly in stiff land, under the supposition that
the surface water passes off more easily from the
crown of the ridge to the furrow.

Rolling. — The roller, of which different kinds have
been described, is a useful implement in facilitating
the labour of tillage, as in reducing turnip soil, land
which is intended for potatoes, or under fallow, into
good condition, or fine tilth, to admit the harrows to
eradicate couch-grass, and other troublesome weeds,
and to break the surface-clods on land sown with
beans or barley. For these different purposes, rollers
of different weights are employed, and the operatioa

AGRICULTURE.

153

Anble hnA. '■* ^^^^ executed across the direction of the ridges,
that every part may have the full benefit of the pres-
sure.

2. Fallowing of Land.

lieside the usual tillage processes which are per-
formed in the close of autumn, during the mild
weather of winter, or in the early months of spring,
for the crops of the succeeding summer, certain con-
ditions of the soil demand a more lengthened series
of operations in the preparation of land for pro-
fitable cultivation. An extended period of dry
weather, and the season of vegetation, are essentially
requisite for the success and perfection of tliis extra-
ordinary kind of tillage ; and as these requisites only
exist during the summer, the operations now alluded
to are usually denominated summer Jidlowing.

A vague notion seems to have prevailed, and is
perhaps not altogether banished from tlie minds of
some speculative writers, that the exhausted soil re-
quires some time for repose, to recover its wasted
fertility, and hence the origin oi'J'allow, or a period
of rest, during which it produces no crop. No sub-
ject has excited more controversial discussion, both
among speculative and practical agriculturists, than
summer fallowing. Some assert, that under good
management, and a proper succession of crops, it is
I'arely and scarcely at all necessary for most kinds of
lands ; while others, with equal confidence, maintain,
that summer fallowing forms an essential part of a
«ystem of good liusbandry, and on certain kinds of
eoil is altogether indispensible.

In considering the necessity and advantages of sum-
mer fallowing, it is necessary to take into view the
nature of the climate, the quality of the soil, and the
kind and value of the crops which are cultivated for
« scries of years. In certain climates, where the
ikll of rain is irregular or excessive, the season of
field labour is greatly interrupted or extended, and
in Consequence of these interruptions it is often very
jmpertectly executed. But if, in addition to these
inconveniences from the weather, the soil be wet and
adhesive, the difficulty of executmg completely the
operations of tillage is much increased. Soils of this
description, wliidi are hurriedly or imperfectly
wrought, in a short time throw up a luxuriant crop
of weeds, which at last destroy or greatly diminish
the cultivated crops. The ordinary method of rais-
ing corn crops, and especially when the tillage pro-
-cesscs, from negligence or necessity, have been ill
performed, does not admit of any effectual means of
clearing land from w^eeds ; and if the soil be unfit for
the growth of such crops as can be managed by the
drill husbandry, no remedy is left but recourse to a
summer fallow, by which it may be restored to a pro-
per condition for profitable culture.

Advantages of snmmrr falloxv. — The object of the
extraordinary tillage wluch is pursued when land is
under a clean or summer fallow is to clear it from
weeds, and to reduce it to that texture and consis-
tence which are necessary to healthy vegetation.
The more zealous advocates of this practice, although
with seeming reluctance, admit that by proper man-
agement it may be restricted to soils of a clayey na-

VOL. I. PART I.

ture and a stift' tenacious quality. Sudi soils are apt ArabV land.
to retain a super-abundance of moisture, and under \«»»y"««^
an unfavourable climate are unsusceptible, either in
spring or the latter period of autwmn, of perfect pre--
paration for the reception of the seed and the growth
of the crop. The efllects of the deficient tillage of one
season are in some degree continued to the next ;
the soil, which becomes hard and adhesive, is over-
grown with weeds ; and every croji which m attempt-
ed to be raised is diminished in qimrttity and injured
in quality. To complete the tillage processes on
soils of this description may be regarded as the cliief
object of summer fallowing, at least in the view of
those who have treated the subject on di^inct and
rational principles.

The advantages of sunnner fallowing are obvioas
in reducing soils which are wet, stiff, an<l adhesi\H;,
and especially those of a clayey nature, to the neces-
sary degree of friability and minuteness of divisJofij
which not onl)' admit the manure to be intimately
blended and incorporated, but also absoi-b and retain
a sufficient quantity of moisture, and allow the fine
fibres of the roots to push out, and extend themselves
with facility in search of nourislmient. The destruc-
tion of weeds is another advantage whicli is derived
from the same practice. The imperfect tillage which
the state of the weather and the nature of the soil al-
low of being accomplished within the ordinary season
allotted to that work, tends to encourage and promote
the growth of noxious plants, and thus renders the
extended operations of summer fallow indispensible
for cleaning the soil.

It is supposed, too, that some advantage is obtain-
ed by repeated ploughing, and reducing the soil, m.
consequence of its exposure to the atmospheric air,
which combines with the fine particles, and furnish-
-es a larger proportion of oxygen, which latter uniting
with the carbonaceous matter, produces carbonic
acid, and inthis way contributes to the vigorous growth
of vegetables. Accordingto the samehypothetical rea-
soning, the water which is absorbed by a pulverised
«oil is subjected to the process of decomposition, and its
hydrogen uniting with tlie azote of the atmospheric
air, forms ammonia, or volatile alkali, while another
portion of oxygen combining with part of the azote,
furnishes nitric acid, which, in combination with its
base, potash, yields nitre ; and these new compounds
contribute to the improvement and fertility of tin;
soil. Certain changes of temperature, which no doubt
take place, wherever any decomposition, or change
in the constituent parts of bodies is effected, are also
supposed to be beneficial, either immediately or indi-
rectly, in promoting the growth of plants.

Objections to summer Jallotiying. — But, on the other
hand, there is some reason to suspect, as has been
stated by Sir Humphry Davy, that the benefits de-
rived from fallow have been over-rated; and althougli
he admits that it is a necessary practice in lands
overgrown with weeds, and particularly such as can-,
not be pared and burnt ^vith advantage, yet it is un-
profitable as part of a general system of husbandry.
He rejects the doctrine, that certain principles ne-
cessary to fertility, are derived fVom the atmosphere,
and supplied, during tlie repose of the land, and its

154

AGRICULTURE.

ArtMf land, exposure to the air, to the pulverised soil, as well
as the old opinion of the effects of nitrous salts in
vegetation. By the decomposition of the weeds which
are buried in the soil, a certain quantity of soluble
matter is furnished ; but it may be doubted whether
the quantity of useful manure in the soil at the end
of a clean fallow, be equal to what it contained when
the operations commenced. By the action of the
vegetable matter upon the oxygen of the atmos-
phere, carbonic acid gas is formed, but the greater
part of it is dissipated and lost to the soil. Tlie
rapidity of the decomposition of the matters in the
soil is greatly promoted, and the volatile fluid mat-
ters are exhaled by the influence of the sun ; and, at
the very time when a large portion of nutritious sub-
stance is produced, there are no useful vegetables
to derive any benefit from it. When the land is un-
occupied in the preparation of food for animals, it
is suggested, that it should be applied to the pur-
pose of preparing manure for plants. This object is ac-
complislied by means of green crops, in consequence of
the absorption of carbonaceous matter, which is sup-
posed to take place in the carbonic acid of the atmos-
phere. But during a summer fallow no vegetables are
raised, either as food for animals, or as nourishment
for the succeeding crop. Even the texture of the soil
is less improved than during its exposure in winter,
when the freezing of the moisture it contains has
the effect of reducing and pulverising it. In the
drill-husbandry, the land is preserved clean by the
extirpation of the weeds by the hand, and manure is
supplied, either by the green crops themselves, or
from the dung of the animals which feed upon them.
It is the peculiar advantage of the convertible sj's-
tem of cultivation, that the whole of the manure is
employed, and those parts of it which are less fitted
for one crop are suitable for the nourishment of ano-
tlier. Thus, the recent manure applied to a turnip
crop, affords a sufficient quantity of soluble matter
for its nourishment. The succeeding crop of barley,
with grass-seeds, derives from the soil, which is little
exhausted, abundant nourishment from the decom-
posing manure, while the rye-grass and clover re-
• main, which draw only a small part of their organiz-
ed matter from the soil, and, it is supposed, consume
the gypsum in tlie manure, which is useless to other
crops. The grass and clover plants are supposed to
draw a large ))ortion of their nourishment from the
atmosphere, and their roots and leaves, when plough-
ed down at the end of two years, and decomposed
in the soil, yield manure to the succeeding wheat
crop. At this period of the course, the farm-yard
manure, which contains phosphate of lime and other
matters of difficultsolubility, is broken down; and as
soon as the most exhausting crop is raised, the ap-
plication of recent manure is repeated. Such are the
speculations of Sir Humphry Davy on Mr Coke's
system of cropping independent of summer fallow.

Pursuing a similar plan, Mr Gregg, in his system
of cultivation on strong clay soil, an account of
which is published in the Transactions of the Board
«f Agriculture, retains the ground two years in grass
after barley, takes a crop of pease and beans on the
Jpy, and ploughs down the stubble for wheat. In

some cases the wheat crop is followed by winter tares Arable Iiiid.
and winter barley, which are eaten off m the spring, >_,--„_'
before the land is prepared and sown with turnips.
But in stating this method of cropping, as the means
of avoiding summer fallow, and as an objection to
the practice, it cannot escape observation, that the
soil alluded to, although denominated a strong clay,
is adapted to turnip culture, and therefore cannot
come within the description of those soils which are
unfit for the growth of such crops, or those of a si-
milar nature, which might preclude the necessity of
fallow.

Were it possible to devise any method of cropping
by which the produce, fertility, and good condition
of the soil could be kept up, without the interven-
tion of a summer fallow, which is always, in the first
instance, attended with the loss of a crop, the saving
would be, undoubtedly, immense. In allusion to this
circumstance, Mr Middleton, in his Report of the
State of Agriculture in Middlesex, when speaking of
the advantages to be derived from a proper succes-
sion of crops, observes, that " the aggregate bene-
fits to be derived to the country from this measure
are not to be estimated ; but among the first of these
will stand the abolition of fallows, and the introduc-
tion of green crops to supply their place, over an ex-
tent of about three millions of acres of arable land,
which have hitherto, under the fallow system, pro-
duced nothing useful during the fallow year. So far
as tares and turnips, or potatoes or pease, and tur-
nips or potatoes, or any two good crops can be rais-
ed in one year, in place of a fallow, the produce will
be double in quantity what it has been under the for-
mer system." It is added, that there are about nine
millions of acres in England and Wales in the course
of two crops and a fallow ; that is, six in crop and
three in fallow ; from which it appears, that, by pro-
curing one crop in place of the fallow, one-halt more
is added to the former produce.

But it is admitted by those who contend most stre-
nuously for the practice of fallowing on soils which
are unsuitable for the turnip husbandry, that by pro-
per management of the course or rotation, the fallow
may be protracted for several years ; and we have
the authority of Mr Dickson of Bangholm, in the vi-
cinity of Edinburgh, for stating his opinion of the
practicability of having recourse to that system only
once in 12 years, when the following six course shift,
1. fallow, 2. wheat, 3. hay, 4. oats, 5. beans, 6. wheat,
is adopted, and when the wheat is cultivated accortl-
ing to the drill husbandry. Here it may be observ-
ed, that the soil is a fine loamy clay, and that al-
though turnips are not included in the rotation, they
follow in the second course. If, then, it appears
from this statement, that the period when fallow be-
comes necessary can be prolonged, might it not be
suggested that the extended improvement of this sys-
tem of rotation might keep the land in a clean and
fertile condition, and thus supersede entirely summer
fallow ?

According to Sir John Sinclair, in his Hints on
the Agricultural State of the Netherlands, fallows
are more rarely practised in Flanders than formerly,
and in some districts are totally abolished. The \

AGRICULTURE.

1S5

Aj-atile land, succesion oP crops which is pursued on strong land,
in the neighbourhood of Bruges, is the following :
1 . fallow, '2. winter barley, 3. beans, 4. wheat, 5. oats ;
sometimes there is a fallow every fourth year, and
sometimes wheat and fallow alternate. But in the
plain of Fleurus, in the Walloon country, fallows
are now rarely seen. At one period, fallows were
enforced, by a clause in the leases, as part of the
system of husbandry in that fertile district. M.
Mondez, who was well acquainted with Flemish hus-
bandry, when he entered on the possession of a farm
near Fleurus, having stipulated that he should be at
liberty to pursue a different plan of management,
took the lead in this improvement ; and, for a period
of forty years, has seldom had occasion to undertake
a summer fallow. The beneficial effects of his sys-
tem induced his neighbours to imitate and adopt it.
The course of cropping pursued by M. Mondez, and
in which a fallow is not introduced, is the following :

1. winter barley or wheat, 2. rape, 3. half wheat half
rye, 4. clover, 5. oats, 6. flax ; or where flax is not
cultivated, the course proposed is, 1. winter barley,

2. rape transplanted ; 3. wheat, 4. clover. The cul-
ture of beans is succesfully practised, instead of a
fallow, by M. Wieland near Ostend. The beans are
succeeded by an abundant crop of wheat or winter
barley ; and it is added by the agriculturist now al-
luded to, that " this system merits to be encouraged,
from the great advantage derived from it ; for, with-
out any additional manure, which, however, it tends
to furnish, it retains the fields in as high a state of
fertility as can be done by the fallow system ; it ex-
acts but a moderate degree of attention, and it re-
quires neither any extraordinary expence, nor hazar-
dous combinations."

Sir John Sinclair informs us in the work just men-
tioned, that it is now a maxim in the plain of Fleu-
rus, where fallows are nearly abolished, that when-
ever it is possible to manure Uie land fully every
ninth year, they are perfectly unnecessary ; and the
same author notices a paper on this subject by M.
Burtin of Brussels, who recommends mixing sand
with the soil, to alter and improve its texture, and
burning clay in large masses for the same purpose,
as a substitute for fallows.

In Switzerland, fallowing was so much practised
at one period, that it alternated with every crop ;
but now it is said that fallows are totally abolished
in that country, and the rotation which precludes
the necessity of that practice is, 1. wheats 2. carrots,

3. vetches, 4. barley, 5. potatoes.
It has been already noticed, that the fertility of

the soil which is frequently turned up and exposed
to the atmosphere during the course of a summer
ihllow, instead of being improved and enriched by
receiving something from tlie air, is actually impove-
i islied by the loss of those volatile ingredients which
might have contributed to the nourishment of a crop.
But it can scarcely be doubted, that the saline or
soluble matters in the soil, which are necessary to
the growth of vegetables, are either entirely waslied
off the land, or carried downwards into the sub-soil,
in the progress of the fallowing operations. It is
supposed, indeed, that some compensation for this
loss is obtained from the additional manure furnished

by the weeds which are ploughed down. It seems. Arable hni.
indeed, not improbable, that the soil is in a worse
state in point of fertility at the conclusion of a clean
fallow than it was at the commencement ; and it de-
serves serious consideration, whether in any or in all
the cases in which tliis system is adopted, any mode
of practice could be devised which could obviate this
loss, and at the same time secure the advantages of
a clean soil with an improved texture. It would be
easy to institute a series of experiments for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the change which takes place in
the fertility of the soil after a clean summer fallow.
If two portions of land in the same situation, of the
same nature and quality, and of the same extent, were
marked, and if the one were put under a hoed or drilled
crop of any description, while the other is at the same
time subjected to the usual processes of fallowing;
and if in the succeeding years the same crops were
raised on both, — the amount and quality of the pro-
duce would furnish a fair estimate of the difference
of fertility, if any existed, in the two portions of land
thus treated.

Operations qfjallowing. — When a summer fallow
is determined on, the first operation is a plougliing
immediately after harvest, and it is recoumiended
that this ploughing should be as deep as the soil ad-
mits. In many cases, it is found beneficial to bring
up a portion of the sub-soil, by means of which deep
rooted weeds are loosened, and some addition of fresh
earth, provided it be not of an injurious quality, is
made to the cultivated soil. The decay of the stub-
ble and weeds which are turned down, is ^Ttatly
promoted by this ploughing. But. if circumstances,
prevent this first part of the process from beinj.' com-
pleted about the end of autunm, it must not be omit-
ted during a favourable time in the winter months,
or early in the spring season. In the first ploughing,
if it can be accomplished, the old ridges are gather-
ed up, that the soil may be kept dry through the
winter. But if the ridges in their fornit;r :.tate were
considerably raised, it is not unusual to split or di-
vide them into two ; and sometimes when the land is
dry, it is ploughed according to the method denomi-
nated crown and furrow, or the furrows and crowns
are exchanged, the former becoming the crown and
tlie latter the furrow of the new ridges, and some-
times two ridges are ploughed together by casting.

When the field is ploughed, all the furrows, as
well those which divide the ridges, as those between
the extremities of the ridges and head ridges, are
to be carefully opened up by the plough, after which
every remaining obstruction is to be removed, that
there may be no interruption to the escape of the
water. Attention also is necessary to the hollow
places in the field, that a free outlet for any water
that is apt to collect may be made. No water should
be allowed to stagnate in any part of the field.

When the spring seed-time is over, the fallowing
operations are resumed by another ploughing ; and if
the ridges were formerly split, they are now ridged
up, and if the ridges were formerly gathered, they
are now split. The field is subjected to a cross-
jiloughing ; and after remaining a sufficient length of
time to become dry, and to be fit for harrowing, it is
repeatedly harrowed and rolled, to reduce and bveiik

156

AGRICULTURE.

Arab's lind. down the soil to a proper and uniform consistence,
while all kinds of roots and weeds which are raisttl
to the surface are carefully collected into heaps to
be burnt in the field, or carried oft' to form compost
nianui-e. The fallow is then ridged up, which pre-
vents any injury from rainy weather, and a new
surface is presented to the action of the harrow and
roller ; and after harrowing, the weeds are again
collected and treated in the same way. The 0])era-
tions of ploughing, harrowing, and rolling are repeat-
ed, till the soil is completely cleared of weeds, and
reduced to that uniform state of minute division, or of
tiexture and consistence which is well known by the
name of fine tilth. It must be observed, too, that in
each successive operatiiui, the weeds which spring up
from seed are turned down and destroyed ; and hence
Mimnier fallowing affords the best opportunity of
clearing land which is infested with such noxious
productions.

Some diversity of opinion prevails with regard to
the implements employed in the fiillowing process.
Repeated ploughings, some think, are only neces-
Bary for the destruction of root weeds, whicli being
turned up and exposed to the action of the sun and
iur, are completely deprived of their vegetative pow-
ers, and thus are not only rendered harmless, but are
made to contribute, in their decomposition and de-
cay, some useful ingredients for enriching the soil.
But it appears firom ample experience, that couch-
grass and other root weeds can rarely be extojated
from some soils by the operation of the plouglJro the
exclusion of the harrow and roller. In stiff' atmesive
clay grounds, the soil is raised in masses or clods,
which in no period of a dry season are so reduced as
to permit the included roots to be affected by the
drought, and to wither and decay, or the inclosed
seeds to vegetate and spring up, that they may be
afterwards buried under the surface and destroyed.
In such cases, the application of the harrow and rol-
ler is most essential ; — by the action of the latter, the
earthy clods or masses are broken down and reduced
to a loose fi-iable mould, and by means of the former,
the same effects are still farther extended, while at
the same time the detached roots and weeds are
dragged to the surface, and may then be collected by
manual labour, carried off the field, or thrown into
heaps to be burnt, and the remains blended with the
soil.

By such operations the land is effectually cleaned
from all kinds of noxious vegetables, and brought
to that uniform degree of friability, or state of fine
tilth, which the healthy and vigorous growth of the
cultivated crops requires. The object of the last
ploughing is to form the ridges. This is accomplish-
ed exactly in the same way as has been already de-
scribed for striking the furrows ; and as all traces of
the former ridges are entirely obliterated, the direc-
tion, breadth, and other circumstances of the new
ridges, may be accomnvodated to the nature of the
cro])s to be raised, or the particular system of hus-
bandry to be adopted. In preparing for a drilled
crop, for instance, the breadth of the ridges is made
to correspond with the proportions of the drilling
implements in use.

In Norfolk, a kind of fallow, provincially denomi-

nated a bastard summer till, is occasionally practised' A,able 1
if it shall appear that a piece of ground, from which
clover, or some other cultivated grass has been cut,
is not sufficiently clean for the reception of the suc-
ceeding wheat crop, it is ploughed two or three
times, if it can be accomplished, before harvest ;
and when it is necessary, the assiduous application of
the harrow and roller is not to be neglected. For the
purpose of cleaning pea stubble, it is also sometimes
subjected to a similar series of operations. When
the cro]) of pease is removed from the land, the
straw is harrowed up, collected, and carried off. A
single ploughing is given ; after which the ground
remains in that state till the conclusion of the har-
vest, when it receives two cross ploughings, and
a fourth as a preparation for the insertion of the
seed.

Application of manure. — When manure is necessa-
ry for land which has been under summer fallow,
the fertility of the soil, the state of its tillage, and
the nature of the manure, serve to direct the mode
of its application. In cases where lime, or other
calcareous matter, is found requisite, the summer
months are properly recommended as the best time
for spreatling it on the land ; but particularly after
the mechanical operations on the land are complet-
ed, that it may be ploughed in with a slight furrow,
not buried deep, which should be carefully avoided,
but thoroughly blended and incorporated with the
soil, that its effects may not be placed beyond the
reach of the vegetative processes on which they are
expected to operate, '^"hen farm-yard manure is
applied, it is most beneficially inserted with the seed
furrow, by which the vigorous growth of the crop is
promoted by a regular and copious supply of nou-
rishment in the early stages of its progress. The
rich verdure and luxuriant appearance of the first
crop after fallow, managed in this manner, afford
ample proof of the advantages of this practice. In
some cases, the abundant supply of vegetable mat-
ter to the soil by the decay of an abundant growth
of weeds, may render the application of manure less
necessary ; but it may be fairly doubted, whether
the unavoidable waste of fertility in the course of a
summer fallow may net require some compensation,
so that a certain portion of some enriching matters
may be generally considered indispensible. It has
been supposed to be a more economical practice to
reserve the manure, and a))ply it to the second crop
in succession after the fallow ; but this point, it is
obvious, can only be correctly determined by the
comparative fertility of the soil.

Sect. UI. Drill husbandry.

For the successful practice of the drill husbandry,
or the method of inserting the seed in rows, or drills,
the various tillage operations require to be executed
with greater care, accuracy, and neatness than arc
usually bestowed on land wlien the ordinary broad-
cast manner of sowing is adopted. This method of
cultivating grain in drills is also denominated the
New Husliaiidrif, to distinguish it from the broad-cast
system, and on account of its later introduction into
this country ; although it is supposed that the prac-
tice of cultivating grain and other crops in drills has

AGRICULTURE.

157

Arable Ism), been 'known and followed in eastern countries from
the remotest periods.

The drill husbandry was introduced into Britain
by Mr Jethro Toll, a Berkshire gentleman, who be-
gan to cultivate his own property according to this
metliod about the year 1713, and hence it 1ms been
called TuWs Husbav.drij. Struck with the remark-
able effects which this method of managing arable
land j)roduced, and ascribing to tlie more perfect
culture which was practised, rather than to the fer-
tilizing properties of the manure, the more abundant
crops which he obtained, like other speculatists, his
partiality to his own system became excessive, and
led him to disregard the benefits derived from ma-
nure, and even to consider its application as a need-
less waste of labour and expense. By thus over-rat-
ing the advantages of drilling crops, and by this er-
roneous view of the efterts of this method, the in-
troduction of the practice was probably much re-
tarded. In the present day, when the utility and
necessity of manure are so well understood and fvdly
appreciated, no great danger exists of any person
of ordinary intelligence, without some peculiar pre-
dilection, being misled by such a doctrine, and far
less to venture to direct any extensive practice by
such tenets ; although we have heard that Mr Tull
has still one follower, who thinks that perfect tillage
is all that is necessary for the production of abundant
crops.

In the broad-cast system, although not a necessa-
ry consequence of the practice, the land is often not
in a proper condition or state of fine tilth ; the seed
is often scattered at random ; in some places it is too
thick, in others too thin, which allows weeds to
spring up, so that labour and manure are wasted in
vain ; the seed is often imperfectly covered ; part of
it is carried off by vermin ; part is exposed on the
surface to rain, frost, and drought ; the unequal depth
at which it is placed, produces an unequal crop ; and
the soil cannot be stirred, or the weeds destroyed,
without great expense or injury. But the drill-hus-
bandry is free from most or all of these inconvenien-
eies and defects. The land must necessarily be bet-
ter tilled; the seed is regularly inserted, and it is
placed at equal depths, which secures a clean and
equal crop ; by being speedily and equally covered,
it is protected from vermin and injuries of the wea-
ther ; weeding by the hand or horse-hoe is executed
more completely, without risk of hurting the grow-
ing crop ; by the repeated stirring of the soil, the
roots of the plants have the full advantage of its fer-
tility ; the pulverised soil absorbs more freely the
moisture necessary for the growth of the plants ; and
the intervals between the rows admit a free circula-
tion of air, which is also essential to healthy vegeta-
tion.

The advantages derived from the practice of dril-
ling are stated to be, a saving of seed ; its more re-
gular and certain growth and maturity, from being
more regularly deposited; a more abundant crop,
and of better quality ; the more certain and easy
destruction of weeds ; harvesting the crop at less ex-
pense, as it is free from grass and other weeds ; and
the soil being left in a msre friable state, and in
better condition, wliich renders it more productive

for future crops. The objections to this system of Arable land •
husbandry refer to the requisite dexterity and accu- **^^^^
racy in performing the necessary operations — quali-
fications which are not always possessed by common
labourers ; the superior culture which must be given
to the land, and for which every soil is not suitable ;
the thinness of the crop, the supposed waste <^
land, and the unproductive crops which have suc-
ceeded those that were drilled. Some of the objec-
tions now enumerated, it is pretty obvious, have their
origin in prejudice, and others are undoubtedly to
be ascribed to partial and inaccurate observation.

The comparative experiments of Mr Amos, which
are fully detailed in his Treatise on Drill Husbandry,
exhibit, in a distinct point of view, the superior ad-
vantages of this method. These experiments, which
commenced in 1783, were made on soils of different
qualities ; and in all of them, two acres of land, laid
up in ridges of 11 feet, and drilled and sown broad-
cast, alternately, were employed. For the entire de-
tails, we refer to the work itself; we propose, foi'
the sake of brevity, to state only the results ; and
the sum, opposite to the name of the crop, denotes
the superiority of the drilled crop.

Oats on stiff loam,
Cole-seed after the oats,
Barley after the cole-seed,
Beans after the barley,
Wheat after the beans,

Turnips on sandy loam,
Barley after the turnips,
lied clover after the barley,
Wheat after the red clover,

Potatoes on sandy loam, hand and

horse-hoed, in favour of the latter
Barley after the potatoes,
Red clover after the barley.
Wheat after the red clover,

Cabbages, on stiff loam, horse and

hand-hoed, in favour of the former 2 10 9

But we have to adduce a recent and still more
decisive experiment in favour of drilled crops, which
was made on a considerable scale, in the year 1815,
by one of the most accurate and intelligent agricul-
turists, in a district where husbandry has attained a
high degree of perfection. Mr Dickson of Bang-
holm, now alluded to, whose opinion of fallowing
we have already stated, has distinctly and satisfac-
torily ascertained, that his crop of drilled wheat, on
a black, sandy loam, yielded one-fourth more pro-
duce than an equal quantity of land of the same
quality in the same field sown broad-cast. The qua-
lity of the drilled wheat also maintained its superio-
rity over the other ; for it v/as from four to six pounds
heavier in the bushel tlian the produce of the broad-
cast sowing, and the quantity of light grains in the
former was less than one-half of what appeared in
the latter. It ought to be added, that though Mr Dick-
son employed the same quantity of seed in both
metliod^; of sowing, the drilled seed was inserted -

L. s.

d.

1 3

0

0 1

0

1 5

3

1 1

3

1 14-

5

0 8

9

0 17

10

0 10

6

1 9

9v

3 13

10

1 16

2

0 13

6

1 16

0

158

AGRICULTURE.

Atahle hnd. in a fuiTow of six inches, and that he considers the
saving of seed, wliich has been held out as one of
the advantages of the drill-husbandry, as rather in-
jurious, and as the cause of a deficient crop.

A remarkable difference is observed in the pro-
duce of drilled crops in the same kind of soils, from
a difference in the distance between the rows or
drills. This is strongly exemplified in the crops of
potatoes and cabbages, noticed above, in which the
more abundant crop was obtained from the wider
drills, if part of the superiority be not ascribed to
the difference of culture between the use of the
horse and liand-hoe. A comparative view of the
produce of different crops of grain and pulse, drilled
at different distances, is given by Mr Young, in his
Eastern Tour. But it seems doubtful whether any
useful results are to be obtained from this compari-
son ; because it is made on very different soils, in
different situations, and under the management of
different persons. It would seem, in general, that
the most abundant crops were raised in the wider
drills, at least within certain limits ; and it must be
observed that these limits are narrow ; for when the
difference is considerable, the result was greatly va-
ried. The wheat crops were drilled from eight to
18 inches; the barley and oats from nine to 12 inch-
es ; the beans from nine to 20 inches ; and the pease
from 10 inches to two feet.

It is a curious fact in the history of agriculture,
that TuU proposed and practised the drilling of wheat,
barley, and other corn crops, in distinct rows, at the
distance of three or five feet from each other. In
this practice, as might be expected, he has found
few followers. But although this extravagance in
his system be laid aside, its importance and value
have not been overlooked. Drilling is practised in
rows of eight or ten inches distant, for the purpose
of hand-hoeing ; in rows at the same distance with
the view of saving seed ; and green crops are drilled
and horse-hoed, to preclude the necessity or frequent
recurrence of summer fallow. By sowing in drills at
eigiit or ten inches, to admit the operation of hand-
hoeing, taking the previous culture and the clean
condition of the land, which is the consequence of
attentive management, into the account, very abun-
dant corn crops have been produced by Mr Ducat,
at Esher, in Surrey, who has practised this method
on a larger scale than any other agriculturist in the
kingdom. But the requisite number of hands, it
seems probable, is not always and in all situations to
be procured for such extended operations. It is
doubtful, from the fact noticed above, where the same
quantity of seed was used in drilling as in broadcast
sowing, whether, in all cases, the saving of seed ought
to be considered as one of the advantages of the sys-
tem. The compensation for the extraordinary pre-
vious tillage to bring the land into good condition
lor the drilling process, and for the additional labour
which is necessary to keep it in a clean state in the
progress of the crop, is to be sought for rather in tlie
more abundant produce than in the saving of seed.
The drilling and horse-hoeing of green crops is just-
ly regarded as one of the most beneficial improve-
ments in modern agriculture. It is considered very
properly as an extension of the gardea culture to the

field, which some writers seem disposed to think is a Arable
thing altogether impracticable, and affect to treat
even the most distant hint of the possibility of so re-
fined an improvement with an indignant sneer, as if
the progress of art had reached its utmost boundary,
and the wants of man did not still exist to rouse in-
genuity and stimulate labour to useful exertion.

In the preparation of land for the drill husbandry
it is not necessary to repeat the directions already
laid down for conducting the operations of perfect
tillage, either in the case of ordinary practice, or in
that of summer fallowing. It is sufficient to remark,
that the ground on which a drilled crop is proposed,
should be in the best condition with regard to the
texture of the soil, and its state of cleanness. The
quality of the soil, and the kind of drilling apparatus
to be employed, regulate the proper breadth of tl.-e
ridges. On a moist soil narrow ridges are necessary,
but ridges of a greater breadth are preferred on a
dry soil. The general breadth, when not otherwise
limited to the drilling machine, is from five or siic
to fifteen or eighteen feet.

The distance between the rows in drilled crops
varies according to the nature of the soil, and the
kind of plants which are cultivated. On light soils,
the drills should be closer than on those of a strong-
er and richer description. The distance between the
rows for most kinds of corn crops, is recommended
to be from ten to fourteen inches, and on poor soils
eight inches ; for beans, pease, and turnips, when
drilled in double rows, at the distance of nine inches
between the rows, and 27 inches in the larger inter-
vals; but some writers are of opinion, that 10 or 12
inches are a sufficient distance for turnips, rape, and
similar crops in poorer soils ; and for carrots 14 inch-
es is considered a proper distance.

Sect. IV. Of the Culture ofdifferetit Crops.

The observations which have been offered on the
subject under consideration, respect the nature of the
soil, the means of improving and the methods of pre-
paring it for the reception of the seed, and the growth
of plants. Our attention is now to be directed to
the particular management of the different kinds of
crops which are usually raised upon it ; and as the
same succession of crops is never produced in all soils
and situations, it seems of little importance in what
order they are treated. The proper rotation of crops,
which is regulated partly by the quality of the soil,
and partly by local circumstances, will be discussed
in the next section.

Of the plants which are produced on arable land,
some are cultivated for the sake of their seeds, as the
grain crops ; some for the sake of their leaves, as
the grasses, clover, cabbages ; and some for the sake
of their roots, as potatoes, turnips, carrots.

1. Wheat.

The soils which are the most suitable for the cul-
ture of wheat are tliose of a strong, loamy, or rich
clayey description ; but where an abundant supply of
manure can be obtained, and when the climate is fa-
vourable, wheat may be profitably cultivated on soils
of a lighter nature, as on any kind of clayey or loamy
soil. On a strong soil, in good condition, and in a

i

KtMt l>n^H

AGRICULTURE.

159

Arable land, clean State, •wheat may be raised every second year,
alternating with some green crop.

Preparation of the land. — Wheat is often the first
crop after summer fallow. In the application of ma-
nure to this crop, and those which are cultivated in
the rotation, it ^.^ sometimes inserted at the conclu-
sion of the fallowing operations, and sometimes; as
has been already noticed, it is deferred to the next
crop, and then it is applied to the wheat stubble for
drilled beans. This is regarded by some as the best
preliminary preparation for the next wheat crop.
The limitation or extension of the course depends on
the state in which the land is kept with regard to
cleanness from weeds during the drilled bean crop,
and on the manure which it receives, to keep up the
proper degree of fertility. By this management, a
rotation of fallow every fourth year, two crops of
wheat, and an intermediate crop of beans, with a sin-
gle application of manure, may be advantageously
established. But if the fallow be introduced every
sixth year, three crops of wheat and two crops of
beans, with two applications of manure in the course,
may be taken ; and with three applications of manure
and a fallow every eight year, seven crops may be
raised in succession, namely, four of wheat and three
of beans. On the different courses now noticed,
it may be observed that the proportion of manure is
smallest in the first, and soil of a good quality is found
to continue in a proper degree of fertility. But in
the other two, the rotation cannot be long persever-
ed in without the extraneous acquisition of manure,
and this can only be secured in the vicinity of large
towns, or the disproportionate application of what is
produced on the land.

Although wheat be generally sown after the land
has received the preparation of a complete summer
fallow, it may be raised to more advantage, accord-
ing to some agriculturists, after different kinds of
green, root, and other crops. The practice of sow-
ing wheat after fallow is strongly reprobated by
Mr Young, in his Calendar of Husbandry, who
remarks, that " if there be one practice in hus-
bandry proved by modern improvements to be worse
than another, it is that of sowing wheat on fal-
lows." " If fallows, (he says) be thought neces-
sary, let them be sown with barley or oats, or any
thing but wheat. But wheat may be advantage-
ously cultivated after clover, tares, pease, beans, tur-
nips, potatoes, and similar crops, regulating the suc-
cession according to the nature of the soil and the
condition of the land." Beans which have been un-
der suitable culture, are considered by Mr Young
the best preparation for a crop of wheat ; and in the
opinion of the same author, clover and tares come
next in order as preparatory crops.

The place which the wheat crop holds in a six
course shift, on a fine loamy clay soil, in the highly cul-
tivated district of East Lothian, in Scotland, is the
following: 1. fallow; 2. wheat; 3. grass; 4. oats;
5. beans ; 6. wheat ; and, with an intermediate ap-
plication of manure, all the crops are abundant ; and
besides, if the wheat be drilled, which affords an op-
portunity of clearing the ground from weeds, the
lallow may intervene only once in 12 years. With
the advantage of manure from Edinburgh, which

compensates what is lost by the produce sold off the Arable Ur.i.
possession, Mr Dickson's rotation at Bangholm i%, ~

either, 1. potatoes ; 2. wheat, drilled; 3. clover, cut
green ; — or, 4. turnips ; 2. wheat or barley ; 3. clover,
cut green. The soil on which this succession of
cropping is pursued, is partly a black sandy loam on
a retentive sandy sub-soil, and partly a light sandy
loam on a dry sandy under-soil.

Whether wheat be sown on fallow, or whatev-
er be the preceding crop, it is scarcely necessary
to observe, that the soil should be in a friable and
pulverised state, and completely cleared oi weeds.
When wheat succeeds beans, the state of the wea-
ther in a variable climate may seldom permit more
than one ploughing. But before this is attempted,
the preliminary operation of cross harrowing the
land is recommended, for the purpose of level-
ling the ridgelets, and of allowing the work of the
plough to be executed with greater accuracy and
neatness. To preserve the crop from the effects of
moisture during the winter, the ridges should be ga-
thered up, and, it is needless to add, that the fur-
rows in all cases should, with the same view, be kept
free and open. A greater degree of attention is ne-
cessary to the ploughing operations when wheat is
sown after clover, that the grass roots may be com-
pletely buried and covered up ; for when this labour is
carelessly executed, the roots are apt to vegetate and
send up shoots, to the great injury of the wheat in the
early stages of its growth. To obviate this inconve-
nience, it is the practice in some districts to use the
skim-coultered plough, or the common plough, to
the coulter of which an iron fin or plate is attached,
by means of a screw, at the distance of about four
inches from the point, for the purpose of cutting or
skimming off the remains of clover and grass plants
from the surface, and turning them into the bottom
of the furrow. By means of this implement the land
is better cleaned, and the harrowing is more perfect-
ly executed. In some cases, where the land has
been two years under clover, it is broken up about
the latter end of June, and receives two, and some-
times three ploughings. In favourable situations and
seasons, when the soil can be brought into good
condition, this practice, which is pursued in Norfolk
and W^arwickshire, holds out the advantage of a cut-
ting of grass in the early part of the season when the
land is broken up.

Kinds of wheat The varieties of wheat which has

been cultivated for such a length of time, and in sucli
diversity of soil and situation, may well be expected
to be very numerous ; and these varieties, it is re-
marked by attentive observers, are annually increas-
ing. All the kinds of wheat which are usually culti-
vated in this country, are included under the smooth
or polled wheat, and the wheat with a rough or
bearded ear. The first, or the smooth wheat, as it
affords the finest kind of flour, is more generally cul-
tivated where the soil is suitable ; and the second
species, sometimes known by the name of rivet wheat,
yields a larger crop on the more stiff and wet clayey
soils, and is less subject to diseases, so that it is pre-
ferred for such lands. The common wheat is best
adapted to dry soils ; and the bearded or rivet wheat
is thought by some to tie most suitable for lauds that

160

AGRICULTURE.

Arable lanO '"*'' ^^^ newly broken up, vhere the excessive lux-
1 _ . 1 uTiance of the crop may occasion the grain to be lodg-
' ed in wet seasons ; lor in this kind of wheat the straw-

is firmer and stronger. The wliite and red varieties of
the anootii wlieat are in most general estimation :
the first yields the wiiitest flour, and the last the
most abundant produce. The varieties of wheat now
mentioned are referred to the species triticum ky-
i>cmum of Linnaeus. The wheat wiiich is usually
sown after turnips belongs to the same species, and
is called spring wheat, because it is sown in the spring
season. It is worthy of notice, that the produce of
spring-sown wheat should always he employed for
seed at the same season ; for it has been found from
_ repeated experience, that the crop ripens a fortnight
earlier than when the seed is taken from winter sown
' wheat. This is a point of importance at all times ; but
where there is danger of a late harvest, it is of no small
moment. The true spring, or summer wheat, tri-
tia'.m tvstivum of Linnaus, is a distinct species. In
England it is sometimes known by the name of May
whmt. It is supposed to be a native of Tartary, and
was introduced into this country about the year 1773,
wider the name of Siberian wheat, and Switzerland
wheat. This species has been extensively cultivated
in Berwickshire and East Lothian, but has turned
out to be inferior to the varieties of the Lammas or
■winter species, which have now replaced it.

It would be extremely difficult to describe all the
varieties of wheat under cultivation in dift'erent dis-
tricts, and, indeed, it could answer no good pur-
pose ; for it is probable that the same variety is dis-
tinguished by different provincial names in different
places. The white varieties of wheat have been divid-
ed into the thick-chaffed and ibin-chaffid, a distinc-
tion which is sufficiently cori'ect, from the diversity
•of character of the two kinds. The thin-chafted
fw heats are more hardy, and less liable to be aftect-
ed with mildew, two very valuable properties, on ac-
-count of which the culture of this variety has great-
ly increased in some of the most improved districts
of Scotland. A variety selected by Mr Hunter of
Tynefieid, in East Lothian, is now in great estima-
raation, on account of its superior produce and har-
dy character. It retains a green, healthy, and vi-
gorous appearance in the coldest weather, when
other wheats become languid and yellowish, and
yields an abundant produce of excellent flour. In
some parts of Berwickshire and Northumberland, a
variety called creeping wheat, which belongs to the
red wheats, is found to be very suitable for coarse
clayey and moorish soils. The name is derived from
its supposed tendency to push out suckers. It is a
hardy and prolific variety on inferior soils. Bcrside
the species mentioned above, there are others which
arc cultivated in different countries. One-grained
wheat, triticum monococcum, is raised in Germany, and
Answers well in poor soils and exposed situations.
In a trial with this grain in Scotland, it was sown on
the 12th May, rose on the 27th, flowered on the 15th
August and was fully ripe on the first of October.
Spelt, triliciim spelta, is also cultivated on the most
barren soils in Germany. It was tried in Scotland,
in a field 600 feet above the level of the sea, and ri-
y peaed in the begiiuuug of September. Smyrna wheat

was brought from that place to France where it is ex- Arabli^ land,
tensively sown, at least in the northern districts on
account of its superior produce.

Preparation of Seed. — It seems to be fully ascer-
tained, that tiie produce of wheat sown without any
preparation is more liable to be affected with the di-
seases to which that grain is subject, than the seed
which has undergone some kind of preparation ; and
hence the practice of submitting seed-wheat to cer-
tain processes before it be deposited in the earth, is
very rarely omitted. Tiie experiments of M. Pre-
vost, quoted by Sir John Sinclair in his Hints on the
Agriculture of the Netherlands, shew the advantage
of previous preparation in preventing smut in a strik-
ing light ; the results were the following : 1. Infect-
ed grain without any preparation had one-third of
the crop smutted ; '2. Infected wheat, simply scald-
ed, gave one-fifth smutted ; 3. Sound wheat, with-
out any preservative, had one-fifth part infected ; 4-.
Infected wheat, well moistened in a solution of blue vi-
triol, or sulphate of copper, in the proportion of nearly
two ounces for every three bushels of wheat, had only
one hundredth part affected with smut ; 5. Infected
grain, well moistened with a solution of the same
kind, in the proportion of about 45 ounces of blue
vitriol to three bushels of wheat, gave only one three
hundredth part smutted. This solution is stated as
being equally effectual in preventing mildew.

The method of preparing seed-wheat by this pro-
cess, is the following. Tliree ounces and two drams
of blue vitriol are dissolved in nearly four gallons of
cold water, and this is the proportion allowed for
every three bushels of wheat to be prepared. Into
another vessel, capable of containing sixty or se-
venty gallons, throw from three to four Winchester
bushels of wheat, and pour upon it the prepared li-
quid, till it rises five or six inches above the corn ;
stir it well, and remove the light grain from the sur-
face. The wheat, after being half an hour in the so-
lution, is throw* into a basket to allow the liquid to
drain off. The seed is then washed with pure wa-
ter, and well dried before sowing. It is said that it
may be kept after this process quite sound for se-
veral months. A similar application of blue copperas
is practised by Mr Butler of Derbyshire. He dis-
solves two pounds of the blue vitriol in as much u-
rine as can moisten twelve bushels of wheat, and af-
ter it has soaked a sufficient tinw it is dried with
quicklime.

The successful operation of the above mode of pre-
paring seed wheat, has induced us to describe it at
length. But whether it be more effectual than the
ordinary methods practised in this country, which
are preferable in point of economy, we have had no
opportunity of obtaining precise information. Brine,
or the solution of common salt in water, is strongly
recommended by some as an excellent preservative
lor securing wheat from smut. The solution is made
pretty strong, and the seed-wheat is thoroughly steep-
ed in it. Sea-water, when it can be obtained, is
sometimes employed, on account of being a cheaper
application, as a substitute, with the same view. But
it may be necessary to add a portion of salt to bring
it to the proper degree of strength.

The most economical steep for seed-wheat is cer-

AGRICULTURE.

161

AfaWeJantl. tainly Stale urine, and it is at the same time, in tlie
' '^'~" ' opinion of most agriculturists, one of the most effi-
cient applications for preventing smut. The me-
thod of using it is tlius described in the General Re-
port of the Agriculture of Scotland : " Take four
tubs, two smaller and two larger, the former of a
size to hold about a bushel of wheat, and the latter
large enough to hold the smaller within them. The
smaller tubs have wire bottoms. Fill one of the large
tubs with water, and, putting the wheat in the small
one, immerse it in the water, and stir and skim off
the floating grains ; renew the water, and continue
the operation till it come off nearly clear ; then take
out the vess'jl containing the wheat, and immerse it
in the other large tub which is filled with urine.
When thoroughly washed and skimmed let it drain ;
then throw it on a clean floor and riddle quick lime
upon it, turning it over and mixing it with a shovel
till it is sufficiently dry for sowing. Sprinkling the
seed with urine is also found to answer die same pur-
pose ; and it should be observed, that seed prepared
with urine must be sown immediately after the opera-
tion, for if kept long it runs the risk of being depriv-
ed of its vegetating power.

Kiln-drying is stated as an effectual preventative of
smut ; but great care is necessary in conducting the
operation, to avoid such a degree of heat as might
destroy the powers of vegetation. Passing seed wheat
through rollers, which separates a black powdery
matter from the surface of the grain, has been for
many years successfully practised by Mr Henderson,
near Wooller in Northumberland, for securing the
crop from smut ; and the same method has been adopt-
ed by Mr Dickson at Bangholm. An objection was
made to this operation, that the vegetative functions
of the grain might be destroyed ; but the appearance
of Mr Dickson's crop affords ample proof that the
objection is groundless.

Time of sowing Tlie nature of the soil, the state

of the weather, and the preceding crop, must often
occasion variations in the time of sowing wheat.
When wheat succeeds a fallow, it may be sown from
the end of August to the middle of November ; or
where the climate is favourable, as late as December.
Some think that the best season, whether on fallow,
or once ploughed clover stubble, is from the begin-
ning of September to the middle of October. In
East Lothian, on good dry gravelly loam, it has suc-
ceeded well after a clover crop when sown in Novem-
ber. On wet clay soils, an early sowing is recom-
mended, to preclude the danger of losing the oppor-
tunity of completing the harrowing operations till
tile spring. For cqld backward soils, September is
considered the best season ; and for soils of a,warmer
and drier description, October is preferred by some
for sowing wheat.

W"hen the sowing of wheat is deferred till the spring,
the seed may be inserted at any favourable time from
the beginning of February to the middle of March.
Wlien later, in Scotland, than the second week of
March, the success .of the crop is considered doubt-
ful. But in the southern districts of the kingdom,
the sowing season may be protracted to the end of
April or beginning of May.

Methods of solving. — Wheat is sown either broad-

VOL. I. PART II.

cast or in drills. The first method is most generally Ar»ble laml.
employed, especially on the stronger kind of soils,
whether they be of a clayey or loamy nature. The
seed is cast over the surface in the usual manner, after
the last ploughing, and immediately covered in by the
operation of the lighter kind of harrows. In some
districts the seed is sown in a partial manner, one
portion being covered by the second or third plough-
ing, and the other afterwards harrowed in. But no
great benefit seems to be derived from this method ,
and indeed if the business be not carefully executed,
and particularly if the seed be not turned in with a
shallow furrow, part of the seed may be lost, and an
unequal crop may be the certain consequence. In
broadcast sowing the seed must be deposited at a
very unequal depth.

Drilling, or sowing wheat in rows, is more gener-
ally practised in the southern than in the northern
districts of the kingdom. The distance of the rows
is from nine to fourteen inches, varying according t«
the condition and fertility of the soil. The seed is
usuiilly deposited by machines, Avhich sow several
rows at once. The breadth of the ridge is often ac-
commodated to the machine ; and in this case half the
ridge is completed by one journey, or the whole
breadth is sown by once going and once returning
along the ridges. Drilling is attended with the ad-
vantage of regulating the depth of the seed, which is
extremely uncertain and unequal in the broadcast
method. This depth is varied in different soils from
two to four inches. Mr Dickson of Bangholm, near
Edinburgh, whose practice in drilling has been re-
markably successful, sows wheat in a furrow of six
inches deep. The distance between the rows is from
ten to twelve inches in the lighter kinds of sandy
loam soils, fourteen inches on a stronger description
of soil, of the nature of black sandy loam. The ad-
vantages of Mr Dickson's method of drilling over the
broadcast sowing in the same soil, and in the same
field, fully warrant its recommendation where the
soil and situation are similar. The produce from a
comparative estimate was at least one-fourth great-
er, the grain was of a better quality, weighing from
four to six pounds heavier, and there was not half
the quantity of light wheat.

Quantity of seed. — The quantity of seed varies ac-
cording to the fertility of the soil, the state of the
climate, and the period of sowing. On a rich soil,
in good condition, and sown early, the quantity need
not exceed two bushels for eacli acre. From two to
three bushels, and in some cases a little more, may be
considered as the extreme proportions. When sow)t
on bean stubble, the quantity ought to be greater
than on fallow ; the proportion on clover ley should
be larger ; and the allowance of seed to turnip land
sown in spring is recommended to be still more liber-
al. The English acre is here alluded to.

After-management. — It is scarcely necessary to urge
the advantage of keeping the land sown with wheat
free from water at all times, by opening up all the
furrows, to allow it to have a free outlet. Weeding,
as far as it is practicable, should never be omitted.
This is very limited in fields sown broadcast. Thistles,
and larger plants, which can ,be removed by the hand,
can only be destroyed. But in the drilled method

162

AGRICULTUEE.

the business of hand-hoeing can be etl'ectually execu-
ted ; and it is not less beneficial to the crop in stirring
the soil and closing it on the roots than in eradicat-
ing the weeds.

When grass-seeds are sown in the spring they are
covered in by harrowing, an operation which is also
useful to the wheat crop, and is often had recourse
to in the latter yiew alone, for loosening and pulver-
ising the soil, which is apt to cake and become hard
in the course of the winter. Rolling wheat-lands in
the spring, especially such as are of a porous descrip-
tion of soil, is a very beneficial practice, in giving it
the proper degree of texture and consistence, as well
as in breaking down and reducing any hard masses
or clods of earth. Hand-hoeing is employed some-
times before the sowing of grass-seeds, to prepare
the surface for their reception, and sometimes after
they have been deposited, for the purpose of cover-
ing them in, according to the condition of the soil
and the state of the weather.

By loosening the earth, and closing it round the
Stems of the plants, tillering, or the production of
new stalks, is greatly promoted, and particularly in
the drill-husbandry. Some curious facts of the won-
derful multiplication of grain by this process are
recorded. In a moderately good crop of drilled
wheat. Sir Humphry Davy has counted from 40 to
120 stalks from a single grain ; and he quotes Sir
Kenelnj Digby, who saw, in 1660, in the possession
of the Patliers of the Christian Doctrine at Paris, a
plant of barley which they preserved, and which con-
sisted of 24'9 stalks from one seed, and yielded 18,000
grains. He refers also to Mr Miller of Cambridge,
who sowed some wheat on the 2d of June 1766, and
on the 8th of August a plant was taken up, separat-
ed into 1 8 parts, and replanted. In September and
October they were again taken up and divided into
G7 separate parts, to remain during the winter ; and
in March and April they were also taken up, when
they produced 500 plants. The number of ears from
a single grain amounted to 25,509 ; and the grains
were estimated at the amazing number of 576,840.
The produce, weighing 47 lb. 7^ ounces, measured
three pecks and three quarters of corn.

When blanks or thin spaces appear in the wheat
grounds, from the effect of frost or the ravages of
the wire-worm, which are not unusual, especially in
broadcast sown fields, it has been the practice in
some of the northern districts of the kingdom to
sow barley in the vacant spots. A better method of
accomplishing the same purpose, is to sow summer
wheat, triiicum cBstivum, which, although inserted as
late as the first week of May, arrives at full matu-
rity as soon as the crop of winter wheat.

The feeding down of wheat crops is a practice
which has been resorted to in some districts, when
they appeared too forward or luxuriant in the early
spring months. Some benefit was supposed to be
derived from 'the removal of the upright central
stems by which the growth of the lateral shoots be-
come more vigorous ; but if this practice be at all
useful, it should undoubtedly be limited to crops of
excessive luxuriance, or in strong and fertile lands.
Some advantage is also supposed to be derived from
the treading of the animals on the lighter and looser

kinds of soil, by which the earth is pressed more Arabic laad.
closely to the roots of the plants ; but in many cases
it is suspected this practice is injurious, by retard-
ing the period of blossoming, and checking the
growth of the stems.

The wheat crop is often attacked by worms, slugs,
and insects. To destroy these animals, and pre-
vent their ravages on the grain, top-dressings of
various substances have been employed, such as sea-
salt, lime, sand from the sea-shore which is often
covered by the tides, and soot ; but it should be ob-
served, that such substances as are of a corrosive
nature should be applied in small quantity, and very
equally distributed, that the young plants may not
be injured. Rolling the land in the spring months,
early in the morning, is recommended for destroying
snails, slugs, and grubs.

Diseases oftvheat. — Wheat, although to be consi-
dered a hardy plant, is more liable to diseases than
other crops of grain. In the disease called smut, the
substance of the grain is converted into a black pow-
der, which is similar in its chemical properties to the
dust of the puff-ball or dusty mushroom, lycoperdon
elobosum of Linnaeus. Sir Joseph Banks, who has
mvestigated the nature and progress of this disease
with a good deal of attention, concludes, that the
grain is destroyed by a s.nall parasitical plant of the
fungus tribe ; but in what way the plant is propagat-
ed, it is impossible to say : — Can it be by the minute
seeds being taken in by the roots, carried along with
the juices through the vessels, and deposited in the
ear where it vegetates, according to certain specula-
tions ; or by the seeds being wafted through the air,
according to a prevalent popular notion, that the di-
sease is conveyed from the bai'berry tree, in which a
species of fungus sometimes makes its appearance ?
But whatever be the origin of smut, and otlier diseases
to which wheat is subject, it seems to be a well es-
tablished fact, that they are induced about the time
of sudden changes of weather, when it seems pro-
bable that the functions of vegetation are enfeebled
or interrupted ; and it is also another well known
fact, that plants, as well as animals, in a weak and
languishing state, are most liable to become the ha-
bitation of parasitical beings, both of a^vegetable and
animal nature. The disease of smut is less frequent
in a favourable season, when the growtli is uniform
and vigorous; and the steeping process, by which the
disease is diminished or prevented, might be suppos-
ed to give a stimulus to the plant which remains, and
enables it to resist alternations of heat and moisture
through its whole existence. But although this may
be the progress of the disease, it leads to no expla-
nation of its origin.

Two species or varieties of smut are mentioned by
some writers. In the one, the dust is contained in a
pellicle or covering, forming balls which occupy the
places of the grains in the ear. In the other, the form
of the grain has entirely disappeared, and nothing re-
mains but a few fibres of the husk or chaff, loaded
with the black powder in a loose state, and without
any covering. B(it it is more likely that it is the
same disease, or the same fungus, in a more advanced
period of its growth, when the ripened vesicles have
burst, for the purpose of disseminating the plant.

AGRICULTURE.

163

Aralite land. Mildexu is also a disease of wheat, wliich is suppos-

>.^^V^w^ ed likewise to arise from a fungus of the same or of

a similar nature. In mildew, sometimes the stem, and

sometimes both the stem and the ear, arc attacked,

and the grain becomes small and shrivelled.

Blight is supposed to be an internal affection of
the ear or spike of the wheat, which produces a to-
tal or partial deficiency of seeds, or, when the disease
is less violent, renders the grains small and light.
This disease is induced when heavy rains fall at the
time when the wheat is in flower ; but mildew suc-
ceeds heavy fogs or mists, or cold rainy weather, in
the summer months, between the period of flowering
and ripening. Ilust is another disorder of wheat, in
which an orange-coloured dust appears on the stem
and leaves, and the plants become weak and languid.
It is also ascribed to a vegetable parasite, and comes
on in the time of excessive heat and unusual drought.
Red gum is another disease, in which the chaff of the
ear becomes of a deep orange colour.

Ripening of wheat. — In deciding on the proper time
for cutting down wheat, the distinction between the
ripeness of the grain and that of the straw must be at-
tended to ; for in some seasons the straw becomes yel-
low from the root upwards, indicating the appearance
of ripeness, while the grain in the ear is soft and imma-
ture. It is considered of some advantage to cut down
wheat before it is completely ripe, because it is apt to
fall out of the ear during the harvest operations. But
it should not be reaped in too green a state ; for the
grain shrivelling in drj-ing injures its appearance,
and the quantity of produce is diminished. The most
proper time for reaping wheat and every kind of
grain is, when that part of the stem which joins the
ear affords no juice by expression. In that state, the
grain which is clear skinned and fine, and the straw,
are more valuable. When tlie harvest promises to
be early, the crop may remain on the ground till it
is more fully ripened ; but in a late harvest, when
winds and moist weather are apt to prevail, it may
be cut down in a state of less maturity. Wheat fully
ripe before cropping, is attended with inconvenience
and loss during that operation ; the ears break off
from the stems ; the grain drops from the husk, as-
sumes a dark hue, which injures its appearance and
quality in the market, and the flour from such wheat
is of an inferior kind.

Hat-vesting. — In a dry season, and when the crop
is free from succulent weeds, the wheat may be car-
ried to the stack-yard in a few days after it is cut
down ; and when the straw is quite ripe at the time
of reaping, it may be put upon the stack almost im-
mediately from the sickle. By examining the joints
of the straw of wheat or of other grains, a pretty
correct judgment may be formed of the proper time
of carrying them in. When they appear succulent
and full of sap, some delay must take place ; but if
they are perfectly dry, no danger may be dreaded
of stacking the grain ; but if the crop be thrashed
early, for seed or any other purpose, it must remain
longer in the field, till it is thoroughly dry.

Another test, by which some husbandmen judge
of the proper state of the grain for being carried
to the barn-yard, is, by thrusting the hand into the
centre pf the sheaf; and if the sensation of cold be

excited, the corn is considered as uot sufficiently Ai able Un J,

Stacking — Omitting the description of putting up
the grain in the form of stacks, and of covering and
securing them from the weather, we shall only no-
tice, that much advantage, both in saving the grain
and preserving its quality, is derived from building
the stacks on circular frames of timber, which are
supported by feet of wood, stone, or cast-metal, and
so constructed as to prevent the access of mire or
rats, which often commit great depredations, nicy
are also useful in obviating the injurious effects of
damp grain, as a freer circulation of the air is ad-
mitted from below and through the whole rick, when
a central funnel, or air-hole, is carried up while it is
building. Round stacks, which are almost universal
in Scotland, are considered preferable to those of
an oblong form : although in the construction of the
latter less time and labour are required, yet they are
liable to the serious objection of interrupting the cir-
culation of air in the barn-yard ; of being more liable
to injury in damp weather ; and as they present a
greater resistance to the wind, unless they are well
secured, they are apt to be overturned.

Thrashing wheat. — The advantages of thrashing
out grain, and particularly wheat, by means of ma-
chinery, have been already detailed in the descrip-
tion of the thrashing-mill. Even the produce of
smutted wheat is cleaner, and in better condition, by
the operation of the machine than by the Jlail; for
it is less blackened during the operation, and, by
careful dressing, the smut-balls may be completely
separated, and the wheat sent to market in a clean
state. When it is thrashed by the flail, it remains
long on the damp barn-floor, during which the
black powder attaches itself to the damp grains, and
can only be removed by washing ; but by means of
the thrashing-machine all the operations are per-
formed without interruption, and succeed each other
so rapidly that the dry grains have no time to attract
damp, and the whole of the black powder is easily
separated, leaving the produce perfectly clean.

Produce The produce of a wheat crop must va-
ry according to the nature of the season, and the
fertility and condition of the soil. In Scotland, 40
bushels from the English acre are considered a large
produce on fertile soils in good condition ; but some-
times, in a favourable season, 47, and even .55 bush-
els have been obtained ; from 24 to SO bushels are
regarded as a fair average crop on soils of a middle
quality, under good cultivation ; but when the pro-
duce IS diminished to 18 buiihels, the crop is consi-
dered scanty. In England, the produce, in some
seasons, is under 20 bushels ; while, on the same
soil, and with the same culture, it exceeds 30 bush-
els in other seasons. The greatest produce of an
acre in Middlesex, which has been recorded, amount-
ed to 68 bushels ; the smallest produce was diminish-
ed to 12. The average produce of Britain is sup-
posed not to exceed 20 bushels from each acre.

2. Rye.

Rye may be raised on most kinds of land, but light
and dry sandy soils, which are unsuitable for wheat
or barley, seem to be most adapted to a crop of rye.

164

AGRICULTURE.

Arakir Uml,

A« poultry are less apt to attack rye tlian most other
kinoA of grain, it in thouglit most proper to be culti-
vated on tlioge parts of the posscBsion which are in
the vicinity of tiie farm buildings ; and in former
times, when rye was an object of more frequent cul-
ture, it was not unusual to sow a ridge for the pur-
pose of protecting tlie other crops from the depreda-
tions of domestic fowls. Rye may be raised after early
field-turnips, clover, pease, and similar crops, and in
some cases after clean fallows. As rye approaches
nearly to the nature of wheat, it requires the land to
be clean, and tolerably pulverized. When it is to
stand for a crop, it is usual, in some places, to pre-
pare the ground with some kind of fallow ; but when
fed off by sheep, a single ploughing only is given,
for wlien the crop is sufficiently eaten down by the
animals it is fallowed for turnips.

Time of sowing, Sfc There are two varieties of this

grain, the winter and spring rye, or the black and
white, or Dantzic rye. 1 lie winter rye is large,
plump, and hardy, and is generally preferred. It is
KO hardy as to resist the efiects of the severest wea-
ther. When intended for green food, it should be
sown in A ugust or September ; but it succeeds by
sowing it in October, and during any of the winter
months, till the beginning of March. The quantity
of seed, when a crop of grain is intended, from two
to two and a half bushels is sufficient ; but for green
food three bushels, or even a larger proportion, may
be employed. As rye germinates slowly, it is recom-
mended to put it into the ground when it is in a dry
condition, otherwise much of the seed is lost, parti-
cularly in a wet season.

AJler-management. — When the object of the crop
is to afford a supply of green food for sheep in the
early months offspring, no farther culture is requir-
ed after it is put into the ground ; but when a grain
crop is expected, hand-hoeing and weeding ought
to be carefully practised in the early stages of its
growth.

The yellow colour of the stems, the drooping of
the ears, and the hard, plump, and full condition of
the grain, indicate the ripeness of the rye crop ; and
when the grain is free from weeds, and cut uown in
a dry season, it may be almost immediately carried
to the stack-yard. Poor, sandy soils, on which rye
is tometimcs cultivated, yield but a scanty crop ; on
those of a better quality, the produce is from two to
three quarters from the acre ; but in the North-Rid-
ing of Yorkshire it amounts to three and sometimes
to six quarters.

3. Barley.

Wet, heavy, and tenacious soils are unsuitable for
the profitable culture of barley, which is to be con-
sidered as a tender and delicate plant. It succeeds
best on sandy loams, or light and moderately dry
soils ; even, light, poor soil, in a dry and warm situa-
tion, affords a crop of barley of superior quality to
what is produced on strong lands of a cold and moist
nature. Barley is usually cultivated afler turnips,
potatoes, beans, pease, or tares.

Preparation of the land. — Wliatever be the crop
which precedes barley, it is necessary that the soil
«hould be reduced to a fine pulverized state, to in-

sure an equal and perfect vegetation of the crop. Ar»ble UnJ.
This is effected by sliallow ploughings and harrow-
ings, and by occasional cross ploughing and rolling.
In soils free from weeds, scuffling is recommended
as a substitute for cross-ploughing ; but in preparing
the heavier kinds of lanu for barley, ploughing in au-
tumn, and scarifying and scuffling, when the seed is
put into the ground, are considered sufficient. When
barley succeeds turnips, it has been long a practice
in Suffolk to drill the seed without ploughing ; but
ploughing as early in the spring as possible, and giv-
ing a second ploughing immediately before the in-
sertion of the seed, is pursued in Norfolk, where the
barley crop on turnip fallow is generally well mana-
ged. When barley is sown after pulse crops, it is
usual, in most districts, to give the first ploughing
in autumn and the second in March.

Kinds of seed. — Different species of barley, and
different varieties of these species, are cultivated iu
Britain. The two-rowed barley, hordeum distichon of
Linnaius, includes several varieties, which have re-
ceived different names in different places. These
varieties are distinguished by the names of early
and late, or hot seed and cold seed, from the cir-
cumstance of the former coming to maturity in a
shorter period than the latter. Scotch barley, from
being long cultivated in Scotland, belongs to the first,
or quick growing variety. In the same variety is
classed the Rathripe, or Hotspur, and Sprat barley,
which is alco known by the names of Battledore, FuU
ham, and Putney barley, because it is extensively
cultivated in the vicinity of those places. The se-
cond species of barley in this country is the four-
rowed, hordeum vulgare, or tetrastichon, which is well
known by the name of bear, or lig, or rough bear, in
Scotland. This species, of whicn there are several
varieties, answers well for elevated situations, late
climates, and inferior soils. Six rowed barley, hor'
deum hexaslichon, is a species which has a strong
reed or straw, grows rapidly, and ripens early ; is ve-
ry hardy, and withstands the severity of winter, from
which It is called tvinter barley. It is this species
which is chiefly cultivated in Russia, and as far north
as any grain is raised. It has seldom been an object
of culture in Britain, although the trials which have
been made were so satisfactory as to encourage their
farther extension. In some cases, barley comes up
irregularly, and ripens unequally. To obviate this
inconvenience, steeping the grain is recommended,
for the purpose of promoting the vegetation, and ren-
dering the crop more uniform. The addition of a
jiortion of soot to the water in which it is steeped is
suggested for the destruction of insects. The best
seed is oi' ii pale bright appearance, without stain at
the end, and full, plump, and well bodied.

Sowing barley, Sfc. — Barley, like wheat, is sown
either broadcast or drilled, and it is recommended
that the seed should be inserted immediately after
ploughing, or on the hotjur, as it is called in Scot-,
land, that is, while the turned up soil retains its
moisture. In the southern districts of the kingdom,
barley sowing begins about the latter end of Febru-
ary or the beginning of March ; and in the northern
parts the commencement is a month or six weeks la-
ter, and it continues to tlic middle of May, and even

A G III C U L T 13 Pv E.

165

Arable laad. iMiBetimes IvngcT, OMarding to the species or varie-
ty which ig cultivated ; but when the land is in good
condition, early sowing of every kind of grain in the
spring is always desireable, to insure the maturity of
the crop. The quantity of seed varies from two to
four bushels for the acre. A rich soil requires a
smaller proportion of seed than such as is poor and
exhausted ; and a smaller quantity is allowed for an
early than for a late sowing, because the plants have
more time to tiller or push out side-shoots ; but it
seems to be generally recommended, that the allow-
ance in all cases should be liberal.

After-management, — As land under a barley crop
is frequently sown with clover and rye-grass, rolling
is a necessary operation, to close the earth about the
seeds of the latter, and it is no doubt useful, espe-
cially in porous soils, to the former. The barley crop
often suffers much injury from the attacks of the
worm. The sudden change from a rich green to a
yellowish hue, indicates the commencement of the
ravages of this insect. Tlie use of a heavy roller, ei-
ther to render the loose parts of the soil more com-
pact, and prevent the access of the worm to the roots
of the tender roots, or to destroy it by the pressure
is beneficial. To produce this effect completely, the
roller should be so loaded as to require the power of
three or four horses. Top-dressing, before the ap-
plication of the roller, is suggested as a useful prac-
tice to diminish the injury ; and if it can be counter-
acted till genial showers of rain fall, no farther dan-
ger need be apprehended. When the barley is dril-
led, hand-hoeing is necessary, either before or after
the insertion of the clover and grass-seeds. Hand-
weeding has been seldom resorted to ; but in some
of the best cultivated districts in Scotland it has been
successfully practised, and especially in fields which
■are infested with wild mustard ancl radish. When
these plants have pushed out two rough leaves, the
weeding should commence.

Harvesting barley. — The management of the bar-
ley crop in harvest requires more attention than any
other kind of grain, even when the season is favour-
able ; but in bad weather it is attended with great
difficulty, and often with serious loss. When barley
is fully ripe, the straw becomes very brittle, so that
the heads are exceedingly apt to break off in hand-
ling. It is therefore recommended to cut down the
barley crop while the grain retains some degree of
softness and the straw contains a portion of its sap.
This circumstance renders the succeeding operations
of drying in the field, and of stacking, a business
of some nicety. On this account it must remain
long in the field, to dry and harden, so that it is ex-
posed to all the changes of the weather ; and, on
the other hand, if carried too soon to the barn-yard,
the risk of heating in the stack is considerable.

Barley is cut down in the usual manner with the
sickle, and sometimes with the naked scythe, or with
the aid of a bow, to assist in laying the grain one
way. When it has remained in the swath till it is
dry, it is bound into sheaves, and stocked. This
should not be delayed after it is dry, when the straw
becomes brittle. Barley is stacked in the same way
as other grain ; but it seems to be more necessary to
«bserve every precaution in avoiding the risk of heat-

ing, and for this purpose it is not unusual to leave a Arable land,
hole or funnel in the centre of the barley rick, from ~

top to bottom, to allow a free circulation of air.
With this view, open frames, or central bosses, are
employed ; but when such artificial apparatus is
wanting, a bundle of straw is placed in the middle of
the stack at its commencement, and as the build-
ing proceeds the straw is drawn upwards, and leaves
an opening behind ; and if communications with this
central opening have been formed from different
sides of the stack, a free current of air is admitted,
which prevents both mustiness and heating.

Barley is thrashed in the same manner as other
grain. Some difficulty attends the separation of the
awns from the grain, which is effected sometimes by
an additional apparatus to the thrashing-mill — some-
times by frequently passing it through the tlirash-
ing-mill itself- — by the use of the flail — or by stamp-
ing with an implement, the extremity of which is
covered with plate-iron, made like a honey-comb —
or by a machine which has been lately invented,
and which seems to answer the purpose most effec-
tually.

Produce. — The produce of this grain varies ac-
cording to the condition of the soil, the climate, and
the kind of culture employed. The average produce
of the whole kingdom is stated at from 27 to 30
bushels the acre. The average produce in Middle-
sex, and the turnip-lands in Yorkshire, is about 32
bushels; but in many other districts it does not exceed
28 bushels. The extremes of the produce of the bar-
ley crop are from 12 bushels, which must be consi-
dered a very poor one, to 50, and sometimes even
60 ; but in good soils, and favourable seasons, from
30 to 42 bushels may be estimated fair average
crops.

4'. Oats.

This kind of grain is of a hardy character, and
may be raised upon almost every kind of soil ; but the
most abundant crops may be expected from strong,
rich soils, which have been lately broken up from
the state of grass ; and on land of a cold, tenacious,
and fenny description, the oat is preferable to any
other kind of grain. Oats succeed well after all
kinds of green and root cro])s.

Preparation njtheland When oats succeed taresi

early pease, and some other crops which are remov-
ed from the ground early in the summer, on soils
which are too wet for being ploughed in the win-
ter, a clean bastard fallow, and laying the land up
into ridges, are recommended as the best prepara-
tion for early sowing in the spring. When grass
lands are broken up for oats, a ploughing is given,
commonly in January, that a stiff soil may be ren-
dered friable by the frost. When wheat or barley is
tlie preceding crop, it is usual to plough in the
spring, and particularly in those cases where grass-
seeds are sown. It is generally found that grass-
lands afford the most abundant crop of oats. As
they are a hardy grain, and affording a tolerable
crop on every kind of soil which is not excessively
exhausted, this has probably given origin to the
careless manner in which the land is often prepared-
for the reception of this corn, and which has been-;

166

AGRICULTURE.

Arable l«nd. justly reprobated by intelligent agriculturists. It
has been observed, that " in all cases it is a good
practice to have the land in a fine state for the
growth of this crop, which is best effected in the
same way as for barley. It is perfectly absurd to
suppose that it will not be equally profitable to the
farmer to have the land in as good a state of prepa-
ration for this sort of crop as that of barley." In
some districts ribb-furrowing, or slob-furrowing,
which is performed by turning over the furrows at
the distance from 12 to 18 inches on the unbroken
land, by which the surface is exposed, the soil im-
proved, and tlie root -weeds destroyed, is practised
in the autumn ; the harrow is applied in the spring,
and a complete ploughing is given before the inser-
tion of the seed. By this management, even stiff
and heavy land is brought to an excellent condition
for this kind of crop. It cannot, indeed, be doubted,
that a fuller and more complete preparation of the
soil than is usually given to the land for a crop of
oats, would not only increase the quantity, but great-
ly improve the quality.

Kiruh of seed. — The numerous varieties of oats,
which have arisen from diversity of soil, climate, and
culture, are referred to the same species, avena sali-
va of LinnsBUS. These varieties, which have receiv-
ed tlieir names from the places wlicre they have been
selected or cultivated, are estimated according to the
produce of grain or straw, the proportion of meal
which they afford, and the peculiar property which
they possess of arriving at maturity within a shorter
or longer period. The xnhite oat includes under it
varieties, some of which ripen early and others late.
Of the early kinds, the Blainslie oat has been long in
reputation ui Scotland, and answers for elevated and
late situations. The Aimis oat ripens late, yields
an abundant produce, aflords a sweet jneal, and is
well adapted to soils of an inferior quality. The
common oat has been long cultivated, yields a large
produce of grain and straw on good soils, and
grows well on those of a poorer description, and as
it ripens early answers well for a late situation. The
Poland oat is a plump variety, ripens early, produces
a large crop on a rich soil, and brings a high price
in the market ; but the quantity of straw is small,
and it sustains great injury from shaking winds.
Church's oat, a plump, heavy, and productive varie-
ty, which was long in great estimation on the richer
lands on the banks of the Tweed, belongs to the Po-
land oat. The Frieseland or Dutch oat has a thin-
skinned grain, and yields a large proportion of
straw ; is suitable for the better kinds of land, and
is not ill adapted to weaker soils in sheltered situa-
tions. The grains of the Siberian or Tartarian oat are
thin and small, and the largest are awned ; the straw
is tall and reedy, which renders it less fit for the
purpose of fodder : but as it is of a hardy character,
it may be raised on inferior soils. The red oat, so
called from the reddish colour of the husks, was either
selected or first cultivated on the estate of Magbie-
hill, in Peebles-shire in Scotland, from which it has
been denominated Maghie-hill oat. The grains are
small, but the husks are thin, and the produce of meal
is abundant. It ripens early, resists the force of the
wind better than other varieties, and succeeds well

in high and cold situations. But the potatoe-oat, y^rable hnd.
which was discovered in Cumberland in 1788, and
was afterwards introduced into Scotland, is now the
prevailing variety on well cultivated soils in the
northern and some other districts of the kingdom.
On all deep and tender loamy soils, which have been
broken up from grass, the potatoe-oat yields the lar-
gest produce both of grain and meal ; but in soils of a
shallow description the quantity of straw is less than
from some other varieties. The record of the aver-
age prices of oats in Marklane, on the 16th October
1811, exhibits the most decided proof of the superi-
ority of the potatoe-oat ; for while the common kind
of oat brought 32s. and the Poland oat ¥is. the aver-
age price of the potatoe-oats was at 42s. the quarter.
Potatoe-oats tiller more freely, and succeed better on
soils where the Poland variety would scarcely defray
the expense of harvest labour. Indeed, such is the
superiority of the potatoe-oat, both with regard to its
abundant produce in grain and meal, at least when
it is raised in less elevated situations, that it is now
generally preferred to every other variety. But it
ought to be mentioned, that some degree of degene-
racy is observed in this valuable variety of oats, in
certain districts. The grains have become long and
thin, the skin has increased in thickness, and some-
times the appearance of the protrusion of an awn is
traced, — circumstances which indicate the necessity
of attention to select the strongest growing cars, and
the best formed grain for seed. It is worthy of no-
tice, that the person who first introduced potatoe-
oats derived considerable emolument from the growth
and sale of that variety ; but he was extremely care-
ful in separating the small grain, and selling only the
full, large, and perfect grains, for the purpose of seed,
which always brought a high price.

Sowing, ^c— In the southern parts of the king-
dom, oats are generally sown in the month of March,
often in the end of February, and in some instances
have succeeded well early in January. In the north-
ern districts, the time of sowing oats is from the mid-
dle of March to the end of April ; but, in general,
early sowing, for the purpose of establishing the crop
before the approach of warm weather, especially on
dry and parching soils, as well as to afford a better
chance of the young plants escaping the ravages of
the worm, and to insure an early crop, ought never
to be omitted.

Oats are generally sown broadcast, and the quantity
of the seed varies from four to five bushels the acre.
When the sowing is early, the smaller proportion
is considered sufficient, but when it is later the larg-
er proportion is necessary. The Poland variety re-
quires a larger quantity of seed than the potatoe-oats.
Sometimes larger proportions of this grain are allowed
for seed. Eight bushels to the acre have been sown
in Lincolnshire, and have afforded a better and more
equal crop than with a smaller quantity, besides the
advantage of ripening four or five days sooner than
with thinner sowing. Oats have been more rarely
drilled than other kinds of grain ; but where this me-
thod has been practised its benefits have been obvi-
vious, and in such cases five bushels of seed to the
acre have been employed.
When clover and grass seeds are sown with oats,

AGRICULTURE.

167

Arable lanif. they are covered in by a slight harrowing ; and in
N«»Y^*^ ''ght and friable soils the application of the roller,
as soon as possible, is useful ; but in other kinds of
soil, it is better to defer this operation till the crop
be advanced a few inches in height. The only other
culture necessary for a crop of oats is, to keep it free
from weeds by means of hand-weeding.

Harvesting When the straw appears of a yellow-
ish hue, the grain becomes hard, and the husks open,
oats are ready to be cut down ; but as the earlier
varieties are apt to shed the seed during the harvest
operations, they require to be reaped before they
are fully ripe ; yet the precaution not to cut too green
must be observed, for the produce is greatly dimi-
nished in quantity and quality. But, upon the whole,
oats are a grain of a hardy character, and suffer
less injury during harvest than other crops. The
operations of stacking, thrashing, and preparing
oats for the market, are similar to those already de-
scribed.

Produce. — The produce of oats is extremely vari-
ous in different soils, seasons, and situations. The
particular kind which is cultivated, as being more or
less fitted for the soil and situation, occasions consi-
derable diversity in the amount of the produce. The
quantity from an acre varies from 20 bushels, or even
less, to 70 or 80. The value of the bushel of oats is
to be estimated according to the proportion of meal
which it affords. An opinion is prevalent, that oats
are generally a more productive crop in the northern
than in the southern districts of the kingdom ; and it
is also asserted that the grain is of a superior quali-
ty. Some writers have entered into speculations
concerning the causes of this difference, without be-
ing at the trouble of ascertaining how far the fact is
to be considered as established.

5. Beans.

Beans may be successfully cultivated on the strong-
est kinds of moist soils. They thrive equally well on
«tiff, clay land, and that of a loamy nature ; but they
succeed best on soil of a good depth. Bean crops
are raised after wheat, oats, and clover, and newly
broken-up grass lands. This crop is peculiarly a-
dapted to ley grounds, where injury to the corn crop,
from the attacks of the grub* or other insects, is
apprehended. This kind of crop is also beneficial in
breaking down and reducing the soil, and in pro-
moting the decay of the grassy material and destruc-
tion of weeds by its shade.

Preparation of the land. — In some districts, a single
ploughing, at the time of inserting the seed in spring,
IS all the preparation which is made for the recep-
tion of the bean crop ; but it is a preferable prac-
tice to lay up the lands in narrow ridgelets early in
the autumn. Some writers recommend the previ-
ous application of manure, when beans succeed a
grain crop, as wheat, by which the strong and vi-
gorous growth of the lateral shoots is promoted. In
such cases the land should be ploughed into that
form which is most commodious for the method of
sowing to be adopted, as, in drilling, to suit the
breadth of the drilling machine, and, in dibbling, to
facilitate the operation of the scuffler or scarifier.
This mode of ridging is peculiarly beneficial in heavy

soils ; the manure is retained in the middle of the Arable land,
ridge, and secured from being washed off in heavy
rains ; and the soil is in a dry state and in good con-
dition for the reception of the seed in the spring. It
is scarcely necessary to mention, that water-furrow-
ing, after the ploughing in autumn, should on no ac-
count be omitted.

Kinds of seed — In the vicinity of large towns, some
varieties of the garden-bean are cultivated in the
field, for the purpose of supplying the market with
the produce in the green state; such as the mazagW;
an early kind, the mumford, the long pod, and the
Windsor; but the horse-bean is most generally admit-
ted into field culture. The tick-bean is supposed by
some to afford the most abundant crop. The large
ticks are chiefly raised in Kent ; but in Essex the
small ticks are preferred on strong soils, because
they afford the largest produce, and bring the high-
est price in the market.

Sowing, &c. — The bean-crop may be inserted as
early as the month of January in sheltered places,
and in the succeeding month in more exposed situa-
tions in the southern districts ; but in the northern
parts of the kingdom the month of March may be
found a more suitable season for this purpose. The
quantity of seed is from three and a-half to four
bushels to the English acre.

The broadcast method of sowing beans is now
rarely practised. For as this is one of the best fal-
low crops to precede wheat, the drill husbandry is
most advantageously pursued ; and, to have the full be-
nefit of horse-hoeing, the drills should not be nearer
than 27 inches. It appears from experiments made
to ascertain this point, that such a distance between
the drills affords the largest produce. The drills are
formed by the plough ; the seed is deposited by the
drill-barrow ; the intervals between the furrows are
split up to cover the seed ; and 10 or 12 days after-
wards the field is levelled by cross-harrowing. But
if the season or the soil render this mode of drilling
impracticable, a spring furrow only is given ; the
drill machine follows every third plough, and the
operation of harrowing concludes the business. The
depth to which beans should be planted, is recom-
mended to be about five or six inches. In the south-
ern districts, it is the practice to dibble beans in
rows a foot distant, and each seed two inches apart
in the row. This method is expensive ; but it admits
of the land being well cleaned. In Essex, beans are
dibbled on two-bout ridges, three feet broad, and in
double rows on the crowns nine inches apart, with
an interval of 27 inches. The bush, or short-tined
harrow, is drawn over the surface to cover the seed.

After-adtiire. — The operations of hand or horse-
hoeing, as the distance between the rows admits, are
essentially requisite, not only for the luxuriant growth
of the bean crop, but also as preparatory for the suc-
ceeding crop of wheat. Wlien the plants have been
10 or 12 days above ground, the surface between the
rows is scraped, for the purpose of loosening the
weeds ; and after the lapse of a few days, according
to the state of the weather, a small light plough may
be employed to remove the earth from the sides of
the rows ; the weeds in the rows are to be drawn out
by the hand, after which the plants are earthed uij.

168

AGRICULTURE.

Argble land, by the double MOuld-board plough. The same
operations are to be repeated every iortnight or three
weeks, or as often as shall be found necessary, till
the crop come into blossom, when the earth should
be carefully drawn to the roots of the plants, to pro-
mote the setting and filling of the pods.

The black, or dolphin fly, is exceedingly destruc-
tive to the bean crop in dry summers. To prevent
its ravages, the tops on which it first settles are cut
off with the scythe or some sharp instrument. In
•Tune or July, when cold nights succeed hot and
foggy weather in the day, beans are liable to injury
from blight, which causes the blossoms to fall off;
but sometimes a second bloom appears, aad affords a
tolerable crop.

Harvesting. — The blackening of the pods indicates
the approach of the bean crop to maturity ; after
whicli the pods open at the extremities, and the seed
is apt to drop out ; but before this happen, the beans
should be cut down, to prevent the risk of loss. At
the same time, it ought to be recollected, that the crop
is in no small degree diminished in value and quan-
tity when it is cut before it has reached a proper
state of ripeness.

Beans. are either cut with the sickle or scythe, or
drawn up by the roots ; the sheaves are left untied
for some days, to dry slowly ; they are bound up with
woollen yarn, old ropes, straw ropes, or ropes of the
pease sown along with them, and three or four
sheaves are set up together. In stacking beans, tlie
precautions already mentioned should be observed,
especially in forming an opening in the centre of the
rick, for the admission of air.

Produce. — The produce of the bean crop is stated
at 28 and S2 bushels from the acre, in Middlesex ;
in Kent, 48 bushels of the common tick bean are ob-
tained from the acre of good land ; in Yorkshire the
produce is nearly the same ; and through the king-
dom it varies from 16 to 40 bushels. The straw is
not only useful as litter for horses and other animals,
when it is well broken by thrashing, but also af-
fords a nutritious food both for horses and cattle
through the winter. For this purpose, it is consider-
ed little inferior to hay, particularly when mixed
with pease straw.

6. Pease.

Pease are sometimes sown along with beans, and
sometimes with oats, for the purpose of supporting
their weak trailing stems ; but the unequal growth
and ripening of the different plants probably dimi-
nish the value of both crops. Pease succeed on al-
most all soils ; but the best crops are obtained from
those of a light dry description, in tolerable condi-
tion, and having a proportion of calcareous matter
in their composition, without which, experience has
shewn, the. crop runs to straw, and the pods are im-
perfectly filled and ripened.

Pease succeed wheat, oats, and other grain crops,
as well as clover or sainfoin, and are an advantageous
crop on old ley grounds which are newly broken up,
where the ravages of the worm are destructive to
other crops. The more tenacious soils require a
ploughing in autunm, as a preparation for the scari-
fier and scuffler in the spring. The soilshould be in a

reduced and pulverized state, and a compost ofearth» AraUelani
dung, and lime, is recommended by some, while v^rv^.
others consider the application of manure as not only
unnecessary, but injurious, in producing a luxuriant
growth of straw, which is unfavourable to the pod-
ding, and encouraging weeds, which, from the nature
of the crop, are with difficulty eradicated.

Kinds qfseed. — Numerous varieties of pease are in
Cultivation. They have been divided into the early
and the late kinds ; among the former are the early
Charleton, the golden hotspur, and the common tvhite
pea, which are usually cultivated in the southern dis-
tricts, and in the neighbourhood of large towns, to
be sold in a green state. The late pease include the
varieties of the grey kind, which are more general-
ly employed for field culture.

Soxving, Sfc. — Those varieties which are intended
for the market in the green state, are sown in suc-
cession, with intervals of ten days or a fortnight,
from the middle of January to the end of March.
Sometimes the seed is sown in autumn ; but it is a
doubtful practice, except on a rich soil, in a warm
and sheltered situation. For this purpose, the hardy
hogpea should be selected ; but for general crops,
the grey sorts are preferred, and are sown as early
in March as the condition of the soil admits. For
general sowing, on land in tolerable condition, from
3 to 3i bushels of seed is a sufficient quantity to the
acre. When sown early, a larger proportion is re-
quired. Broadcast sowing is sometimes practised ;
but drilling, as it facilitates the operations of clean-
ing the land from weeds, should be preferred. Forhand-
hoeing, the distance between the rows is from 12 to 16
inches ; but when horse-hoeing is to be practised,
the distance should be from 24' to 30 inches ; the
depth at which the seed is deposited is from two to
three inches. In Norfolk, pease are drilled at nine
inches distance ; and when they are dibbled, two
rows are planted on a flag, so that the distance is not
more than four inches. In some districts, the drills
are transverse and at 15 inches distant, and the seed
is covered in by the hoe or bush-harrowing. Steep-
ing the seed before sowing is rarely practised ; but it
seems to be useful in promoting the vegetation, and
rendering the growth more vigorous and uniform.

After-culture. — When the width of the intervals is
such as to admit of horse-hoeing, the first operation
is to remove the earth from the rows, and afterwards
to lay it up by splitting the intervals ; but when
hand-hoeing only is admissible, two applications are
requisite ; the first, when the plants are two or three
inches high, and the second before they come into
blossom. In the last hand-hoeuig, the ground is well
cleared of weeds, and the rows being laid down the
earth is carefully drawn to the roots.

Harvesting. — Pease are reaped or cut up by means
of a hook with a sharp edge, and collected into small ^

heaps, which are set up against each other for dry-
ing. The early crops are put into loose open heaps,
and when they are perfectly dry, are formed into
stacks, to be employed as the food of animals. When
pease-straw is intended for horses, it is recommended
to cut it into chaff, and mix it with their other food.
The pease which are not consumed as human food,
are employed in fattening hogs, and other domestic

AGHICULTURE.

169

ArabU land, animals, ftnd sometime* they are used as a substitute
for beans in feeding horses ; but as they are apt to
produce gripes in the green state, they shoujd not be
given till they are sufficiently dry.

Produce. — The produce of pease is estimated by
some at 28 or 32 bushels from the acre, while others
suppose that the average of any two crops does not
exceed 12 bushels. This crop, therefore, considering
its direct value, is less profitable than many others ;
so that its ultimate advantage must be sought for in
the improvement of the soil.

7. Tares.

Tares succeed best on gravelly loams, which are
not too moist ; but they produce a tolerable crop on
almost every variety of soil, from the thin gravelly to
that of a deep, stiff, and clayey description. After
winter crops, tares are sometimes sown with a single
ploughing, but two ploughings, with an intermediate
harrowing, is considered a better practice ; and when
the soil is not rich, the crop is greatly improved by
manuring. Tares usually succeed a crop of wheat
or barley.

Kind of seed. — Two varieties of the tare, belong-
ing to the same species, vicia saliva, are cultivated,
and distinguished by the name* of xvinia- and spring
tare, of which the latter is less hardy in its habits ;
and although it is difficult to discriminate tiie seeds
of these varieties, they should always be kept sepa-
rate, for the seed of the spring tare is unsuitable for
the winter crop, and the seeds of the winter tare
should not be employed for the summer produce.
The difference is easily known when the plant springs
up. The seed-leaf of the winter tare is of a fresh
green colour, but the spring tare conies up with a
grassy sjjear of a brown dusky hue.

In broad-cast sowing, the quantity of seed employ-
ed to the acre is from 2} to 3 bushels. In drilling,
at the distance of six inches, 2 bushels are consider-
ed sufficient ; but when the crop is to be cut for soil-
ing, a larger proportion is allowed.

Time of' solving, SfC. — Winter tares are sown from
August to October ; earlier on poor soils and expos-
ed situations than in richer soils and more sheltered
lands. The plants should be established in the soil
before the approach of the cold season. The spring
variety is sown from the end of February to the be-
ginning of April, when it is intended to ripen the
seeds ; but when e'.\e crop is to be employed as green
food, from the beginning of April to the end of May
is a proper time for the insertion of the seed. Some-
times spring tares are sown in June, with a quart of
cole seed to each acre, for the purpose of supplying
weaned lambs in autumn with an excellent food.
This method is successfully practised on the Down
lands in Sussex.

Tares are usually sown broad-cast ; and it is ne-
cessary to distribute the seed as equally as possible
over the surface, and to cover it well by harrowing,
to prevent the depredations of birds, and insure a
perfect and uniform vegetation. Drilling, as it is
practised in some of the southern districts, is recom-
mended on all rich clean soils for this kind of crop.
The distance between the rows is from six to eight
inches.

V»L. I, PART I.

AJler-ciiltiire. — Loss attention than to most other /s.raV.ctMt
crops is recpiired in the management i.f tares, be- x.^r\'r*~l
cause the plants soon cover the laml ; but hoeing and
weeding, which should be pirt'ormed early in the
spring, are undoubtedly beneficial. A light roller
passed over the crop in the early spring montlis,
when the season is dry, smooths the surface, and
renders it fitter for the operation of the scythe.

Harvesting. — Tares are managed in the same way
as pease, when they run to seed, and are presei vt-4
for that purpose. When tares are made into hay, the
time of cutting is when the blossoms have declined,
and begin to fall flat. The hay from tares is of a
nutritious quality ; but as it requires much sun and
air to dry it thoroughly, and as it is very apt to be
injured by moisture, it is more troublesome . in its
preparation than most artificial grasses.

Produce. — The produce of green tares has amount-,
ed to 12 tons from the acre in Middlesex, and when
converted into hay to about three tons. The pro-
duce in seed from the acre has sometimes exceeded
40 bushels.

The most beneficial application of the tare crop is
soiling with horses or other live-stock on the farm ;
but for this purpose it ought not to be cut down at
too early a period. Eating tares in the field, by
turning live-stock into it, is considered an ira[)roper
practice, as it is not only destructive to the crop,
but injurious to the soil. The tare cro]) is consider-
ed of such importance in Sussex, that a much larger
proportion of stock is su])ported. All kinds of ani-
mals thrive upon it. A single acre of tares has main-
tained four horses in better condition than five acres
of grass; and without any other food, twelve horses
and eight cows have been ke))t for three months up-
on 8 acres of tares. The milk of cows fed with this
plant is so much improved that it yields a greater
proportion of butter.

Some other species of vicia are recommended as
worthy of the attention of the agriculturist ; as, the
bush vetch, vicia sepium, which shoots early in the
spring, vegetates late in autumn, continues green
all winter, is supposed to be a valuable pasture
plant, and no fertile soils might be converted into
hay ; and the tufted vetch, vicia cracca, which rises to
a considerable height, and affords abundant foliage,
so that it might likewise be used as green fodder, or
preserved for hay. Poor lean cattle have been great-
ly improved by feeding on this plant. The everlast-
ing pea, lathyrus latijolius, is a plant of large growth
and foliage, is also recommended for the purpose
of green food, or for hay, and is of a nutritious and
fattening quality. Chicory, or iKild succory, cicJiori-
urn intybus, is a succulent, herbaceous plant, which
is also employed as green, food for different kinds of
live stock. Buck wheat, polygonum fagopyrum, is
sometimes cultivated for the same purpose.

8. Potatoes.

It is a curious fact in the history of the vegetable
kingdom, that the potatoe, sol-nnum tuberosum of Lin-
naeus, the native of a warm climate, should be natu-
ralised and extensively cultivated in northern regi-
ons, on account of its valuable properties, as an es-
sential article of humon food. The precise period of

W5

AGRICULTURE.

.tabic land, the introduction of this root into this country is not
distinctly ascertained ; but it was known in England
previous to the year 1 597, as appears from the des-
cription of Gerard, in his History of Plants, printed
in that year. He speaks of two kinds, the common
and the Virginia potatoe, which he cultivated in the
garden. It is not less curious to observe, that the
long period of a century and a half elapsed before
the cultivation of the potatoe became pretty general.
The divereity of soil, situation and culture, to which
the potatoe has been subject for great part of an
hundred years, has given rise to numerous varieties,
which are chiefly characterised by the quality of the
root, quantity of produce, and period of ripening.

All the varieties of the potatoe have been included
under two divisions, distinguished by the colour of the
flower and the root ; as, the red-rooted, which produ-
ces a purple flower, and the white-rooted, which bears
a white flower. In Lancashire, where the culture of
the potatoe is well understood, and extensively prac-
tised, more than twenty varieties of the early, and
fifteen of the late kind, have been enumerated. In
reference to the potatoes cultivated in England, it
maybe observed, that the old winter-red is regarded
as an excellent variety for the table in spring, and is
said to be less liable than others to the curl. The
black pitatoe is also a late kind, and keeps well till
Augubt. The tvhite and apple varieties are best a-
dapted for use in the early part of the season. The
royal, or Cumberland early, is of a good flavour, and
grows to a large size, ripens early, and affords an
abundant produce. The ox-noblc and the cluster po-
tatoe, are the varieties chiefly cultivated as food for
live stock, because they are very productive and large
in size. The varieties of the potatoe which are in
common use for the table in Scotland, are the round
ivkite,'the white or yellow kidney, the red, purple, streak-
ed, or black, which last is best fitted for being used in
spring -and the beginning of summer: the white bloom,
yam, or Surinam potatoe, from its large size, and
great produce, is chiefly cultivated as food for cattle.
New varieties obtaitied New varieties of this in-
valuable root are obtained by raising it from seed,
by whicli the quality and productive powers of
the plant may be greatly improved. When the
potatoe apples come to maturity, and begin to
fall spontaneously, they are collected and preserv-
ed among sand till the spring, when they are bruis-
ed among the sand, or among fresh mould, and
the seeds are separated, and mixed equally with the
mould or sand. They are then sown on well prepar-
ed, fine garden earth ; and as the rough leaf appears,
and the plants have sufficient strength to be safely
handled, they are transplanted into another bed of
fresh mould, in rows, and are to be kept clean during
the summer. In autumn, clusters of small potatoes,
of different sizes, are found at the roots ; these are
planted in the succeeding spring, and produce larger
potatoes, but they do not reach their full size till the
third or fourth year. When a moderate artificial heat
or shelter, as that of a stove or garden frame, can be
procured, the seeds may be sown earlier, so that they
shall be ready for planting out as soon as the weather
permits ; and in this way the process is greatly short-
ened, for the roots are larger the first year, and

attain nearly their full size in the second season. Arable ImA
The quality of the potatoe, and its productive pro-
perty, as they are more or less combined in the same
plant, determine the choice in selecting the varieties
of seedling potatoes which are to be preferred.

Soil and preparation. — The soil best adapted for
the culture of potatoes is of a rich loamy description ;
but they are successfully cultivated, and the largest
produce has been obtained on stronger kinds of soil.
Excellent potatoe crops have been raised on mossy
soils.

In preparing the land for potatoes, it is usual, in
most districts where this root is much cultivated, to
give the land one or two ploughings in the end of
autumn ; and in the spring, at the time of planting,
to reduce the cloddy surface, and to bring it into
good condition for the reception of the sets by the
operation of the harrow. Sometimes the land is
ploughed up about C'hristmas, and again in the mid-
dle of April ; and with intermediate harrowing and
rolling, it is brought into a proper state to be ridged
up and planted.

Manuring. — Manure is almost invariably applied
in the culture of potatoes, and it would appear, from
experiments with different kinds, that the most abun-
dant produce follows the use of farm-yard dung ;
but besides street-manure, which is extensively em-
ployed in the culture of this crop in the neighbour-
hood of large towns, various other matters, as wheat-
straw, furze, broom, and similar plants, succulent
plants, as clover, tares, and vetches, and peaty or
turfy substances, have been successfully employed
in the same way. On the sea-coasts, in the northern
parts of the island, sea-weed has been found useful
for the same purpose.

It seems to be generally understood, that a liberal
allowance of manure is necessary to insure a good
crop of potatoes. According to Mr Billingsley, 20
cart-loads, each of the capacity of 30 bushels, should
be applied to the acre ; and Mr Young recommends
from 25 to 35 cubical yards, and where it is long or
littery, to the amount of 40 cubical yards to the
same extent of ground.

When the potatoes are drilled, the manure is equal-
ly distributed in the bottom of the drills ; but for rais-
ing the early kind of potatoes, the application of ma-
nure to the preceding crop is thought by some to
be a better practice ; for in this way tlie excessive
luxuriance of the stems and leaves is checked, the
size of the root becomes larger, and its quality is im-
proved.. Mr Dickson of Bangholm, near Edinburgh,
ploughs in the manure for tlie succeeding potatoe
crop, with a furrow of seven or eight inches, in No-
vember or December ; the land is cross-ploughedj
about the 1st of March, with a furrow of 12 or I*
inches deep, and afterwards prepared for drilling.
This method of applying the manure admits of the
crop being planted earlier on lands which are of a
soft and wet nature, and would not admit loaded
carts, without injury, till a late period of the season ;
but, for early potatoes, he finds it the best practice
to insert the manure in the drills.

Time of planting Potatoes are planted as soon

as possible after the danger of frost is over, which, in
the southern parts of the kingdom, is from the midr

AGRICULTURE.

in

AmUeland. dlo of March to the end of April ; but, in the north-
ern districts, the commencement and termination of
the planting season are at least a month later. Ear-
ly planting, during dry weather, always insures an
earlier and more abundant crop, ag well as of better
qualit)'.

Seed. — The selection of the varieties of potatoes
to be planted depends on the object of the cultiva-
tor, whether it be intended to have an early or late
crop, or whether it be destined for human food or
for the support of live-stock ; but whatever variety is
preferred, it has been recommended that the seed po-
tatoes should be taken from the finest and most per-
fect of their kinds, in which the eyes or buds being
stronger, produce stronger and more vigorous plants,
and afford a larger produce. Very extensive expe-
rience has amply proved, that the cultivation of the
same kind of potatoe, for a continued succession of
crops, in the same soil and situation, injures the qua-
lity, as well as diminishes the quantity of the pro-
duce. In those districts where the culture of the
potatoe is practised according to the most improved
methods, attention to the frequent change of seed is
never neglected. The farmers in the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh, who raise great quantities of this root,
find, from experience, that the amount of produce,
Bnd quality of tlie crop, are most improved the se-
cond year after a change of seed ; and proceeding
upon this fact, they introduce such a quantity of a
proper kind of seed, and from a suitable distance, as,
being planted the first year, shall yield sufficient
seed for their whole crop in the succeeding season.
By this management, the curl is entirely prevented,
the quality is improved, and the crop is abundant.

From numerous experiments on the comparative
advantages of planting entire potatoes of a larger or
smaller size, cuttings of different sizes, with one or
more eyes, or shoots only, it apjiears that middle-
sized wliole potatoes, or large cuttings of large pota-
toes, uniformly afforded more productive crops than
smaller potatoes entire, or small cuttings, or the
eyes or shoots alone. Considerable diversity in the
amount of the produce was observed in varying the
distance of the sets in the raws from six to twelve
inches. With the view of saving seed in times of
scarcity, the shoots only are employed ; but this sav-
ing is counter-balanced by many disadvantages. The
shoots cannot be planted so early ; many of them
being weak afford little or no produce, and the crop
is generally later in reaching maturity. In the use
of the eye, or root-bud of the potatoe, the success
of the crop has been various. In some cases, the
produce seems to have been equal to what was ob-
tained from larger sets, but in others, feeble plants,
and a diminished crop, have been the certain conse-
quence of this kind of seed. The quantity of seed
or sets employed varies according to the distance
between the rows and the space between each set in
tlie row. When the sets are planted at 10 inches
distance in every direction, each acre requires from
25 to 30 bushels ; and when every other furrow is
planted at the distance of a foot between each set,
from eight to 12 bushels are sufficient.

Methods of planting. — On moist soils, intended for
a potatoe crop, and under a damp climate, it is re-
Y 2

commended to raise the land into one-bout ridges. Arable l««d.
which preclude the danger of injury from stagnant ■-~^^/'^''
water ; but dry and sandy grounds should be kept
flat. In Lancashire, where the potatoe culture ja
well practised, drills are formed at equal distances,
and of such width and depth as to contain the ma-
nure. The distance of the drills is such, that the
horse which leads out the manure may pass in one
furrow, and each of the wheels of the cart in others,
on the different sides. The manure is equally distri-
buted in the three furrows, by means of a crooki;d
fork with two or three prongs. The distance of the
drills is usually from 28 inches to three feet ; the
richer and more fertile soils re()uire the largest space.
The sets are placed upon the dung, and the plough is
run along both sides of each drill, to cover the seed.

In some districts, where the soil is dry, the manure
is equally spread over the surface of the ground,
which has been well prepared by twice ploughing
and harrowing. The sets are planted in every third
furrow, and the dung and mould are turned down
upon them by the plough. In this way a level sur-
face is preserved, and tiie dissipation of moisture is
prevented; but it can only be pursued where manure
is abundant.

The method recommended for planting potatoes
upon sward land is, after preparation by the use of a
plough which pares off the surface, and deposits it in
the furrow, to place the sets on the inverted sods, at
the proper distance, and to cover them with mould
from below, by a connnon plough. This method, in
which the decay and decomposition of the turty mat-
ters answer the purpose of manure, may be useful
where it is scarce, or in bringing waste lands to the
state of tillage.

In what is called the lazy-bed method of planting
potatoes, the spade is employed. The land is form-
ed into beds of six or seven feet broad, and three or
four feet are left on each side for trenches. The sur-
face of the bed is slightly dug over, the manure is
equally spread, the sets are planted at the proper
distances, and they are covered to the depth of three
or four inches, with the mould dug from the side
trenches. On retentive soils of considerable depth,
good crops have been obtained by this method of
planting ; but it is less adapted to the thinner and
poorer kinds of soil.

Dibbling is another method which is sometimes
practised in planting potatoes ; but in a comparative
estimate of this method with the system of drilling,
the superiority of the latter, in affording an earlier
crop, and more abundant produce from tlie same
kind of soil, and treated in the same manner, is very
remarkable. But in whatever way the sets are in-
serted in the ground, the precaution of not planting
them at too great a depth, and of covering them
with fine friable mould, should be strictly observed.
The depth of four or five inches is considered suffi-
cient in dry soils ; but a less depth may be necessary
where the ground is moist and of a strong quality.

After-management The luxuriance andabundance

of the potatoe crop depend greatly on the attention
and industry wiiich are employed in the cleaning and
hoeing operations. It is recommended by some t«
harrow the land when the shoots from the sets un-

172

AGRICULTURE.

Afab'eknd <ler the surface have advanced about an inch, which
\„..~y^.,^ is to be ascertained by examination. By the opera-
tion of harrowing, the surface of tlie soil is not only
Cleaned from weeds, but loosened, to ailow tlie ten-
der shoots to push freely through it. A small folding
hat row is recommended for this purpose, by which
the weeds are destroyed, and the mould is applied to
the opposite sides of the contiguous rows. When
the potatoes are entirely up, the earth and weeds
may be removed from them, by forming a shallow
i"urrow witJi a small plough. The same operation is
repeated after the lapse of a few days, and when the
weeds, which are in this way covered up in the in-
tervals, have decayed, the earth is returned to the
plants by means of a double mould-boarded plough,
which passes twice in the same track, and turns a
Blight furrow to each side. NVTien the plants have
reached the height of about six inches, the earth is
raised still higher with the same implement. When
it appears necessary, hand-weeding and hand-hoeing,
to complete what is deficient in the operation of the
plough, must not be omitted during the growth of
the potatoe crop.

Curl in potatoes. — The disease called cur!, which
was first observed in Lancashire about the year 1778,
soon spread very rapidly, especially in those dis-
tricts where the culture of this valuable root was most
extensive, and excited by its ravages no inconsiderable
alarm that the country might be deprived of a very
essential article of food. This, as might be expected,
has been a fertile subject of discussion and specula-
tion among agricultural writers. It would afford no
useful information to enter into a detail of the causes
to which the curl has been ascribed, or of tlie nume-
rous and contradictory opinions which have been
held concerning its origin.

The result of some experiments instituted by Mr
Thomas Dickson, of the Broughton nurseries, near
Edinburgh, and communicated to the Caledonian
Horticultural Society, seems to prove, in a very sa-
tisfactory manner, that this dii^ease in potatoes is
owing to the plants or sets being taken from pota-
toes which are too ripe. This was first suggested by
Sir George Buchan Hepburn, Bart.

In the autumn of 1800, Mr Dickson selected 14
founds of a long flat potatoe, which he procured
from Fifieshire, and he took one or two sets from
each end of each potatoe, that is, from the extreme
or wet end, and from the umbilical or dry end, next
the connecting radicle. The sets from the different
•■nds of the potatoe, were planted on the 27th April
1801, with the same quantity of manure, and in the
same circumstances. In the end of June, all the
plants from the wet, or least ripened end of the po-
tatoe, had come up, and looked healthy, excepting
three, which Avere slightly affected with the disease.
These were thrown out, and such only as were quite
free from it were preserved. Few of the plants from
the dry, or ripest end of the potatoe, had appeared,
and such as had s]>rung up were all in a greater or
less degree diseased. In many instances the sets had
not vegetated, and when the new crop was dug up,
they were nearly as fresh as when put into the
ground. The produce of both sorts was taken up on
the 3d of October, aad pitted, for repeating the ex-

periment, which was prosecuted in the same way for
1802 and 1S03. The results were invariably the
same. Tht- plants from the unripened ends continu-
ed healthy, and produced abundant crops, while
those from the dry ends continued to degenerate.
It ought to be observed, that the produce of the
curled potatoes was taken up before being too ripe,
and replanted with the others. The disease was not
removed, but it was not aggravated. Mr Dickson
recommends some rules, the observance of which
may entirely banish the disease of curl from the
country.

1. To procure a sound healthy seed-stock, which
cannot be relied on unless obtained from a part of
the high country, where, from the climate and other
circumstances, the tubers are never over-ripened,

2. To plant such potatoes as are intended to sup-
ply seed-stock for the ensuing season, at least a fort-
night later than those planted for crop, and to take
them up whenever the hnu/m or stems become of a
yellow-green colour. At this period, the cuticle, or
outer skin of the tubers, may be easily rubbed off
between the finger and thumb.

3. To prevent those plants that are intended to
produce seed-stock for the ensuing year, from pro-
ducing flowers or seeds, by cutting them oft' in em-
bryo, taking care, however, to take no more off
than the extreme tops ; as by taking more, the crop
may be injured. The best mode of doing this is
witli a common reaping-hook, or light switching-bill.
Two boys or girls may do an English acre in two or
three days.

Pulling off" the hloxsoma. — To increase the size of
the potatoe, and the amount of its produce, it has
been the practice with some to cut away those parts
of the potatoe plants which contain the flowers be-
fore the blossoms appear. In some trials that have
been made, the flowers were carefully picked as soon
as they appeared ; in others, after they had expand-
ed, or when the fruit had begun to set ; and in others,
after the fruit or apple was formed and half-grown ;
and it was found, that the produce from those plants
whose blossoms had been plucked off, was nearly
double of that in which the apples were allowed to
ripen. The crop was also less productive from those
plants where the flowers were suffered to waste them-
selves only ; and when the apples had acquired some
size, it was still smaller ; but, in both cases, it w-as
more abundant than those parts of the drills whiclt
remained untouched. The growth of the stems of
those plants where the blossoms were plucked off
was also observed to be more vigorous than on those
where they were allowed to remain. In some other
experiments which were conducted to ascertain the
same point, it is said that no perceptible difference
could be observed in the produce. The following
account of experiments on this method of ma-
naging the potatoe crop, is extracted from Mr Wil-
son's General View of the Agriculture of Renfrew-
shire— a county in which the culture of potatoes is
extensively and successfully conducted. " There
have been," he says, " many trials of the effect of
pulling the flowers or blossoms from the potatoe, to
prevent the seed from forming, and the result has
been an increase of produce. One gentleman, ( Mr

AGRICULTURE.

173

AraWcIand. Wilson at Deanside, near Renfrew,) prosecuted this
^-i^V^ experiment with great care and attention during the
years 1803 and 1804', in fields of two acres, each
year, cultivated iiccording to the usual mode, in
drills, and plante ' in manure. By taking alternate
portions of equal area in the smne field, pulling the
blossoms from some of these divisions, and leaving
others to ripen the seed, attending in the autumn
when the potatoes were taken up, and measuring the
produce with great care, he uniformly found, both
years, the quantity increased 10 or 15 per cent,
where the blossoms were taken off, there being very
few small potatoes in these portions of the field.
He also found the quality much improved, in conse-
quence of the crop ripening sooner than usual where
the blossoms had been pulled, and therefore not af-
fected by the frosts, which often set in so early that
the growth of the potatoe is completely checked be-
fore it arrive at maturity. Having thus ascertained
that the quantity and quality of the potatoe crop are
much improved by pulling the flowers, he has con-
tinued the same practice for the last five or six years,
on fields of from four to nine acres ; and he consi-
ders this experiment well worth prosecuting to any
extent. The blossoms are pulled by children from
ten to twelve years of age, their wages 6d. per day,
and the expence is about 3s. per acre. About four
acres of potatoes, from which he took the blossoms
in 1808, produced nearly -tOO bushels each acre."
It is stated by the same author, that experiments
made in a different part of the same county serve to
confirm the observation, that potatoes ripen sooner
when the flowers are taken off.

In a letter published by ?»Ir Young, recommend-
ing the extended cultivation of potatoes, it is ob-
served, that this " plant possesses two modes of se-
curing its reproduction, the one by producing tube-
rous roots, and the other by the general mode of
flowers and seed-vessels. It has been ascertained by
the ingenious president of the Horticultural Society,
Mr Knight, that the plant employs the same fluid
in both these operations ; and by preventing the con-
sumption of it in either of them, it is made to act
more strongly in the other. Upon this principle, if
a potatoe plant is carefully deprived of its tubers as
soon as they are formed, it will be made infinitely
more productive of blossoms and seeds. On the
other hand, if its blossoms are picked off, and it is
prevented from forming any seed at all, the fluid
which would have been employed in that operation,
will be expended in forming an increased crop of
tubers. It is true, that men who have to attend to
the management of hundreds of acres will hardly
condescend to think of potatoe blossoms ; but there
are thousands of cottagers whose scanty pittance
may be increased by the simple expedient of em-
ploying their children in preventing their potatoe
crop from ever forming a seed vessel.

" As it is more than probable that poor people
Hiay be led, by the pressure of the times, to have
recourse to the new crop of potatoes in their little
gardens before they are ripe, and thus occasion a
distressing waste in this valuable article of subsis-
tence, the following directions for raising them, may
s«rye, in a considerable degree, to diminish the evil.

Instead of taking the shaw* entirely out of the Anible lanii.
ground, as is the common practice, we advise them v^'V'^^
to apply the spade to the right side of one of the
furrows, from which they must carefully remove the
earth, until they reach the largest of the potatoes,
which they may take up, without materially disturb-
ing the stem. They must then, without loss of time,
restore the soil to its former place. After going over
the whole of their early crop in this manner, confin-
ing themselves always to the right side of each fur-
row, they may return on their steps, and withdraw
the large potatoes in the same way from the left side.
By this means the shaws are preserved entire, and
the smaller potatoes rather assisted than stopt in their,
growth, by loosening the earth during the proposed
operation. '

Digging up and preserving potatoes. — The leaves
wither and fall off, and the stems decay, when the
potatoe crop is ripe ; and no time should be lost in
digging it up after these appearances, that it may be
secured from the frosts, which are not unfrequent
about the period when the later planted potatoes
reach maturity. Potatoes are dug up with three
pronged forks, or, when the field is large, by means
of the plough, which goes twice along each ridgelet,
and the potatoes are collected by women and chil-
dren. When the soil is adhesive, the harrow i»
sometimes employed to break down the furrow-slice,
that the potatoes may be separated from the mould.
A light plough, without any coulter, is considered
the most convenient implement for this purpose, as
the potatoes are less in danger of being injured. Har- »
rowing the land once or twice afterwards is recom-
mended, to bring such potatoes to the surface as may
remain buried in the soil. It is scarcely necessary to
add, that a dry season should always be preferred
for digging up the potatoe crop ; and when the whole
is raised from the ground, it is a useful practice to
spread it thinly upon a dry floor, for the purpose of
allowing it to become perfectly dry, before it is stor-
ed up for preservation through the winter. It is also
useful to separate the small and bruised notatoijs
from those of a middling and larger size.

The great object to be kept in view in the pre-
servation of potatoes, during the winter and spring,
is to secure them from the effects of frost, moisture,
and such a degree of heat as causes geruiination.
This is accomplished in various ways ; either by bu-
rying them in pits under the surface of the ground,
or by covering them up with earth and straw, on a
dry part of the field, by depositing them in vaults
and cellars, or by jilacnig them in houses appropri-
ated to that use. When the situation is pcrfectly/lry,^
the temperature most suitable for the preservation of
potatoes is between the extremes of 48° and 3'.^" of
Fahrenheit's thermometer ; as, on the one hand, they
are not injured by fi-ost, and on the other they are
not liable to germination. But as such situations are
not every where at command, the progress of ger-
mination in the spring and beginning of summermay
be retarded, by carefully picking off the shoots, and
exposing the potatoes to the sun, or by slight kiln
drying, to exhale the moisture ; and thus they may
be kept much longer in a sound state.

P/-o(/Mfe.— The nature of the season, tlie fertility

174

AGRICULTURE.

•Arable land, of the Soil, and the moM or less perfect culture
which is employed, must no doubt occasion great
diversity in the amount of the potatoe crop. The
produce has been stated to vary from five to eight or
ten tons, and the average over the whole kingdom is
estimated at six tons from the acre. In Yorkshire, from
300 to 400 bushels of the variety of the potatoe
which is used at table, and from 400 to 500 bushels,
of the kind which is destined for feeding live stock,
are considered a good crop. In some extraordinary
cases, more than 600 bushels have been raised from
an acre in Kent, and in others, the enormous pro-
duce of from 700 to 1000 bushels, have been ob-
tained from a rich soil in a favourable season.

9. Tu

■nips.

The turnip husbandry, on such soils as are adapt-
ed to the culture of that root, has contributed great-
ly to the present improved state of agriculture in
Britain. The cultivation of turnips is an excellent
substitute for a naked fallow ; for in this way the en-
tire loss of a crop is obviated, and the produce af-
fords a valuable food for the support and fattening
of live stock, in a season of the year when other
kinds of food are usually expended. The nature of
this plant, and the culture which it requires, retain
the land on which it is raised in a clean condition,
and afford an excellent preparation for such crops as
require a fine friable soil.

Soil and preparation — Turnips may be cultivated
on soils of a thin, gravelly, or chalky nature, and
even on loamy clays, if they are not loaded with
moisture ; but they succeed best on those of a light
loamy description, or on deep sandy loams. But
although turnips may be raised on soil of very dif-
ferent qualities, the success of the crop depends not
less on its proper management, than on its fertility ;
for when the ground is reduced to a friable state, a
fine bed is preparej} for the seed, by which vegeta-
tion is quicker and more vigorous, by the equal dif-
fusion of moisture, and the growth of small seed-
Weeds is promoted, which admits of their being easily
eradicated.

When turnips succeed a fallow, four or five plough-
ings, with the intermediate operation of the harrow
and roller, are necessary. The first ploughing is
given about the close of autumn ; and the remaining
operations, as the cross-ploughing and harrowing,
commence about the month of March. When the
land is foul with weeds, it should be harrowed at the
end of a fortnight ; but when it is clean, it is left in
its rough state till about the i/iiddle of May, when
it is ploughed to the full depth, and immediately
harrowed, if the season be dry, and the soil tenacious.
The practice recommended by some is, to give the
first ploughing to the full depth, and the after plough-
ings and harrowings are continued to the middle of
June ; but in all these tlie nature of the soil, the
season, and' the state of other field operations, are
to be consulted. After grain crops, less preparation
is required. In some cases, after paring and burn-
ing the surface of coarse pastures, good crops of
turnips have been raised, by spreading the ashes
equally, and by a single shallow ploughing, that the
manure from the ashes might not be buried too deep.

Application ofmanure.-^'Every kind of manure is AraMe janJ.
employed in the cultivation of turnips; and in gene-
ral it is recommended to be deposited in the soil aa
neai'ly as possible to the period of inserting the seed.
In the broad-cast method of sowing, the manure is
spread equally, and either turned in with the seed-
furrow, or by the preceding ploughing. The state
of the soil, and the richness of the manure, must
regulate the quantity which is employed. When
the crop is drilled, a smaller quantity is sufficient;
but as its success greatly depends on the vigorous -
vegetation of the young plants, the allowance should
always be liberal ; but lands in a fertile condition,
which have been well manured for a preceding crop,
may be prepared for the turnip crop without any new
application of manure.

Kinds of turnips — The varieties of the turnip,
brassica rapa of Linnaeus, which are chiefly culti-'
vatcd in the field, are those of the round and long-
rooted kinds. The root of the first kind is round
and flattish ; and as it varies in colour, has received
the different names of round, red, or purple topped,
green topped, vohite topped, yellow, black, or red root-
ed, stone, and Dutch turnip. The second kind is of a
longish form, and distinguished by the names of
tankard, tap-rooted, aad pudding turnip. These va-
rieties of the turnip are preferred in different dis-
tricts, according to their different characters of re-
sisting the effects of frost, the size to which they
grow, and their qualities as the food of live-stock.

Sowing, Sfc — The quantity of seed employed va-
ries from one to two lbs. to the English acre. In the
broadcast method in Norfolk, ] \ lib. is sown ; but
on the sandy soils of Suffolk, and the lighter lands of
Yorkshire, one pound is thought sufficient. Chalky
soils require a larger proportion ; but in general it is
recommended as a good practice not to be too sparing
of turnip seed, for the redundant plants can be easily
thinned out by the first hoeing. The quick and vi-
goroas vegetation of the turnip seed contributes
greatly to the success of the crop. For this pur-
pose, steeping the seed in water, or some other li-
quid, for a few hours, is recommended, before it be
sown, and particularly in a dry season.

The time of sowing turnips is chiefly regulated by
the mode in which the produce is to be disposed of.
For early consumption, the seed may be sown about
the beginning of June ; but towards the end of the
month, or about the beginning of July, is considered
the proper time for sowing, when the crop is to be
consumed in the early spring months. Mr Dickson
of Bangholm sows turnips after hay, from the end
of June to the 20th of July, and has been very suc-
cessful in this practice of double cropping, which he
thinks may be advantageously pursued on any turnip
land which has not a greater elevation than WO feet
above the level of the sea. The turnips sown at this
late period, by continuing their growth through the
winter, are better enabled to resist the effects of frost.

Turnips are either sown broad-cast or drilled.
The first method is more general in the southern
districts, but in the northern parts of the kingdom
drilling is more commonly practised. To admit of
horse -hoeing, the distance between the drills is from
27 to 30 inches ; and for the purpose of inserting the

AGRICULTURE.

175

Arable lanl turnip seed with more regularity, the drill-barrow
and other machines are employed, by which one or
more rows are sown at the same time. The depth
recommended, is from one to two or three inches,
according to tliC moisture of the ground.

Aficr-mannaemeiit. — Weeding and loosening the
soil are peculiarly requisite in the culture of turnips.
In the broad- cast method, hand-hoeing only can
be practised. This operation commences about four
or five weeks from the period of sowing, or when the
plants have acquired four or five leaves. In the first
hoeing, when the season is dry, the plants should not
be thinned at a greater distance than six or eight
inches from each other, that too much of the naked
surface may not be exposed ; and in the second hoe-
ing, at the end of two or three weeks, they are thinned
out from ten to twelve inches distance, while the soil
in the vacant spaces is well loosened.

In drilled crops, the first operation after sowing,
is to remove the soil from the side of the ridgelets on
which the turnips are planted, for the purpose of des-
troying the annual weeds which have appeared. This
work is performed by means of a light plough, or by
implements peculiarly constructed for the operation.
The plants are thinned in the rows by hand-hoeing,
a labour which is usually executed by women and
children. In ten days or a fortnight afterwards, ac-
cording to the state of the weather and the progress
of the crop, the earth is pared away from the sides
of the drills, and turned into the intermediate space.
The hand-hoeing is again resumed, and when the
weeding operations are completed the intermediate
ridgelet is split up, and laid back to the sides of the
drills, by means of a small plough, or scraper ; the
double mould-boarded plough, or some other suitable
implement.

Insects injurious to turnips. — The turnip crop is
liable to be attacked by different insects. The tur-
nip fly, chrysomela sultatoria of Linnsus, besides
gome other species, is its greatest enemy ; for by
wounding the seed leaves, or preying upon them, the
young plants are soon destroyed. What is called
the canker of Norfolk, is to be referred to the ravages
of another insect, tcnthredo oleracea of Linnaeus,
which is wafted over in myriads with the north-east
wind from Germany, and in the course of a day or
two destroys whole fields. The black caterpillar,

» which is supposed to belong to a species of tenthredo,

commences its depredations on the turnip plants
after they have made some progress. The ravages
•f the common gray slug, Umax agrestis, are also ex-
tremely destructive to turnips ; and when the growth
of the plants is retarded, and they become feeble and
diseased, they are preyed upon by the common earth
worm.

No effectual remedy has yet been proposed for the
destruction of these insects. The speedy germina-
tion of the seed, iind the rapid growth of tlie young
plants, when these can be promoted by enriching
the soil, and seizing a favourable season for sow-
ing, promise to be the most effectual means of re-
sisting their ravages. With the same view, it has
been recommended to steep t)ie seed in water, train
oil, lintseed oil, or some other oil, for 24? hours, and
after draining and mixing it with finely gifted earth

or sand, to insert it immediately in the soil. The Arable Jaad.
use of seed of different ages, or steeping one half of
the seed, that it may come up at different periods, is
another method suggested, for securing the turnip
crop ; for as the appearance and departure of the
turnip fly are extremely sudden, the plants which
come up late often escape their ravages. Strewing
vegetable ashes, quicklime, soot, or barley chaff, and
sprinkling lime water, tobacco water, and some other
liquids, hav2 been practised for the destruction of
the fly and slug ; and rolling in the night, when tlu'
slug proceeds from its lurking place, with a heavj
implement, or turning a flock of sheep upon the tur-
nip lands, and keeping them constantly in motion by
means of a dog and person to attend them, that the
slugs may be shaken from the young plants, are also
recommended for the destruction of that animal.
Sowing radish seed along with that of the turnip, on
the supposition that the radish plant is preferred
by the insects, has been suggested as the means of
preserving the turnip crop from the depredations of
tha.fly ; and planting cabbages in the same field with
turnips, it is said secures the latter from the attacks
of hares ; but it is supposed that none of these prac- •
tices is completely effectual.

Diseases of turnips — Turnips are liable to a dis-
ease in the root, called anhiry. A large excres-
cence forms below the bulb, and after a certain pe-
riod becomes putrid, and emits a very oftisnsive
smell. This disease is ascribed to the puncture or ■
wound of some grub or insect in the vessels of the
tap-root. It is most frequent in dry seasons. The
only remedy that offers itself, when the aflection has ,
taken place, is to remove the diseased plants, and to
loosen the earth about those that remain ; but by
complete preparation, and enriching the soil on
which turnips are raised, it is supposed the disease
may be altogether prevented. The turnip root is
subject to another disease, denominated, in some dis-
tricts, Jingers and toes, in which the turnip plant,
instead of forming bulbs, sends oft" a number of se-
parate roots. In some cases, the bulb itself is di-
vided into lobes, but frequently the tap-root is the
part which is chiefly diseased, when the bulb seems
pretty perfect. These appearances are observed at
a very early stage of the growth of the plant, and
sometimes even before it pushes out the rough leaf...
The leaves remain nearly unchanged, except in hot
weather, when they become languid, and droop.
In the investigations which have been niaile into the
history of this disease, it has not been traced to the
seed, the period of sowing, or any peculiarity in
the soil ; but it is supposed, from the facts which
have been observed, that it may be ascribed to some
undiscovered insect, which wounds the root in the
earlier stages of its growth. It is said that this dis-
ease is most prevalent on fresh soil ; and the only
method which has yet been recommended for its pre-
vention, is the application of marl, or fresh mould,
mixed up with lime.

Produce of the turnip crop. — The season, the
soil, and the mode of culture pursued, vary tlie
produce of this crop ; but io tons are considered as ;
an average crop on an English acre of good soil. .
Sometimes it amounts to '23 or 30 tons ; and in onej

176

AGRICULTURE.

Arable land, case, in Ayrshire in Scotland, the enormous quan-
t_ J titv of 60 tons was obtained from an English acre.

~ ^ 'jiaixhig seed. — To have seed of a good kind, it is

best to procure it from turnips which are transplant-
ed one year and sown the next ; or if they are trans-
planted once in three years, it is supposed that the
stock may be j)reserved in good condition. The
turnij)S destined for the production of seed, are to
be selected of the best kinds, and of the most per-
fect forms, from the field crops ; and the tops being
cut off, are to be transplanted in November or De-
cember into a well-prepared piece of ground, which
is so situated that it may be protected from the de-
predations of birds. The seed ripens in July or Au-
gust following. In some districts, it is the practice to
I cut part of the stems, to tie thtm up into sheaves,

and when they are dry, to build them into a long
Btouk for preservation till April or May, when the
seed is Un-ashed out ; but sometimes it is immediatc-
Jy thrashed out on a cloth, near the spot where it is
produced, put into bags, and preserved in a dry
situation.

Preservation of turnipn — The turnip crop which
is destined for tfie support of live stock in the win-
ter and spring months, is either consumed on the
field, carried off', as it is wanted, to the feeding-
houses, or removed entirely, in the beginning of
winter, to some convenient place for preservation.
The great mass of matter in the turnip root, and
the large proportion of water which it contains, ren-
der it extremely liable to be destroyed by sudden
changes of frost and snow. When the soil is of a
moist and retentive quality, it is apt to be poached
and injured by the treading of cattle in consuming
the crop on the field, or by liorses and carts in car-
rying it off ; or when a wheat crop is to succeed the
turnips, it becomes necessary in both cases to have
them removed. Various methods have been propos-
ed for the preservation of turnips. Sometimes they
are piled up with dry straw in houses constructed for
the purpose ; and sometimes they are stacked in a
convenient corner of the field where they grow, with
intermediate layers of dry straw, which latter me-
thod is practised in Hertfordshire, and one load of
Straw is employed to 30 or 40 tons of turnips. The
turnips are drawn by grasping the tops firmly in
the hand; and after twisting the roots round, by
which the lateral fibres are broken, and the earth
loosened and separated, they are easily pulled up.
A dry season should be chosen for this operation ;
the tops and tap-roots are to be removed, taking
care to woimd the bulb as little as possible ; a layer
of stra%v is spread on a dry part of the ground, and
a layer of turnips, to the thickness of 18 inches
or two feet, is placed upon it, after which layers
of straw and turnips are arranged alternately, till
the heap or stack be brought to a ridge or point.
1-he edges of the different layers of straw are turn-
ed up. and serve to prevent the turnips from falling
out, while they afibrd an external covering to the
heap. The whole is then thatched over with long straw.
In some cases, the preservation of turnips has been
attempted without straw, by forming them into heaps
called pies, in the way that potatoes are kept, and
merely by thatching thetn over on the outside. It

has been suggested also, that turnips might be built Amb!e laa'd.
in small stacks, near the places w here they are in- ^.^'V>i^
tended to be consumed, with the tops outwards, and
with a little straw between the diflerent layers. The
stack is llien covered over with wattles or hurdles,
lined with straw. In some districts, after the turnips
are drawn, and the tap-roots cut oft', they are re-
moved to a piece of pasture-ground near the farm-
yard, and set close together upright on their bottoms.
In this way the growth of the tops is little interrupted,
and it is supposed by some that the quantity of nu-
tritious food is increased. This operation should be
performed in dry and windy weather, because the
tops are then less brittle, and the roots are cleaner.
The practice which has been suggested, of preserv-
ing turnips by means of ice or snow, might, no doubt,
with proper precautions, be successfiU ; but with a
slight inattention, the whole heaps run the risk of
being destroyed. The method advised is to cart the
roots, in the time of hard frosts, into heaps, place
them on bottoms of ice, and mix them with ice and
snow, that they may be preserved in the frozen state
till they are applied to use. When preserved in this
way, the heaps may be constructed in suitable build-
ings, or they may be covered up with straw, heath,
or some loose and dry material, and a covering of
earth laid upon the whole. When the turnips which
have thus been preserved are to be given to the
stock, or when they are removed in the frozen state
from the field for the same purpo.se, the precaution
of putting them into cold water for a few hours, that
they may be completely thawed, should not be o-
mitted.

Yelloiu turnip. — This variety of the common tur-
nip possesses many of the valuable properties of the
Sv.edish turnip. It is hardy, resists the winter frosts
without storing or artificial protection, is less liable
to putrefaction, and even the wounded part is not
apt to run into decay. It has a superior flavour, is
more succulent and nutritious, ana is preferred by
cattle to the Swedish turnip. From these properties,
it appears fitter for spring use than the common tur-
nip ; and the milk of cows fed with this yellow varie-
ty, affords butter which has all the richness of fla-
vour and colour of midsummer butter.

The culture of the yellow turnip is the same as for
the common turnip. Early sowing, and less space
between the plants, as tiie roots are in general of a
smaller size, are recommended by some; but in some
cases, when sown at the same time with the connnon
white turnip, it would appear that they equalled, or
even exceeded them in size.

Rtita ba<ra, or Sivcdiffi turnip. — The advantages of
this excellent root, are briefly stated by Mr Young,
who says, that " when the fanner has the right .stock
of seed, the root yellow in flesh and rough in coat,
it lasts through all frosts, and may be depended on for
sheep quite through the month of April, though
drawn two months before, and spread on a grass
field — that it is an excellent and nourishing food for
sheep, and also for any sort of cattle — that it is equal
to potatoes, keeping stock swine, a point of very
great consequence — that it is, next to carrots, the
very best food that can be given to horses — and that
it is sown 91 a season which leaves ample time, in

AGRICULTURE.

177

Arabic laiul. cftse of a falluro, to put in common turnips or cab-
bages."

Swedish turnip may be raised on soils which are
too moist and heavy for the common turnip ; but the
Jand requires to be well prepared, and enriched with
manure for this crop. Great care is necessary in
raising the seed ; for if the plants from which it is ob-
tained grow in the vicinity of other species, they are
liable to produce degenerated varieties ; and this is
supposed to be the cause of the occasional occur-
rence of a spurious crop of inferior quality. Swedish
turnip should be sown three weeks or a month ear-
lier than the common turnip. The quantity of seed
is from two to three pounds for the English acre, in
broadcast sowing, and in drilling a smaller propor-
tion. New seed should always be preferred, and in a
dry season steeping is found useful in promoting
germination. The seed is sometimes sown upon beds
of good soil, and when the plants are about the size
of cabbage-plants, fit for transplanting, they are set
in rows, at the distance of eight or nine inches in tlie
row, with about a foot of interval ; but sowing imme-
diately on the field where the crop is to be produced,
is recommended as the best practice. The after-ma-
nagement of the Swedish turnip is similar to that of
the common turnip,

10. Callages,

The culture of cabbages is very limited in the
northern parts of tlie kingdom, and is considered by
some as forming no part of the profitable practice of
husbandry ; while others regard this vegetable as a
valuable addition to the winter and spring food of
live-stock, and warmly recommend it on such stiff and
strong soils as are not adapted to the culture of tur-
nips. The certainty of the cabbage crop, and tlie
larger proportion of food obtained from the same space
of ground, are also stated as advantages in favour of
its cultivation. Difterent varieties of the cabbage
plant have been employed in field culture ; and as
mixed or new varieties are extremely apt to be pro-
duced, when seed is raised from plants of different
kinds growing near each other, great attention sho«ld
be paid to have the plants which are selected for the
produce of seed removed to a distance.

Turnip callage. — This variety of the cabbage de-
rives its name from producing a bulb of a roundish
flat form, which appears chiefly above the surface of
the ground, and seems to be an enlargement of the
stem of the plant. The leaves which surround it
resemble those of brocoli. This plant is said to be
more hardy against frosts than the Swedish turnips,
is sometimes cultivated under the name of Cape cab-
bage, and seems to be the Kohlrali of the Germans.

Turnip-rooted callage. — This variety of the cab-
bage has been sometimes confounded witli the for-
mer ; but it differs from it in forming the bulb below
the surface of the ground ; and besides, it is of an ob-
long shape, and the leaves approach nearly in appear-
ance to those of tlie common turnip. But for a full
account of the culture and application of cabbage
crops, as well as that of rape or cole, which is also
employed as green food in winter, for sheep and
other animals, the reader is referred to Dickson's
Practical jigriciilture.

VOL. I. FART I.

11. Carrots.

Arable lauL

A deep soil, of a loamy or sandy quality, is the
best adapted for the culture of carrots ; but it is sup-
posed that good crops might be obtained from soils
of a more tenacious description, as clay loams, when
perfectly dry and well prepared.

Deep ploughing is necessary for a crop of carrots ;
and where the land has been formerly in tillage, three
ploughings may be found sufficient ; the first to the
depth of ten or fourteen inches, about the beginning
of October ; the second, a cross ploughing, to the
same depth, in February ; and the third, previous to
the insertion of the seed, in March. The liberal ap-
plication of manure is necessary for this crop, and it
is turned into the soil with the last ploughing. The
surface is reduced by the operation of the harrow
when it is ready for the seed. But in Suffolk, where
carrots are extensively raised, the land receives no
preparation till the period of sowing.

Soming, Sfc. — Of the different varieties of the com-
mon carrot, daucus carota of Linnaeus, the orange
carrot, which is of a darker colour, sweeter and mort;
juicy, and grows to double the size of the pale yellow
kind, is generally preferred for field culture. It is of
great advantage to the a-jriculturist to raise his own
seed from the best shaped roots of the preceding year's
growth, by which practice he is certain of fresh seed
of a good quality.

For the purpose of distributing carrot seed equally,
it is usual to mix it with sawdust, bran, ashes, dry
earth, or sand. The quantity of seed employed is
from five or six to ten lbs. to the English acre. The
time of sowing is about the middle of March, but it
should not be delayed beyond the beguining of April.
The early sowed crop is generally found to be the
most productive. Mr Burrows of Norfolk, who cul-
tivates carrots to a great extent, mixes the seed which
he allows to the acre, from eight to ten lbs., with a-
bout two bushels of sand, or fine mould, a fortnight
or three weeks before the time of sowing. The heaps
formed of the mould and seed are daily turned over,
and sprinkled with water, that the vegetation may be
equally promoted. By this previous preparation the
plants soon appear above the ground, and are less lia-
ble to be choked with weeds of a quicker growth.

Carrots are very generally sown broadcast, and the
seed is covered in by means of a light harrow. Some-
times drilling is adopted, and the rows are from twelve
to eighteen inches distant ; and as the nature of the
seed scarcely mimits of the use of the drill machine,
small furrows are formed by the hoe or other conve-
nient implement ; the seed is cast over tlie ground by
the hand, and covered in by slight harrowing, or
hoeing.

After-management. — The first hoeing, which is re-
quired in five or six weeks from the time of sowing,
is performed with hoes four inches long and 2| inches
wide ; the second, with a six-inch hoe, and of the
same breadth as the first, commences nearly as soon
as the first hoeing is completed. The carrots are
thinned out to the proper distance, which is from
nine to 18 inches. A third hoeing is given some
time in June, and it may be necessary to repeat the
operation, if a new growth of weeds require iu
z

1T8

AGRICULTURE.

AraWeknd. Presermtion of carrots. — When the tops of the
carrots become of a yellowish colour, and lose their
freshness, they are ready for being taken up, wliich
is generally the case towards the end of October ;
and as the tops, as food for live-stock, are of consi-
derable value, the digging should not be delayed
long, otherwise the quantity is greatly diminished.
Carrots are either taken up by means of the plough,
or by loosening the soil with three-pronged forks,
and drawing up the plants by the tops. The latter
method is considered the best. The tops are cut oft",
and laid in- separate heaps ; the roots are also heaped
up, and allowed to remain in the field for two or
three days ; they are then removed, and packed up
in heaps with dry straw, and, to protect them com-
pletely from the frost, they are thatched over with
the same material. In whatever way carrots are
preserved, they should not be put'up too closely to-
gether, or in large quantities, as they are apt to be
injured by heating, especially if they are not perfect-
ly dry when they are laid up.

Some agriculturists dig up in the autumn a suffi-
cient quantity to supply the live-stock during' a
lengthened period of frost or snow ; the remaining
part of the crop is left in the ground ; and it appears
that the carrots are more relished by the animals
when drawn fresh from the soil, lu March the
whole is taken up to clear the land for the succeed-
ing crop ; and such part as is intended to be preserv-
ed through the months of May and June, should be
examined about the end of April ; the crowns of the
liealthiest and most perfect roots should be cut com-
pletely off. The carrots are then separated and laid
fay themselves, and in this way may be preserved
through the month of June.

Produce. — The produce of the carrot crop is from
'200 to 350 bushels from the acre of land, of a poorer
and middling quality; but 800 bushels have been
obtained from a rich soil in good condition. The ex-
pence is stated by Mr Burrows, who, in a period of
four years, had 49 acres under this crop, at ten gui-
neas the acre for the first three years, and about
eight guineas the acre the last year. The estimated
profit amounted to nearly L.28 the acre for the first
three years, and for the last year the crop of 25 acres
was valued by arbiters to the succeeding tenant, and
•the price fixed afforded a profit of nearly twelve gui-
neas from each acre. These statements afford ample
evidence of the value of a carrot crop, where the
soil and situation admit of its culture.

Consumption of' carrots. — The application of car-
rots in feeding farm-horses, seems, from their nutriti-
ous quality, peculiarly beneficial. Mr Burrows sup-
ports his horses solely on this root, conjoined with a
.suitable proportion of hay, through the winter and
spring months ; and he finds that they are in the
same good condition, and equal to the same quantity
of labour, as- when they were fed on the full allow-
ance of corn. Seventy pounds weight of carrots is
allowed to. each horse djiily on an average; the pro-
portion is smaller in the short days of winter, and
larger in the spring months. The carrots are some-
times sliced down and mixed with cut chaff or hay,
and at night they are given to the horses whole, with
a^tnall quantity of hay in the rack.

Carrots are greatly relished by all kinds of cattle. Aralle laad.
They are an excellent winter and spring food to - —
cows giving milk ; it is found that the quantity of
both milk and butter is increased without any di-
minution of the flavour; and in fattening live-stock
they are not less beneficial. In the application of
carrots, with the same view, as the food of sheep, the
produce of one acre has been estimated to be equal
to that of two acres and a half of turnips, — an ad-
vantage which must surely afford full compensation
for any extraordinary labour and expence in the cul-
ture. Hogs also become fat on carrots, when pre-
pared by boiling ; and as poultry are extremely fond
of this root when it is subjected to the same prepa-
ration, it has been suggested that they might be ad-
vantageously fattened with it.

Sect. III. Of the Rotation of Crops.

It is now well understood in every district of the
kingdom which the improvements of modern agricul-
ture have reached, that land from which the same
species of crop is taken s-uccessively for a number
of years, is sooner and much more exhausted, with
the same management, than if an equal, or even a
greater number of crops of different species were
raised from it, provided no two crops of the same
kind shall immediately follow each other in the suc-
cession. To render this intelligible to the reader
who is unacquainted with practical agriculture, let
it be supposed that a farm, consisting of 100 acres,
is divided into four lots, and that each lot is destined
to produce the same crop for four successive years ;
as, lot first to Lave turnips ; lot second, barley ; lot
third, clover , and lot fourth, oats ; the whole of the
land wovild be in a much worse condition with re-
gard to its fertility, and the produce would be far
more scaiity at the end of four years, than when a
single crop only of each species is taken from
each lot during the same period. The lots which
are limited to the production of four successive corn
crops would approach to a degree of sterilitj', from
which it would require a long period of the best af-
ter-management to recover them. Hence it is ob-
vious, that the selection of the proper kinds of crops,
and the order of their succession, form a very essen-
tial part of every judicious and profitable sytem of
husbandry.

The learned Professor of Agriculture in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh observes, that it is an import-
ant inquiry, how the kinds of produce best adapted
for different situations, soils, and purposes, should be
selected and assorted, so as to obtain, at the cheapest
rate, and witli the most certain success, those which
are tlie most advantageous, and best correspond with
the nature of the land and the husbandman's means
of raising them, keeping in view general economy
and profit, and the full supply of manure requisite
to support the fertility of the soil. In every system
of management, a remark made by the same author
should never be forgotten, namely, " that it is al-
ways more easy to augment the fertility of any soil
in proportion as it is already fertile ; or, in other
words, it is more difficult to raise the fertility of land
from the pitch of bearing five bolls to that of seven,
than from seven to nine, or even ten."

AGRICULTURE.

irp

Arabic land. " Tlie circumstance of any situation alone can
determine," it is fiirtlier observed by Dr Coventry,
" what are the most proper species of crops for cul-
ture ; the best proportion in which the different spe-
cies should be cultivated ; and the best order or suc-
cession, with respect to one another, in which they
should be raised. Certain particulars, in diiferent
cases, require the attentive consideration of hus-
bandmen, when about to settle the mode of culture
for their arable fields ; some of them are of general
import, and others more connected with particular
or separate possessions.

" 1. The general circumstances which require at-
tention in fixing a rotation or course, are, the charac-
ter of the climate ; — the general nature of the soil ;
— the acquisition of manure, and particularly whe-
ther any extraneous supply of putrescent manure can
be obtained ; — the markets as more or less distant,
or as adapted for the disposal of some articles of
produce more than others ; — and the kind of hus-
bandry followed in other parts of the cultivator's
own land, or the general husbandry pursued by him
and that pursued in the district at large, so far at
least as it may concern his interest, or affect his own
scheme ; in order that the whole might form one ra-
tional, consistent, and united system of husbandry.

" 2. Tliose particulars which are more connected
with the management of separate possessions and
fields, are, — the advantages of having at suitable
tunes, and of managing in a proper manner, a herb-
age crop, such as grass, clover, &c. ; — the expedi-
ency and advantages of cleansing the land of weeds,
either by a fallow, with the loss or with the delay of
a crop, or w-ith the substitution of one crop for an-
pther, or by a hoed crop, otherwise called a fallow
crop ; — the benefits which attend the raising of crops
best adapted to the nature and state of the land ; —
the propriety of raising the crops most suitable to
the condition of the manure ; — the benefits that arise
from causing the manurings and the cleansing pro-
cess to correspond in the times when they are per-
ibrmed, and of making the endurance of the herbage
crops, and the length of the whole course, such as
will suit with these operations, and accomplish this
purpose ; — the advantages of raising different species
of corn and other crops, to divide his labour, and
insure more success otherwise ; — and the advantage
of regularity in cropping, and in the general ar-
rangement of the labour." Inlrodudory Discourses,
p. 94.

Keeping these particulars in view, the next object
of the husbandman is to institute a comparison of
the different schemes of culture and cropping, that
he may discover how far the latter correspond with
the rules which may be deduced from a consideration
of the former ; for it is only by understanding fully
the peculiar advantages of sue!' courses, as well as
the disadvantages which are attached to them in cer-
tain cases, that he is able to determine what are the
"most beneficial rotations in increasing his profit, and
in improving the soil. Every scheme, then, for the
cultivation and cropping of arable land, ought to be
formed after fully considering the labour of cultivat-
ing the different species, — the manure required for
tile species of which the course is composed, as well

as the quantity which each species is capable of re- .
turning, — and the price which the difterent kinds of '
produce bring iu the market. Such are the rational
principles which ought to be adopted in regulating
the succession or rotation of crops, and which un-
doubtedly deserve the most attentive consideration
of every judicious agriculturist.

General rules. — In arranging any system of rota<
tion, it has been properly remarked, that no invari-
able rules can be given which are adapted to all
cases, because a great deal depends on the soil mtu-
ation, climate, and other circumstances. The mate-
rial points to be regarded appear to be those of pro-
perly suiting the crops to the nature and state of the
lands, but especially that of interposing green or
root crops between white or corn crops, or the strict
observance of what is called the alternate husbandry ;
from which management, ample experience has shewn
that while the land continues the shortest time pos-
sible unproductive, its fertility is least exhausted.
In this way the culture of the field approaches to
that of the garden, and the impoverishing effects of
an uninterrupted succession of grain crops are avoid-
ed, while the amount of produce is greatly increased.
But it ought to be observed, that the fertility, even
of the richest lands, cannot be retained by a con-
stant course of alternate cropping ; and such ma-
nagement on sandy soils, and those of a lighter de-.
scription, is altogether inadmissible. For the pur-
pose of keeping up the requisite degree of fertility
of such lands, that portion which has ))roduced a
herbage crop, is allowed to remain in the state of
pasture for one or more years. According to this
system, which is denominated convertible husbandry,
the same land is, during one period, under arable
management, and during another in the state of pas-
ture. It may be adopted as another general rule,
that the same kind of crop should not be repeated
at too short intervals. If, for example, the same
grain crop, as wheat, were taken from the same land
every second year for any considerable (leriod, the
quality and produce would be greatly diminished.
The recurrence of green crops on the same land,
and in the same rapid succession, subjects them to a
similar diminution in the quality and produce.

Proportion of green and corn crops. — It has been
recommended by the author of the Survey of Mid-
dlesex, that where the land is of the best quality, an
alternation of green and white, or corn crops, may
be pursued ; where the land is of a full medium qua-
lity, three green crops, and two corn crops, should he
taken ; but for ordinary land, the proportion should
not exceed one corn crop for two green crops ; and
for poor exhausted land, as that of the Down and
Sheep-walk description, one grain crop is sufficient
for three green crops. By cropping in this manner,
and in the proportions now stated, it is supposed that
lands may be preserved in a clean state, and in a
proper degree of fertility ; and it is added by the au-
thor, that " under such management, they might be
continued in perpetual aration, with a constant suc-
cession of large products." According to the pro-
portions now stated, the four following rotations are
suggested: I. — 1. corn; 2. clover; 3. pease ; or, 1.
pease ; 2. beans ; 3. corn. Here there are two green
z 2

180

AGRICULTURE.

Grasslands. Crops for one of corn. II — ^1. corn; 2. clover; 3.
tares ; 4. turnips ; or, corn, clover, peas, and beans ;
which makes four crops in three years, and three
green crops to one of corn. Ill, — 1. tares; 2. po-
tatoes, or cole, for sheep-feed ; 3. turnips ; 4 'corn ;
5. clover ; which makes live crops in four years, and
four green crops to one of corn. IV. — 1. pease ;
2. beans ; 3. corn ; 4. clover ; 5. tares ; 6. turnips ;
which makes six crops in five years, and five green
crops to one of corn.

Rotations on different soils In cases where the

convertible husbandry is pursued, and horse-hoeing
is practised, and the green crops, as turnips, pease,
and beans, are sown in double rows on three feet
jfidges, the following rotations are suggested by Mr
Close for different soils. On clay soils, 1. turnips
or cabbages ; 2. oats ; 3. beans and clover ; 4. wheat ;
S. turnips or cabbages ; 6. oats ; 7. beans and vetches ;

5. wheat. On clayey loams, 1. turnips or cabbages ;
2. oats ; 3. clover ; 4. wheat ; 5. turnips or cabbages ;

6. barley ; 7. beans ; 8. wheat. On rich or sandy
loams, 1. turnips and potatoes; 2. barley; 3. clover;
4. wheat ; 5. beans ; 6. barley ; 7. pease ; 8. wheat ;
and, 1. beans or turnips; 2. barley; 3. pease or clo-
ver ; 4. wheat ; 5. wheat or potatoes ; 6. barley ; 7.
pease; 8. wheat. On peaty soils, 1. turnips; 2. bar-
ley ; 3. clover; 4. wheat; 5. potatoes; 6. barley; 7.
pease; 8. wheat. On a chalky subsoil, 1. turnips;
2. barley ; 3. clover ; 4. wheat ; 5. potatoes ; 6. bar-
ley ; 7. pease ; 8. wheat. On this last rotation it is
remarked, that ten acres in each hundred should be
laid down with sainfoin for eight or ten years. On
gravelly soils, 1. turnips; 2. barley; 3. clover; 4.
^vheat; 5. potatoes; 6. barley; 7. pease. On light
lands, 1. turnips; 2. barley; 3. 4. and 5. clover and
ray-grass ; 6. pease ; 7. wheat or rye ; 8. wheat. But
although we have detailed the above as a systematic
view of rotations recommended for difierent descrip-
tions of soil, it can scarcely be doubted that some
of them are faulty when compared with the rules of
good husbandry, and particularly in the frequent re-
petition of corn crops, sometimes in immediate suc-
cession, and in the entire exclusion of fallows, which,
it may be justly apprehended, cannot be altogether
dispensed with in every kind of soil and situation.
In many cases, indeed, the fallow, or horse-hoed crop,
may be a sufficient substitute.

In East-Lothian.- — The following rotations are pur-
sued in East-Lothian, a district of Scotland where
agriculture has reached a high degree of perfection.
On lands near the coast, where the soil is a dry gra-
velly loam, a four-course shift is adopted: 1. tur-
nips, with or without manure ; 2. barley, or spring
wheat, with grass-seeds ; 3. clover, used green for
live-stock, or cut for hay ; 4. wheat, or oats, if wheat
was taken before, manured on .the clover ley. On
this description of land the turnips are consumed on
the ground b'y sheep ; or, what is considered an im-
provement, a proportion of the turnips is drawn, and
carried home for cattle, or eaten by sheep in a con-
tiguous stubble or grass field. Alternate drills are
taken out, which is thought the best mode; and in
some cases five or six drills are removed, while an
equal number is left. liy this management the tur-
nip field is less injured in a wet season, and a greater

quantity of land is manured. In deeper loams, with Grass lanis.
a dry bottom, the rotation practised is, 1. turnips;
2. barley, or spring wheat ; 3. grass ; 4. oats ; 5. beans,
drilled and horsc-hoed; 6. wheat. The manure is only
once applied, and is given to the turnips in this ro-
tation, so that it requires the land to be of the best
quality. On heavy loams, with a retentive subsoil,
1. fallow, with manure; 2. wheat; 3. beans drilled
and hcrse-hoed ; 4. barley ; 5. clover, which is ma-
nured on the stubble ; 6. oats ; 7. beans, drilled ; 8.
wheat. The application of manure twice in the
course of this rotation is Ibund very beneficial. On
the same kind of soil, the following rotation is also
followed: 1. fallow, with manure; 2. wheat, with grass
seeds ; 3. pasture, eaten by sheep ; 4. oats ; 5. beans,
sometimes mixed with pease, drilled ; 6. wheat or
oats. In this six-course shift manure is once ap-
plied, but the quantity is more liberal ; and the pas-
ture succeeding the second year after the fallow, and
eaten off by sheep, is a compensation for the second
application; and if the wheat be drilled, the rotation
may be repeated without a fallow. On thin clays,
1. fallow, without manure; 2. oats, with grass seeds,
or, if the fallow was manured, wheat ; 3. pasture ;
4. oats ; 5. beans, manured ; 6. wheat. On the poor-
est clays, 1. fallow, manured ; 2. barley or oats, with
grass seeds ; 3. clover ; 4. oats.

The rotation practised on land which is partly a
black sandy loam on retentive subsoil, and partly
sandy loam on dry sandy undersoil, and in the vici-
city of Edinburgh, which affords the double advan-
tage of a ready market for the whole of the produce,
and an abundant supply of extraneous manure, is
the following, 1. potatoes; 2. wheat; 3. clover, cut
green : or, 1. turnips; 2. wheat or barley ; 3. clover,
cut green.

Distribution of crops. — No precise rules can be laid
down for fixing the proportion of any possession
which should be occupied by the different crops.
The quantity of land destined to each species of
crop must be varied according to the soil and situ-
ation. But as the great object, in every well regu-
lated system of husbandry, is to preserve the soil in
good condition, and at the same time to derive from
it the greatest quantity of produce which it is ca-
pable of yielding, a certain proportion must always
be established between the extent of land allotted to
corn and green crops ; for if the former greatly ex-
ceed the latter, the quantity of manure obtained is
deficient, and the fertility of the soil is soon dimi-
nished. According to Dr Coventry's statement, the
return of manure from a corn crop little exceeds
four tons ; but the amount from herbage, or green
crops, is rather more than six tons from the acre.
To preserve land in a suitable degree of fertility, five
tons of manure are requisite for each acre annually ;
and hence it is obvious, that an average proportion-
between the two kinds of crops must be maintained.
The deviations from this average may be more or
less extended according to local circumstances.

Chap, VII. Of Grass Lands.

Some kinds of land, from peculiarities of soil and
situation, are better calculated for grain crops than

AGRICULTURE.

181

Gra^s laHds. tl>ose of grass ; others are more suitable for raising
grass than corn crops ; and others still are better
adapted to the convertible husbandry, or the alter-
nate system of corn and grass crops. Lands which
are sufficiently dry, and which in their natural utate
produce only coarse plants, belong to those of the
first description, and are found to be more produc-
tive in the state of tillage, than in that of pasture.
But without specifying particularly those lands which
are best adapted for grass crops, it may be observed,
that loamy soils which are not too strong for the
growth of turnips, are most suitable for the practice
of convertible husbandry. They are capable of being
changed from the state of tillage to that of grass,
and the contrary, not only without injury, but with
the most beneficial effects.

In this chapter we shall treat of Artificial Grasses,
of Natural Grasses, of Laying down to Grass, of Mea-
dows, of Haymaking, and of Pasture lands.

Sect. I. Of Aiiificial Grasses.

The introduction and culture of different plants,
which have been distinguished by the name of Arti-
ficial Grasses, constitute one of the most important
improvements in modern husbandry. Some of these
plants form an essential part in every judicious rota-
tion of crops, and contribute largely, by the abun-
dance of green or dried food which they afford, to
the support of live-stock. The plants of this de-
scription are, trefoil or clover, sainfoin, lucern, &c.

Red clover — Red or broad clover, irifolium pra-
tense, is a well-known plant, which is successfully
cultivated on all the better descriptions of dry land,
which are in a tolerable state of fertility. It is sown
with any clean grain crop ; but when the nature of the
soil admits, it succeeds best with barley after turnips.

Seed and sowing Fresh and well ripened seed,

which smells sweet, has a bright appearance, and is
of a purplish colour, should always be selected. Oh
rich clean soils, 10 or 12 pounds are sufficient for
the acre ; but on less fertile soils of a stiff quality,
16 or 18 pounds are required ; and a larger propor-
tion must be allowed when the land is to be under
pasturage for two or more years. When it is to be
cut for hay, thin sowing is recommended. Clover
seed is sown in any of the early spring months, with
crops of spring coni, or over the young wheat crop.
In the later districts, where it might be injured by
frost, it is a better time to so'v it with the barley
crop in April ; and it has been recommended not to
insert it till the barley is two or three inches high,
which then derives some benefit from the soil being
stirred by a slight harrowing. When it is cultivated
with a drill crop, it is sown broadcast, when the
grain is drilled, and covered in by slight harrowing.
It is sometimes also sown before the roller, when the
barley is a few inches high ; sometimes it is inserted
during the hand or horse-hoeing operations. By the
use of the roller after the harrow, the particles of the
soil are closed upon the seeds, and the surface is le-
velled, which renders it less affected by drought ;
and no greater quantity of land should be sown
than can be immediately covered in.

When the land is intended for early pasturage, or
where the object is hay, it is usual with some to sow

ray, rib, and other similar grasses, witli the clover ; Grass lands.

and in this way a more luxuriant herbage is pro- s "^ '^ '

duced, especially on the lat«r kinds of soil ; but

when the clover is to be cut green, for the purpose

of soiling animals, it is the best method to sow it

alone.

After-management. — The clover crop, on a good
and well prepared soil, requires little future atten-
tion. The young plants, while in the seed leaf, are
sometimes injured by slugs and other insects. Early
sowing, by which the plants become vigorous before
the dry weather approaches, is the best method i>f
avoiding this injury. When the grain is removed from
the land, it is the practice with some to apply ma-
nure over the clover crop ; but this application is only
necessary when the soil is not in a fertile condition.
When the' clover is continued for two or more years,
a thin covering of manure, in the spring or autumn
season, is found beneficial. On dry soils, the manure
is most advantageously applied about the end of J'e-
bruary ; but where the lands are soft and retentive of
moisture, the early part of autumn is the most suit-
able. At whatever season the manure is applied, it
should be in a state of minute division, and spread
evenly over the surface. When the clover crop is to
be mown in the following summer, 30 bushels of coal
ashes distributed on an acre, about the end of Ja-
nuary, renders it more luxuriant and abundant.

Application of clover. — Clover is either cut for hay,
employed as green food for difierent kinds of live-
stock, or fed down with cattle, sheep, or other ani-
mals. When the crop is intended for hay, it should
be mown as soon as the heads are in full blow, and
before they appear of a brown colour, and die away. •
The proper time is known by observing when the
leaves at the bottom of the stems decay and drop
off. Early cutting is recommended after these indi-
cations of ripeness appear ; for when the crop stands
long, the plants are greatly exhausted, and a consi-
derable time elapses before they send up new shoots.
The clover sliould remain as it is left by the scythe,
or until the swaths are dried about two-thirds through,
which, in a favourable season, requires about three
days; and if the weather appear promising, they may
be turned with rakes immediately after the dew is
dissipated. If no rain fall, the clover is ready for
cocking up the next morning, or on the fourth day
after the dew is off, and it may be carried in as soon
afterwards as maybe convenient. If this operation be
conducted immediately after the dew is exhaled, the
leaves are sufficiently tough to resist the effects of
handling ; but when it is deferred to the hot time of
the day, they become too dry, and are liable to be
reduced to powder. Some expert haymakers obviate
this inconvenience, by putting the rows into heaps,
which is performed by gently rolling the swaths over
with large forks, and laying them lightly into the
cock. -By this management the clover is preserved
with less loss, and the hay acquires a better colour
and finer fla:vour. .

When a second crop is' intended for hay, no cattle
should be admitted into the field, that the clover
may be in full blossom, and fit for the scytlie about
the end of August. The process of haymaking is
conducted in the same way, and it should not be ue-

182

AGRICULTURE.

Orass lunds. layed later, to avoid loss of weight, and the risk of
injury from heavy dews and the rainy season, be-
fore it be secured in tlie stack, Tlie second crop is
usually inferior to the first, both in quality, ancf in
amount of produce, so that if hay be not greatly
wanted, it is considered a better practice to feed it
off with sheep or other animals, where the soil is suf-
ficiently dry, than to make it into liay.

The soil and situation, but especially the season,
as it is moist or dry, produces great variations in the
amount of the clover crop. Two tons are supposed
to be a medium crop for the first cutting ; and for a
period of 15 or 20 years, the average produce of an
acre under this crop, in Middlesex, is estimated at
12 guineas. Clover hay is chiefly employed in feeding
draught horses, and is supposed to afford a more nu-
tritious food than any other hay, excepting that of
sainfoin. This species of hay is not less useful in
feeding milk cows, and in fattening oxen.

Production of seed. — When tlie clover crop is in-
tended to produce seed, it is sometimes cut for a
first crop of hay, and the seed is obtained from the
second crop ; but it is a better practice to eat it well
down in the early part of spring, and till the end of
May, by ewes and lambs, or other stock, for in this
way the land is less exhausted, and in better condi-
tion for the succeeding crop, besides the peculiar ad-
vantage of early green food for the live-stock. The
crop remains till the husks or blossoms become quite
brown, and the seeds have acquired firmness. After
being cut down, it is left on the field till it is dry
and crisp, that the seeds may be fully hardened. It is
then put up as before directed, and the seed is thrash-
ed out ia course of the winter. The operation of
thrashing out the seed, as it is difficult to separate it
from the capsule, is always expensive. Some kind
of mills or machinery, it has been suggested, might
be usefully employed in diminishing this labour.

Cutting green. — The greatest advantage is derived
from the clover crop by cutting it in the green state,
and conveying it to the stable and fold-yard, for the
purpose of feeding horses and cattle. Applied in
this way, it is asserted that the clover crop supports
more than twice the quantity of stock than by pas-
turing or feeding off in the held, and the additional
quantity of manure obtained is a full compensation
for the expence of cutting and carriage. The re-
markable difference befrsveen feeding clovers off on
the land, and the practice of soiling this kind of crop,
is very distinctly stated by Mr Kent : " The quick
growth of this grass," he observes, " after mowing,
shades tlie ground, and prevents the sun from exhal-
ing the moisture of the land so much as it would if
fed bare ; consequently it continues to spring with
TDore vigour, and tlie moment one crop is off', ano-
ther begins to shoot up. Whereas, when cattle feed
it, they frequently destroy almost as much as they eat ;
and, besides,-bruise the necks of the roots with their
feet, which prevents the clover from springing so freely
as after a clean cut by the scythe. In hot weather,
which is the common season for feeding clover, the
flies too are generally so troublesome to the cattle,
that they arc continually running from hedge to
hedge, to brush them off; by which it is inconceiv-
able what injury they do to the crop. But when

they are fed in stables and yards, they are more in Grass lanJ*
the shade, they thrive better, and at the same time
consume the whole of what is given them, without
waste."

Pasturing. — Tlie practice of feeding down, or pas-
turing clover crops, is, no doubt, in some cases, ad-
vantageous, especially where sheep husbandry is pur-
sued ; but it should be conducted with no small de-
gree of attention, both to the crop and the animals
tnemselves. Sheep are the best stock for feeding on
clover ; but on dry soils, calves, foals, and other light
kinds of stock, may be occasionally admitted. Piga
thrive well upon clover ; and ewes fed upon it afford
a greater flow of milk, which renders it a valuable
application in the practice of lamb-suckling. The
fattening of sheep in April and May, may be profit-
ably conducted by feeding them on clover ; and the
same practice may be continued in the autumn, till
the turnip crop afford a full supply of food. But it
should aiways be recollected, that no kind of stock
should be admitted to the clover crop when the land
is wet and soft, for otherwise it would be greatly in-
jured by poadiing.

Moving of cattle. — Cattle and other animals, by
feeding on clover when in a succulent state, and par-
ticularly when it is moist with rain or de-w, suffer
much, and are sometimes destroyed by the distension
of the stomach. In this state, the animal is said to
be blovm or hovcn. To obviate this affection, which
seems to depend on the air evolved from a large
quantity of succulent food greedily swallowed, it is
recommended not to admit the animals into the field
before the moisture has been exhaled from the plants.
The remedies proposed for this disease are, a strong
solution of salt and water ; new milk and tar, in the
proportion of about half an egg shell full ; stabbing
the animal with a sharp penknife in the flank, close
to the hip-bone, so as to avoid wounding the intes-
tines, and placing a quill in the orifice, to discharge
the confined air ; but a long flexible tube, introduc-
ed into the stomach through the gullet, affords the
safest and most effectual relief, although difficult and
troublesome in its application. In the early stage
of the disease, a strong solution of ammonia or vola-
tile alkali in water, is also a valuable remedy, by pro-
ducing an immediate discharge of air from the stor
mach.

Trefoil, or black nonsuch. — This plant, medicago
lupulina of Linnaeus, is not only useful in permanent
grass lands, but may be beneficially employed as an
artificial grass. The stem is more slender, and the
growth less luxuriant than common clover. It is
«own with oats, or among the wheat crop in the
spring, when it is to be succeeded by grain in the
following season, by which means a good feed is ob-
tained in the stubbles for stock in autumn, while
they are left free for tillage in the spring. This
plant affords good pasturage for cattle, but it is pe-
culiarly calculated for sheep, either alone or mixed
with clover, and with its use they are less liable to
hoving. It is earlier than clover, and affords a sup-
ply of food after the turnip and rye crops are con-
sumed.

Sazre/bm.— -Sainfoin, hedysarum onobrychis, is a
useful plant on the lighter and thinner kinds of c»l-

AGRICULTURE.

183

Cass lands, careous soils ; affords a valuable green food in hilly
~ ~ situations ; is equally beneficial for the purposes of
hay and pasturage, and is less dangerous to the ani-
mals which feed upon it, by producing distension of
the stomach. The lighter kinds of shallow soils are
best adapted for the growth of sainfoin. The ground
should be clean and fine for the reception of tlie
seed. It succeeds well after turnips.

Seed and time qfsomn^. — The seed, selected from
the best plants, should be sown fresh. The quanti-
ty in the broadcast method is from two to four
bushels ; in drilling, three bushels are considered
sufficient. Early sowing is always advantageous ;
the latter end of February, or the begining of
March, is a proper time in most cases. Sainfoin is
sown with any of the spring corn crops, but the best
method is with barley after turnips ; and it is recom-
mended by some, that only half the quantity of bar-
ley which is usually sown for a full crop should be
employed. When sown over the wheat crop, it
should be harrowed in, and afterwards rolled ; and
in all the liglitcr kinds of land, the use of the roller
should not be omitted.

After -management. — Much of the success of this
crop depends on the after-management. While
some advise it to be cut for hay instead of being pas-
tured, others think that it should be neither cut nor
pastured till the autumn of the first year. The di-
versity of practice here recommended, may arise
from a difference of the soil, and a greater or less
degree of luxuriance in the crop. On rich soils, it
may be cut without injury the first year ; but on
poorer soil it seems better to save the crop entirely,
to allow the plants to spread and form a closer
sward in the following season. But in all cases, in
the succeeding summers a crop of hay is taken, and
the after grass is fed down, but not too closely, with
any kind of stock except sheep, till December. In
the following autumn, sheep, as well as other stock,
may be admitted upon the pastures, till they are well
eaten down ; but they ought to be excluded as early
as possible in the beginning of the year.

Sainfoin attains its perfect growth about the third
year, and it begins to decline towards the eighth or
tenth, unless manure be liberally applied. Sainfoin
leys are greatly improved by the application of ma-
nure in the latter end of the second autumn. Coal-
ashes, peat-ashes, soot, in the proportion of 25 bush-
els to the acre, and malt-dust, are employed for this
purpose. When the crop is well established in the
soil, top-dressings of this kind, every third or fourth
year, retain it in a state of vigorous growth for 10 or
15 years.

This crop is useful in its green state for all kinds of
stock, although it is supposed that the flavour of
cows milk is injured by it ; but its most usual appli-
eation is in the state of hay, which affords a very
nutritious food for working norses, as well as other
kinds of cattle. The hay harvest is conducted much
in tlie same way as for clover. When it is full in
blossom, no time is lost in cutting it down, and, by
the usual management, it is ready for being put into
the stack in a few days.

Prfservafion of seed. — In preserving the seed of
sainfoin, the plants should remain on the land till

the husks become of a brownish colour, and the seeds Grass laoJs.
are plumj) and firm. The crop is then cut down, ~
and remains in the swath till the upper surface is
quite dry, when it is cautiously tnrncd over, to pre-
vent the seed from shaking out ; and when the whole
is perfectly dry and crisp, it is either thrashed out up-
on cloths in the field, or laid up in stacks till a more
convenient time.

Lucern. — This plant, medicago saiiva of Linnaeus,
may be profitably cultivated on the deeper, ricliw,
and drier kinds of loamy, gravelly, and sandy soils ;
but the land should be in the best state of prepara-
tion for its reception. With this view, it is preced-
ed either by fallow, or a hoed crop of turnips, car-
rots, or cabbages.

Seed, and time qfscrwing. — The seed of lucern is of
a larger size, and of a paler colour than that of clo-
ver. The freshest seed should always be preferred.
The quantity required in the broadcast method is
from 18 to 20 pounds to the acre ; but when drilled
in rows of 12 inches distant, 10 or 12 pounds are
sufficient; and in 9 inch rows, which are reckoned,
the most proper, from 12 to 16 pounds are neces-
sary.

Early sowing, as in the end of March for the south-
ern districts, and the beginning of the following
month in more northern situations, is recommend-
ed. When the plants are to be raised in a seed-bed,
the sowing sliould be as early as the frosts admit,
that they may be fit for transplanting in August.
Where the labour of weeding and hoeing the crop
cannot be perfectly executed, the broadcast method
of sowing may be adopted ; but where suitable at-
tention to keep the land in a clean condition can be
bestowed, drilling at narrow distances should be pre-
ferred. The practice of transjilanting can only be
had recourse to on a limited scale, and where the
soil is rich, that the plants may stand thin and re- •
gular, and may acquke a rich and vigorous growth.

The seed is sown either alone or with grain crops.
In deeper and richer soils, loss time is lost in pro-
curing green food, and there is a greater certainty of
obtaining a crop when it is sown alone ; but sowing
with corn, on lighter and more porous soils, affords
the young plants some protection in their early
growth ; and, according to some, the ravages of the
fl}' are in this way more effectually avoided. When
lucern is sown with grain, the quantity of seed ol' tlie
latter should be less than usual. Oats are consider-
ed a better crop to accompany lucern than barley,
because it is not so ap! to lodge, particularly when
it is sown thin. After the grain is sown and harrow-
ed in, the lucern seed is regularly distributed over
the surface, and covered in with a slight harrowing.
The depth should rot exceed two inches. When
the drill method is followed, the lucern seed is in-
serted in the same way immediately after the corn
has been deposited. The distance of the drills is
best regulated by tlie condition of the soil. On rich
soils, equal distances of a foot is considered sufficient,
while, on those of inferior fertility, nine inches only
are recommended. The seed soon vegetates, ap-
pears in the course of a week, and in a short time
spreads over the surface of the land. The sooner it
acquires the rough leaf, it is less liable to be injtired t

184

AGRICULTURE.

Gra«s lands, by the fl^' ; but in very dry seasons, when the growtli
' "~ "~" ' is slow, It is sometimes entirely destroyed ; and if it
be a single crop, the method recommended as the
most proper, is to plough the land, and sow it again
with fresh seed.

After-management. — When lucern is sown broad-
cast, little attention is necessary after the grain crop
has been removed, except keeping all kinds of heavy
stock from it ; but, in a dry season, it may be fed a
little by calves and other light stock. If grass ap-
pear alter the second cutting, in the following year,
It may be moderately harrowed in different direc-
tions, and the grass being collected, is removed from
the land. This operation should be performed early
in the spring ; and iir the succeeding years similar
•harrowings may be given in spring and in the end
of summer. When drilled, the soil is loosened in
the intervals, and hand-hoeing is required to extir-
pate the weeds ; and these operations are continued,
as often as may be necessary, during the succeeding
years of the crop. When the soil is not sufficiently
ferule, manure is sometimes necessary, and the best
is well rotted dung ; for other matters are apt to en-
courage the unnatural growth of grasses. While
some recommend a slight covering of manure an-
nually, in the spring season, others think it a better
practice to apply about 20 tons to the acre every five
or six years.

The culture of lucern is attended with great ex-
pence ; but as it is one of the earliest artificial gras-
ses, it is sometimes ready for the scythe about the
end of May, or beginning of June, and in favourable
soils it may be cut every five or six weeks during
the summer. As lucern affords a nutritious green
food, it is highly beneficial in soilir^g horses and cat-
tle, especially in cases where those animals form a
large proportion of the stock ; and it is not less im-
portant in the soiling of cows and other kinds of cat-
tle in the fold-yards, and in the feeding and fattening
of oxen ; but it ought to be recollected, that animals
feeding voraciously on lucern in its green state, es-
pecially when it is moist, are subject to be hoven or
blown, so that care is necessary to supply them with
moderate quantities at a time. Lucern is sometimes
preserved for hay ; but the most profitable applica-
tion of this crop is in its green state, for the purpose
of soiling live-stock.

Some other plants, as the winter and spring tare,
and different species of vetches, burnet, and chicory,
are also occasionally cultivated for the purpose of
green food for live-stock, or of being converted into
hay.

Sect. 11. Qf Natural Grasses.

The attention of agriculturists has been less direct-
ed to the history and properties of natural grasses, than
the importance of the subject demands. In the selec-
tion of the different grasses, the soil and situation best
adapted for their culture ; their character, as they are
more or less hardy ; their permanency in the soil, on
lands which are to be continued in pasture ; the a-
mount of produce which they afford, and the quan-
tity of nutritious matter which they contain, require
to be taken into consideration. Many useful and
curious facts have been established with regard to

the natural history and nutritious properties of the Cfasi Una»
grasses ; but observations and experiments are still
wanting fully to develope and ascertain the charac-
ter and valuable qualities of that useful tribe of plants,
to enable the husbandman to decide with certainty
on the preference to be given to each species, in dif-
ferent soils and situations.

The remarks of Curtis, in his Practical Observa-
tions on British Grasses, and the experiments of Mr
Sinclair on the comparative merits and value of the
different species and varieties of Grasses, an account
of which is given in an appendix to Sir Humphry
Davy's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, furnish
some useful information. In Mr Sinclair's experi-
ments, the difttirent grasses were cultivated on spots
of ground containing four square feet. They were
planted or sown, and the produce cut, collected, and
dried, in summer and autumn. To determine the
nutritive qualities of the different species, equal
weights of the dry grasses were acted upon by hot
water till their soluble parts were dissolved ; the so-
lution was evaporated to drj'ness with a gentle heat,
and the matter obtained carefully weighed. From
the works now noticed, the following observations
on the character and properties of some of the natu-
ral grasses are chiefly extracted.

Sweet scented vernal grass, anthoxanthum odora-
tum, is one of the earliest pasture grasses, and grows
in almost all situations, but it is not very productive.
It is eaten by horses, oxen, and sheep ; but when o-
ther grasses are found in the same pasture, it is left
untouched. The delicate flavour of hay is derived
from this fragrant grass. The produce of an acre
of a brown sandy loam, with manure, at the time of
flowering, amounted to 7827 pounds, 3 oz. ; 80 drs.
of the grass, when dried, aftbrded 21^ drs.; and 64 drs.
yielded 1 dr. of nutritive matter. When the seed is
ripe, the produce of an acre is 6125 lbs. 10 oz. ; 80
drams dried give 24 drs. ; and 64 drs. a&brd of nu-
tritive matter 3| drs. The after math produce of
an acre is 6806 lbs. 4 oz. ; and 64 drs. afford of nu-
tritive matter 2| drs.

Rough-stalked meadow grass, poa trivialis, is a
productive grass, and well calculated for pasturage
or hay. It is much relished by all animals. At the
time of flowering, the produce from an acre of light
brown loam, manured, was 7486 libs. 14 oz. ; 80 drs.
dried, afforded 24 drs. ; and 64 drs. yielded 2 drs. of
nutritive matter. The produce of the acre, when the
seed was ripe, was 7827 lbs. 3 oz. ; and 80 drs. dried
yielded 36 drs. ; and 64 drs. gave 2| drs. of nutritive
matter. The* produce of an acre of the after math
amounted to 4764 lbs. 6 oz. ; and 64 drs. gave 3 drs.
of nutritive matter. In this case, the crop, when the
seed is ripe, affords the greatest proportion both of
hay and of nutritive matter.

Smooth-stalked meadow grass, poa pratensis, is a
common grass in meadows, in dry banks, and on walls.
It is eaten by oxen and horses, but sheep prefer o-
ther grasses which are found in the same pasture.
At the time of flowering, the produce of an acre, on
a mixture of bog earth and clay, was 10209 lbs. 6 oz.;
80 drs. dried, gave 225 drs. ; and 64 drs. afforded
1 1 dr. of nutritive matter. When the seed is ripe,
the produce amounted to 8507 lbs. 13 oz.; 80 drs.

AGRICULTURE.

18J

CJtMs lands, dried nflbrded 3C dr«. ; and 61- dis. yielded 1 ; dr.
~ of nutritive matter. The produce oF the after nialli
was 4083 lbs. 12 oz. ; and 64 drs. gave 1^ dr. of nu-
tritive matter. From these experiments this grass
is of least value when the seed is ripe; and from the
superior value of the grass of the after-matli, com-
pared with that of the seed crop, it is well adapted
for permanent pasture.

Darnel, or rye, or ray grass, loUum peraine, is
preferred by sheep, in the early period of its growth,
to most other grasses, but when the seed approaches
to maturity it is rejected. The hay from this grass
is said, from its peculiar qualities, to be well adapted
to the feeding of race horses and hunters. At the
time of flowering, the produce from a rich brown
loam amounted to 7827 lbs. 3 oz. ; 80 drs. dried af-
forded 3'4- drs., and 64 drs. yielded 25 drs. of nutri-
tive matter. When the seed is ripe, the produce is
14973 lbs. 12 oz. ; 80 drs. of the grass dried gave
24 drs., and 64 drs. afforded 2| drs. of nutritive mat-
ter. The produce of the after-math was 3403 lbs. 2
oz. ; and 64 drs. afforded 1 dr. of nutritive matter.
The greatest quantity of nutritive matter is obtained
from this grass when the seed is ripe.

Meadow fescue, Jestuca pratensis, i.s an early, pe-
rennial, and hardy graas ; thrives well in almost all
soils, especially in rich meadows and pastures ; pro-
duces a sweet herbage ; affords excellent hay, and is
highly grateful to most animals. At the time of
flowering, the produce from a bog soil, manured with
coal ashes, amounted to 136121b. 8 oz. ; 80 drs. when
dried, afforded 38 drs., and 64 drs. gave 4J drs. of
nutritive matter. The produce, when the seed is
ripe, was 190.57 lbs. 8 oz. ; 80 drs. when dried af-
forded 32 drs , and 64 drs. gave 11 dr. of nutritive
matter. From these statements, it appears that tiiis
grass is most valuable when cut and dried at the time
of flowering.

Meadow foxtail, alopecurus pratensis, is an early and
roductive grass, vegetates quickly, and groMs very
uxuriantly. It is more relished by sheep and horses
than by oxen. It delights in a soil which is neither
too moist nor too dry. At the time of flowering, the
produce from a clayey loam is stated at 20,418 lbs.
12 oz. ; 80 drs. when dried yielded 24 drs., and 64
drs. gave 1 \ dr. of nutritive matter. The produce
from a sandy loam amounted to 8507 lbs. 13 oz. ; 80
drs. dried gave 24 drs., and 64 drs. yielded 1 dr. of
nutritive matter. When the seed is ripe, the produce
from the clayey loam was 12,931 lbs. 14 oz. ; 80 drs.
dried afforded 36 drs. ; and 64 drs. gave 2| drs. of
nutritive matter. The after-math produce from the
clayey loam was 8167 lbs. 8 oz., and 61' drs. g.ive 2
drs. of nutritive matter. In this case, the produce
from the clayey loam is nearly | greater than from a
sandy soil, and the crop of the latter is also of less
value.

Crested dog's-tail grass, cynoaiinis cristatnn, is a
useful grass in upland pastures, produces a thick,
short turf, and affords a wholesome food for sheep.
The South Down sheep, and deer, it is said, are very
fond of it, but it is neglected by the Welsh breed of
sheep. At the time of fioweiing, the produce from
brown loam, nir.nured, is slated at 6125 lbs. 10 «z.;

vol.. I. PAKT I.

lu:

80 drs. when dried, afforded 24 drs., and 64 drs. gave
4| drs. of nutritive matter. When the seed is ripe,
the produce amounted to 12,251 lbs. 4 oz. ; 80 drs.
dried gave 32 drs., and 64 drs. yielded 2' drs. of
nutritive matter.

Meadow soft grass, or Yorkshire white, hokus la-
nafus, is a common grass in almost all soils ; but it is
little relished by cattle, and the hay made from it is
also disliked. The produce of an acre of a strong
clayey loam, both at the time of flowering and when
the seed is ripe, amounted to 19,057 lbs. 8 oz. ; 80
drs. at the time of flowering, gave, when dried, 26
drs., but when the seed was ripe only 16 dr.o. ; and
64 drs. afibrded, at the time of flowering, 4 drs. of
nutritive matter ; but when the seed is ripe 2^ drs.
The weight of nutritive matter lost by leaving the
crop till the seed be ripe is nearly ^ of its value.

Meadow cat's tail, or Timothy grass, pMeunt pra-
tense, is readily eaten by all animals. It grows most
luxuriantly in a rich deep loam. It is extensively
cultivated, and in high repute, in the middle and
northern states of America ; but it is asserted by Mr
Curtis, that it possesses no superior excellence to
the meadow foxtail. At the time of flowering, the
produce from a clayey loam amounted to 40,837 lbs.
8 oz. ; 80 drs. dried afforded 34 drs., and 64 drs. gave
2J drs. of nutritive matter. At the time the seed is
ripe, the amount of produce is the same : 80 drs.
dried afforded 38 drs. and 64 drs. gave 5| drs. of
nutritive matter. The produce of the after-math is
stated at 9528 lbs. 12 oz. ; 64 drs. of grass afforded 2
drs. of nutritive matter, and 64 drs. of the straws
gave 7 drs. of nutritive matter ; so that the nutritive
qualities of the straw greatly exceed those of the
loaves.

Cock's foot, diicti/lis glome.rnta, is readily eaten by
oxen, horses, and sheep. The oxen continue to eat
the straws of the flowers from the time of flowering
till the seed is ripe. At the time of flowering, the
produce from! an acre of rich sandy loam is 27,905
lbs. 10 oz. ; 80 drs. dried gave .'54 drs., and 6-1- drs.
yielded 24 drs. of nutritive matter. At the time the
seed is ripe the produce is 26,544 lbs. 6 oz. ; 80 drs.
of grass afforded, when dried, 40 drs., and 64 drs.
gave 35 drs. of nutritive matter ; so that the weight
' of nutritive matter gained by leaving the crop till the
seed be ripe is more than J of its value. From a
comparison of the value of the after-math of t!ii*
grass, with that at the time of flowering, and when
the seed is ripe, it appears that the greatest advan-
tage is derived from it when it is closely crop-
ped, either with the scythe or cattle ; and, when ma»
naged in this way, it is regarded as a very valuable
grass.

Creeping bent grass, or fiorin, af^rosiis stolonifera,
is, in many cases, a very valuable grass, and was first
brought into notice by Dr Richardson, It suc-
ceeds best in a moist climate, or on a wet soil;
and on cold clay soils, which are unsuitable for
other grasses, it grows luxuriantly ; but in dry situ-
ations, and on light sands, the produce of this grass
is greatly diminished, from which it appears that all
soils and situations are by no means fitted for the cul-
ture of tUis grass, as has been loosely and indiscri-

A A

Crass land*.

186

AGRICULTURE.

CtsM lands, minatcly represented. Moist and warm sheltered
" " ' spots are probably the most appropriate for its vigo-
rous growth. It is readily eaten by horses, sheep,
and oxen. Presented in the state of hay to horses,
along with common hay, no marked preference ap-
peared ; but in a green state it was preferred to hay,
both by cows and horses. A very extraordinary pro-
duce has been obtained from a crop of this grass. In
one case, on a damp stiff clay, four square yards, cut
in tlie end of January, afforded 28 lbs. of fodder ; in
another case, the same space yielded 27 lbs. of grass.
In a trial made of this grass by Lady Hardwicke, 23
milk cows, a young horse, and a number of pigs,
were kept a fortnight on the produce of a single acre.
A similar abundant produce has been obtained from
this grass, in Ireland, where it was first cultivated,
aud in different places, both in the northern and sou-
thern districts of Britain. At the time of flowering,
the produce from an acre of bog soil amounted to
17,696 lbs. 4 oz.; 80 drs. when dried yielded 35 drs.,
and 61' drs. gave 3i drs. of nutritive matter. Wlien
the seed is ripe, the produce is stated at 19,057 lbs.
8 oz. ; 80 drs. dried afforded 36 drs., and 64 drs.
gave Si drs. of nutritive matter ; so that the weight
of nutritive matter which is lost by taking the crop
at the time of flowering is nearly a fourteenth of its
value.

Beside the natural grasses now enumerated, seve-
ral other plants, which arc the spontaneous produc-
tions of the piistures and meadows of this country,
may be added to the list ; as, hard fescuCj^erfMca du-
riasctda, which grows luxuriantly in almost all situa-
tions ; sheep's ieic\xe,Jesiuca ovina, a perennial grass,
which appears on dry, sandy soils, and is a favourite
I'ood with sheep ; float fescue, Jcstuca fluitans, wliich
grows in moist places, and sometimes even in the
water, forms a constituent part of some celebrated
meadows in England, and is greedily eaten by liorses
and cows ; red meadow graf s, poa aqimtka, shoots up
vigorously on the drained lands of Cambridgeshire
and Lincolnshire, and not only affords rich summer
pasturage for cattle, but forms the chief part of their
winter fodder ; water hair grass, aha aqucUica, to
which the fine flavour of Cambridge butter is ascrib-
ed, is generally found on the edges of pools and
standing waters ; liop clover, or hop trefoil, IrefoUum
procumbens, grows in dry pastures and meadows, and
is strongly recommended for laying down land to
grass, for when mixed with red clover, on light
soils, it affords excellent fodder ; red perennial clo-
ver, or cow grass, or marl grass, trefolium medium,
remains longer on the land than the common clover,
and rises spontaneously on calcareous soils; white or
Dutch clover, trefolium repens, thrives luxuriantly on
dry, sandy, or loamy soils, and sown with red clo-
ver and ray grass affords excellent hay ; rib grass,
plantago lancevlata, which produces abundance of
herbage on rich sands and loams, but doubts are en-
tertained of Its utility as a pasture grass, and there-
fore it seems to have fallen in estimation ; and Yar-
row,- Achillea mille/blitim , grows in almost every kind
of soil, is reckoned one of the most valuable pasture
grasses, from its remarkable property of resisting
drought in dry seasons, and is much relished by all
kin(\s of cattle, especially by sheep.

Sect. III. Of Laying d<m>n to Grass.

The previous tillage of land which is intended foe
the reception of grass seeds should be conducted in
the most perfect manner. As the seeds are small,
the soil should be in the most friable state, either by
the frequent repetition of the operations of plough-
hig, liarrowing, a;ul rolling, innnediately after the
insertion of the grass crop, or by the frequent inter-
position of green fallow crops. But beside this me-
chanical preparation of the soil, it is not less requi-
site that It should be in a high state of fertility, ci-
ther by the liberal application of manure to some of
the preceding crops in the rotation, or what is re-
commended as the best practice, to that crop which
is immediately succeed^id by the grass. It is not less
useful that lands intended for grass should be per-
fectly free from all kinds of weeds.

The furrows and ridges of grass lands, where tlie
soil is of a light, porous, and dry nature, may be en-
tirely obliterated, and die surface rendered smooth
and even, by which the future operations in tJie
grass management are greatly facilitated; but in soils
which have a tendency to moisture, ridges of 6, 8,
or 10 yards broad, with slight furrows, may be
formed.

The selection of the proper kinds of seed is a
iKiatter of great importance in laying down lands to
the state of grass. The peculiar habits of the plants,
and the soils and situations to which they are best
suited, are to be taken into consideration. The re-
quisite proportion of seed also demands some atten-
tion. A larger proportion is found necessary for lands
which have been long in the state of tillage, which
are in cold exposed situations, and which arc intend-
ed for pasture. No precise rules can be given, with
regard either to the kind or quantity of grass-seeds
which are best suited to different soils. The follow-
ing have been suggested by the most approved wri-
ters on this subject.

Clayey soils For such soils, the following kinds

and proportions are recommended. Marl or cow
grass 5 lbs. ; trefoil 5 lbs. ; crested dog's-tail 10 lbs;
meadow fescue 1 bushel ; meadow fox-tail 1 bushel ;
or if the three last cannot be got, meadow soft grass,
or Yorkshire white 2 bushels ; meadow cat's-Uiil or
Timothy grass 4 lbs. ; or meadow cat's-tail 4 lbs.,
and Yorkshire vihite 1 bushel. On heavy kinds
of land, which is to be broken up in a year or
two, from 10 to 14 lbs. of red clover may be add-
ed; but if they are to remain in permanent grass,
marl or cow grass, from 4 to 6 lbs. and white clover

4 lbs.

Loamy soils. — The following proportions arc re-
commended as suitable for such soils : White clover

5 lbs ; crested dog's-tafl 10 lbs. ; ray grass 1 peck ;
meadow fescue grass 3 pecks; meadow fox-tail 3
pecks ; Yarrow 2 pecks. Where the second cannot
be had, ray grcss 1 peck, rib grass 4 lbs ; and as
substitutes for the last three, meadow soft prr.ss, or
Yorkshire white, lialf a bushel, meadow cat's-tail or
Timothy grass 4 lbs., marl or cow grass 5 lbs. Oa
all dry soils, white clover 4 lbs., marl or cow grass
from "i to 6 lbs. and yellow clover, from 2 to 4 lbs.

AGRICULTURE.

18T

sthndt. For permnnent pasture, white clover, marl, or cow-
^"V^^ grass, and yoliow clover, from 6 to 7 lbs. each,
with ray grass one bushel.

Sandy soili.. — On this kind of soil some recom-
mend white clover 7 lbs. ; trefoil 5 lbs.; Burnet fj lbs.;
ray grass 1 peck; Yarrow 1 bushel; or, instead of the
last, rib grass 4 lbs., ray grass 1 peck. But on such
.soils, others, guided by experience, employ white
clover and trefoil in the proportion of 5 lbs. each,
with a bushel of ray grass, and the same quantity of
collected grass seeds, to the acre.

Chalky soils. — For such soils the following quanti-
ties are recommended: Burnet 10 lbs.; trefoil 5 lbs.;
white clover 5 lbs. ; Yarrow 1 bushel, or in its place
ray grass 1 bushel. Others advise, for the same kind
of soil, rib grass 8 lbs., white clover and marl or
cow grass each 4 lbs., and yellow trefoil 4 lbs.

Peaty soils The following proportions succeed

well on this kind of soil : White clover 10 lbs. ; cres-
ted dog's tail 10 lb. ; ray grass 1 peck ; meadow fox-
tail and meadow fescue, 2 pecks each ; Timothy
grass 1 peck ; or, in place of the second, fourth, and
fifth, meadow soft grass 6 pecks, rib grass 5 lbs.
marl or cow-grass 4 lbs.

Laying down land for the purpose of meadow, the
following proportions are recommended for the mois-
ter kinds of soil. Meado.v fox-tail and niemlow fes-
cue, each 2-'- pecks ; crested dog's-tail and vernal
grass, each * peck ; rough stalked and smooth stalk-
ed meadow grass, each l-i peck; white and red clo-
ver, each from 1 to 2 quarts: but for lands of a wet-
ter description, the crested dog's-tail and smooth
stalked meadow-grass, may be omitted. The pre-
vailing grasses of the Orcheston meadow, near Sa-
lisbury, which has been long celebrated for luxuriant
herbage, are chiefly common meadow grass, poa tri-
vialis ; marsh bent grass, agrostis pahistris ; meadow
fox-tail, alopecurits prateusis ; but in speaking of
grasses proper for meadows the florin ought not to
be omitted, from which, in favourable situations, an
abundant produce may be always expected.

Smving grass seeds. — Grass seeds are sown in the
spring, along with the grain crops, or in harvest, af-
ter the ground has been well prepared by means of
some green or fallow crop. Some diversity of opinion
prevails with regard to the preference which ought to
be given to these periods of sowing. Each probably
has its peculiar advantages, arising from the climate
and situation, as the winter is more or less severe, and
from the state of the soil, as it is more or less expos-
ed to wetness. As land is always in a fine state of
preparation for barley, this crop is peculiarly favour-
able to accompany grass seeds ; and wliere a selec-
tion is liermitted, that kind of barley which runs least
to straw, and is earliest ripe, should be preferred.
The equal distribution of the grass seeds is of great
importance, so that the lighter kinds should not be
sown in windy weather, except by means of a ma-
chine, which not only distributes the seeds uni-
formly and equally, but being surrounded by a kind
of curtain, v.hich j^rotects the seeds from the action
of the wind; the sowing process may be perfectly ac-
complished at all times. The seeds are covered m
with a pair of light, short-tined-harrows. Bush-har-
rowing is improper, because the seeds are collected

into thick patcJies. The Use of a light toiler, after Groa land*
liarrowing the lighter and more porous soils, is bene- ^^^/"^
ficial.

Ajler-management — When the crop is removed,
rolling with an implement of moderate weight is rer
commended, particularly for lighter soils. Some ad-
vise manure to be applied at the same time, but if
the laud be in a proper degree of fertility, this ap-
plication is unnecessary ; and it may be observed, that
where top-dressings are at any time required for
grass lands, the manure employed should be in suiU
a state of division as to enable it to fall down among
tlie plants, and mix immediately with llie soil. Whei*
grass lands are intended for permanent pasture, early
feeding down with cattle, or some kind of stock, for
the purpose of producing a thick sward, is sometimes
resorted to ; but when this is judged necessary,
if there be any risk of breaking the surface, and
])oaching the land, every kind of stock should be at
all times excluded. Spring feeding with ewes and
lambs is thought by some the most beneficial prac-
tice, and, in some places, feeding entirely with sheep
is continued for the first two years. The mowing of
such grass lands as are too moist to admit the tread-
ing of live stock without injury, greatly promotes
the closeness and fineness of the sward ; but the pre-
caution should be attended to, of using the scythe,
before the grass runs to seed.

Ant-hills, &c. — Ant-hills are injurious to grass
lands, not only as occupying part of the soil, but by
obstructing the operation of the scythe. The usual
method of removing them is, by dividing the cover-
ing of sward into four parts from the top, a)id then
digging to such a depth as to separate the whole
nest of the insects, so that when the turf is re-
placed, it may be rather lower than the surface of
the land. This renders the spot somewhat moist,
and prevents the ants from returning to it. That part
of the soil which is removed from the hillock, is ei-
ther scattered on the field, or carried oft' to be mixed
up with compost manure. Another method of de-
stroying ant-hills is to cut them up in irregular
lumps, and turning the grass side downwards till the
mould be dry, and then exposing the surface to the
air, till the whole be so dry as to burn readily. A
fire is kindled with brushwood, and kept smothering,
by gradually laying on the sods or lumps, till 10 or
20 loads of ashes are raised in one heap. In this
way a nuisance is removed, and a valuable manure is
obtained. Mole-hills are also extremely injurious to
grass-lands ; but this nuisance is generally removed
by persons who practise the business as a separate
profession, and who are well acquainted with the ha-
bits of the animal by which they are occasioned.

Sect. IV. Of Meadmxi.

Grass lands, which come under the denomination
of meadows, are in low or moist situations, and are
usually reserved for the production of hay. Sudi
lands as may be profitably kept in the state of mea-
dow, are in the vicinity of rivers or brooks, which
admit of the essential improvement of irrigation, by
which the amount of their produce is greatly aug-
mented. Good meadow land should have a sufficient,
depth of soil, to prevent the roots of grasses to pe-

188

AGRICULTURE.

Crass landi. nclratc beyond the reach of the summer heat, and
the soil should be sufficiently retentive to hold water
long enough to encourage and promote the growth of
the plants, while the under-soil possesses that degree
of openness, to allow the water to pass off before the
roots are injured.

In the management of meadow lands, the stagna-
tion of water should be prevented, by which the
growth of various noxious weeds is promoted, to the
great injury of the herbage crop. Manure is applied
to such lands at various intervals ; in some places it
is laid on in October, when the land is sufficiently
dry to bear loaded carts ; and in others, the applica-
tion is made after the hay is removed. Rolling mea-
dow land is highly beneficial ; this operation is ge-
nerally performed towards the end of February, or
the beginning of the succeeding month, but it should
never be had recourse to til! the land be sufficiently
dry.

Irrigation. — Great benefits are derived to meadow
lands from the occasional and judicious application
of water. Soils of a sandy or gravelly nature are the
most suitable for this operation. Even strong ad-
hesive soils are improved by watering, and lands
which throw up coarse plants, as heath or rushes, are
rendered more productive of useful herbage.

The verdure, luxuriance, and increased produce,
which are the consequence of the occasional co-
vering of grass lands with water, afford the most de-
cided proofs of the beneficial effects of irrigation.
Some of the advantages of this operation are to be
sought in the enriching materials, whether of a ve-
getable or mineral nature^ which are deposited by
the water; but the protection of the roots of the grass
and other plants, during the severity of the cold of
the winter and spring, is stated as another advantage
of floating the land. Sir Humphry Davy examined
the temperature in a water meadow in Berkshire,
and while the thermometer in the air at seven in the
morning stood at 29°, and the water was frozen above
the grass, the temperature of the soil among the
roots of the grass was 4S°.

The time of watering meadows is from November
to the beginning of March. In some districts it is
the practice to allow the water to flow for several
weeks together,' with an occasional interval of a day
or two, while in others the flooding is performed by
alternate weeks. The floating is usually suspended
during frost, and as the spring advances the appli-
cation of the water is diminished. The sandy, gra-
velly, and drier kinds of land require the flooding to
be continued a shorter time tiian upon stronger soils.
The duration for the first watering in November is
from three to six weeks ; in December and Febru-
ary the water should be allowed to flow off for a few
days, and in the latter month it should not be per-
mitted to continue many days together without be-
ing removed, that the danger of the scum settling
on the surface may be avoided. Exposure to frost,
when the ground is wet, is injurious; this inconve-
nience is obviated by removing the water in the
day, and flooding through the night.

In the southern districts, the grass is usually suffi-
ciently luxuriant in March to admit the feeding stock ;
but a fortnight at least should elapse after the water

is turned off, that the ground may acquire a sufficient Grass lauds,
firmness before they are turned in. The grass may
be eaten close in April, but no later, otherwise the
hay crop may be diminished. The lands arc again
flooded in iVIay for a few days after being fed down,
by which means the produce of hay is greatly aug-
mented. But for a fuller detail of the advantages of
irrigation, and of the method of conducting the ope-
ration, the reader may consult Boswell on Watered
Meadows ; Wright on Floating Meadows ; or Johnr
stone's Treatise on Draining and Irrigation.

iVarping. — This is a provincial term for the opera-
tion of improving land, by admitting the tide waters
of rivers near the sea, or of rivers with a slow cur-
rent, in flat inland situations, for the purpose of de-
positing the earthy and organic matters, to which
the name of warp is given, on the surface of the
land. In conducting the operation of warping, the
water must be completely at command, that it may
be excluded or admitted at pleasure. The land to
be warped is embanked against the river ; a canal is
formed which communicates with it, and has a sluice
at the mouth, which is opened or shut as may be
necessary. Another opening is made at the lower
part of the warped land, to permit the water to flow
gently off. This process must be extremely limited
for the improvement of grass lands, for the quantity
of matter deposited would soon cover and destroy
the herbage crop. The object of the operation, it is
properly stated, is rather to create a new soil ; and
this is sometimes effected in a single summer, from
six to sixteen inches in thickness, and in all cases of
a very fertile quality. The practice of warping usu-
ally commences in the month of June, and is carried
on throughout the summer ; in winter, and during
the floods, the operation ceases. It is extensively
prosecuted on the banks of the Ouse and Trent, and
it may be adopted on all low lands adjoining to ri-
vers, the waters of which are often loaded with mud.

Sect. V. Of Hay-making.

In determining the proper time for cutting grass
crops intended for hay, attention is necessary to that
state of growth and ripeness which affords the lar-
gest amount of produce, and at the same time the
most nutritious fodder. Early and late cutting are
equally to be avoided ; as, in the one case, a great
loss in drying, from the green condition of t^ie crop,
is sustained ; and in the other, its nutritious quality is
exhausted. The experiments which have been de-
tailed in Section II. from which the quantity of nu-
tritive matter, at the time of flowering and when the
seed is ripe, is ascertained, may assist in fixing the
most suitable time for cutting down the grass crop,
by a reference to the comparative quantities of the
whole produce, and of the nutritive matter which it
contains at the difierent periods. Cutting down the
grass crop should rarely be delayed beyond the time
that it is in full flower ; for when it is thick upon the
ground, the lower leaves become yellow, induce a
tendency to rotting, or communicate a disagreeable
'flavour ; the seed stems become hard and wirey, and
the produce of the after-grass is greatly diminished.

In cutting down the grass crop, the scythe should
be kept perfectly level, and as close to the ground as

agriculture;

1S9

Grasslands, possible, while the swaths are well pointed out, and
■vj^'V"^ scarcely any ridges are left uuder tlieni. More at-
tention is requisite in cutting the rowen, or second
crop, because it is lighter. When it can be accom-
plished, crops of this kind should be cut when the
dew is upon them, and as soon as there is a tolerable
drought ; for, by delay, the unfavourable weather re-
tards the progress of hay-making.

Ray-grass and cluver. — As the tibject of hay-mak-
ing is not to bring the grass to that, dry and wither-
ed state in which it would break and crumble down
with the slightest handling, but to allow the super-
fluous moisture to be exhaled, which would be inju-
rious to its preservation, when laid up in heaps, it is
of importance that the different operations be speed-
ily performed, and with as little exposure of the crop
to the air as possible. Various modes of conducting
these operations have been pursued. The tbllowing
is found fully to answer the purpose. When the
swath is thorougidy dry above, it is carefully turned
ever, without breaking or separating ; and in favour-
able weather, the grass, which is turned over in the
morning is put into cocks in the afternoon. This
work is generally executed by women and children,
under the direction of a superintendant. When the
crop is heavy, a row of cocks is formed in the mid-
dle ridge of three, and if the crop be light, of live
ridges. To every such number of ridges, a distinct
number of carriers and rakers is appointed. The
carriers collect the hay, and carry it to the ridge
where the cock is built ; a raker follows, raking up
and bringing to the cocks the remainder of the swath.
Five persons are usually required for each row of
cocks, a carrier and raker on each side of tlie ridge,
beside the builder ; but when the crop is less weighty,
as it is spread over a larger space, a greater number
of rakers is necessary.

As the drying process proceeds, two or more
cocks are formed into one, and the larger cocks may
be speedily drawn together by ropes thrown round
the bottom, and dragged along by a horse, for the
purpose of being put into tramp-ricks. In some
cases, the cocks were put up of such a size that they
were carted directly to the stack-yard without being
broken, and put up in alternate layers with old hay ;
but it is not safe to practise this method, where the
proportion of clover is considerable. By mixing the
new hay with the old, much time and labour are sav-
ed, and the old hay is greatly improved.

Another, mode The method of making hay by

what is provincially called tippling or rippling, first
practised in Lancashire, lias been introduced into the
western districts of Scotland. The operation com-
mences as soon as the crop is cut down. In making
a tipple, a person with his right-hand rolls the swath
onwards until he has a small bundle. The same is
then done with the left till both meet, and form about
eight or 12 lbs. weight. The bundle is set up between
the feet ; a rope is twisted of the grass, and tied '
round the rop of the bundle, and from the top are
drawn a few straggling stems, which are twisted to
give the tipple a conical shape. For a strong crop, a
row of tipples is requisite to eacli swath ; but when it
is light, two swaths are put into one row. After
Standing a few hours, they become so smooth on the

outside, that they are rarely wet tlirough by the Grass laad».

heaviest rains; and when they are wet, they are soon

dried on the return of good weather. As seon as

they are ready, they are put into the summer-rick, or

if they are very dry they are carried directly fo the

winter stack ; and as they are never opened out, or

tedded, not a blade is lost, and the hay retains its

green colour and rich fragrance. Hay put up in this

manner is perfectly secure, although the duration cF

wet weather should be considerable.

Meadoiv-hay, — As the hay crop is of great impor-
tmce on lands in the vicinity of the metropolis, wlrt-re
the 'consumption is large, much attention has been
paid to the method of curing and preserving it. A
very improved and successful system of managing this
branch of rural economy has been introduced into
Middlesex, and is minutely described by iMr Mid-
dleton in his Report of that County.

In the operations of the first day, all the grass cuf
before nine o'clock in the morning is tedded or spread'
out evenly over the whole surface of the ground. It \s
soon afterwards turned, and if the number of hands
be sufficient, the whole is teraed again before 12 or
1 o'clock. It is then raked into single wind-rows,
at the distance of three feet ; and the last operation
of the day is to collect it into grass-cocks. Next day,
all the grass that was cut the preceding day after
nine o'clock, and all that is mown this day before
tiiat hour, is spread out ; the grass-cocks are theff
shaken out into staddles, or separate plats of five or
six yards in breadth. When the crop is thin, and the'
spaces between the staddles rather large, they are
immediately raked clean, and the rakings are mixed
with the other hay, that the whole may dry equally,
and have a uniform colour. The staddles are next
turned, and afterwards the grass which was tedded
in the first part of the morning, once or twice, as on
the first day. All these operations are executed be-
fore 12 or 1 o'clock, that the wliole may be allowed
to dry while the people are at dinner. The staddles
are next raked into double wind-rows, which is done
by every two persons raking the hay towards each
other, and forming a row beiween them of double
the size of the single wind-rows, which are at six or
eight feet distant from each other. The grass is
afterwards raked into single wdnd-rows ; the double
wind -rows are put into bastard cocks, and the
single wind-rows are formed into grass cocks, which
concludes the business of the second day. On
the third day, the grass cut and not spread the
day before, as well as that cut in the early part
of this day, is spread out ; the grass cocks are
thrown out into staddles, and the bastard cocks
into staddles of smaller extent. The njirrow staddles,
though last spread out, are first turned, then those
which were in grass cocks, and last of all the grass
is turned once or twice before 12 or 1 o'clock. In
sunny weather, the hay which was last night in bas-
tard cocks is this afternoon fit to be carried ; and, if
this be the case, the first operatinn after dinner is to
rake that which was in grass cocks last night into
double wind-rows, and afterwards the grass which
was this morning spread from the swaths into single
wind-rows. The hay which was last night in bastard
cocks, is made up into full sized cocks. The hay

190

AGRICULTURE.

'CfAwlnndi. should be raked clean, and the rakings put upon the
' — "^ ' top of each cock. The double wind-rows are then
put up into bastard cocks, and the single ones into
grass cocks, as in the preceding days. On the
fourth day, the great cocks are mostly carried be-
fore dinner, and the other rpcrations are similar
to those of the former days ; tliev are conducted
in the same order, and continued dally, till the wlfole
be finished.

For the purpose of abridging, labour in the opera-
tions of liay-niaking, and of collecting the hay spee-
dily together in bad weather, different implements
liave been invented. The hay-sweep is so construct-
ed as to be drawn by two or tour horses, according
to its size, and is maiuigcd by two boys, one of whom,
mounted on one of the horses, drives each pair. On
level ground, nothing more is necessary than to break
and turn up the rows of hay in different places, to
allow the machine to operate ; but wlien the ridges
are high, and the surface unequal, the hay is raised
by means of a fork, justybefore the machine, that it
may catch and sweep it along. The hay-sledge em-
ployed in Yorkshire, is said to be a preferable ma-
chine, because it operates with more facility on un-
even surfaces ; and where there is a deficiency of
hands, the hay-turner, invented by Mr Salmon, and
desci'ibed in the preceding chapter on implements,
may be found useful in spreading and turning the
liay crop.

Stacking bay. — In stacking hay, it is recommend-
ed to have staddies, by which the communication
with the ground is cut oft', and the access of mois-
ture to the lower parts of the stack prevented. An
oblong square is the best form ; and about 24 feet by
\\ or 15, is a convenient size. The business of stack-
ing hay is best performed while there is a full sun
especially in indift'erent seasons, for in such circum-
stances it is greatly improved. To prevent the hay
from heating, various contrivances, as holes, pi}>es,
and chimneys, have been resorted to, for the purpose
of allowing a circulation of air; but where it can be
done, it Ts better to avoid such openings, as the hay
round them is found to be injured by attracting the
moisture of the stack.

Improved hay-rick. — Mr Chambers of Stratford
Place, in a comnmnication to the Board of Agricul-
ture, has proposed a new method of constructing a
hay-rick, by whicli the danger of hay taking fire,
from being put up too green, is avoided, and other
benefits are obtained. A channel or gutter, a loot
wide, and a foot deep, is cut through the ground
which is marked out for the rick, and two channels
are cut transversely, dividing tiie rick lengthwise in-
to three parts. Two chimneys, like the common
hay funnels, reach to the points of intersection of the
longitudinal and transverse channels. The channels
are previously covered, except where the chimneys
terminate. The chimneys arc drawn up as the rick
is built, so that they form a conmmnication from the
bottom to the top of the rick, and by means of the
channels, from two points on each side, and from one
at each end ; and hence, from whatever quarter the
wind blows, a constant current of air is kept up.
The cliinaneys arc thatched over when the heat sub-
sides.

The advantages of this mode of construction arc, Grass lanJ ;
that the hay may be carried a day earlier, by which s^V^^
it is less exposed to the weather ; the expence of a
day's labour is saved, the weight of the hay is great-
er, and the exhalations of moisture not being allow-
ed to accumulate, the risk of the hay taking fire is
obviated. INIr Chambers formed a rick of clover,
consisting of 90 loads ; and he thinks that 20 per
cent of the present expence attending ha3'-making
may be saved. It is reconmiended to construct corn
ricks in the same way.

Agricultural therniometer.— When the danger of
heating, or of actual combustion, is apprehended, the
usual method of observing the changes of tempera-
ture is, by thrusting a stick into the stack ; but, as
the result of this experiment is vague and uncertain,
the increase or diminution of heat can be precisely
ascertained by means of a thermometer invented by
Mrs Levi of Edinburgh. This thermometer is so
constructed, that it can be introduced into the stack,
and the precise temperature discovered before it be
withdrawn ; and in this way the progress of the in-
jury can be watched, and the necessity of turning
over the stack distinctly indicated. If the tempera-
ture increase rapidly, and to a high degree, combus-
tion may be dreaded, and the means of prevention
nmst be expeditiously adopted ; but if the tempera-
ture, after several trials at short intervals, shall ap-
pear to be on the decline, tlie labour and expence of
opening up the stack may be avoided.

Sect. VI. Of Pasture Lands.

Under this head are included such lands as are
retained in the state of grass for a limited time, and
form part of the rotation with grain crops ; such as
are kept permanently under an herbage crop ; and
such whose inequality of surface, or elevation, pre-
cludes all tillage operations whatever.

The general directions, which are applicable to alh
pasture lands, refer to manuring in the way of top-
dressing, when that is necessary ; the extirpation of
weeds; the removal of ant and mole-hills; the period
of admitting live-stock in the spring, and of exclud-
ing them in the autumn ; the quantity of stock in-
troduced, and whether they should be all of the same
or of different species ; the advantages anu disadvan-
tages of feeding close, and the siiTe and number of in-
closures. In some of the best grazing counties of Eng-
land, moderate sized inclosures are })referrcd ; and
Mr Marshall recommends, that in all cases where
fattening cattle or dairy cows form part of the stock,
and where situation, soil, and water permit, every
suite of grazing grounds should consist of three com-
partments ;^^ne for head-stock, as cows or liittening
cattle ; one for followers, as rearing and other lean
stock ; and the third to be shut up to freshen for the
leading stock. A copious supply of water in every
inclosure is of great importance to every kind of
stock ; and, in the formation of drinking pools, the
attention should be directed to construct them in
such a manner, that there may be no danger of young
animals falling into them. The time of opening pas-
tures in the spring must be regulated by the pro-
gress of the season. Old pastures may be stocked
earlier thaa new formed grass grounds. Different

AGRICULTURE.

IPl

lire Stock, kinds of Stock are recommended for the same pas-
ture, because the herbage which seems to be dislik-
ed and rejected by one species is eaten up by ano-
ther. Although the greatest injury to pasture grounds
arises from over-stocking, yet close feeding is, in
many cases, advantageous, not onlj' in preserving a
fine close sward, hut also in keeping down the coars-
er herbage, which otherwise might soon exclude
much of the sweeter kinds of grass.

The general management of hilly or upland pas-
tures, which are too rugged or too elevated to be
brought under arable culture, is directed to draining,
inclosing, and sheltering ; and it seems probable that
much of the land of this description is susceptible of
great improvement by these operations judiciously
conducted.

Chap. VIII. Of Live-Stock.

The returns to the agriculturist are derived from
the grain crops raised on the possession, the produce
of the dairy, or from the animals reared and fatten-
ed for the market. Local circumstances, no doubt,
usually regulate the extent to which these difterent
branches of rural economy are carried. Where a-
rable culture is practised, working stock becomes
necessary ; and the productions of the dairy, to a
certain extent, and some portion of animal food, are
consumed by the family and servants of the occupier.
The addition of manure to the exhausted soil, is an
essential requisite ; and this can only be obtained
from the consumption of straw and green crops by
live-stock. To conduct the whole of this complicat-
ed arrangement, demands great attention ; and no
small degree of skill and sagacity is required in se-
lecting the best breeds of animals, whetiier for the
purpose of labour, of the dairy, or of fattening ; in
selecting such as shall afford the most ample returns
at the smallest expence, and in directing the mode
of feeding and management to the most abundant
production of manure. Mutually aiding and depen-
dent on each ether, the combination of the different
departments of rural economy, in such proportion
and extent as the soil, situation, and demands of the
market admit, undoubtedly holds out the best and
most profitable system for the occupation of land.
In tlie following sections we propose briefly to treat
of the more important domestic animals connected
with rural affairs.

Sect. I. Of Horses.

Among domestic quadrupeds, the extensive utility
and various excellencies of the horse, entitle him to
the preference ; and in estimating the qualities which
render him valuable tor agricultural puqjoses,
strength, hardiness, activity, and true draught, are
the chief points of attention. These properties exist
in the Lanarkshire or Clydesdale breed of horses,
the Suffolk punches, and the Cleveland bays. The
Clydesdale horse is remarkable for his strength, and
is peculiarly adapted for hilly countries ; the Suffolk
punch-sorrels, so called from their colour, are con-
sidered as the best cart horses in England, and are
well fitted for undergoing long continued labour;
and the Cic.vekud bays, wluch arc reared in Dur-

ham, Northumberland, and Yorkshire, are of large ijrc Sioc)».
size and fine mould, and possess great strength and
activity. The Highlands of Scotland, and the moun-
tains of Wales, produce a peculiar kind of small
horses called poneys, which are reared with advan-
tage in these coarse pastures, are much esteemed for
neatness of shape and agility of motion, and are ex-
tremely hardy and sure-footed.

Breeding — Farmers sometimes find it advantage-
ous to rear their own Imrses, because the animals,
when they are accustomed to the climate and pw-
ture, are less liable to disease. Breeding mares may
be gently worked for the sake of exercise, and ought
to be well fed, and kept in good condition at all sea-
sons, otherwise their offspring is apt to be weak and
unhealthy. It is of great importance that the foal
be not dropt too late in the season. Foals may be
allowed to run with the mothers till September or
October, or even later, in a mild season. When
they are weaned, they should be kept in a stable,
with a low rack and manger. Sweet hay, after-math,
green clover, bruised barley or oats, bran and bar-
ley dust, are the best kinds of food for young foals.
Foals should be carefully protected from cold and
wetness ; but it is highly beneficial, in mild weather,
to admit them for a few hours daily into a dry and
sweet pasture, where water is in abundance, and ea-
sily accessible. By this management, the young
animal acquires habits of gentleness and docility, is
more easily trained, and submits move quietly to la-
bour. A horse intended for breeding should not be
employed in work till he is 4 years old ; no stallion
ought to be kept for this purpose beyond the age of
18, and no mare should be allowed to breed after
that period. Some experienced breedei-s are of opi-
nion, that colts castrated at the age of three months,
run less risk of inflammation than at a more advanc-
ed age ; but, on the other hand, it is supposed, that
by deferring the operation to the age of 18 months,
or two years, the animals retain a greater degree of '
health and spirit.

Feeding The feeding of horses must always be

an important object. Experience has amply shewn,
that soiling with clover, tares, lucern, or other
green food, instead of turning them out to grass,
not only preserves them in the best condition, but is,
at the same time, the most economical system of '
management. When they are well littered, the ma-
nure which is prepared almost repays the expence
of their feeding. As winter food, carrots and Swe-
dish turnip are cheap and' excellent substitutes for
oats. The use of carrots, it is said, is peciUiarly be-
neficial in recovering broken-winded horses, provid-
ed the disease be not of too long duration. The
best method of using grain for the food of horses is
by bruising or boiling it; and hay or straw cut into
chaff', potatoes, steamed or boiled, and mixed with a
portion of bruised barley and barley-dust, are far
less e;:pensive than hay and corn, as winter food,
while they are equally e£Scient in keeping them in i
good condition.

Stables. — Close stables, witb separate stalls, where
each horse can feed and repose without risk of being
annoyed or disturbed, are recommended by some,
while sheds with an opea front, and furnished with i

192

AGRICITLTURE.

livestock, a low manger and cattle rack, are considered by
^^^^y—m^ others as affording sufficient^ protection. During
mild weather, and in a sheltered situation, this sys-
tem of management is highly conducive to tlie health
of the animals. They thrive better, are less suscep-
• tible of cold, are supposed to arrive at a greater age,
and to continue longer fit far labour than when they
are confined and shut up in warm stables.

Sect. II. Of Cattle.

The wild breed of cattle, which are now confined
^to Chillingham Park, in Northumberland, and Ha-
milton wood, in Lanarkshire, are supposed to be the
origin of all the varieties which at present exist in
Britain. The flesh of these animals is distinguished
by its fine quality and exquisite flavour. Thisbrq^
is remarkable for elegance and beauty of form ; am^
with the exception of the muzzle and extremity of
the tail, the tips of the horns and hoofs, which are
black, the colour is uniformly of the purest white.

The Devonshire breed is descended from this race.
They are of a light red colour, have fine skins, are
not large in size, but are hardy and well fitted for
the draught, are not great milkers, but fatten early.
The Hereford and Sussex cattle are nearly of the
fame colour, and possess similar properties, but af-
ford greater abundance of richer milk. The Dutch
or short-horned breed, which are much esteemed in
the eastern counties of Britain, yield large quantities
of rich milk and fine butter, fatten kindly, but are
of a delicate constitution. The Lancasbire breed is
distinguished by long horns, thick hides, long close
hair, coarse thick necks, and large hoofs ; thny are
of various colours, but have generally a white streak
along t'le back; they are of a hardy character ; they
milk sparingly, but the produce throws up a very
rich cream. The celebrated Dishley breed is an im-
proved variety of the I<ancashire cattle. Their chief
characteristics are, that they are smaller and cleaner
boned, and fatten early and kindly, but the quantity
of milk and tallow is deficient.

The Galloway breed, so named from the county
in Scotland where they are chiefly reared, or the
polled breed, as tliey have no horns, are in much re-
pute among the English graziers, who annually pur-
chase vast numbers for the supply of the markets of
South Britain. They fatten well, and their flesh is
of an excellent quality. This breed has been intro-
duced into Suffolk, and are known by the name of
Suffolk duns. The abundance and richness of their
milk render them highly valued as dairy cows. The
Dunlop or Ayrshire breed, so denominated from the
name of the parish and county in which they were
first reared, are supposed to be the ofispring of Al-
derney cows and Fifeshire bulls. Tliey are of small
size, of a mixed red and white colour, and are more
valued for the quality than the quantity of milk
which thoyaiford ; but they continue to milk with
little diminution, excepting about six weeks or two
months, throughout the year. The Highland breed,
or Kyioes, a hardy race, are chiefiy reared in the
.Western Highlands, from which they arc sent in
vast herds to the soutiiwards to stock the rich pas-
tures of England, and to be fattened for the market,
^here the delicacy and flavour of bhcir fleah have

brought them info great demand. The Isle of Skye Ure Stock,
breed is a small variety of the kyioes, remarkable for
its speedy fattening.

fUairing. — In rearing live-stbck of all descriptions,
■ it ought to be an invariable rule to breed from small
boned, straight backed, kindly skinned, round bo-
died, or barrel-shaped animals, with clean necks and
throats, and little or no dewlap ; and while the car-
case is deep and broad, the least valuable parts, as
the head and bones, should be small. In the selec-
tion of live-stock, such as have been accustomed to
rich pastures should not be confined to those of an
inferior quality, wb.ere they are apt to fall off, and
occasion material loss. Animals of a quiet and do-
cile temper, requiring less food, and being more
easily fattened, ought to be preferred ; and the va-
luable quality of early maturity, which is remarkable
in some breeds, is too important to be overlooked.
In the management of cows which are kept for
breeding, it is to be observed, that about a month or
six weeks previous to the time of calving they should
be abundantly supplied with the richest kind of food.
By this management, it is found that a larger quan-
tity of milk is obtained than when they are fully fed
for a longer period. For a day or two after the cow
has dropt her calf, her drink should be only luke-
warm water, and she ought to be little exposed to
cold or wet. The hardness of the udder may be re-
moved by frequent milking, at least three or four times
a day, and oftener if necessary, and by occasional
gentle rubbing with soft ointment ; but fomentation
with flannel cloths, wrung out of liot water, and ap-
plied as warm as the animal will bear it, is probably
a speedier and more effectual remedy.

Feeding andjattening Livq-stock are supported

by grazing in pasture lands ; by soiling in proper
yards or sheds, where they are supplied vrith luxuri-
riant greer. crops; or by stall-feeding, where they
are furnished with cabbages, turnips, and other food
of a succulent nature, combined with various kinds
of dry meat. When the grazing system is pursued,
cattle should not be admitted into the pastures too
early, or till the grass be so far advanced as to afford
a sufficient supply of food. Much caution is neces-
sary in changing the food of live-stock ; and perhaps
in aU cases, even when it is of a richer quality, and
more abundant in quantity, the change should be
slow and gradual. A copious supply of pure water
should alwaj's be within the reach of live-stock, as
nothing contributes more to their health and vigour.

The advantages of soiling, or folding cattle in
yards or sheds, which is strongly recommended by
those who have practised it, are not yet, perhaps,
fully appreciated. By this mode of feeding cattle,
they are better protected, and less harassed with in-
sects ; the food is consumed with less waste ; and
when the yards are furnished with abundance of lit-
ter, as should always be the case, a large supply of
excellent manure is obtained. But to have the ful-
lest benefit from this mode of feeding, it is necessa-
ry to have convenient sheds and yards for the pur-
pose ; to provide suitable crops, in proper succession,
to the proportion of stock ; to conduct tke feeding
and general management of the animals in a clean
and regular manner ; and always to have a full sup-

AGRICULTURE.

193

Lire Stocli. ply of materials for litter. It ought not to be forgot-
'^-^V'^'' ten, that cattle managed in this way ougI)t to have
plenty of pure water, that they may liave an opportu-
nity of drinking whenever they are disposed ; and it
would, no doubt, be a most beneficial practice to turn
them out into the open air for a few hours, in the cool
of the evening in summer, or for a short time in the
middle of the day when the season is colder. Varying
the kind of food occasionally, when different kinds can
be obtained, may be of considerable advantage.

For the purpose of fattening cattle in the winter,
stall-feeding is resorted to. In this way they are
kept more quiet and free from interruption, and feed
more quickly, and with more regularity. The succu-
lent kinds of food employed for this purpose are,
tirnips, potatoes, carrots, cabbages, grains, &c. and
those of a dry description are, oil-cakes, oats, bar-
lt;y-meal, bean-meal, and other substances, with dif-
ferent kinds of straw, cut into chiuT, by means of ma-
chinerjr. In stall-feeding, warmth and cleanliness are
of great importance ; and when both moist and dry
food is employed, it should be combined in such pro-
portions that the injurious effects of one species on
the digestive organs of the animal, may be counteract-
ed by that of another. The proportions of the differ-
ent kinds of food must depend on the mode, of feeding,
tlie size of the animal, and the nature of the season.

Sect. III. Of the Dairy.

The situation of a dairy should be such that the
lattices front the north, north-west, or north-east ;
and the lattices, which are preferable to glazed lights,
maybe covered with oil-paper, pasted on pack-thread,
by which the light is admitted and the sun and air
excluded. The utmost cleanliness is requisite in the
wliole management of the dairy ; and, to attain this
object, separate apartments, communicating with
each other, are allotted for the reception and scald-
ing of milk, for keeping and cleansing the vessels,
and for making and preserving butter and cheese.
The dairy should be paved with stone or brick, hav-
ing a gentle inclination, and the pavement should be
daily washed in sunmier. To preserve the air cool, it
is recommended to have the dairy-house near a cold
spring or rivulet, or by conducting a small stream of
water into the apartments, to let it fall from some
height on the pavement. The utensils, which are
usually of wood, must be washed with the greatest
care; or if metallic or glazed earthen vessels be em-
ployed, they ought to be daily scalded, scoured with
salt and water, and well dried before the milk is
poured in. Cast-iron vessels, glazed or enamelled in
the inside, which are manufactured at the Shotts iron
works, in Lanarkshire, have been lately introduced
into the Scottish dairies, and are founil to answer well,
both on account of their cleanliness and durability.

1. Making Bulter.

The quality as well as the quantity of a cow's
milk, depends greatly on the nature of the food of
the animal ; but the quantity is also aftiected by the
mode of milking. Much attention is necessary in ma-
naging this operation ; and if any difficulty occur,
the animal should never be treated harshly, by which
the flow of the milk is diminished or interrupted. The

vol.. I. PART I.

hardness and pain of the udder, which sometimes Live Stock,
produce this effect, are removed by fomentation
with warm water, and gentle friction, and the flow
of milk is restored. Cows are usually milked twice in
the twenty-lour hours ; but in summer, three times
a-day, at equal intervals, are necessary. The quan-
tity of milk is thus increased, and the quality is not
worse. The milk drawn from the cow is strained
through a linen cloth or hair-sieve, into the cream-
dishes, the depth of which should never exceed three
inches. To remove the ill flavour which milk in apt
to contract from the cows feeding on turnips, it is
recommended to add 1-Sth of boiling water to the
milk before it is poured into the dishes. The ill fla-
vour of milk, it is said, is also obviated, by boiling
two ounces of nitre in a quart of water, and when
cold adding a tea-cup full of the mixture to 10 or 12
quarts of milk from the cow.

Qimlity of milk. — The first drawn milk is thinnest,
and of inferior quality. The cream which rises first
is richest in quality and greatest in quantity. Thick
milk affords the smallest proportion of cream, but it
is of the richest quality. Milk diluted with water
produces more cream, but the quality is injured.
When milk is carried about in pails, or agitated and
cooled before it is poured into the milk-pans, the
quantity as well as the quality of the cream is di-
minished. From these facts, it appears of impor-
tance that cows should be milked near the dairy, to
prevent the milk being carried and agitated; and it
should be recollected that cows are hurt by being dri-
ven from a distance before milking. The practice of
putting the milk of all the cows into the same ves-
sel, before it is distributed into the milk-pans, is re-
garded as highly injudicious ; both because the agi-
tation and cooling are injurious, and because the qua-
lity of each cow's milk cannot be ascertained. If the
milk of each cow were kept in a separate pan, the
quantity afforded every day, as well as its peculiar
qualities, would be easily determined. To have but-
ter of a fine quality, the milk of all those cows which
yield cream of a bad quality, ought to be rejected,
and the last portion of the milk drawn only should be
employed.

Churning. — The chief secret in the management of
the operation of churning, whatever be the form of
the api)aratus employed, is to continue the agitation
with the. same regular, uniform, and uninterrupted
motion, from its conmiencement to its termination ;
and to insure this uniformity, even the aid of an as-
sistant, except in cases of absolute necessity, should
be avoided ; because too rapid or unequal motion, in
summer, communicates to the butter an ill flavour, and
in v/inter the process is interrupted or entirely fails.
A table-spoonful or two of distilled vinegar, added to
the cream, after it has been a good deal agitated, it is
said, speedily promotes the separation of the butter.

When the butter is formed, it is usual to wash it
in several waters till all the milk is separated ; but it
is better to squeeze out the n>ilk by means of a flat
wooden ladle with a sliort handle ; or to spread it
thin on a marble slab, and the remaining moisture
may be easily taken up, by pressing it with clean, dry
towels ; and as washing with cold water injures the
flavour, it may be cooled, and rendered suificiently

B B

194

AGRICULTURE.

solid to retain the impression of the mould, by float-
ing it in small vessels in a trough of cold water.

Salting. — Butter is usually preserved for future use
by means of common salt. The following prepara-
tion, proposed by Dr Anderson, is an excellent sub-
stitute for common salt in curing butter, and imparts
to it a richer and sweeter taste. Two parts of good
common salt, one part of loaf sugar and one of salt-
petre, are pounded and well-mixed together. One
ounce of this mixture is well incorporated with every
poijnd of butter, which is then closed up in a proper
vessel, and at the end of two or three weeks, before
which time it should not be used, it is fit for use.
Thus prepared, it retains all its sweetness and flavour
ibr two or three years.

The best and highest flavoured butter is made in
summer ; but it is said that a small portion of the ex-
pressed juice of thepulp of carrots, added to the cream
before churning, communicatestowinter butter the fine
colour and rich flavour of what is made in summer.

Dutch butter. — The method of making butter in
Holland is, to allow the milk, after it is drawn from
the cow, to be cold before it is put into the pans; to
prevent the cream from separating from the milk, by
stirring it two or three times a day with a wooden
spoon ; and when it is sufficiently thick to churn it for
an hour. When the butter begins to form, a quanti-
ty of cold water is poured in, for the purpose of se-
parating the butter from the milk ; and when the but-
ter is taken out, it is washed and kneaded till the last
water passes off pure. Milk managed in this way, it
is said, yields a larger proportion of butter, which is
firmer, sweeter, and keeps longer than by the ordi-
nary method practised in this country ; and the but-
ter is also stated to be of a better quality.

2. Cheese-Making.

Tlie excellence of cheese, it is not improbable, de-
pends a good deal on the quality of the milk ; but the
season of the year in which it is made, and the ma-
nagement of the necessary processes, are not of less
importance. The best season is from the beginning
of May to the end of September, or, when the wea-
ther admits the pasture to be open, to the middle of
October. In some large dairies the manufacture con-
tinues throughout the year ; but winter-made cheeses
are of inferior quality.

Rennet. — The rennet which is employed in coagu-
lating milk is prepared with the stomach or rnaui of
young calves. The curd found in it is thrown away ;
and after the bag has been steeped in pickle it is
stretched out and dried, after which it will keep for a
long time. An inch of the dried maw, steeped in a few
spoonfuls of warm water the night before using it,
will serve to coagulate the milk of five cows. But as
the rennet by this simple preparation is apt to become
rancid, greater attention is necessary to keep it in a
sound state. -The method of preserving it in the
West of England is, when the rennet bag- is cleaned,
to make a strong solution of salt with two quarts of
water ; to add to this solution small quantities of all
kinds of spices, and to boil the whole slowly down to
three pints ; then to strahi the liquor and pour it on
the rennet bag ; to add a sliced lemon ; and having
stood at jrest for a day or two, to strain it and bottle

it for use : — when well corked, it will keep for a year, Uvc stock.
or longer, and communicate to the cheese a pleasant
aromatic flavour. A decoction of the flowers of yel-
low ladies bed-straw, or cheese-rennet, galium verum,
a common plant in many pastures, and muriatic acid,
or spirit of salt, when judiciously managed, are suc-
cessfully employed as efficient substitutes. The pe-
culiar pungent taste of Dutch cheese is ascribed to the
use of the latter substance in coagulating the milk.

Colouring. — Spanish arnotta is the substance in most
common use for colouring cheese ; and it is employ-
ed in different proportions according to the shade re-
quired. In Gloucestershire an ounce is allowed for
every hundred pounds of cheese. The poorest cheese
requires the largest proportion. The method of us-
ing it in Cheshire is to tye up the necessary quantity
of pounded arnotta in a linen rag, and to infuse it in
half a pint of warm water the night before it is want-
ed, and next morning, before the application of the
rennet, to mix the coloured infusion thoroughly with
the milk ; or, as it is practised in some places, a piece
of the unpounded arnotta, dipped in milk, is rubbed
on a smooth stone, and the colouring matter thus ob-
tained is combined with the milk in the same way.

Cheshire cheese. — The cream of the preceding even-
ing's milk is skimmed off and poured into a pan heat-
ed with boiling water, and a third part of the same
milk is heated in the same way. The new milk of
the morning and that of the preceding evening being
thus prepared, are introduced into a large tub along
with the cream. The colouring matter first, and then
the rennet, after the necessary preparation, are added.
The whole is stirred together and covered up warm
till it is curdled, is then turned over with a bowl to
separate the whey, and soon after the curd is broken
into small pieces. The whey is removed and the
curd is cut into slices, and repeatedly turned over
and pressed with weights to separate the remaining
portions of whey. The curd removed from the tub
is broken by the hand into small pieces, put into a
cheese vat and strongly pressed, transferred after-
wards into another vat, or returned into the same, af-
ter it has been well scalded, and the process of break-
ing down and pressure is p-epeated. The cheese is
then removed into a third vat, previously warmed,
with a cloth beneath it, and a tin hoop, or binder,
put round the upper edge of the cheese and within
the sides of the vat, the former being enclosed in a
clean cloth, and its edges placed within the vat. The
processes now described occupy a period of six hours,
from seven in the morning till one in the afternoon ;
and eight hours more are necessary for pressing the
cheese, during which time it should be twice turned
in the vat. The succeeding morning and evening it
is again turned and j)resscd, as well as on the morn-
ing of the third day, about the middle of which it is
removed to the salting apartment, where the outside
is well rubbed with salt, and a cloth binder is passed
round it. During a week, while the cheese remains
here, it is turned twice a day, and as it is left for
some days longer to dry, it is turned once, and well
cleaned daily. It is then transferred to the store-
room, which should be moderately warm, and pro-
tected from a current of air, to avoid the risk of crack-
ing, and turned every day till it become firm and dry.

AGRICULTURE.

195

I-he Stock/ Gloiuester cheese. — In making Gloucester cheese
the milk is used as it is drawn from the cow ; and if
it be too hot in summer, the temperature is reduced
by adding skim milk, or water. After the applica-
tion of the colouring matter and the rennet, the for-
mation of the curd, and breaking down the latter
with the hand and a double cheese knife to separate
the whey, the curd is put into vats and pressed for a
quarter of an hour. It is then turned into cheese
tubs, and again broken small, scalded with a pail full
of water, lowered with one part of whey, and the
whole is briskly stirred. Having stood a tew minutes
to allow the curd to settle, the liquor is strained off,
and the curd is collected into a vat. When the vat
is half full, a little salt is sprinkled on and well wrought
into the cheese ; the vat is filled up ; the whole mass is
turned two or three times round ; the edges are pared,
and the middle rounded at each turning. Tlie cheese,
surrounded with a cloth, is again subjected to pres-
sure, is then removed to the shelves, and turned daily,
till it be sufficiently firm to admit of being washed.

Stilton cheese. — The method of making this cheese,
as it is described in the Agricultural Report of Leices-
tershire, is the following : The night's cream is put
into the morning's new milk, with rennet, and when
the curd is come it is not broken, as is done with o-
ther cheeses, but taken out whole and placed in a
sieve, to drain gradually, and as it drains, a gradual
pressure is continued till it becomes firm and dry. It
is then placed in a wooden hoop, and afterwards kept
dry on boards, and turned frequently with the cloth
binders round it, which are tightened as occasion re-
quires. When the cloths are removed, each cheese
is rubbed with a brush once every day, and in damp
weather twice, for two or three months. The same
thing is done daily to the tops and bottoms of the
cheeses before the cloths are removed.

Cream cheese. — This kind of cheese is usually made
in August or September, when the milk is richest. As
the warmth of the season is insufficient to ripen it, a
greater thickness is given to this kind of cheese, that
it may retain its mellowness. In the preservation of
cream cheeses, a warm situation should be selected,
and the precaution of securing them from frost should
be strictly observed, otherwise the rich quality of the
cheese is lost, and it becomes insipid or ill tasted.

Diinlop cheese — Is so called from being made in a
parish of the same name, in Ayrshire in Scotland.
When the milk is brought to the temperature of 90°
in summer, and above 100° in winter, it is poured in-
to a large vessel, and the rennet being added, it is
covered up closely for about ten minutes. With good
rennet the milk is then coagulated, and by gently
stirring it the whey separates, and is removed as it col-
lects, till the curd become tolerably solid. The curd,
placed in a drainer, is pressed down with weights ;
and having remained for some time till it is dry, it is
returned into the first vessel, where it is cut into
small pieces with a knife, composed of three or four
blades, which cut horizontally. It is then salted and
properly mixed by the hand, put into a strong dish
witli iron hoops, which has a cover that goes exactly
into it ; a cloth is placed between the curd and the
vessel, and in this state it is subjected to the cheese-
press, from which it is occasionally taken, and wrap-

ped in dry cloths till the whey is entirely separated.
The cheese is then laid aside for a day or two; and
if, on examination, any appearance of whey remains,
the pressure and application of cloths are renewed.
The whey being extracted, the cheese is laid out on
boards, which should be of the same breadth, or on
a deal floor ; and it should be occasionally examined,
to remove any moisture that appears, turned occa-
sionally, and rubbed with a coarse cloth, which may
prevent the breeding of mites.

Parmesan cheese. — The process for makin); this
celebrated cheese, which is a production of the rich
dairies of Italy, is thus described : At ten o'clock in
the morning, 5i brents of milk, each brent about 48
quarts, are put into a large copper, which turns on a
crane, over a slow wood fire, made about two feet be-
low the surface of the ground. The milk is stirred
from time to time ; and about II o'clock, when just
luke-warm, or considerably under blood heat, a ball
of rennet, of the size of a walnut, is squeezed through
a cloth into the milk, while the stirring is continued.
By the help of the crane, the copper is turned from
over the fire, and allowed to stand till a few minutes
past 12, at which time the rennet has operated. It
is now stirred up, and left to stand a short time ; part
of the whey is taken out, and the copper again turn-
ed over a fire sufficiently brisk to give rather a strong
heat, but below that of boiling. A quarter of an
ounce of saffron is added to colour it, and the stirring
is occasionally repeated. The dairyman frequently
examines the curd, and when the small, and as it
were granulated parts, feel rather firm, which is in
about an hour and a half, the copper is removed from
the fire, and the curd is left to subside ; part of the
whey is taken out, and the curd, brought up in a
coarse cloth, is put into a hoop, and about i cwt.
placed upon it for an hour, after which the cloth is
taken off, and the cheese placed on a shelf in the
same hoop. At the end of two or three days it is
sprinkled over with salt, and the same application is
repeated every second day for about six weeks. Dur-
ing the process of salting, two cheeses are usually
placed upon each other, in which way they are sup-
posed to take the salt better than singly.

Keeping of cheeses. — Cheese should be kept in an
airy situation. The leaves of tutsan, or park leaves,
hypericum Androsanmrri, or of the yellow star of Beth-
lehem, ornithogalum luteum, moderately dried, or
the young twigs of the common birch tree, especially
the latter, placed on the surface or sides of the chees-
es, are found useful in preventing the depredations
of mites. The having, or swelling of cheeses is as-
cribed to some imperfection in the process of making.
Regular turning, and keeping such cheeses as have
this tendency in a moderately cool, dry place, have
the effect of interrupting or preventing its progress.
When the swelling becomes considerable, it is neces-
sary to prick it with an awl or pin in several placesi
by which the air evolved is allowed to escape.

Sect, IV. Of Sheep.

Sheep are a very valuable kind of Hve-»tock, on

account of the flesh, the wool, and other products.

In many situations, the largest proportion, and in

Others the whole of the profits of the husbandman

2

Live Stock.

39(3

AGRICULTURE.

tiVe Stock, are derived from this kind of stock ; and there arc
probably few possessions which may not afford some
advantage in the view of breeding, grazing, or the
fattening of their lambs.

The numerous breeds of slieep which are preva-
lent in this country, have been arranged into two
classes; those which shear the short, or clothing, and
those which shear the long, or combing wool. By
others they have been divided into the mountain
breed, the short-wooUed, and the long-woolled breed.
The first class includes the varieties which are rear-
ed in the mountainous districts of Wales, the north
•f England, and Scotland ; the second comprehends
those of Hereford, Dorset, Sussex, Norfolk, and
some other places ; and the last class embraces the
varieties which occupy the richer and more fertile
parts of England, and which are distinguished by
the names of the Durham or Tees waters, the Lin-
colnshires and the Leicestershires.

Mountain sheep. — The mountain, heath, or, as they
are sometimes called, black-faced sheep, from having
black faces and legs, are a hardy active race, with
large spiral horns and short firm carcases. They af-
ford fine grained and well flavoured mutton, but the
wool is open, coarse, and shaggy. They are usually
fattened about the third or fourth year. The Cheviot
breed has no horns; the face and legs are chiefly white,
and the eyes are lively and prominent. This is a hardy
race, affords fine wool, and is quick in fattening.

Short-Monlkd. — The Herefordshire sheep are small
in size, have no horns, have white legs and faces,
and fine short wool. This breed is also known by
the name of Ttuelands. They are remarkable for be-
ing patient of hunger, and it is said that no breed of
hheep in the island can subsist on so small a portion
of food. The South Down breed is also distinguished
by the closeness and fineness of the wool ; they have
grey faces and legs, long small necks, and afford fine
grained and well flavoured mutton. This is the prevail-
ing breed in the dry chalk downs of Sussex. The we-
thers are rarely kept beyond tl»e age of two years, and
they are often fattened at 1 8 months. The Norfolk
breed is distinguished by a black face, large spiral
horns, and long black or grey legs; the wool short and
fine, and the mutton fine grained and high flavoured.

Long-ivoolled. — The Lincolnshire breed, known al-
so by the name of Old Leicester, is distinguished by
want of horns, white faces, long, thin, weak car-
cases, large bones, slow feeding, coarse grained mut-
ton, and wool from 10 to 18 inches in length. This
breed thrives only on the richest pastures, and is
chiefly valuable on account of the large quantity of
wool. But it is from this breed that the New Lei-
cester, or Dishley breed, which derives its name from
the place where it was successfully reared and im-
proved by the celebrated Bakewcll, is descended^
The Dishley breed is distinguished bv its fine lively
eyes, clean "heads, without horns ; straight, broad;
flat backs ; round or l)arrel-shaped bodies ; small
bones ; thin pelts ; a disposition to fatten at an early
age, and fine grained, well flavoured mutton. The
weight of the quarter, in ewes of three or four years
old, is from 18 to 26 lbs. ; in two year old wethers,
from 20 to 30 lbs. ; and the length of wool is from
6, to I* inches. The excellence of this highly im-

proved breed consists in their fattening more spee- IJve StocH.
dil}', and with a smaller consumption of food than
almost any other ; in having a larger proportion of
meat on an equal weight of bone ; in thriving well in
pastures which would not supjjort other kinds of the
same size ; in more valuable wool ; in being ready for
the market early in the spring ; and, from all these
properties, affording a greater profit. The Tees-wa-
ter breed have longer legs, finer bones, and a thick
and firmer carcase, than the Lincolnshire ; the mut-
ton is fatter and finer grained, and the wool is short-
er and less heavy. This is the largest breed in the
island, and is the most common on the rich inclosed
lands on the banks of the river Tees in Yorkshire,
from which it has received its name. It seems to be
only calculated for warm, well sheltered pastures,
and requires to be well fed in severe winters. A large
weight of mutton is obtained from this breed, but it
is longer in coming to maturity, and requires a lar-
ger portion of food, so that it is less profitable than
those of a smaller description. The Romney-marsh
breed has no horns, has white faces and legs,
which latter are long ; the body rather long, but
well barrel-shaped, and bones rather large. The
wool is fine, long, and of a delicate white co-
lour. This breed arrives early at maturity, and suc-
ceeds well on the richer kinds of pasture. In the
Merino, or Spanish breed of sheep, the males have
horns,- but the females sometimes have none ; the
faces and legs are white ; the shape of the body not
very perfect, and the legs are rather long. It is
fine boned, and the pelt is clear and fine. Tfiis breed
is also well known to be remarkable for the fineness
of its wool ; it is also pretty hardy, and has a dispo-
sition to fatten readily. But for a detailed account
of the different breeds of sheep, as well as for the
general management, the reader may consult with
advantage, Culley on Live-Stock, Parkinson on Live-
stock, and Dr Parry's Memoir on Breeding and Feed-
ing Sheep, in Communications to the Board of Agri-
culture, Vol. V.

Sect. V. Of Swine.

Some diversity of opinion exists with regard to
the benefit arising from the breeding and rearing of
swine, conducted on a large scale ; but of the advan-
tage afforded by this kind of stock, when kept within
moderate limits, and managed as a secondary con-
cern, no doubt can be entertained. The expense of
rearing and feeding swine to a certain extent is small,
while the profit is considerable. It has been observed
by a writer in the Farmer's Magazine, who has had
much experience in rearing this kind of stock, that
a farm of 300 acres, of which 200 are kept under til-
lage, might, by proper management in the rearing of
swine, afford L.lOO Sterling of annual profit. A very
small capital is required in this branch of rural eco-
nomy, and the trouble and expense which attend it
are trifling. It is stated by the same writer, that it
is the most beneficial stock which can be introduced
on a farm, as long as the number kept exceeds not
the extent of offals produced on the possession.

Numerous varieties of this animal are reared in
Britain. The Berkshire breed is of a reddish colour,
with short legs, large ears, and a thick, close, well ■

AGRICULTURE.

197

Farm offices, niade body ; is readily disposed to fatten, and grows
to a large size ; but the supply of food must be con-
stant a.id abundant. The Chinese, or black breed,
is of s^iall size, short legs, and thick, close, well
made body; is considered one of the most profitable
breeds in the country ; the flesh is delicate, and it
fattens kindly, even on indiiferent food. The Glou-
cester breed is of a white colour, and large size ; is
ill formed, and considered unprofitable. The Hamp-
shire breed is also white, has- a large body, fattens
kindly, and attains a great size. The Highland, or
Irish breed, is of small size, and ill shaped ; is re-
garded as an inferior kind, for it thrives indifferently.
The Northampton breed is remarkable for the enor-
mous length of its ears ; is of a large size, but does
not fatten very kindly. The Rudgwick breed is
reared at a village of the same name, on the confines
•f Surry and Sussex ; is a valuable variety, fattens
readily, and to a large size. The large spotted Wo-
burn breed is a new variety, introduced by the late
Duke of Bedford ; the colour is various and the size
large ; it is well formed, prolific, hardy, and kindly
disposed to fatten, attaining nearly twice the size and
weight of other hogs within the same given period.
The reader who wishes to have a full and satisfac-
tory account of the method of feeding swine, and of
curing pork and bacon, is referred to the Complete
Grazier ; or to Henderson's Treatise on Sivine.

Chap. IX. Of Farm-offices, Leases, &c.

In concluding this treatise, a few general remarks
on the situation and requisite accommodation of a
dwelling-house and farm-offices, on leases and rent,
may be useful.

Sect. I. Of Farm-Buildings.

Siiziation qfJiirm-officen.-^T^e situation and gene-
ral arrangement of the necessary buildings of a farm-
Steading, have been oftener directed by accident
than by attention to convenience or local advantages.
When other circumstances admit, the most centrical
situation on the possession ought always to be se-
lected ; but where a dry, sheltered, and healthy spot
presents itself, and having, at the same time the com-
mand of abundance of water, for the purposes of
domestic economy, or of driving machinery, some
deviation from the general rule may be admitted.
With regard to the general arrangement of the dif-
ferent buildings of farm-offices, it is recommended
to select the three most exposed sides of a square
for them, while the southern aspect is left open to
the sun and air. While it is considered advantage-
ous to erect the dwelling-house at a small distance
from the offices, it may be equally beneficial to have
the ordinary sitting-room so arranged as to command
a view of the farm operations, both in the immediate
vicinity and in the fields. The windows of this a-
partment should have a full view of the chief approach
to the yards, cattle, &c. and when it can be accom-
plished, should also be directed to the farm-yard.

Farm-offices. — The judicious disposition of the of-
fices of a farm, is a very important object of rural
economy. Distinct buildings are necessary for the
various sorts of cattle, and other purposes ; and

the general distribution and relative position of the Leases, &v.
whole, should be so arranged as to suit the conveni-
ence, and facilitate the labour of the attendants. The
bottom of the yard should be quite level, and bed-
ded with some substance which renders it impene-
trable to water, that liquid animal matters may not
be absorbed and lost. In erecting feeding-houses,
or ox-stalls, their situation, which ought to be dry,
and not too much exposed to the sun, demands par-
ticular attention. The floor should be paved, and
have a gentle slope. The stalls are from seven lo
nine feet wide, according to the size of the animals.
Cows require the same space, for the convenience
of milking, and of suckling their calves ; but the
stalls should never be so wide as to permit the cattle
to turn round in them, by which accidents sometimes
happen. These may be obviated by placing a post
in the middle of the stall, immediately before the
shoulders of the cattle. A regular temperature, and
a proper circulation of air, are preserved by means
of windows furnished with shutters, which are open-
ed or closed according to the state of the weathen

In the construction of stables, a dry airy situation
should be selected, and the buildings flfould be fur-
nished with shutters, to exclude the light in the day-
time, when necessary. With regard to the pave-
ment of stables, it is recommended to cover that
part on which the horses lie down, with oak boards,
arranged transversely upon a level, and pierced with
holes, for conveying the urine from the stall-drain
into the main-drain. The other part, paved with
small stones, has a slope towards the perforated
boards. The ordinary construction of mangers and
racks is faulty and inconvenient, in allowing a need-
less and excessive waste of provender, and exposing
the animals to injury, from hay seeds falling into
their eyes and ears. The barn is an essential build-
ing on farms where corn husbandry is practised,
which should be in a dry situation, with a firm dry
floor, well ventilated, and sufficiently spacious for
the extent of the possession, or the amount of the
produce. A building for the reception of carts and
implements which are not in immediate use, is also
requisite, to protect them from the weatlier. A
building of this description should be so contrived,
as to afford complete shelter from the rain, while a
free circulation of air is admitted. A smaller apart-
ment should be appropriated for the numerous smal-
ler tools and implements ; and it may be added, tliat
no implement should be deposited before being clean-
ed, dried, and completely repaired, so that it may be
always in readiness for future use. The construction
of calf-pens and piggeries, also merits attention ;
and where the feeding of live stock is extensively car-
ried on, the commodious situation of the straw and
root-houses, and of the necessary appendages of a
steaming apparatus, should be particularly studied, in
the view of saving time, and avoiding waste. The
arrangement and management of the dunghill, which •
is always an object of the utmost importance, has
been already described in the chapter on manures.

Sect. II. Of Leases and Rent.

Few subjects in agriculture are more important,
or attended with more difiiculty, than the propci

198

AGRICULTURE.

leasts, &c. mode of fixing the duration of leases, and the amount
of rent ; for, with these points, the mutual security
and prosperity of both landlord and tenant are very
closely connected.

Leases. — With regard to leases, it may be observ-
ed, that when they are of short duration, and clog-
ged with injudicious restrictive clauses, they are
equally injurious to the interests of the proprietor
and occupier of land, and may be justly considered
as the most serious obstacles in the way of all im-
provement.

The certain duration of a lease, on the one hand,
becomes a powerful stimulus to the tenant to follow
out that system which he conceives the most effec-
tual for rendering the soil productive, and, on the
other, restrains him from whatever mode of cropping
he knows will render it unfruitful ; and thus it ap-
pears to be of incalculable importance to individual
benefit, as well as public prosperity. He who can
look on his farm as his permanent residence, will
naturally be led to every species of improvement.
He will plant, and drain, and manure, in the hope
that all such expenses will be ultimately and cer-
tainly repaid. Permanence and security of tenure
being the great incitements to all improvement. Lord
Kanies proposes, that at the expiration of twenty-
one years, if the tenant offer an adequate adcli-
tionai rent, with the view of continuing in the farm,
the landlord may be at liberty to take it into his own
occupation on paying to the tenant ten years pur-
chase of this additional rent. This principle of rent-
ing land seems highly favourable to every kind of
improvement ; but it may be questioned, whether a
less considerable purchase would not answer the in-
tentions of such a lease. Could leases be formed on
such a principle, the interests of the proprietor and
tenant, instead of clashing, as they generally do in
most instances, would be mutually increased. From
tlie security afforded by such a tenure, the one is
stimulated to additional exertion, while the other has
the satisfaction of perceiving his land rapidly advan-
cing to the highest state of cultivation. The genius
of the farmer, in this way, is not restrained by re-
strictive modes of cultivation ; and the income of
the landlord is not diminished by the deterioration
of his property.

Rent. — Various modes have been adopted for re-
gulating and fixing the amount of rent. In most
cases, the rent is valued and paid in money ; but
many intelligent agriculturists are of opinion, that
great advantage would result to both tenant and land-
lord by the substitution of corn-rents ; that is, by
rents regulated according to the average price of
corn in the market where the tenant disposes of his
produce. By this means the landlord is secured of
a just income, and the tenant pays rent in proportion
to the actual produce of liis farm. Should the land-
lord be satisfied with the character, circumstances,
and enterprise of the tenant, the quality of the land
requires only to be estimated by good judges ; and
should it appear to be of the first-rate value, the
average produce is divided into three parts, one of
which is given to the landlord, one to the tenant,
and a third to the farm. This practice is very pre-
valent on the continent, but may be considered as

only applicable to land of the very best and most j_jgjj, »,.
productive quality. Supposing the land so let to
produce twelve bolls of oats at an average per acre,
the landlord would in this case receive from four to
five pounds in a dear year, but in a cheap year only
from forty to fifty shillings. As the value of corn-
rents often varies consideralily from year to year, it
becomes necessary to calculate the average price
during several years, otherwise corn-rent is suited
only to leases of long duration ; for experience proves,
that when grain is scarce, and prices are very high,
the landlord, in such seasons, has a much greater
advantage than the tenant can have when the corn
is abundant and the prices are low.

As land of inferior quality, however, requires not
only a more expensive mode of cultivation, but also
much skill, capital, and industry, to improve and
keep it in a productive state, the fourth part of the
produce may, in this case, be considered as the fair
value of rent ; and from the examinations of the most
intelligent agriculturists lately before the Committee
of the House of Commons, even the fifth part of the
actual produce of land of the worst quality was deemed
a sufficient return to the landlord. In all leases, there-
fore, founded on such principles, the quality of the
soil must determine the proportion to which the land-
lord is entitled in name of rent, whether it be a third,
a fourth, or a fifth part of the actual produce.

But the amount of rent may be determined ac-
cording to the average price of labour, which fluc-
tuates less annually than the money price of corn.
If the average price of labour could be ascertained,
many are of opinion that this would be the most in-
variable measure for rent, because it varies less from
year to year than the price of corn, and is generally
accommodated to the average price of all the neces-
saries of life. Were it as practicable to ascertain
the money price of labour in every parish, as it now
is to determine the fiar prices of grain in every coun-
ty, it would be extremely easy to fix the price of
rent according to this rule ; and this might even be
practised by everjr tenant calculating the average
price of the wages he pays annually to all such la-
bourers and servants as he employs on his farm.
But a more eligible mode of fixing the rent would
be, not by any one of these rules, but in a just pro-
portion of all the three ; that is, partly in money,
partly according to the price of labour, and part-
ly according to the price of corn. Thus, if the
rent of a farm be valued at L.300 per annum, sup-
posing the average price of a day's labour through
the year to he two shillings per day, and the boll of
corn or oats to be twenty shilKngs ; the tenant, in
this case, would pay tlie price of a thousand days la-
bour, the price of an hundred bolls of oats, and one
hundred pounds in money, per annum, during the
currency of his lease.

Perhaps .the best mode that can be devised for
fixing the rent, is to make it payable according
to a certain number of bolls of such grain as the
land commonly produces, expressly declaring that
the maximum shall not exceed a certain sum. Thus,
if the farm be valued at L.500, the rent is converted
into 250 bolls, or 125 quarters of wheat ; and if the
average or fiars price of the year be 30s. per boll, the

AGRICULTURE.

199

, &c. fcnt will be L.375 ; but if the average price be L.2,
then the rent will be precisely the stipulated sum of
L.500 ; and if the fiars should rise to L.3 per boll, the
rent can never exceed the stipulated amount of L.SOO.
For farther information on Agriculture, we refer our
readers to Dr Coventry's Introductori) Discourses ; —
Davy's Elements of Ap^rkultural Chemistri/ ; — Dick-
son's Agriculture ; — The Complete Grazier ; — and
Brown's Treatise on Rural Affairs.

Explanation of Plates.
Plate 2. Fig. 1. Plan of a hill ; and Fig. 2. Sec-
tion of the same, for illustrating the principles of
draining. Fig. 3. Plan of a land-locked bog ; and
Fig. 4. A section of the same bog, shewing the me-
thod of draining, by boring through the impervious
stratum at the bottom. Fig. 5. 6 . 7. 8. 9. 1 0. and
11. sections of different kinds of artificial drains.

Plate 3. Fig. 1. and 2. Kotherham plough ; Fig.
3. and 4. Small's plough ; Fig. 5. and 6. Improved

harrows ; Fig. 7. Drill harrow ; Fig. 8. Drill barrow ; Leasts, &e.
Fig. 9. Section of a grubber ; Fig. 10. Plan of the >^V"^»'
whole implement.

Plate 4. Reaping machines. Fig. 1. Perspective
view of Mr Smith's in operation ; Fig. 2. Perspec-
tive view of Mr Kerr's while at work.

Plate 5. Fig. 1. Improved thrashing machine, with
fanners attached ; Fig. 2. View of the feeding rollers
of ditto, with the apparatus for reversing their mo-
tion, or for stopping them altogether ; Fig. 3. Me-
thod of attaching a horse-power, when water is (\e'
ficient ; when the horse-power alone is employed, a
segment of the water-wheel is taken off; Fig. 4. Plan
of the patent hay-turner, or rotative rake ; Fig. 5.
Section of the same.

Errata in Agriculture.
P. 93. col. 1. line 11. for tiUage, read arable land.
P. 131. col. 2. line 7. for that Ins ploughs, read iitu:
two of his ploughs.

INDEX.

Agriculture, introduction and history, - 91

state among the Romans, - ib.

progress of, in Britain, - 92

objects of, - - ib.

Amos, Mr, experiments in drilling, - 157

Anbury, a disease of turnips, - 175

Aiumal matters as manures, - 122

farm-yard dung, - . ib.

night-soil, . . 123

pigeons' dung, . - ib.

bones, - - - ib.

bom, . . . ib.

putrid, - . . ib.

Ant-hills, removing, - - . J87

Arable laud, .... H5

tiUage of, . . ib.

tillage ordinary, - 147

fallowing, - . 15.5

drill-husbandry, . 156

culture of di&rent crops, 158

lorley, cnlture of; - . . 164

preparation of land, - ib.

kinds of seed, . . ib.

sowing, - - . ib.

after-management, - 165

harvesting,) . . . ib.

produce, - -' . ib.

Seoos, culture of, - - . 167

preparation of land, - ib.

kinds of seed, - - ib.

sowing, - . . ib.

after- culture, . . . ib.

fly, injurious to, - - 168

harvesting, - - . ib.

produce, - - . ib.

Beech hedge, - . - 105

Blackthorn hedge, - . - ib.

Blight, a disease of wheat, . 163

Bogs, spring, - ... 96

land locked, drainage of, . 97

Bone-mill, .... 143

Brake-harrow, ... 131

uses of, . - ib.

Bruising machine, ... 142

Burning lime, .... 115

Butter making, ... 193

Dutch, ... 194

salting > . . ih.

Cabbages, culture and varieties, - 177

Calcareous earth, - - . 114

Car, Irish, .... 142

Carriages, wheel, ... 141

Canots, cnlture and management of^ 177

preservation and produce, . 178

Cartwright, Mr, on manures, - 126

Cattle, different breeds, - . 1.92

rearing, - . ib.

feeding and fattening, . ib.

hoving of, . . . 182

Chalk, 118

application, . . . ib.

chalky soils, ... 112

Clay soils, .... Ill

Clay, a manure, ... 119

burnt, - - . • ib.

preparation, . . . ib.

quantity used, . . 120

Cheese making, . . 194

colouring, . . ib.

keeping, . • 195

Cheshire, - . 19*

Cream, - - 195

Dunlop, . - ib.

Gloucester, . . ib.

Parmesan, - . ib.

Stilton, . . ib.

Chnming, - . . 193

Clover, culture and management, . 181

production of seed, - 182

cutting green, . . ib.

pasturing, - - . ib.

Coal ashes, a manure, . - 120

Compost manures, ... 124

methods of forming, . ib.

of peat moss, - . 125

proportion of ingredients, - ib.

quantity applied, . - 126

Cocks-foot grass, - . 185

Crops, rotation of, . . - 178

Creeping bent grass, . - ib.

Crested dogs-tail, . . ib.

Curl, a disease of potatoes, - 172

Mr T. Dickson's experiments on, ib.

means of prevention, . . ib.

n

Dickson, Mr, experiments in drilling, 157
on curl in potatoes, 172

Diseases of wheat,
Dishley breed of sheep.
Draining, ...

surface,
underground,
Drains, construction of,

materials for filling.
Drill-husbandry,

histoiy of,
ailvuntagcs oi^
Drilling-machines,
Drill-roller, ...
barrow,

harrow, ...
Dung, farm-yard.
Dunghill, situation, . .
mode of constructing,

E
Embanking of rivers.

Embankments,

of lakes,
of the sea,

162
196

95

ib.

95

97

98
156
157-

ib.
132

ib.
135

ib.
122

ib.

ib.

98
- S9

. ib.
98

Fallowing land, ...

simmier, advantages,

objections to,

operation of,

application of manure in,
Fanners introduced into Scotland, .
Farm-yard dung

155

ib.

ib.

155

156

140

122

decomposition promoted, ib.

quantity increased, • 123

Farm-offices, situation of, . 197

arrangement, - ib.

Fences, - - . - 101

ditch. - . . . ib.

sunk, - - -102

Fescue meadow, . - 185

Fingers and toes, a disease of tnmips, 175

Florin grass, - . 185

Frame-walls, ... 106

FutTow-slice, breadth of, - - 148

striking, - . 149

Furze-liedge, . . . 105

Dairy, situation of;

Tessds proper for,

195
ib.

GdUoway-dike,

106

200

In.lcv. Crass-lands, • - .

Grass seeds, proportions of
sowing,

Grasses, artificial,
natural,

Gravelly soils,

Grubber, ...

constniction of,
uses and advantages,

G)-psum, a manure,

H

Harrow, ...

brake,

OSes of,

improved Scotch,
Harrowing operition of.

different kinds,
Ha)-makiiig,

operations of
stack ins.
rick improved
Hay -turner, Mr Salmon's,
Hedges, ...

dead,

line, ...

kinds of plants,

planting.

pruning.
Hedges, weeiling.
Hedges, cutting down,

filling up,

plasl'ing.
Hedge-row trees,
Hedges diseases.
Hills drainage of,
Hot 'imc, ■ -
Hoving of cattle.
Horses Unds of.

breeding,

feeding

stables.

AGRICULTURE.

180
186
187
181
184
112
133

ib.

ib.
119

l.n

ib.

ib.
132

ib.
152
18*
189
1.90

ib.
141
102
*ib.

ib.

ib.
10.5

ib.

ib.
In4

ib.
lOS

ib

ib.

97
117
182
191

ib.

ib.

ib.

M

I

Implements of agriculture, . 127

simplicity of construction essential, ib.

Inclosing land. ... 100

Inclosiires, number, . . . ib.
form, - . . 101

advantages, - - ib.

Irrigation, - . .188

Kerr, Mr, reaping machine, - 13S
description and history, - 137

I,akcs, embanking, . • . 99

I.,and, inclosing, ... 100

I..aying down to grass, . - 186

Xieases. ... 15)7

duration of, . . 1.98

lime, ..... 114

stone, .... ib.

analysis, - - . ib.

niagnesian, - . . 115

burning - - . . ib.

applied to soils, . . IIG

precautions am! ndes, . - ib.

injurious a second time, - ib.

.quantity. - - . 117

magncsian, eflect.s of, - ib.

cITccl.s and operation, . 118

JListon's jilough, ... 131

advantages, - ib.

lire stock, - - - 191

tiWem, ciUture and macogeaieiit, - 183

Magnesian limestone.
Manures,

earthy,

saline.

compost, ...
experiments on different kinds,
Mejidowbank Lord, experi
mcnts on peat moss.

Marl,

kinds of, .
Meadow-gras.^,

rouf;li- stalked.

smooth- stalked,

fescue,

foxtail.

.soft grass,

catstail.
Meadows, situation of,

irrigation,
Meikle. Mr. invents thrashing machine,
Menzics. Mr, first attempts a thrashing

macliine. - _ . .

Mildew a disease of wheat.
Milk, quality of.
Mossy soils.

115
114

ib.
124

ib.
126

125
119

ib.
184

ib.

ib.
185

ib.

ib.

ib.
187
188
LIS

ib.
163
193
113

Potatoes, selection of seed, - - 171
methods of planting, - . ib.
after-managcmcnt, - . ib.
curl diseusc of . - 172
means of prevention, - ib.
pulling off blossoms lieneficial, ib.
digging and preserving, . 173
produce, - . . ib.

TndcJt.

Natural grasses.

V

184

Oats, culture of, ... 1G5

preparation of land, - . ib.

kinds of seed, - - - IfiG

sowing, - - - . ib.

cloverandgrass seeds sown with, ib.

harvesting, - - . 167

produce, - . - - ib.

Paring and burning, . - 145

lands fit for, . ib.

operation of, - 146

depth of soil pared, - ib.

season for, . . 147

Pasture lands, . . 190

Pease, culture of, - - . 168

kinds of seed, . - - ib.

afterculture, - - ib.

harvesting, ... ib.

produce, . . . 169

Peat ashes. .... 121

Plates, explanation, - . 199

Plough, importance of, - - 127

action, ... 128

form, . - . . ib.

breadth of the sole, . ib.

length of plough, . . ib.

construction of mould-board, 129

bridle. . . . ib.

trim of, ... ib.

Rotherham, - . 130

Plough, Small s, ... ib.

advantages of, . ib.

I,iston"s, ... 1,^1

advantages, . ib.

PlougWng, operation of, - . 148

Putrescent manures, ... 121

vegetable matters, - ib.

animal, . . .122

Potatoes, eulture of, - - . 169

first introduced, ... 170

varieties of, - . . ib.

new, how obtained, - . ib.

preparation of soil, . . ib.

manuring, - . . ib.

time of planting, . . ib.

R

Reaping maclunc, ...
Mr Smith's,
Mr Ken's,
Rennet, preparation of, . .
Rent, modes of pa\ing.
Ridges, direction of, - .

breadth, - . . -
forming, ....
on steep land, ...
kinds of, ...
crown, - - . .
levelling, ....
Rivers embanlving, ...
Roller, common, ....
spike, ....
fun'ow, . - _ .
Rolling, operation of^ - .

advantages, ...
Rotation of crops, ...
general rules,
on difi'erent soils, -
Rotherham plough, . . .

history and description
Ruta baga, or Swedish turnip, advan-
tage and culture ol^ . . .
Rye, culture of, . . .

Saintfoin, culture and management,
preservation of seed, 183
Saline maniu-es, - . _ _
Salt, conmion, a manure.
Sand, sea, a manure,
Scarifying, ....

Sea embanking, ...

Sheep, ...

mountain,
short- woolled,
long-wooiled.
Merino,
Shells, useful manure.
Smith, Mr, his reaping machine,

description and histoi7.
Small's plough history and description
su{)criority of, - . .
comparative tiials,
Smut, a disease of wheat,
means of preventing,
by steeping, ...
by kiln-diying,
effects of, - - .

Soils,

fonnation,

diversity, causes of,

cai'se,

gravelly,

moorish,

mossy,

component parts, -

analysis,

fertility,

organized matter,

classified.

clay improved,

loamy,

improved,

chalky.

155

ib.
13S
19*
198
149

ib.

ib,
150

ib.

ib.

ib.

98
134
135

ib.
135

ib.
178
179
180
130

ib.

17G

163

182

124

ib.
121
152

99
195
196

ib.

ib.

ib.
118
135
136
150
151

ib.
162
160

ib.
160
110
107

ib.

ib.

ib.
108

ib.

ib.
-ib.
109
110

ib.
Ill

ib.
112

ib.

ib

AGRICULTURE .

Plate. 2.

Fitj. J

DKAINIJf G.

jn^.2.

_^c

\(

M

M

TiMj. 3.

Fi^.i

±^4 asE^ b±^ y-'^^^^^r^r -TT-i .1

7-T

/■i^..5.

J5>>y.C.

/></. 7.

/■»•//.«.

Fiq. O.

FiiflO.

FiaM.

1^ 'iiiiffiie;'

Enif ' }n-T.€l'-rk'R^n.T

AGRlcm/rURE.

Pl.ATE.3.

Fitf.5

Dcxnxf

i

AGRICULTURE.

PLATE 4.

RKAPINU MACHINE.

AG 111 CULT I RE.

PLATE. 5.

Thkashing Machine.
Fig.l.

Sctil0lka-M^ Tiavff

AGRICULTURE.

201

Index. Sm'U, graTelly, . . . .
sandy, - - . -

i^^gy. - - . .

mobsy, - - - -

heatliy, - - . .

Spring bogs, - - . .

Springs, origin of, - _ -
tapping of, discovery,
applied to draining,
Stiriing, Ml-, constructs tlirashing ma.

chine, -----
Stones obstruct tillage,

removal of, . . -
Straw-cutter, - . . .
Storing of turnips, - -
Soot, a manure, - . . -
Subsoil, -----
Summer fallowing, advantages o(, -
Swedish turnip, importance & culture of,
Swine, importance of,
breeds of,

Tares, culture of,

kinds of seed,
time of sowing,
harvesting.

ib.

Tares, produce.

ib.

Vegetable manures, iaw-dutt.

122 I»,Vt

jb.

application o{, . - -

ib.

seaweed, - . .

ib. \^rs/^

113

Thi-ashing machine, importance of,

137

Vetche

s, species cultivated,

169 ^^^

ib.

origin and history,

138

ib.

dcucription of Mr Clark's,

ib.

W

96

Tillage,

143

Wall fences, . - - .

1C6

95

obstructions to, - - .

ib.

"Warpii

g lands.

188

.%•

ordiimry, - -

147

Wheat

culture of, - - -

158

ik

Trefoil, or black nonsuch, use of, -

182

preparation of land, . -

159

Turnips, impoitance of.

174

kinds of, - . . -

ib.

1.58

preparation of soil,

ib.

thick and thin chaffed.

160

1*7

kinds of, - . -^

ib.

preparation of seed,

ib.

ib.

methods of sowing,

ib.

time of sowing.

Jtl

Ui

after-management.

175

methods of, - - -

ib.

17G

insects destmctive of.

ib.

quantity of seed.

ib.

124

diseases of, . - .

ib.

after-management,

ib.

108

produce, - - -

ib.

diseases, - - -

163

153

preservation of,

176

ripening, - - .

165

176

raising seed recommended.

ib.

liarvcsllng, . . -

ib.

196"

yellow, superiority of,

ib.

sticking, . . -

ib.

197

Swedish, ...

ib.

tlirashing, - - .
produce, - . .

■b.
ib.

V

Wheel

carriages, different kinds of, .

141

169

Vegetable mattei-s as manures,

121

ib.

green crops, - - .

ib.

Y

ib.

river weeds, ...

ib.

YeUow

tuinip, superiority of,

176

ib.

malt dust, ...

ib.

=3

I

Agrigentum. AGRIGENTUM, an ancient city of Sicily, the
place of which is now- partly occiipiecrby the modern
Girgenti. It was called Acragas by the Greeks, from
its situation on a steep rock. See'GiHGENTi.

AGRIMONIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the Dodecandria class, of whicii the species enpatoria,
or agrimony, was formerly used in medicine.

He.mp Agrimony, eupatorium cannabinum, belongs
to the Syngenesia class.

Water Hemp Agrimony, i?V/e««, is also arranged
under the Syngenesia class of plants.

AGRIPPA, Henry Cornelius, a singular clia.
racter for the variety of his pursuits and the versati.
lity of his talents, was descended from a noble family,
and was born at Cologne in 14S6. In early life he
entered into the Austrian service, in the capacity of
secretary to theemperor; and having distinguislied him-
self in Italy by his military prowess, he received suita.
ble marks of honour from that monarch ; hut his ambi-
tion was not satisfied with military fame, and his literary
acquirements enabled him to distinguish himself on a
different scene. At this time the fascinating pursuit
of the discovery of the philosopher's stone was the
chief occupation of many cm.inent scholars. Agrip.
pa joined in the pursuit, acquired great reputation
as an alchemist, and in this character, according
to the spirit and fashion of the times, travelled in
different countries of Europe. During his stay in
England, he was occupied in the study of theology,
and when he returned to the continent he read lee.
tures on that subject in his native city. The same
course was repeated at Pavia and Turin in Italy ; but
the unsettled life of the lecturer afforded a very scan-
ty provision for a wife and son, which now composed
his family.

The first permanent situation which Agrippa seems
to have enjoyed, was the office of advocate and ora-
tor of the city of Metz ; but he was not destined to
remain long in this honourable station. The free-

VOL. I. PART I.

dom of his remarks on matters of religion, excited
the jealousy and persecution of tlie monks and cler-
gy, who at last compelled him to resign his situa-
tion, and seek shelter elsewhere. His stay at Cologne,
to which place he had retired, was short ; and as-
suming a new character, for several years afterwards
he practised as a physician in Switzerland and France.
While at Lyons, he was fortunate in being appointed
physician to Louisa of Savoy, mother of Francis I.
with a handsome pension ; but his refusal of comply,
ing with her request, to predict, according to his a.s.
trological knowledge, the success of the amis of
her son, was again fatal to his prosperity. Dis-
missed fi'om her service, and thrown unprovided on
the world, he next settled at Antwerp, where the
splendour of his talents excited universal admira-
tion, and procured for him various invitations and
promises of protection from the most distinguished
characters. Accepting of the patronage of Alarga-
ret of Austria, governess of the Low Countries, ho
was appointed historiographer to her brother, the Em-*
peror Charles V., and soon alter published the history
of his government. But the severe trr-atnient and
ill fortune of Agrippa had not yet taught him the
lessons of prudence; for, with an unsparing hand, he
attacked the errors and prejudices of the times, in a
work entitled " The Vanihj of' the Sciences," and
roused a powerful host of new enemies. He again
lost his patroness and his pension ; was thrown into
prison for debt ; and was no sooner relieved from
confinement than he involved himself in a new con-
troversy and persecution, by the publication of a
treatise on " Occult Philosophi/," in v.'hich lie at.
tempts an exposition of the harmony of the elemen-
tary, the intellectual, and celestial worlds. The free-
dom and violence with which he assailed the errors
of the clergy, and the bigotry of the times, which
were invariably his favourite themes, jirovoked the
resentment of his enemies, and compelled hira to wan-
cc

■Agrippa.

A G R

202

AHA

Agrippini.

Ajsipja Jer for shelter from place to place. While at Lyons,
the publieation of some satirical compositions against
Louisa of Savoy, his former patroness, again deprived
him of his liberty. The interposition of friends pro-
Cured his release ; and after a short retirement at Gre-
noble, death relieved him from all his troubles, in
1535, and in the 49th year of his age.

The life of Agrippa exhibits a remarkable display
• of varied, of extraordinary talents; and in better times,
1 when alchemy and astrology have vanished before
' the brighter light of true philosophy, such wonderful
powers would have raised their possessor to the very
first rank of eminence. But with this brilliant as-
semblage of intellectual endowments, Agrippa pos-
sessed few of the conciliatory virtues. He was rash,
imprudent, capricious, and restless ; and to a fickle
and unsteady temper, not less than to the bigotry and
persecuting spirit of the age, are to be ascribed the
trouble and disquiet which embittered his days, and

Eursucd him closely through the changing scenes of
is eventful career.

Agrippa, Herod, the grandson of Herod the
Great, was born about seven years before the birth of
Christ ; was elevated to the throne of Judea by the
emperor Caligula ; and in early life was chiefly dis-
tinguished by his excessive profusion and extrava-
gance, even among the luxurious Romans. While
j-Herod Agrippa held the sovereignty of Judea, his
uncle, Herod Ant^as, who had married his sister
Herodias, was tetrarch of Galilee, and was ambitious
of the name and dignity of king, had repaired to
Rome, at the instigation of his wife, to present his
request at the imperial throne. Letters from his ne-
phew, Herod Agrippa, charging him with treachery
and correspondence with the enemies of Rome, were
delivered at the same time to Caligula, who deposed
him from his government, sent him into exile, and
enlarged the dominions of his nephew, by uniting
Galilee with Judea.

Herod Agrippa, to conciliate the favour of the
Jews, and to secure his popularity among that peo-
ple, seems to have encouraged and promoted the
persecution of the Christians. James, the brother
of John the Evangelist, was put to death, and the
apostle Peter suft'ered imprisonment by the orders
of Herod. The close of his life is well known. Ar-
rayed in all the pomp and splendour of eastern mag-
nificence, he received the ambassadors who had come
from Tyre and Sidon to sue for peace ; and while
the words which he uttered were re-echoed by the
impious exclamation, " it is the voice of a god, and
not of a man," he was seized with a violent distem-
per, his body was devoured by worms, and, after suf-
fering the most severe agony, he died about the year
^rt. Acts, chap. xii.

Agkippa was the only son of Herod Agrippa,
and succeeded his uncle as king of Chalcis, a Roman
province. Agrippa is the person mentioned in the
Acts of the Apostles, before whom, and his sister
Berenice, and Festus governor of Judea, the apos-
tle Paul, who had been imprisoned two years before,
and had appealed to the emperor at Rome, defended
himself. Acts, chap. xxvi.

AGRIPPINA, the daughter of Germanicus, was
born at Cologne, in Germany, was greatly admired

for her beauty, and so celebrated for her h'terary ac- Agroite
quirements, that Tacitus, the historian, acknowledges ||

himself indebted to her writings ; but she was not Aha
less remarkable for profligacy, cruelty, and pride. ^"^'V
She was three times married ; and having persuaded
her last husband, the emperor Claudius, who was her
own uncle, to adopt her son Nero, she planned the
destruction of the former, and at last executed the
horrid purpose by poison, to pave the way for the
latter to the imperial throne. Nero, her son, who
had not failed to profit by the examples of cruelty
and profligacy exhibited by his mother, became jea-
lous and impatient of her influence and authority in
the government ; and having failed in an attempt to
have her removed by drowning, issued orders that
she should be privately murdered. When the exe-
cutioner was about to perpetrate the bloody deed,
she entreated him to stab her in the belly, which had
brought forth so cruel a monster.

AGROSTEMMA, Wild Lychnis, Campion, or
CoRN-CocKLE, a genus of plants belonging to the
Decandria class, one species of which is not uncom-
mon in corn fields.

AGROSTIS, Bent-Grass, a genus of plaifts be-
longing to the class Triandria. Creeping bent-grass,
belonging to this genus, is the celebrated Irish florin.

AGUE, the common name of intermittent fevers,
or such as have periodical returns of the paroxysm
or fit. See Medicine.

AGUILLANEUF, a ceremony which was ob-
served by the ancient Franks, at the commencement
of the new year, the origin of which is traced to the
Druids, who, with great solemnity, cut oft' the misle-
toe of the oak, and, after consecration, distributed it
among the people on the first day of the year. The
word is composed of a, to, m^d, misletoe, and Van neiif,
the new year ; practices which seem to have had the
same origin, are still prevalent in some parts of
France.

AGUR, who is mentioned in the book of Pro-
verbs as the son of Jakeh, is by many supposed t»
be the same with Solomon, who describes himself
under that name ; but others think, that Agur and
Lemuel, whose name also occurs in the same book,
were wise men who flourished in the time of Solo-
mon. Prov. chap. xxx. and xxxi.

AHAB, a king of Israel, who surpassed all his
predecessors in acts of impiety and oppression. At
the instigation of his wife Jezebel, he established
idolatry in his kingdom, for which he was reproved
by the prophet Elijah, and a famine of three years in
his dominions was predicted. In his time, and at the
request of Elijah, the people of Israel, and the pro-
phets of Baal, were assembled to offer sacrifice ; and
it was proposed by the prophet to ascertain whether
Jehovjui or Baal were the true god, by calling upon
them separately to consume the oifering by fire from
heaven. At the prayer of Elijah his burnt-ofiering
was consumed, but the idol Baal was invoked in
vain. His priests were instantly put to death, and
the famine was removed from the land. The oppres-
sion and wickedness of Ahab, in which he was aided
by the artifice of his wife, were remarkably ex-
emplified, in compassing, by means of false testi-
mony, the death of Nabotb, an inhabitant of Jezrcel,

A H M

205

AIL

Akaz fi'i'd seizing his vineyard, to extend the gardens of
|[ his palace. For this wickedness, he was'^ threatened

Abmcdabad. by the prophet with the judgments of heaven upon
' "^ 'his house. Ahab, during great part of his reign of
22 years, was engaged in war with the Assyrians,
He was wounded with an arrow as he conducted his
troops to attacli Ramoth-Gilead, and died in the
evening of the same day, 897 years before Christ.
His chariot, which was stained with his blood, was
washed at the fish-pool of Samaria, and the predic-
tion of the prophet, that the dogs should lick Ills
blood, was thus fulfilled. 1 Kings, chap. xvii.

AHAZ, who succeeded his father Jotham, was
king of Judah, during an unfortunate reign of 16
years. His territories were invaded by the kings of
Syria and of Israel, and were constantly exposed to the
incursions of surrounding nations. To procure the
assistance of the king of Assyria against this over-
whelming force, Ahaz exhausted his treasury, and
despoiled the temple of its ornaments. He was at-
tached to idolatry ; suppressed the worship and sac-
rifices in the temple, and erected altars to idols in •
every part of his dominions. 2 Kings, chap. xvi. ;
2 Chron. chap, xxviii.

AHAZIAH, king of Israel, was the son of Ahab,
and succeeded his father. I^ike him, he was attach-
ed to idolatry ; and having dispatched messengers to
consult the god of Ekron about his recovery from a
dangerous illness, they were met by the prophet
Elijah, who assured them that the kmg should die. .
Ahaziah, displeased at the intimation, ordered the
prophet to be apprehended ; but two of his officers,
with 50 men each, in attempting to execute his com-
mand, were destroyed by fire from heaven. Elijah
agreed to accompany another party which was sent to
bring him before the king, and again warned him of
his end, as the punishment of forsaking the true
God ; and the prediction of the prophet was verified
by the death of Ahaziah, after a short reign of two
years', and 895 years before Christ. 2 Kings, chap. i.

AHITOPHEL, the friend and counsellor, and
aftenvards the violent enemy of David king of Is-
rael. When Absalom rebelled against his father,
Ahitophel joined him, and became one of the most
active conspirators. The plans which he suggested,
and the vigorous measures which he proposed to
carry them into execution, seriously threatened the
power and authority of David ; but other counsels
prevailed, and the sagacious Ahitophel perceiving
the certain ruin of the rebels, from the inefficiency
of their conduct, or disappointed that his advice was
rejected, went to his house, aud destroyed himself.
2 Sam. chap. xv. and xvi.

AHLEDEN, a district in the principality of Lu-
nenburg Zell, in Germany, is about five miles in
length, and abounds with timber, great quantities of
which are floated to Bremen for exportation.

AHMEDABAD, or Amedabad, the capital of
the province of Guzerat, in Hindostan, received its
name from Sultan Ahmed, who was king of the pro-
vince. The city, which is situated in a fine plain,
watered by the river Sabermatty, is more than four
miles long, including the suburbs, has 12 gates, and
is well fortified. The principal buildings are, the
castle, the palace, the caravanseray, and the English

factory ; and none of the least remarkable are two
hospitals, established by the Hindoos, one of which
is appropriated for the reception of sick birds, and
the other for sick beasts. It was taken by the Bri-
tish in 1780, and restored to the Malirattas in 1783.
E. Long. 72° 37'. N. Lat. 22° 58'.

A-HULL, the situation of a ship when her sails
are furled on account of the violence of the storm ;
her helm is lashed to the lee side, and she Ues near-
ly with her side to the wind and sea.

AHUYS, a small sea-port town of Gothland i .
Sweden, about 18 miles from Christianstadt.

A J AC CIO, or Ajazzo, a sea-port town of Cor-
sica, situated on the north side of a gulf of the same
name, which lies on the south-west coast, is the ca-
pital of the island, contains more than 6000 inhabi-
tants, and will be long remembered as the birth-
place of Bonaparte. Excellent wines are produced
in the vicinity ; the coral fishery is a considerable
source of trade, and the gulf affords good anchorage
to ships of large burden.

AJAN, a country of Africa, havmg Abyssinia on
the north, and the Indian ocean on the east, and
extending t« Cape Guardafui. This country is cc;-
lebrated for its breed of horses, and in tlie northern
parts it abounds with all kinds of provisions. On
some parts of the coast the inhabitants are white,
and have long hair.

A JAX, the son of Telamon, was one of the brav-
est warriors among the Greeks in the Trojan war,
and is celebrated by Ovid as the competitor witli
Ulysses for the armour of Achilles. . Disappointed
of this prize, he became deprived of his reason, ac-
cording to one account, but according to another,
he destroyed himself.

Ajax, the son of Oileus; prince of the Locrians,
was one of the principal Grecian leaders in the siege
of Troy, and furnished 40 vessels for that expedi-
tion. He was transfixed with a thunderbolt, and
his fleet was dispersed by a storm, through the in-
fluence of the goddess Minerva, in whose temple he
had committed an outrage OU' Cassandra the daugh-
ter of Priam.

AJAZZO. See Ajaccio.

AICHSTADT, a city of Franconia, in Germany,
the capital of a bishopric, in whose cathedral is de-
posited a vessel of gold of extraordinary ricliness
and magnificence. It is called the Sun of the Holy
Sacrament, and is said to be decorated with 350 dia-
monds, 1400 pearls, 250 rubies, and otlier precious
stones. Aichstadt is 37 miles south of Nurem-
berg.

AILESBURY, or Aylesbury, a small borough
town in Buckinghamsliire, which consists of about
400 houses, sends two members to parliament, and
is 44 miles north-west from London.

AILSA, a remarkable insulated rock, at the en-
trance of the frith of Clyde, and between tlie coasta
of Cantyre and Ayrshire, fn Scotland, is of a coni-
cal form, about two miles in circumference at the
base, and rises to the height of nearly 1000 feet above
the level of the sea; is accessible only by a small bay
on one side; and the remains of a fort, vaguely reported
to have been erected by Philip II. about the time of the
invasion by the Spanish Armada, are still visible on

A-Iiuli .1.

Ailsa.

A in

204

AIX,

AJnsworiTi " precipitous cliff. Ailsa is the summer resort of
II innumerable flocks of sen-fowl, particularly the solan

Alton. goose and the puffin, which tire annuall)' taken in vast
numbers on account of their feathers. The banks in
the neighbourhood of Aiisa abound with fish.

AINSWORTH,- RoBBKT, a learned grammarian,
and author of a'well known Latin dictionary, was
horn in 1660 at Woodyale in ^Lancashire ; was edu-
cated at Bolton, in the same county, where he taught
a school for some time ; removed to Bethnal Green,
and afterwards to Hackney, where he superintended
a seminary for the education of youth ; and having
acquired a moderate competency, retired from his
laborious profession, and devoted his time to anti-
quarian researches, especially to the collection of
old coins. His Dictionary of the Latin language,
which was begun in ITH, and occupied 22 years of
his life, was first published in (juarto, in the year
1736; and enriched with the improvements and ad-
ditions of succeeding lexicographers, it is now re-
garded as the completestdictionary of that language.
A ridiculous story is in circulation, and is formally
announced on pretended good authority, that his
wife, disappointed at being deprived of his company,
while he was occupied in tlie composition of the dic-
tionary, committed the whole manuscript, which was
brought down to the letter S, to the flames ; and
that his indefatigable industry and patience soon re-
paired the loss. Mr Ainsworth died at London, and
■was buried at Poplar. A monumental inscription in
Latin, composed bj' himself, appears on his tombstone.

AIR, the thin, transparent, compressed fluid which
surrounds the globe of the earth. For an account
of its properties, see Chemistky, Meteorology,
and Pneujiatics.

Air, in Music, in its strictest acceptation, signifies
a composition for a single voice, and applied to ■ivords ;
although the meaning is sometimes extended to any
melody the passages of which are so constructed as
to be within the limits of vocal expression ; or which,
when it is sung or played, forms a connected chain
of sounds, which is called a tune.

Air and Airshire, a town and county in Scot-
land. See Ayr and Ayrshire.

Aira, Hair-Grass, a genus of plants belonging
to the class Triandria.

Air-Balloon. See Aerostation.

Air-Bladber, a peculiar organ in fishes, by the
compression and dilatation of which they have the
power of rising and sinking in the water.

AiR-GuK. See Pneumatics.

AiR-PuMP. See Pneumatics.

AISNE, one of the northern departments of
France, derives its name from the river, which is na-
vigable through the v/hole department ; contains a
population of nwre than 4'30,0(X) ; produces corn,
fruits, and cattle, and supplies Paris with wood from
its extensive -forests. The manufacture of glass is
carried on in tire forest of St Gobin. Laon is the
capital of this department.

AITON, -Willi AM, an eminent botanist and gar-
dener, was born in 1731, at a small village near Ha-
milton, in Scotland. In 1754} he went to England,
and was employed as an assistant in the physic-gar-
deu at Chelsea, under Uie- celebrated Philip Miller;

and five years aflerwards he was appointed by the
Princess-Dowager of Wales to the superintendance
of the botamical garden at Kew ; a situation which
he retained -tluring life. In 1789, he published a ca-
talogue of the.]ilants cultiv<\ted in this garden, un-
der the title of Hortus Kewcnsis, in 3 vols. Svo, con-
taining 13 plates, and an enumeration of between
5000 and 6000 species ; with notices of the first in-
troduction of particular exotics into England. Mr
Alton died in 1793.

AJUGA, Bugle, a genus of plants belonging to
the Didynamia class, of which tliree species are na-
tives of Britain.

AIUS LocuTUS, or Loquens, which signifies
speaking voice, a deity to whom the Romans erected
an altar. A voice was heard by night near the tem-
ple of Vesta, informing the Romans of the approach
of the Gauls : The warning was neglected ; but when
the event confirmed its truth, Camillus acknowledg-
ed the voice to be that of a new deity, and recom-
mended the altar to be erected.

AIX, an ancient city of France, and capital of the
department of the Moutlis of the Rhone, formerly
Provence, is said to have been the first Roman sta-
tion in that country, where Caius Sextus Calvinus,
the consul, established a colony more than 100 years
before the Christian era ; and from this consul, and
the warm mineral springs of the place, the city de-
rived the name of Aquce Sextice, Few remains of an-
tiquity are now visible ; the ancient baths were only
discovered about the beginning of die eighteenth
century. The modern city is distiaguished by ele-
gant public buildings, spacious streets and squares,
and a fine walk, shaded with trees, and cooled with
fountains. In the" church of one of the convents in
the city, it is said that there is a silver statue of the
Virgin Mary nearly the size of life. Aix has some
trade in oil. The population exceeds 23,000 ; it is
five leagues distant from Marseilles, and 163 from
Paris.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, a fine city of Germany,
in the circle of Westphalia and duchy of Juliers, is
situated in a valley, and surrounded with mountains
and woods. Aix-la-chapelle lays claim to consider-
able antiquity ; was a place of note in the time of
the Romans, who selected it as one of their stations,
and, from its celebrated mineral waters, gave it the
name of urbs aquf.iisis, city of watei's, and aquagra-
nii, or waters of Granius ; and became the residence
of the emperor Charlemagne, who rebuilt and enlar-
ged it after the destructive ravages of the Huns un-
der their leader Attila, in the year ^Sl. A chapel,
erected by Charlemagne, and dedicated to the Vir-
gin, was the origin of its present distinctive appella-
tion. The coronation of the king of the Romans
was formerly performed in this place, where, it is
said, the sword of Charlemagne, t'le book of the gos-
pels, jewels, &c. employed in that ceremony, are
still preserved. The more ancient city, about two
miles in circumference, is included in another of
later date, and more than double its extent, and
both are surrounded with walls and flanked with
towers. The city is traversed by many rivulets ;
some of which drive machinery ; and it is adorned
and refreshed by twenty public fountains, one of

Ajnga

Aix.

AKE

205

AKE

Ak««3ide. which, distinfjuished by its elen:ance, is surmounted
by a statue of Charlemagne, of gilt brass. Some of
the public edifices are remarkable for their magnifi-
cence ; among which the cathedral and stadthouse
hold the first place. The latter fabric consists of
three stories. The uppermost is occupied by one
apartment of 160 feet in length and 60 in breadth.
The treaties of peace between France and Spain, in
1668, and between France, England, and the allies,
in 1748, were arranged and concluded in this city.
The population exceeds 23,000.

But the chief celebrity of Aix-la-Chapelle is de-
rived from its mineral waters, which attract stran-
gers from very distant regions. The waters contain
sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which, as it escapes, de-
posits the sulphur, and the latter is sometimes col-
lected and sold, carbonate of lime and soda, and
common salt. The temperature varies from 112° to
l^S" Fahr. The waters are used internally or by
bathing ; and for the latter purpose numerous and
commodious baths are constructed.

AKENSIDE, Mark, a celebrated poet, was born
at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in 1721. His father, a
butcher by trade, destined liim for the ministry a-
jnong the presbyterian dissenters, and sent him, at
the age of eighteen, to the University of Edinburgh,
where he might complete an education that had been
rapidly advanced at the free school and a private
academy in his native place. The clerical profession
not suiting the taste of the young man, those stu-
dies, which are commonly directed towards it, were
abandoned at the close of his first college session,
when he devoted himself with eagerness to the cul-
tivation of general literature, and finally resolved on
the medical profession. Having formed this deter-
mination, he repaid a certain contribution, allotted
by the English dissenters for the instruction of their

Eoorer theological scholars, on which partly he had
itherto been maintained, but to which, considering
his altered views, he honourably thought he had now
»o claim.

The medical school of Edinburgh at this time had
not risen to that eminence which it afterwards ac-
quired, though possessed of some important advan-
tages productive of its future greatness. Its rising
consequence still acknowledged the superior dignity
of the Dutch professors. Our poet, accordingly, af-
ter a residence in that University of three years, di-
ligently and variously occupied, repaired to Leyden,
where, in 17t4, he took his degree in medicine ; and
at this place he became intimate with Mr Dyson,
then a student of civil law, to whose friendship and
liberality he was subsequently inde*ited for very sub-
stantial favours. On his return to England, m the
same year, he published the poem by which his
name is consecrated in the history of our literature.
How long this brilliant production, " The Pleasures
of Imagination," had employed his genius, does not
exactly appear ; but there can be little doubt that
its basis at least was adjusted previously to his resi-
dence in Edinburgh, where he had been noted for
poetical talents. The success of this performance
was flattering at its first appearance. In the words
of Pope, whose advice, according to Dr Johnson's
information, had been taken by Dodsley the pub-

lisher, as to the reasonableness of the price demand-
ed for it, which was L.1'20, the author " was no ■
every-day writer." There existed few poems in the
language, indeed, a comparison with which Aken-
side might have scrupled to encounter ; and in cer-
tain qualities essential to excellence, it is still ques-
tionable if he has ever been surpassed. But to this
commendation, it is neither invidious nor unnecessa-
ry to add, that he himself did not every day write
so well. Some smaller pieces of a later growth were
not equal to his early promise ; and the many altera-
tions which he projected on this work at various
times, and by which, had they been fully effected, it
must have been subjected to a very different charac-
ter, are more remarkable for a solicitude to justify
public opinion, than calculated to command' it by
irresistible flashes of genius. The faculty of inven-
tion, in which, perhaps, he was originally defective,
could not emerge from the process of correction.
The mind of Akenside was so disciplined to thought,
and furnished with all the ordinary helps which en-
sure accuracy, that it might have safely trusted it-
self in the loftiest flights of fancy, totally regardless
of those restraints which arc too often imposed by
the caprices of criticism ; and perhaps it needed such
indulgence to divest itself of a stiff, though digni-
fied deportment, which seems to have been induced
by warm admiration of antiquity, and excessive at-
tachment to classical learning.

The circumstances of the private life of Akenside,
it may be suspected, contributed not a little to check
the efforts of his muse in attempting higher degree*
of poetic excellence. He was mortified in an un-
equal struggle with Dr Stonehouse, who had suc-
cessfully preceded him in medical practice at North-
ampton ; and having left that place, first for Hamp-
stead, and then for the capital, where he had still more
formidable difficulties to encounter, he was saved the
necessity of exertion, which so frequently proves the
source of eminence, by the offer of L.300 a-year
from his friend Dyson, till his profession afforded
him an adequate income. A bounty so unusual was
perhaps more creditable to the giver than salutary
to the receiver, as it probably proved obstructive of
his muse's compassionating inspirations.

The fame of Akenside as a poet, which had been
his precursor in London, the well-founded confi-
dence of his friends in the superiority of his talents,
and the extent of his acquirements, added to a pru-
dential use of all the common modes of attracting
notice, procured him distinction, though some pecu-
liarities of manner, and an accommodating temper
of mind, were wanting to obtain popularity as a
physician among numerous candidates. At last, how-
ever, he made some progress in professional employ-
ment and reputation ; he became physician to St
Thomas' Hospital ; and among the honours at which
he successively arrived, was his appointment of phj'-
sician to the queen. This took place a little before
his death, which was occasioned by a putrid fever, in
June 1770, and in the 49th year of his age.

Akenside's poetical works, viz. " The Pleasures
of Imagination," as last modelled by liiniself, and
two books of odes on various occasions, were pub-
lished by Mr Dyson, who survived him, iu 1772.

Akcn&ide.

ALA

206

ALA

AlabajiOf. His Treatises on subjects belonging to medical
II science, which lie seems to have conscientiously

Aland. prosecuted, are mostly all inserted in the Philoso-
phical Transactions. Our opinion of Akcnside's ge-
nius as a poet has been partly stated. " The Plea-
sures of Imagination," tlie only production by which
his name can be preserved from oblivion, must be
judged by a peculiar standard. It is a didactic poem,
on a subject which, besides being of difficult dis-
cussion, had descended to him previously entangled
in opinions rendered venerable by their antiquity,
8ud become still more enticing by the refining arti-
fices of modern philosophy.

The chief excellencies of Akenside are, ardent de-
votion to what is truly good, strength of cancep-
tion, richness of imagery, and a noble command of
elegancies in language and sentiment; his chief faults
are more to be regretted than condemned ; want of
originality, narrowness of invention, and a kind of
perplexed exuberance of ideas, which, unless the
reader is perfectly familiar with the exercise it oc-
casions, is apt utterly to distract attention from the
main object that is thought entitled to such extraor-
dinary accompaniments. " In the general fabrica-
tion of his lines," says Dr Johnson, " he is perhaps
superior to any other writer of blank verse ; his flow
is smooth, and his pauses are musical ; but the con-
catenation of his verses is commonly too long conti-
nued, and the full close does not recur with suffi-
cient frequency. Tlie sense is carried on through a
long intertexture of complicated clauses, and as no-
thing is distinguished nothing is remembered."

AL, an Arabic particle, signifying the, which is
prefixed to words, as Al Kali, Alkoran, the Kali,
Uie Koran.

ALABASTER, a common name which has been
long applied to some varieties of gypsum, or plaster
of Paris, which are employed for the purposes of
statuary and ornamental productions, as vases and
small figures for the interior of apartments. It is also
applied to some kinds of marble or carbonate of lime.
See Mineralogy.

ALAMAGAN, one of the Ladrone islands in the
Indian ocean, is about 12 miles in circumferance ;
the land is in some places so elevated, that it is seen
at the distance of 12 or 14 leagues ; and a volcanic
mountain, close to the sea, rises to the height of
1200 or 1500 feet.

ALAND, with its dependent islands, about 80 in
number, is situated between the gulfs of Bothnia and
Finland, in the Baltic. These islands lie between
N. Lat. 59° 47' and 60° 30', and between E. Long.
19° 17' and 22° 7'. Aland, the principal island, is a-
kout 20 miles long, and 16 broad. The inliabitants
•f this island, the number of which, in 1772, exceed-
ed 19,000, are employed in agriculture, in fishing, or
tiie ordinary mechanic arts. Wheat, rye, oats, and
barley, are sufficiently productive in some parts of the
island -, the climate is in general favourable, and the
sea around the island is seldom frozen. Tlie inliabi-
tants of Aland resemble the peasants of Sweden in
their dress, manners, and customs. The mountains
are chiefly composed of red granite ; the quadrupeds
and birds are such ri!; are common to northern regi-
ons, »ud fish arc abundant.

ALANS, a warlike and barbarous people, suppos-
ed to be of Tartar origin, who seem to have first oc-
cupied the mountainous region near tlie source of the
river Jaick. Migrating southwards, they settled on
the Danube, in the year 406 ; traversed Gaul, and
afterwards entered Spain, and seized many of its fin-
est provinces. Discomfited and dispersed by the
Goths and Franks, their name was finally blended and
lost in that of their conquerors. The Alans resem-
bled the Tartars by travelling in waggons ; in regard-
ing their flocks as their riches ; in adorning the trap-
pings of their horses with the scalps of their enemies ;
m their attachment to warlike exercises ; and in con-
sidering the warrior peculiarly fortunate who died in
the field.

ALARIC I. a celebrated Gothic leader, and king
of the Visigoths, was first distinguished when he pas-
sed the Danube, in the year 376, with an army of
200,000 men. According to the policy of the Ro-
man emperors, who engaged one tribe of barbarians
to protect the provinces against the inroads of o-
thers, Alaric appeared in a conspicuous and efficient
character in the Gothic war which ended in 382 ;
but thinking himself overlooked, and his services ne-
glected, he collected his army, and laid waste the
finest provinces of Greece. Even the city of Athens
was only spared in consequence of the earnest in-
treaties and humble submission of the inhabitants.
Advancing into Peloponnesus, his career of cruelty
and blood received a slight check ; but having amuB*
ed and deceived the rival emperors by his cunning
and treachery, he invaded Italy in the year 400, and
ravaged it without opposition. Alaric suffered ano-
ther check from a successful attack of the Romans,
who overthrew his army with great slaughter. In
his second invasion of Italy he appeared before the
walls of Rome, and having received large sums of
money, raised the siege ; but his army being re-
inforced, he again invested the capital, took it by
assault, deposed the emperor, and gave up the city
to the plunder of his soldiers, which was continued
for six days with the most ferocious cruelty, and
with no regard to rank, age, or sex. This happen-
ed in the year 410. Alaric died the following year,
while his troops were preparing to embark for Sicily;
and it is not a little singular, that the place of his
burial was the channel of a river, the waters of which
were for a time turned from their course, to allow the
body to be deposited in the grave.

Alaric II. a king of the Visigoths, succeeded his
father Euric in the year 484, and possessed the sove-
reignty of the whole intermediate country between the
rivers Rhone and Garonne. The name of Alaric has
been transmitted to posterity in consequence of his
attempt to adapt the laws of the emperor Theodosius
to the genius and character of his own people. These
institutes are known by the title of the Code of Al-
aric ; the Arian controversy keenly prevailed ia the
time of his reign, and he not only espoused the here-
sy, but supported its tenets by the power of the
sword. Clovis, the king of the Franks, advanced
with an army against him, and routed the Goths.
The two kings agreed to meet in single combat, and
Alaric fell in the encounter, which took place in the
year 507.

A1m3,

II.

Alaric.

ALB

2or

ALB

Alauja

Albasi.

ALAUDA, the lark, a genus of birds belonging
to the order ofPasseres. See Ornithology.

ALAY, which signifies triumph, is a singular cere-
mony observed by the Turks at the jcomnienceirient
of war. The alay begins with a procession, in which
artizans, seated in splendid cars, exhibit to the spec-
tators the implements of their trades, and the mode
of operation. The standard of the prophet, which is
conveyed from the seraglio, and is to be presented to
the army, next follows, and is beheld with the most
fanatical enthusiasm. The Emirs only are permitted
to touch it, and the look of an infidel is regarded as
the most dreadful profanation. On one occasion,
described by Baron Tott, the Emir who preceded the
consecrated banner, exclaimed with a loud voice :
" Let no infidel profane with his presence the stand-
ard of the prophet, and let every mussulman who dis-
covers an unbeliever make it known, under pain of
reprobation." The Christians, ignorant or unsuspi-
cious of danger, had crowded to witness the cere-
mony, and were in a moment involved in one undis-
tinguished massacre.

ALBA, or Alba Fucensis, from its vicinity to the
Fucine lake, now called Albi, is an ancient town of
Italy, and is noted in Roman history as the state
prison, where captive princes, after being exhibited
in a public triumph, were confined. It is situated in
a mountainous region, and the remains of a fortifica-
tion, as well as the ruins of an amphitheatre, a tem-
ple, and some other public buildings, are still visible.

ALBA is also the ancient name of several Roman
towns, as Alba Helviorum, now Viviers in Langue-
doc, in France ; Alba Julia, now Weissenburg, in
Transylvania ; and Alba Longa, in Italy, which was
established by Ascanius, the son of iEneas, at the
foot of the Albanian mount, was the royal residence
till the building of Rome, and was destroyed by Tul-
lus Hostilius, and the inhabitants were removed to
Rome.

ALBAN, ST. reputed the first Christian martyr
in Britain, was born at Verulam, and flourished about
the end of the third century ; visited Rome in com-
pany with Amphibalus, a monk of Caerleon, and
served as a soldier for seven years in the army of
Dioclesian ; after his return to his native country
was converted to Christianity, through the influence
and instructions of the monk who had lieen his friend
and companion ; and suffered martyrdom about the
year 303, during the persecutions which raged under
the reign of that emperor. Numerous miracles, it is
said, accompanied his execution. St Alban was held
in such veneration, that, more than four centuries af-
ter his death, Otta, king of the Mercians, erected a
magnificent monastery to his memory. About the
middle of the 13th century, when the church was re-
paired, some leaden chests, containing relics, were
discovered, one of which was supposed to be the de-
pository of the body of the martyr. The town of St
Albans derives its name from this saint.

ALBANI, or Albano, Francis, an eminent
painter, was born at Bologna in Italy, in 1578. He
discovered an attachment to painting at the early age
of 12, and studied, first under Denys Calvert, and
afterwards in the school of the Caracci, along with
the celebrated Guido Rheni, with whom he contrac-

ted a very intimate friendship ; but a rivalship for Alb»»i«.
fame in the same profession soon dissolved the con- v^V^^
nection. Albani afterwards resided many years at
Rome ; and on the death of his first wife returned to
his native city, where he married a beautiful and
handsome young lady, who, with her children, serv-
ed as the models of his Venuses and cupids, and, it
is supposed, contributed to give that sameness Of
form and attitude which is observed in his figures.
The reputation of Albani procured him general it-a-
pect while he lived ; he received the visits ot ihe
most distinguished persons in Jhis own profession; en-
joyed the correspondence of several princes; and was
invited to England by Charles I. in a letter signed
with his own hand. His paintings are admired for
elegance of design and harmony of colouring. His
most celebrated picture is that of the four elements,
in the palace of Turin ; and his smaller pictures grace
the cabinets of most collectors. Albani died in 1660,
at the advanced age of 82. The following is a trans-
lation of some epigrammatic verses which were in-
tended for his monumental inscription, and are still
preserved :

" The mortal remains of the illustrious Albani,
who gave life to shade, lie injerred in this tomb ; the
earth never produced so wonderfiil an artist, or a
hand like his, which gave colours to the soul, and a
soul to colours. Prometlieus animated clay, and
gave life by means of the sun ; but Albani animated
merely by the assistance of shade."

ALBANIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, which
lies chiefly between the Euxine and Caspian seas,
and is bounded on the north by mount Caucasus.
It is now known by the names of Schirwan and East
Georgia. Albania was formerly an independent king-
dom, and it is doubtful whether it was ever under
complete subjection to the Roman power. Many
parts of the country are extremely fertile. The men
of Albania are celebrated by ancient historians for
their comeliness, stature, and strength; and the beau-
ty of the women is highly extolled by modern travel-
lers.

Albania, the ancient Epirus, is an extensive pro-
vince of the Turkish empire, which Ijes between the
S9th and 43d degrees of north latitude, stretching
about 250 miles along the coast of the Mediterra-
nean and the Gulf of Venice. The greatest breadth
inland is not more than 100 miles, and towards the
south it does not exceed 30 miles. The mountainous
chain of the ancient Pindus separates this country
from Macedonia and Thessaly.

The Albanians first rose to distinction on the de-
cline of the Greek empire ; by their valour they re-
sisted the Bulgarians, who had become masters of
the contiguous provinces of Greece ; and, under the
command of the celebrated leader George Castriot,
better known by the name of Scanderbeg, they suc-
cessfully opposed Mahomet II. the conqueror of
Constantinople, who employed the most vigorous ef-
forts in their subjugation ; but, after all his exertions,
he was compelled formally to acknowledge their in-
dependence. The death of their leader, and the
renewed attacks of the Turks, forced them, in
14'78, to submit to a state of nominal subjection,
which seems never to have been general or cordial.

ALB

208

ALB

AJhano. RcTolts were not uncommon in many parts of the pro-
V^^/ vince ; the inhabitants of tlie mountainous regions
' inever gave up their independence ; and now, by the

energy and vigorous enterprize of Ali Pasha, its pre-
sent governor, Albania ahnost holds the rank of a se-
parate kingdom. Since the year 1811, when he
gained 'possession of some of the most fertile parts
.<)f the country, and added to his government a po-
pulation of nearly 300,000 souls, his power is almost
absolute. Such, indeed, is his political influence,
that, it is said, Bonaparte solicited his favour, and,
with his usual liberality, offered to raise him to the
dignity of king of Albania; but the Pasha had the
sagacity to perceive the ambitious designs of the
French ruler, and considered it a wiser policy to at-
tach himself to Britain. This bold chief keeps up an
army of 10,000 men ; his revenue, of which a small
part only is supposed to be remitted to Constanti-
nople, is considerable, and his annual income from
private property is estimated at L. 200,000 Sterling.
An immense building near Joannina, the capital of
the countrj', which may be considered as a kind of
fortified palace, is the usual residence of Ali. His
haram, in which are immured 300 females, is a dis-
tinct edifice, and fitted up in a most magnificent
style. *

The inhabitants of this country are estimated at
1 ,200,000 ; they are of a gay, lively, and active cha-
racter ; averse to regular industry, strongly attached
to arms and plunder, and think it no disgrace to join
the numerous bands of robbers who infest the moun-
tainous districts. They are not very rigid followers of
the prophet ; and indeed the true believers regard
them as iniidels. The women arc held in a greater
degree of contempt tlian is usual even among the
most barbarous nations. The Turkish cavalry, known
by the name of Aniauts, are raised in Albania.

* Joannina, the capital of Albania, finely situated on
the banks of a lake, is very irregularly built ; but as
it is interspersed with trees and gardens, and sur-
rounded with lofty mountains, it presents a pictur-
esque appearance. The inhabitants are estimated at
35,000. Among the Greek residents science and li-
terature are not neglected ; and the commerce of
Albania is in the hands of the same people, who con-
duct it through Arta, a town in the southern district
«f the country, and situated on a gulf of the same
name. Among the exports are enumerated, timber
for building, and fire-wood to Malta ; grain to the
same place ; to Italy, and the Ionian isles, wool and
some coarse cloth, cotton and cotton yarn, oil and
tobacco. Guns, gunpowder, hardware, coffee and
sugar, are included in the list of imports. A very
iictive commercial scene is annually exhibited in Oc-
tober, at a fair held in the vicinity of the capital. See
Hobhouse's Travels in Albania, and Holland's Tra-
>cels in the Ionian Isles and Albania.

ALBANO, a town of Italy in the Campagna di
Roma, and on the banks of a lake from which the
name is derived. Ancient monuments, some of which
■ are reputed, on doubtful authority, to be the tombs
of Ascanius, the son of TEncas, and of the celebrat-
ed Horatii and Curiatii, are seen at the entrance of
the town ; and the ruins of Domitian's palace in the
vicinity are also visible. The lake, which is seven

miles in circumference, and embosomed in an am- Albans
phitheatre of lofty mountains, the Barberini palace, {|

with its fine gardens, and the salubrious climate, ren- Alberoni.
der Albano an attractive spot, and an agreeable sum-
mer retirement to the Roman nobility. It is 15 miles
south-east from Rome.

ALBANS, St. a borough and market-town of
Hertfordshire in England, near the spot where the
ancient Roman city Verulam stood, the place of
which is marked only by the remains of some mud
walls and the occasional discovery of Roman coins
and fragments of pottery. The monastery was erect-
ed in the end of the 8th century, by Offa, king of
the Mercians, to the memory of St Alban. The
church still remains, and contains the tombs of the
founder, and of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester.
The body of the latter, in a leaden coffin, and pretty
entire, was discovered in a vault about the beginning
of the 18th century. A monument to the memory
of the great reformer of philosophy. Lord Bacon, is
erected in St Michael's church. St Albans is a great
wheat market. The population exceeds 4000, and
it is 21 miles distant from London.

ALBANY, the capital of a county of the samename
in the state of New York in North America, situated
near the head of Hudson's river, and in the mfHst of
a fertile country, traversed with numerous navigable
lakes and rivers, and affording every kind of facility
to commercial intercourse. The manufacture of
starch, mustard, hair-powder, snuff, and tobacco, is
conducted on a large scale at works in the neigh-
bourhood, which are chiefly moved by water. The
inhabitants, collected from all parts of the world,
were estimated, in 1797, at more than 6000. Albany
is 160 miles distant from New York, and 340 south,
from Quebec.

ALBERONI, Julius, a distinguished statesman,
was the son of a gardener at Placentia, where he was
born in 1664, continued for some time in the same
occupation, and rose to the rank of first minister of
btate in Spain. For some good offices which he had
rendered to the Duke of Vendome's secretary, who
had been robbed near the place where Alberoni re-
sided, he was taken into the service of that famous
general, accompanied him into Spain, where his pow-
erful talents and bold ambition found ample scope ;
and having projected and accomplished the marriage
of Philip V. and the Princess of Parma, through the
interest of that princess he was advanced to the dig-
nity of cardinal and archbishop of Valencia, and fi-
nally promoted to the head of affairs in the kingdom.
Having eft'ected certain internal arrangements which
gave vigour and stability to the government, and ha-
ving improved and strengthened the Spanish navy,
Alberoni directed his ambitious views to the execu-
tion of bolder and more daring enierjirises. The
restoration of the pretender to the throne of Eng-
land, the annihilation of the power of the Germans in
Italy, and of the Duke of Orleans as regent in France,
were among his favourite schemes ; and to insure their
successful accomplishment, he formed a strong alli-
ance with Peter the Great of Russia, Charles XII. of
Sweden, and the Ottoman Porte. France and Eng-
land coalesced against this powerful combination ;
war was declared in 1719, and the preliminary to the

ALB

209

ALB

Albert

Albiuo.

negotiations for prnce in the following vear was the
banishment of Alberoni. He reiiredfroni Spain load-
ed witii wealtli, spent the last years of liis life in es-
tablishing a seminar}' in his native city for the edu-
cation of the poor, and died in 1752, at the advanced
age of 88.

ALBERT THE Great, in Latin Albertus
BocsTAOius, and sirnanied Grotus, or Magnus, a
celebrated alchemist, was born at Luwingen in Swa-
bia, about the end of the 12th, or beginning of the
13th century ; was educated at Pavia and Paris, and
became doctor of medicine ; joined the order of
Dominican friars, acquired great popularity as a
teacher of theology and preacher of the crusades,
and was promoted to the bishopric of Ratisbon, the
dignity and emoluments of which he resigned, and
returned to his cell at Cologne, where he first tiiught
philosophy and divinity, and where he died in 1280.

The superior knowledge of Albert, which travelled
far beyond the times in which he lived, drew down
upon him the charge of being a magician and a con-
jurer. His " Book on Minerals," marks his proficiency
in natural history; his " Liliiim J/oris de spinis avul-
sum," " Lily of the flower plucked from the prickles,"
and " Speculum alchemia de compositione lapidis,"
' Mirror of alchemy concerning the composition of
the stone," shew how deeply he was engaged in the
pursuits of alchemy ; and the collection of his works,
chiefly philosophical and theological, printed in 1651,
in 21 folio volumes, affords ample proof of the amaz-
ing extent of his industry.

ALBI, a town of Italy. See Alba.
Albi, a town of the department of Tarn in France,
situated on an elevated bank of the river, is remark-
able for the- fine choir of the cathedral, a rich silver
shrine of exquisite workmanship, in which are depo-
sited the relics of St Clair, the first bishop, and a
magnificent chapel dedicated to the same saint. Albi
is celebrated for its fine shady walks, and for the
richness and beauty of the surrounding scenery. TJ^e
population is nearly 7000. The distance north-east
from Toulouse is 35 miles, 'and 250 south from Paris.
ALBINO, a name which seems to have been first
employed by the Portuguese to designate a variety
of the negro race, in wliich a remarkable deviation
in the colour and appearance of the skin, the hair,
and the eyes, is observed. The peculiarities of this
variety consist in the whiteness of the skin and hair,
the redness of the eye, and great sensibility to light.
• The .Albinos, or white Moors, as they have been
called, are not confined to the natives of Africa.
They have occasionally appeared both among Indi-
ans and Europeans ; and in some parts of Africa and
America, it is said, they are so numerous, that they
are considered as a distinct race. Saussure, in his
Travels on the Alps, particularly describes two Al-
binos, brothers, who were natives of the valley of
Chainouni.

The researches of anatomists have discovered the
immediate cause of the singular ap))earances in the
Albino. The dead white colour of the skin is ascrib-
ed to the absence of the rete muco.wm, or cellular
membrane, to which the peculiar colour of the skin
and hair is owing. In the negro this membrane is
black, and therefore the coiii])lexion is tlie same.

iiJU I. i'AiiX I.

The pink ov rose colour of the eye in the Albino, is Albinm
traced to a similar defect, in the want of the black |{

membrane, p/gmeutum mgnim of anatomists, on which Albourg.
the dark colour of the eye <lepeuds. A similar red-
ness of the eye, which no doubt arises from the same
cause, is observed in white varieties of some quadru-
peds, as mice a^d rabbits. Albinos are generally
observed also to have a relaxed and debilitated con-
stitution, and to be deficient in strength and vigour ;
so that the appearances which they exhibit, and de-
viations from the ordinary structure of the spene*,'
are justly regarded as constituting a peculiar morbid
condition of the body.

ALBINUS, Bernard Siegfred, a celebrated
anatomist, was born at Frankfort on the Oder, in the
year 1697. His father was then professor of medi-
cine in the univeielty of Frankfort ; but five years
al\erwards, being appointed to the professorship of
anatomy and surgery at Leyden, he removed to that
place, where the son had the best opportunities of
improving himself in general literature, as well as in
anatomy and surgery, to which he had now particu-
larly devoted his studies, aided and encouraged by
the celebrated anatomist Kuysch, and the no less fit-
mous lithotoniist Rau, who then flourished at Ley-
den. After a year spent in Paris, Albinus was re-
called, and at the reconmiendation of Boerhaave was
appointed lecturer on anatomy and surgery, and on
the death of his father, in 1721, professor of ana-
tomy in the university of Leyden.

Albinus soon distinguished himself as an able and
useful teacher, and continued to prosecute his fa-
vourite studies with great zeal and industry ; but his
labours were not confined to oral instruction. In
1734 he published Historia Musculorum Hominis,
the History of the Human Muscles, one of the most
splendid and accurate anatomical works which has
yet appeared. In 1745, he was appointed professor
of medicine in the same university, and was succeed-
ed by his brother in the anatomical chair. With the
same unabated zeal, and the same unwearied assi-
duity, he continued to discharge the duties of his
office till the time of his death, which happened in
September 1770. Beside the work already mention-
ed, Albinus was the author of many other valuable
productions, connected with the illustration of ana-
tomy and physiology.

ALBION, the ancient name of Britain. The ori-
gin of the name is not distinctly ascertained.

Albion, New, a country on the north-west coast
of America, which received the name from Sir Fran-
cis Drake, who discovered and took possession of
it in 1578. This country, which is also called Ca-
lifornia, was visited by Captain Cook, La Perouse,
and more lately by Caiitain Vancouver, who fixes
the boundaries of New Albion between the 30tli and
45th degree of N. latitude.

ALBIS, the ancient name of the Elbe, a river in
Germany, waS long the boundary of the RomaA ter-
ritory in tills quarter of the world. Six years before
the Christiaii era, a Roman general having crossed
the river witli a iev troops. w;is deemed worthy of
the honours of a tri-tiinph for that exploit.

ALBOURG, a :own of Denmark. See Aal-
fiouitc. .

p D

ALC

210

ALC

Albnca ALBUCA, Bastard Star of Bethlehem, a genus of

{| plants belonging to the Hexandria class.
Alcala. ALBUGO, or Leucoma, a disease of the eye, or

a wliitc opaque spot growing upon the cornea.

ALBUM, a white table or register, in which the
names of magistrates and public transactions were
recorded. Of these registers tliere were various
kinds, which were distinguished by different names
among the Romans.

ALBUMEN, a substance which forms a consti-
tuent part, both of animal and vegetable matters,
and exists in great abundaJice in the v/hitc of eggs.

ALBUQUERQUE, a town of Estremadura in
Spain, is situated on an eminence, and has a consi-
derable trade in wool and woollen manufactures. It
is nine miles distant from the frontiers of Portugal,
and 20 miles N. from Badajos.

ALBURNUM, a soft white substance, which lies
between the inner bark andt^ he wood of trees, and,
acquiring solidity, is converted into the wood itself.

ALC A, or Auk, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of Anseres. See Ornithology.

ALC^US, a celebrated Greek lyric poet, was
born at Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos, and flou-
rished about 600 years before the Christian era. He
was cotemporary with the poetess Sappho. A very
few fragments of his works now remain. His name
and reputation have been transmitted to posterity
in tlie works of others, and chiefly by the verses of
Horace.

ALCAICS, the name of several kinds of verse,
derived from Alcaeus, the supposed inventor. One
kind, composed of five feet, consists of a spondee,
or iambus, an iambus, a long syllable, and two dac-
tyls : another kind consists of two dactyls, and two
trochees. These are called dactylic alcaics. Tlie
simple alcaic verse consists of an epitrite, two cho-
riambuses, and a bacchius.

The alcaic ode consists of several strophes of
four verses each ; the first two verses were dactylic
alcaics of the first kind ; the third verse includes four
iambic feet, with a long syllable ; and the fourth is
a dactylic alcaic of the second kind.

ALCAID, Alcade, or Alcalde, an officer of jus-
tice or magistrate among the Moors, Spaniards, and
Portuguese. The duties of the alcaid in Spain cor-
respond nearly with those of a justice of the jieace
in Britain ; and, among the Moors, the same magis-
trate is invested with supreme authority, both in civil
and criminal matters.

ALCALA DE Henares, the ancient Complu-
tium, is a beautiful city in New Castile, in Spain ;
is situated on the river Henares, and is celebrated
for its university, which was founded in the ISth cen-
tury, and restored and more richly endowed by Car-
dinal Ximenes in the 15th century. The library of
tlie university formerly possessed many valuable ma-
nuscripts, which were collected at great expence ;
and from these manuscripts, and undei* the superin-
tendance of the most learned men of the time, the
celebrated Polyglot Bible, called from the place the
Coraplutensian Polyglot, was printed by Cardinal
Ximenes, in 1499. About the middle of the 18th
centurj, many of these manuscripts, it is to be re-
gretted, were disposed of by an ignorant librarian,

as waste paper, to make room for new books. Al-
cala is twelve miles E. from Madrid, to which place
the waters of a very pure spring are conveyed for
the use of the royal family.

ALCANTARA, a town of Estremadura, in Spain,,
is situated on the banks of the Tagus, and is cele-
brated for its fine bridge, which was built in the time
of the emperor Trajan. This bridge consists of six
arches, is 670 feet in length, 28 in breadth, and
rises 200 feet above the surface of the river. The
accommodation of the bridge induced the Moors to
select that spot for the city, from which the name
Al Cantara, or the Bridge, is derived. It is 45
leagues from Madrid.

An ancient military order in Spain, denominated
the Knights of Alcantara, took their name from this
place. They were formerly called Knights of Cala-
trava, and seem to have been associated for the pur-
pose of expelling the Moors.

ALC ARES, a town of La Mancha in Spain, which
is celebrated for an ancient aqueduct, and a breed of
horses, which are remarkable for their fleetness and
strength. It is 138 miles south-east from Madrid.

ALCARRAZAS, a kind of pottery ware, which
is manufactured at Anduxar, in Andalusia, in Spain,,
and are employed for cooling liquids. These vessels
are very porous, and as the liquid exudes through
their substance, it evaporates rapidly from their ex-
ternal siu-face, and thus cools down the contained"
liquid far below the temperature of the atmosphere.
Vessels of this kind are in common use in Spain, and
are very generally employed in the warmer regions
of the globe.

ALCEA, the Holly-hock, a genus of plants be-
longing to the class Monadelphia.

ALC EDO, the King- fisher, a genus of birds be-
longing to the order of Picae. See Ornithology.

ALCHEMILL A, Ladies Mantle, a genus of plants
belonging to the class Tetrandria, and of which two
species are natives of Britain.

ALCHEMY, or the Chemistry, an art, or sci-
ence, as some call it, which began to be studied a-
bout the third or fourth century, and continued to
flourish for many ages. The captivating objects'
which alchemy held out to its disciples and followers
were the philosopher's stone, by which the baser
metals might be converted into gold, the universal
medicine which should cure all diseases, and the uni-
versal solvent. Alchemy excited the notice of the
Roiran government in the time of the emperor Dio-
clesian, and the books which treated of the subject
were ordered to be burnt. In England, it is curious
to observe, the practice of alchemy was at one time,
about the middle of the 15th century, permitted by
licence, while, at other times, it was suppressed by
severe edicts. See Chemistry.

ALCIBIADES, a celebrated Athenian general,
was not n>ore distinguished by his talents in the field
than by his eloquence in the Forum, by the versa-
tility of his private character, than by the instability
of his patriotism; now addicted to study and temper-
ance, and now indulging in luxury and dissipation ;
now fighting the battles of the republic, and now
leading the armies of its enemies against his country.
His influence among the Athenians excited the jeair

ALC

211

ALD

Alcinous o^sy of some of his fellow citizens ; he was accused
II of sacrilege, and recalled from an expedition against

Akobaca. Syracuse, to answer to the cliarge ; but he declined
the summons, and retired to Thebes ; the sentence of
condemnation was pronounced against him, anil his
property was confiscated. He joined the Lacede-
monians, and led them to victory against his country-
men. The Lacedaemonians, in their turn, became
jealous of his power ; and, fearing liis return to A-
thens, threatened his life. To escape the danger he
fled, and, through the intercession of two Atl)enian
generals, was restored to the favour of his country-
men, and again admitted to the commard of their
armies. He soon obliged the Lacedaemonians to sue
for peace, and returning in triumph to Athens, was
welcomed as a deHverer, recovered his possessions,
and was loaded with honours. But such is the fickle-
ness of popular applause, or the watchful jealousy
■which attended his steps, that the occurrence of a
slight disaster again undermined his influence, and
deprived hitn of his command. He retired uito exile,
and, with a small body of men, made incursions into
Thrace ; but dreading the vengeance of the Lacedae-
monians, he deemed it prudent for his safety to tal<e
refuge with Pharnabazus, whose favour he soon obtain-
ed, and who bestowed upon him a possession in
Phrygia. Endeavouring to secure the friendship and
alliance of the Persian monarch on the side of the
Athenians, he was basely attacked by a party of as-
sassins, dispatched by Pharnabazus at the instigation
of the Lacedaemonians. The assassins set fire to his
house in the night, and slew him with arrows as he
attempted to escape from the flames.

ALCINOUS, king of Phaeacia, now the island of
Corfu, is celebrated by Homer for his kindness and
hospitality to Ulysses, who was shipwrecked on his
coast, and is alluded to by poets on account of the
magnificence of his gardens.

ALCMAER, the capital of North Holland, is si-
tuated on the banks of a drained mari^h, between the
North and Zuyder seas ; is reckoned one of the hand-
somest and cleanest cities in the United Provinces ;
and remarkable for the regularity of the streets, the
neatness of the houses, and the magnificence of the
public buildings. The drained marsh land around the
city is now converted into highly cultivated gardens,
orchards, and rich meadows, which last afford abund-
ance of the best butter and cheese in Holland. Alc-
maer resisted the force of the Spanish arms during
a siege of three months, in 1573. It was taken in
1799 by the British. Alcmaer is celebrated for the
culture of flowers. The account of a remarkable
sale of tuhps, which took place in 1637, is still pre-
served in the records of the city, in which it is stated,
that 120 roots with their offsets brought more than
L.SOOO Sterling. A single root, the Admiral of
Enckhuysen, was sold for more than L.460 Sterling.
Alcmaer is 24 miles distant N. W. from Amster-
dam.

ALCOBACA, a town of Estremadura in Poi-tu-
gal, situated on the small river Alcoa, and chiefly
remarkable for a rich monastery, which is the burial-
place of the Portuguese royal family, and the manu-
facture of cambrics and woojlens.

ALCOHOL, or Alkohol, rectified spirit of wine.
See CHEMisTny.

ALCORAN, or Alkoban, the Scripture or Bible
of the Mahometans. See Koran.

ALCUIN, or Alcuinus 1-laccus, an eminent
Enghsh writer, who flourislied about the end of the
eighth century ; was abbot of Canterbury ; and being
sent by the king of Mercia on an embassy to the
emperor Charlemagne, he was invited to enter into
the service of that monarch, and became his prenp-
tor in the learning of the times. The rapid proyrecs
of letters during the splendid reign of Charlemagne,
and the establishment and endowment of tile univer-
sities of Paris, Tours, Soissons, and others, are
ascribed to the influence and prudent exertions of
Alcuin. Retiring in 801 from the active scenes of
life to his abbey of St Martin's at Tours, he spent
the remainder of his days in superintending a semi-
nary of education which he had founded, and in acts
of piety and devotion, and he died in 804. The
works of Alcuin, published in a folio volume at Pa-
ris, in 1617, consist of tracts upon the Scriptures,
morality, and history, of letters, and poems.

ALDERMAN, is a title to which various degrees
of rank and authority have been attached in" the
progress of English history. Among the Saxons, it
denoted a degree of nobility corresponding with earl
or count, and altei-wards was applied to a person who
performed the duty of a judge. Alderman, in the
present day, is a subordinate magistrate to the mayor
of a city ; and the number of these magistrates is
regulated by the extent and population of the place.
In London there are 26 aldermen, to each of whom
a ward of the city is committed. The office is con-
tinued for life; and on the death or resignation of an
alderman, a wardmote or meeting of the ward is held
for the election of a successor to supply the vacancy.

ALDERNEY, an island on the coast of France,
subject to Britain, is separated from Cape la Hogue,
in Normandy, by a narrow strait, called the Race of
Alderney, which is a dangerous passage in storm.y
weather; is eight miles in circumference ; the soil is
fertile and well cultivated, and it is remarkable for
a fine breed of cows. The inhabitants, estimated at
1000, occupy a small town in the centre of t!ie island.
The Victory, of 110 guns, a British man-of-war, pe-
rished, in 1744, with her whole crew of 1100 per-
sons, on the rocks in the neiglibourhood of Alderney.
N. Lat. 49°. 45-. W. Long. 2°. 7'.

ALDRED, archbishop of York, who flourished
in the 11th century, rose from a humble station to
that high ecclesiastical dignity ; was in great favour
with Edward the Confessor, and performed the ce-
remony of coronation to his successor, Harold, and
to William the Conqueror. A remarkable instance
of William's servility, and of Aldred's haughtiness,
is recorded. One of the king's governors having of-
fended the archbishop, he repaired to London with
a train of ecclesiastics, rushed into the presence of
the monarch, and threatened him with all the ven-
geance of the church. The king, terrified, threw
himself at the feet of Aldred ; and wlien the nobili-
ty expressed their indignation at the insolence of the
prelate, he calmly replied, " Good men, let hini lie
2

ALE

212

ALE

AWrick there ; lie is not at Aldred's, but at St Peter's feet :
II he must feel St Peter's power, since he dared to in-

Alembcrt. jure his vicegerent." Aidred died in 1066.

ALDRICH, Henry, an English divine, who was
born at Westminster in 1047 ; received his classical
education under the celebrated Dr Busby ; studied
at Oxford; and was promoted, in 1G89, by King
William, to the deanery of Christ Church. In the
controversial discussions concerning popery, in which
he had engaged in the preceding reign, Bishop
Burnet eulogises him as having treated the subject
with a " solidity of judgment, clearness of argu-
ment, depth of learning, and vivacity of writing, far
beyond any that had before that time appeared in
our language." Dr Aldrich is better known on ac-
count of his attachment to music and the lighter
species of poetry. Various services for the church,
and a number of anthems, are acknowledged to be of
his composition ; two of his Latin poems are pre-
served in the Musee AnglicancB ; he is the author of
the popular catch, " Hark, the bonny Christ-Church
bells ;" and the following epigrammatic verses, en-
titled, " CauscB bihendi," — " Reasons for drinking/'
are ascribed to him.

Si bene quid mentini, caiisa sunt quinque bibendi;
Hospitis adventus, prcesens sitis atque ftitura,
Aut vini boniias, aut queelibet altera causa.
If on my theme I rightly think,
There are five reasons why men drink-
Good wine, a friend, because I'm dry,
Or lest I should be by and bye,
Or any other reason why.

Dr Aldrich died in 1710,andin the63dyearofhisage.

ALDROVANDI, Ulysses, a celebrated Italian
naturalist, was born at Bologna in \5"5, and became
afterwards professor of philosophy and logic, and lec-
turer on botany in that university. But his name is
transmitted to posterity as the laborious compiler of
an extensive work on natural history. The expences
which he incurred in the execution of this huge
work reduced him to such poverty that he was com-
pelled to seek an asylum in an hospital in Bologna,
where he died in 1605, and in the 79th year of his
age. The compilation which Aldrovandi projected,
consists of thirteen folio volumes, which include all
the departments of natural history ; but the first six
volumes only are to be considered as his work ; the
last seven volumes were drawn up on the same plan,
and published after his death.

ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infu-
sion of malt and hops, originally prepared, it is said,
in Egypt, and used as a substitute for wine in those
countries which are unfavourable to the production
of the grape. See Brevvikg.

ALECTO, according to the heathen mj'thology,
one of the three Furies, who is described as the
daughter of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto and
Proserpine.

ALEMBERT, JotiN le Rond D', an eminent phi-
losopher, was born at Pai-is in 1717. He was ex-
posed by his mother near the church of Jean le Rond,
from which he derives his name, and seemed so weak
when discovered that scarcely any hope of life re-
mained. The humanity of the commissary to whom

such matters are intrusted, instead of consigning the Alembert.
infant to the ordinary receptacle destined for those
whom parental affection has abandoned, committed
liim to the care of the wife of a glazier, and thus
probably preserved his existence. The father of
D'Alembert, touched with the kindness of strangers
to his neglected offspring, came forward and provide
ed for the education and independence of his child.
D'Alembert was indebted to the Jansenists of the
college of the Four Nations for the elements of
learning, and his progress afforded early promise
of rising genius. A commentary on the epistle of
Paul to the Romans, which he composed in the first
year of his philosophical studies, gave his masters the
pleasing hope that their young pupil would become
a second Pascal, and the means of reviving the an-
cient splendour of thefr establishment ; but their ex-
pectations were soon disappointed, for nothing could
allure him from mathematical and physical science,
in which he then engaged.

When he retired from college, and found himself
alone in the world, he returned to the house of
his nurse, with the resolution of devoting himself to
his favourite studies, and in this humble abode he
spent 40 years of his life. To increase his scanty in-
come, which did not exceed 1200 livres a-year, he
was induced, by the advice of his friends, to turn
his attention to some professional employment ; and
with this view he studied law, which he relinquished
for medicine, and finally abandoned both, that he
might prosecute mathematics without interruption.
In the year 1741, and at the early age of 24, he was
admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences.
Two years afterwards appeared bis Treatise on Dy-
namics, in which a new principle of mechanics is de-
veloped. The discovery of this new principle was
followed by that of a new calculus, the first applica-
tion of which was made in his discourse on

the

ge-

neral theory of the winds, to which the prize medal
of the academy of Berlin was adjudged in 1746.
This treatise was dedicated to the great Frederick,
in the following flattering verses, which obtained for
their author a letter from the king, and the honour
of being ranked among his literary friends :
Haec ego de ventis, dum x'eniontm oeyor alts,
Palantes agit Austriacos Fredericiis, ct orbi,
Jnsignis lauro, ramum praiendit olivae.
Swifter than winds, while of the winds I write,
The foesof conquering Frederickspeed theirflight;
While laurel o'er the hero's temple bends.
To the tir'd world the olive branch he sends.

In 1747 D'Alembert applied his nevr calculus to
the problem of vibrating chords ; in 1749 he furnish-
ed a method of applying his principle to the motion
of any body of a given figure ; in 1 752 he published a
Treatise on the Resistance (jf Fluids, and Elements of the
T/ienri/ and Practice of Music; and about thesame time
his Researches concerning the Integral Calculus, appear-
ed in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin. The re-
putation of D'Alembert was long confined to a small
circle of friends, or only extended to tliose who were
engaged in kindred studies ; and indeed it does not
appear that at any time he was very solicitous to ob-
trude himself on public notice. Of men of rank and

ALE

213

A L E

AlemVert. Station to whom he was known at this period, Messrs
^,,^-y'"^-' DArgenson only are mentioned ; but they were ca-
pable of appreciating his talents, and through their
influence with the French king he was rewarded with
a pension.

The publication of the Encyclopaedia, in conjunc-
tion with Diderot, exhibited a fine display of the va-
ried powers and fertile genius of D'Alembcrt. The
preliminary discourse on the origin, progress, and
connections of the different branches of human know-
ledge, which he furnished to that celebrated work,
has been universally acknowledged as a striking spe-
cimen of just arrangement and sound criticism, and
a perfect model of accurate thinking and elegant
writing ; although a verbose hypercritic of the pre-
sent day, after having studied and admired it for
more than thirty years, has at last made the notable
discovery, that the views of D'Alembert, as well as
those of his great praccursor, the illustrious reform-
er of pliilosophy. Lord Bacon, are altogether erro-
neous ; and, seemingly for the purpose of shewing
with what dexterity he can wield the weapons of con-
troversy in refuting their reasonings, at once pro-
nounces them unsound and illogical. No great in-
genuity or strength of arm is necessary to reduce
the noblest building to a heap of ruins, but a po^ver-
ful mind and vigorous exertion are required in the
contrivance, arrangement, and disposition of the se-
veral parts of a grand edifice, to give solidity, uui^
formity, and elegance to the entire structure.

The unrestrained freedom of thought, and the little
indulgence shewn to established opinions which ap-
peared in the Encyclopaedia, not only in religious
and political afiairs, but in the manners and more
ordinary concerns of mankind, involved D'Alembert
and his associates in much controversial discussion ;
and, perhaps with no great fairness or candour, the
resentment and opposition which they had rashly
provoked, are ascribed to a determined conspira-
cy, formed and supported by envy and detraction.
While D'Alembert was suffering under literary
persecution, the King of Prussia invited him to his
court, with an offer of the place of President of the
Academy ; and, some time before, the Empress of
Russia liad solicited him to superintend the educa-
tion of the Grand Duke ; but he preferred the re-
tirement and studious ease of private life to the
dazzling honours and splendid distinctions of royal
favour.

Beside the works already referred to, D'Alembert
was the author of Miscellanies, philosophical and
historical, &c. ; Researches on several important
points of the system of the world; Elements of Phi-
losophy ; and, in three years from the time when
he was elected secretary to the French academy in
1772, he formed and executed the grand design of
writing the lives of deceased members from 1700 to
1772, a work of great labour and industry, which
included 70 eloges or biographical sketches.

Under the humble roof of his nurse, D'Alembert
had spent the greater part of his life. A severe
illness, in 1765, required him to remove to a more
airy and healthy situation. He recovered his strength,
and resumed his studies, which he continued to pro-
secute with ardour till his death in October 1783,

and in the 66th year of his age. Candour, niodestji Alcn.hi*
disinterestedness, beneficence, and simplicity of man- |j

ners, are the amiable features in the character of Akpfo.
D'Alembert ; and his co-iversatioii, cheerful, lively,
and full of anecdote, and the delicate sallies of his
wit, not always unmixed with satire, rendered him
an agreeable and interesting companion*

ALEMBIC, an old chemical vessel for distillation,
now disused, and replaced by the commodious ap-
paratus of the still and the retort.

ALENC.ON, a small city of France, and citpital
of the department of Orne, is situated in a fertile
plain on the banks of the river Sarte. The number
of inhabitants exceeds 12,000; the chief manufac-
tures are lace, linen, woollen stuffs, and leather; and
it is 100 miles S. W. from Paris.

ALENTEJO, an extensive province of Portugal,
which is bounded on the north by the Tagus, and
on the west by the Atlantic ocean, is more thaiv
100 miles in length, and nearly the same in breadth,
and contains above 260,000 inhabitants. The soil
is, in general, fertile, producing wheat, rye, barley,
grapes, and olives, but the cultivation is very im-
perfect. Tills province has been often the seat of
war, to which is ascribed its diminished population.

ALEPPO, or Hai.ku, the metropolis of modern
Syria, and considered as the third city of the Otto-
man empire, is situated in an extensive plain, \«hich
reaches from tlie Orontos to the Euphrates ; is erect-
ed on eight hills, on tlie most elevated of which
stands the castle; and is supposed by many to bo
the ancient Berwa. The ruins, still visible, sufficient-'
ly indicate its great antiquity. To the north-west
of the castle, probably the site of the ancient city,
marble pillars have been fretiucntly discovered, at a
considerable depth below the surface. Many of the
streets of Aleppo are spacious and well paved, and
in someof them a- greater degree of cleanliness is
preserved than in any other city of the Turkish em-
pire. The houses are large and conmiodious, with
terraced roofs ; and the loftiness of the apartments,
lighted from the top, with the gilded window-shut-
ters, produces a striking effect at first entrance. The
mosques are numerous, and some of them posses*
considerable magnificence. In an area before each,
a fountain supplies the water which is required for
ablutions before prayers. Aleppo is furnished with
many large caravanserays, consisting of a spacious
square, with a number of rooms on all sides of it, built
on the ground-floor, which are occasionally employed
as chambers, warehouses, or stables. The galleries
on each side, on the second floor, are divided into
many small apartments, where the natives and stran-
gers transact the greater part of their mercantile
affairs.

The market-places are long, narrow, covered
streets, on each side of which are many small shops,
barely sufficient to contain the tradesman and his
goods, in consequence of which the purchaser must
stand without. . Each branch of business has its
own market-place or bazar, which is locked up as
well as the streets, about an hour and a half before
sunset ; and while the dooNi are cased with iron, the
locks are made of wood. The suburbs contain the
slaughter-houses, which are open to the fields ; the

ALE

214

ALE

the tanners have a khan, in which they work in the
vicinity of the river; a little below is a village, where
ropes and catgut are manufactured ; and coarse
white glass is made on the opposite side of the river.
The soil around Aleppo is rich and fertile; and the
gardens, whit;h are extensive, and well cultivated
produce abundance of vegetables and delicious fruits.
Aleppo is the emporium of Armenia and Diarbekir;
sends caravans to Bagdad and Persia, and com-
municates with the Persian gulf and India by Basso-
rah, and with Europe by Alexandretta. Com-
merce is chiefly conducted by means of barter.

The air of Aleppo is dry and piercing, but, at the
same time, salubrious ; the summer heats are greatly
moderated by the west winds. The population of
Aleppo is, by some, computed at 285,000, while
others state it so low as 100,000; but the estimate of
Dr Russel, who resided there many years as physi-
cian to the British factory, makes the total amount
235,000, of whom 200,000 are Turks, 30,000 Chris-
tians, and the remainder Jews. With respect to
religion, the people of Aleppo are more tolerant than
the Turks of other countries ; but they are said to
be efteminate, and wholly averse to bodily exertions.
The plague is supposed to appear in Aleppo once
in ten years, and its ravages are sometimes terrible.
The greater part of the time of the natives is spent
in the prayers and ablutions prescribed by the Ko-
ran, in smoking tobacco, and in the immoderate use
of the bath, the waters of which are often heated to
about 100°. Aleppo lies 250 miles N. of Jerusalem.
N. Lftt. 35° 47', E. Long. 37° 40'.

ALETRIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
Hcxandria class.

ALEUTIAN, or Aleutsky Islands, are situa-
ted in the northern Pacific ocean, and form a chain
of small islands, which extends from the promontory
of Alaska, in North America, to the peninsula of
Kamschatka, in the Russian territory. These islands
have been divided into three groups ; the first, called
the Fox islands, lies nearest the American promon-
tory ; the central is called Andrianofskoi ; and the
third, properly called Aleutian Islands, is contiguous
to the coast of Kamtschatka. They were little known
till towards the middle of the 18th century. Peter
the Great of Russia, a short time before his death,
which happened in 1725, had projected a voyage of
discovery in these remote regions, for the purpose of
ascertaining the distance between the two continents
of Asia and America ; but the expedition did not take
place till 1728, when Captain Beliring was engag-
ed in the enterprise ; but it was not till he had made
a third voyage in 174'1 that the American coast was
discovered ; and on his return to Kamtschatka he was
shipwrecked, and soon after died on the island which
now bears his name. Numerous voyages were un-
dertaken, either by ^private individuals or companies,
for the purpose of hunting those animals which afford
valuable furs, or, under the authority of government,
for the purpose of farther discovery. The eastern
part of this chain of islands was visited by Captain
Cook, in 1778, during his last voyage. The whole
■were explored by Captjin Billings, in 1796; and
a still later expedition was appointed by the Russian
(government in 1803. The whole chain of the Aleu-

tian islands is included within the 52° and 55° of Aleuiian;
N. Lat. and 169° and 1 83° of E. Long.

Behring's island, the most westward of the group,
lies nearest to Kamtschatka ; Copper island, which
has been so denominated from masses of copper found
on the beach, is situated ten leagues to the east-
ward ; several small islands belong to this westerly
group, which are succeeded by the central group,
which is less known. The Fox islands, so called
from the abundance of those animals found upon
them, are the most important, and best known of
the whole chain. Of this group, Umnak, Oona-
lashka, which is particularly described by Captain
Cook, and Unimak, are the most considerable. The
Aleutian islands exhibit a bare and mountainous as-
pect ; their rocky coasts render navigation extreme-
ly dangerous, hut some of them have commodious
bays, and excellent anchoring places. The rocks
seem to be of a basaltic nature ; and in several of the
islands volcanoes are still in a state of activity. The
soil in the sheltered valleys produces abundance of
grass ; and in some of the islands it seemed fit for
raising grain. The chief vegetable productions are
of spontaneous growth, as bramble-berries, cran-ber-
ries, heath-berries, and some others ; the only culti-
vated root is the potatoe, which has been lately in-
troduced by the Russians, succeeds well, and is great-
ly relished by the natives. The dwarf birch, willow,
and some other plants of shrubby growth, make the
nearest approach to the character of trees ; the wood
employed in building is wafted from the American
shores.

Among the land animals of the Aleutian islands,
are enumerated bears, wolves, river otters, river beav-
ers, and ermines ; foxes, as black, grey, red, and
brown, which abound in the Fox islands. The sea
otter, whose fur is extremely valuable, seals, dol-
phins, and whales, are common in the neighbouring
seas. Several kinds of salmon, cod, herrings, and
holibut, of a very large size, are abundant.

The population of these islands is stated to have
been at one time very considerable, but it is now
greatly diminished, owing, it is said, partly to the
oppression to which they are subject, and the change
in their mode of life since they came under the Rus-
sian dominion, and partly to many of the hunters be-
ing sent to a distance, in chace of the large sea otter,
and few of them returning from this dangerous occu-
pation. The dress of the natives, which is nearly
the same both in men and women, is chiefly compos-
ed of seal skins, and consists of a kind of frock, or
shirt. Fish, sea animals, birds, roots, and berries,
form the chief part of their food, and it is generally
eaten in a raw state. Their habitations arc merely
holes dug in the earth, which are covered with a
wooden roof, over which a quantity of grass and loose
soil is thrown, giving their villages somewhat of the
appearance of a church-yard. The entrance is by
the roof; and through an opening in it, covered with
a dry fish skin, the light is also admitted. The inha-
bitants, who are of low stature and of a swarthy com-
plexion, are described as an honest, peaceable, and in-
offensive people ; but when their passions are roused,
they become extremely furious, fearless of danger,
and indifferent to death itself. The dreadful ven-

ALE

215

ALE

Aleutian, geance which they have more tlian once executed
on the Russian adventurers, in massacring the whole
crew of some of their ships when opportunity offered,
may be regarded ratlier as a severe retribution for
the oppression and cruelty which they suffered from
rapacious traders, than as a mark of a barbarous dis-
position.

With the knife and hatchet alone, the latter a
very rude instrument, the natives of these islands
construct all their domestic utensils, and contrive
to give them some degree of elegance and orna-
ment. A needle is formed of the wing-bone of a
bird ; and with this all kinds of sewing, and a coarse
Bort of embroidery, are executed by the women. The
Aleutian canoe is a frame of wood covered with lea-
ther made of seals- skins. It is usually constructed
for a single person, sometimes for two, and very
rarely for three, and is so light that it may be easily
lifted \\p with one hand. The dart or javelin is em-
ployed in the destruction of prey, whether winged,
land, or sea animals ; and in the use of tliis weapon,
which is discharged from a small board, the islanders
display great dexterity.

Dancing is a favourite amusement. A small drum,
and a rattle composed of a dried membranous bag,
in which arc introduced peas or small pebbles, are
their only musical instruments. Their vacant hours
in the long winter evenings are filled up with the
manufacture of fine mats, small baskets, and pocket-
books of straw, which are constructed with much
neatness, and are not destitute of elegance. Toys, in
the figure of men, fish, and such animals as are fa-
miliar to their observation, are made of the teeth of
the sea cow, a substance whose hardness is greater
than ivory, and which is brought into shape more by
manual dexterity than by the perfection of the in-
struments employed. The houses have no fire-place ;
they are heated, as well as lighted, in the winter sea-
son, with lamps which are formed of a flat stone,
with a concavity in the middle to receive the oil. A
little dry grass serves the purpose of a wick.

The natives of the Aleutian islands, since their in-
tercourse with Russia, are professedly attached to
the Greek church ; but, without intellectual culture,
it is no wonder that their minds are still deeply ob-
scured by the gloom ,of superstition. Marriage is
marked by no nuptial ceremony; and the number of
wives is only limited by choice, or the means of sup-
port. The sale or exchange of wives is said not to
be uncommon. Many ceremonial rites v/ere formerly
observed in the burial of the dead ; their best clothes
and javelins, and a portion of oil and food were de-
posited v/ith them in the grave; and, in the barbarous
period of their history, the horrid sacrifice of slaves
of both sexes was practised.

The fur-trade is the great object of Russian enter-
prize in these remote regions. It was originally in
the hands of private adventurers, whose cruelty and
rapacity at one time threatened the total extirpation
both of tlie inhabitants and the animals on which it
depended. The establishment of companies under the
authority of government, and the introduction of .re-
gulations, have, in some degree, improved it ; but
the rapid decline of the population is a melancholy
and certain proof of the oppression and poverty to

which the unfortunate islanders are still subjected.
The fur of the sea-otter is esteemed the most valu-
able ; but the increasing destruction of these animals
has greatly diminished their number, and made them
rare in these islands. The furs of foxes of different co-
lours, as black, red, brown, grey, or blue, are also in
great estimation. The furs collected in the Aleutian
islands are a source of great commercial wealth to
the Russians ; and the most lucrative branch of the
trade extends to the Chinese empire.

ALEXANDER the Great, the son of Philip
of iVIacedon, and the most celebrated military charac-
ter in ancient history, was born about 355 years be-
fore Christ. The father, the most able general and
profoundest politician of the age, was indefatigable
in his exertions to destroy the liberties of Greece,
and boundless in his ambition to extend the Mace-
donian power. Dissensions, and mutual distrust,
among the Grecian states, had opposed their co-ope-
ration in attempting the invasion of Persia; but when
the whole were subject to the dominion of Philip, Jie
was placed at the head of the combined forces of
Greece, and immediately prepared to carry into ef-
fect the long projected plan ; but he was premature-
ly murdered, and, in consequence of a misunder-
standing which had existed between the father and
son, on account of Olympias, the mother of the lat-
ter, having been divorced, Alexander was not free
from the suspicion of being an accomplice in the hor-
rid deed.

Alexander gave early indications of splendid ta-
lents and powerful military capacity ; but the aver-
sion of the Greeks to the usurped authority of Phi-
lip, the youth of his successor, then only in his
twentieth year, and the determined opposition of the
orator Demosthenes to his whole house, induced them
to seize this opportunity of throwing off the yoke ;
and while Alexander was absent in reducing some
barbarous countries to submission, the Thebans, who
had been encouraged by the report of his death, rose
in open rebellion. In returning to queli it, the ra-
pidity of his march at once astonished and discon-
certed the insurgents ; they were forced to an en-
gagement; Thebes, after a desperate resistance, was
taken by storm ; the buildings, with the exception
of the house of Pindar the poet, were levelled with
the ground, and 30,(KX) of the inhabitants were sold
as slaves. This severe measure overawed the Grecian
states, and repressed any future attempt at the ri*-
cOvery of their independence.

The tranquillity of Greece seemed to afford a fit
opportunity for resuming the favourite scheme of
the invasion of Persia. A]\ Grepce, the Lacedasmo-
nians excepted, united in the enterprise ; and at an
assembly of the states, held at Corinth, Alexander
was chosen the leader of their armies. With an
army of 30,000 foot and 50(X) horse, a force seem-
ingly altogether unequal to so arduous an attempt,
he crossed the Hellespont, where the generals of
Darius, with 100,000 foot and 20,000 horse, were
prepared to meet him. The position of the enemy on
the banks of the Granicus obliged Alexander to
cross that river before he could give them battle.
He threw himself into the stream at the head of
some troops of horse, and wits in great danger be-

AUxinia.

ALE

516

ALE

Altxander. forc tlie whole of his little army had effected the
.passage ot" the river. The attack was so sudden and
■unexpected, that the Persians fled with the utmost
precipitation and disorder ; and the slaughter was so
terrible, that they lost 20,(X)0 foot, and more tlian
2000 horse. The city of Sardis, with its immense
wealth, fell into his hands as the consequence of this
victory.

The Macedonian hero opened his next campaign
in the spring ; and having overrun Panipiilagonia
.and Cappadocia, he advanced by rapid marches into
Cilicia. Tlie attack of a fever, which was induced
by bathing in the river Cydnus, threw his army into
«ome confusion; but his recovery, at the end of
three days, revived their confidence, and enabled
him to advance, to meet the Persian monarch, at tlie
head of an army of (jOO,000 men. Darius, by some
unaccountable mfatuation, left the open country, and
took up a position in the narrow defiles of Cilicia.
The two armies having passed each other in the
night, met at Issus, where a dreadful engagement
took pbce. Tiie crowded ranks of the Persians
seemed only calculated to accelerate their destruc-
tion; and more than 100,000 men are recorded to
have fallen in this bloody conflict.

In following up tliis decisive victory, Alexander
determined to make himself master of ail the cities
on the coast ; and though he had received the sub-
.mission of the inhabitants of Tyre by their depu-
ties, yet they declined to admit him within the walls;
.and it was not till after a seven months siege that he
obtained possession of the city. He then directed
his steps towards Egypt, at that time subject to Per-
sia ; and glad of an opportunity of being rescued
from that yoke, welcomed him as its deliverer. On
• visit to the temple of Jupiter- Ammoii, Alexander
Avas honoured and flattered with the title of Son of
Jupiter. When Alexander returned to Tyre, 1+e re-
ceived a proposition from Darius, to surrender the
whole country betwec-n the Euphrates and the Hel-
lespont ; but the ambition of the conqueror was not
bounded by such limits ; and the refusal was follow-
ed by another sanguinary conflict, which took place
near Arbela ; in wliich the Persians had an army of
600,000 foot and .40.000 horse, while the army of
Alexander amounted only to 40,000 foot and about
8000 cavalry. The battle was dreadful, and the Per-
sians were totally routed, with the loss of half their
army. This victory decided the fate of Persia. Alex-
ander entered Babylon, and the murder of Darius,
which was soon after perpetrated by his rebellious
subjects, left him entire master of the country.

Alexander now resolved to carry his victorious
arms to more distant regions in the east; and had
proceeded as far as the river llyphasis, which is sup-
posed tc be the modern Beyah ; but the murnuirs of
his soldiers'liad increased to insubordination, and he
was compelled to abandon the attempt. Resigning
all prospects of future conquest, he determined to
explore the country which he had already traversed.
Crocodiles were observed in the rivers which fall in-
to the Indus, and as (they were supposed to exist on-
I3' in the Nile, or its tributary streams, he concluded
that he had discovered -the sources of that celebrat-
,ed river, WitJ> this view., he prepared a fleet to

proceed to Egypt. An adventurous voyage of ■nine Alexmndreua

months brought him to the ocean. He ordered the

fleet to sail through the Persian gulf, and then to

ascend the Tigris, for the purpose of meeting him

and his army in Mesopotamia, while he conducted

his forces by land to Babylon. He accomplished

the arduous journey with the loss of a fourth part

of his army. At Babylon, he began -to meditate

new schemes of future conquest ; but here his career

of glory terminated by his death, which happened

323 years before the Christian era, and in the S3d

year of his age.

" Alexander," says Dr Gillies, "" was of a low
stature, and somewhat deformed ; but the activity
and elevation of -his mind animated and ennobled his
frame. By a life of continual labour, and by an ear-
ly and habitual practice of the gymnastic exercises,
he had hardened his body against the impressions of
cold and heat, hunger and thirst, and prepared his
robust constitution for bearing such exertions of
strength and activity as have appeared incredible
to the undisciplined softness of modern times. In
generosity and prowess he rivalled the greatest he-
roes of antiquity ; and in the race of glory, having
finally outstripped all competitors, became ambitious
to surpass him.self. His superior skill in war gave
uninterrupted success to his arms ; and his natural
humanity, enlightened by the philosophy of Greece,
taught him- to improve his conquests to the best in-
terests of mankind. -His actions were not always
blameless ; but his faults were i'&vr in number, and
resulted from his situation rather than from his cha-
racter."

Tomb of Alfxander. — The body of this renowned
monarch, after his death, was enshrined in a golden
.chase-work, fitted to the skin, and covered with a
.garment also of gold, over which was thrown a pur-
ple robe, and the whole was enclosed in his armour.
The preparatimis for his funeral, which was con-
ducted in a style of unexampled magnificence, oc-
cupied two years. The body, placed in a splendid
car, was conveyed with great pomp from Babylon to
Alexandria, and deposited in the tomb constructed
for it by Ptolemy. Tlie tomb was held in great vene-
ration, and even worshipped by the Egyptians ; three
hundred years after Alexander's death, the Roman
emperor Augustus beheld the body of the conque-
ror .still entire ; and even the Mahometans, long af-
ter the body had been removed, regarded the sarco-
phagus with pious respect. It was seii^ed by tlie
.French, and put on board a ship to be transported
as a rich trophy to France ; but when Alexandria fell
into the hands of tlie British in IbOJ, itwas included
in the surrender.

This precious relic of antiquity, which is now de-
posited in the British Museum, is composed of a
single block of Egyptian breccia, ten feet long, a-
bout five feet broad, and nearly four feet high. It
is.sculptured all over with an innumerable variety of
hieroglyphic fif^ures, some of which, from the dura-
ble quality of the stone, are, after the lapse of more
than 2006 years, in excellent preservation.

ALEX AN DU ETTA, called by the Turks Scan-
deroon, is the port of Aleppo, and situated in the
gulph of Ajazj;o, about TO miles from the city. The

ALE

21

ALE

Alntaadria. harboiir afford? good anchorage ; but the lancl-tvinds,
~ to which it is exposed, sometimes make vessels drag
their anchors for many miles, and render it impos-
sible to enter it durmg some months of the year.
A marshy plain on the land side surrounds Alcxan-
dretta, in consequence of which it is extremely un-
healthy. A malignant fever prevails from May to
September, by the ravages of which the wliole crew
of a ship has been cut off in a few months. That
the natives breathe a very insalubrious air at all sea-
sons, is manifest from their sickly, cadaverous appear-
ance. Thus, hostile to health, Alexandrctta derives
all its importance from being tbe port of Aleppo.

ALEXANDRIA, called Scanderia by the Turks,
is a city of I^owcr Egypt, lying on the Mediterra-
nean. Although this city has now dwindled into in-
significance, it was once the most flourishing and
highly celebrated in the world, the populous capital
of the Egyptian monarchs, and for ages the grand
emporium of commerce and of riches. Alexander
the Great was its founder, who gave it his own name,
333 years before Christ; and it is believed to be the
only surviving monument of the extensive conquests
of that far-famed hero. The immense importance
of commerce, and the almost endless resources of a
maritime power, were no doubt suggested to Alex/-
ander by the severe check which his triumphant ca-
reer suffered before the city of Tyre, and probably
led him to found Alexandria, after the conquest of
Egypt ; a city which flourished for ages, and en-
grossed the commerce of the eastern and western
worlds, before a passage was discovered to the In-
dies by the Cape of Good Hope.

Alexander himself is said to have marked out the
plan of this city; tiie celebrated Dinocrates, who
rebuilt the temple of Diana at Ephesus, was the ar-
chitect ; and when the conqueror returned from his
excursion into Upper Egypt, which lasted about a
year, the building was far advanced. The streets
were uncommonly splendid and spacious ; one of
them, 2000 feet broad, which extended in length
from the gate of the sea to that of Canopus, was
intersected at right angles by another of the same
breadth, so ■ that at their junction they formed a
square of l^- mile in circuniference. The greatest
glory of this city was its harbour, a deep and secure
bay in the Mediterranean, in which numerous fleets
might ride in perfect security. The palace and gar-
dens of the Ptolemies, monarchs to whom Alexan-
dria was indebted for much of its glory, were situ-
ated near the promontory of Lectreos, and contained
within their inclosures the Museum, an asylum ibr
men of letters, groves and noble buildings, and a
temple in which Alexander's remains were deposited.
Alexandria became the royal residence, A.M. 3700,
in the reign of Ptolemy Soter, who founded the fa-
mous Alexandrian library, containing at last 700,000
volumes. This city passed into the hands of the Ro-
mans on the death of Cleopatra; and under the Greeks
and Romans, as well as the Ptolemies, it continued,
for almost 1000 years, to maintain its reputation for
wealth and literature ; but under the dominion of
the Saracens, it fell into a state of insignificance from
which it never recovered. In the year 639, after a

VOL. I. PAKTJ.

siege of fourtopn months, Alexandria yielded to the AIc»nndri»
arms of the Saracens, by whom its celebrated li-
brary was doomed to destruction, for the notable
reason assigned by the caliph, " If the writings of
the Greeks agree with the Koran, they are useless ;
if they disagree, they are pernicious, and must be
destroyed." The precious contents of this splendid
library supplied fuel to the 4-000 baths of the city,
among which they were distributed, for six weeks ;
and in that period, if the account be not exnjfge-
rated, were scarcely consumed.

In the present day, Alexandria exhibits a singular
scene of magnificent ruin and desolation ; the re-
mains of obelisks, capitals, pilasters, and broken mo-
numents of ancient art. Tne Plraros was long ago
demolished, and a square castle, at once destitute
of strength, ornament, and taste, was erected in its
stead. The lake Mareotis no longer exists ; its place
is occupied by the Lj'bian sands. The modern city
stands near the brink of the sea; the houses have
flat, terraced roof's, and the streets are narrow and
incommodious. The number of inhabitants does not
exceed 5000. The language is Arabic ; but most of
the people are acquainted with the Italian. Alex-
andria was carried by assault on the 4th of July
1798, by the French under Bonaparte; in 1801, it
was taken by the British, and was restored to the
Turks at the termination of the war, in whose hands
it still continues. N. Lat. 31° 11', E. Long. 30° 16'.

Some other remarkable remains of ancient magni-
ficence are still visible in Alexandria or its vicinity.
The obelisks, which are known by the name ef Cleo-
patra's needles, are composed of a single stone, 60
feet in height, and seven feet square at the base.
They are covered with hieroglyphics. One of them
is thrown down, and is nearly buried in the sand, but
the other still remains on its pedestal. Some sup-
pose that these columns decorated the entrance of
the palace of the Ptolemies, the ruins of which still
exist at no great distance.

Pompeys Pillar — Tliis celebrated column, which
has attracted the attention of all travellers, and has
been a fertile subject of conjecture among antiqua-
rians, is situated about a quarter of a league from
the southern gate of Alexandria. It is composed of
red granite, or syenite of modern mineralogists,
which is brought from Upper Egypt. The shaft,
which is 90 feet in length, and nine feet indiameter,
is supported by a block of marble 15 feet square,
and the Corinthian capital i« nine feet high ; the
height of the whole column is 114 feet. This co-
lumn is not mentioned by ancient historians, Abul-
feda, who describes Egypt, calls it the pillar of Se-
verus, from which it is concluded that it is a monu-
ment erected to the memory of that emperor. The
name of Pompcy's pillar was not known till the 15th
century, about the time of the revival of learning.
Denon, who visited Egypt, in 1798, along with the
French army, has entered into some ingenious spe-
culations concerning this colunm ; and considernig
that the pedestal and capital we of a different stone
from the shaft, that their workmanship is heavy,
and appears to be merely a rough drau};fit, and that
the i'oundations, composed of fragments, indicate a
E E

A L F

218

A L F

.Wcci. modern construction, concludes, that this monument
is not antique, and that it may have been erected in
the time of the Greek emperors, or of the caliphs ;
and seems to hint, that the shall at least belonged
to some ancient edifice, and that it ought to be re-
garded merely as a fragment.

Catacombs — The catacombs, or ancient burial-
place of Alexandria, are at the distance of a mile
south-west from the city. This necropolis, or city
of the dead, is dug iu a bed of solid rock ; the exca-
vation is from 30 to 40 feet wide, 200 feet long, and
about 25 feet deep. From this proceed several
openings about 10 or 12 feet in width, which form
subterranean streets, one of which has been particu-
larly examined, and it appears that niches 20 inches
square, sunk 6 feet horizontally, narrowed at the
bottom, and separated from each other by partitions
in the rock, 7 or 8 inches thick, divide into checkers
the two walls of this subterranean vault. The mum-
mies, or embalmed bodies of the dead, seem to have
been introduced with the feet foremost, into the
cells interlded for their reception.

ALFRED, King of England, from the splendour
of his talents and the lustre of his reign, justly de-
signated the Great, was the youngest son of Ethel-
wolf king of the West Saxons, was born at Wantage
in Berkshire, in the year 849 ; and in 871, while in
the 22d year of his age, succeeded his brother Ethel-
red on the throne. A large proportion of England
rvas at this time occupied by the Danes ; and, in the
very commencement of his reign, Alfred took the
field to resist their farther inroads. Various success
for some time attended his arms ; but at last the for-
tune of war changed, and he was reduced to such
extremities, that he was abandoned by his subjects,
and assuming the dress of a peasant, was obliged, in
that disguise, to seek a temporary asylum in the cot-
tage of a neat-herd ; and historians have not thought
it unworthy of record, that he submitted to reproof
for negligence in the humblest menial offices. The
total discomfiture of a considerable army of the
Danes, and the capture of their magical standard,
the possession of which was believed to render them
invincible, in a bold attack of one of his adherents,
revived the hopes of Alfred, and encouraged him, in
concert with his nobility, with whom he secretly cor-
responded, to rally his scattered forces. But before
active warfare commenced, Alfred, in the assumed
character of a harper, entered the Danish camp, and
carefully examined the strength and position of the
enemy, returned to his friends, quickly assembled
his forces, and, in an attack as sudden as it was
unexpected, obtained a complete victory. The con-
sequences of this victory were the recovery of Lon-
don, a considerable extension of-his dominions, and
a period of several years tranquillity, which he wise-
ly improved by strengthening and securing himself
against future invasion. The repose of the kingdom
was again disturbed in 893 by the arrival of a pow-
erful fleet and a formidable army of Danes, who,
aided by an insurrection of their countrymen for-
merly established in England, threatened the total
overthrow of the power of Alfred. After a severe
struggle, he was again successful, drove them from
his dominions, and, by his wisdom and vigour, pre-

served a profound peace during the last years of his AliitfL
glorious reign. Alfred, who is considered as the -
founder of the English monarchy, held the reins of
government about thirty years. He died in 901, in
the 52d year of his age, and was succeeded on the
throne by his youngest son Edward.

Alfred may be regarded as one of those prodigies
of intellectual endowment which has no equal in the
age and country in which he lived. No monarch ever
acquired or merited the love, esteem, and veneration
of his subjects more than Alfred ; and not only oi)
account of the dazzling qualities of his military cha-
racter, but by an irresistible impulse of gratitude and
admiration — gratitude for the inestimable benefits of
his civil administration — and admiration of the ami-
able virtues of his private character. Many of the
most useful domestic arrangements and some of the
wisest political institutions, derive their origin from
him. The naval power was improved and extend-
ed, and the militia regulated and strengthened ; a
code of laws, which is supposed to have been the
foundation of the common law of England, was drawn
up under his authority ; courts and well qualified
judges were appointed ; the kingdom was divided in-
to counties, hundreds, and tythings ; commerce and
manufactures were introduced and encouraged ; the
instruction of the people was promoted ; schools and
colleges were endowed at Oxford ; and scholars werq
invited to his court.

Although it is stated that Alfred was in his 12th
year before a proper person could be found to in-
struct him in the elements of learning, yet he be-
came eminent as a grammarian, mathematician, and
historian ; was esteemed the best Saxon poet of his
time, and composed in verse various parables and
fables for the instruction of his people. He trans-
lated the fables of j^sop ; the Consolation of Philo.
sophy by Boethius ; Bede's Ecclesiastical History,
and, it is said also, the Old and New Testaments.
The regular distribution of time which Alfred ob-
served, aftbrds a useful lesson to the studious and in-
dustrious. The 24 hours were divided into three
parts ; eight hours were allotted to devotion and li-
terary pursuits ; eight were devoted to public afi'airs,
and eight were occupied at his meals, in sleep, and
exercise. To note these divisions of time, six wax
candles, each of which burnt four hours, were em-
ployed during the 24. Each candle was 12 inches
long, and each inch, which was consumed in the
third part of an hour, was marked with a circular co-
loured line ; and to insure their equal combustion,
they were inclosed in horn lanterns, for the purpose
of protection in windy weather. The care of these
candles was entrusted to the keepers of his chapel,
who gave notice of the lapse of time.

The expenditure of Alfred was subjected to
a similar methodical arrangement. One part was
devoted to charitable purposes, and divided into
four portions ; the first for alms to the poor, the se-
cond for the relief of indigent monks, the third for
the support of monasteries, and the fourth for the
maintenance of professors and students. The other
half was divided into three parts ; the first was ap-
plied to the expenses of his household, the second
for the payment of ingenious artists, and the tJiird to

A L G

219

A L II

Algae learned foreigners who had been invited into the
[I kingdom.
•'Algiers. ALGAE, Flags, the third order of the Cryntoga-
^^^'W^^ tnia, or S+th class of the Linnean system, including
under it sea- weeds and some other aquatic plants.

ALGAROTTI, Frakcis, an Italian author of
considerable celebrity, was born at Venice in De-
cember 1712; was educated at Bologna; and, during
liis travels in France and England, became attached
to the Newtonian philosophy, of which he published
a popular illustration, entitled Neivionianism for the
Ladies. At Berlin he acquired the favour and friend-
Ship of Frederic, king of Prussia, who honoured him
with the title of Count. He published also some in-
genious speculations on light and colours, possessed
considerable critical knowledge in music, painting,
sculpture, and architecture, and contributed much to
the reformation and improvement of the Italian opera.
His works afford ample testimony of liis genius and
erudition, and they are often distinguished by ele-
gant composition and lively sallies of wit ; but the va-
nity, affectation, and selfishness of his character were
intolerable. Perhaps no better proof is needed, than
the ambiguous inscription which he composed, and
which was inscribed on the tomb erected by himself
at Pisa : Hicjacet Algarotlus, sed non omnis : Here
lies Algarotti, but not the whole of him, — may refer,
either to his belief in the immortality of the soul, or
to the lasting reputation to which he flattered him-
self his works were entitled. He died at Pisa, in May
1764,

ALGARVA, the most southern province of Por-
tugal, is bounded on the south and west by the At-
lantic ocean ; on the east by the river Guadiana,
which separates it from Spain ; and on the north by a
mountainous ridge, which forms the division between
it and Alentejo. In some places it is tolerably fer-
tile, producing oil, wine, and fruits. The population
is between 60,000 and 70,000 ; and the inhabitants
on the sea-coast, who are engaged in fisheries, are
the best mariners in the kingdom.

ALGEBRA, or Universal Arithmetic, from its
more extensive application than common arithmetic,
is employed in discovering the relations which exist
among different quantities, in respect of their magni-
tudes. See MathExMatics.

ALGEZIRAS, or Old Gibraltar, a sea-port town
of Andalusia in Spain, situated on the coast of the
.straits of Gibraltar. By this town the Moors entered
vSpain in 713, and they were expelled from it in 1344',
on which occasion, it is said, cannon were first em-
ployed. Algeziras is about 10 miles distant from
Gibraltar.

ALGIERS, a kingdom of the northern part of
Africa, stretching along the coast of the Mediterra-
nean, and including the ancient Numidia and a por-
tion of the ancient Mauritania, is usually considered
as one of the states of Barbary. See Barbary.

ALGIERS, supposed to be the ancient Icosium, is
the capital of the kingdom of Algiers, derives its
name from the Arabic, which signifies the island,
In consequence of the island before the city, which
is now united to it by a mole or pier ; and from its si-
tuation on the declivity of a hill, and arrangement
in the form of an amphitheatre, presents, when seen

from sea, a grand and striking spectacle. Escepting Aigonqiuiu
the principal street, which runs from east to west, (|

and contain* the best shops and warehouses, the AJhambrn.
streets of Algiers are narrow, incommodious, and
dirty. The whitened roofs of the houses rising in
regular gradation, exhibit .some resemblance to the
top-sails of a ship ; and their flatness affords an easy
communication for the whole length of a street. The
houses have a square court in the middle, are con-
structed with galleries all round, rise to a coasider-
able height, and are furnished with very smal' win-
dows. The palace of the Dey, and some of the
mosques, are the chief public edifices ; but they are
more distinguished by their magnitude than remark-
able for beauty or elegance. The public bath?, as is
usual in Turki.sh towns, are numerous. A spring, is-
suing from a neighbouring hill, supplies Algiers with
water, which is conveyed in pipes, and discharged
from many public fountains, and each house is pro-
vided with a cistern for the reception of rain-wa-
ter. The town of Algiers is surrounded with walls ;
has five gates, which are constantly shut during the
night ; and is farther protected by seven castles,
which are well furnished with great guns.

The harbour of Algiers is commodious ; the mole
extends 500 paces from the land to the island, from
which the name is derived ; and is protected by a
castle and strong batteiy, erected on this insular
spot. Although Algiers is described as being only
half a league in circumference, the population is
stated, perhaps on no certain authority, at 120,000;
of whom one half consists of Moors or Berebbers,
16,000 are Turks, 30,000 are Cologlies, or descend-
ants of Turks and Moors ; and Jews, Christians, and
renegadoes, make up the remainder.

ALGONQUINS, a race of Indians in North
America, which formerly spread over great part of
Lower Canada. This race exists now only in small
tribes ; and, from the precarious nature of their sub-
sistence, which is derived from fishing and hunting,
is fast diminishing.

ALHAMBRA, signifying the red house, is the
ancient palace of the Moorish kings in the city of
Granada in Spain, is situated on one of the hills on
which the city is built, was begun in 1280 by the se-
cond Moorish king of Granada, and was completed
by his successors, each of whom added something to
its extent and beauty. The lofty situation of the
Alhambra affords a wide view of a fertile country.
The external aspect of this palace presents a huge
mass of uncouth buildings, thrown together without
order and without design ; and it should be regarded
as a singular production, both in the style of its ar-
chitecture and the character and arrangement of its
ornaments. But the interior, with its marble pave-
ments, numerous baths and fountains, fret-work in
stucco, and mosaic work on the walls and cielin^s,
groups of columns, and pamting in gold and azure,
exhibits altogether a magic scene, or a kind of fairj--
land. Connected with one side of the ancient pa-
lace, a grand edifice, two hundred Spanish feet
square, in a very magnificent style, was erected by
the emperor Charles V. but it was lefl unfinislied.
For an account of the Alhambra, the reader is refer-
red to Swinburne's Travels, in which arc given drnw-
. 2

ALI

220

ALI

ings of ihe principal parts, without which scarcely
any description could be rendered intelligible.

ALI, a remarkable cliaracter in Mahometan his-
tory, was the son of Abu Taleb, and cousin of Ma-
homet, with whom lie early and ardently co-oj)erat-
ed in tlie establishment and propagation of the new
religion ; and, on account of his zealous services, he
was hailed by Mahomet as his vi^er or assistant, his
brother and vicegerent. He was greatly distinguish-
ed by his eloquence, and not less celebrated for his
valour, which obtained for him, according to the
bold metaphorical expression of Eastern languages,
the surname of the Lion of God, ahvai/s victorious.
Ali had married the daughter of Mahomet; jind from
tiiis comiexion, as well as being his nearest relation
by blood, aspired at being his successor ; but Abu
Beer, the father-in-law of the prophet, and two
others, Omar and Othnian, reigned before him. The
death of Othnian opened his way to the sovereignty,
which he at first declined, and was only prevailed
with to accept of it by the entreaties of his friends
and the threats of the people ; but his short reign, of
scarcely five years, was incessantly harassed by in-
surrections and rebellions, excited and supported by
formidable competitors. He was wounded by the
hand of an assassin with a poisoned weapon at the
door of the mosque, and he died in a few days, in
the 63d year of his age, in the year 660 of the
Christian era, and the 40th of the Hagira. The fol-
lowers or sect of Ali regard him and his descendants
as the only legitimate successors of Mahomet, and
consider all the caliphs who are not of this family
as usurpers. A green turban is their distinguishing
characteristic. The Persians are the chief adherents
of this sect, and the Turks belong to the sect of
Omar, and hold Ali and his followers in execration.
ALI BEY, an eastern adventurer, was a native of
Mount Caucasus ; and about the age of 12 or 14
was sold as a slave in Cairo, and purchased by two
Jews, who presented him to Ibrahim, an officer of
the janizaries, and at that time one of the leading
men in Egypt. This country was then under the go-
vernment of twenty-four beys, eight of whom had
been selected from the houseliold of Ibrahim. Ali,
j;rowiiig in favour with his master, obtained his free-
dom ; was first appointed to the government of a dis-
trict, and afterwards elected one of the twenty-four
beys. The death of Ibrahim, in 1757, opened a wide
field for his ambition, and led him to aspire after the
entire sovereignty of the country ; but the failure of
his first attempt obliged him to retire for safety into
Upper Egypt. After an absence of two years, he
returned suddenly to Cairo ; arid in one niglit he ei-
ther put to death or expelled those beys who were
his eneiiiies. He banished the Turkish pacha, — set
the authority of the Ottoman Porte at open de-
fiance,— fitted out vessels on the Red Sea, — seized
on tlie port of Djedda, and plundered Mecca. Ali
next formed a plan for the conquest of Syria; and
uniting his forces in 1 770 with Daher, another re-
bellious insurgent against the Porte, besieged Da-
mascus. The city was taken ; but the castle was
saved by the treachery of Mohammed Bey, All's
commander, who suddenly drew off his forces, and
retired to Egypt. An open war now commenced

between Ali and Mohammed ; and after a long strug- j^utj
gle, and various success, Ali was wounded and ta- [|
ken prisoner, was carried to Mohammed, and died AUenatiga.
iu three days, either in consequence of his wound or '
of poison. This bold adventurer possessed consi-
derable talents and great intrepidity. The vigour of
his adnunistration in the suppression of plunderers
and robbers, gave greater security to Egypt than it
had hitherto enjoyed ; but lie was rash and impe-
tuous, and his excessive confidence in some of his
adherents and favourites ruined his schemes.

ALIBI, a Latin word, which signifies elsavhere, is
a tenn employed in the criminal law of this country;
as, when a person charged with a crime attempts to
prove that he was in a different place, or elsewhere,
when it was committed, or pleads an alibi.

ALICANT, a sea-port town of Valencia, in Spain,
is situated on a narrow neck of land, which projects
a considerable way into the sea, and is protected by
a strongly fortified castle, on the summit of a rocky
mountain, which rises behind the town. At the be-
ginning of tlie 16th century, six houses only stood
on this spot ; but before its termination it contained
more than 1000, owing, it is said, to its secure situ-
ation from the depredations of pirates, who then in-
fested the coasts of the Mediterranean. The popu-
lation is stated at 17,000; and the principal trade is
in barilla, fruit, and wine, especially the famous tent
wine. Alicant is 75 miles S. of Valencia, and 37
N.E. from Murcia ; in N. Lat. 38" and W. Long. 0°
24'.

ALICATA, the ancient Leocata, a town of Sici-
ly, situated on a peninsula, in the valley of Mazara,
contains about 10,000 inhabitants, and has a consider-
able trade in corn and wine. It is 22 miles S. E.
from Girgenti.

ALICUDA, one of the Lipari isles, on the north-
ern coast of Sicily, contains about 500 inhabitants,
whose houses are built at considerable elevations on
the declivity of the mountains. The chief produc-
tions of this island are Indian figs, olive trees, and
vines, which afford an excellent wine, with some bar-
ley and wheat. No springs of fresh water are found
on the island, so that the inhabitants suffer great in-
convenience and distress during a long course of
drought. Alicuda is considered by some geologists
as a volcanic production.

ALIEN, from the word alienus, which signifies
a stranger or foreigricr, is a person born out of the
kingdom, and under ti;e dominion of a foreign go-
vernment. In this country peculiar laws have been
enacted with regard to aliens. By the law of Scot-
land, no alien is capable of acquiring or succeeding
to heritable property, without being naturalised by an
act of parliament. No alien can vote for a member
of parliament, or sit in the house of commons ; but
children born in a foreign country, whose fathers are
citizens, or natural born subjects at tlie time of the
birth of their children, are regarded as natural born
subjects of Great Britain, unless by treason or felony,
or being in the service of a foreign state at war with
Britain, the fathers have forfeited their privileges.

ALIENATION is the act of making over or dis-
posing to another person the piojierty of lands, tene-
ments, &c. Alienation in ll-e, is the transference of

ALR

221

ALL

Aliment the fee-simple of any land or other right. Aliena-
II tiou in mortmain, is the transference of lands or

All-saints, other heritage to a religious house, or corporation,
which is not permitted without a licence from the
king.

ALIMENT, or Aliments, are those substances,
whether of a vegetable or animal nature, which are
destined for the nourishment of animals. See Die-
tetics.

ALIQUANT Part, is a number which cannot
measure a greater number without a remainder :
thus, 4' is an aliquant part of 13, because three times
4' is 12, and is deficient by one ; and 4 times 4 is 16,
and exceeds the number by three.

ALIQUOT Paiit, is that part of any number
or magnitude which divides it without a remainder :
thus 3 is an aliquot part of 18, and 8 ef 24.

ALISMxV., Water Plantain, a genus of plants be-
longing to the Ilexandria class, of which four species
are natives of Britain.

ALKAHEST, or A lc A ii est, signifying aW «/)/nV,
or spirit of sail, was one of the great objects among
the pursuits of the alchemists, and denotes the uni-
versal solvent which jiosscssed the property of resolv-
ing all bodies into their first principles, or of dissolv-
ing all substances into a simple uniform fluid.

ALKALI, is applied to a class of bodies which
have a peculiar acrid taste, have a strong affinity for
water, and combine with it in large proi)ortion, change
vegetable blue colours to green, and brown colours
to yellow ; corrode animal substances, and unite with
oily and fatty matters, and form soaps, and with acids
forming neutral salts. Three substances, potash,
soda, and ammonia, possess these distinct properties.
Two of them, potash and soda, are cai]eii fixed alkalis,
because they require a very strong heat to volatilize
them ; and ammonia is denominated volatile alkali^
because, with a moderate heat, it assumes the gase-
ous form. The recent discoveries of Sir II. Davy,
which constitute a brilliant era in chemical science,
have shewn that the alkalis are "oxides of peculiar
metals, or are compounds of a metallic base and oxy-
gen. See Chemistry.

ALKERMES, an old term for a cordial confec-
tion, deriving its name from the kermes berries em-
ployed in its composition.

ALKOHOL, or spirit of wine, a colourless trans-
parent liquid, which is the product of the distillation
of fermented liquors, as wine or beer. See Che-
mistry.

ALKORAN, or the Koran, the Scriptures of
the Mahometans, containing their doctrines and pre-
cepts as they were revealed to the prophet. See
Koran.

ALL-SAINTS, or Ali.-hallov;s, a festival held
on the first of November by the Church of Rome,
as a general commemoration of the saints ; introduced
into Italy in the 9th century by Boniface IV^. and
soon after adopted in other churches.

All-Saints, a spacious harbour or bay ot) the
coast of Brazil in South America, is about eight miles
broad, and is studded with numerous small islands.
It is also the name of a rich and fertile district of
Brazil, which produces great quantities of cotton and
sugar, and contains several town and cities, of which

St. Salvador is the capital. AU-saints bay ie in S.
Lat. 12° 3'. and in W. Long. 40" lO.

All-Souls, a festival of the Romish Church ce-
lebrated on the 2d of November, in connnemoration
of all the faithful deceased, was first introduced in the
11th century.

ALL A, or Allah, the name by which the Supreme
Being is addressed by the followers of Mahomet, is
derived from the Arabic verb, alah to adore, and is
synonymous with the Hebrew Eloah, siguiiyijig tUs
Adorable Bein<r.

ALLAHABAD, a province of Hindostan, includ-
ing a space of more than 1 9{XX) square miles, is bound-
ed on the east by the province of Bahar, and on the
north by that of Gude ; according to its ancient di-
vision, is distributed into ten circars; formerly contri-
buted to the public service nearly 250,000 troops ;
and the greater part of it is now under the donii;iion
of the British power. The principal cities are Alla-
habad and Benares.

ALLAHABAD, the capital of the province of
the same name, is sup|)osed by Dr Robertson to be.
on the site of the ancient Palibothra, while Major
Rennel thinks that Patna is built on the spot former-
ly occupied by that famous city. Allahabad is situr
ated at the confluence of the Ganges and Jumna, and"
is divided into the old and new towns ; the former
stands on the banks of the Ganges, and the latter on
those of the Jumna. The fortress, erected by the
emperor Akbar, and occupying a large space within-
the city, a pillar of a single stone, 40 feet high, and
the splendid tomb of the Sultan Khufru, aft'ord ex-
cellent specimens of oriental architecture. Allaha-
bad is held in high veneration, is distinguished by tho
name of " the king of worshipped places," is the
great resort of pilgrims, and the S])uce of 20 miles
round the city is deemed holy ground, N. Lat. 25"
27'. E. Long. 82° 5'.

ALLAN, David, an eminent historical painter,,
who has been sometimes designated the Hogarth of
Scotland, from the peculiar character of some of his
productions, was born at Alloa in IVbruary 1744.
The early indications of mechanical dexterity which
lie exhibited with no other instrument than a knife,
attracted the notice of Mr Stewart of the customs,
in his native j)lace, and obtained for him, from that
gentleman, a recommendation to the academy of
jiainling, under the superintendence of the Messrs
I'oulis, the celebrated printers at Glasgow, where he
was admitted and remained seven years. The libe-
rality of Mrs Erskine. of Mar, Lady Charlotte Ers-
kine. Lord Cathcart, and MrAbercromby of Tulli..
body, enabled the young art^t to visit Italy, and to
study the sublime productions of the pencil and the
chissel in the imperial seat of the fine arts. The
generous kindness of his patrons was not disap-
pointed ; for in 1773 he produced the best specimen
of historical composition, the subject of which was
the Origin of Painting, and obtained the prize medal
of the academy of St. Luke at Rome.

After a residence of IC years in Italy, Mr Allah
returned to Scotland, and was appointed master of
the academy for drawing and painting establisht-d in
Edinburgh by the Trustees for Manufactures, &c.
Beside the ordinary duties of liis situation, tlie illur

AU»

Allan.

ALL

222

ALL

AUsntois strations of the popular pastoral, the Gentle Shep-
II herd, the Scottish Wedding, the Highland Dance,

Allegiance, the Repentance Stool, and the Cottar's Saturday
Night, from tlie poem of our immortal bard Burns,
are enumerated among the admired productions of
his pencil; and those who are acquainted with Scot-
tish manners can fully appreciate the characteristic
touches and delicate humour which abound in those
pictures. The Prodigal Son, in the possession of
Lord Cathcart, and Hercules and Omphale, in the
possession of Mr Erskine of Mar, are also favourable
specimens of his professional talents. The private
character of Mr Allan, which was distinguisjied by
amiable and unaffected manners, procured him the
respect and attachment of his friends while he lived,
and their unfeigned regret followed him to the grave,
in August 1776, in the 53d year of his age.

ALLANTOIS, a membrane which invests the
fcetus of quadrupeds, is of a thin structure, and lies
between the amnios and chorion.

ALLEGHANY MOUNTAINS, sometimes de-
nominated Anpallachian from a tribe of Indians oc-
cupying the banks of the Appalachicola river, is an
extensive elevated ridge intermediate between the
Atlantic ocean on the one hand, and the Mississippi
and the lakes of North America on the other. This
mountainous range, stretching south-west and north-
east, commences in Georgia, runs through Virginia
and Pennsylvania, and terminates in New Brunswick.
The whole length of the chain is stated at 900 miles,
and the breadth, including the dift'erent ridges, va-
ries from 70 to 150 miles. The greatest elevation,
about 8000 feet above the level of the sea, is in
New Hampshire. The sources of different rivers,
some of which terminate in the gulph of Mexico,
and others run into the Atlantic ocean, are traced
to the Alleghany mountains.

The geological constitution of the Alleghany moun-
tains affords examples both of the primary and se-
condary strata of rocks ; granite, gneiss, micaceous,
and argillaceous schistus, occupy the central and
usually the more elevated parts of the chain ; sand-
Stone, limestone, with animal remains, and gypsum,
are the prevailing rocks in the lower ranges ; and
extensive alluvial depositions have been formed in
the vallies and flat country. The slaty strata are oc-
casionally the respositories of silver, copper, and lead.

Alleghany County, forms the western division
of Maryland in North America, and is bounded by
Pennsylvania on the north, by the river, Potomack
and Virginia on the south ; contains a population
of nearly 9000, and the chief town is Cumberland.
Alleghany is also a county in Pennsylvania, the po-
pulation of which exceeds 10,000, and Pittsburgh is
the chief town.

Alleghany River, rises from the west side of
the Allegha'ny mountains, and after a course of 200
miles joins the Monongahela at Pittsburgh, and their
united streams form the Ohio.

ALLEGIANCE, derived from a word which
signifies to bind, denotes the legal tie by which the
subject is bound to his sovereign or liege lord. The
name and the form of this obligation are derived from
our Goth c ancestors ; but the nature of govern-
ment, or the mutual connexion which subsists be-

tween the ruler and the ruled, or the king and his AJlegory.
subjects, implies such an obligation. Under the '
feudal system, every owner of lands held them im-
mediately of the sovereign himself, or of his vassals ;
and hence a mutual confiderioe arose between the
lord and the vassal, that the lord or superior on the
one hand should protect his subject or vassal in the
enjoyment of his property, and that the vassal should
be faithful to his lord, and defend him against his
enemies. The obligation on the part of the vas-
sal was expressed or acknowledged in the oath of
fealty, which was required by the feudal law to be
taken by all tenants to their sovereign or superior
lord.

Allegiance, both expressed and implied, is distin-
guished by the law into natural and local. Natural
allegiance is due from all men born within the king's
dominions, immediately upon their birth, for then they
come under the king's protection. Local allegiance
is due from an alien, or stranger born, as long as he
continues under the king's dominion and protection.
Natural allegiance is regarded as a perpetual obliga-
tion, but local allegiance is only temporary. The oath
of allegiance is in the following terms : " I, A. B. do
sincerely promise and swear, that I will be faithful,
and bear true allegiance to his Majesty King George,"
and may be tendered to all persons above 12 years
of age, whether natives or foreigners, in the slierift's
court, or in the court leet of the manor ; but the
simple declaration of Quakers is admitted as a substi-
tute for the formality of the oath.

ALLEGORY, is a figurative mode of writing,
which consists in selecting a secondary subject, m
which the chief circumstances bear some resem-
blance to the principal subject, and thus contributes
to its illustration. Allegorical writing has been not
unaptly compared to emblematical painting, in which
an exercise of the mind, by reflection and medita-
tion, to discover the meaning and application, is re-
quired ; and in this way instruction and amusement
are combined. The 80tn psalm, in which a vineyard
is made to represent God's own people the Jews,
has been often quoted as an example of a beautiful
and correct allegory. The address of Nathan to Da-
vid, in 2 Sam. chap. xii. is another excellent illus-
tration of allegorical composition.

The progress of human life is finely represented in
an allegory, under the figure of a voyage, in the
following beautiful verses by our celebrated poet
Cowper.

Thou, as a gallant bark from Albion's coast,
(The storms all weather'd, and the ocean cross'd)
Shoots into port at some well-haven'd isle,
Where spices breathe, and brighter seasons smile ;
There sits quiescent on the floods that show
Her beauteous form reflected clear below.
While airs, impregnated with incense, play
Around her, fanning light her streamers gay ;
So thou, witli sails how swift ! hast reach'd the shore,
" Where tempests never beat nor billows roar."
And thy lov'd consort on the dang'rous tide
Of life, long since, has anchor'd at thy side.
But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest.
Always from port withheld, always distrest—

ALL

223

ALL

Me howling winds drive devious, tempest-togg'd,
Sails ripp'd, seams opening wide, and compass lost ;
And day by day some current's thwarting force,
Sets me more distant from a prosperous course.

ALLEGRI, Antonio, designated Corregio, from
the place of liis birth, an eminent painter, was bora
in 1494 ; and nierijly by the force of his own genius,
unaided by wealth or patronage, acquired that last-
ing fame which his own age denied, but which pos-
terity has amply awarded. The scantiness of his
means precluded him from visiting Rome. Parma
was the chief place of his residence, where he was
employed to paint die cupola of the cathedral. The
subject is tiie assumption of the Virgin ; and when
it was finisbad, the canons, through ignorance or
avarice, found fault with the work, and paid him on-
ly 200 livres, a smaller sum than the stipulated price
of his labour. This harsh and unfair treatment
tiu'ew him into a fever, which in three days termi-
iu>ted his life and misfortunes, in 1534, and in the
40th year of his age. The admiration and applause
of Aniiibal C'aracci, who flourished 50 years after
Corregio, afford the most undoubted testimony of
the excellence of his productions. " Every thing
I see here," he says, " astonishes me, particularly
the colouring and beauty of the children. They live,
they breathe." And the n)agnificent painting on the
cupola of the cathedral was admired by the celebrat-
ed Titian, to whom, indeed, its preservation is as-
cribed ; for so little was the merit of the performance
■understood, that the canons expressed to him their
intention of having the whole defaced. With some
degree of vanity, he replied, " Take care what you
do ; if I were not Titian, 1 would certainly wish to
be Corregio."

ALLEGRI, Gbegorio, a celebrated composer
of music, and chiefly of church-music, flourislied in
the 17th century, was a native of Rome; was ap-
pointed, in 1629, one of the singers of the Pope's
chapel, and became eminent by the simplicity and
purity of the harmony of the church services which
he composed. His most distinguished production is
the Miserere, which continues to be annually per-
formed in the pontifical chapel, on Wednesday and
Good Friday in passion week, by the choral band
and the principal singers of Italy. But the solem-
nity of the ceremonies observed during the perform-
ance, it is justly supposed, adds not a little to the
impressive grandeur of the whole. " The pope and
conclave are all prostrated on the ground ; the can-
dles of the chapel, and the torches of the ballustrade,
are extinguished one by one, and the last verse of
the psalm is terminated by two choirs ; the master
of the chapel beating time slower and slower, and
the singers diminishing, or rather extinguishing the
harmony by little and httle to a perfect point." The
private character of Allegriwas amiable and excel-
lent. The poor were bountifully relieved by his
charity, and the prisoners derived comfort from his
kindness and beneficence in his daily visits to their
dreary abodes. He died in 1652.

ALLEGRO, a musical term, denoting that the
part which is thus marked is to be performed in a
brisk and gay manner.

ALLEIN, Joseph, a nonconformist divine, was
a native of Wiltshire, was born in 1633, educated at
Oxford, and was settled, in 1655, in Taunton Mag-
dalen, in Somersetshire ; but, on account of his prin-
ciples, was deprived of his living. He died in 1688,
at the early age of 35. One of his religious works,
entitled Alarm to tuiconvericd Sinners, had an extra- ■
ordinary circulation. Twenty thousand copies of au
edition published in 1672 were sold ; three years af-
terwards, in 1675; the almost incredible number of
50,000 were disposed of under the title of A Sure
Guide to Heaven, and a large impression with tlio
original title in 1720.

ALLEYN, Edward, a celebrated English actor
in the reigns of Elizabeth and James her successor,
and founder of Dulwich college in Surrey, was born
in London in 1566. He was the coteraporary of
Shakespeare, an original actor in some of his plays,
and seems to have lived on the most friendly habits
with the poet, as well as with Ben Johnson. AUeyn
amassed a large fortune by his profession, in which
he rose to considerable eminence. In the quaint lan-
guage of one of his biographers, he is described as a
" Proteus for shapes, and a Roscius for a tongue."
But it was not solely to his own individual dramatic
efforts that he was indebted for the wealth which he
accumulated. He was manager and proprietor of a
theatre which he built at his own expense ; and he
derived an annual revenue of L. 500 from the place
of keeper of the king's wild beasts, or master of the
royal bear garden. The buildings of Dulwich college,
begun in 1613, under the superintendence of the ce-
lebrated architect Inigo Jones, were finished in three
years, at an expense of L.10,000, and lands to tho
amount of L.800 a-year were appropriated for the
support of the institution, which was destined for
the msiintenance of a master and warden, who were
always to be of his name, and four fellows, three of
whom must be clergymen, and the fourth a skilful
organist, beside six poor men, an equal number of
W'Omen, and 12 poor boys, who were to be educated
till the age of 14 or 16, and then placed in some
trade. It is a curious fact in the history of this in-
stitution, that the charter for the appropriation of the
lands intended for it's support was for some time re-
tarded by lord chancellor Bacon, who wisely recom-
mended to the king to devote part of the funds to
the establishment of two academical lectures; and it
was not till 1619 that the royal licence was obtained,
and publicly announced in the new chapel of the col-
lege, which is denoniiHated tlie College oj God's Gift ;
and it is not less curious that the founder became
the first master, and submitted to the economical ar-
rangement which he had formed for the institution.
Bui while he restricted his enjoyments, he was not
unmindful of worldly affairs ; for he still continued in
the lucrative management of the theatre ; and, be-
sides this college, v/hich continues to flourish, ho
made suitable provision for the support of several .
alms-houses in London and Southwark.

The following letter, which appeared in the An-
nual Register for 1770, contains a singular anecdote
of Alleyn and his dramatic friends, who used to
spend their evenings at the sign of the Globe, near
Blackfriars, and in the vicinity of the play-house. It

AUcia

AUcyn.

Allia

ALL

is odJressed to a friend by G.

224

A LL

Pecle, a fellow of
Christ Church college, Oxford, and a dramatic writer,
Ailiti'ration. svhowas a member of the cluh.

" •Friend Marie, — I never longed for thy company
Kjore than last night : we were all very merry at the
Globe, when Ned AUeyn did not scruple to aftyrnie
pleasantely to thy friende Will, that he had stolen his
speech about the qualityes of an actor's excellencyc
in Hamlet his tradgcdye, from conversations many-
fold whych ha<l passed betweene them, and opinyons
given by Alleyn touchinge the subjccte. Shakespeare
did not take this talke in good sorte ; but Johnson
put an ende to the strife with wittylye remarkingc,
This affaire needeth no contentione ; yoji stole it fi om
Ned, no doubt ; do not marvel : Have you not seen him
act tymes out of number? Yours, G. 1'eele."

Alleyn died in 1626, in the 61st year of his age,
and was buried hi the chapel of his own college,
where a tombstone, with an inscrijrtion, marks his
grave. The original Diary of this remarkable cha-
racter, it is said, is still preserved in the college.

ALLIA, a river of Italy, whose stream joins the
Tiber, four miles from Rome. The Romans sustain-
ed a dreadful disaster on the banks of this river,
wlien an army of 40,000 was either slain or put to
flight by the Gauls under Brennus ; and hence it is
remarked by Cicero, that their ancestors deemed the
battle of Allia a more fatal event than that of taking
tiie city.

ALLIANCE, is a relation contracted between
>'.vo persons or families by marriage ; but, in a poli-
tical sense, it denotes an obligation entered into by
sovereigns or states for their mutual safety and pro-
tection. Offensive aWiance is when the contracting
parties bind themselves to make war upon the com-
mon enemy ; and defensive alliance vrhen they assist
each other to repel his attacks.

ALLIER, a department of France, formeriy the
. province of Bourbonnois, derives its name from the
river whicli traverses it from north to south; has
the department of the Loire on the east, contains
nearly a million and a half of square acres, and a-
bout '270,000 inhabitants; includes some extensive
forests, and Ls celebrated for its mineral waters at
Vichy and Bourbon, places of great resort in spring
and autumn. The fish taken in the lakes and marshes
of this department fwm a considerable branch of
trade.

ALLIGATION is an arithmetical operation, by
which questions which relate to the mixture of one
ingredient with another of diiferent weight and va-
lue are solved. See Arithmetic.

ALLIGATOR, the specific name of the Ameri-
ean crocodile, derived from the Spanish word which
tignifies -a lizard. See Lacerta, under Erpetolo-
ey.

ALLIONiA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Tetrandria class.

ALLITERATION is>the repetition of the same
letter at the beginning of words or syllables at cer-
tain intervals; it is cViicily, although not exclusively,
employed in poetical comjwsitions, and is consider-
ed by soine as an ornament of language, while o-
thcrs regard it as a trifling and false refinement.
ISome critics ascribe the pleasure derived from alli-

teration to a mocbanica! operation, or to the facnity
of articulating similar sounds ; and others con-
ceive that it is to be traced solely to the gratifica-
tion of the ear derived tVom the frequent recurrence
of the sanie sounds. Perhaps, if rightly investigat-
ed, the effects of alliteration depend on the opera-
tion of both causes. Alliteration is in frequent use
with the best English poets. In ttie following ex-
amples the alliterative letters are in italics.

iJchemoth iiggest Jorn. — Milton.

Softly, iweet, in Lydian measures,

Soon he iooth'd the soul to pleasures. — Dryden.

Eternal beauties grace the shining scene,

J^ields everyiesh, and groves for evergreen. — Pope.

iZuin seize thee, ruthless king. — Gray.

That hush'd in grim repose expects his evening
/irey. — Ibid.

Nor cast one /onging, lingering /ook behind. — Ibid.

ALLIUM, a genus of plants, including the onion,
leek, and garlic, and belonging to the Hexandria
class.

ALLOA, a sea-port town on the north side of the
Frith of Forth, and in the county of Clackmannan,
in Scotland, has been long a place of some note in
Scottish history. The massy tower in the vicinity,
which is 90 feet high, was erected about the end of
the 13th century, and seems to have been at one pe-
riod a royal residence; for, in 136.5, the lands and
tower of Alloa were exchanged by David II. king of
Scotland, with Thomas Lord Erskine, and has since
continued to be the residence of the family of Marr,
who were long guardians of the princes of"^ Scotland.
The cradle of Henry prince of Wales, the last heir
of the Scottish monarthy, and the child's chair of
James VI. are still preserved in the tower. Tbe
pleasure-grounds of this ancient residence were laid
out in the French style in the beginning of the ISth
century.

The harbour of Alloa is safe and commodious,
and has the advantage of a dry dock, capable of ad-
mitting large vessels. The manufacture of common
glass bottles is extensive ; but the coal mines, some
of whicii have been wrought for nearly '200 years,
and the distilleries in the nei(,hbourhood, are the
chief sources of the trade of Alloa. Thirty-five thou-
sand tons of coals have been exported in tJie course
of a year; end in 18(;6 more than ],0G0,0(;0 gallons
of whiskey were shippt'd. The chief imports are
grain, limestone, ironstone, and wood and iron from
the Baltic. 'I he population of Alloa is about 3000,
and the distance from Leith is about 20 miles.

ALLODIAL is applied to lands which are held
by a person in his own right, without any service or
acknowledgment to a superior.

ALLOY is the combination of two or more me-
tals, by which the properties of the individual metals
are changed, and new properties, which render the
compound extremely valuable in the arts, are obtain-
ed. Alloy is also emj)loyed to signify the propor-
tion of a haeer metal, which is mixed with gold and
silver, for the purpose of coin. In the gold coin of

Allium

Alloy.

ALM

22;5

ALM

Alluvion t^>is country, silver and copper are used as the alloy,

II and it is estimated by carats. Standard gold con-

AJmamon. tains 2 carats of alloy, and 'i1 carats of fine gold.

'*^^^''^' Copper alone is the alloy of the silver coin ; and

standard silver contains 18 dwts. of copper alloy, and

1 1 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver.

ALLUVION, denotes the gradual increase of
land on the banks of rivers, or on the sea-shore.
When the addition has been effected slowly and im-
perceptibly, the land thus obtained belongs to the
proprietor of the ground to which the addition is
made ; but, in case of sudden and violent changes,
as by a convulsion of nature, or the alteration of the
course of a river, the separated land belongs to the
original proprietor.

ALMACARRAN, a sea-port town in the province
•f Murcia in Spain, in the neighbourhood of which
is found a red ochre, which is employed in painting,
and as an ingredient in Spanish snuff. The rocks in
the vicinity afford abundance of aluminous ore. It
is 20 miles west of Carthagena.

ALMADEN, a town of La Mancha in Spain,
which has been long celebrated for its quick-silver
mines, which began to be wrought by Germans be-
fore the middle of the 17th century. The ore is cin-
nabar, or native vermilion ; and twelve furnaces,
which are whimsically called the twelve apostles, are
employed in refining it. Almaden contains above
300 houses, and the inhabitants are chiefly occupied
in the mining establishment, Almaden is \^ miles
north from Cordova.

ALMAGEST, is particularly applied to a work
which is ascribed to Ptolemy, and which contains
various problems in Geometry, and observations on
astronomy, and a catalogue of the fixed stars. This
sollection was found at Alexandria, and was translated
by the orders of Almamon into Arabic, in 827; and the
original Greek text, which was discovered at Constan-
tinople, has been translated into Latin. The same
title has been used by others, as in a book of astro-
nomy by Iliccioli, which is called the 'New Alma-
gest.

ALMAMON, a distinguished caliph of Bagdad,
and a celebrated astronomer, was born in the year
786. His reign was disturbed by those insurrections
and rebellions which were common in the countries
over which he ruled. His name is chiefly worthy
of being transmitted to posterity as the liberal pa-
tron of literature and science. In early life, and
before he ascended the throne, he established an
academy, and invited the learned men of different
nations to his territories to become the teachers of
youth. Unshackled by the prejudices of the times,
he placed a Christian physician from Damascus at
the head of his institution. Astronomy was culti-
vated in the time of his grandfather Almansor, who
was the second caliph of the Abassides ; Almamon
continued to encourage and promote the same study,
and was himself no mean proficient in that sublime
science. The obliquity of the ecliptic was observed
in his time, and the geometers whom he liberally
supported were employed in the measurement of a
degree of the meridian on the plains of Mesopotamia.
To facilitate the more rapid and extensive diffusion
of knowledge, the best works on various subjects

VOL. I. PART I,

were translated from different languages. This wise Almanack
and liberal sovereign, having reigned more than 20 |{

years, died in the -tOth year of his age. Almoravedei.

ALMANACK, from the Arabic words al and s^'V'*-'
manack, which signify the Diary, is a book or table
containing a kalendar of days and months, rising
and setting of the sun, age of the moon, eclipses,
&c. As the construction of tables of this descrip-
tion depends on astronomical observation, almanacks
are supposed to have been first drawn up by the A-
rabians, among whom astronomy flourished. Re-
giomontanus, the astronomer, reduced almanacks
to their present form and arrangement in Europe.
His first almanack was published in 1471.

ALME, or ALM EH, a class of women who
have devoted themselves to the practice of singing,
recitation, and dancing, in Egypt and other eastern
countries, and are accustomed to extemporaneous
poetical effusions, on subjects of immediate occur-
rence. The Alme of Egypt form a celebrated pro-
fession to which those only who are properly quali-
fied are admitted. For this purpose, beside being
carefully instructed in the arts of singing and dan-
cing, they must possess an accurate knowledge of
the language, and ^c<iuire a facility of composing
verses without premeditation.

The Alme form a part of all festive entertain-
ments, and they are employed as fictitious mourners
at funeral solemnities : Difterent orders of the Alme
are found who accommodate their performance to
the rank of society before whom they exhibit. The
higher orders are well educated, and of a polished
character ; but those whose exhibition is confined
to the lower ranks of the people, are little distin-
guished by correctness of conduct or delicacy of
manners ; and there are probably lew or none of the
whole profession that are entirely free from the
charge of some degree of licentiousness. Among
the Hindoos, the Aloie are divided into three classes;
the first is devoted to the service of the temples, '

where dancing is occasionally introduced ; the se-
cond is called the fashionable class, who are de-
scended from the cast or tribe of weavers, whose fe-
males have been long destined to this profession ; and
the third, or lowest class, is composed of women of
very inferior accomplishments, and equally indiffer-
ent morals.

ALMOHEDES. See Almoravides.

ALMONER, an officer in religious houses, to
whom were entrusted the management and distribu-
tion of alms to the poor. According to ancient ca-
nons, a tenth part of the revenue of monasteries
ought to be destined to charitable purposes. The
Lord High Almoner of England is an ecclesiastical
officer, and usually a bishop, into whose possession
all deodands, and the confiscated goods of ;suitide8,
fall, for the purpose of being distributed to the poor;
and to the same officer, by ancient custom, belongs
tjie power of giving the first dish from the king's
table to any poor person he chuses, or in lieu of it a
sum of money.

ALMORAVIDES, an Arabic tribe, who retired
to a secluded district of Africa for the puqjose of
observing more rigidly the peculiar precepts of the
Koran. They assumed the name of Morabites, which

ALN

226

Atattlok, was converted by the Spaniards into that of Alraora-
vides. Abubeker Ben Omar was the first chief, and
with the aid of an insurgent army from Numidia and
Libya he founded the dynasty in lOfll. His son
■ and successor, Joseph, subdued and became master
of Morocco, Tunis, and the intermediate territory,
crossed the Mediterranean, and reduced many of
the kingdoms of Spain to Subjection ; and in a second
invasion in 1107 penetrated into Portugal, as far as
Lisbon. Ali his son, vvho succeeded in 1110, more
disposed to cultivate the arts of peace, planned and
erected the great mosque of Morocco, and many
other pubHc edifices. He was slain in a dreadful
battle with Alphonso king of Arragon ; and his son,
after a luxurious and oppressive reign of 25 years,
was driven from his throne, and succeeded by a new
dynasty, known in history by the name of Almo-
hedes.

The founder of the djiiasty of the Almohedes was
Al Mohedi or Mohedes, a Borebber, or native of the
mountains, who appeared as a preacher or reformer,
and became leader of the ortliodox ov Unitarians. A
clanioious advocate for liberty, and pvoftssing un-
bounded zeal for religion, he soon attracted notice,
and formed a party, whose views, as their numbers
increased, extended to other objects beside the pu-
rity of the faith. A public attempt to suppress them
was made by Brahcm, the last of the race of the Al-
moravides; but it proved unsuccessful; he was driven
from his capital, pursued as a fugitive, with his fa-
vourite wife on horseback behind him, and despair-
ing of escape from his enemies, threw himself over a
precipice, where he and his wife were dashed to
pieces.

The termination of the dynastj' of the Almoravides,
was the commencement ot that of the Almohedes, of
whom the first king was Abdolmumen, a powerful
leader of the new party. The constitution of their
government was wisely framed to insure popularity ;
the civil and religious establishments were united in
a council of 40 persons, and the sovereign, who was
both king and cliief priest, was chosen from that
number. This dynasty, which continued for 170
years, neglected not the security or extension of their
temporal power by means of the sword, both in Af-
rica and Spain. But a disastrous battle with the
Christians in the latter country, in which nearly
200,000 Moors fell on the field, weakened the at-
tachments of his native subjects to Al Nahor, the
last but one of this race, and in a short time occa-
sioned his death. The assassination of his successor
and grandson was the termination of the dynasty.

ALNWICK, the county town of Northumberland,
in England, like other border towns, was formerly
surrounded with walls, which the fortunate cessation
of intestine war has permitted to fall to decay- One
of the gates, in the form of a tower, still remains as a
memorial of the gallant Hotspur, by whom it was
erected. Alnwick is situated on the river Alne, from
which the name is derived, contains a spacious square
for the public markets and public buildings, and from
which the principal streets proceed. The population
is nearly ,5000 ; no manufactures of any extent or
importance have been established in Alnwick, and
its inland situation affords few facilities to trade; but

ALO

every branch of liberal education is taught in tWee Altqiettmu
free schools, which are supported by the public re- \\
venue of the town. Alp».

The castle, the seat of the chief of the Percy fa-
mily, and one of the grandest baronial residences in'
the kingdom, with its extensive and beautiful grounds,
forms one of the principal ornaments to the vicinity
of Alnwick. This gothic structure has been of laite
years completely repaired, and the internal decora-
tions have been finished with great elegance and
splendour. The chapel, with its painted and gilt
mouldings, and stucco work, and fine specimens of
painted glass, is much admired. During the resi-
dence of the Duke of Northumberland at this prince-
ly mansion, the style of old English hospitality is
kept up. On certain days the gentlemen of the sur-
rounding districts, and even respectable strangers,
are admitted by a kind of tacit general invitation to
the table of this noble family.

Alnwick is Si miles south from Edinburgh, and
310 north from London.

ALOPECURUS, Fox-tail Grass, a genus of plants
belonging to the Triandria class, of which several
species are natives of Britain, and are cultivated as
pasture-grasses.

ALPHABET, a word derived from the names of
the first and second letters of the Greek alphabet,
denotes the order or series of the letters of any lan-
guage. See Language.

ALPINI, Prospero, in Latin, Prosper Alpimis, a
celebrated physician and naturalist, was a native of
the Venetian republic, and was born in 1553 ; spent
part of his early years in the military profession, af-
terwards studied medicine at the university of Padua,
and settled at a small town in the Paduan territory.
With a strong inclination for botanical pursuits, he
eagerly embraced the opportunity of accompanying
the Venetian consul to Egypt, where a residence of
three years enabled him to extend his knowledge of
plants and of vegetable economy. From observations
which he made on the management of date palm-
trees in that country, it appears that he deduced the
doctrine of the sexual diil'erence of plants, which was
assumed as the foundation of the Linnaean system.

Alpini returned to Venice in 1586, was appointed
physician to Andrew Doria, prince of Melfi, and at
Genoa, where he resided, acquired the reputation of
the first physician of the age. But the Venetians, it
is said, were jealous that strangers should enjoy the
benefits of the professional abilities and reflected
fame of their countryman, and recalled him, in the
year 1593, to fill the botanical chair in the university
of Padua, the duties of which he zealously and faith-
fully performed. He died in 1617, and was succeed-
ed by his son. Alpini was a voluminous author : He
wrote on Medicine in General ; on the Practice of
Medicine among the Egyptians ; on the Plants of
Egypt ; on Exotic Plants, &c.

ALPS, originally restricted to that range of moun-
tains which separates Italy from France and Ger-
many, may be now considered as a general appella-
tion of highly elevated land; and hence some ancient
authors speak of Spanish Alps, and among the mo-
derns any mountainous region is so denominated, as
Svim Alps, to which the term seems to have been

A LP

337

A L S

Alpinwms ^'st appliecl, Afhtic Alp^, American Alps, British
I] and Scottish Afps ; and the phrases Alpine coiintrif

Alston, and Alpine plants, are quite familiar to naturalists.
■■^^^-^^ The word is derived by some froaa the Latin word
alhus, white, a characteristic expression of their snow-
capped summits, and by others it is traced to a Cel-
tic origin, and signilles mountainous pastures, or
hishly derated land. But the particular description
of these mountainous regions falls more properly un-
der the ditterent countries to which, they belong.

Alps, three departments of France, in the imme-
diate vicinity of the mountains from which the name
is taken. In the Higher Alps, the rearing of sheep
»nd cattle is the chief occupation of the inhabitants;
in the Lower Alps the cultivation of potatoes is rery
extensive ; and the Maritime Alps was an annexation,
in 1793, of Nice and the principality of Monaco to
France.

ALPUXARRAS, or Ai.paxakes, the ancient
Monica Solis, or Mountains of the Sun, a range of high
moimtains in the province of Granada in Spain,
which occupy a space of 35 miles in length and L5
in breadth, from the city of Velez to Almeria. This
elevated region is chiefly inhabited by the Moors
who remained after the expulsion of their country-
men from Europe, and, preserving their own manners
and languasje, have embraced Christianity. Thej' are
represented as skilful husbandmen, and are very suc-
cessful in tho culture of fruit trees. Among the na-
tural wonders of these mountains are recorded the
waters of a spring, probably of a chalybeate quality,
which in an instant dye silk or linen, and the exha-
Jations of a cavern, no doubt fixed air or carbonic
acid gas, which are noxious to animal life.

ALSACE, a former province of France, now di-
Tided into the departments of the Higher and Lower
Rhine, is one of the most fertile districts of the king-
dom. The lower regions abound in corn, wine, and
fruits ; and the mountains are clothed with extensive
forests.

ALSEN, a Danish island lying in the Lesser Belt,
at the entrance ol' the Bahic, and between the island
of Funen and the coast oi' Sleswick, from which it is
separated by a narrow channel. Alsen is 20 miles in
length and 10 in breadth. The soil is fertile, and
produces grain, fruits, and a great deal of aniseed.
The woods abound with game, and the lakes with fish.
It is 100 miles west from Copenhagen.

ALSINE, Chickweed, now arranged by Dr
Smith under the genus Stellaria, belonging to the
class Decandria, was formerly placed as a distinct
genus in the Pentendria class. Among the produc-
tions of the vegetable kingdom which are affected by
changes of the weather, none, perhaps, aflbrds a su-
rer indication of a fair day than the full expansion of
the flowers of chickweed in the morning.

ALSTON, Charles, a physician and botanist,
was a native of the west of Scotland, and was born in
1683, commenced his studies at the university of
Glasgow, and, under the patronage of the Duchess
of Hamilton, attached himself exclusively to medi-
cine, in the prosecution of which, in his 33d year,
he accompanied the first Dr Monro to Leyden,
where he continued three years, under the instruc-
tion of the celebrated Boerhaave. The return of

Monro and Alston to their native cmmtry miay be Aim]
considered as a propitious era to the university of ||
Edinburgh ; for to them, in conjunction with Sin- Altar,
clair, Rutherford, and Plummer, the origin of its ^-T'v-^
medical school is to be traced. Dr Alston taught
Botany and Materia Medica, and rendered himself
conspicuous by combating the Linna^an doctrine of
the sexual lystcm of plants, in a memoir published
in the Edinburgh Physical and Literary Essays.
The language he employs in this memoir has not es-
caped censure, and perhaps merits it. He rccom--
mended the use of tin, powdered or granulated, for
the expulsion of worms, in another memoir ; he en-
tered into a controversial discussion, concerning the
properties • and effects of quicklime, with Dr W hytt
of the same university, and his lectures on Materia
Medica were published in two volumes, 4tt>., ten/
years after his death, which happened in November
1760, and in the 77th year of his age.

Alston, or Aldstone Moou, a town in the
county of Cumberland, and in the hilly country oni
the borders of Northumberland, containing a pl>pu-
lation of nearly 4000, who are chiefly employed inr
the lead minrs in the vicinity, which have been lor>g
celebrated for the abundance of that metal. The
lands Ibrm part of the forfeited estates of the Earf
of Derwentwater, and arc held in lease for 1000 years
from the governors of Greenwich hospital, to which
establishment they were appropriated by the Icrisla-
ture. Alston Moor is 19 miles from Penrith, and 304
north from London.

ALSTONIA, a genus of plants belonging to tlie
Polyandria class.

ALSTROEMERIA, a genus of plants belonging
to tlie Hexandria class.

ALT, a term applied to the high notes in the mu-
sical scale, or those between F in the treble cliff note
and G in altissimo.

ALTAI, or Alt.ay, a range of mountains in the
northern regions of Asia, which extend 5000 miles,
from the 70th to the 140th degree of E. longitude,
form the boundary between the Russian territory
and Chinese Tartary, and are divided, according to ^

diversity of course or elevation, into tlie greater and
lesser. But beside this general division, numerous
branches stretch out in various directions. Some of
these mountains are of such a height as to be cover-
ed with perpetual snow. They are chiefly composed
of primitive rocks. Granite occupies the loftiest part
of the range ; the slaty rocks, as gneiss and schistus,
are found in the intermediate division ; and strata oi'
limestone and marble are deposited in the lower re-
gions. The Altaian mountains are the copious repo-
sitories of various metallic ores, as gold, silver, cop-
per, lead, and iron, and some of them have been ex-
tensively wrought, of which some notion may be
formed from the number of persons, exceeding
50,000, employed in the different operations.

ALTAR, a structure on which sacrifices were of-
fered to some deity, was made of various forms and
materials. Altars are supposed to be coeval with sa-
crifices themselves. While some date the origin of
altars in the time of Adam, others think that Enoch
was tho first who consecrated a public altar; but the
earliest testimony concerning altiirs referred to those

ALT

228

A M A

Altdorf erected by Abraham. Of the simplicity and rude
(i form of altars in the. patriarchal times, what is re-
Altitude, cordttd in Scripture of the stone which had served
Jacob for a pillow, andwhich he set up in Bethel,
furnishes a striking example.

Among the ancients, the word ara, in its more ge-
neral signification, included every kind of altar. But
a distinction is sometimes made by some authors,
and perhaps was actually observed in their ancient
modes of worship. The altar properly called ara,
was not elevated above the surface of the ground,
and it was devoted to the service of the terrestrial
gods ; the altars dedicated to the celestial gods were
raised to some height, and were thus denominated
altaria from alta and ara, or high altar ; but holes
M'Cre dug into the earth, called scrobiculi, when altars
were set apart for the worship of the infernal gods.
Altars were adorned with sculpture, representing the
figure of the deity to whom they were erected, or
some appropriate symbols. A Bacchanal, with a
tliyrsus in his hand, is the characteristic of the
altar of Bacchus ; and the figure of Neptune, with
the pallium on his shoulder, a trident in his left hand
and a dolphin in his right, or a genius with an oar
on his neck, clearly indicates the altar which is thus
decorated to belong to the sea god. Groves, high-
ways, the tops of mountains, and other conspicuous
places, were chosen for the erection of altars.

,Th.'^ altars of incense, of iur7tf-offerings, and of shevi-
hread, which were the principalaltars among the Jews,
were made of sliittiin-wood ; the first and the last were
covered with plates of gold, and the second for the
burnt-otterings was covered with brass. The Jewish,
as well as the heathen altars, afforded an asylum, or
place of refuge to such as fled from violence, and
even to such as were guilty of crimes, from a notion
probably that they were under the protection of the
deity to whom the place was dedicated. A similar
privilege, it is well known, has been extended in some
ages to Christian churches. Solemn transactions, as
tlie administration of oaths, alliances entered into be-
tween different nations and individuals, atid the con-
firmation of treaties of peace, have been often ratified
and concluded at altars.

ALTDORF, or Altorf, the capital of the can-
ton of Uri in Switzerland ; a fine town, which stands
near the lake of the Four Cantons, in a plain surround-
ed with lofty mountains clothed with wood; contains
a population of ^OOO ; is famous as the birth-place of
the celebrated William Tell, the intrepid champion
of Swiss liberty ; and is 20 miles S. E. from X.ucerne,
and 33 miles S. from Zurich.
ALTP^NA, see Alton a.

ALTHEA, Marshmallows, a genus of plants be-
long to the Monadelphia class.

ALTIN, or Ai-tvn, a lake of Siberia, which is
situated on the elevated country on the north side of
the Altaiafi mountains ; is estimated at 90 miles in
length and 30 in breadth ; the southern extremity
never freezes, but the northern division admits of
travelling on foot across it in the winter; it is subject
•to inundations in summer from the melting ofthe
snows, and it is one of tiie sources of the gi'eat river
Oby.

ALTITUDE, or. Height, is an astrononucal terra

applied to the heavenly bodies, and expressive of Alton*
their position above the horizon, as the altitude of ||

the sun, of the moon, or of a star. Amalelvites.

ALTON A, a city of Holstein, belonging to Den-
mark, is situated on the north bank of the Elbe, and
is the sea-port of the Danish Ea.st India Company ;
is of some commercial importance ; has the conveni-
cncy of docks for ship-building ; and many ofthe ifl-
habitants, which amount to 25,000, are actively cnt-
ployed in various manufactuies. Altona is two miles
west from Hamburgh.

ALUM, an earthy triple salt, composed of sulphu-
ric acid, alumina, or pure clay, and an alkali, usually
potash, or a compound of /sulphate of alumina and
sulphate of potash. For its chemical properties, see
Chemistry ; and for an account of the manufacture
of alum, see Salts, under which will be detailed the
history and processes for the preparation ofthe various
saline substances employed in the arts.

ALYSSUM, Madwort, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the Tetradynamia class, some of tlie species of
which were supposed to have the property of curing
madness.

AM AD AN, or Hamadan, one ofthe chief towns
of a province of Persia, is finely situated on a spot be-
tween Taurus and Ispahan, and on the road from Mec-
ca to thenorthern parts of Asia. The numerous springs
in the vicinity, and the surrounding gardens, add great-
ly to the beauty of the place, the air of which is so
salubrious as to render it the frequent resort of ir<va-
lids in the spring ; and from being occasionally tlie
summer retirement of the Persian monarchs, it has
obtained the designation of royal city. Among many
splendid tombs which decorate Amadan, the mauso-
leum or tomb of the celebrated Arabian physician,
Avicenna, still exists ; and, according to a tradition
of the Jews, the ashes of Esther and Mordecai re-
pose in a tomb not far from their synagogue in this
place, to which, it is said, devotees of that persuasion,
from the country about the Levant, sometimes per-
form pilgrimage. Amadan, it has been supposed, is
the ancient Ecbatana, was destroyed by Nebuchad-
nezer, and rebuilt by Darius. N. Lat. 35° 15'. E.
Long. \S°.

AMAK, an island to the south of Copenhagen, a-
bout two miles in length and one mile in breadth, and
containing about 3000 or 4000 inhabitants, in differ-
ent villages, who are the descendants ef a Dutch co-
lony established in the beginning of the 16th centu-
ry by a Danish queen, for the purpose cf supplying
Copenhagen with vegetables, butter, and eheese.
The communication between the island and Copen-
hagen is facilitated by a draw-bridge. The whole
island is under excellent cultivation, and is laid out
in pastures and gardens. The inhabitants retain their
original dress and manners ; but intermarriage, and
constant intercourse with the Danes, have corrupted
their language, which is now a mixture of Danish
and Low Dutch.

AMALEKITES, a powerful people of Arabia
Peti^a, are supposed by some to be the descendants
of Amaiek, the sou of Eliphaz, and the grandson of
Esau ; hut, according to the Arabian tradition, their
descent is to be traced to Amalok, a grandson of
Koali, and there were diil'erent tribes oi the same

A M A

229

AM A

Amalfi.

name. The progress of the Israelites from Egypt to
the promised land was greatly harassed by a warlike
tribe of this people, in consequence, it is said, of an
enmity still existing in remembrance of their proge-
nitor, Esau, being dcjirived of his birth-right, and of
his father's blessing, by the patriarch Jacob. They
were attacked and completely routed by the Israel-
ites under their leader Joshua. The same people, or
a tribe under the same name, in conjunction with
the Moabites and Midianites, renewed their hostile
operations against the Jews in the time of the Judges ;
but their attacks were vigorously repelled by Gi-
deon. Saul advanced to the capital of the Amale-
kites, and put the whole people to the sword ; at a
future period, a few scattered bands of the Araale-
kites who had escaped, pillaged Ziklag, which wa.s
the residence of the family of David, who pursued
them, dispersed the plunderers, and recovered the
booty ; and from thiii time history is silent concern-
ing them.

AMALFI, a sea-port town in Italy, is situated on
the gulf of Salerno, is about 30 miles south from
Naples, and dates its origin about the middle of the
4jth century, when some families from Rome, propos-
ing to emigrate to Constantinople, were driven by a
storm to the shores of Salerno, and settled on the
spot. The situation which chance fixed for their re-
sidence afforded peculiar advantages for commercial
enterprise ; and as the inhabitants increased in num-
ber and opulence, they were not inattentive to avail
themselves of the facilities which it offered for car-
rying on a lucrative trade with the eastern parts of
the world, with the productions and manufactures of
which they supplied the countries to the west.
About the middle of the ninth century, Amalfi rose
to great splendour ; assumed the form of a common-
wealth ; acquired the dignity of an archiepiscopal
city ; and, for its zealous exertions against the infi-
dels, was distinguished by the title oi Defender of the
Faith. The population of the city was not less than
S0,000 ; the whole trade of the Levant was under
their management, and they had establishments in
almost every country of the civilized world. The
fortunate discovery of the mariners' compass has
been ascribed to them, or to the native of a neigh-
bouring village. To add to the dignity and impor-
tance of this enterprising people, an order of knight-
hood was estabhshed under the patronage of St John
of Jerusalem. The members of this order became
afterwards the knights of Rhodes, who were at last
absorbed in the celebrated military order of the
knights of Malta.

The prosperity of this small but rich common-
wealth excited the jealousy of their poorer and
more barbarous neighbours ; and having repelled
repeated attacks, they were entirely overwhelmed
by the Normans, after having enjoyed their republi-
can constitution and conmiercial rank for 300 years.
From this time the wealth and power of Amalfi de-
clined, and its lucrative trade was transferred to the
Genoese and Venetians. Tlie ruins of a cathedral,
and of the splendid mansions of its ancient merchants,
are the only traces of the former grandeur of A-
malfi, and the diminished number of its inhabitants,
now reduced to 4000, presents a sad contrast to the

crowded population in the prosperous periods of its Amalgam
history; and its maritime concerns, once so import- ||

aiit and extensive, have dwindled into the excursions Anuuioiiia.
of fishermen, who are chiefly distinguished for their
poverty. .

AMALGAM is a compound of quicksilver and
some other metal, varying in its nature and proper-
ties according to the metal with which the combina-
tion is formed, and the proportions of the quicksil-
ver employed. When other metals are combined,
the word alloy is applied to the compound obtaimj.

AMARANTHUS, or Flower-gentle, a genus of
plants belonging to the Monoecia class.

AMARYLLIS, Lily Asphodel, a genus of plants
belonging to the Hexandria class.

AMASIA, a large and populous town, the capi-
tal of a district of the same name in Natolia, in Asi-
atic Turkey, was the residence of the ancient kings
of Cappadocia, and is worthy of notice as tlie birth-
place of Strabo, the celebrated geographer. Ama-
sia is placed among rugged mountains, and on the
banks of a river which discharges its waters into the
Black sea ; some remains of its former magnificence
still exist, and it is the residence of a governor, and
of the eldest son of the Grand Signior, the expec-
tant heir of the Ottoman throne. The bulk of the
inhabitants are Christians, so that a single mosque
only appears in Amasia. The province of Amasia
abounds with fine fruits, and furnishes excellent wines.
N. Lat. 40° 44'. E. Long. 36° W.

AMAUROSIS, or Gutta Serena, a disease of
the eye, which is supposed to be some affection of
the optic nerve. In this disease no external symp-
toms appear, excepting the insensibility of the eye
to the action of light.

AMAZONIA, an extensive region of South A-
merica, is about 1400 miles in length and 900 in
breadth, stretching from the equator to the 20th de-
gree of south latitude, and bounded on the west by
Peru, and by Brazil and the Atlantic ocean on the
east. This country was discovered about the middle
of the 16th century, by Francisco Orellana, who
had accompanied Pizarro in his expedition to those
parts of South America which lie to the eastward of
the Andes. But he deserted his connnander, and,
with a vessel manned with 50 soldiers, reached the
ocean after a perilous voyage of seven months. When
he arrived in Spain tlie exaggerated account of his
adventures astonished all Europe ; and, among other
marvellous parts of his narrative, he pretended that
he had discovered nations so rich that the roofs of
their houses were covered w ith pure gold, and a re-
public of women, who resembled in their manners
the fabulous Amazons of antiquity ; and hence the
country which he had traversed, derived its name,
and the river formerly called the Maragnon was
converted into the river of the Amazons.

Amazonia, except near the banks of the river, is
scarcely known to Europeans. Every attempt of the
Spaniards to colonize it failed. The Portuguese
have a few small settlements near the mouth of the
river; but the native tribes, which are nimierous,
and in a state of original barbarity, remain in Un-
disturbed possession of this wide region. The greater
part of the country is flat, and during the rainy sea-

am:b(

230

A M B

Ahmzou' son, when the rivers are swelled, the redundant wa-
ters form lakes and morasses. All the tropical pro-
ductions are abundant; but the climate, although the
temperature be not excessive, is generally unhealthy.

AMAZONS RIVER, originally cabled the Marag-
non, and now the Amazons, presents the most remark-
able feature of the extensive reption whicli it traverses,
and indeed of the NewiWorld. Ft is distinguished by its
magnitude, the length of its course, the number of its
tributarj' streams, and the huge body of waters which
it rolls to the ocean. Issuing from the lake Lauri-
eocha, which is about 90 miles from Lima, it pro-
ceeds southward, and being joined by many rivers,
sorhe «f which have flowed 500 or 600 miles, and are
equal to the Danube or Nile, it turns to the east-
ward, and, fifter a winding course of between three
and 4000 miles, falls into the Atlantic ocean, nearly
nnder the equator. At its mouth, it is 150 miles
broad ; and the depth of the stream, at the distance
of 1500 miles from the sea, is not less than 240 feet.
The tides are perceptible 600 miles from its mouth,
and the descent, in a course of 1860 miles, as it was
observed by M. De la Condamine, who sailed down
the river in 1743, is not more tlian 1020 feet, or 6^
feet in the mile.

AMAZONS, a fabulous nation of females, who
are said to have possessed that part of Asia Minor
which lies on the coasts of the Black sea, and from
whose society all men were excluded. They were
celebrated for their warlike exploits ; and, to fit them
for martial exercises, they subjected themselves to
those laborious duties which usually fall to the lot of
men ; and to admit the free use of the bow and the
javelin, they cut off the right breast, and hence the
name, which signifies n-ilhout the breast, according to
the Greek etymology, is derived. The existence of
such a nation seems to be seriously believed by many
ancient historians ; and even as late as the 17th cen-
tury, learned disquisitions are not wanting to prove
the same fact, Dr Bryant, in his elaborate investi-
gation of ancient mythology, considers the nation
described under the name of Amazons, to have been
Cuthite colonies from Egypt and Syria, who esta-
blished themselves in different regions, and thinks
that the name is derived from the word zon, " sun,"
which was the object of their worship. This seems
to be a more probable account of the Amazons than
the current relations of historians, which, indeed,
contain sufficient internal evidence to disprove the
whole story.

AMBARVALIA, from the word signifying to^o
round, and Jield, was a festival of the ancient Romans,
in which sacrifices were performed to Ceres, to ob-
tain an abundant harvest. It was held in April and
July, and was celebrated either by the master of a
family privately, or as a public solemnity, in which
latter case the priests appointed to this service offi-
ciated, and w'ere attended by the people, crowned
with oak leaves, and singing hymns to the goddess
whose favour was invoked. A bull, a sow, and a
sheep were conducted in solemn procession round
the ploughed fields, and these victims were after-
wards sacrificed on appropriate altars. This festival
was also called suovetaurilia.

Anibovna.

AMBASSADOR, a public minister sent from one Ambassadsr
sovereign power as his representative at the court of
another. Ambassadors are either ordinary, or such
as reside constantly at the court to which they are
appointed ; or extraordinary, or such as are dispatch-
ed on some special mission of importance, and when
this is accomplished thjir powers cease. By the mu-
tual understanding among nations who are in the re-
lation of peace and amity with each other, or, accord-
ing to the indefinite obligation of the law of nations,
ambassadors enjoy peculiar privileges, among which
may be mentioned freedom from arrest of their per-
sons, and from attachment of their goods, and the
same privilege is extended to the persons and goods
of all those who are in their train. But for oriniinal
acts, which fall under the denomination of treason or
felony, they are subject to punishment as private
aliens.

AMBER, a mineral substanc--, generally of a yel-
lowish colour, and semi-transparent, is ranked among
the injinmmahles in the classification of minerals.
Amber is distinguished by the peculiar acid which it
affords, and it is not less remarkable for its electric
properties. It was the first substance in which those,
properties were observed, and hence the Greek word'
rhctron, signifying " amber," is the origin of the-
wama electricity. See Mineralogy., '

AMBERGRIS, or Grey Ambek, is an ash-co-
loured and variegated inflammable substance, which"
gives out, when melted, a peculiar fragrant odour,
for which it is highly valued, and extensively em-
ployed in all kinds of perfumery. The origin of am-
bergris was long uncertain ; but it is now distinctly
proved to be an animal production ; for although it i?
found floating in different parts of the ocean, it has been
frequently extracted from the intestines of aparticular
species of whale; and therefore the conclusion is suf-
ficiently obvious, that it is a matter secreted by that
animal, and is to be considered either as the cause oi*
consequence of disease, since the whales which af-
forded the greatest quantity were observed to be in
a lean and sickly state.

AMBIDEXTER, from the Latin words, signify-
ing " both," and " right hand," is applied to a per-
son who uses both hands with the same facility. By
tlie law of the ancient Scythians, that warlike people
were compelled to accustom themselves to the use
of both hands alike ; and Plato, in the regulations
of his republic, recommends the same practice ; the
purpose of which, no doubt, is, in both cases, to ren-
der them more prompt and expert in martial ex-
ploits. The Grecian pikemen and the Roman gla-
diators were trained to the same exercise ; and it is
recorded in Scripture, that 700 men of the tribe of
Gad were capable of fighting equally well with both
hands. The superior facility of action, which is most
generally possessed by the right hand> has been the
subject of physTologica! investigation, and has been
ascribed to a larger flow of blood to that arm; but
whatever difference may be observed in the structure
of the right and left hands, it seems probable that
it depends more on the power of habit than on any
other cause.

AMBOYNA, an island in the East Indies, includ-

A M B

231

AMB

AmbitiB ed toder tire Molucca or Spice Islands. See Spice
II IsLAKDs for a connected account of the whole

Ambrosia, group.

AMBROSE, Isaac, a presbyterian clergyman,
eminent for his learning and piety, was born about
the year 1591 ; received a liberal education at Ox-
ford ; was appointed minister of a congregation at
Preston, and afterwards removed to Garstang, in
Lancashire, from which he was ejected in 1662 for
non-conformity. He is represented by hi» biogra-
phers as " a man of substantial worth, eminent piety,
and exemplary life." It was his usual practice to spend
a month every year in a small hut in a sequestered
spot in the middle of a wood, and, avoiding all intei--
course with mankind, to devote himself entirely dur-
ing the period of his retirement to spiritual contem-
plation. He died in 1664, at the age of 73. He
was the author of " The First, Middle, and Last
Things, viz. Regeneration, S.inctification, and Me-
ditations on Life, Death, Judgment," &c. " Look-
ing unto Jesus," and other woilcs, some of which
still retain a considerable share of popularity.

AMBROSE was the name of a deacon in the
Christian church, who was converted by Origen, and
flourished about the beginning of the third century.
He was a person of wealth and high rank, and is
said to have employed his influence and riches in
promoting the study of sacred literature.

AMBROSE, St", who lived towards the end of the
fourth century, was at first governor, and afterwards
bishop of Milan, and was greatly distinguished by
the sublimity of his sentiments and the eloquence of
his language.

AMBROSIA, according to the Heathen mytho-
logy is the solid food of the gods, whose drink was
called nectar. Ambrosia, which is derived from the
Greek, and signifies something which is not mortal,
was supposed to confer immortality on those who were
admitted to the felicity of enjoying it.

AMBROSIA, a genus of plants belonging to the AjribrosiiS -
Monoecia class. (|

AMBROSINA, a genus of plants belonging to Anierccm«nt
the Gynandria class. ' '

AMBROSIUS, AuRELiAvus, a celebrated gene-
ral of the ancient Britons, was descended from a
Roman family, and flourished in the latter part of
the fifth and beginning of the sixth century. He was
successful against the Saxons, and compelled them
to retire from the western districts of Britain. Ha-
ving assumed the sovereign power, he directL-d his
attention to the internal arrangement of the affairs
of the kingdom, ordered the churches to be repaired,
smd the public worship to be restored. The build-
ing of Stonehenge near Salisbury, a singular monu-
ment of mechanical power, which has long baffled
the researches of the antiquary, is ascribed to Am-
brosius ; but in its erection, it is said, he was assist-
ed by giants and magicians.

AMELLUS, Starwort, a genus of plants belong,
ing to the Syngenesia class.

AMEND, or Amende, according to the practice
of the French courts, is a pecuniary fine imposed
by a judge for any crime, false prosecution, or
groundless appeal.

AMENDE HONORABLE, a species of punish-
ment formerly inflicted in France on traitors or
parricides, when the offender was delivered into the
hands of the executioner, his shirt was stripped
off, a rope was put round his neck, and a taper in his
hand, he was then led into court and required to beg
pardon of God, the King, tlie court, and the coun-
trJ^ The same term is also applied to a public re-
cantation of an injury, made in court, and in pre-
sence of the person mjured.

AMERCEMENT, or Amerciament, is a term
in English law, and signifies a pecuniary fine imposed
on offenders at the pleasure ot the court, and with-
out being regulated by any express statute.

AMERICA.

Ameiica, America is the name of a large continent situ-
ate in the western hemisphere, from which circum-
stance it is sometimes called the Western Continent,
and not unfrequently the Nexu World, as liaving been
but recently made known to the inhabitants of other
parts of the globe. It is of immense extent, reaching
irom about the 54th degree of south latitude to a
very high but hitherto unascertained northern lati-
tude, and lying between the 35th and 136th degrees
of longitude west from Greenwich. It is above 9000
English miles long, varying in breadth from 60 to
4000 miles. Equal to nearly one-third of the habitable
earth, this great surface necessarily presents many
differences of feature, as might be expected from the
different climates through which it extends; but these
diversities, it has been remarked, concur in one ge-
neral expression of dissimilarity to any of the longer
known continents. America is said to surpass them,
for example, in the elevation and magnitude of its
mountains, though some facts respecting Asia, late-
ly discovered, make this particular doubtful ; in the

profusion and copiousness of its rivers, and the num- America,
ber and amplitude of its lakes ; while its atmosphere
scarcely recognizes those laws for the distribution of
heat which are generally observed in other regions ;
and certain peculiarities in its animal and vegetable
productions testify the independence and resources
of that wisdom by which the common empire o? na-
ture is sustained. The usual division of this conti-
nent into North and South America, is pointed out
by the striking circumstance of a connecting neck of
land, about 1500 miles long, and narrower in some
places than the isthmus which unites Africa with
Asia, and by a diversity in the manners and language
of the primitive inhabitants.

I. South America,

Like the opposite continent of Africa, South Ame-
rica is entirelysurroundedbywater, with the exception
of a narrow point of land, which scarcely prevents the
junction of two contiguous seas. Its extreme length,

232

AMERICA.

South Ame- which may be reckoned from Cape Vela, in about 12"
ric». north lat. to Cape Horn, in the islam) of Terra del
Fuego, in 55° 58' of south latitude, includes a distance
of nearly 4000 geographical miles ; and its greatest
breadth, which seems to lie in the parallel of 5° south,
is about 2880 miles. Some of its natural features
merit particular notice.

Mountains — The mountains of South America are
extremely lofty, and of so great an extent as in some
regions to form pretty considerable provinces. Thus,
the Andes, a magnittcent ridge, springing up near
the southern extremity, and Ibllowing the direction
of the western coast, till it approach the Gulf of
Darien in the north, afford space sufficient for the
establishment of kingdoms, reckoning by the stand-
ard of European policy. It is in a summit of this
ridge, called Chimborazo, near to the equator, that
we find the astonishing elevation of 20,ii80 feet a-
bove the level of the sea, being 5000 feet higher than
Mont Blanc in Switzerland, but much lower, it has
lately been said, than a ridge in Asia. The plain of
Quito itself, from which this summit rises, is higher
than the top of the Pyrenees. About 25 miles to the
S. E. of Quito is Cotopaxi, a volcanic mountain, up-
wards of 18,000 feet in height, reckoned in the same
manner ; and throughout this equatorial region are o-
tlier summits of very extraordinary, though inferior
elevation, as Cayamburo, Pinchincha, Sangay, the
Altar, &c. The Andes branch out in various direc-
tions, and pervade a great part of this continent; but
much of the interior, hitherto indeed but little explor-
ed, is conceived to form plains of an extent little less
remarkable than the mountains with which they ex-
hibit so important a contrast.

Rivers. — The magnitude of the rivers is in pro-
portion to the grandeur of the mountains whence
they issue. It is enough to mention the Marag-
iioa, or river of the Amazons, the La Plata, and
the Oronoco, some of the tributary streams of any
of which would be reckoned immense in our part
of the world. The natural history of these rivers is
still very imperfect, and, judging from their size, com-
plicated courses, and tlie number of their branches,
will probably long remain so.

The general direction of the Maragnon, certainly
the largest river in the world, is from west to east, be-
tween the equator and the 5th degree of south latitude,
and the length of its course has been estimated at
3300 miles, including its windings. This is not so
great a length, it is conjectured, as that of the
Kian Ku, a river in China ; but then in breadth and
volume of water there is an astonishing superiority
on the part of the former. The effect of the tides
is said to be perceptible 600 miles from the mouth
of the Maragnon. We may have some conception
of the size of the river La Plata by this circumstance,
that its banks are not discoverable from a vessel
in the middle of its stream where it enters the ocean.
But its depth is not proportioned to this width, al-
though navigable above 1000 miles inland. The
Oronoco is a very rapid and tortuous river, which
often overflows its banks, and in consequence is
liable to have its course much altered. It is to the
north of ihe Maragnon, with some of the navigable
branches of which it appears to be occasionally if

not permanently connected. There can be little or South Ame.
no doubt, indeed, that, comparatively, a small de- rica.
gree of labour, properly bestowed, would effect a
junction between most of the important subsidiary
rivers in this region, and so render commercial in-
tercourse more extensive than in any other coun-
try of the world. For this purpose, an adequate
outlet, on the western coast, in subserviency to the
chief branches of the Maragnon, is the only thing
wanting.

Lakes — As far as is yet known. South America
has no lakes which are worthy of being compared
with those found in the northern division. That of
Parima, in the north-east quarter, has been describ-
ed as 100 miles long and 50 broad. But the ac-
counts respecting it are not much entitled to credit.
It is supposed to give rise to several considerable ri-
vers, and also to receive the chief stream of the Oro-
noco. Titicaca, which is near the middle of the
western coast, and 100 miles from the ocean, is the
most important lake in South America, and is about
240 miles in circumference, with a depth of water
from 70 to 80 fathoms. In attenfipting to establish
a communication with the Pacific ocean, so as to
perfect inland navigation, this lake seems to offer
advantages of the highest consequence.

Natural History. — The mineralogy of South Ame-
rica is exceedingly varied. All the classes of rocks,
primitive as well as secondary, with their subordi-
nate orders, exist in this extensive region. Volcanic
products, besides, are scattered in great profusion,
and most of the metals are found in abundance.
On this part of South American natural history, the
labours of Humboldt, a Prussian traveller, have late-
ly contributed much curious information. A coun-
try occupying so many degrees of latitude, must
present great differences of climate and seasons. In
the extreme south, though by no means a very high
latitude, there is almost perpetual winter. The sea-
sons gradually become milder in approaching to-
wards the north ; and even under the equator, the
heat, unless in some peculiarly confined situations,
can scarcely be called excessive. In general, a dif-
ference may be allowed of about 20° degrees of la-
titude between this continent and the Old World, to
admit corresponding degrees of temperature. Cold
predominates in the New World, depending, no doubt,
on the superior elevation of the land. Rain is frequent,
and may be said to constitute the winter of some Ame-
rican countries, as dry weather does their summer.
The seasons, of course, are the reverse of those
which take place in the northern hemisphere.

1. Terra Magellanica, and Patagonia, are
tlie names applied, with little j)ropriety, perhaps,
to that portion of this continent which reaches from
the strait denominated after Magellan, a Portuguese
navigator, who discovered it in 1519, to a line sup-
posed to be drawn in the latitude of 45° south from
the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean. It has been little
frequented, and, excepting the coast, to which the
attention of navigators has been often directed, is
very imperfectly known. There are few tempta-
tions, indeed, to bring visitors to this region. Far
removed from the theatre of commercial interests,
and the arts which dignify social life, this inclement

A M E R I C A.

233

Sbnili Arne- country must probably long remain in the posses-
sion of its barbarous, but not inhospitable inhabi-
tants, and present a mortifying picture to the bene-
volent philosopher. He will console himself, how-
ever, in the persuasion, which almost every one
who has been personally acquainted with them, en-
courages, that contentment, the oft'spring of igno-
rance and insensibility, lessens the miseries of these
wretched beings. But this consolation, unfortunately,
must be somewhat modified by the fact, that an in-
tercourse with the Spaniards towards the north, has
subjected them to some of the evils of civilization,
without its corresponding benefits.

Of all the tribes which are thinly scattered through-
out this country, and denominated Moluches, Te-
huels, Puelches, and Aucas, these last are conceived
to be the most improTed. They are said to have
made some progress in agriculture, and to be able to
manufacture garments of wool and cotton. The
others, in general, subsist chiefly on animals taken in
the chace, to which, also, they are indebted for their
only coverings from the rigours of the climate.

The gigantic size of gome of the people found in
this region, has been so frequently and so respectably
affirmed, that it is hazardous to attempt its denial.
Some exaggeration, no doubt, may have occasionally
taken place ; but it may be confidently stated, that
a stature which would be thought extraordinary in
Europe, is not uncommon among the Patagonians.

The people of Patagonia are either altogether with-
out religion, or are addicted to the worsliip of the
sun and moon as the suprane sources of the scanty
favours which they enjoy.

Horses, of which the Patagonians are expert ri-
ders, are rather plentiful amongst them since their
intercourse with the Spaniards. They have also some
sheep and cattle. Among the wild animals of this
region, are the guanaco and armadillo.

In many respects, the island of Terra del Fue-
«o, that is. Fiery Island, so named by Magellan, who
observed volcanoes in its mountains, bears consider-
able resemblance to the land now spoken of. It lies
to the south of the strait formerly mentioned, is of
^reat extent, and, with several other islands in its
neighbourhood, has been often visited by vessels de-
stined for the South Pacific ocean. But it does not
afford any circumstance of sufficient interest to oc-
cupy attention in this place.

2. C H I L I — denotes a country extending northwards
above 1000 miles along the western coast, from the
45° S. Lat., and having a breadth varying from 300 to
500 miles. The name is that used by the natives, and
is said by them to signify a bird whose appearance is
reckoned auspicious.

This is a delightful region, possessing a temperate
climate and a productive soil. The existence of se-
veral volcanoes in the mountains of the Andes, by
which it is traversed, and the sparing occurrence of
slight earthquakes, cannot materially lower the esti-
mate we form of its advantages. It is singular, then,
that a great part of this country should still remain
unoccupied, either by native tribes or the Spaniards,
the latter of whom have settled chiefly towards the
sea-coast, on which they have built several towns ;
and the Araucans, by much the most important of

vol'. I. FAAT I.

the former, inhabit a fine tract, reacliing from the goath Ante-
river ValUivia to the river Biobio, bounded on the
west by the ocean and on the east by the mountains
already named. This people exhibit several noble
qualities, which need only the fostering care of a li-
beral and judicious government to produce an ex-
cellent national character. But this benefit, even sup-
posing the Spaniards capable of yielding it, would
probably be resisted by a spirit of pride in themselves,
which disdains alike to acknowledge an imperfection,
and to be indebted to another for its removal.

That part of Chili which is inhabited by the Spa-
niards is divided into 18 districts, governed by a
single chief, who has almost unlimited power in all
the concerns of the province. The population may
be estimated at upwards of 300,000, of which more
than two-thirds are either negroes or a mixed race.

Trade. — Commerce has hitherto made small ad-
vancements in this country. The chief articles of
barter are the precious metals, (by no means wrought
to the full extent, ) hides and leather, grain of diffe-
rent kinds, and fruits. The principal trade carried
on is with the natives of the adjoining provinces. A
communication with the East Indies, properly ma-
naged, would render Chili one of the most prosper-
ous countries in the world.

Natural History. — The botany of Chili is exceed-
ingly rich. Almost all the choicest European plants
thrive in it, and it abounds in others, of which we
know but the names, or possess merely specimens.
Thirty-six species of quadrupeds have been enumer-
ated by Molina, who has so well treated of this pro-
vince. Eagles, vultures, and condors enjoy the
heights and precipices of the Andes, and in the
lower region are found great varieties of smaller
birds.

3. Peru. — Stretching northwards from Chili, along
the western coast, lies the Spanish province of Pern,
in former times a powerful empire under a native
prince. Great diversity of climate prevails in this
region, but the heat is much more moderate than
might be expected from the position with respect to
the equator ; and in the mountainous districts to-
wards the east, a great degree of cold is experienced.
Rain is seldom known in the lower parts of the coun-
try, where a plentiful dew, which falls during the
night, supplies its place to the vegetable kingdom.
Tempests, hurricanes, thunder and lightning, are
nearly as rare ; but earthquakes are often felt, and
there is reason to fear that their destructive opera-
tion is constantly increasing.

Natural History — There are immense forests
spread over this province, indicating scantiness of
population. The soil, however, is, in general pro-
ductive, affording a profusion of fruits and flowers,
and, in some districts, yielding a tree whose bark
has been long celebrated as a restorative and tonic
medicine.

Among the animals which swarm in this region,
are mentioned the jaguar, tapir, cougar, a species of
deer, the mountain cat, a sort of fox, and bears of a
very fierce nature. Nor is the feathered tribe less
diversified or interesting.

Before the annexation of Potosi and some other
districts, formerly a part of Peru, to the vice-royalty

CO,

234

AMERICA.

South Ame- of La Plata, the mineralogy of this province was per-
haps the raost copious, in point of the precious me-
tals, in South America. But there remains enough
in Lima, still attached to it, to render it of very high
importance to the Spanish government. The mines
of Lauricocha are said to have been discovered as
far back as the beginning of the 17th century, by the
accidental melting of silver, occasioned by a shepherd
having kindled a tire for some common purpose. The
mine of Guancavelica, which had supplied such im-
mense quantities of quicksilver for about two centu-
ries, is understood to be exhausted. Another was
lately opened in the district of Huamalies, promis-
ing a rich supply. The gold and silver mines of
Peru, together, are conjectured, on pretty good
grounds, to have yielded about L.8,000,(XX) Sterling,
in 10 years preceding 1790. Quito, which formerly
belonged to Peru, was disjoined from it in 1718, in
favour of N/iw Granada.

The provinces, or intendancies as they are deno-
minated, now included in Peru, are as follows :

Lima, whose city of the same name, situate about
six miles from the sea, on the south of the river Ri-
mac, in 12° south lat. is the capital of Peru ; the
city, which was founded in 1525, is computed to
contain 64,000 inhabitants, is built oi wood, but dis-
plays some very elegant edifices, and few places in
the world have been so often visited and nearly ruin-
ed by earthquakes ; Truxdlo, north of Lima, having
a capital of the same name, founded by Pizarro, a
character well known in American history ; Tarma,
to the north-east of Lima, a district much inhabited
by Indians ; Guanianga, eastward of Lima, noted for
its gold mines, and its capital of the same name was
also founded by Pizarro-, Cuzco, an inland district
to the south-east of Lima ; its chief city, Cuzco,
which was originally the residence of the native kings
when the Spaniards invaded this country, scarce-
ly contains 16,000 inhabitants, the majority of which
are Indians ; Arequipa, a maritime district, to the
south of Lima, fruitful in grain, and possessing a
very mild climate ; Guantajaua, north and west of
Guamanga, formerly noted tor silver mines, which
are now abandoned ; Guancavelica, between Gua-
manga and Lima, a hilly country, neither very fer-
tile nor very agreeable ; and the silver mines of tliis
district have become almost useless from frequent
inundations of water.

The population of Peru, as now constituted, per-
haps does not much exceed 1,000,000, and in all
likelihood is on the decline.

4. La Plata — is an immense region, made up of se-
veral provinces formerly reckoned distinct, and since
1778 erected into a vice-royalty, in which the chief
dignity and power of Spanish South America may
be said to consist. It is conceived to be bounded
on the south by the province first described ; on the
west by Chili and part of Peru, frem both of which
it is separated by one of the ridges of the Andes ;
on the north by the parallel of M" S. Lat. ; on the
east by the South Atlantic ocean and part of Bra-
ail. On the southern extremity it is somewhat con-
tracted by the ocean, where it is penetrated by the
mighty waters of the river from which this province
cieriv«9 its name. Its length may be stated 1500

miles, and its breadth from 600 to 800. Beside part Soutk AskA
of ancient Peru, this vice-royalty includes the pro-
vinces of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay, Tucuman, Cha-
00, Los Moxos, Cuyo, &c.

Buenos Ayres is a vast plain, pervaded by the ri-
ver La Plata, or the huge streams which form it,
whore they approach to mingle their waters before
rushing into the ocean. The soil is in general rich,
producing great varieties of grain, &c. and abound-
ing in choice pastures, the abode of immense herds
of cattle of the buffalo kind, wild horses, deer, &c.
The purity of the climate is implied in the name of
this province and of its capital, which is the resi-
dence of the viceroy and the seat of government. It
is a fortified town, on the right bank of the river,
but without any proper harbour, and carries on a re-
spectable trade with many European ports. Its chief
exports are hides of different kinds in the raw state.

Paraguay lies between a river of that name and
the Parana, the great north and eastern tributary
streams of the La Plata. It is rather a moist coun-
try, and very woody. Assumption, the capital, a-
bout 50 leagues higher up than the junction of the
two rivers now mentioned, is but a small and rather
ill-built town, pleasantly situate however, and hav-
ing delightful gardens in its vicinity. The northern
parts of this province are not much known. Alto-
gether, perhaps, Paraguay has been neglected, in
consequence, it is probable, of its being deficient in
the precious metals, the original and strongest al-
lurement on the minds of its European masters.

Tucuman, now divided into Salta and Cordova,
lies between 23° and 33° S. Lat. and 61° and 68"
W. Long, entirely inland. It is possessed of a mild
climate and a fertile soil, and is withal well water-
ed by several streams which run toward the river
Parana. Few of its towns are large, and the whole
province is reckoned to contain not much more than
100,000 inhabitants. Most of these, however, enjoy
great affluence ; in proof of which, it is mentioned
by one Spanish writer, Estalla, that there is no per-
son in it so poor as not to kill a heifer every day for
the use of his family.

Cuyo, which is towards the west and south-west
of Cordova, among the mountains of the Andes,
has some vallies extremely fertile in fruits, and is
noted for its wines. It is now considered as annex-
ed to Cordova.

The country of the Pampas, to the south of Cuyo
and Buenos Ayres, is very flat, and has scarcely any
other inhabitants than some tribes of wandering sa-
vages, who can hardly be said to own the sovereign-
ty of the Spanish nation. To the north of Tucuman
are the provinces of Chaco and the Chtqtiilos ; and
north-west from the latter, Los Moxos, Of these we
have but imperfect infonnation ; some native tribes
still retaining chief possession, and admitting but
little intercourse with the Spaniards. Indeed, it may
be pretty confidently affirmed, that not more than
one-half of the vice-royalty of La Plata has been
examined by the nation to whom it forms so vital
an object of policy. But the judicious counsels
which effected the erection of this vice-royalty, so
as to give it a preponderance over Peru, would
perhaps have accomplished a survey of the districts

AMERICA

S35

composing it, if the affairs of the mother-country
had been propitious to this distant interest. The fre-
quency of land journeys between Buenos Ayres and
the rich city of Potosi, which are in consequence
now substituted for the tedious maritime expedi-
tion round Cape Horn, will, in time, it is likely, be
imitated in other directions, and at last secure a
profitable acquaintance between the various districts
of this most important region. Certain recent events
affecting the state of its dependence on Spain, may
contribute to the celerity of so desirable an opera-
tion. It is probable, that a liberal constitution of
government, and some abatement of the exorbitant
influence of the clergy in this portion of South
America, might materially modify the condition of
the whole commercial world. To the chief cities of
this vice-royalty, already mentioned, Buenos Ayres,
the capital, Potosi, supposed to have 100,000 inha-
bitants, &c. we may add the following : Monte Vi-
deo, on the north side of the river La Plata, at its
mouth, noted for the best harbour in the province to
which it belongs, and said to have 15,000 inhabi-
tants ; Cordova, in the district of the same name,
a wealthy, handsome, and improving town ; La Paz,
north of Potosi, and capital of a province so called,
a well-built, thriving place, with a population of
20,000 souls ; Salta, in Tucuman, celebrated for an
annual fair, at which, it is said, 4000 horses and
60,000 mules have been known to be assembled.
The consumpt of these latter animals in the moun-
tains of Peru, where they are chiefly taken, is asto-
nishing. They are employed in carrying burdens
from the mines, and in travelling. The town of As-
sumption, formerly mentioned, was at one time su-
perior in extent and consequence to Buenos Ayres.

Natural Historij. — A naturalist would be amply
rewarded for his labours in this region. In mineral-
ogy, the objects are various and abundant. To bo-
tany its contributions are liberal, though the hand of
science has hitherto been but sparingly occupied in
their arrangement. Here are found the sarsaparil-
la, the sassafras, the guaiacum tree, that which
yields the elastic gum, commonly called Indian rub-
ber, the cinchona, or Jesuits' bark-tree, the nux vo-
mica tree, great varieties of palm, fruit-trees in im-
mense profusion, arid of the richest kinds, particu-
larly pomegranates, pine-apples, oranges, figs, peach-
es, &c. of the animal kingdom, so copious in La
Plata, we may notice the elk, ant-bear, jaguar, or
American tiger, a species of hippopotamus differing
from that found in the Old World, several kinds of
large and small serpents, the ostrich and condor.
The people, in general, throughout this rice-royal-
ty, computed at 1,000,000 Spaniards or Creoles, and
a comparatively small number of natives, are de-
scribed as enjoying supreme earthly advantages.
The former are, on the whole, well educated, courte-
ous, handsome, and attached to pleasure. Since the
complete establishment of their power, it is probable
that the latter have been treated with kindness,
which could not fail to conciliate, if the recollection
•f past events were friendly to attachment.

5. Brazil. — Hitherto we have treated of pro-
■yinces, either in part or altogether subject to the
Spaniards, and have had occasion to remark the

imperfection of the accounts which they have pub- Sontb Kan,
lished respecting them. Equal, if not greater jea- ric«.
lousy, and certainly a larger share of ignorance, '••^V^'
have prevented their neighbours, the Portugueze,
from informing the world of the particulars ot their •
possessions in South America. 1 his is the more to
be wondered at by an inhabitant of Britain, who
cannot but expect some liberality of communication
in favour at least of his own nation, which has long
been justly considered as the main support and most
faithful ally of the parent state, li is undouhftsfly
a subject of the deepest regret to everj' enlightened
mind, that one of the fairest portions of the uni-
verse should have fallen into the hands of a people
too stupid to do it justice by their mode of manage-
ment, and too narrow-hearted to give it the chancA
of even charitable improvement by an honest dis-
play of its real condition.

Of Brazil, to which we now allude, we have the
more reason to regret the scantiness, and perhapg
inaccuracy of our knowledge, as, from its position ia
the American continent, it perpetually urges and
perpetually mocks our keenest curiosity.

Brazil may be said to be bounded on the south
and west by the Spanish provinces last described, oa
the east by the Atlantic ocean, and on the north part-
]y by the same, and partly by the river Maragnon.
The treaty of St Ildefonso, in 1777, between the
Spaniards and Portugueze, strictly defined its limits.
This region, possessing great variety of soil and cli-
mate, has been divided into several provinces.

Rio Janeiro, including Rio Grande, extends from
Buenos Ayres to the province of Bahia, and is bound-
ed on the east by the sea, and a chain of mountains
on the west. It is well watered, has an excellent
climate and fertile soil, possesses some rich gold
mines, and contains a population of above 100,000
souls. The capital of the same name, or St Sebas-
tian, as it is called, the greatest commercial city in
Brazil, is large, elegant, and wealthy, but is very un-
healthy, in consequence of the situation being near
some extensive forests, which are supposed to occa-
sion too humid an atmosphere.

Bahia, to the north of the preceding province, and
stretching along the eastern shore, is reckoned tha
most populous, if not the most opulent of the Brazil-
ian government. The inland parts are covered with
forests ; and the towns on the coasts are neither very
considerable nor very inviting. Bahia, or St Salva-
dor, the capital, though large, has no pretensions to
elegance, and is inhabited by a set of people who are
little attentive to cleanliness and improvement. Since
the Dutch, an industrious nation, were obliged to a-
bandon this country, there has scarcely one effort
been made to arrest or to banish indolence and tor-
pid luxury. The principal people are generally car-
ried about in palanquins by their slaves, of whom the
consumpt is so rapid that it is thought almost mira-
culous when any of them survive seven years.

Pernambuco, the most easterly province of Brazil,
is still farther towards the north, and, with the excep-
tion of its western or internal side, is almost entirely
bounded by the ocean. Some of its extensive plains
aft'ord plenty of cotton and sugar. There are seve-
ral towns and villages on the sea coast, of which
2

256

AMERICA.

Sojth Arae- Oliiida is the largest ; but the narrowness of its har-
bour, in addition to circumstances quite congenial
to the character of the Portugueze, has prevented it
becoming of much importance.

Maregrion and Para, two provinces to the north
and north-west of Pernambuco, the former of which
is partly on the coast, and the latter is washed on its
northern limit by the waters of the river Maragnon,
though large, afford little to interest the lover of ci-
vilization and improvement. Much of the country is
uncultivated, and the population is scanty through-
out.

With the inland provinces ouracquaiatance is still
more circumscribed. In the mountains of one of
them. Motto Grosso, there are gold mines ; and in
those of another, Mrnas Geraes, are found most of
the diamonds for which this country has been cele-
brated.

The natural history of Brazil differs little from that
of some of the regions already described.

6. Guiana Between the rivers Maragnon and

Gronoco, bounded on the east by the Atlantic ocean,
and on the west by a line drawn along the river Ne-
gro, are situate those provinces classified under the
general title of Guiana, and particularized by the
names of those European nations which earliest ob-
tained the property of them, as Potiugueze, Dutch,
and French. The climate is on the whole temperate,
allowing for geographical position, and the soil very
variable. Dutch Guiana is most known. It contains
the colonies of Surinam, Berbice, Demerara, and Es-
sequibo. These arc important settlements, and whe-
ther in the hands of the British or Dutch are likely
to experience very rapid improvements. Coffee,
cocoa, sugar, cotton, are the chief exports. French
Guiana was taken possession of by the British and
Portugueze in 1809. It differs little from the for-
mer in point of climate, soil, and productions. A
good deal of labour is requisite to render either very
i}ealthy, viz. clearing forests, and draining marshes,
&c.

The botany of Guiana, in general, is represented
as peculiarly interesting, and so mu£t the zoology, if
abundance of reptiles can be conceived a strong en-
ticement to its study.

A territory in some maps denominated New Anda-
lusia, or New Ciimana, has of late received the
more appropriate title of Spanish Guiana. It is to
the north of the Portugueze possessions, is bounded
on the east by the ocean, on the south by Dutch and
French Guiana, extends along the Oronoco, which
forms its northern hmit, but is somewhat indistinctly
defined on the west. Hitherto it has not been much
explored ; but the researches of Humboldt have prov-
ed it to be highly interesting. la this province it is
that the junction takes place between the Oronoco
and the Maragnon, by the intervention of the Negro.
This singular circumstance, which had been noticed
in a map of the country as early as 1713, but after-
wards, frequently denied by those who might be sup-
posed acquainted with the fact, was completely con-
firmed by the traveller now mentioned. According
to him, the navigation is extremely hazardous, and a
vast space of country which he traversed throughout
in effecting it, wag quite destitute of inhabitants. The

whole population oF Spanish Guiana, indeed, is con- Somj, ^me-
jectured to be no more than 34,000, and there are ric*.
only four towns and three villages in the province.

7. Caraccas. — This province, which belongs to
Spain, lies on the north side of the Oronoco, and is
bounded on the east by the gulf of Paria, which di-
vides the island of Trinidad from the continent, the
Caribbean sea on the north, and the vice-royalty of
New Granada on the west. It comprehends various
districts, as Cumana, Caraccas proper, Venezuela,
Maracaibo, and Farinas, which, with the island of
Margarita, belonging to the same government, are
estimated to have a population of upwards of 700,000
souls.

A straggling branch of the eastern Andes, pervad-
ing this province, modifies the temperature of the
climate, and furnishes a multiplicity of streams and
rivulets which fertilize the level countries to the north
and south of its range. Nor are the heights them-
selves incapable of supporting inhabitants. The lake
of Maracaibo, a sort of sea or gulf, reckoned up-
wards of 100 miles long, north and south, and 50 or
60 in breadth, is a singular feature in this country,
productive of no trifling benefits. It is navigable for
large vessels. The town of the same name, built oa
the western shore of the lake, is a place of some con-
sequence, containing about 20,000 inhabitants, and
carrying on a tolerable trade in cocoa, tobacco, and
hides. If the situation were not somewhat unhealthy,
and storms and earthquakes were rarer, its prosperi-
ty would certainly be more conspicuous.

Caraccas, the capital of the whole province, is a
still more flourishing town, and has about double the
population. Though built in a valley, its elevation
above the sea is more than four hundred fathoms, '
which may occasion the salubrity and mildness of the
atmosphere. The inhabitants are a gay, luxurious, but
not inactive race, and are particularly zealous for the
doctrines and practices of the Romish Church. This
town is often called St Jago de Leon. Cumanas, in
the province so named, has upwards of 20,000 inha-
bitants, most of whom are Creoles.

There are many more towns scattered throughout
this country, and an immensity of villages, from vihicli
it is warrantable to make an inference in favour of its
character. To this spot the attention of Europe has
been for some time directed, to witness a contest be-
tween an arbitrary, but really imbecile government,
and its subjects, just opening their eyes to their true
interests, in which it is impossible, at least for aBriton,
not to feel his heart and judgment anxiously engaged.
An issue, such as he would hope for, might be fol-
lowed by beneficial consequences to the rest of South
America, which it is totally absurd to suppose will
ever be the creatures of will and ability on the- part
of the superannuated authorities.

8. New Granada— is an extensive and highly in-r
teresting vice-royalty. Its somewhat singular posi-
tion will be much more easily ascertained by inspec-
ting a map than from any verbal description. On
the north it projects into the Caribbean sea, which is
merely a portion of the Atlantic ocean, while itSj
western outline is washed by the great Pacific ocean,
and on the south and east its boundaries are consti-
tuted by the river Tunguragha, and part of the Mar-

AMERICA.

237

Sonili Ame- Sgnon and Negro. In this extensive space are includ-

rica. ed various districts.
y^'Y^^ Quito, which formerly belonged to Peru, now
forms a part of New Granada. Much of the country
is still unexplored. It extends from the ocean on the
west to the Portugueze settlement in Brazil on the
east, and from about 2° S. to 2° N. Lat. The features
of this country are perhaps the grandest in the world,
and the frequency of earthquakes and destructive
tempests, by occasioning perpetual changes, gives
it a degree of interest which scarcely any other re-
gion produces. The soil appears to possess an inces-
sant and inexhaustible fertility, hardly ever requiring
the least indulgence of time, as if nature, conti-
nually apprehensive that the terrible convulsions to
which she is liable, would obstruct her operations,
were determined to yield the full amount of her
blessings before their occurrence. No sooner, then,
is one crop ripened, or one series of fruits brought
to maturity, than others succeed with a rapidity and
profusion which rather oppress than gratify the in-
habitants. These favours, however, though suffici-
ent to tempt a large population, do not counterba-
lance the precariousness and brevity of human exis-
tence. Some varieties of climate are to be met with
in this region, dependent on peculiar situation with
respect to the sea and th& mountains. The city of
Quito is large, well built, thriving, and contains a-
bout 60,000 inhabitants, Spaniards, Creoles, and In-
dians. It is situate almost exactly under the equa-
tor, on a level plain, 9000 feet above the level of
the sea ; a circumstance essentially favourable to the
temperature of the atmosphere. Like other towns
inthis region, it has often suffered from the causes
already mentioned, and still oftener witnessed with
horror the devastation of the towns and villages a-
round it. An earthquake took place in this province
on Feb. 4. 1797. Quito itself suffered little in rea-
lity ; but the people dearly purchased prolonged ex-
istence, by a state of apprehension approaching to
the highest frenzy, and tiie view or agonizing tidings
of the irremediable calamities which it inflicted.
Some places were instantaneously swallowed up by
the yawning earth ; others were overwhelmed by
■water; the fall of mountains, shaken from their base,
proved a terrific instrument of devastation : and the
pestilential vapours arising from the bodies of those
whom some such catastrophe had not buried, still
more extensively spread this compendious ruin. —
Upwards of 35,000 persons are said to have pe-
rished.

Guayaquil and Cuen^a, districts to the south of
Quito, but once reckoned part of the ancient king-
dom of that name, are well accommodated for trade
by a large gulf and several bays or creeks, one of
which in the former affords the choicest harbour on
this coast. The two cities, of the same name with
these provinces, are large, and on the whole improv-
ing, though not to the amount, of their advantages.
Guayaquil is celebrated for the beauty of its women.
Cuen9a is surpassed by few towns in respect of. local
benefits.

Popayan, north of Quito, is almost entirely situ-
ate in the Andes, and possesses a temperate cli-
mate, considering its latitude. In some of the moun-

tains of this province, as indeed throughout Granada- goirth Ame-
are mines of gold and precious stones. Popayan) rica.
the capital, is a neat little town, enjoying almost
perpetual spring, with all the plenty and luxuriance
of summer.

Choco, to the north, and formerly reckoned a part
of Popayan, differs little or nothing from it in soil,
climate, and productions.

Santa Fe de Bogota, is nearly in the centre of this
vice-royalty ; and in consequence, more perhaps than
of any other circumstance, its city, of the »;ime
name, is made the seat of government. Tbis pro-
vince is hilly, well-watered, and enjoys a mild cli-
mate. The capital contains 40,000 inhabitants, is
an archbishoprick, can boast of an university, and,
besides other advantages, is the residence of some of
the most distinguished Spanish families in Soutlj
America. Of the districts to the east of the Andes,
in the direction of the rivers Napo, Parana, (both
branches of the Maragnon) Negro, and Oronoco, de-
nominated Macas, &c. very little is known.

What remains to be noticed may be conveniently
divided into two parts ; one comprehending the dis-
tricts of Santa Martha, CaHhagena, and Ziiiii, ia
the north; and the other, commonly denominated
the isthmus of Darien, or Terra Firma, which is
formed by Choco already mentioned, Biruquele to
the west of it along the sea coast, Darien, and Par-
noma.

Santa Martha is the most eastward of the first
part, being separated from Maracaibo, or Venezuela
as it is often called, by a branch of the Andes, and
bounded on the north by the Gulf of Mexico, hav-
ing Bogota on the south, and Carthagena, from
which it is parted by the river Magdalena, on the
west. The mountains are oftes covered with snow, .
and the plains are fruitful in grain, &c.; but the
population is scanty, and its chief town, of the same
name, is rather on the decline. This place was de-
stroyed by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; and the new
town often suffered from the buccaneers, who in.
fested this coast.

Carthagena and Zinu are much in the same predi-
cament in every respect. Their position along the
gulf we have named, at one time so much traversed
by Spanish galleons, &c. seems still to invite the ef-
forts of commerce, and some good havens promise
security and abundance. But, by a fatality that
attaches to almost every thing Spanish, both naturals
and incidental advantages are either rendered useless
by indolence, or are prostituted to a luxurious su-
perstition. Carthagena is a handsome town, with .
more than 20,000 inhabitants, who have of late be-
come attached to the manners and dress of Euro-
peans, from whom it is to be wished,, that they had
acquired also a taste for beneficial studies, and a
spirit of industry. This place has been often visited
by hostile fleets. The river Magdalena is navigable
for small vessels to a considerable distance from its
mouth, and the towns on its banks are support-
ed by the trade betwee^n Quito and the norUiern
districts.

Birquete, a small district on the western coast, as
it were skirting Choco, presents notlijng of iniport-
aace to our attention.

238

AMERICA.

Darien, an unhealthy territory, was once well
inhabited, but has declined rapidly in modern times,
in favour of wild beasts and reptiles, which swarm
in almost primaeval security. On the northern shore
of this district, near what has been called the gulf
of Darien, a body of Scobs to the amount of 1200
formed a settlement in the year 1699, which they
denominated, in honour of their native country. New
Caledonia. It was of short duration ; for it was in-
adequately supported by the parent state, and in-
deed invidiously regarded by the English East India
Company, who had sufficient influence to contribute
essentially to its ruin. The recollection of its mi-
series and hard fortune long operated most injuri-
ously on the state of afl'ection between the sister
kingdoms.

Panama, which forms the junction of South and
North America, like the other districts new enume-
rated, has dwindled into comparative insignificance.
It was never either very fertile or very salubrious ;
but a brisk trade, for which it was convenient-
ly placed, gave it importance at one period. The
town of Panama, on the west coast, rendered of
consequence by its participation in the trade esta-
blished over land between the gulf of Mexico and
the coast of Chili and Peru, had some pretensions
to be tliought both elegant and wealthy, previous to
the decline of commerce, and a fire which took place
in IVS*. Portobello, on the north coast, has suf-
fered nearly in an equal degree from a similar cause.
Its excellent harbour might retard its decay, if the
temperature and salubrity of the climate were pro-
portioned to the convenience of its position. The
forts which defended it were destroyed by Admiral
Vernon in 1739.

II. North America.

North America extends from that part of the isth-
mus of Darien which we last described, to a degree of
north latitude not exactly ascertained, but which cer-
tainly exceeds 70°, and is comprehended between the
52° and the 167° of west longitude. Without com-
prehending Greenland, it may be reckoned at about
5000 miles long, and to have a breadth varying from
60 to upwards of 4000 miles. Its form is singularly
irregular, presenting a multiplicity of projections and
indentations ; and the frequency and vast size of the
seas and lakes which pervade it, or are studded on its
surface, suggest the notion that it has been but lately
and imperfectly recovered from the ocean.

The mountains are not so lofty as those of the
southern division, but they are of vast extent. The
chief ridges are, one arising from the isthmus which
connects the two portions of America, and running
with considerable deviations nearly in a north-west
direction, and another on the eastern coast, to which
it forms nearly a parallel line. The space between
these chains may be considered as a vast elevated
plain, intersected by rivers, and spotted with lakes,
Having few eminences, and these merely subordinate
to the high ranges by which it is skirted.

Rivers. — The rivers of North America are inferior
to those of the southern part, but will bear compari-
son with those of the Old World. The Mississippi is

entitled to the first place. It rises from the eastern Uorth Ami*
side of the mountains on the west of the great inland lica.
plain above-mentioned, which it traverses in a south ^ "
or south-eastern direction, falling into the northern
part of the gulf of Mexico, a distance, it has been
variously alleged, of from 1400 to nearly 3000 Bri-
tish miles.

The St Lawrence is the next in importance, and,
in breadth of outlet, indeed, is superior. Issuing
from lake Ontario, and performing a course of 700
miles, it flows into the North Atlantic ocean, at the
gulf or bay which bears its name. Its source ought
to be traced to lake Superior, or even lake Winipec,
which would vastly increase its nominal conse-
quence. The Ohio, a branch of the Mississippi, and
which itself is formed by two considerable rivers,
the Alleghany and Monongahela, in addition to seve-
ral minuter screams, is understood to run a course
of more than 1000 miles. The name of the Allegha-
ny is derived from the great ridge of mountains oB
the eastern coast, whence the river so called has its
source. North America is still imperfectly explored,
particularly towards the north, and on the western
side, where it cannot be doubted that very important
discoveries are reserved for the resolution and enter-
prise of succeeding travellers. Political geogra-
phers conceive the whole of North America to be
divided among the three powers of Great Britain, the
United States, and Spain, with the exception of such
remote or little known districts as are still in the
hands of the native tribes ; to which, though of scarce-
ly any importance, may be added an extremely small
portion on the north-west coast, in the vicinity of
Asia, to which Russia may attach a doubtful, and
by no means an enviable claim.

The first portion we have to consider occupies
the remainder of the isthmus by which North and South
America are united. To the whole is sometimes applied
the title of Mexico, or New Spain ; this last ac-
knowledging the power to which it has been sub-
jected since its discovery by Europeans. But we
ought to apprize the general reader, that the appli-
cation of names to most part of the Spanish |)0sses-
sioBS in America, has been frequently and variously
modified, so as to occasion much perplexity of de-
scription.

Mexico lies between the latitudes 7° and 23° N.
and the 8S° and 107° W. longitude. It is more than
2000 miles long from south-east to north-west,
and of very variable breadth. The narrowest
part of the isthmus, which is in the district or
province of Veragua, is said to be no more than
25 British miles across ; but the average breadtli
may be stated at 400. The mountains of the isth-
mus, which have been supposed a mere continuation
of the Andes, and which are said to be pmlongtd to
the northern continent, are very lofty. Orisaba, for
example, is visible at the distance of 60 miles, and
many of them are commonly covered with snow ; se-
veral are volcanic ; their courses are extremely va-
ried, but may be said, in general terms, to He in the
direction of the isthmus ; and they are the source of
many small rivers which run on both sides towards
the ocean. The declivities of these mountains are
profusely covered with trees, shrubs, &c. of various

AMERICA.

259

JTorth Ame- kinds, forming the secure abode of numerous species
rica. of birds. Plants, of the finest form and colours, are
copiously distributed throughout the lower lands,
and contribute to the beauty of this fine region.

The rivers are small, but their numbers promote
the fertility of the soil, which, like that of most tro-
pical countries, is more productive of fruits than of
grain. The lakes are numerous ; and Nicaragua, in
the south, is the most important.

The climate of this region is, on the whole, fa-
vourable. The extreme heat, to which its situation
subjects it, is greatly tempered by frequent rains
and the predominance of alpine elevations. But
storms are not rare ; and the occurrence of earth-
quakes lessens the weak security of human happi-
ness.

Among the animals of this country are, the porcu-
pine, a species of panther, which sometimes grows
to the size of a large ox, the bison, the buffalo, wild
goats, wild horses, apes of numerous species, armadil-
los, snakes of huge magnitude, many curious sorts
of birds, &c. The precious metals are found in
many districts, and have often been wrought to ad-
vantage.

Veragim, though politically attached to the vice-
royalty of New Granada, is certainly a part of North
America. It adjoins Panama, is very woody and
mountainous, and subject to frequent and heavy
rains, which render it unhealthy. The population is
scanty, and the country has been little explored ; yet
it is reckoned rich in gold, and possesses one or two
good harbours. There are several islands on its
coasts. Costa Rica, a province to the northward,
has its name from its rich mines of gold and silver,
which have been abandoned from the difficulty of
working them. In its general features it resembles
Veragua.

Nicaragua, lying in about 12° N. Lat., is amazingly
woody, but has very fertile plains, watered by the
river Yare, and several smaller streams. The lake
of the same name is about 170 British miles long,
and nearly half as broad. Opening into the gulf of
Mexico by the river St Juan, and connected, as is
believed, with the Pacific ocean, by a little rivulet,
this lake seems to court the industry of man to effect
a navigable junction between the two oceans.

Honduras, attached to Nicaragua on the north and
north-east, is on the whole a flat country, abounding
in wood. From the bay formed by this province
and the coast of Yucutan, in the gulf of Mexico, is
obtained much of the logwood of commerce ; and the
bay of Campeachy, on the north of Yucutan, furnish-
es immense quantities of mahogany.

Guatimala is applied both to a small district and
to a large province constituted by several districts,
forming the third audience of the older division, or
sometimes the Comniandancy of Guatimala. St Ja-
go, the capital of Guatimala, and seat of the third
royal audience, the president of which is amenable
to the viceroy of Mexico, was built near the west
coast, between two mountains, one of which is a vol-
cano. It was injured by an earthquake in 1751 ; a
similar event took place in 1775, by which the new
city, on the sanje site, was utterly destroyed, when
upward? of 100,000 persons were lost. The situation

for a capital was afterwards changed. Ciudad Real, xorthAme
the chief city in Chiapa, has some trade in chocolate, nca.
cotton, cochineal, sugar, &c.

The Audience of Mexico comprehends seven pro-
vinces. Yucutan, lies between the bays of Cam-
peachy and Honduras, in about 20° N. Lat. ; is near-
ly 300 miles long, and is sometimes called Merida,
from its ca|)ital. Cottot>, indigo, maize, &c. are the
products of this district. There is reason to believe
that this country was once under the waters of the
ocean. Tabasco, to the west of Yucutan, a flat,
moist, and rather unhealthy country, is exposed to in-
tense heat, and to rains for about nine months in the
year. Guaxaca, or Oaxaca, is north of the preceding,
and occupies the whole breadth of the isthmus. It
is very rich in cochineal, produces also silk in abun-
dance, and, on the whole, is more generally fertile
than iiny of the other provinces. The capital of tlie
same name is a large and elegant city, situate in a
fine valley, and containing more than 20,000 inhabi-
tants. It is a bishop's see. Gold is found in most
of the rivers of this province. Industry on tlie part
of the people is all that is wanting to bring this coun-
try, and particularly the capital, to the highest pros-
perity.

Tlascala, north-west of the preceding, extends 60
miles along the west coast, and 180 along that of the
gulf of Mexico. Though very rocky and mountain-
ous, it has some fine valleys. The people of this
province are noted in tlie history of the conquest of
Mexico by the Spaniards, to whom they afforded es-
sential aid. Certain immunities are still enjoyed as.
the rewards of such services. Puebla de los Angelos,
now the capital, is reckoned the second city in 'New
Spain, and is inferior only in population to Mexico. ,
It is said to contain 60,000 inhabitants, is well built,
possesses some elegant churches, two colleges, twelve
nunneries, and a great many convents. Several ma-
nufactories of cotton cloths, earthen ware, iron goods,
and soap, which last is so good as to be in great demand :
even in Spain, have been established. Two towns of the •
name of Vera Cruz, both in this province, and Xala-
pa, which gives its name to a valuable root used in ■-
medicine, Jalap, found in its neighbourhood, deserve
to be mentioned. A curious discovery was made in
the northern part of the province about 50 years a-
go. It is a pyramid, supposed to be of very high an-
tiquity, situate in the middle of a thick forest. Its
perpendicular height is about 60 feet, its base an ex-
act square of 82 feet, and it is composed of large
stones, nicely polished, and covered with hierogly-
phics. No satisfactory explanation of this singular
structure has been given, or perhaps can be expec- ■
ted.

Mexico Proper, to the west, or north-west of Tlas-
cala, has the Pacific ocean on the south, the small
province of Panuco on the north, and is bounded by
that of Mechoacan or Valladolid on the west, and is
300 miles long and half as broad. It enjoys a healthy
climate, a fertile soil, and is the seat of the capital of
all Spanish America. Of this very singular and im-
portant city we shall reserve a description for ano-
ther part of our work. We shall therefore merely
mention that Mexico is singularly situate on a lake,
displays some juperb buildings, and has a population

240

A M E B I C A.

exceeding 130,000. Acapulco, on the coast of the
Pacific ocean, is a town lone noted for trade, now on
the decline. It may be rectoned the port of Mexico
on one side of the isthmus, as Vera Cruz is on the
other. Queretano, to the north of Mexico, is second
to it as to extent in the vice-royalty. It is very beau-
tiful, and contains more than iOjOOO inhabitants.

The Audience of Guadalaxara, or New Gallicia, al-
so comprehends seven provinces, but none of them
presents any thing worthy of particular notice.

San Luis Potosi belongs to New Spain. It is on
its north-east side, and lies partly on the shore of the
gulf of Mexico. San Luis Potosi, the town so cal-
led, contains 12,000 inhabitants.

Louisiana extends along the north shore of the
gulf of Mexico to the river Mississippi, and indefin-
itely towards the north, being reckoned, however, a-
bout 1,200 miles long, and from 300 to 400 broad.
A nominal distinction into Upper and Lower has been
applied to this region ; in the first, towards the north,
a greater degree of cold prevails than is usual in
the corresponding latitudes of Europe ; and the se-
cond is not scorched by excessive heat as those of
■Africa. On the whole, with some exceptions, the
climate is mild, and, unless immediately on the coast,
the soil is fertile ; but much of the country is covered
with forests, and the bulk of it has hitherto been
imperfectly cultivated. The population is supposed
not much to exceed 40,000, that of Upper Louisiana
being, according to Volney, only 2,500, which is ex-
tremely disproportionate to the extent. New Orle-
ans, the capital of Louisiana, near the mouth of the
MissiBsippi, is admirably situate for trade, and has
made rapid advances in size and importance. New
Madrid, up the country, and on the same river, at
60me distance from the influx of the Ohio, is likely
to experience no less a share of prosperity. Indeed,
it is scarcely possible to doubt, that this province, to
whomsoever it may eventually belong, is destined to
acquire a degree of respectability which will render
it of essential importance in the scale of commer-
cial nations.

On the west of Louisiana, stretching across the
continent to the gulf of California, and beyond the
peninsula of that name, to the Pacific, are two pro-
vinces, formerly reckoned distinct, but now compre-
hended in the ^ice-royalty of New Spain, viz. New
Mexico and California. The progress of these to-
wards civilization has hitherto been so tardy as to
I'urnish scarcely any topic worthy of particular no-
tice, and the reports of travellers are too scanty and
imperfect to make up the deficiency. The climate
may be declared temperate, and the soil in many
places is genial, and well supplied with water from
an abundance of rivers.

Unless by navigators on voyages of discovery, the
west coast of America, from California to the highest
attained nortii latitude, has been very little visited.
These, however, have nearly completed its geogra-
phy, as may be seen by inspecting recent maps. Our
own countrymen have contributed materially to this
object. France, Spain, and even Russia, are entit-
led to the credit of some discoveries; and, of late,
the government of the United States appears anx-
ous to promote the knowledge of a coast which may

one day minister to their rapidly accumulating ener- jjorth Ame-

gies. rioa.

Nootka, or King George's Sound, lying in about
49" 36' N. Lat. and 126" 42' W. Long, has attracted
some attention, rather because the question respec-
ting the property affected at one time the under-
standing between Great Britain and Spain, than from
its own merits. All claim to it was yielded in favour
of the former power in 1790, and about five years af-
terwards it was taken possession of by the sovereign
whose name it bears, since which it seems to have
ceased to interest the public mind ; but it may prove
a point of some consequence, when the United States,
in prosecution of views which time is developing,
shall have succeeded in establishing a colony at the
mouth of the Columbia, to which, it is extremely
probable, the late expedition of captains Lewis and
Clarke across the continent, was intended to con-
duce. To the account of this expedition, published
from the official report to the American government,
we refer for much curious information respecting the
countries over which they travelled, and the mighty
rivers by which those regions are traversed.

Cook's Inlet, the entrance of which lies in about
60° N. Lat. is distinctly ascertained to have no com-
munication whatever with any coast on the north or
east. The hopes, indeed, which had long been en-
tertained, that such a communication between the
Pacific ocean and Hudson's bay, or some other sea
leading into the Atlantic, would be discovered, may,
with perfect confidence, be asserted altogether un-
founded as to any point on the west coast of Ame-
rica so high up as has ever yet been reached.

From near the north side of Cook's Inlet, or river,
as it is sometimes improperly called, the coast sud-
denly projects westwards, forming the peninsula of
Alashka, or Alyaska, from the extremity of which
a chain of islands stretches out so as to approach
near Kamtschatka on tha continent of Asia. These
islands, and the peninsula itself, furnish wretched
employment to a race of beings, nominally under
Russian protection, but whose calamitous history, as
related by captain Krusenstern, in the account of his
circumnavigation, would appear to render it doubtful
if the intervention of a civilized government had ever
been exerted in their behalf. Their occupation is to
collect furs from the foxes and other animals which
are found in these regions. A more dismal picture
of tolerated miseries was never published than what
is given in the account by the officer (himself a Rus-
sian) now mentioned, of the injustice and barbarous
policy to which they are subjected, by a company
possessing a legal right to profit by their miseries.

Cape Prince of Wales, in 66° N.Lat. is the extreme
north-west point of the American coast hitherto ex-
plored. It is little more than twenty miles distant
from a corresponding projection in the continent of
Asia, the passage between which is denominated
after tlie navigator who discovered it, Behriug's
Strait.

The highest point reached on the west coast of
America, is that of Icy Cape, beyond which cap-
tain Cook found it was altogether impossible to pro-
ceed, from the multitude and magnitude of the masses
of ice that obstructed his navigation.

A M E R I C A.

241

The wliole of tliis coast is suiil to bear a great re-
semblance to that of Norway, especially in the cir-
cumstances of its being skirted nith inlets, projections,
and small islands, and crowned at some distance in-
land with lofty ridges of mountains. The inliabi-
tants throughout arc nearly in a savage state, but
divided into vai-ious tribes, having various appear-
ances and manners, and often engaged in hostilities
with each other.

In passing from Icy Cape, towards the east coast
of America, there are few objects to detain our at-
tention. Indeed, the whole of the north coast be-
tween that cape and Davis' strait is totally un-
known, with the exception of two points ascertained
by captain Hearne in 1770, and Mr Mackenzie in
17S9, to the published reports of whose travels we
must refer for particulars respecting the lands, na-
tives, and productions of these high latitudes.

British Possessions. — The boundaries which are
uncertain on the north, are Davis' strait and the At-
lantic on the north-east and east, the possessions of the
United States on the south-east and south, and may
eventually be extended to the Pacific on the west,
though the intermediate space, nearly 100° degrees
of longitude, be at present almost totally independ-
ent of the British empire.

The northern coast of Hudson's bay has been sel-
dom visited, and is too inclement to tempt much en-
terprise. Even those lands which are round its west-
ern, southern, and eastern shores, below the lati-
tude of 60°, present topics only of doubtful interest.
Since the discovery of this inland sea, in 1610, by
the person whose name it bears, it has been frequently
visited with the view of ascertaining the existence of
a passage into the western ocean, but always with-
out success. The common opinion, now entertained,
tliat this sea does not afford any such passage, may
be considered as demonstrably true. The entrance
into the sea from the north-east is by a strait pro-
ceeding from Davis' sea, about 600 miles long,
and lying between 60° and 63° of latitude, of very
variable breadth. This strait is practicable only du-
ring summer, and even then not without danger.
The bay itself is scarcely navigable above four
months in the year, from the prevalence of ice, be-
sides being always hazardous from the number of
small islands, rocks, and sand banks. Several rivers
open into it ; but as their mouths are generally filled
with shoals, there are few places on the coast which
aiford good ground for ships to lie on. The depth
of water in the middle has been ascertained IW fa-
thoms. It is very sparingly supplied with fish. Whales,
both of the common kind, and of the Beluga species,
are known to frequent it in considerable numbers.
This induced the company, who so early as 1670
obtained a charter investing them with the property
of a large portion of this region, to establish a fishery.
But the cxpence of managing it, and a variety of
difficulties, occasioned its abandonment in 1771.

The lands on the west of Hudson's bay hare been
denominated New North and South Wales. In
general, the soil is so barren as to give no hopes of
ever being useful; some very small trees, moss, and
occasionally a little grass, are the only vegetable

VOL. I. PART I.

productions, and the inclemency of the weather North Ame*
seems to preclude almost the possibility of improve-
ment.

Fort York, lying between two branches of the ri-
ver Nelson, in 57-|° of latitude, is the centre of the
commerce carried on in this bleak region. To the
south-west of this factory, as the chief places of the
commercial establishments scattered in this country
are called, but at a considerable distance, lies lake
Winipeg or Winipec, which receives several streams
from the west, some of which are supposed to arise
near the source of the Mississippi. The Hudson's
bay Company claim the sovereignty of these terri-
tories, parts of which, however, are apt to be ques-
tioned as the property of the United States. On a
part of this assumed property purchased from the
Company, and lying on the Red river, the Earl of
Selkirk lately attempted to form a settlement of
emigrants, chiefly from the Highlands of Scot-
land. The right of disposal has been denied, and
the absurdity of the speculation attempted to be
shewn in a letter to his Lordship, by Dr Strachan
rector of York in Upper Canada, published in 1816.
The opinion that the undertaking was injudicious, is
supported by its complete failure.

The eastern coast of Hudson's bay is denominated
East Main, and forms a part of the large country to
which the Portugueze who discovered it gave the very
inapplicable name of Labrador, i. e. Ploughman's
Land, but which has been recently called, with as little
propriety indeed. New Britain. It is bounded, on
the east by Hudson's Bay, on the north by the strait
of the same mariner's name, on the east by the At-
lantic, and part of the gulf of St. Lawrence, and on
the south by Canada. The interior, which is scarcely
known, is, in general, hilly and barren. The inhabi-
tants, who are few and poor, are known by the name
of Esquimaux, and bear great resemblance to the
people of Greenland. They are very peaceable, and
as they possess a rather unusual share of docility,
have done justice to the zealous exertions of the Mo-
ravian brethren, who commenced settlements among
them about 1764. Since that time, some tracts have
been cultivated and several useful arts introduced,
which, with the establishment of a fur trade and
fisheries, and certain natural advantages, render this
country an object of, no inconsiderable interest. A
peculiar shining stone, of variable colours, called
Labrador spar, is found on the shores of the sea
and lakes in this region, but hitherto the parent rocks
have not been discovered.

Newfoundland, an island of a triangular shape,
about 900 miles in circuit, is separated at its north-
west extremity from the coast of Labrador by
the strait of Bellisle, which stretches out towards
the south and forms part of the gulf of St Law-
rence. It is bounded by this gulf on the west and
north west, and on the east and south bv the At-
lantic. Few persons have penetrated into' the inte-
rior of this island ; but its coasts are well known,
having been long frequented for its extensive fish-
ery. It is a hilly country, occasionally covered
with some of the smaller sorts of alpine trees, &c.
The climate is vastly more severe than might be ex-
ti It

242 A M E R

Kortli Ame- pected from the latitude, viz. between about 46° and
rica. 51°, wliich corresponds with part of France in the
^^"■^^ Old World. On the banks of the rivers, which are
plentiful in this island, good pasture is abundant ;
and it cannot be doubted, that, in course of time the
hand of man will recover the soil from its nearly
barren condition. But tlie chief inducement to vi-
sit the island is the abundance of fish off its coasts,
80 that few families reside on it with any serious in-
tention of promoting its agricultural welfare. The
chief towns are, St John's, near cape Spear, on the
south-east coast, a small dirty place, with a good
harbour ; and Placentia, also a small place, in an
excellent bay of the same name, on the south coast.
The bajs and harbours are numerous, and many of
them both safe and commodious. The fishing bank
of Newfomidland, more precious than a gold mine,
lies to the south of the island, and is reckoned more
than 400 miles long and 200 broad.

Royal Island, or Cape Breton, in the gulf of
St Lawrence, is about 100 miles long, and of very
irregular shape, has a cold, foggy climate, a scanty,
ungenerous soil, and a population of about 1000
souls. Its coasts are bold, and its harbours some-
what difficult of entrance. Since it was ceded to the
British, in 1763, the fortifications which its for-
mer masters, the French, bad erected in different
parts, especially at the port of Louisbourg, on the
south-east coast, have been demolished. The fishery,
of which this island was the chief seat, and for which
;\lone, perliaps, it is of any value, was calculated to
yield the French at one time no less than a million
^Sterling yearly. There is an extensive bed of coal
in the island.

The island of St John, to the west of the preced-
ing, is reckoned 60 miles long and 30 broad ; is, on
the whole, very fertile, well watered, in a tolerable
state of cultivation, and has upwards of 5000 inha-
bitants. It has been denominated the Granary of Ca-
nada ; a term which implies at least its comparative
productiveness. In many respects it is a highly ad-
vantageous appendage to the British dominions in
this quarter of the world.

The islands now mentioned are separated by a nar-
row channel from the province of Nova Scotia,
which is connected with the continent by a neck of
land at the bottom of the bay of Fundy. It is about
300 miles in length, and, on an average, about 80 in
breadth. The soil is unfruitful, except on the banks
of rivers, where a little grain, some grass and flax
are raised. The climate is cold, and subject to fogs,
and cannot be reckoned healthy. The inhabitants
are not niunevous. Its convenience for fishery is the
chief excellence of this province. The timber grown
liere in large quantities, is generally of a small
size, and under the name of lumber is carried to the
south. Gopd harbours abound on the coast ; on
which the tide is remarked sometimes to attain a very
uncommon height, as from 50 to more than 70 feet.
Halifax, the capital of this province, is a thriving
town, on the bay of Chebucto, and contains 5000 in-
habitants. Annapolis, a small town on the south-
east of the bay of Fundy, is noted for its safe and
cpmmodieus port. Most of the other towns in No-
V4 Scotia are very trifling in size, but that of Shel-

I C A.

burne was estimated in 1799 to contain about 9000 UartL Am«>
inhabitants, many of whom were loyalists who had rica.
emigrated from the United States. v^>v"«>#

The province of New Brunswick, which, till
1784-, was comprehended under the same name with
Nova Scotia, is divided from the territories of the
United Stales by the river St Croix ; is watered by
a considerable stream, the river St John, which is na-
vigable a good way from its mouth for vessels of 50
tons ; has several lakes, one of which is 30 miles
long and nine broad, and is traversed on the north-
west by a branch of the Appallachian mountains.
Fredericktown, on the St John, is the capital.

Canada is bounded on the north by Labrador,
the southern coast of Hudson's bay, and that legion
on the west of the same bay called New South
Wales ; its eastern bmit is marked by the bay or gulf
of St Lawrence ; on the soutli and south-east it ter-
minates in Nova Scotia, taken in its largest signifi-
cation, and the property of the United States ; while,
on the west, it stretches indefinitely among the little
known lands still possessed by independent tribes of
native Americans. Its greatest length from east
to west is variously reckoned from 600 to up-
wards of 1000 miles, and its breadth from north to
south from '200 to 400 miles. A line, partly ima-
ginary, and partly marked by the river Outawas, or
Utawas, divides it into Upper and Lower Canada ;
the latter being to the north-east of the former, and
consequently nearer to the mouth of the St Lawrence.

Soil and climate. — This country , on the whole, is hilly
and much covered witli trees, having but a thin, and
naturally not very fertile soil, unless in some of the
plains, especially in Upper Canada, where vegeta-
tion is more abundant and the climate milder. The
labour of cultivation, however, where skilfully di-
rected, has been tolerably well rewarded by crops
of grain and useful vegetation, in addition to some
good pasturage. Certain of the smaller fruit trees,
too, are found to be productive ; nor ought the ma-
ple to be forgotten, as affording a saccharine sub-
stance much used in the country. Summer and win-
ter run suddenly into each other, with scarcely any
intermediate seasons, and the effect of both is amaz-
ingly great. Thus, snow falls to the depth of many
feet, and the mercury in the thermometer has some-
times been frozen ; while, on the return of warmth,
a thaw almost instantly inundates the country ; and
six weeks after sowing his seed, the husbandman is
busily occupied in storing up its produce. Such ra-
pidity of vegetation is experienced in other coun-
tries where a long and severe winter is suddenly suc-
ceeded by a short and warm summer.

Lakes.-^'Vhe mountains of Canada are numerous,
but neither lofty nor arranged in extensive ridges. The
lakes form a more striking feature. Three of these,
from their vicinity and actual contact, may be con-
sidered as composing one body of water, for which,
with propriety, the name of the Sea of Canada has
been proposed. Of these, lake Superior is said to
be 1500 miles in circumference, lake Huron from
900 to 1000; and lake Michigan is reckoned 260
miles long and upwards of 50 broad. They are na-
vigable for ships of any burden, and the M'ater 19
clear and wholesome ; but the storms to which ,

AMERICA.

245

North Ame- they are subject ave found no less dangerous than
fica. tliose of the ocean. To the east of these are lakes
Erie and Ontario, united by the river Niagara, cele-
brated for the most magnificent cataract of which we
have any correct information. Lake Winipec, to the
porth-west of lake Superior, is said to be 250 miles
iong and perhaps half the breadth ; and farther to-
wards the north is a still larger lake, called Slave
lake, recently discovered. There are probably more
than a hundred besides, many of which would be
considered of great magnitude in any other coun-
try.

Population. — The population of the two Canadas,
inl78'l', exceeded 120,000, exclusive of savages; and
since that period is understood to have considerably
increased. The religion most prevalent, and indeed
it may be said to be established among them, is
the Roman catholic, this country having been colo-
nized by the French, from whom it was obtained by
conquest in 1763 ; but all other religions enjoy
unlimited toleration. Since 1791, the political con-
stitution of Canada has borne a near resemblance
to that of England, and the laws are almost the same.
"A legislative council, consisting of fifteen members,
■(or Lower Canada, and seven for the other province,
flummoned by the king, and appointed for life, un-
der certain conditions, and an assembly of fifty per-
-sons returned by the freeholders of Lower Canada,
«nd sixteen by those of Upper Canada, are obvious-
ly copied from our Houses of Lords and Commons.
Like them they have power to make laws, but the
governor-general, who is also commander-in-chief of
the army, must give his sanction to their adoption ;
and, aller all, it is competent to the king of Great
'Britain to declare his dissent within two years from
the time of receiving any bill.

Trade The commerce of this country has ra-
pidly increased since its connexion with Britain.
Before that period the exports were valued at L.80,000
Sterling; in 1769 at L.163,000, employing 70 ves-
sels ; in 1795, the trade employed 128 vessels, a-
wounting nearly to 20,000 tons, and navigated by
upwards of 1000 seamen; in 1802, the exports, which
were principally of grain, employed 211 vessels, of
about 36,000 tons, navigated by 1850 seamen ; and
in 1810, the exports employed 661 vessels, and were
valued at L.2,358,000 Sterling ; while the imports on-
ly amounted to L. 972,837 Sterling. The exports
were chiefly of provisions, lumber, furs, aslies, and
some drugs ; the imports were mostly articles of lux-
ury, or such as have become necessary in conse-
quence of certain habits acquired in the progress of
national refinement. This growing commercial pros-
perity, it is certain, implies the internal improvement
of the colony ; but there is reason to dou!)t, when all
the expenses and hazards of administration and pro-
tection are taken into account, whether Great Bri-
tain derives any essential advantage from the sove-
reignty. The question, however, demands very com-
plete information, and the exercise of much discern-
ment; and after all, pcrh.ips, there is a feeling of na-
tional pride engaged in the maintenance of the pos-
session, which would set at defiance the calculations
of sound policy. Neither the taste nor the habits of
the Canadians, we may observe, seem to oflbr en-

couragement for a union with tlieir republican neigh- Kdrft-.^is?
hours; and, on the other hand, it is impossible not to tica.
conceive the probability of some circumstance of ^•^V^*'
disagreement or temptation occurring, in course of
time, to give them the wish for independence. But
as yet, we may add, both in point of spirit and of in-
formation, to say nothing of means, these people arc
at least a century behind any of the natioiis most in-
terested in their political attachment.

TovinSfS^c — The principal towns in Canada ar«« Que-
bec, the capital, on the north-west side of the St Law-
rence, a fortified and well built city, containing above
10,000 inhabitants ; Montreal, an extremely neat and
pleasantly situate town, about 150 miles south-west of
Quebec, and nearly as large ; York, the new capital
of Upper Canada, situate on lake Ontario, near a
long peninsula, which forms a bason capable of con-
taining a large fleet ; and Kingston, on the north
shore of the St Lawrence, near the same lake. A
great number of other towns, and many villages ris-
ing into consequence, are at once the cause and the
ettect of extended trade and manufactures. The cha-
racter of the Canadians has been variously repre-
sented, as the describers were attached to English
or French manners; and hence, unless some standard
be agreed on, it is impossible to do it justice. We
deprecate, for our own part, all partial reports of na-
tional features. But a statement of facts must ever
compel some degree of regard. Of these we select
for notice, the prevalence, or, at least, very common
use of the French language, a predilection for gay
amusements, very sparing attention to intellectual
studies, the superiority of the women in matters of
even ordinary education, and the existence of a very
large portion of superstition. With respect to some
of these points, it is worthy of remark, the British
government has exhibited a singular instance of libe-
rality, in aflbrding encouragement to the society of
Jesuits established in this country, for some years
after every European court had concurred in the de-
struction of the order, and now maintaining a semi-
nary for the education of Roman Catholic eccle-
siastics, by a tax, of the nature of tythes, levied
on the inhabitants. Mr Heriot, from whose Tra-
vels in Canada we learn this fact, apprises us at the
same time of the extension of the benefits of this es-
tablishment: " Since the decline and extinction of the
order of Jesuits, the seminary, which was at first ex-
clusively designed for the education of priests, and,
excepting the college of Montreal, is the only pub-
lic establishment of the kind in the province, is now
open to all young men of the Catholic faith, although
they may not be destined for the sacerdotal func-
tion." The clergy of the church of Rome established
in Canada are, two bishops, three vicars-general, and
116 curates; while that of the church of England
amounts to no more than 12 persons.

IIL The Ujjited States.

The obvious inconsistency which often appears be-
twaenthe political and the natural boundaries of coun-
tries is scarcely separable from those vicissitudes of
fortune to which nations as well as individuals are
exposed.' Hence the necessity for frequently revis-
2

244

AMERICA.

United
Slates.

ing geograpliical descriptions, and of restricting them
to same well known period. A line, partly imaginary,
cuts oft' the British possessions towards the mouth of
the river St Lawrence, and another hue still nioreaibi-
trary, in the parallel of 31°, is supposed to divide those
of Spain, viz. East and West Florida, from the United
States in the south ; while, by cessions not properly
understood, and by actual encroachments, these po-
litic republicans have lately obtained footing in Loui-
siana, on the west of the Mississippi, and are gradual-
ly extending their influence across the whole of this
northern continent. The particulars of the bounda-
ries, now in a general way alluded to, will be found
in Morse's American Geography, to which we must
refer for minute information. The territory of the
United States, about 1793, contained, by computation,
a million of square miles, or 640,000,000 acres, of
uhich 589,000,000 are estimated to be land, and the
remainder, or 51,000,000 water. This, however, was
exclusive of Louisiana, and since that period there
has been a gradual accumulation of country in the
interior, or what has been called the western terri-
tory. The extent may be stated at 1300 British
miles from east to west, towards the northern
boundary, and 1000 miles from the lakes of Cana-
da to tiie limit of Florida on the south. This ex-
tensive region presents a very diversified appearance,
and possesses great varieties of climate- and soil.
Some tracts are mountainous, others exhibit immense
plains ; lakes and rivers are numerous, and there are
frequent alternations of rocky districts and rich loamy
grounds. Here it may be proper to notice some cir-
cumstances which have given rise to several opinions
as to the former condition of this country, and to
the conviction of many persons that the whole of it,
excepting the summits of the hills, was at one pe-
riod under the waters of the ocean, from which it has
firadually or suddenly arisen in consequence of the
operation of unknown causes.

Throughout the southern portions of this region,
marine shells and substances peculiar to the sea
shore, are almost constantly found in large quantities,
on digging to the depth of 18 or 20 feet below the
surface of the earth. Of this there is a remarkable
example on the banks of the Savannah, 90 miles from
the sea. In sinking wells in tlie same places, though
at the distance of many miles from the sea, the wa-
ter first found is sweet and good ; but what comes up
■when the digging is carried on a few feet deeper is
eo brackish as to be unfit for drinking, and the ap-
pearance and smell of the earth resemble those of the
mould on the edges of salt marshes. Ridges of sand
are frequently found on the margins of rivers, seem-
ing to have been drifted there by the force of water.
At the bottom of the banks of some of these rivers,
trunks, branches, and leaves of trees have been met
with at a depth of 15 or more feet from the surface.
These sometimes alternate with layers of sand. Such
appearances are known to be presented at the dis-
tance of 80 and 100 miles from the sea. The rivers,
fspecially in the south, have often changed their
channels ; swamps, and grounds which lie low, are
constantly filling up, and in many places the land
has made great encroachments on the ocean. Dr
Morse states, that in the year 1771; at Cape Look-

out, in lat. S4** SC, there was a harbour capable of
receiving a hundred sail of ships at a time, in a good
depth of water, which is now completely filled up
and become solid ground; and such instances, he
says, are frequent along the coast. Connected with
this curious observation, we ought to add, that there
is a gradual descent of about 800 feet, by measure-
ment, from the foot of the mountains to the sea
mark, and that it appears to extend still farther into
the sea, as has been discovered by successire sound*
higs.

Mounla'ms. — The principal ridge of mountains of
this country, to which, from its position, thequaint title
of the back-bone of the United States has been given,
is better known under another name, the Alleghany
mountains. It is merely a part of a series of moun-
tains of the same name, and sometimes called Ap-
pallachian, and which lie in a manner intermediate
between the ocean on one side and the Mississippi
and lakes of Canada on the other. Great part of
these elevated regions is incapable of cultivation, but
extensive tracts are also to be seen which are noted
for arable and grazing land. The hills on the north
of the United States, which form in part the separa-
tion from the British possessions, give rise to several
rivers, some of which run towards the St Lawrence,
and others find their way to the Atlantic. A simi-
lar distribution takes place farther to the south. But
we remark only at present, that, in respect of being
well watered, and possessing conveniences for inland
navigation, this country may rival any part of the
world. If, in addition to those advantages, the num-
ber and excellence of the bays and harbours on the
sea coast be taken into account, the United States
may rank among the most highly favoured of com-
mercial nations.

Climate. — The sudden transitions of temperature,
and the great range to which it is liable, render the cli-
mate, on the whole, unfriendly to delicate constitutions.
But there are many agreeable exceptions, especially
towards the south, where the winters are mild. There
can be no doubt, that the rapid cultivation of the
country which has taken place in recent times, has
materially moderated the climate, and still greater
improvements may be expected. In general, the
seasons correspond as to time with those exj)erienc-
ed in Europe, but they are not so steady. The par-
ticular direction of the wind is known to have asto-
nishing effects on the weather ; but this too is diffe-
rent in different places.

Soil, Sj-c The diversities of soil in the United

States are, of course, friendly to variety of vegetable
productions. Indian corn, a native of America, is
found in all the latitudes between the equator and
4-5° N. but thrives best between 30° and 4°. Rice,
which is not a native, i« successfully cultivated in some
of the southern states. What is known by the name
of wild rice is abundant in the interior, and, ac-
cording to Dr Morse, is the most valuable of all the
spontaneous productions. It resembles oats in its
stalk, ear, and manner of growth, requires a rich
alluvial soil, and yields a bland sweet nutriment.
The connnon European grains are generally culti-
vated, and there are some others less known. Other
roots and garden sluffij thrive in the greatest luxuri-

United
StHtes.

AMERICA.

^45

Ignited
States.

ance and variety. Fruits of the choicest kinds, and
many aromatic substances, are copiously distributed.
Medical plants abound. The forests still provide
ample store of timber, adapted to every common
purpose. In what may be called botanical curiosi-
ties, there are few countries which can compare with
the United States.

Animals. — The domesticated animals are much
tlie same with those of Europe ; and among the
wild beasts may be mentioned elks, and varieties
of deer, bears, wolves, racoons, beavers, the skunk,
the opossum, the porcupine, wild cat, panther, &c.
Some of these are unknown in the Old World, but
not a lew are common to both hemispheres. The list
ef birds and of insects is very extensive. Forty kinds
of serpents, of which the rattlesnake may be consider-
ed the most formidable, have been enumerated. The
rivers are well supplied with fish. Fro^s of great
size, and capable of great powers of voice, swarm in
some of the marshy places; and alligators are not
rare, especially in the south.

Minerals. — The mineralogy of the United States
has not been accurately or widely explored. In a few
places, some of the precious metals are sparingly
found , copper is occasionally met with ; lead and
iron exist in abundance ; and some of the other me-
tals are frequently discovered. Coal is not so plen-
tiful as to render it unnecessary to have recourse to
foreign countries for supply.

Population. — The population of the United States,
in 1 790, was estimated at 3,930,000, exclusive of about
20,000 to the north-west of the Ohio. In 1801, the
date of the last census, the number, including the inha-
bitants of the Ohio territory, amounted to 5,260,463,
of which the slaves formed 894,452. This was ex-
clusive of the inhabitants of Louisiana, computed
to be 42,375. By the same rate of increase, or ac-
cording to the opinion generally adopted, that the
population of the United States doubles in 20 years,
the number of inhabitants may now (1816) be esti-
mated at 9,000,000. The bulk of this population, it
is well known, is the offspring of persons who emi-
grated at various periods from the British islands ;
and the language still used by them is that of the
))arent countrj'. The exceptions are the descen-
dants of Germans, French, Dutch, and Swedes,
whom diSbrcnt motives induced to seek an asylum
in the uncultivated tracts of this inviting country.

Natural Division. — According to Volney, there are
three great natural divisions of the country compre-
liendod under the name of the United States. The
Hrst portion lies between the coast of the Atlantic
ocean and the Alleghany mountains ; the second is
that which is covered by these mountains ; and the
third extends to the westward in the direction of the
Mississippi. This division is undoubtedly natural,
and for the purposes of physical geography may
justly be preferred to any other; but the common
division is into Northern, Middle, and Soutliern
States.

Northern States. — The Northern States, often call-
ed New England, consist of the District of' Main,
Vermont, Nciv Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecti-
cut, and Rhode Island. The general boundaries of
this assemblage are, Canada on the uortli; Nova

Scotia, in its largest acceptation, and the Atlantic on
the east or north-east; the Atlantic and Long Island
sound on the south and south-east ; and the state of
New York on the west.

Surface of the country — This country presents a
beautifully variegated appearance, having all the
changes of hills, vallies, forests, rivers, and cultivated
tracts, which are necessary for picturesque effect.
The mountains are not of great heiglit, but are very
numerous, and often run in parallel lines nearly north
and south. From these issue rivers and streani* at
very short intervals, so as to water and fertilize every
part of the land. Some remains of merely natural
scenery contrast finely with the comfortable indica-
tions of human labour.

Character of the Inhabitants. — An abundance of most
kinds of useful grains, excellent fruits, and pasturage,
rewards the industry of the numerous and intelligent
population; altogether, indeed, the bounties of nature,
and the effects of civilization, seem so well propor-
tioned to each other, and to be enjoyed in so high a
degree, that New England has become an object of
universal admiration. Is it to be wondered at that
the people themselves are alive to the same impres-
sion, and are more earnest in expressing its exist-
ence ? Nothing but envy, we apprehend, could cen-
sure their habit of thinking themselves the happiest
and most rationally free of the human race. But to
this disposition they add a failing, apparently at va-
riance with it, but, in fact, its almost essential com-
panion. This we shall state in the words of Dr
Morse, who is not likely to be thought either defec*
tive in information, or inclined to make it subser-
vient to any malicious purpose : " A very consider-
able part of the people have either too little or too
much learning to make peaceable subjects.- They
know enough, however, to think they know- a great
deal, when, in fact, they know but little. Each man
has his independent system of politics ; and each as-
sumes a dictatorial office. Hence originates that
restles's, litigious, complaining spirit, which forms a
dark shade in the character of New Englandnien."
" This litigious temper, (he continues, with, perhaps
doubtful accuracy,) is the genuine spirit of repu-
blicanism ; but it denotes a corruption of virtue^
which is one of its essential principles." The whole
picture which this gentleman has drawn, deserves to
be conmiended to the reader's notice. Every reli-
gion is alike free in New England ; and no peculiar
profession of any is either an advantage or a disqua-
lification in respect to public situation. Learning
and the fine arts are encouraged by the institution
of universities, schools, academies, &c. and by the
general regard of the people, who hold ignorance in
contempt. The importance and wealth of the coun-
try may be safely inferred from the number and ap-
pearance of the towns spread over it.

Toivns — Boston, in tlie province of Masachusetts,
is the capital. It is situate on the coast, in frorrt of
a safe bay, capable of containing 5(X) vessels at an-
chor. The wharf is said to be superior to any in
the United States. In 1800, this city contanied
about 20,000 inhabitants. Salem, which lies fifloen
miles north-eastward of Boston, has not- so good- a
harbour, but carries on a \eiy extensive trade, and

t'nhrd'

Stales.

246

A M E B I C A.

Tfnited has about 10,000 inliabitants. Worcester, about 47
States. rniles westward of Boston, is reckoned one of'the
largest inland towns in New-Engl;\nd. Newbury-
Fort, Hadley, Northampton, Hatfield, Deerfield,
Concord, Cambridge, all belonging to Masachusetts,
arc pretty considerable places.

Portsmouth, the largest town in New-Hampshire,
has an admirable harbour, is well built, and plea-
santly situate, and contains nearly 6000 people.
Exeter, Dover, Amherst, in tlie same province, are
not so large. In 1776, there were 165 settled town-
ships in this statu, and the number has rapidly in-
creased since that period.

Bennington, the capital of Vermont, is a thriving
town. The inhabitants of this state are chiefly emi-
grants from Massachusetts and Connecticut, or their
descendants ; and a settlement of Scotch people are
almost the only foreigners in it.

In Rhode-Island, which is reckoned the " Para-
dise or Eden of New-England," on account of its
healthy climate, great fertility, and fine women,
there are, besides smaller places, Newport, a pros-
perous town, having an excellent harbour, and above
6000 inhabitants, and famed for one of the best fish-
markets in the world ; Providence, a smaller town,
but thought to be still more flourishing, built on both
sides of a river of the same name, and boasting of
a college uuder a baptist president ; and Bristol, 16
miles north of Newport, possessing a good harbour,
and noted for its crops of onions.

Dr Morse's account of this state, we may add,
presents some very strange peculiarities, not calcu-
lated on tlie whole to excite agreeable impressions,
or very high respect towards its inhabitants.

Connecticut has a great number of towns both
maritime and inland. Hartford, about 50 miles from
the mouth of the river Connecticut, is a rich com-
mercial city. Norwich, at the head of Thames ri-
ver, enjoys great advantages for trade, and begins
to assume consequence as a manufacturing town.
New-London, near the entrance of the same river
into Long-island sound, has the best harbour in the
province. New-haven, at the head of a bay farther
up the sound, for pleasantness of situation and sa-
lubrity of climate, is not excelled by any city in the
United States. It carries on a respectable trade ;
and is one of those places of which there is authen-
tic evidence that the population has doubled in pe-
riods of about 20 years.

Stratford, Lichtield, Farmington, Middleton, and
several other towns, would require particular notice
in a minute description of this valuable and prosper-
ous state.

Each ef the provinces of New-England now enu^
merated is divided into counties, and these again
are subdivided into parishes, as is common, indeed,
to all the states of the Union.

Middle States — The Middle States are, New- York,
New-Jersey, Delaware, and Pcnsylvania ; to which
are added, the western territories of Ohio and In-
diana.

New-York, the most northerly state, is about 350
miles long and 300 broad. It is a good deal inter-
sected by ridges of mountains and hills, covered

with timber of various kinds, but has many vallies
of great extent, affording good pasturage, and ad-
mitting very profitable culture, and is abundantly
watered by a multiplicity of rivers and streams, of
which Hudson, Mohawk, Onondago, Delaware,
Susquehannah, Seneca, and Chenassee, are the chief;
besides containing several lakes, some of which have
a communication with lake Ontario, on the western
side of the state. The climate is more temperate
than that of New-England, but, on the whole, the
country is not so well cultivated. This province,
at one time, exhibited in a small compass the fea-
tures, manners, religion, and languages, of a consi-
derable variety of nations. But of late years a great-
er unifonnity has taken place ; and probably, in the
course of a little time, a sort of national character
will be assumed. The English language, by much
the most extensively used, has suffered corruption
from the contiguity of Dutch and other tongues,
and will require, perhaps, more serious and constant
endeavours, in order to be restored to its purity, than
it can be the cordial inclination of so discordant a
race to bestow.

New- York, the capital of the province, and at
one time the seat of the general government, is built
at the mouth of Hudson's-river, where there is a
large commodious harbour. It is the most commer-
cial city in the United States, and is said to contain
above 80,000 inhabitants, who are in general noted
for their gaiety and social manners. Albany, also
on the Hudson's river, 160 miles north of the capi-
tal, displays a remarkably heterogeneous collection
of people, among whom, it may be observed, the
peculiarities of the Dutch character are most con-
spicuous. Hudson, 30 miles below Albany, is said
to have had the most rapid growth of any town in
the United States, with the exception of Baltimore
in Maryland.

The other towns in this province have scarcely at-
tained any importance to require being noticed in
this sketch. York-island, Long-island, and Staten-
island, belong to New- York, and are of consider-
able consequence, especially Long-island, which is
divided into three counties, and contains a good
many little towns and villages.

New-Jersey, a small state, lies to the south-east of
New- York, mostly along the coast of the Atlantic,
on which there are several bays. Its western bound-
ary is the Delaware, by which it is separated from
Pensylvania, In length it may be reckoned 160
miles, and in breadth 52 miles, containing about
8320 square miles. The climate resembles that of
New- York, and the country is similarly diversified
with hills and vallies, but not in such extensive tracts
as in that state. The chief range of hills is about
600 feet above the level of the sea ; and much of
the soil towards the coast is sandy, having the ap-
pearance of maritime origin. The rivers are nume-
rous, though not large ; but the Hudson on the
north-east, and the Delaware on the west, secure an
extensive trade with the capitals of New- York and
Pensylvania, beyond which the inhabitants seem
not very desirous of urging acquaintance. They
are a very mixed race, and still retain distinct evi-

United

States.

AMERICA.

247

TJnited dences of their respective origins. Certain peculi-
Statcs. arities, too, are said to result from the circumstance
of their commercial connexions. Hence the people
in the western part of the state, who trade with the
capital of Pensylvania, assume the fasliions aod
manners of that place ; and those, again, on the
eastern side, are regulated, for a like reason, by the
maxims prevalent in New- York.

All sorts of religious sects are to be met with here ;
but the Quakers, Baptists, and Episcopalians are
most numerous. Great regard is shewn in New Jer-
sy to the cultivation of learning; and accordingly there
are two colleges in it, well endowed, besides many
respectable academies and schools. Out of a num-
ber of small towns in this state it is difficult to select
any meriting peculiar distinction, so close is their
resemblance in size and consequence. Trenton seems
to be the largest. It is situate on the north-east side
of the river Delaware, and is a place of some trade.
Burlington, on the same river, but nearer the mouth,
is a neat thriving town. Perth Amboy, Brunswick,
Newark, and Shrewsbury, are places gradually ac-
quiring consequence.

Delaware, to the south-west of New Jersey, is a
much smaller province, consisting of low flat lands
of moderate fertility, and exposed to a rather un-
healthy climate. Its trade is not very extensive, and
it has few places of any note. Dover is the capital,
but Wilmington is the largest town.

Pensylvania stretches westward from New Jersey
and part of New York, in the form of a parallelog-
ram, about 288 miles in length from east to west, and
156 in breadth from north to south. Its north, south,
and west boundaries, are constituted by arbitrary
lines. The country is mountainous in the centre and
towards the east, flatter on the west, is susceptible of
successful cultivation, and possesses abundance of
rivers and streams, to which, in great measure, must
be ascribed its excellent pasturage. In point of cli-
mate it resembles Connecticut in the same parallel,
but has the advantage of greater steadiness. On the
whole, however, it is not very healthy, owing, it is
thought, to the superabundance of moisture, which
is very apt to be loaded with noxious miasmata. The
proper cultivation of the lands, it is not to be doubt-
ed, will in time effect a beneficial change. The po-
pulation, notwithstanding, is continually on the in-
crease ; but this is occasioned, in a great degree, by
the influx of people from other countries. The in-
habitants, in general, are the descendents of emigrants
from the British islands and Germany, and are esti-
mable for their patient industry and sober habits, al-
lied, however, very often, it must be mentioned, with
a contracted parsimonious disposition, and a kind of
uncourteous reserve. The religion of the greatest
part is that of the Friends or Quakers ; but all other
sects are alike in possession of the most perfect free-
dom. It will readily be admitted then, that contrasts,
amounting almost to a ludicrous extent, are not un-
frequently exhibited among this motley people.

To the honour of this province, it ought to be men-
tioned, that there are more numerous and flourishing
societies for literary and humane purposes than in
any of the other states.

Philadelphia, the capital, is built according to a

regular plan, ftn a flat between tlie Schuylkill and
Delaware rivers, but it has not been complete-
ly executed. The number of inhabitants in 1800, was
reckoned at about 50,000, and it is supposed to be op
the increase. They are not thought to be remarka-
ble for hospitality, or the qualifications usually looked
for in ordinary social companions ; but in regard to
all kinds of mercantile concerns, and in zealous well
directed exertions to promote some of the most es-
sential interests of mankind, Pliiladelphia may not
scruple to compare with any city in tlie world.

Lancaster, 66 miles north-west of Philadelphia, is
reckoned one of the largest inland towns in the United
States. The Moravian brethren, as they are called,
have several settlements in this province.

The western territory of Ohio and Indiana, rec-
koned with the middle states, is much more connected
as to position with Virginia, one of the southern states.
Hitherto it is but sparingly cultivated, and does not
present any topic requiring our immediate attention.

Southern States. — The Southern States, which a-
lone remain to be mentioned, are Maryland, Virgi-
nia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Kentuclcy, TC'
nassec, and Georgia.

Maryland is bounded on the north by Pensylva-
nia, on the east by the state of Delaware, on the south-
east and south by the Atlantic, and on the south-
west and west by Virginia. It is 134 miles long and
110 broad, containing about 14,000 square miles, a
sixth part of which is water. The climate is mild,
and in the hilly part of the country healthy ; but
the marshes and stagnant waters of the flat country
subject the inhabitants to intermittent fevers. Chesa-
peake bay, which is the largest bay in the United
States, divides this country into two portions, the
eastern and the western. The state has several riv-
ers. Wheat and tobacco are the staple commodities
of Maryland; and, in the interior, hemp and flax are
raised in considerable quantities.

The inhabitants, who are chiefly of the Roman
Catholic religion, live commonly on their plantations,
at several miles distance from each other, and arc
represented as rather indolent and slovenly. But
there are many exceptions, and some of the towns
exhibit a very enterprising community. The chiei'
towns are, Baltimore, reckoned the fourth in size and
the fifth in trade in the United States ; Annapolis,
said to be the wealthiest town of its size, situate a-
bout 30 miles south of Baltimore ; Fredericktown,
a thriving inland place ; and Hagarstown, little infe-
rior to it.

On a neck of land, ceded by Virginia and Mary-
land to the United States, the foundation is laid for
the seat of government, denominated, in honour of a
character immortalised in the history of America, Snd
indeed of the human race, as one of its greatest or-
naments. This city of Wasliington, already far ad-
vanced, on a regular and beautiful plan, promises,
when finished, to be one of the finest cities in the
world, and appears to be in possession of certain local
advantages, which, independent of political consider-
ations, will go far to ensure its continued prosperit}-.
Virginia, bounded on the east by the Atlantic, on
the north by Pensylvania and the Ohio, on the west
by Kentucky^ and on the south by North Carolina,

United-
States.

248

AMERICA.

States.

is about 400 miles long, and upwards of 200 broad.
It is divided by the Potomack, Rapahanneck, York,
and James rivers, has a healthy climate, subject bow-
<r.-er to great heats, and possesses a fertile soil, es-
pecially on the flat lands. The staple commodity is
tobacco ; but the country, with proper treatment, is
capable of producing all the necessaries, arid many
of the luxuries of life.

This state has produced some of the chief charac-
ters in the historj' of United America, but the peo-
ple in general are not supposed to concern themseves
much with political afttiirs. A few persons, it is re-
marked by Dr Morse, appear to have obtained, and
contimie to exercise a sort of ruling influence over
the majority; and thus their government, though
nominally republican, is, in fact, oligarchical, or ar-
istocratical. Hospitality bordering on ostentation,
a liveliness of manners degenerating into licentious-
ness, an attachment to pleasures scarcely susceptible
of check from the clearest conviction of its ruinous
consequences, and a sort of national pride which ra-
ther seeks for indulgence in the memory of past
times than prompts to excel them by new^ and no-
bler eilbrts, render the Virginians a people more in-
teresting than amiable, and yet more amiable than
worthy of respect.

Richmond, built on the north side of James river,
is the capital ; but it is neither very elegant nor very po-
pulous. Norfolk is the principal port in this state. The
other towns are in general small, but some of them
promise rather rapid augmentation. The population
of Virginia is probably not much short of one million.

North Cnrnlina lies to the south of Virginia, hav-
ing the Atlantic on the east, Tenassee on the west,
and South Carolina on the south. It is about 4-00
miles long and 110 broad, and, in 1810, the population
exceeded .563,000 souls. It possesses a mild climate ;
the heat of summer is moderated by agreeable breezes,
and the cold of winter is chiefly confined to the even-
ings and- mornings. In some parts of the countr)',
owing to the flatness and moisture of the lands, di-
seases of tlebility are not rare in the warm months ;
but still more frequent are inflammatory complaints
during the winter, occasioned, it is believed, by in-
temperate habits, too common in this state, and by
incautious exposure to the weather. The soil is ge-
nerally good, answering for tobacco, and productive
of a vast variety of trees, grains, herbage, medicinal
plants and roots, Szc. A particular species of pine,
affording pitch, tar, turpentine, lumber, &c. consti-
tutes at least one half of the exports of this state,
and may be called, therefore, its staple commodity.
Most of the towns are small, and built of wood; and
none of the rivers by which this state is watered will
admit vessels of more than 80 tons burthen.

Smith Carolina, in many respects, resembles Nortli
Carolina, with which it was at one time united. Its
position is similar, partly on the sea eoa.it, and partly
stretching inland to the western territories. It is
about 300 miles long and 125 broad ; its population,
which is rapidly on the increase, was 240,000 in 1791.
Much of the counlry is flat and low ; and as it is
frequently overflowed with water, for the sake of cid-
■tivating rice, a prime article in this state, the air is
Joaded with moisture and becomes unhealthy. There

are four navigable rivers in South Carolina, besides
many small streams. The vegetable products are
much the same as in the northern state. Charles- *
town, the only considerable town in South Carolina,
at the confluence of Ashley and Cooper rivers, on a
piece of flat land, is regularly built and fortified,
and possesses a commerce inferior in amount only to
New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. Its inhabi-
tants, reckoned in 1791 to be 16,359, are respected
throughout the whole of the United States, for their
hospitable, kind disposition, and the unaiFected but
elegant simplicity and ease of tlieir manners and ad-
dress. The Carolinians in general arc entitled to
such commendation, but it is impossible to bestow it
without feeling regret that there should be any draw-
back to compel animadversion. The employment of
slaves, which is common to the sonthern states,
seems to have engendered a liaughtiness of belia-
viour among the better kind of people, and to have
fostered an indolently luxurious disposition, by no
means favourable either to the happiness of the uidi-
vidual possessors or the welfare of the community.

Barbarous amusement. — To what perversity of feel-
ing, or worse than brutal taste, must we ascribe
the prevalence, in the Carolinas and Georgia, of
a species of amusement in which the parties, en-
gaged seriously, endeavour to put out one another's
eyes ? None of our readers, we are convinced, can
peruse a recital of the made by which this feat is
accomplished, without experiencing unutterable hor-
ror and indignation. Dr Morse, whose description
we shall quote, speaks of it as if it were confined
to the lower orders of people ; but this docs not ex-
culpate the government from indifference to the
shocking enormity. Besides, if we reason from what
is known of the satisfaction and readiness with which,
in other countries boasting of their humanit)', many
persons of the higher orders bring themselves to
sanction the cruel propensities of the vulgar, we shall
not hesitate, independent of otherevidenceof apositive
nature, to believe that more are gratified by the spec-
tacle than can be furnished with a shadow of excuse a-
gainst the charge of being as savage as they are either
poor or ignorant. " The delicate and fntertaining di-
version, with propriety called^0M0-2«o^, is thus perform-
ed. When two boxers are wearied with fighting and
bruising each other, they come, as it is called, to closa
quarters, and each endeavours to twist his fore-fin-
gers in the ear-locks of his antagonist. When these
are fast clenched, the thumbs are extended each way
to the nose, and the eyes gently turned out of their
sockets. The victor, for his expcrtness, receives
shouts of applause from the sportive thr<)ng, while
his poor et/eless antagoni.«t is laughed at for his mis-
fortune." Mr Janson, who has published an account
of his oljservations during a considerable residence
in America, bears testimony to the accuracy of this
statement, from his having once been present at the
barbarous sport. " Passing, in company with other
travellers," says he, " through the state of Georgia,
our attention was arrested by a gouging match. We
found the conibatants, as Morse describes, fast
clenched by the hair, and their thumbs endeavouring
to force a passage into each other's eyes ; while se-
veral of the bystanders were betting upon the first

rnttel

States.

AMERICA.

S49

tTiiltsd
States.

the combatants avoided the thumb-siroke with dexte-
rity. At length they fell to the ground, and in an
instant the uppermost sprung up with his antago-
nist's eye in his hand. The savage crowd applauded,
while, sick with horror, we galloped away from the
infernal scene." We would not conclude this sub-
ject, however, without expressing our belief, that
such diabolical practices are less frequent than for-
merly, and* our hope, founded on the almost certain
effect of the universal detestation excited against it
in the civilized world, that in a little time the feel-
ings of humanity will no more be outraged by proofs
ef its commission.

Georgia, lying to the south of Carolina, and bound-
ed on the east by the Atlantic, on the west by the
Mississippi, and on the south by Florida, is reckoned
600 miles in length from east to west, and 250 in
breadth from north to south. It is healthy in the
hillj' country, where the climate is pretty uniform
and temperate, but in the flat lands, the warm, moist
air, often loaded with putrid effluvia from the marsh-
es, is injurious to the constitution, and together with
the nature of the water, which is generally brackish,
brings on bilious and intermittent fevers during the
lummer, and these again are liable to be succeeded
by pleurisies and other inflammatory complaints in
the winter months. The face of the country, and
most of the productions of the soil, resemble or are
the same as those in South Carolina. Industry and
proper management seem all that are required, both
to augment the salubrity of this country, and to ren-
der it the vineyard of the United States.

The rapidity with which population has increased
of late years, can scarcely be accounted for with-
out supposing a great influx of persons from other
regions, who must consequently have had a flatter-
ing opinion of its capabilities, and in reality be con-
firmed in it by experience. According to Dr Morse,
the emigrations from Europe, the Northern States,
and the back parts of Virginia and the Carolinas,
were so great immediately after the peace of 1783,
as more than to triple the number of inhabitants
in the short space of six years. In 1791, the po-
pulation was estimated to be 82,548; and in 1810
at 252,4-33 ; a difference which we believe to be
unparalleled in the history of any other coun-
try.

There are several rivers in this state, of which the
Savannah is the most noted ; and about 60 miles to
the south of its northern boundary, the Alleghany,
or Appallachian mountains, terminate in an extensive
plain, covered with a soil of great fertility, and said
to be suitable to most of the productions of the East
Indies.

The chief towns are. Savannah, Louisville, Au-
gusta, Brunswick, and Frederica ; and on the coast
are some useful islands, as, Skidaway, Wassaw, Os-
sabaw, &c. ♦

Great efforts have been made to promote litera-
ture and the useful arts in Georgia, though still in
its infancy. The interests of religion also have not
been defrauded of tlie regard due to their impor-
tance.

Kentucky and Tenassee, the only'atates which re-
VOL. I. PAnx I.

main to be noticed, are recent acquisitions to the
union, and hitherto have been but imperfectly cul-
tivated and described. The former, properly speak-
ing, is the back-settlement of Virginia, and the lat-
ter that of North Carolina, to which states respec-
tively they bear some resemblance in point of soil,
climate, and natural productions. Kentucky is far-
thest advanced in population, reckoned at no less
than 406,511 in 1810, and in the number and size
of its towns, of which Lexington, situate about CO
miles south-east from the conflux of the Kentucky
river with the Ohio, is the chief.

Tenassee, which is to the south of Kentucky, hav-
ing the Mississippi for its western boundary, the states
of South Carolina and Georgia on the south, and
North Carolina on the east, is a very extensive tract
of land, with a fertile soil, and a climate of superior
mildness and salubrity. The population which, in
1795, amounted to nearly 80,000, is on the increase,
and may be expected to receive vast accessions from
without, when the native tribes, who prove occa-
sionally troublesome, and sometimes destructive, in
all the western territories, are either entirely brought
to subjection, or can be induced to maintain a per-
manent and secure alliance. Knpxville is the capi-
tal of Tenassee, a small but thriving town, built of
wood.

We may here take a cursory glance of a region
which is at present under the dominion of the Spa-
nish nation, but which has oflen changed masters.

Florida, the country now alluded to, is bounded
on the north by Georgia, on the east by the Atlan-
tic ocean, on the west by the river Mississippi, and
on the south by the gulf of Mexico. In length,
from east to west, it is reckoned to be from 500 to
600 miles, and from 100 to 400 miles in breadth from
north to south ; the greatest extent in this direction
being at the eastern side, where a considerable pro-
jection into the ocean forms an inclosing bank to the
Mexican gulf.

Florida is divided into West and East by the river
Appalachicola, which flows into St Geoi-ge's sound,
the river St Mary and an imaginary line separating
both from the territories of the United States. Tlie
climate throughout is very like that of Georgia, and
as to soil this region is no less various than that
state. The eastern parts are less fertile ; yet even
in them it is common to have two crops of Indian
corn in the year. Fruits and vegetables of many spe-
cies are also abundant, and some parts of the coun-
try are peculiarly valuable as ranges for cattle. Of
the amount of the population, and many other inte-
resting subjects respecting this country, we have
had but scanty information since it has been in the
hands of a people noted for their silence and cau-
tious reserve on subjects of general policy. Pensa-
cola, the chief town in \\^est Florida, stands on a bay
forming a commodious harbour, where vessels may
ride secure from every wind. St Augustine, on the
coast of the Atlantic, a fortified town, of an oblong
figure, inclosed with a ditch, is the capital of East
Florida.

American Revolution. — A relation of tltemost

important circumstances which eventually led to the

separation of the United States from the Britiili «}»•

II > '

rnitfa

State*.

250

AMERICA.

tTnited minian, and their establishment as an independent
Slates, power, naturally follows the description which we
y^V^^ have now given. In tlie following sketch, by retracing
the history of these regions somewhat farther than
at first sight may seem necessary, we shall, perhaps,
discover a striking connexion between some re-
moter transactions, comparatively of a trifling na-
ture, and others, which, both because they are more
recent, and of greater visible magnitude, have at-
tracted a larger share of attention.

Grants of lands All the Europeans who succes-
sively visited America in the progress of its discove-
ry, agreed in this, that they had a rigid to j)ossess
themselves of such places as were not previously
seized on or occupied by other Europeans. The
Icings of England, France, Spain, &c. made grants
•f lands to their subjects, as if they had acquired
the sovereignty of them in the common course of
patrimonial inheritance, and apparently without any
apprehension of injustice or informality, saving what
might arise from the circumstance of similar grants
having been previously executed. Some difficulties
in adjusting the terms of these deeds, or putting
them into operation, were occasionally experienced,
in consequence of ignorance of prior deeds, cotempo-
raneous discovery, or former abandonment by other
powers. These difficulties were insignificant in many
instances, because the disputed lands being unpro-
ductive, or requiring both time and expence for their
improvement, did not hold out a reasonable ground
for jealousy, far less a justifiable cause for animosi-
ty. Very different was the case, when, in the pro-
p^'css of population, and the extension of commerce,
these distant settlements began to re-act on the
powers by which they had been formed. Old claims
were then revived with pertinacious alacrity, and
their validity appearing as decisive as their impor-
tance was seducing, rival nations prepared to main-
tain them by force of arms.

Warjrom 1739 to 1748 The war between Eng-
land and Spain, in 1739, arose from a question of
right, claimed by the subjects of the former power,
to cut logwood in the bay of Campeachy, in which
they were frequently interrupted and exposed to
capture by the Spaniards. It was carried on with
various success, and involved other continental pow-
ers, for several years. A termination was put to it
by the preliminary treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748,
by no means to the credit of British diplomacy,
though certainly not too early for British necessi-
ties. Some conquests made in North America, par-
ticularly that of Cape Breton, were given up, and
the right of navigating the American seas, without
being subjected to search, which, in fact, was the
original source of disagreement, was never so much
as mentioned. The French, who had taken part in
the contest, remained in possession of Canada, the
limits of which were imperfectly adjusted ; and they
claimed, besides, the whole of the country on both
sides of the Mississippi, and a great deal of Florida,
between which and their northern settlements they
bad established a communication by a line of forts.

Conquest of Canada. — The peace was neither very
cordial nor of long continuance. Disputes arose
with the French, as might indeed liave beeo expect-

ed, from the nature of their claims, and their offen-
sive measures to effect a trade with America. Both
powers made vigorous preparations for a renewal of *
hostilities, but the king of England did not publish
his declaration of war till 1756, and not until he had
endeavoured, by several mediatory steps, to render
it unnecessary. The counter-declaration of the
French monarch was expressed with unusual acri-
mony, and all things presaged a spirited and obsti-
nate collision. Though ostensibly undertaken for
American interests, tlie succeeding war was not en-
tirely, nor indeed chiefly carried on in tlie New-
World, but affected the continent of Europe and the
dominions of the contending powers in the East In-
dies. Of four expeditions equipped against the
French in North America, during the early part of
the war, three completely failed, to the great morti-
fication of England ; the operations of 1757 were,
if possible, still more disastrous ; the next cam-
paign, though far from being very successful, was
somewhat encouraging ; the advantages gained were
improved during 1759, under the brilliant admini-
stration of the elder Pitt, and by the bravery and
skill of Wolfe, who terminated his short career of
glory on the heights of Abraham ; and, notwith-
standing the utmost exertions of the French to re-
trieve their losses, the whole of Canada fell into the
hands of their enemies during the following year.
The peace of 1763 confirmed the British in the pos-
session of that extensive region, and indeed of the
whole of North America east of the Mississippi, with
the exception of an inconsiderable portion of coun-
try towards the south.

Effects on the colonies This conquest was made

at an expence vastly greater than its real value, and
entailed consequences of vital importance to Britain
and her transatlantic colonies. It is of these wc
have now briefly to treat.

The war had been commenced and prosecuted, in
a great degree, with a view to the defence of those
provinces which had been settled on the eastern
coast of North America, and which were perpetual-
ly exposed to attacks from the French and the In-
dians in alliance with them, on their northern and
•western frontiers. It seemed reasonable that part of
the burden should be borne by those whose benefit
■was thus intended ; and accordingly the colonies
were by no means backward in fulfilling requisitions
for men and money, while the danger by which they
were threatened prompted them to make partial sa-
crifices. They had previously, however, shewn an
aversion to be taxed by the parent kingdom, alleging
their non-representation in parliament as a reason for
their exemption ; and, in fact, had cautiously avoid-
ed every acknowledgment of the right of taxing on
the part of-the British legislature. Even the alarm-
ing condition of their affairs at the outset of a war,
for which they were so ill prepared, failed to seduce
them into any measures of acquiescence that might
afterwards be appealed to as precedents. The mo-
nopoly of their trade, at this time very extensive and
still improving, might be held, they probably tliought,
as an adequate compensation for any parental soli-
citude or assistance which they had hitherto expe-
rienced, or were likely to require. But no sooner.

AMERICA.

251

VnKed ^33 the *ar over, than the colonies felt themselves
Stales. completely disburdened, both of gratitude and dan-
ger, while, on the other hand, the financial embar-
rassments of the British government, which had
been continually augmenting during an impolitic
and mismanaged contention, instigated to the adop-
tion of some new expedients for an increase of re-
venue. Nor were there wanting other causes of ir-
ritation to aggravate the unhappy discordancy that
now arose, some of which alone might have alienat-
ed the weakened affections of the colonists. Their
trade, for example, was shackled by the frequent
interference of sea-officers, most injudiciously em-
ployed in the service of the revenue ; and a gainful
intercourse, which had for some time existed between
them and the Spanish and French settlements in dif-
ferent parts of the New World, was either forbidden,
under the erroneous allegation that it was injurious
to the interests of tlie mother-country, or was so
much clogged by conditions and duties as rendered
it nearly altogether unprofitable. The effect of this
impolitic check was so immediately visible, as, if some
extraordinary delusion had not seized the British
people, would have been sufficient to give warning
of the evils to be derived from intermeddling in their
concerns. To use the language of the times, the
children now resolved to live as much as possible in-
dependent of their mother, and accordingly com-
menced a system of parsimony in the use of articles
formerly obtained from her, and of active exertions
to improve their own resources. This determination
was immensely hurtful to the exports from Britain,
which had about this time been estimated at three
millions Sterling, not to mention the benefits accruing
from the transmission of goods. There needed but
a single spark to give agency to such combustible
materials as henceforth accumulated in both coun-
tries, and this was not long to be sought for.

Stamp-act resisted. — In the session of ITSi, the
House of Commons, besides laying new duties on
their foreign trade, voted, apparently without oppo-
sition, " that, towards farther defraying the neces-
sary expenses of protecting the colonies, it may be
proper to charge certain stamp-duties upon them."
No measure, however, was instantly founded on this
decision. The agents of the colonies, then in Lon-
don, were given to understand, that proposals would
be received from their principals for any other tax,
in place of the one projected, that might be equiva-
lent in produce ; or that, by agreeing to it, they
should in future be consulted before ta>fes were im-
posed on them by parliament. But not one of these
agents was empowered to consent to such a tax, or
to offer any equivalent for it. Their constituents,
when apprised of such suggestions, appear in gene-
ral to have considered them as insults ; and some of
them, in petitions addressed to parliament, directly
questioned the authority which had thus been assum-
ed over their property. It seems extraordinary, that
these symptoms of refractoriness were not more seri-
ously contemplated by the legislature, as ominous of
a fatal convulsion, should the proposed treatment be
carried into effect. Several members in opposition
now exerted themselves against the measure ; and
almost every evil which afterwards followed, was pre-

dicted with the eloquence and gloomy interest of
prophecy. But in vain. The ever memorable stamp-
act, as it was called, passed on March 22. 1765, hav- "
ing, in consequence of his Majesty's illness, received
his assent by commission.

The Americans, without altogether abandoning
hope that their remonstrances would avail, were not
very much surprised at this event. It had been suf-
ficiently anticipated by them, in consequence of the
previous discussions, to give rise to speculations and
emotions most inimical to the act itself, and to tlieir
political connexion with the mother country. All
the provinces, it is certain, were not equally irritable ;
so that although, by newspapers and other means,
any intelligence which affected their common inte-
rests spread rapidly among them, yet it was of some
relative consequence that one of them should be first
apprised of the act having passed, in which less oppo-
sition might reasonably be contemplated. If choice,
then,orjudgmenthadbeen permitted, one of the south-
ern provinces would no doubt have been preferred
for the place of earliest communication. Unfortu-
nately, the important tidings first of all reached New-
England, in which, for reasons elsewhere assigned,
there existed a strong remembrance of ancient griev-
ances, and an apathy, if not a positive aversion to-
wards the parent state. Angry feelings and hostile
sentiments instantly broke forth ; extraordinary means
were resorted to for the purpose of provoking oppo-
sition ; and it became perfectly evident, that every
individual thought himself engaged, by invincible ob-
ligations, to exert his whole strength and influence
against such presumptuous enactments. Readers of
the present day cannot but be somewhat amused with
the recital of the various devices, serious and comic,
in which this opposition displayed itself. We shall
sum them up nearly in the words of Dodsley's An-
nual Register, which must be allowed the merit of
having early given warning of the probable catastro-
phe. Ships hung out their colours half-mast high,
in token of the deepest mourning ; the bells rang
muffled ; the act itself was printed with a death's-
head affixed to the place where the stamp is usually
placed ; and this was publicly paraded through the
streets, by the name of the " Folly of England, and
Ruin of America." The newspapers were filled with
essays and animadversions of all sorts, to spread
the delirium. One of these, with a very signifi-
cant title, exhibited the more significant emblem
of a snake cut in pieces, each of which had one of
the initial letters belonging to the names of the se-
veral colonies, from New-England to South Carolina
inclusive, and having above them the words, join
or DIE. Caricatures, puns, &c. &c. were added in
abundance ; and by being very expressive, and easily
remembered, admirably served to condense, prcsei-ve,
and propagate the logic and venom of the multitude.
More important, because official, demonstrations of
the same spirit afterwards appeared ; and, in short,
such was the determination and energy of all classes
of the population, that by the 1st of November, when
the act was to take effect, there was not a single
sheet of stamped paper to be had throughout the
colonies of New-England, New- York, New-Jersey,
Pensylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas,
2

TJuittA
SUte«.

252

AMERICA.

IJnited with the exception of a small parcel, which the go-
States, vemor of New- York had surrendered to the corpo-
ration of that town, on condition of its not benig
destroyed like the rest. A great deal of business
was now abandoned, pr became illegal, in consequence
of this defect ; and the governors, at last, apprehend-
ing more mischief from its cessation than the infonn-
ality, pretty generally agreed to dispense with the
stamps, which were thus virtually given up. But,
before this time, the colonists considered themselves
almost totally released from their allegiance ; and by
various expedients had at last discovered, what at
one time would have seemed impossible, that they
could exist and prosper without the partiality and
produce of Britain.

The obnoxious act was repealed in the following
year ; a concession which of course was held as a
triumph of the most gratifying kind, and which did
not fail to foster the infant but strenuous eftbrts of
the aspiring Americans. Old habits, however, be-
sides obvious and very natural prejudices, operated
in restoring a liberal commerce with the parent state,
and undoubtedly might have secured a pacific, if not
s cordial adherence. But Britain, not at all profit-
ing by experience, and probably presuming on the
strength of the attachment, and at all events being
unwilling to abate of her pretensions, attempted again
to derive an augmentation of revenue, by levying
duties on various articles which the colonists had been
accustomed to import. Their resentment was again
excited ; and again it became necessary to attempt to
allay it by receding. All the duties were according-
ly repealed in 1770, excepting one of threepence a
pound on tea, which, however unproductive, was still
adequate to keep alive the deep-rooted jealousy of
the people, and, if possible, by attracting their no-
tice to its merely significant character, to augment
their hatred of taxation.

Violent opposition The colonies now prohibited

the importation of tea, in revenge of the impositions
thus laid on it. Contentions soon afterwards arose
between the residentiary governors and the provin-
cial authorities ; the soldiery, of course, taking part
with the one, and the people with the other. A
scuffle which occurred at Boston, on 5th March 1770,
produced the first blood, several persons being shot,
in consequence of an imprudent order to fire on the
inhabitants. An assembly, held in Massachusetts,
formally disowned the supremacy of the British go-
vernment. Some arbitrary and inconsiderate mea-
sures, on the part of the legislature, exasperated the
discontents, already too prevalent. In a word, every
thing indicated the bursting forth of a flame which
could only be subdued by the complete military in-
undation of the colonies, or their eternal separation
from Britain. One of the first acts of aggression,
on the parf of the Americans, was the destruction
of the Gaspee, an armed schooner belonging to his
Majesty, which had been stationed at Providence, in
Rhode-island, to prevent smuggling, the commander
of which had given great oftence by his vigilance in
the performance of his duty. A reward offered for
the discovery of the persons engaged in this attair
was ineffectual. This took place in 1773. In the
»ame year, some of the people of Boston, having

entered into three ships which had arrived with car-
goes of tea belonging to the East-India Company,
now employed by the government in introducing that
article, threw more than three hundred chests of it
into the sea. Parliament, on being informed of this
offensive proceeding, resolved on an exemplary pu-
nishment, and therefore passed a bill, " to discon-
tinue the landing and discharging, lading and ship-
ping, of goods, wares, and merchandize at the town
of Boston, or within the harbour." This was follow-
ed by another bill, for " the better regulating the
government in the province of Massachuset's bay,"
which had in view the abstraction of the executive
power from the hands of the people, and placing it
m the crown.

It was now impossible for the colonists to recede,
without a sacrifice of all for which they had hitherto
been so resolute to contend. Alarm, detestation,
and revenge, spread universally. Assemblies were
held in the different provinces, in which there pre-
vailed but one spirit, though there were various opi-
nions as to the most eligible mode of giving it effect.
A general meeting of deputies was at last agreed on,
for the purpose of concerting measures of defence
and relief. These accordingly were appointed ; and
their first Congress, as it was called, met at Phila-
delphia on 26th October 1774'.

Commencement of hostilities. — Their proceedings
would have done honour to a much older assembly,
and were very different from what might have bee*
expected as the result of that untoward exaspera-
tion which had previously operated. But their peti-
tion to the king, and their address to the people of
Britain, did not prove so efficient as their exhorta-
tions to their countrymen to persevere in determina-
tions to defend their constitutional rights. It is un-
necessary to specify the events which succeeded, till
the commencement of regular hostilities in 1775.
Generals Gage, Howe, Burgoyne, Clinton, and Corn-
wallis, were the officers first employed in the service
of the mother country ; and George Washington,
who had formerly signalised himself in the British
army which had defended the colonies against the
French, was appointed commander-in-chief of the
American forces. This illustrious man did not take
the command till the month of July in this year. A
battle had been previously fought at Bunker's Hill,
in which the British, though they ultimately suc-
ceeded in carrying a fortification that had been the
principal motive for the attack, lost considerably
more men than their opponents. But the Americans
had to regret the fall of their leader, Dr Warren,
who had quitted the useful and highly honourable
duties of the medical profession, to answer the more
hazardous demands of liis country.

The scattered troops of the provincialists were ral-
lied, disciplined, and guided by Washington, who,
after repeated skirmishes, obliged General Howe to
abandon Boston, into which he himself entered in
triumph in the month of March 1776. In the
course of this summer, a powerful force, consist-
ing of ships under Sir Peter Parker, and of troops
under Clinton and Coruwallis, was repulsed with
great loss in an attack on the capital of South
Cai'oliiia. Some other advantages were gained in

A M E R I G A.

253

tTnited
States.

different places by the Americans; but they were
greatly overbalanced by a series of disasters, viz.
their defeat on Long-island — their being forced
to abandon New York — their loss of Rhode-island
■ — the discomfiture of their northern army — the
capture ol' General Lee, one of their best officers,
,&c. in consequence of all wliich events this year
might have been said to have almost utterly de-
stroyed their hopes of independence. Desertion and
sickness thinned the remaining troops, which it was
nearly madness to suppose could prevail against the
well disciplined, numerous, and high spirited enemy
with whom they had to contend. But the intrepid
and sagacious commander, in whose talents and suc-
cessful influence all chance of redemption, humanly
speaking, consisted, with not more than 8000 men,
so far from yielding to useless despair, ventured to
renew, offensive operations. He made a sudden and
totally unlooked for attack on his enemy at Trenton
on the Delaware, routed them, taking above 900
prisoners ; and soon afterwards bore down on three
regiments at Princetown, over whom he obtained a-
nother complete victory. It was in July of this same
year that the congress published their declaration
of independence ; so that, altogether, it must ever be
memorable in the annals of the American struggle.

Colonists treaty with France. — The following year
was distinguished by events scarcely less remarkable,
most of which were in favour of the colonists ;
though the defeat of Washington at Brandywine, in
consequence of which Philadelphia was captured,
and his discomfiture not long after at Germantown,
were mortifying checks to their rejoicing. But these
and other inferior losses, could not prevent, though
they might retard the accomplishment of their ambi-
tion. Besides, they were amply compensated by the
surrender of the whole army under General Bur-
goyne on the 17th October, an event which not only
afforded immense relief to their still confined means,
but also, by its brilliancy, and the probability of its
successful effects, laid a foundation for an important
treaty with France. This was concluded on the 30th
of January 1778, " by which," says an American
writer often referred to, " we obtained a powerful
and generous ally," But the operations of this year
were not very considerable, and certainly no way de-
cisive. Sir Henry Clinton, who succeeded to the
command of the British army on the departure of
General Howe for England, evacuated Philadelphia
and retired to New York, in his march to which
place he was exposed to serious losses by attacks on
his rear.

In 1779 the Spaniards acceded to the American
cause, and. thus Britain found herself completely oc-
cupied. The campaign was various in its bearings on
the ultimate question, but still appealed to future
contests.

The year 1780 was more actively employed, and
seemed at one period to threaten the ruin of Ameri-
can expectations. Charlestown, garrisoned by an
army under General Lincoln, surrendered to the
British troops commanded by Clinton and Cornwal-
lis ; this last officer completely routed General Gates
at Camden, in the same province, and marched
through the southern states without opposition ; and

the treachery of -one of their own generals, Arnold,
to whom, in his necessary absence, Washington had
committed an important post, nearly occasioned the
surrender of their finest army.

Colonists finally succeed. — The battle of Guilford,
which took place on ISth March 1781, between Ge-
neral Green, who had succeeded Gates in the com-
mand of the southern department, and Lord Corn-
wallis, was most destructive to the British army,
tliough the Americans were obliged to retire from
the ground on which they had so desperately fought.
Cornwallis having afterwards marched to Viiginia,
found it necessary to fortify himself in York-town,
where, being blocked up by Washington, who had
slowly followed him, he was under the necessity of
surrendering on 19th October, which decided the
contest in favour of America, and led to the treaty
of peace, the preliminary articles of which were sign-
ed at Paris on the 30th November 1782, after an em-
bittered and obstinate conflict of seven years dura-
tion, and an expenditure on the part of Britain of
nearly an hundred millions of money, and the loss of
about an hundred thousand lives.

Convention of tlt^ States. — The political constitu-
tion which hat! bound the states together during a
season of danger common to the whole, was the
hasty product of their apprehensions and necessities,
sufficient, indeed, while these lasted, to give the en-
ergy of combination to their separate efforts, but
quite unfit for their salutary government in the re-
laxation and carelessness of peace. Its defects were
soon experienced to be numerous and essential. Dis-
contents, jealousies, and insurrections very generally
spread, and threatened a worse condition than would
have occurred under the most despotic authority.
These dissensions, at last, proved so detrimental to
their interests, and especially their commerce, as to
require a general convention, fully empowered to de-
liberate on the means of procuring tranquillity, and
to recommend another form of government. The
convention met at Philadelphia in May 1787, when
Washington, the common benefactor of his country,
was chosen president. Four months were passed in
discussions and inquiries, which fully disclosed the
prodigious evils already existing, and pointed out
others near and formidable enough to occasion the
most painful solicitude. A plan of federal govern-
ment, seemingly adequate to the demands of the cri-
sis, was agreed on, and measures were consequently
taken to collect the sentiments of the people as to its
adoption. It may be interesting to most readers to
mention the result.

The small state of Delaware, after a fe^v days con-
sultation, ratified the constitution without a dissent-
ing voice. Pensylvania displayed a vei-y spirited
opposition ; but two-thirds agreed to the plan, and
the dissentients gradually lost ground. New Jersey
and Georgia were unanimous for the adoption. Con-
necticut had a small minority against the plan, which
soon subsided. In Massachusetts the opposition was
great and respectable, and five weeks were occupied
in debates on the subject, when there appeared but a
small majority for the constitution ; to the honour, how-
ever, of the minority, be it mentioned, that on seeing
the decision, they submitted with alacrity, and united

Volte*
States.

254

AMERICA.

tnlted 'n support of the government. In New Hampshire
States. the question remained a considerable time in sus-
pense, occasioned, it seems, by some want of infor-
mation ; an adjournment was therefore made, and af-
terwards there appeared a respectable majority for
the plan. Maryland was somewhat distracted by the
arguments of certain able men, who opposed the
measure, but it was eventually carried by five-sixths
of the voices. South Carolina had two-thirds in fa-
vour of the proposition. Virginia carried it by a
small number. New York exhibited an interesting
scene, no less than two-thirds of the delegates be-
ing determined to reject the constitution; the debates
were long and able, but as, during the session, the
congress found itself empowered to organize the new
government, the expediency of uniting with the rest
of the states, and other reasons, induced the meeting,
by a small majority, to accept of the plan. The case
was diiferent in North Carolina, which, for reasons
not well known, rejected the constitution. Lastly,
Rhode-island, by a perverse and singular policy, in
place of calling a convention of delegates, as the o-
ther states had done, took the sense of the people in
town-meetings, in which, on the whole, there ap-
peared a majority against the plan. The public
mind had been agitated in a remarkable manner ;
when nine of the states agreed the suspense was allay-
ed, but considerable anxiety remained till Virginia
and New York were known to have acceded. After
this the general joy was excessive, and displayed it-
self in every method which ingenuity, gratitude, and
hope, could devise to commemorate so propitious an
event.

It is a circumstance not commonly known, that a
federal representative government was planned by the
American colonists so early as 1754, in a congress held
at Albany. Tliis, according to Governor Pownal,
from whose "Memorial," (180S,) we learn the fact,
was the first display of those " speculations in philo-
vSophy and inexperienced visions in politics," which
ultimately occasioned the revolutionary state of Eu-
rope. However this may be, and undoubtedly it has
a semblance of truth, it is still more certain that the
conduct and fortune of the Americans had no mean
influence on the disorganization of the French mon-
archy. But it is not to our purpose to do any thing
more than merely hint at this interesting topic ; and
to some readers, perhaps, it may not be ill-timed to
suggest, that there is a natural and almost invincible
tendency in all colonies, whatever be its origin, to
become independent of their parent stock. This,
then, being admitted as physically or morally true,
and as proceeding from causes which no political sa-
gacity can obviate, it seems absurd to regret an
event, which, essentially connected as it is with prin-
ciples established in the method of providence for
the government of the world, must be held, on the
supposition of there being inherent goodness in that
government, as necessarily productive of ultimate
benefit. Whether the period has yet arrived at which
the full amount of such profitable tendency could be
realized, may certainly be doubted ; but it appears
not impossible to ascertain the existence of some ad-
vantages fairly imputable to the transactions we have
been considering. It seems extreiuely probable, that

the establishment of political freedom on the part of
the American colonies, has proved more salutary to
Britain than their continued and augmented depend-
ency would have been. To give this probable sup-
position all the force of certainty, two facts, which
are of no small moment, need onlj' be referred to,
namely, the prodigious extension of her commerce
after that event, and the attainment of a power and
resources, which, in defiance of greater hostile com-
binations than she had ever before encountered, and
in the midst of convulsions that spared not a neigh-
bour to congratulate her escape, preserved tjie sacred
deposit of civil liberty and legitimate authority for
the renovated world.

NezB Constitution. — The chief peculiarities of the
new constitution thus adopted by the States may be
summarily stated, and indeed require to be so for
the due understanding of the nature of that singular
government, to which, with all its imperfections, the
Americans are indebted for their increasing conse-
quence as a nation. The legislative power was vest-
ed in a congress, consisting of a senate and a house
of representatives. The executive power was vested
in a president, who, as well as a vice-president, was
to hold his office for four years. The judicial power
was vested in one supreme court, and such inferior
courts as congress might appoint ; the judges of the
whole retaining their offices during their good beha-
viour, and receiving a compensation for their services
without abatement, while continuing in office. Every
state was to give full faith and credit to the public
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other
state, the congress being empowered by general laws,
to prescribe the manner in which such acts, &c.
should be proved. The congress, at the voice of two-
thirds of the members of both houses, might propose
alterations and amendments of the constitution or
might call a general convention, for effecting such,
if required to do so by the legislature of two-thirds
of the several states ; the decisions in either case be-
ing binding, when ratified by three-fourths of the
members. The ratification of the convention by nine
states was to be held sufficient for the establishment
of the constitution between the states so ratifying.
The members of the senate, or superior council,
viz. two from each state, were to be chosen every six
years ; whereas, the house of representatives, which
was not to contain more than 200 members, each of
them representing from 33,000 to 50,000 inhabitants,
was to be elected every'second year. The president
was to have the command of the army and navy, to
make treaties with the consent of two-thirds of the
senators, and to have the power of pardoning crimi-
nals, except in the case of impeachment. Sundry
articles were occasionally added to the original
draught of the constitution, and several objects are
provided for and guarded against by specific regula-
tions.

Political parties. — The first congress, according
to the new constitution, met at New York in 1789.
Its first measure was the highest expression of the
general opinion of the supereminent services, tal-
ents, and influenee, of the late Commander-in-chief,
who, with a rare display of moderation, had resigned
his power, and betaken himself to the enjoyment of

United

Statea.

AMERICA.

255

tJnitecl domestic repose, but who was now called upon, unani-
States. mously and urgently, to give dignity and firmness to
the constitution, by accepting its most important
trust. It is clear that there was no afFcctation in the
reluctance with which Washington acquiesced in this
honourable summons ; and that he prepared, with
self-denial and some painful feelings, to discharge the
duties which such distinction enjoined. His arrival
at New York was signalized by the most gratifying
tributes of affection and confidence ; and, for some
time, his parental authority, sweetened as it was by
the amiableness and simplicity of his personal deport-
ment, allayed that party spirit, and those discordant
emotions which had already disturbed the union.
The chief feature of the political differences which
now existed, and which have continued with Httlo
abatement to the present time, is recognised in the
names of Federalist and Anti-Jederalist, so well known
in the history of these states. Like many other terms
commonly applied to political antagonists, these words
do not accurately designate the ground of contention,
and are liable to variation of meaning, according to
the unavoidable changes of human affairs. In gene-
ral, the former is understood to denote those persons
who have a partiality towards a government of a
monarchical nature, or at least one which, with some of
the characteristics of monarchy, embraces the real,
though perhaps not the nominal distinctions of an
aristocracy; whereas the latter term is applied to
those whose opinions are more congenial with the
principles of a democracy, or a simple republic.
Much of the remaining portion of the history of the
United States is made up of the animosities and al-
tercations of these two parties, and of the consequen-
ces with respect to other nations to which they gave
rise.

Effects of the French Revolution on the American
States Washington, though in sentiment a Fede-
ralist, was careful to avoid any display of his par-
tiality, and actually chose a gentleman, Mr Jeffer-
son, for th&department of foreign affairs, who was ad-
mitted to be the head of the Anti-federalist opposition,
but whose talents and character, in the judgment of
that excellent man, were calculated to benefit his
country. Such candour merited the cordial imita-
tion of the controvertists. But the French revolu-
tion, by affording new and more powerfully stimulat-
ing fuel to their dissentions, ultimately defeated all
attempts at reconciliation. The Anti-federalists ap-
pear to have greeted that event as a harbinger of
the universal establishment of tlieir sentiments, and
endeavoured, by every measure which enthusiasm,
could suggest, to accelerate its triumph over an-
tient politics. Their first effort was naturally
enough directed against the remains of monarchical
prejudices and practices in their own country; and
accordingly, even the harmless and perhaps really ne-
cessary forms of the President's routine, were at
last denounced as scandalous encroachments on li-
berty, calculated to wean men from it, and to intro-
duce despotism, with all its trumpery, in its place.
These sentiments were of course productive of sug-
gestions for an alliance with France, now repre-
sented as the great restorer of the lost rights of man-
kind, and as destined to effect the emancipation of

the world. The Federalists, on the other hand, with-
out forgetting in any degree the former services of
that nation, and having rather indeed the sympathy
of gratitude towards it, were far from thinking that
any circumstances warranted a departure from the
strictest neutrality with the states of Europe, and,
least of all, that any new conflict, or even a serious
difference with Britain, could promote the welfare of
America. Washington himself, who was re-elected
to the presidentship in 1793, declared decidediy in
favour of England, with which country a friendly
treaty was formed in the following year, chiefly
through his means. This certainly gave umbrage to
the French Directory; but, by prudent management,
hostilities were prevented. Mr Adams, who suc-
ceeded to the presidentship on the resignation of
Washington, held similar sentiments and pursued a
similar conduct.

JVar with Britain. — The elevation of Mr Jefferson
to the head of the executive department in 1800, was
followed, as might have been anticipated, by very dif-
ferent counsels, and a totally dissimilar policy, which
continued with little if any abatement of hatred to-
wards England, but with sundry modifications of ma-
licious device, during the whole tremendous course of
the revolutionary wars. We are farirom thinking that
there did not occasionally arise, on hsr part, some
causes of offence, which might not in any common
case have excited animosity if not hostilities between
the nations. But these seem to have been almost inse-
parable from her critical condition, as the only re-
maining bulwark in Europe against a most intolerable
tyranny, and would have been forgiven by any state
that was not actuated by rancorous recollections,
which prevented it from appreciating the value and
probable consequences of the struggle. The for-
bearance of the Americans, under many provocations
arising from the varied and arbitrary politics of
France, must ever be placed in dishonourable con ■
trast with that irritability and impatience which urged-
thcm to seek revenge in the multiplied calamities of
an ancient friend. They had the merit, however,
of selecting a period for their operations most likely
to give satisfaction— ^when the whole resources oftheir
antagonist were barely sufficient to afford a ray of
hope to the overwhelmed empires of Europe. The
war of 1812 found Britain engaged in a conflict on
which the welfare of the huijian race depended ; no
wonder that she was somewliat slower in answering
the challenge than became her former glory and her
present unconquerable mind. By the events of the
succeeding contest, she certainly did not enhance her
naval or military reputation.

The Americans, on the contrary, were very for-
tunate by sea, especially at the outset, in which, how-
ever, they usually had the advantage of superior
metal and fresher seamen ; and though often defeat-
ed on land, had nevertheless the honour of at last
successfully combating some of the choicest troops
of their enemy. Tliis war was prolonged, to the ma-
nifest injury of both countries, after the ostensible
reasons which had occasioned it ceased to operate.
But the restoration of i)eace to Europe, consequent
on the first effectual coalition against Bonaparte, and
his subjugation, accelerated its termination, wlilcL

Ignited
States.

256

A M E H I C A.

West India was brought about by the appointment of commis-
lilaiids. sioners from each power assembled at Ghent in 181 ■J.
We hope, rather than believe, that peace was made
in the " spirit of peace," and that a return of the
•advantages of commercial and friendly intercourse,
will obliterate every ungenerous feeling -between two
nations, vihich must ever have greater cause for al-
liance than temptations to commit themselves to
mutually destructive contentions.

Slatisfks. — The revenue of • the United States,
which, before the last war, was chiefly derived from
■the duties on imports and tonnage, had increased
■rapidly between the periods -of 1791 and 1801, a-
mounting, in the former year, to 3,329,750 dollars,
and in the latter to 18,000,000. Of its amount be-
tween the last mentioned period and the conunence-
xnent of the war in 1812, we have seen no satisfac-
tory statement. In the course of the war it was
found necessary to levy new taxes for defraying the
increased expenditure, and these, in addition to the
immense diminution of their commerce, must have
produced a very general dislike to a contest with
-Britain. • On an average of three years preceding
1805, it appears, from efficient returns laid before
"Congress, that the United States had imported an-
nually from that kingdom and her dependencies to
the value of more than eight millions sterling, while
their exports to Britain and her colonies rarely ex-
ceeded five millions in each year ; in the three years
-again ending after 1804^, the average of exports to the
United States was above twelve millions, and that of
imports from them not more than four and a half
millions. Some inference may be made from these
premises of. the advantages which Britain derived
irom her commercial transactions with that people.

A standing army being judged inconsistent with a
republican government, the military strength of the
'United States is to be • estimated from the militia,
■wliich was formerly reckoned by Dr Morse at
700,000, but on grounds not entitled to entire con-
fidence. We should think the effective force not
. greater than the half of that number ; but all cal-
culations of the resources of the Americans are
liable to perhaps greater errors than are usually ex-
perienced in the case of other nations. Their navy,
in 180t, consisted of no more than twelve frigates
Irom 36 to 44 guns, and some smaller craft ; at the
commencement, and during the continuance of the
war, it was augmented with astonishing rapidity,
both in number and magnitude, and is probably des-
tined, in course of time, to assume a first-rate im-
■portance among. the Atlantic. fleets.

IV. West-India Islands.

The islands to which our attention is now to be
•■directed, as .connected with this quarter of the world,
may be said, in general terms, to run in a south-east
direction from the coast of Florida to the north-east
part of Soutli America, forming a sort of interrupt-
■cd barrier to the gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean
sea. In other words, they describe nearly the dia-
gonal of a parallelogram, of which the sides are the
59° and 86° of W. Long, and the 10° and 20° of
.N. Lat, Tliis diagonal, it is to be remarked, is of

very variable breadth ; a«d there are several imaller West InAai
islands in different parts of the neighbouring coasts, Ltland*.
which cannot be referred to it. In goography, we
may notice, it is often convenient, for the assist-
ance of the imagination and memory, to start a
strong idea of the relations of places, though a very
accurate examination might not require its precise
adoption.

These islands have received very different names,
which have been applied to them either considered
in one assemblage, or as subdivided into particular
groupes, according to their geographical position, or
some other principle of arrangement.

The common term. West Indies, not indeed strict-
ly proper, is abundantly extensive in signification
to comprehend all the islands of which we shall
speak, without any regard to the discordant sentiments
of different writers in tlie application of the minor
designations, Antilles Great and Less, Windward
and Leeward Islands. We commence from the north,
merely glancing, in the first place, at a small cluster,
not indeed immediately connected with the West
Indies, but which may be more properly mentioned
here than in any other part of our arrangement.

The islands now alluded to, named after tlie dis-
coverer Bermudas, and sometimes Somers, (vul-
garly Summer, ) from the circumstance of the ship-
wreck of Sir George Somers in 1552, lie about 600
miles to the east of the coast of Carolina. They a-
mount to some hundreds, but most of them are small
and uninhabitable, and a reef of rocks and shoals by
which they are surrounded renders access to them
rather dangerous. In general, the climate is mild
and healthy, but thunder and hurricanes ^re frequent,
and tlie heat of summer is sometimes excessive. A
soil, fertile enough in a fisw spots, produces Indian
corn, roots, and fruits, in quantities sufficient for the
inhabitants, and is occasionally adorned with trees,
which are clothed with almost constant verdure.
But the greatest part of the lands susceptible of cul-
tivation still remains in a state of nature. The in-
habitants, who are chiefly English, scarcely exceed
5000. St George-town, in tlie island of the same
name, one of the largest in the cluster, is the capital.
It contains about 500 houses, and is partially forti-
fied. These islands belong to Great Britain, but
can hardly be said to be of any value to that govern-
ment. The chief employments of the people in these
islands, besides the necessary care of the ground,
are building vessels, for which they are well supplied
with wood of the cedar species, and weaving sail-
cloths.

The Bahama, or Lucayos Islan'ds, lying at a
short distance off the coast of East Florida, are very
numerous, and occupy a large space. But many of
them are mere rocks, and the greater part arc to-
tally unworthy of notice. The most important are
E/euthera, Lucayo, Bahama, Yuma, Guanaliuni or
St Salvador, and I^ovidence. In point of soil, they
are said to be fertile, and in many respects to re-
semble South Carolina. Fruits are abundant, cotton
and coffee are raised for exportation, and they are
admirably situated for the purpose of trade. Ilie
population in 1803 was nearly 15,000, and is under-
Stood to be on the increase. Encouragement from

AMERICA

257

TTest Tmlla the British government, to wbicli they belong, may
Islands, bring these isluiuis to a state ot" great prosperity.

Cuba, — a valuable island, ot" great extent, being
about 700 British miles long, and 70 broad, lies to
the south-west of the Bahamas, I'rom which it is se-
parated by the bank and channel of Bahama. It is
divided in the middle by a ridge of mountains run-
ning the whole extent of the island, and giving rise
to several rivers or streams. These mountains are
commonly covered with trees, among which are
found ebony and mahogany ; but towards the coast,
the flat lands are in possession of a soil so fertile,
that, with scarcely any cultivation, it perpetually
abounds in almost every kind of vegetable riches.
The chief productions are ginger, sugar, coffee, co-
coa, tobacco, and cotton. In point of climate, this
island is very fortunate, having scarcely any winter,
and the heat of summer being much moderated by
breezes from the sea. Certain districts, however,
are reckoned unhealthy ; but in great degree this is
occasioned by the imperfect state of cultivation.
The chief inconveniencies met with in Cuba are hur-
ricanes and storms of thunder. In 1804 the popu-
lation was said to exceed 400,000 souls, of whom a
very considerable part was made up of slaves.

Few countries are so well furnished with bays and
ports, or are so well situate for trade. But these
and other advantages are far from having excited
the enterprise and solicitous industry of the Spa-
niards, who seem to have hardly any other con-
ception of wealth than as it exists in the state of
gold and silver. Havannah, the principal town of
Cuba, is built on the north coast, where there is a
harbour of great extent and much security, but ra-
ther narrow of entrance. The town, which has
somewhat of an European appearance, is fortified,
and contains about 25,000 people. Puerto del Prin-
cipe, Bayamo, St Jago, San Carlos, Holguin, and
Guiza, are the names of other towns, none of which
is near so large or important as Havannah.

Jamaica, — a fine island, lying about 100 miles to
the south of Cuba, is the third in size in the whole
ef the West Indies, and is inferior only to Cuba and
St Domingo. Its extreme length seems to be about
160 miles, and its breadth 60 ; but, according to
some accoijjits, its length is only 120 miles, and its
breadth 42, while others state the dimensions higher
than above, and Mr Edwards makes the fonner 150,
and the latter 40.

Traversed by mountains in different directions, but
particularly from east to west, plentifully watered
by an immensity of small rivers and streams issuing
from the high lands, beautifully adorned with many
species of trees, and enjoying a climate more tem-
perate and agreeable than its geographical position
would indicate, this island undoubtedly merits distinc-
tion as one of the best examples ofaWest Indian coun-
try. Its general appearance differs from most parts
of Europe ; and the north and south sides of the
island differ also as widely from each other. An
idea of this may possibly be conveyed by a few parti-
culars selected from the description given by Mr Bry-
an Edwards, to whose History of the West Indies
we must refer the reader for minuter information.
On the north shore, the country rises into hills
VOL. J. PART i.

more remarkable for beauty than for boldness, hav- Wcsi India
ing a gentle acclivity, and being interspersed with Islands,
vales and romantic scenery, but rarely broken abrupt-
ly or disfigured with craggy projections. The tops
of the hills also are nicely rounded, and covered
with groves of pimento, spontaneously sprung up,
whose fine deep tints are charmingly enlivened by
the verdure of the turf, seen in a thousand openings
beneath. The effect is still farther heightened, and
some agreeable emotions are excited, by the profu-
sion of streams which pour from every valley, and
which frequently project themselves from the over-
hanging rocks, as if in sportive joy, into the ocean.
At a greater distance inland, and overtopping these
picturesque appearances, the land rises towards the
centre of the island, displaying a still greater pro-
fusion of wood, till the hills, at the extremity of the
scene, becoming fainter and fainter, lose themselves
in the clouds.

The character of the southern side, on the con-
trary, is that of grandeur and sublimity. — " When I
first approached this side of the island by sea," says
Mr Edwai'ds, in his poetic language, " and beheld
from afar such of the stupendous ai'd soaring ridges of
the Blue Mountains as the clouds here and there
disclosed, the imagination (forming an indistinct,
but awful idea of what was concealed, by what was
thus partially displayed) was filled with admiration
and wonder. Yet the sensation which I ftlt was al-
lied rather to terror than delight. Though the pros-
pect before me was in the highest degree magnifi-
cent, it seemed a scene of magnificent desolation.
The abrupt precipice and inaccessible cliff had more
the aspect of a chaos than a creation, or rather
seemed to exhibit the effects of some dreadful con-
vulsion which had laid nature in ruins. Appear-
ances, however, improved as we approached ; for
amidst ten thousand bold features, too hard to be
softened by culture, many a spot was soon discover-
ed where the hand of industry had awakened life and
fertility. W^th these pleasing intermixtures, the
flowing line of the lower range of mountains, which
now began to be visible, crowned with woods of ma-
jestic growth, combined to soften and relieve the
rude solemnity of the loftier eminences ; until at
length the savannas at the bottom met the sight.
These are va.st plains, clothed chiefly with extensive
cane-fields, displaying, in all the pride of cultivation,
the verdure of spring blended with the exuberance
of autumn, and tlieyare bounded only by the ocean,
on whose bosom a new and ever-moving picture
strikes the eye ; for innumerable vessels are disco-
vered in various directions — some crowding into, and
others bearing away from the bays and harbours,
with which the coast is everywhere indented." We
should err, however, if, from such descriptions, or
any conclusions drawn from the position of this
island, we conceived it to be peculiarly delightful as
a place of residence. The violent torrents of rain
at certain seasons ; the frequency Ot storms, tem-
pests, and hurricanes, and the prevalence of thun-
der and lightning for half the year, greatly diminish
the comforts and security of tlie inhabitants. The
nature of the vegetable productions raised in .Jamai-
ca will be readily understood from what has already

K K.

^58

AMERICA.

West India been said of some other countries with which it a-
Islands. grees in situation. The chief difference is occasion-
ed by the ahnost accidental peculiarities of the trade
in which it is concerned. Thus Jamaica, at one pe-
riod, yielded three-fourths of the coft'ee and one-
half of the sugar produced by tlic whole of the Bri-
tish colonies ; but these proportions have of course
varied greatly, according to the demands of the
market. The amount of the population, in 1787,
was computed at ;291,400, of which no less than
250,000 were slaves.

Kingston, the capital pf Jamaica, is a thriving
town, with 30,000 inhabitants, situate on the south
side of the island, and on the north side of a harbour
capable of holding 1000 ships. Some of the houses
are well built, and its markets for butcher's meat,
fish, fruits, and vegetables, are noted for their excel-
lence. Its extensive commercial transactions ren-
der Kingston a place of very high consequence in the
British transatlantic dominions. Spanish Town, or St
Jago de la Vega, the seat of government, is a very a-
ereeable town in the interior of the island, and 16 miles
from Kingston, which it. does not equal in size or im-
portance of trade. Port-royal, opposite to King-
ston, in the same bay, was once a flourishing place ;
but being visited in 1692 by an earthquake, which
buried nine-tenths of the houses several feet under
water ; secondly, at the distance of ten years, almost
entirely reduced to ashes by fire ; and, lastly, on its
tliird appearance, demolished by a hurricane, the peo-
ple took alarm, and almost universally abandoned the
spot as forbidden ground. The last calamity occur-
red in 1722, since which period, however, about 200
houses have been built on the same foundation, and
probably, as its advantages in respect of harbour, &c.
are great, it may recover some of its former conse-
fjuence. Most of the otlier towns in this island are
!>mall.

St Domingo, Hispaniola, or Hayti— lies to
iJie eastward of the two islands last described. It is
reckoned from 350 to 400 miles long, in the direction of
cast and west, and from 100 to 140 broad from north
to south, and is next to Cuba, in respect of size,
among the West India islands. From Cuba it is se-
parated by a channel, denominated by seamen the
windward passage, which is about 36 miles wide. To
both of these islands it bears considerable resem-
blance in general appearance, the nature of the cli-
mate, and the productions of the soil. Perhaps, on
the whole, it surpasses them in the salubrity of the
air, and in profusion of vegetation. The former, in
a great degree, is to be imputed to the existence of
iewer flat moist lands, and a more frequent alterna-
tion of hills and- valleys; the latter is the natural
consequence of superior richness, or greater depth
of soil. Some places, however, are peculiarly un-
healthy, owing to a great number of salt marshes.

Of the population, condition, resources, and pro-
ductipns of St Domingo, we can scarcely be said to
liave any very satisfactory accounts since the revolt
of the negroes, and the consequent declaration and
acquisition of their independence.

Porto Rico, an island belonging to the Spaniards,
lies due east at a, short distance from St Domingo,
{Uid is very nearly as large as Jamaica. In beauty

of appearance, fertility of soil, abundance of streams, ^^f^^ j^ jj,
and temperateness of climate, it yields, perhaps, to islands,
none of the West India possessions ; but, as usual,
the policy of the European masters prevents any sa-
tisfactory disclosure of its true condition and pro-
duce. Among the articles enumerated in the state-
ments of its value, it is usual to mention the miner
of silver and gold on the north side of the hills by
which it is divided in the direction of its length.

In 1778, the inhabitants were estimated at up-
wards of 80,000 ; but this, probably, was an exag-
geration. Of its present population we have no con-
jecture. The capital, which bears the same name,
is on the north part of the island, and is said to be
a well-built town, having a good harbour.

Santa Cruz produces sugar, coffee, and cotton, has
some good ports, and is well inhabited. Si Thomas,
not near so large, is proportionally as rich, and has
an excellent harbour. Tortola is noted for a capa-
cious road, where 1000 vessels may safely anchor.

The Caribbee, or Caribbean Islands, which
are very considerable in number, and of material im-
portance in a commercial point of view, extend in a
sort of circular direction from the Virgin Islands to-
wards the American coast, comprehending Barba-
does, which is more to the east than any of them,
and Tobago, %vhich is more to the south. Anguilla,
or Snake-Island, so called from its shape, is a small
flat island, tolerably fertile, and containing a few
hundred inhabitants. St Martin s, a little to the
south, is rocky, and not very productive, having but
a thin soil, and no rivers. In some respects it re-
sembles St Bariholomi, or Bartholomew, which, how-
ever, yields more sugar and tobacco. Barbouda, to
the eastward of these two islands, is lof\y in the
middle, flat and low on the margins, affords good
pasture for cattle, but is otherwise very sparingly
productive, and being difficult of access from the
encircling rocks and shoals, has been almost entirely
neglected.

St Christophers, or St Kitt's, is larger and more
valuable than any of the islands just now named, is
about 40 miles in circuit, produces sugar, tobacco,
cotton, and fruits in great abundance, and has a po-
pulation amounting to about 30,000 souls, of whom
the majority are negroes. A good deal of this island
is supposed unfit for cultivation, but the whole has
a fine romantic appearance, and it possesses a healthy
climate. Springs are abundant in the island, but
commodious harbours and landing-places are want-
ing. North-west of St Christopher's are two small
islands, Saba and Eustatia, both but indifferently
productive, and also very defective as to ports.
Nevis, separated by a narrow channel from St Chris-
topher's on the south, presents the appearance of a
single mountain, surrounded by a margin of low
lands. The soil is not very rich, nor is there any
harbour on the coast, but the island is well supplied
with fresh water, and is inhabited by above 10,000
persons, by much the greater part of whom are ne-
groes. Eustatia, St Christopher's, and Nevis, exhi-
bit volcanic appearances.

Antigua, 60 miles south-east of St Christopher's,
is about 50 miles in circuit, and contains nearly
60,000 acres of ground, the whole of which, with

A M E E I C A.

259

WMtTndift some trifling exception, is either emplojred in the
Wands, growth of the sugar-cane, and other useful vegeta-
bles, or is of value for pasturage. In respect of
good harbours, it is superior to most of the West-
India islands. Its chief imperfection is the scarcity
of fresJt water , most of what is used is collected
from the clouds, as the product of the streams
and wells is in general brackish and disagreeable.
The heat is often excessive, and destructive hurri-
canes are not unusual. In consequence of these
causes, the crops of Antigua are uncertain, and often
fail. Of the population of this island we have no
very recent account: in ITT'i, the number of whites
was 2j90, and there were 37,808 slaves ; the latter
were estimated, in 1787, at 60,000.

Montserrat, a small oval-shaped island, about 20
miles tp the soutli-west of Antigua, and about the
same distance south of Nevis, is fruitful and plea-
.?ant, agreeably diversified with liills and vales, the
former covered with a variety of trees, and the latter
having the advantage of sufficient streams and a ge-
nerous soil.

Guadaloiipe, to the south of Antigua, consists, in
fact, of two islands connected by a small arm of the
sea, which is navigable for vessels of 50 tons. That
portion to the east is called Grande-Terre, the other
to the west Basseterre, the two together being above
200 miles in circumference. Grand-Terre is desti-
tute of water, and possesses but an indifferent sandy
soil ; it is, therefore, but thinly inhabited, and poor-
ly cultivated. The other division, which, from the
circumstance of its first discovery, is often denomi-
nated peculiarly Guadaloupe, has abundance of wa-
ter, a superior soil, and, from its number of hills
and woods, displays some romantic scenery. Sugar,
cocoa, coflee, and cotton, are the chief products of
this island, which on tlie whole may be reckoned one
of the most important of the West-India settlements.
No wonder, then, that its cession by the British,
who captured it from the French in 1810, to another
power, conceived little entitled to such a boon, has
been represented as an uncommon stretch of politi-
Qjil generosity. Several small islands in its vicinity
are considered as dependencies of Guadaloupe. Of
these, Maria-Galnnta and the Isles des Sainles, are
of most consequence. Both have patches ot good
soil, are tolerably cultivated, and carry on some
trade.

Dominica, about 20 miles south of Guadaloupe, is
29 miles in length, and 16 in breadth, presents a
hilly appearance, and has but a small portion, com-
paratively speaking, of fertile land. It is, however,
well watered, possesses a healthy climate, and has
one of the largest and safest bays in the West-Indies.
Its population is, perhaps, little short of 30,000 souls,
two-thirds at least of which are slaves. The pos-
session of this island, from its peculiar situation with
respect to some of the French islands, was long an
object of solicitude to the British government.

Martinico, one of the islands now alluded to, lies a
little to the south-east of Dominica. It is about 135
miles in circuit, has an uneven irregular surface, the
liigher parts of which are covered with forests ; is
plentifully sujjplied with water, not always indeed of
the best quality, and sometimes descending from the

hills in rapid and destructive torrents ; possesses con- We«t IndTft
siderable varieties of soil, from the most barren to Islands,
the most liberal ; and in point of climate, (were some
of the masses of wood, which prevent the escape of
moisture from the lands, removed,) could not be said
to be unhealthy. The coast has many indentations,
presenting safe and commodious anchorage. The
conveniences of Martinico so much exceed its dis-
advantages, that the possession of it must necessarily
be considered of very high consequence.

St Lucia, about 20 miles south of Martinico, is but
a small island, unequally fertile, imperfectly cultiva-
ted, but capable of considerable improvement ; has a
diversified appearance, and possesses an excellent har-
bour. The population is probably little under 20,000.

St Vincent, still farther to the south, contains a-
bout 84,000 acres of land, well watered, but with a
very unequal surface. The hills are mostly covered
with woods, the valleys are in general of great fertili-
ty, but hitherto either nothing like the full extent of
the requisite labour has been bestowed on the culti-
vation of the country, or a large portion of it is inca-
pable of improvement. The British possess the most
valuable parts, the others are still in the hands of the
native Caribs.

Barbadocs, the most easterly of the West India
islands, is 21 miles long and 14 broad, containing
upwards of 100,000 acres of land, mostly cultivated.
The soil being variable in nature as well as (juality,
admits diversity of product in considerable abun-
dance; and the air is, on the whole, mild and healthy,
not very subject to sudden changes of temperature,
and little or not at all vitiated by moisture arising
from marshy grounds. Though there be no river in
the island, yet it is tolerably well supplied with water
from many small springs, and, besides the rain in the
wet season, by dews which are frequent during the
night. In point of appearance Barbadoes is agreea-
ble, having gentle risings, hills of easy ascent, and
extensive plains, abounding in vegetation, which al-
ternate or contrast with each other. Much of the coast
is dangerous of access, from rocks and sand-banks,
but there are some good harbours on the west side.
Hurricanes, unfortunately, often interrupt the hap-
piness of its inhabitants, and mar the products of
their industry, besides exposing them to still more
fatal effects. Thus the storm of October 1780 is said
to have destroyed no less than 4000 persons. The
number of inhabitants in 1786 was 16,167 whites,
838 free negroes, and 62,115 slaves.

To the south-west of Barbadoes are situate Gre-
nada and the Grenadines. The former has a hilly
irregular appearance, is well watered, has on the
whole a good climate, and contains about 80,0C)O
acres of land, the greater part of which is capable of
cultivation. It has some good harbours, and is not
much visited by hurricanes, at least such as are very
ruinous. The population exceeds 20,000. Of the
Grenadines, which form a chain in the direction of
St Vincent towards the north, Carictiacou or Carta'
cou, liedonda, and Beqiiica, are the chief. They are
small, and badly watered, but of tolerable fertility.
Tobago, the most southerly of the Caribbean islands,
is about 30 miles long and nine broad, has a more
temperate climate than is indicated by its situation,
2

260

AMERICA.

discovery of and is out of the tract of the hurricanes which so of-
Amcrica. ten threaten the total destruction of tlie other islands.
The country has a very agreeable appearance ; the
soil is rich, springs of water are abundant, and the
coast affords good shelter for vessels. Altogether,
this island is highly favoured, and is a most ehgible
place of residence.

To Edward's History (Jf the West Indies, Dr Pin-
kard's Notes on the West Indies, and Mackinnon's
West Indies, we refer the reader for minute infor-
mation respecting all or any of the islands now men-
tioned. Pinkerton's Geography, 3d edit, contains
some useful extracts from these and other publica-
tions.

Trinidad, which is separated from the continent
by the gulf of Paria, is reckoned about 90 miles long,
and from 30 to 40 broad, and has on the whole a
healthy climate and fertile soil, affording almost all
the vegetable productions found on the American
continent in its vicinity. There are several hills in
the country, occupj-ing about one-third of the whole
surface, and much remains waste that is capable of
being beneficially cultivated. Indian corn, great va-
rieties of fruits and roots, tobacco and cotton, are
among its most plentiful products. Earthquakes are
sometimes experienced in this island, but hurricanes
are unknown. The population of Trinidad was esti-
mated some years ago at 17,749 souls, of which
10,000 are slaves. A lake of mineral pitch, subject
occasionally to a kind of ebullition, and supposed to
be of volcanic origin, is a peculiarly interesting phe-
nomenon in this island.

Mnrgarelta, lying off the coast of Cumana, is about
40 miles long and 18 broad, has no other water than
what descends from the clouds, possesses rather a
barren soil, and is inhabited chiefly by fishermen.

Blanca, Tortuga, Orc'iiUa, Bocca, Buen-aire, and
several other small islands which lie off the same
coast and the Caraccas, do not admit of particular
notice. Curacoa is about 36 miles long and 10 or
12 broad, covered with a thin layer of earth, capa-
ble, however, of culture, having some good harbours
and a neat town of the same name, and carries on a
tolerable trade, not by any means so extensive as
formerly.

V. Discovery, Conquest, and Settlement of
Amekica.

Tlie ancients were totally ignorant of this quarter
ef the world. A few obscure and dubious expres-
sions found in their works, on wliich some enthusias-
tic admirers have descanted with undue confidence,
partake more of the colouring of fancy than the so-
lidity of actual observation. It is unlikely, we may
say impossible, that without the aid of the magnetic
needle so long a voyage should be performed ; and
the supposition is quite unsupported by any sort of
testimony, that there formerly existed some interme-
diate country, such as islands, afterwards annihilated
by a convulsion of the earth, which might serve as
the means of comnmnicating with the western conti-
nent. We must abandon conjectures, however plau-
sible, when the object is to ascertain and do justice
to the merits of a discovery so brilliant in itself, and

so rich in consequences. It is equally incumbent on Discovwy of
the historian to steel himself against extravagant pre- Americ*.
tensions, which have no other foundation than legen-
dary reports and national vanity.

Dr Robertson has specified, with his usual perspi-
cuity, the reasonings and opinions which led the il-
lustrious Christopher Colon, or Columbus, to expect
the discovery of new regions in the western ocean,
or, at least, that, by holding on his course towards
the west, he should arrive at some countries connect-
ed with the previously known continent of India.
We have only to mention the consequences of this
novel and arduous undertaking. •

First voyage of Columbus. — Repeatedly and most
vexatiously disappointed in his applications to some
of the crowned heads of Europe, this man at last ob-
tained the tardy and, indeed, puny encouragement
of Isabella, one of the monarchs of Spain, to his pro-
jected operations. With the enthusiasm of a martyr,
if not the caution of a philosopher, he set sail from
Palos, in Andalusia, on August 3. 14-92, with three
small and indifferently constructed vessels, on a voy-
age unprecedented and universally condemned, which
was to risk his fortune and his fame, and which, in
the opinion of nearly the whole of the calculators of
his time, even those, too, who gave their sanction to
the enterprize, was much more likely to ruin both,
than to obtain for him the honour of the most stu-
pendous experiment yet performed in the science of
geography. The incidents which occurred in this
first voyage have been recorded with scrupulous, we
may add, not unmerited devotion. On October 12.
when the patience and confidence of his suffering
companions were completely exhausted, and their in-
dignation was wound up to a degree that threatened
his life, Columbus had the delightful satisfaction of
seeing a spot of land amid the immensity of the ocean
which had so long appeared to baffle and to augment
on his labours. It was the island of Guanahani, as
the natives called it, one of the Bahamas, to which,
however, Columbus gave the name of San Salvador,
situated not less than 3000 miles to the west of Go-
mera, one of the Canary islands, where he had last
touched in his perilous navigation.

The productions and appearance of this island by
no means corresponded with the sanguine expecta-
tions of the Spaniards ; but the possession of some
small plates of gold, used as ornaments by the na-
tives, gave rise to anxious inquiries for the place
whence that precious metal had been obtained. The
information procured on this point, and indeed his
own peculiar views respecting his present situation,
induced Columbus to direct his course towards the
south. Besides some smaller islands which he fell in
with in the course of this voyage, Cuba, named by
him Juanna, and Hayti, which he called Espagnola,
and on which he built a fort, were discovered. The
state of his vessels, and the natural anxiety of his
men, added to his own reasonable wishes to publish
his discoveries to the world, now prompted him to
return home. After encountering severe storms,
which threatened the extinction of all his liopes, and
having taken shelter, first in the Azores, or Western
Isles, belonging to the crown of Portugal, and sub-
sequently at Lisbon, he arrived at Palos on the 15th

AMERICA.

261

Discovery of
America.

March, after an absence of seven months and eleven
days from the time of setting out on his voyage.

Second voyage — The success of this expedition, it
may very well be believed, brought so great a degree
of credit to Columbus, that his suggestions for a
second voyage were readily followed by preparations
of a more extensive and encouraging nature. Not
fewer than 17 vessels were immediately furnished
with every requisite which his experience or opinion
pointed out ; and 1500 persons, some of whom be-
longed to the noblest families in Spain, were proud
to embark with him. In this second voyage, com-
menced on Se[)tember 25. 1493, some of the Carib-
bean islands were discovered. He did not return till
149G, much of his time being occupied in building
a town in Hayti, arranging a government for that
island, and in measures calculated to extend his dis-
coveries, and direct them to beneficial purposes. In
a third voyage, undertaken in 1498, Columbus, by
sailing farther towards the south than he had formerly
done, fell in with the island of Trinidad, and got
sight of the mouth of the Oronoco. He afterwards
surveyed the coasts of Paria and Cumana, the first
parts of the continent that were discovered.

Last voyage of Columbus. — His last voyage, in
1502, Garried him to another part of the continent,
viz. the coast between cape Gracias a Dios and Porto-
bello, which he surveyed. The fame of the discove-
ries made by this enterprising character roused a
spirit of emulation throughout Europe. Voyages
in search of unknown regions became an object of
almost ordinary ambition, which was kept up by ha-
bit and the agency of many causes, long after there
ceased to be any very high reward for the perils and
privations which they occasioned.

Origin of the name of America One of the ear-
liest of these expeditions deserves to be mentioned,
not so much from the amount of the discoveries
made, as from a circumstance which ultimately proved
injurious to the just claims of Columbus. What we
allude to is a voyage in 1499 under Ojeda, one of
the officers who accompanied that navigator in his
second enterprise. A person of the name of Ame-
rigo Vespucci, a native of Florence, who seems to
have acted the part of chief pilot in this expedition,
on his return home published an account of the re-
gions which he had visited. This being the first li-
terary production respecting the New World, natu-
rally enough had the effect of connecting his name
with the suljject of his writing ; and accordingly, in
a short time, the whole of the lands recently disco-
vered, to which no peculiar designation had been
appropriated, was currently denominated America.
No fraud, or gratification of vanity, appears to have
been intended by this man in giving rise to the title,
which, however, in spite of repeated interference on
the part of those who were anxious for the well-me-
rited reputation of Columbus, has never been can-
celled from the geographical vocabulary.

Of some of the chief voyages of discovery we
shall now speak in order of time, but without occu-
pying much room in the enumeration of circum-
stances.

Neivfoundland and Labrador discovered. John

Cabot, a Venetian, but employed in the service

of Henry VII. of England, who probably now re-
gretted bis not having listened to the application
that had formerly, in an indirect manner, been made
to him by Columbus, sailed from Bristol in 1497.
By holding on a due west course, he fell in with the
island which has ever since gone by the name affix-
ed to it by his sailors, viz. Newfoundland. He af-
terwards coasted down the shore of North America
as far as Virginia, when he returned home, success-
ful in the main, as to important discovery, but dis-
appointed as to the chief object for which he under-
took the voyage, viz. to obtain a new and ncurer
passage to India. Corte Real, a Portuguese, aaxiouS"
for a similar discovery, which formed indeed a prime
concern in most of the expeditions of this period,
got sight of the coast of Labrador in 1500.

Brazil discovered. — About the same period, an-
other native of Portugal made a much more impor-
tant discovery, and that, too, without any particular
effort, unless to avoid the variable winds, which had
so often been encountered on the coast of Africa by
vessels going to India round the cape of Good Hope.
Having for this purpose stood farther out to sea
than was usual, he got sight of the coast of Brazil,
on which he landed, and which has since proved so
valuable an acquisition to his countrymen. The
continent of America, therefore, it may be said,
would have been discovered even without the saga-
city of Columbus, though it is not unlikely that the
Portuguese commander was encouraged to depart
somewhat from the usual track of navigation by
what he had understood of his previous success.

Further discoveries. — In 1501, Bastidas, a Spa-
niard, sailed along the coast of Terra Finna from
cape Vela to the gulf of Darien. A similar voyage
was performed soon after by Ojeda and Amerigo
Vespucci, before spoken of. Juan Diaz de Solis
and Pinzon discovered the province of Yucatan in
1508. A few years afterwards the former navigator
sailed along the coast of South America as far as the
Rio de la Plata. Previous to this, two considerable
discoveries were made, that of Florida by Ponce de
Leon, and the western coast of America, to the east
of Panama, by Bilboa, who, with a small body of
men, crossed the isthmus of Darien. He was the
first European who reached the shores of the Paci-
fic ocean. Bilboa is said to have waded into it,
taking possession in the name of the Spanish mo-
narch.

Mexico concjuered. — In 1518, a small fleet, under
Grijalva, sailmg westwards along the nortli coast of
Yucatan, discovered those lands in the gulf of Mexi-
CO which have since borne the name he assigned
to them. New Spain. This led immediately to an
armed expedition under Fernando Cortez, for the
purpose of effecting the conquest of the country.
The complete subjugation of the natives, and the
establishment of the Spanish power, after a series of
cruelty and injustice altogether unparalleled, were
accomplished in 1521.

The Globe first sailed round — About the same pe-
riod, Magalhaens, a Portuguese, in the service of
Spain, searching for a western passage to India, dis-
covered the straits at the extremity of the southern
continent which still bear his name, and which

DiscoTtrj'of
America.

aaa

AMERICA.

Disc oTory of eventually led to an extensive knowledge of tlie
America, western coast. Tliis voyage is peculiarly remark-
">^»v^^ able as the first circumnavigation of the globe, and
of course the decisive proof of its general form.

Peru conquered. — Pizarro, in a vessel that sailed
from Panama, on the west coast, visited the king-
dom of Peru, of whose riches some fascinating re-
ports had been previously received. His proceed-
ings for its conquest began in 1530, and were not
completed till after a period of 10 years.

French expedition In 1534;, Francis I. fitted out

a fleet at St Maloes for the purpose of making dis-
coveries in North America. The command was
given to James Cartier, who having first reached the
coast of Newfoundland, sailed northwards till he
reached the gulf and river called by him Saint Law-
rence, after the saint whose name was attached to
the day on which he made the discovery. In the
following year he navigated that noble river for a-
bout 900 miles, giving the country the title of New
Trance, in which he built a fort, and resided for the
winter. Some efforts were made by the French a
few years afterwards to colonize this country. A
nobleman of the name of La Roche, obtained a
grant of it from the king ; but it was not till the
commencement of the next century that their re-
newed efforts were crowned with success. See The
Natural and Civil Histori/ of the French Dominions
in North and South America, by Jefferys. Lond.
1760.

Mississippi discoxiered. — Ferdinand de Loto, a Spa-
nish captam, having sailed from Cuba with a body of
men intended for the conquest of Florida, landed in
the bay of Spirito Santo, whence he marched in a
north-west direction to about 35° on the banks of a
river, where lie died. His successor built some small
vessels, in which he passed down the river till he en-
tered the gulf of Mexico. Those transactions took
place between 1539 and 15+3. From several cir-
cumstances, it is very manifest that the river thus
navigated was the Mississippi, now for the first time
discovered.

Settlement in FZo;7W«.-Chatillon, admiral of France,
early in the year 1562, equipped a fleet under the
command of John Ribalt, destined for the American
continent. It arrived on the coast of Florida on the
1st of May, from which circumstance he designated
a river then discovered, May river, supposed to be
the same that is now called St Mary's, and which
forms part of the boundary of the United States.
Coasting nortinvards, Ribalt discovered eight other
rivers, to one of which he gave the name of Port-
royal, and on another he built a fort, in which he
left a colony, under the direction of captain Albert.
This man's severity, however, occasioned his own
death, and the ruin of the ])coplo committed to his
care. In the month of June, two years after this
event, Rene Laudonier, sent out also by Chatillon,
anchored with three ships in May river, where he
built a fort, to which, in honour of his sovereign,
Charles IX., he gave the name of Carolina. In Au-
gust of the same year Ribalt arrived at Florida a
second time, having a fleet of seven vessels, intend-
ed for the service of the colony formerly left by him
under Albert. He was pursued up the river where

he had settled, by a Spanish fleet under Pedro Me- i>i8eo»«fy "t
landes, who, having obtained some advantages, bar- Amcric*.
barously put him to death, witli his whole party, '^■m^^i^x^
The tidings of this disaster reaching Laudonier, in-
duced him and his comparatively feeble colony to
escape to France, where, in the course of about three
years after, a fleet was fitted out for the purpose of
retaliating on the Spaniards who had so cruelly and
unjustly possessed themselves of the country. Thia
object was entrusted to Dominique de Gourges, and
,was most effectually accomplished, by the destruc-
tion of the fortresses which the Spaniards Iiad erect-
ed, and the slaughter of very nearly all the men that
defended them. Gourges, immediately after this gra-
tification of revenge, returned home ; and for about
50 years the French made no farther attempts to co-
lonize Florida.

Expeditious of the Enprlish. — In 1576 captain Mar-
tin Frobisher, employed by England in making dis-
coveries of a north-west passage to India, improv-
ed the geography of the North American coast, by
the addition of several bays and islands. A strait
to the north of Hudson's strait still retains his name.
About three years afterwards, Sir Humphry Gilbert,
in a voyage to Newfoundland, made some discove-
ries in that region, as St John's harbour, and the
country to the south. He was lost on his return
home. The voyage round the world, performed
about the same period by Sir Francis Drake, had the
effect of exciting a spirit of enterprise among his
countrymen.

Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition. — In 1584 two pa-
tents were granted by queen Elizabeth, one to Sir Wal-
ter Raleigh, the other to Adrian Gilbert, for lands in
North America not possessed by any Christian prince.
Sir Walter fitted out two ships under the command of
Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow, who having an-
chored in a harbour about 20 miles west of the river
Roanoke, on the coast of North Carolina, formally
took possession of the country on 13th July, denomi-
nating it, in honour of their maiden queen, Virginia,
an appellation soon bestowed on the whole of the
English possessions in North America, but after-
wards restricted to a state somewhat different from
that to which it had been originally applied. A co-
lony of more than 100 persons, left in this country
by a fleet under Sir Richard Grenville, sent out by
Raleigh in the following year, must have perished,
had they not fortunately been visited by Sir Francis
Drake, who carried them to England, after having
made several conquests in the West Indies and other
places. Grenville again arriving on the coast < f Vir-
ginia, about a fortnight after the departure of Drake,
though he knew nothing of the fate of the former co-
lony, except that not a man of them was to be found,
had, the imprudence to leave at the same place a bo-
dy of 50 men, none of whom remained in 1 587, when
governor White, sent out with a charter from Raleigh,
arrived at Roanoke. Notwithstanding the fate of two
former colonies. White ventured a third one; having,
therefore, left 1 15 people at the old settlement, he re-
turned to England. On August 13th of this year, it
may be noted, Manteo, a native Indian, submitted to
baptism in Virginia ; he was the first who received that
ordinance in this part of America; and on the 18th

AMERICA.

265

CIscoTcry of of the same month, a Mrs Dare was delivered of
Ajnciiea. the first Enghsh child born in the country — it was

^i^Y"*^ ^ g'""'' ^^ whom the name of Virginia was given.
Equally unsuccessful, however, was this colony. The
whole was eitiier cut off by the natives, or perished
from hunger, before the arrival of governor White
with recruits in 1590. Farther efforts were aban-
doned. Here, then, it may be remarked as a very
singular circumstance, that for more than a century
after the discovery of North America, none of the
European nations, with the exception of the Spa-
niards, had succeeded in an attempt to colonize it ;
and that, even so late as the period of queen Eliza-
beth's death in 1603, there was not one European
family in all the immense regions between Florida
and the coast of Greenland.

Virginia settled. — The foundation of the British
dominions in this continent was laid in the reign of
James I. This monarch, in the spring of 1606, by pa-
tent divided Virginia into two colonies : the southern
ot first colony, as it was called, and which comprehend-
ed all lands between Si" and 41°, was granted to the
London Company; and the northern, or second colony,
known also by the name of North Virginia, including
the lands between 38° and iS", to the Plymouth Com-
pany. These were associations formed, it would ap-
pear, at the recommendation of Hakluyt, a clergy-
man, to whom his country was indebted for much of
her future glory as a mother of colonies. In order to
prevent disputes between the two companies, it was
expressly enacted, that they should not plant within
a hundred miles of each other ; yet with the greatest
inconsistency, as is noted by Dr Morse, " the lands
lying between the 38th and 41st degrees, are cover-
ed by both patents." The companies prosecuted their
respective interests with zeal, but for some time with
partial or inconsiderable benefit.

Progress of the London Company. — In 1606, the
Earl of Northumberland's brother, in the service
of this company, established a colony in Virginia,
where he discovered the river Powhatan, or James
river, as it is now called. On this river, in the fol-
lowing year, after the arrival of a new supply, a
settlement was begun at a place named James town,
which was the first town built by the English in
North America. Captain Newport, who brought
over the last recruits, having left Mr Edward Wing-
field, president, with 104 persons, returned to Eng-
land. In the winter of this year, James-town was
burnt. By successive supplies, in 1608, and the fol-
lowing year, and after the company's council had
obtained a new commission, the colony was increa-
sed to 500 men. It would have been greater if one
of the vessels going out to it, had not been run
ashore on the Bermuda islands, a circumstance that
gave rise, as Sir George Somers was the command-
er, to their being called Somer Islands. The people
who got on shore there having remained till they had
built a sloop capable of transporting them, embarked
for the colony, which, on their arrival they found
had dwindled down to sixty persons, and these so mi-
serable and dejected, that the whole resolved with one
▼oice to return to England. On their way down the
river with this intention, they were met by a new supply
under Lord Delaware, who had recently received a

patent, appointing Iiim governor and captain-gene- Discovery of
ral of South Virginia. At his persuasion, they re- America,
turned to James-town ; and from this event, which
happened in 1610, we may date the effectual settle-
ment of Virginia.

Of the Plymonth Company. — The first vessel em-
ployed by the Plymouth company was captured by
the Spaniards. Two vessels were next sent out in
1607, and arrived at a place some miles to the south
of Sagadjihok river, where a settlement was i-om-
menced. But most of the people being disticssed
by the severity of the winter, only forty-five men,
with their president captain Popham, could be in-
duced to remain after the month of December. Thev
were doomed to encounter immense hardships, partly
from the nature of the climate, and partly from the
destruction of their storehouse, and most of their
provisions, by fire ; and, although they received se-
veral supplies from home, the colony broke up and
returned to England in the following year, having
lost their president Popham ; and in consequence of
their unfavourable reports, several years elapsed be-
fore any more attempts were made to settle North
Virginia. At last, about the year 1620, Mr Robin-
son, leader of a religious sect, which had previously
fled to Holland to avoid a persecution commenced
against them in their own country, accompanied by
his congregation, arrived at Plymouth, where the
first effectual settlement was established. This coun-
try had already attained the title of New England
from Captain Smith, who had been sent out to exa-
mine a gold and copper mine, or, in case of failure,
to fish and trade witn the natives. To his skilful
representations and map of this part of America,
much of the subsequent endeavours to colonize it
must be imputed.

Canada settled. — Champlain, a Frenchman, began
a settlement at Quebec in 1608, which, after various
fortunes and contests, remained in the hands of his
countrymen till 1763, when they were dispossessed
by the British, to whom the whole of Canada has ever
since belonged.

Dutch settlement In 1608 or 1609, Henry Hud-
son, an English navigator, discovered Long-island,
attached to New York, and the river which still bears
his name. He aflenvards sold his claim or right
to the country to the Dutch, who in 1614 built a
fort on the west side of the river, near Albany, to
which they gave the name of Fort Orange. This .
colony several limes changed masters, the original
possessors and the Englis'i being often at war, and
with variable success. It remained at last with
the latter, till the accomplishment of independence
at the American revolution. Newfoundland was
settled in 1610 by about forty planters, under John
Guy, appointed governor by patent from king
James.

Settlement ofNexo Jersey. — New Jersey is supposed
to have been settled much abfcut the same time as
New York, and partly at least by Dutch emigrants
from that colony. To these were added, in 1627, a
body of Swedes and Finns, who settled on the Dela-
ware, and from whom many of tlie present families are
descended. The whole territory was afterwards seiz-
ed on by the English, to whom, after a re-conques t

264

AMERICA.

Discovery of by the Dutch, it was . conceded at the peace of
America. Westminster 167i. In July of that year, it was di-
vided into West Jersey and East Jersey by the duke
of York, to w honi his brother had formerly assigned
the property. But the boundary line was never so
accurately ascertained as to prevent contentions a-
mong the subordinate proprietors. These conten-
tions, and various others, produced such confusion,
tliat the proprietors in 1702 surrendered the govern-
ment to the Crown.

Netv Hampshire settled. — New Hampshire, though
discovered in 1G14! by captain John Smith, of whom
we have already spoken, was not settled till 1G23,
by a small party of English, near the river Piscata-
qua. In 16-10, there were four distinct governments
established on the branches of that river. These not
agreeing as to a plan for general government, soli-
cited the protection of Massachusetts, at this time
become somewhat considerable. But in 1679 New
Hampshire was erected into a distinct government ;
•and a controversy afterwards arose between the two
provinces about their boundaries, which continued
for a long-time, and required the interference of the
crown. This province took an active part in the
proceedings which terminated in the establishment of
the United States.

Massachusetts.-Captam John Endicott, and a small
company, began a plantation at Naumkeag, or Sa-
lem, in 1627. This company, which was soon af-
terwards joined by about 200 persons from England,
under four clergymen, was the original of Massachu-
sett's settlement. It was rapidly augmented by suc-
■ cessive and immense supplies of new comers, not-
withstanding the hardships to which the early plant-
ers .were exposed. The rage, indeed, for emigra-
tion to New England in general became so great,
that the King issued an order, in 1633, to prevent it,
but without full effect. This spirit ceased however
in 16i0, when a change of affairs took place at home,
which probably occujiied the ambition of those who
had more to hope for than to fear in any revolution.
It has been calculated, that the number of persons
who had gone over to Ne\y England before that e-
vent amounted to 21,200; whereas the number of
those who have sines left that country materially ex-
ceeds that of the new settlers. Nova Scotia, which had
previously been joined with Massachusetts, was taken
.from it in 1713, and erected into a distinct govern-
. ment.

Marijland In 1633 Charles I. granted a tract of

land oii Ciiesapeake bay to Lord Baltimore, a Roman
Catliolic nobleman, who, with a number of his breth-
ren that were persecuted for their religion in Eng-
land, settled on it, and gave it the name of Maryland,
in honour of the queen. This province encountered
opposition from the government of Cromwell, which
could not be established in it -without bloodshed.
Although the original settlers were Roman Catholics,
and the province was/eally considered as an asylum
for persons of that faith, the Protestant religion was
, established in it by law in 1692.

Connecticut Connecticut was granted by the Ply-
mouth Company to the Earl of Warwick, in 1630;
, but three years elapsed before any English families
■■■ settled in it. Great additions were afterwards made

by conquest from the natives, w itJ; whom the settlers
had many and long wars. In several respects the
history of this provmce resembles that of Massachu-
setts, with which indeed it was intimately connected.
In both, we may remark, the religious society com-
monly denominated Quakers makes a singular fig-
ure, both as agents and sufferers. Most of the citi-
zens of Connecticut, attached by habit to a republi-
can form of government, and much accustomed to
the exercise of their own judgments in matters affec-
ting their interests, were zealous in promoting the
cause of American liberty.

Rhode Island. — The settlement of Rhode Island
originated in religious persecution about 1635. Mr
Roger Williams, a clergyman, and about twenty
persons who concurred in opinion with him, were ac-
tually banished from Massachusetts as disturbers
of the peace of the church and commonwealth esta-
blished there, by a people who had themselves expe-
rienced similar treatment for a similar offence, if a
difference of judgment on disputable, and often in-
deeiinexplicable points, merit such an appellation.
They settled at a place called Mooshawsick by the
natives, who shewed them more humanity than their
brethren. Mr W'illiams called it Providence, with
commendable piety. For some time this small body
suffered much from fatigue and want. It was after-
v/ards joined by new exiles from Massachusetts, where
a spirit of bigotry and intolerance prevailed. More
extensive possessions were now obtained, partly
through the influence of Sir Henry Vane, junior, and
partly by successive purchases from the natives. A
very liberal government was soon erected, which of-
fered complete freedom to all religious persuasions,
and by which, in a short time, the prosperity of the
colony was effectually promoted. It has been re-
marked by Dr Morse, as an evidence of the indepen-
dence of religion on civil authoritj' in this province,
that " no contract between a ministin- and a socie-
ty (unless incorporated for that purpose) is of any
force."

CaroUnas. — In 1662, Charles II. granted to the
Earl of Clarendon and seven others almost the
whole of the territories of the three southern states,
viz. the two Carolinas and Georgia; and, about
two years afterwards, the boundaries were enlaig-
ed by a second charter. The proprietors, in vir-
tue of the authority thus vested in them, engaged
Mr Locke to frame a system of laws for their intend-
ed colonies. No effectual establishment, however,
xras made till 1669, when governor Sayle, with a
company, settled on a neck oi' land between Ashley
and Cooper Tivers. It was not long before tlje set-
tlers quarrelled among themselves ; and the proprie-
tary government being at last found inadequate, the
parliament of Great Britain took the province under
their immediate care, all the proprietors, excepting
Lord Grenville, agreeing to accept of a sum of money
for their property and jurisdiction. This agreement
being ratified in 1729, the territory was divided into
North and South Carolinas, which remained separate
royal governments till the revolution.

Georgia, — Tiie settlement of Georgia was not ef-
fected till 1732, when General Oglethorpe, in prose-
cution of a benevolent aiid wite pohcy, to relieve

Drscov«ry of
America.

AMERICA.

265

" Biscorery of some poor people of Great Britain and Ireland, ar-
America. rived with 115 persons in the country, and built a
Va^Y^^ town, which was distinguished by the Indian name
of Savannah, from that of the contiguous river. Tlie
province itself was called Georgia, in honour of
George II. who favoured the motives and plan for its
settlement. Of the humanity that prompted to this
undertaking it is impossible to doubt ; but, unfortu-
nately, the injudicious measures and regulations by
which the proposed good was to be accomplished
were soon felt by the first settlers, who, accordingly,
and perhaps, too, it may be added, from an idleness
of disposition not unusual in the class to which they
belonged, were readily induced to forsake the colony
and to seek better things in Carolina. It was now
resolved, as the country appeared likely, if in good
hands, to prove of importance to Britain, to engage
■* a hardier and more industrious set of men in their
place. Germany and the Highlands of Scotland
were now looked to for the proper supply of colon-
ists. The publication of the terms at Inverness, in
Scotland, brought forward an hundred and thirty
Highlanders, who were immediately engaged, and
soon trSkiisported to Georgia, where, on the very con-
fines of the British and Spanish territories, certainly
with little propriety of selection, they built a town,
to which they gave the patriotic name of New Inver-
ness. Nearly at the same time, a hundred and se-
venty Germans were settled in another part of the pro-
vince. To these, and the remains of the former set-
tlers, were added many of their respective country-
men, so that the proprietors had sanguine hopes of
rapid prosperity. In this they were completely dis-
appointed ; and, at last, such was the distressed state
of the colony altogether, that it became necessary to
surrender their charter to the king in 1752. Not-
withstanding the various modifications which suc-
ceeded this event, the colony long continued unpro-
fitable, and in a languishing condition. The peace
of 1763 was the era of its prosperity, when, under
the paternal administration of Governor Wright, it
acquired commercial consequence and political sta-
bility. Tiie war between Britain and her colonies

9 was peculiarly injurious to the interests of Georgia

for the time ; but it was not long in recovering its
relative importance, when the succeeding peace
yielded new dignity to the United States.

Pensylvauia. — The province of Pensylvania, so
named from William Penn, its founder, was granted
by Charles II. to that extraordinary character, in
consideration of the services of his father, Admiral
Penn, to whom the crown was largely indebted. In
addition to the royal charter which was signed in
1681, Penn had the prudence to procure a quit-claim
deed, from the Duke of York, of all lands which,
fronrtheir particular position, could possibly be sup-
posed mutual or doubtfully adjusted. Penn himself
accompanied the first colony in 1682; and having
entered into pacific and friendly terms with the na-
tives, succeeded in its establishment. He continued
with it as governor till 1684, when a dispute with
Lord Baltimore required his return to England.
Though his address in inducing the settlers to agree
to his original scheme of government prevailed, and
his influence over them, as it deserved to be, was

VOL. I. PAHT I.

great, yet he was frequently thwarted in his projio- Populaiiow
sals ; and contentions between the people and the of Aaierien.
deputies whom he appointed in his place were nei- -^"^"^/^
ther unusual nor easy of adjustment. But, on the
whole, although some symptoms of arbitrary jiro-
ceedings on his part or that of his agents apjieared,
and various modifications were introduced, this pro-
vince enjoyed a mild government, and speedily flou-
rished. To this end the complete freedom of reli-
gious opinion, and the lightness of the public bur-
dens, powerfully contributed. The old eonstit.ition
was abolished at the revolution, and the proprieta-
ries who were absent were excluded from ail share
in the newly erected government, tliough they still
continued to possess many tracts of lands, and were
besides offered L. 130,000 in lieu of quit-rents, which
they consented to accept.

Vermont, 8j-c — Vermont, lying north of Massa-
chusetts, was settled by emigrants from other pro-
vinces in 1764, and became an independent state in
1777. Kentucky, discovered by James Macbride
in 17M, was not settled till 1773, by Colonel Boon
and his family. Its progress has been rapid almost
beyond belief, and can scarcely be paralleled in his-
tory. The territory lying north-west of the Ohio,
generally called the Western Territory, was settled
by the Ohio and other companies, and erected into
a separate temporary government by an ordinance
of congress, in 1787. The country called Tenassee
was first explored about 1745; but though two or
three times attempted to be colonized, was not per-
manently settled till 1774. An immense wilderness
divided the people of this state from those of Ken-
tucky. North Carolina, which had for some time
exercised the government of this territory, ceded it
in 1789, on certain conditions, to the United States,
and accordingly Congress made arrangements for its
administration. It became an independent state in
1796.

VI. Of the original Population of Ame-
rica.

We can scarcely close this sketch, without advert-
ing to a topic which long excited attention, and which
is yet far from having ceased to interest the minds of
speculative men. America, when discovered by Eu-
ropeans, was not an unpeopled country. Besides se-
veral tribes of intelligent beings, in a state of nature,
indeed, but unequivocally possessed of the charac-
teristics of mankind, there were found in it two na-
tions, at least, which had vindicated their claims to
this distinction, by an advancement in several of the
social arts, and tlie establishment of civil and reli-
gious government. The nations alluded to are the
Peruvians, inhabiting part of the west coast of South
America, and the Mexicans, on the peninsula which
joins the two continents ; to >Thich it is not improper
to add, the Muiscos, or MoscOs, who were establish-
ed in a portion of South America, now comprehend-
ed in New Granada, and the Natches, resident near
the mouth of the Mississippi. The question was as
urgent as it was natural, " Whence came these peo-
ple ?" " From what source, setting aside the invin-
cible demands of their intelligence and attainments,

L L

m')

AMERICA.

PBpulRihm' have they derived their right to the hoaaurs of hu-
of America, niitnit)' ?"

Obscurity of the svhject. — In replying to this ques-
tion, conjecture has been substituted for decisive
facts, and, of course, the answers are as numerous ,
and whimsical as the imaginations and reasonings of
the authors who have treated of it. There seemed
an apology for their various and discordant opinions
in the circumstance of the newly discovered people
themselves being totally unable to afford a particle
of information on the subject. What inferences,
then, could be deduced from the accidental, and per-
haps aggravated resemblances "which were observed
between them and the people of other continents,
especially such as concerned manners and customs,
which could hardly have been copied and preserved
with adequate fidelity, without, at the same time,
some sort of traditionary documents respecting the
nations whence they had been received? In many
ef the theories framed for the occasion, this singu-
larity has been overlooked ; and, on the contrary, a
tedious, and often very faulty parallel has been at-
tempted, which, though vastly more striking than
has ever yet been demonstrated, would, in the ab-
sence of other facts, be totally incompetent to any
satisftictory conclusions. Unless in the case of merely
arbitrarj' institutions, which camrotbe traced to some
original principles of human nature, either left to it-
self or placed in like circumstances, it seems more
rational to ascribe resemblances to causes of univer-
sal operation than to specific and restricted agencies.

Variety of theories. — We have many examples of
t;lie strange conceits to which the neglect of this ob-
vious truth has given rise in the mode of discussing
the topic now adverted to ; and hence, in a great de-
force, ithas happened, as is noticed by Dr Robertson,
tiiat " there is hardly any nation, from the north to
the south pole, to which some antiquary, in the ex-
travagance of conjecture, has not ascribed the ho-
nour of peopling America." We could not think of
abusing the reader's time or patience by a detail of the
different theories, to all of which it is possible to as-
-ign some serious, and, perhaps, insuperable objec-
tion. The historian just quoted was apprehensive he
should offer an insult to the understanding of his
readers, if he attempted either minutely to enumerate
or to refute these theories. We agree with him on
the inexpediency of refuting most of them; for the
simple Statement of their nature is sufiicient proof of
their absurdity. But, on the other hand, it is clear,
that an enumeration, so far from being unnecessary,
can scarcely fail to have a salutary effect in repress-
ing the extravagant propensity of human genius,
^^■here there is no legitimate guide to controul its
operations.

Connexion of the two hemispheres, — The first theory
we shall mention supposes the former connexion of
the eastern and western lieraisplieres ; and, that pre-
vious to its being broken up by some convulsion of
the earth, the inhabitants of America, derived in
lomnion course from the original pair of human be-
ings, had been settled in their present abodes. Cer-
tain islands in the Atlantic ocean are conceived, by
this theory, to be remains of the portion of land by
which the connexion was established..

t1^

•^

The Americans escamHthe deltige. — Somewhat S P^atlon
milar on the whole, though differing in important ofA'ierica.
particulars, is another opinion, that the original in-
habitants of this continent, derived also from Adam
and his consort, found means to escape the deluge
by which all the rest of mankind, witli the exception
of Noah and his family, perished. According to this
theory, then, the native Americans %e the most an-
cient people on the earth.

Distinct pairs of hxtnian beings. — It is the leading
peculiarity in a third theory, that there were two
creations of mankind, or two separate pairs employed
in their'production, and that the western hemisphere
was allotted to one of these, as the eastern hemis-
phere was to the other. To the most of minds which
support this system, it is of course easy to account
for the vastly superior productiveness of the latter,
as well as for their greater success in all the arts and
institutions of life. They can readily imagine, for
example, -that the transatlantic couple did not begin
to exist till a few centuries before they were disco-
vered by their ancient prototypes. With no less fa-
cility it can be conjectured and proved, that there
is a natural tendency in some soils to bring fj|rth hu-
man beings ; and that, therefore, neither America,
nor any of the numerous islands of the South sea, ly-
ing at the distance of many Inindred leagues from a
continent, are indebted to an external cause for their
population. »

Contiguity of America and Asia. — Not quite SO
splendid is the theory, that as America and Asia are
either united together towards the north ])ole, or are
within a very inconsiderable distance of each other in
the northern latitudes, so the inhabitants of the latter
would find little or no difficulty in finding their way to
the former by land, or in such coasting vessels as are i»
common use among savages. Of the vicinity of these
continents there can be no doubt; and it is even pro-
bable that the distance, short as it is, was formerly
shorter, since some of the islands lying in the vacant
space, exhibit vestiges of a peninsular junction. , A
comparison, besides, between the people and animals
found in the corresponding regions of these two con-
tinents, is asserted to yield force to the notion of such
transportation. But it is not denied, that difficulties al-
most insurmountable present themselves in the way
of the theory, especially respecting the people of South
America, who cannot, by any ingenuity be made to
assimilate to any of the tribes of North America,
far less to any of the northern nations of Asia. This
theory, after all, has many supporters, and certainly
will never want a semblance of truth.

America peopled from Europe — Thcr^ is some-
thing almost equally plausible in the opinion, that
Europe has supplied the western continent vath its
inhabitants. Accordingly, we are furnished "by its
advocates wid» accounts of Norwegians, Swedes,
and Welsh, having early ventured over the inter-
vening ocean, and planted colonies on the regions
visited by them. These accounts, it is certain, would
be quite satisfactory, provided they were true. But
in the absence of certain evidence to this cfiect,
every sensible i-eader, we presume, that is neither
Norwegian, Swede, nor Welshman, will feel dispo^
sed to decline giving his sanction to the conclusion,.

. AMERICA

■popiilaiion Very similar observations may be made on the claims

207

rf America, feebly advanced in favour of some of the ancient ma-
v.i^VV-' ritinie people tliat dwelt on the shores of the Medi-
terranean sea, as the Carthaginians and Phoenicians.
Nor is there any unjustifiable scepticism in the rrjec-
tion of certain superlatively absurd speculations by
Adair, Endicot, Elliot, and others, wbieli go to
prove that the Jews arc the primitive inhabitants of
America.

Peopled from Africa. — Circumstances brought to
light in the^progress of navigation and geographical
discovery, ^ve led, in modern times, to the con-
jecture, that the southern continent of America
^ might accidentally have received visitors from the
opposite coast of Africa. It is demonstrable, that
the trade winds, and the gulf stream as it is cal-
led, wliich is influenced by them, are quite ai^e-
quat^o the transmission of vessels across the .^|-
' *«lantic ocean; and we have already made men-
tion of the unexpected discovery of the coast of
Brazil, by a Portuguese fleet, destined for India by
the Cape of Good Hope, and which had stood far-
tli^r out to sea than was usual at that period. It is
therefore quite credible, that imprudence, ignorance,
or accident, might have occasioned perhaps more
than once the involuntary and reluptint passage of

#the intermediate ocean to the pun^' navigators of
the African coast. Nor would it st- all be a valid
objection to this opinion, that we liave no records
of the fact, nor any allusions in ancient writing* to
such an apparent loss of any individual expedition
as might be rationally accounted for by the suppo-
^ sition adduced. The people, iS[€act, most likely to

' have been exposed to the adventure, those dwelling

on the south-west parts of Africa, were too little
known to have their operations related by foreigners,
and too little advanced in civilization to have his-
torians of their own. If, again, it be inquired, whe-
ther there are any examples of similar accidents
having happened in other parts of the world, the
answer is decidedly in favour of the theory?^ We
are immediately referred to the history of some of
the South sea islands. Thus, without going as
far as Bougainville, who asserts the inhabitants
of the Society isles to have made voyages of 300
leagues, we learn, beyond all contradiction, in the
narrative of our own navigator Cook, to jnention no
other authority, that cases of canoes having been
driven to very great distances irom their destina-
tion are not uncommon in the traditionary reports
prevalent among the people of those islands. The
theory, then, rests on something more durable than
arbitrary assumptions; and certain points ofi'esem-
blance between a people recently discovered in Africa,
Ml and some of the natives of America, have given it a

spaciousness which is at least equal to the recom-
mendations of any of the other theories proposed.

Peopled from all the old continents — Tiie last opi-
nion of wiiich we shall speak embraces all the facts
which have been alluded to, and deduces from them
the conclusion, that America has in reality been
peopled from every one of the old continents, and that
certain distinct peculiarities are sufficient to indicate
their respective origins. Tljus, the Esquimaux of the

north, for examp'o, are assorted to have affinity wit!i Popnlo«ii>n
the Asiatic Samoieds and European Laplanders; the of Anieric;u
Araucans, Peruvians, and perhaps we may add Mex- -^"V^'
icans, are conceived to derive their origin from Asia;
and most of the savage tribes which peopled South
America, are supposed- to liave proceeded from Af-
rica in the manner already described.

Probable deductions. — On the whole, it seems ob-
vious, that to restrict the probability of having peo-
pled America to one of the old continents only, as
Asia, for example, is very injudicious and unphiWo-
phical. There is no nec*ssity for narrowing the
question in this manner, and, at ail eients, it is po-
sitively absurd to confound together the really dis-
tinct characteristics of the numerous natives found in
America, unless we can point out satisfactorily, and
by some sort of illustration, how, on the supposition
of their identity of origin, such remarkable differen-
ces have taken place. Let us, at least, have one re-
gion for the parent of the North Americans, and an-
other for the inhabitants o£, the southern continent,

of tl
lim's

and let us prosecute inquiflts into the appearances;
the languages, the manners and sentiments of differ-
ent people, till we discover, what is always entitled
to weighty consideration, some peculiar and striking
resemblance. This has been done to a certain extent
already, but the premises are not yet of magnitude
or consequence enough to justify decisive conclu-
sions. The reader will see examples ef it in Mr Pin-
kerton's Geography. Thus, wc cannot help thinking
the following remarks, with respect to the partial
claims of Africa, deserve notice : " Copper-coloured
tribes, with lank liair, have been discovered in Afri-
ca, but in no other quarter of the world ; and it is
well known, that this colour is esteemed peculiar to
the American indigenes, while the southern Asiatics
are tawny or olive." — " The numerous human sacri-
fices, and other cruelties of the American indigenes,
strictly infer an African origin, no such practices be-
ing found among the Asiatic tribes." This state-
ment, however, is to be received wijdf qualifications,
and in fact, as must be known to every reader, is
not true. " The oblique eye of the eastern Asia-
tics, who, according to theory, ought to have peopled
America, is no where to be traced on that continent."
" The beard of the indigenes of America is thin and
, woolly, like that of the Africans ; while that of the
oriental Asiatics is thin, but strait and strong." —
" The Natches of Florida say, that their ancestors-
came from the rishig sun, or east ; that the voyage
was long, and the persons in danger of perishing,
when they discovered America." — " The natives of
the Canari^ are said to have been extremely tall,
and may perhaps have been the ancestors of the Te-
huels, called by Europeans Patagons,who always bury
their dead on the eastern shores, as looking towards
the country of their ancestors." — " The initial sound
Mb, as Mbao, so common in Paraguay, &c. seems
only known to the African and American enuncia-
tion ; and it also appears in the Coptic, which is as-
serted by the best judges to be a peculiar and indi-
genal idiom, and not a dialect of the Assyrian."
Vol. II. p. 510. third edition. This author, we may
add, appears to have bestowed much attention to

268

AMERICA.

Population this difficult question, and to have come to the con-
of America, viction which we have stated in the last theory enu-
merated.

Character of the native Americans We sliall con-
clude with a very general de!icri;)tion of the most re-
markahle peculiarities of the American ti'ibes. The
subject must already be made familiar to most read-
ers, by the almost universally perused works of Ro-
bertson and other authors.

Size and form. — The native Americans, in general,
do not differ in size from Europeans. The excep-
tions are the Esquimaux,' on the one extremity, and
the Patagonians on the other. They incline to be
round, or of full body, and have therefore a plumper
appearance than is commonly met with in the Old
World. It -is not certain whether this depends on
peculiarity of constitution, or mere indolence of life
in the possession of abundant nourishment. Both
causes may contribute to the effect. That some in-
fluence may properly be ascribed to the former, is
manifest from the circumstance of their thicker skins,
as proved by anatomical 'examination. But it is not
unlikely that even this peculiarity is the result of their
mode of living, and the^'practice of covering their
bodies with various oily and colouring substances.

Colour. — The usual complexion of the native Ame-
ricans is a sort of pale brown, designated by the name
of copper- col our, which prevails, with very inconsider-
ableexceptions,throughoutthe whole of the continent.
Not a single negro was found in the New World at
the time of its discovery by Europeans. This singu-
larity of colour, and the absence of black men in la-
titudes corresponding with those in the Old World,
where they prevail, must ever present a formidable
obstacle to the opinions respecting the original po-
pulation of America.

Hair A notion long existed that the Americans

had no beards, and that their heads alone were co-
vered with hair. This defect was ascribed to a debi-
lity of constitution, by which they were supposed to
be rendered vmk inferior to the inhabitants of other
countries, both m mind and body. But the observa-
tion was hasty. It is distinctly ascertained that they
are not naturally defective in this appendage, but
that it is a very common, almost an universal cus-
tom among them, to extract the hairs by the roots
wherever they appear, with the exception of a tuft
on tlie top of the head, which is regarded as an or-
nament. Their hair is usually thick and smooth,
and seldom inclines to curl.

Features and expression — In point of features, the
Americans cannot be said to be handsome or elegant,
according to European prepossessions. ,Their taces
are round, their foreheads small, the extremities of
their ears are far from the face, tliey have small eyes,
generally of a black or chesnut colour, with flat noses
and thick lips. An indication of mildness discover-
able in their countenances at a distance, is unplea-
santly contrasted with a jealous and somewhat sulky
expression, which strikes a spectator on more close
examination.

N^o deformities. — The rarity, or indeed complete
ahstnce of deformities and lamenesses among the A-
mcricans, so early noticed by tlieir visitors, is account-
ed fot on reasons very different from any superior

1

healthiness of constitution, or the greater facility of Populau'oa
parturition. The fact seems to be, that such children of - mcrica.
as are likely, from any defects or weaknesses, to
prove burdensome to their parents, or unfit for their
own preservation and the services of the tribe, are
put to death soon after they are born.

Aged and useless destroyed. — It is on a similar prin-
ciple that those of their number who have survived
their strength, and the capability of joining in mar-
tial operations and the fatigues of the chace, are
deprived of existence, by what is conside^d the pious
interl'erence of their nearest relatives. «»

Morality and Religion. — From such specimens, it
is scarcely necessary to remark, wc may safely inilsr
the low state of civilization among the American
tribes, though by no means the absence of all moral
feeling and sentiment. We have, on the cofitrary,
unequivocal evidence of their general belieMft the
existence of some being to whom they are responsi-., ^
ble for their actions, and of a sense therefore of right
and wrong, however erroneous may be their notions
of virtue, or imperfect their obedience to its dictates.
Marriage is instituted and respected among them,
though females are not in esteem, and are subjected
to almost intolerable slavery. Religious rites, of soi8c
sort or other, are almost universally practised, in or-
der to avert Miamities, or obtain favours. The be-
lief of a state ol%nmortality, when the present life is
ended, is the solace of their sorrows, and promises
the highest reward of their hardships and valour.
But it is associated, as might be expected, with the
grossest notions of happiness, and, still more unfor-
tunately, is productive of a savageness of disposition,
which cannot be satisfied without the most wanton
torture of their unfortunate enemies.

When discovered, they were almost perpetually
occupied in war, or the pursuit of wild animals, on
which they were dependant for their subsistence.
They had, consequently, little or no time to cultivate
the arts of peace. A few manufactories, as of a kind
of <Spkr6e cloth, matting, and baskets, were found
among them. They were so far advanced, however,
in taste, as to be fond of decorations, and had sensi-
bility enough to be delighted with such music, poe-
try, and dancing as their ingenuity had invented.
Their eloquence, when it came to be understood, was
much extolled, because, in fact, being the energetic
expression of simple but strong feelings, it was na-
turally sublime. Great changes, it is reasonable to
imagine, have taken place among theim since their
intercourse with people much more improved than
themselves. Their alliance has often been court-
ed by European nations engaged in hostilities with
each other, or anxious to obtain secure possession of
their favoured regions. In these connexions, fidelity
and treachery, bravery and cowardice, magnanimity
and meanness, have been repeatedly and singularly
combined. On the whole, they appear to have bee
little benefited by the labours, whether political o r
religious, of their European associates, for the advan-
tages thence derived have almost invariably been ac-
companied by a participation in one destructive vice,
that of drunkenness, which, without any other evil,
is amply sufficient to degrade even the worst cliarsc-
teristics of savage life.

AMI

2(59

AML

Americus

Amiens.

1

AMERICAN Night Shade, the name of some
of the species of plants included under the genus
Phytolacca.

American Ground Ndt, a species of plant in-
cluded under the genus Arachis.

AMERICUS Vespucius, the navigator whose
name the vast continent of America now bears, al-
though his visit was posterior to tlie time of its dis-
covery by Columbus. See Vespucci.

AMETHYST, a coloured variety of rock-crys-
tal. The colour, which is purple or red, of different
shades, seems to depend on iron or manganese, or a
mixture of both. See Mineralogy.

AMETHYSTEA, a genus of plants belonging to
the class Diandria, and order Monogynia.

AMHAR, or Amhara, a district or province of
Abyssinia, which is distinguished by being long the
residence of the royal family and many of the nobi-
lity, and by the prevalence of a peculiar dialect,
called the Amharic, which is adopted as the court
language. This province is an elevated region, which
includes the lofty mountain, or Ambageshen, the
place of confinement of the younger branches of the
royal family, to prevent their interference with the
affairs of government. But although the Amharic
dialect be regarded as the polite and fashionable lan-
guage, all the books are written in the Ethiopic or
Geez ; and, by a traditionary law, destruction is de-
nounced against any one who shall attempt to trans-
late the Scriptures into any other language.

AMIANTHUS, a variety of asbestus, which is
included under the magnesian genus of minerals ;
and from its fibrous structure^ and flexible and in-
combustible property, it was employed by the an-
cients in the manufacture of their celebrated incom-
bustible cloth. See Minehalogv.

AMICABLE NUiMBERs, denote pairs of numbers,
each of which is mutually equal to the sum of the
aliquot parts of the other, 'ihis name was applied
to such numbers by Schooten, although these num-
bers had been previously investigated by Rodolphus,
Descartes, and others. The numbers 220 and 284
form the first or least pair of amicable numbers.
Thus, the aliquot parts of 220 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11,
20, 22, 44, 55, 110, and their sum is equal to 284 ;
and the aliquot parts of 284 are, 1, 2, 4, Yl, 142, and
their sum is equal to 220. The second pair of ami-
cable numbers are 17,296 and 18,416 ; and the third
pair are, 9,363,584, and 9,437,056. See HiUton's
Mathematical Dictionary, and Leijhourns Mathema-
tical Reposiioru.

AMID-AMID, a lofty ridge of mountains in A-
byssinia, supposed by some to be a continuation or
branch of the Mountains of the Moon of the an-
cients ; but this is considered by others an errone-
ous opinion ; and indeed it may be added, that no
precise information of the Mountains of tlie Moon
has yet been obtained. The ridge of Amid- Amid
is particularly described by Mr Bruce.

AMID A, an ancient city of Mesopotamia, situat-
ed on elevated ground on the river Tigris, and on
the borders of Assyria, is now under the dominion
of the Turks, and its modern name is Diarbekir.

AMIENS, formerly the capital of Picardy, and
now of the department of the Somme, in France, is

finely situated on the banks of a river, from which Almwck':
the department derives its name. Amiens was a ||

place of considerable note in the time of the Romans, Amnion,
and was occasionally selected as the residence of N^-y^
some of the emjierors. The Somme is navigable to
Amiens, and three branches of that river traverse the
city. The streets and squares are spacious, and
many of the public buildings are distinguished bv
their elegance. The cathedral, with its beautiful
paintings, fine pillars, and numerous chapels, is great-
ly admired as a magnificent Gotliic structure. The
population exceeds 40,000 ; and manufactures of lin-
en, woollen, and soap, are established in the town.
The definitive treaty of peace which was entered in-
to by the different European powers was concluded
at Amiens in 1802. Amiens is 90 miles N. from Pa-
ris, and 106 miles S. from Calais.

AMLWCH, a sea-port town in the island of Angle-
sea, in Wales, which, since the year 1768, has risen
from a small fishing village to a town of 5000 inha-
bitants, owing to its immediate vicinity to the cele-
brated copper mines in Parys mountain. The har-
bour is an excavation of the solid rock, sufficiently
capacious to admit thirty vessels of 200 tons burden
each. It was dug out at the expence of the copper
mining companies, for the exportation of the pro-
duce of their mines.

AM-KAS, a spacious saloon in the palace of
the Great Mogul, where he appears, on solemn festi-
vals, in all the richness and parade of oriental mag-
nificence. -,

AMMANIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Tetrandria class, and order Monogynia.

AMMI, Bishop's Weed, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the Pentandria class, and arranged with the
natural order of umbelliferous plants.

AMMIANUS, Marcellinus, a Roman Iiisto-
rian, was a native of Antioch in Greece ; in early
life entered into the military profession ; and aboiir
the year 370, as an officer of horse, accompanied
the emperor Constantius in some of his eastern expe-
ditions. His history, which was composed at Rome,
commences with the reign of Nerva, and is conti-
imed to the death of Valens, originally extended to
thirty-one books, of which the first thirteen are lost,
and is so distinguished for candour and impartiality,
that the historian of the Decline and Fall of the Ro-
man Empire pronounces the author to be " an accu-
rate and faithful guide, who composed the history
of his own times without indulging the prejudice
and passions which usually affect the mind of a co-
temporary." He died about the end of the fourth
century.

AMMODYTES, or Sand-eel, a genus of fishes
which appear in great shoals on many of the shores
of Britain. See Ichthyology.

AMMON, or Hammojj, the Jupiter of the Egyp-
tians, by whom he was worshipped under the figure
of a ram. Mythological history traces the origin of
the name to Bacchus, whose army traversing the As-
syrian desarts, and almost perishing for want of water,
was relieved by Jupiter in the shape of a ram, who con-
ducted them to a copious spring. In grateful remem-
brance of the kind interposition of his father, Bac-
chus erected a temple on the spot, and consecrated it

A M M

2'

Ammoiiia to Jupiter-^HHBow, from a Greek word which signi-
11 fies sand, and is thus expressive of the scene of tlic

Ammonites, event. But, according to annotators on .Scrij)ture,
the Egyptian Amnion ought to be referred to Ham,
the son of Noah, whose liistory seems blended and
obscured %vith lieatlien niytlioU)gy ; for the Hebrew
word Ham, and the Greek appellation of Jupiter,
are derived from words of the same meaning, and
w hich signify to he hot or warm. Kgypt was called
in Hebrew, Miziuim, supposed to be from iNIizraim
the son of Ham, and also Chemia, from Cham or
Ham ; from all which it is concludeil that Egypt was
peopled by the son or grandson of Noah, and that
the nation, always inclined to idolatry, had instituted
a system of worship to the founder of their race,
under the name of Annnon, and from them the same
religious system was extended to Greece.

AMMONIA, one of the three alkalis, properly so
■called, and, from its volatile nature, denominated vola-
tile alkali; and in the older language of chemistry and
pharmacy, spirit of hartshorn, and of sal ammoniac,
names expressive of its origin ; has been long known
as a compound of hydrogen and azote, whicli the
brilliant galvanic discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy
have shewn to be in combination with a metallic
base. See Chemistry.

AMMONIAC, a gum resin which is extracted
from a plant belonging to the genus Jenita, one of
the umbelliferous tribe, and derives its name from
the temple ot Jupiter- Amnion in Egypt, in the vici-
nity of whicli the plant g|pw spontaneously. Tlie
same plant is also a nativeof some parts of Persia.
See Materia Medica.

Ammoniac, Sal, a neutral salt, composed of am-
monia and muriatic acid, and hence called muriate
of ammonia, was originally obtained from the excre-
mentitious matters of camels which were employed
bv those who visited the temple of Jupiter- Ammon
in Egypt, and to this the name is ascribed, is exten-
sively emidoved in various arts, which are now sup-
plied with it i'roni manufactories established in most
parts of Europe. See Salts.

AMMONIlMi, or Ammonites, or Cornu Am-
mnnis, a genus of univalve shells, which are always
found in the petrified state, and generally in lime-
stone or sandstone strata, and, like many other ani-
mal and vegetable petrifactions, have not been dis-
covered in the recent state, from which it is con-
cluded that the species are entirely lost.

AMMONITES, a people who inhabited Syria,
and were descended from Ammon, the son of Lot.
The history of this people, as it is recorded in Scrip-
ture, and by Josephus, notices their conquest of a
gigantic race who dwelt in the mountainous regions of
Gilead, and the occupation of their territory ; the
command of God to the Israelites, not to disturb the
children of Ammon, or to make any encroachment
on their possessions ; their demand for the restitution
of part of their territory, long held bv the children
of Israel, and taken from the Anmionites by Moses ;
tlieir entire defeat by Jephtha ; their hostile aggres-
sions in the time of Saul and David, and their sub-
jection to the kingdom of Israel ; their attempts to
throw off the yoke by an alliance with the Moabites,
and repeated invasions of the kingdoms of Israel aud

'0 A M M

Judah ; their complete discomfiture and seqpd sub- Ainmonios
jection ; their dispersion by Nebuchadnezzar, and re- {{

storation by Cyrus, after the destruction of Jerusa- Amontoiis.
lem by the Ilomans ; tlieir distinctive appellation lost
in the more general denomination of Arabians ; and,
before the end of the third century, no trace of their
name in existence, thus verifying the. prophecy of
Ezekiel, which declares, that they shoffld " not ba
rememberejl among the nations." E>eut. chap. ii.
Judges, chap, ii., 2 Sam. chap. x. & xi., Ezek. chap.
XXV., and Jo.<eph Antiq.

AMMONILS, surnamcd Saccas, a native of
Alexandria, who flourished about the beginning of the
third century, is celebrated as the founder of a po-
pular system of pliilosophy, the object of which was
to select from the prevailing systems, and especially
from those of Plato and Aristotle, such tenets and
doctrines only as commanded universal assent, and
to reject all such as were obscured with doubt, or
were susceptible of controversy. This system was
distingui.shcd by the name of Eclectic philosophy,
from its acconmiodating and plausible nature, was
at first very generally received, continued long to
arrest attention and conmiaiid approbation, and its
author obtained the dignified designation of heaven-
taught. But the attempt to reconcile the jarring opi-
nions of the ancient philosophers, and to combine the
maxims and morals of the heathens with the doctrines
of Christianity, was too arduous to be followed with
success, and the complying spirit of the .system was
ill calculated for the investigation of truth.

AMNESTY, an act by which offences against any
government or state*re declared to be annulled and
forgotten. The word is derived from the name of an
edict of a similar nature, which was published by Thra-
sybalus, after the expulsion of the tyrantsfrom Athens.

AMNIOS, or Amnion, a thin pellucid membrane
which forms the internal covering of the foetus in the
womb.

AMNIOTIC ACID, a peculiar acid which is ob-
tained in a concrete state by evaporating the liquor
amiiii, or waters of the anmios.

AMOMUM, or Ginger, a ge-nus of plants belong-
ing to the class Monandria, and order Monogynia.

AMONTONS, William, an experimental philo-
sopher, was born at Paris in 1663, and from his ear-
liest years was afflicted with deafness, a calamity
which, it is alleged on doubtful information, he*did
not regret, and even declined any attempts to allevi-
ate or remove ; for, while such a misfortune ex-
cluded him from one of the chief sources of social
enjoyment, it enabled him at the same time to concen-
trate the powers of his mind, and to direct them with
less distraction to geometrical and mechanical stu-
dies, which became his favourite pursuits, and can
only be successfully prosecuted with vigorous thought
and assiduous attention.

The discovery of the perpetual motion, that airy
phantom of false philosoj)hy, which has often occu-
pied the minds of men in fruitless efforts of ingenuity,
and even at the present day is sought for by some in
powers of magnetic attraction and repulsion, was one
of the first speculative investigations of Aniontons;
and he indulged the vain hope, that the aid to be de-
rived from mathematical principles would enable him

AMO

Amorites to accomplish it. But his labours were more usefully
II employed in furnishing plans for public works, and in

Atnnos. superintending their execution, for wliich the practical
applications of his mathematical knowledge supplied
him with the necessary qualifications. The invention
of the telegraph for promoting speedy intelligent^ a
discovery not unknown to the ancients, although me
moderns are disposed to arrogate it to tiiemselves,
and the invention and improvement of various mete-
orological instruments, of which an account is detail-
ed in his " Observations on Barometers, Thermo-
meters, and Hygrometers," are also enumerated a-
mong his valuable researches ; while the numerous
memoirs on kindred subjects, which he contributed
to the volumes of the Academy of Sciences, of whicli
he was a member, farther attest the extent of his in-
dustry and ingAiuity. He died in 1705.

AMORITESr a people of Syria, who were des-
cended from tlic fourth son of Canaan, and who ori-
ginally occupied the mountainous regioijs to tlie west-
ward of the Dead sea, are described by the prophet
Amos as a I'ace of gigantic stature,and of great valour,
under the bold comparison of being tall as the cedar
and strong as the oak. The same name appears to
be extended to the whole inhabitants of Canaan. The
Amorites were formidable enemies of the Israelites
in their journey to the promised land ; and the re-
fusal of their king, Sihon, to grant the request made
by Moses, to permit his countrymen to pass through
his territory, under an engagement that his subjects
and their property should he secured from injury,
was followed by'tlie total discomfiture of his forces,
and his own death in the conflict, and by the distri-
bution of his possessions among the tribes of Judah,
Reuben, and Gad. Numb. chap. 13. Joshua, chap.
5. Judges, chap. 11.

AMORPHA, False Indigo, a genus of plants- be-
longing to the Diadelphia class.

AMORTIZATION, or AMORTisE^rExr, is-the act
by which lands or tenements are alienated or trans-
ferred to a corporation, or are turned into mort-niain.

AMOS, the fourth of the minor prophets, lived
about 780 years before Christ, was cotemporary
with Hosea, and in early life had been a herdsman
at Tekoah, four leagues distant from Jerusalem. The
prophetic remonstrances of Amos are directed against
the idolatrous worship and wicked lives of the people
of Israel and Judah ; they distinctly foretel the ca-
lamitous captivity of*tfle ten tribes, and expressly
declare their future restoration under the Messiah.
The language of this prophet abounds with illustra-
tions drawn from the pastoral life, with the habits of
which his early occupation rendered him familiar.
Applying the words of St Paul, " rude in speech,
yet not in knowledge," to Amos, .Jerome pronoun-
ces the language of the prophet to be deficient in
grandeur of thought and elegance of expression ;
while a modern commentator, Bishop Lowth, is of
opinion, that in sublimity of sentiment, beauty of
composition, and splendour of diction, he is inferior
to none of the prophets.

AMPELIS, a genus of birds belonging to the or-
der of Passeres, and of which one species, Garndus,
the chatterer, sometimes appears in the northern
part of the island. See Ornithology. .

271 AMO

AMPHIBIA, the third class of animals in the AmpbibiR
Linnaean arrangement, includes reptiles, serpents, ||

and cartilaginous fishes. Some of the animals com- Ampliiom
prehended under this class possess the peculiar power
of supporting life sometimes on land and sometimes
in water, as the frog and crocodile ; and hence the
name of the class, descriptive of this character, is
derived. See Erprtoi-ogy and Ophiology.

AMPHIBRACHYS, which signifies " short on
both sides," is the name of a foot in Latin and Greek
verse, which is composed of three syllables, of wliich
the middle syllable is long, and the first and the last
are short, as limari, abhx.

AMPHICTYONS, the deputies of the chief states
of Greece, who formed a general council, to which
were entrusted the regulation and superintendence
of all the civil and religious affairs of the country.
The original institution of this assembly is variously
traced, to Amphictyon the son of Deucalion ; tt>
Acrisius king of the Argives,- to a convention of
the neighbouring states, which met at a very early
period of the Grecian history at Delphi ; and to the
Hellenes, who were the founders of the oracle at
Dodona, and the supposed authors of the more cele-
brated Delphian establishment. This assembly, which
first met at ThermopylEe, but generally at Delphi,
consisted of 30 membeis in the time of Antoninus
Pius ; but the number of deputies seems to have va-
ried from ten to twelre,.as the number of states ad-
mitted into the alliance was greater or smaller. Two
deputies, it is said, were sent from each state ; one
of whom, elected by lot, was charged with the care
of all matters connected with sacrifices and religi--
ous ceremonies ; the other, chosen by the majority
of the citizens, seems to have been employed in a
judicial capacity, to hear and decide causes between
private persons ; but both were invested with the
power of deliberating on the general interests of
Greece.

A solemn oath, sanctioned by the most dreadful
imprecations on those who should be guilty of its
violation, was qdmujistered to the members on theia-
admission ; and the cominoncemcnt of their delibe-
rations was preceded by the sacrifice of an ox, which
was cut into small pieces, as a symbolical expression
of their union. The spring and autumn were the
stated times for the meeting of the assembly of the
Amp&i(^ons ; but on extraordinary occasions they
were summoned at anytime; and occasionally, when
the affairs of the country required it, their delibe-
rations were permanent throughout the year.

AMPHIMACER, a metrical foot in Latin poe-
try, composed of three syllables, of which the middle
syllable is short, and the first and the last are long,
as castUiis.

AMPHION, who is represented in the fabulous
history of Greece as the son of Jupiter and Antiope,
the daughter of a king of Boeotia, and celebrated
for his eloquence and skill in nu'sic, is supposed to
have been a prince or ruler of Thebes, and having
contributed greatly to the civilization and improve-
ment of his countrymen, by the wisdom of his poU--
tical institutions and the prudence of his- govern-
ment, is described in the fictions - of the poets as
moving, the rocks, and, arranging the stones, into re*-

AMP

2T2

AMP

atre.

Amphiod gular order to form the walls of the city. The same
II fiction has furnished a beautiful ornament to suc-

Ampbithe- ceeding poets, and the art of Amphion is a synony-
'"*~ mous expression with the art of music.

AMPHION is another character in ancient mytho-
logy, who was the son of Jasus, king of Orchomenos,
and, according to Ovid, was the husband of Niobe,
the daughter of Tantalus. Seven sons, and an equal
number of daughters, the offspring of this marriage,
rendered Niobe vain of her numerous family, and
tempted her to treat with derision and contempt La-
tona, the mother of Apollo and Diana, because she
had only two children. The affront and insolence
with which their mother was treated were resented
by the god and goddess, who in revenge slew the
children with their arrows. The male children were
destroyed by Apollo, and the female by Diana.
Niobe lierself, struck dumb with grief and despair,
appeared like a senseless statue, and no doubt gave
origiii to die poetical fiction of her transformation
into stone. This interesting story is beautifully re-
lated in the sixth book of the Metamorphoses of
Ovid. The statue of Niobe, which is still admired
as one ■ of the most extraordinary specimens of an-
cient sculpture, is ascribed to the celebrated Gre-
cian artist Praxiteles, in an epigram written in Greek
by an unknown author, of which the following is a
translation :

While for my childrenVfttfe I vainly moum'd,
The angry, gods to massy stone me turn'd ;
Praxiteles a nobler feat has done,
He made me live again from being stone.

AMPHISBjENA, a genus of serpents, which has
this denomination because the species of which it is
composed have the power of moving forward either
with the head or tail. See Ophiology.

AMPHISCII, a name which is applied by geo-
graphers to the inhabitants of the torrid zone, be-
cause, as the name denotes, their shadow is towards
the north during one part of the year, and towards
the south during another. .

AMPHITHEATRE, a spacious edifice erected
in the latter ages of the Roman republic for the ex-
hibition of public spectacles. Amphitheatres were
originally constructed of wood ; but about the time
of Augustus, when they began to approach to that
extent and magnificence which they afterwards attain-
ed, the more substantial and durable material of stone
was employed. The largest structure of this descrip-
tion, and which became the model of similar build-
ings throughout the Roman provinces, was the am-
phitheatre at Rome, which was begun by Vespasian
and completed by Titus, and has been distinguished
by the name ot Coliseum, the remains of which still
exist, and exhibit one of the most sublime and per-
fect specimens of ancient architecture.

The Coliseum is of an oval form ; the longest dia-
meter is about 615 feet, and the shortest about 510.
The arena, or middle space, on which the spectacles
were exhibited, is about 284 feet in length, and 176
feet in breadth. The surface covered W the whole
structure is not less than 5[ acres. The building
consists of three stories , the first about 33 feet in
height, the second about 39, the third about 38

feet, and the pilastrade, which incloses the whole, is AmphiAe*
about 46 feet. The entire height, including the atre.
blocking course and the steps, is about 164 feet. >^^ym/
Arched passages were constructed for the accom-
modation of the spectators. Four of these entrances
were more spacious than the rest ; two of v/hich were
reserved for the emperor, the senate, and other dis-
tinguished personages, and the other two were des-
tined for the gladiators and animals which were to
be exhibited on the arena. This magnificent and
immense structure, which was capable of admitting
80,000 spectators, and, according to som.e accounts,
more than 100,000, it is said, was completed in
the short period of two years and nine months ; and,
if this be true, it is impossible to conceive a more
remarkable instance of the wealth and resources of
the Roman people.

The middle space of the amphitheatre, called the
arena, because it was strewed with sand, was destin-
ed for the. combats of gladiators and other spec-
tacles. Surrounding this space were the cells for
the wild beasts. Above the lodges or cells, a gal-
lery was constructed, which was appropriated to the
senators and other persons of distinction ; and one
part of the gallery, on which was erected a throne,
surmounted by a canopy, and richly decorated, was
reserved for the emperor. The other parts of the
edifice were occupied by the people, according to
their rank ; and as the seats or Isenches, some of
which were covered with wood, and others with
cushions, rose gradually from the circuit of the arena
to the top of the building, every individual of the
assembled multitude saw distinctly the spectacles ex-
hibited. The amphitheatre was open to the sky ;
but to protect the spectators from the sun and ram,
an awning or curtain was occasionally employed.

It is not less to be regretted than wondered at,
that Michael Angelo, one of the most celebrated
artists of his age, should have aided the ravages of .
time in the destruction of the Coliseum, by remov-
ing great part of the outer-wall to procure stones
for the construction of the Farnesian palace. With
a more hberal spirit. Pope Benedict XIV. conse-
crated those venerable remains of antiquity, and
erected a number of altars within the ruins, which
thus became objects of pious respect; and still more
effectually to secure them from future dilapidation,
a hermit, whose cell occupied a small structure in
the middle of the pile, was.appointed to watch over
the building.

Similar buildings were erected in other parts of
the Roman empire, as in Jerusalem and in Cesarea, at
Verona, Pola in Istria, and at Nismes in France. The
amphitheatre at Verona consisted of three stories,
and was 90 feet in height, covering a surface of
more than four acres ; no cement was employed in
this building ; the stones were united with iron
cramps, which were covered with lead, to prevent
the corrosion of the iron. Amphitheatres were some-
times constructed on the declivity of hills, by form-
ing benches of stone or turf, and completing the
oval form by works of stone at the extremities.
Traces of an amphitheatre, in which the benches
were of turf, have been discovered in the vicinity of
Sandwich, in Kent; and similar temporary struc-

A M P

273

A M S

JjnpWft. turfS, it is probable, were erected near camps and
military stations in the distant provinces.

Tlie first combats of gladiators which arc record-
ed by historians, were oxliibited in Rome, in tlie
4'90th year of the city, 'by the sons of Brutus, at the
celebration of their father's funeral. Twelve years af-
terwards, the introduction of wild beasts, which af-
terwards formed a considerable part of these spec-
tacles, took place, when the elephants, which were
taken from the Carthaginians in Sicily, were exhi-
bited by Lucius Metellus. The strong desire which
the Romans expressed for these barbarous amuse-
ments, and the high gratification which they seem to
have afforded, induced those who courted popular
favour to expend enormous sums, with the view of
surpassing their rivals or competitors in the splen-
dour and magnificence of the exhibitions. The cir-
cus, a temporary structure, in which such specta-
cles were first exhibited, was neither convenient nor
safe for the spectators. Tlie inconvenience of see-
ing, which was experienced in the circus and suc-
ceeding temporary structures, the accidents which
sometimes happened, when they were not of suffi-
cient strength, and the danger to the spectators
from the infuriated wild animals, finally led to the
design of erecting amphitheatres of a commodious,
safe, and durable construction, when those barba-
rous exhibitions, the delight of the Roman people,
reached their highest perfection. At the opening or
dedication of the Flavian amphitheatre, or Coliseum,
5000 wild beasts, according to the account of one
historian, but according to another 9000, were de-
stroyed. When the combats of these ferocious ani-
mals were concluded, the arena was instantly filled
with water, presenting the appearance of a lake, into
which aquatic animals were introduced to attack and
destroy each other; these scenes were succeeded by a
number of vessels, which represented a naval engage-
ment. The triumph of Trajan over theDacians was ce-
lebrated by the exhibition of every variety of thesespec-
tacles, which continued for four months, and in which
a thousand gladiators were engaged, and 11,000 ani-
mals were doomed to destruction. Slaves, malefac-
tors, and captives taken in war, were originally con-
demned to the horrid occupation of gladiators. Pro-
fessional persons were afterwards trained and devot-
ed to this service ; and sometimes men of rank, and
even, it is said, women, desirous of signalizing them-
selves in these bloody conflicts, entered the lists. In
the beginning of the fifth century of the Christian
era, the combats of gladiators were suppressed in the
Roman empire ; but the combats of wild beasts were
permitted nearly a hundred years longer. In the
middle ages, when chivalry flourished, the amphi-
theatre was chosen for the exhibition of judicial com-
bats, tilts, and tournaments. Since the neglect and
abolition of these rude amusements, the inventive ge-
nius of man has discovered no use for these huge
buildings.

AMPHORA, a measure of capacity used by the
Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora for li-
quids vv'as nearly equal to seven gallons and one pint
English measure ; the Grecian amphora contained a
third more. The same name was applied to a dry

vet. I. PART I.

measure among the Romans, the capacity of which Amsterdam '
was equal to about three bushels.

AMPLIFICATION is applied, by rhetorical wri-
ters, to tliat part of an oration or discourse in which
the circumstances which accompany any event arc
enlarged upon, or minutely detailed, for the purpose
of exciting strong emotions in auditors or readers.

AMPLITUDE is a term employed by astrono-
mers to denote an arch of the horizon, intercepted
between the east or west point, and the centre of il»a
sun, or a planet at rising or setting.

AMSTERDAM, the chief city of Holland, stands
at the confluence of the river Amstel with a branch
of the Zuyder sea. In the beginning of the 13th
century, a few huts, the miserable abode of poor
fishermen, w^ere all that occupied the place of this
city, which its favourable situation for commercial
enterprize, and the industr)' and activity of the in-
habitants, have raised to the first rank for wealth and
population. But in its progress to this pre-eminence
it has not escaped various severe disasters. In the
early period of its history it was frequently exposed
to the attacks of its neighbours, against whose in-
cursions it was surrounded with a brick wall in HQO;
soon after it was nearly reduced to ashes by an ac-
cidental fire ; in 1523, John of Leyden, the pretended
king of Munster, headed a party of fanatics who had
nearly possessed themselves of the city, but by the
vigorous resistance of the inhabitants were overpow-
ered, and almost the whole, to the amount of 600 men,
were put death ; ten years only had elapsed when
another tumult, excited by the Anabaptists, whose
object was to sejze the government, disturbed the
quiet of Amsterdam; but their frantic scheme, mask-
ed by religion, was defeated by the successful oppo-
sition of the citizens, and the fanatical insurgents were
cruelly massacred ; and as this city was one of the
last which joined the confederacy, and embraced the
reformed religion, an express stipulation for the free
exercise of the Roman Catholic religion, in the con-
ditions of surrender to the Hollanders after a siege
of ten months, was most shamefully violated, and
the unpardonable zeal of the Protestants burst forth
and led to the expulsion of the monks, nuns, and
priests, and the destruction of the emblems and al-
tars of their worship.

Enlarged at different periods with its growing com-
merce and population, Amstersdam acquired, in 167.5,
twice its former extent, was surrounded with a wall
and ditch, the latter eighty feet broad, and filled
with water, and now covers a semicircular space
more than nine miles in compass, A single gate
forms the communication towards the shore, and eight
towards the land side, all of which are massy build-
ings constructed of stone. Almost the whole of the
city is built on piles of wood, which were required as
a substitute for a solid foundation in marshy ground.
The space which it occupies is traversed by numer-
ous canals, and not fewer than 300 bridges facili-
tate the access to the different quarters of the city.
The ne\v bridge over the Amstel i* a magnificent
structure, consisting of 36 arches, some of which ale
very lofty, is 600 feet in length, and 70 in breadth,
and affords a striking view of the sea, the harbour,

A M S 274

Amsterdam, and the city itself. The streets of AmWrdatn are
in general narrow ; but some of them, along the
banks of the principal canals, can boast of the spaci-
ous breadth of 140 feet. Many of the private houses
of the rich merchants are splendid edifices, furnish-
ed and embellished in the French style.

The stadthouse, which is always regarded as one of
the most extraordinary buildings in the world, was
begun in 1648, and in little more than eight years
was completed at the enormous expence of two mil-
lions sterling, stands on 14,000 massy piles of wood,
and is 282 feet in front, 255 in depth, and 116 feet
in height. Tlie external decorations of this building
are bronze figures of Justice, Wealth, and Strength,
with a colossal Atlas supporting the world, and some
other statues ; and it is surmounted by a tower 50
feet high, which is furnished with an excellent chime
of bells, some of which are of large size. The in-
ternal ornaments of the spacious halls, and other
apartments, are distinguished by their splendour and
magnificence. The stadthouse is chiefly destined
to the accommodation of the courts of justice, the
public offices, and the municipal authorities. The
prison occupies one of the courts of this edifice ; and
the apartments for the bank on the ground floor, it
is said, contained 40,000,0001. sterling in bullion be-
fore the subjugation of Holland to France, during
the revolutionary war. The admiralty, the arsenal,
and the exchange, are also extensive and magnificent
edifices.

The rasphouse is an establishment in which offend-
ers are confined, and condemned to saw logs of wood,
or to rasp Brazil and other dye woods ; and those
who are indolent or refractory are shut up in a cel-
lar to which water is gradually admitted, and to
save themselves from drowning they are obliged to
work at the pump. The spin-house, or work-house,
is a charitable establishment, as well as a place of
punishment for petty offenders of the female sex.
They are employed in sewing, and spinning wool,
flax, and hemp. The numerous hospitals, and other
charitable institutions, are supported partly by vo-
luntary contributions, and partly by taxes on public
amusements.

In the academy denommated the Illustrious School,
the languages, philosophy, and divinity, are taught ;
and several respectable literary societies have flou-
rished in Amsterdam.

Of the numerous churches, eleven belong to the
Calvinistic or established form of religion, twenty-
seven chapels are appropriated to the Roman Catho-
lics, and two synagogues are destined to the Jewish
worship, one of which is the largest in Europe. The
new church, dedicated to St Catherine, is a magni-
ficent building. The pulpit is greatly admired for
its sculpture, the windows are adorned with paint-
ings, and the organ is esteemed one of the finest
in the world.

The civil- administration of Amsterdam is in-
trusted to a senate or council of thirty-six members,
■who are chosen for life. The deputies sent to the
states of Holland are elected by the senate, and
by them, are appointed the chief magistrates or bur-
gonr.asU'ES, who are twelve in number. From these,
«i(UiV«. chosen tp execute the duties of the office-

A M S

The trade of Amsterdam, before it experienced Anuteidam.
the severe checks during the French revolution, was ^_t-.-nj'
prodigious. Its commerce extended to almost every
part of the world, and it merited the appropriate
title of the storehouse of Europe. The population, in
1806, was estimated at nearly 300,000. Amsterdam
is 130 miles distant from Brussels, 150 from Liege,
and 330 from Paris. N. Lat. 52° 22'. E. Long. 4° 45'.

AMSTERDAM, an island in the South Pacific
ocean, discovered by Tasman, a Dutch navigator,
and afterwards visited by Captain Cook ; is 20 miles
in length, and about 13 in breadth ; is surrounded,
like moot of the islands in that region, with a coral
reef; rises, even in its most elevated parts, but a few
jiards above the level of the sea ; and the whole sur-
face is laid out in plantations, which produce all the
rich fruits of tropical countries. Yams, some other
eatable roots, and sugar canes, were not uncommon.
The natives appeared a brisk and lively race, with re-
gular features, black hair, and fine eyes. The dress
of both sexes consists of a piece of cloth, or matting,
wrapped round the middle, and tattowing, or punc-
turing the skin is a prevalent practice. Cloth of va-
rious colours, and matting, of a finer fabric for dress
and coarser for sails to their canoes, are manufactur-
ed. Their fishing implements resemble those of the
other South Sea islands, and some of their smaller
ornaments and domestic utensils are neatly executed.
S. Lat. 25° 11'. W. Long. 173°. The same island is
known by the native name of Tongataboo.

AMS'TERDAM, an island in the Indian ocean,
which was visited by some of the attendants of the
embassy to China in 1793, is about four miles long
and two miles broad, and is inaccessible except on the
east side, where a tolerable harbour, M'ith eight or ten
fathoms depth of water, seems to have been formed
from a volcanic crater. The soil, which is soft
and spongy in most parts of the island, and in some
places so hot as to prevent vegetation, the springs,
which have a high temperature, are chiefly brackish,
and the vapours wliich issued from numerous fissures,
all indicate volcanic operations. No native inhabi-
tants were found on the island when it was visited by
the Lion man-of-war, with Lord Macartney and his
suite, on their voyage to China ; but three French-
men and two natives of England, who had emigrated
to Boston at the end of the American war, were en-
gaged in collecting seal skins for the Canton market.
They had last come from the Isle of France, had re-
sided five months in this sequestered spot, and had
collected 8000 skins, nearly a third part of the cargo
which they expected to complete in ten months more.
Their vessel had sailed to Nootka sound, to procure
sea otter skins, and was to call at Amsterdam island
to take in the seal skins, all which were destined for
the Chinese market. The phoca iirsina, Lin. is the
species of seal which is so abundant on the shores of
this island as to become an important object of com-
merce. They are most numerous in summer, when
they come on shore in droves of 800 or 1000, and a
tenth (.art of the whole is killed by the five men, who
could not skin and stretch out for drying a greater
number. The sea abounds also with excellent fish,
particularly a species of cod ; a basket, with al-
most any kind of bait, let down into the sea, might be.;

A M S

275

A ML

Aiuulet

Ana.

filled with Cray fish in a few minutes ; sharks and dog-
fish of large size were numerous, and tench, bream,
and perch were readily caught in the bason of the
crater whicli forms the harbour, and being drawn
out of the cold water, and immersed in a hot siuing
in the vicinity, they were completely boiled in about
15 minutes. The albatross, the black and blue pe-
trel, and the sea-swallow, are the common birds
v.'hich frequent Amsterdam-island. S. Lat. S8°, 4-2'.
E. Long. 76°, 64'. StPaufs, a small island which lies
in sight to the northward, is overspread with shrubs
and trees of middling size, and is said to afford abun-
dance of fresh water, but no good anchorage or a
commodious landing-place could be discovered.

AMULET, a charm, or supj)0sed preservative
against disease or misfortune, which, under various
forms, has prevailed among all nations during the
darkness ofignorar.ee and superstition ; and, in more
enlightened ])eriods of society, is believed by some
to possess a certain degree of efficacy. Amulets
were worn about the neck, or attached to particular
parts of the body ; sometimes they were made of
gems, metal, animal or vegetable matter ; sometimes
they consisted of words, characters, and sentences,
arranged in pai-ticular order ; and, even in the times
of Christianity, the relics of saints, and ribbands,
with texts of Scripture written on them, have been
employed for the same purpose. Magic and astro-
logy, which acknowledge a similar origin, have unit-
ed their influence in providing certain kinds of amu-
lets for the weak and superstitious.

AMYGDALUS, the almond and peach tree, a
geuus of plants belonging to the Icosandria class.

AMYRIS, shrubby sweetwood, a genus of plants
belonging to the Octandria class.

ANA, a Latin termination, which has been adopt-
ed as a general title of certain works which profess
to detail the unpremeditated thoughts and unre-
strained sentiments of persons of learning and wit,
as they are expressed in private conversation ; and
hence they are supposed to exhibit a just and lively
picture of the characters introduced. How far these
ends are attained by such collections, a slight notice
of the history of some of them will shew. It has
been said, that the title of these works is a word of
doubtful origin ; but it seems quite obvious, that the
whole difficulty is at once solved by joining the word
dicta to the name, which is converted into an adjec-
tive, as dida Walpolicma, dicta Scaligcrana ; the say-
ings or remarks of Walpole, of Scaliger.

Works of this nature, it has been observed by
those who have entered into their history, are not
new. The deeds and sayings of Socrates were col-
lected by Xenophon ; and the maxims and precepts
of Pythagoras, Epictetus, and other ancient philo-
sophers, have been also recorded by their disciples
and followers. It is said that Julius Ca?sar formed a
collection of anecdotes of Cicero, the celebrated
orator ; a freedman of Ma;cenas, the great pa-
tron of literature in the Augustan age of Kome, re-
corded the sayings of his master ; and the Nodes
AtiiccB of Aulus Gellius contain numerous anecdotes
which the author gleaned from the distinguished
characters with whom he associated. But it was not
till the beginning of the 15th century that collec-

tions of this kind, with the mysterious title of Anas, AnahabtUi,
or books in ana, made their appearance. One of the ^^'v^i/
earliest and most celebrated of these works, is the
Poggiana, which derives its name from Poggio Brac-
cioiini, who was secretary to several popes. Pog-
gio and his literary friends held frequent meetings,
and conversed freely on every kind of subject ; but
as the investigation of truth, or intellectual improve-
ment, was less the object of the assembly than a dis-
play of wit or licentious humour, whatever was the
sacrifice, it is not difficult to appreciate such a work,
especially when Poggio hin^self, the compiler, \w%
denominated the place where the parties assembled,
Mendaciorum Officina, or the shop of lies.

The Scaligcrana was the first published work with
this title, under which two collections have appear-
ed, and profess to contain the remarks delivered in
conversation by Joseph Scaliger, a professor of Ley-
den, and a profound classical scholar ; but it is ad-
mitted that these collections are full of falsehoods,
personal abuse, and silly, scurrilous, and obscene
observations. But what shall l)e said of the free-
dom of conversation displayed in the Segraisiana, a
collection which derives its name from Segrais, and
which was compiled by a person concealed behind
the tapestry in a house wliich he frequented ? In
such circumstances, with those at least who were in
the secret, the flow of sentiment, and the current of
conversation, could not be altogether uninterrupted.
Voltaire has characterised the Segraisiana as the
best entitled to all the works of this kind to be rank-
ed among printed, and especially insipid falsehoods ;
but perhaps that celebrated wit had some reason for
this strong expression of reprobation. The H'al-
poliana, which professes to exhibit the literary con-
versation of Horace Walpole, is one of the most re-
cent of these productions, and one of the few which
has appeared with this title in England. The plan
of such a collection, it appears, was suggested to
that accomplished scholar himself; but he wisely
declined it, although, it is said, he supplied the
editor of the collection with some of the materials
of which it is composed. Part of it appeared affcr
his death in a periodical publication ; and the whole
collection, supplied with new matter from various
quarters, acquired considerable bulk, and was pub-
lished in two volumes. Literary productions, whose
origin and progress are such as have now been stat-
ed, can scarcely be free from mistatement and mis-
representation, if they are not entitled to a character
of a more reprel;ensible nature.

ANABAPTISTS, a denomination which has been
applied to religious sects of very difterent principle
and practices. They first appeared in Germany, and
excited serious commotions about the period of the
reformation. The name signifies a person who is
baptised again ; and in this sense it is applicable to
some sects in the earlier ages, who contended that
those Christians of the Catholic church who joined
themselves to their respecti\ e parties should be re-
baptiscd. This denomination is rejected by the Eng-
lish and Dutch Baptists, who hold the baptism ap-
pointed by Christ to be nothing short of immersion up-
on a personal profession of faith, of which profession
infants being incapable, and sprinkling being no ade-
2

ANA

276

ANA

Anabspthts. quate Symbol of the thing intended, the baptism of
^""^'~"'' proselytes to their communion, who in infancy had
undergone that ceremony, cannot be, it is urged,
considered a repetition of the baptismal ordinance.
In the strictest sense, Anabaptists are those who not
only re-baptise when they arrive at adult age persons
who were baptised in infancy, but also as often as a
person leaves one sect and joins another, or as often
as he is excluded from the communion and again ad-
mitted into it ; but the invalidity of infant baptism,
in whatever way it is administered, is a tenet com-
mon to all sects of Anabaptists.

But some of those who assumed the name of Ana-
baptists professed principles of a different nature,
and entertained peculiar notions of church establish-
ment and its connection with human institutions.
The plan of reformation proposed by Luther did not
accord with their views. Their professed object was
the foundation of a new church, which should be en-
tirely of a spiritual and more perfect nature. The
declaration of these doctrines soon increased the num-
bers and fanaticism of those who professed them;
and the heads of the faction, Munzer, Stubner, and
Stork, commenced their labours in Saxony in the
year 1521. The arts of persuasion were at first re-
sorted to, to disseminate their opinions, and to gain
proselytes ; but when the less powerful method of
visions and revelations, which they pretended they
received from heaven, failed, they had recourse to
the more expeditious method of establishing their
doctrines bj' force of arms. Munzer, and his asso-
ciates, in 1,325, saw themselves at the head of a nu-
merous army, collected from all parts of Germany,
and declared war against all human institutions, un-
der the pretext that Christ was to take the reins
of government into his own hands, and to reign over
the nations. But this lawless rabble was soon routed
and dispersed, and Munzer, their leader, was igno-
niiniously put to death.

Many of his followers survived, and continued to
propagate their opinions in different places on the
continent. A party settled at Munster in Westpha-
lia, in 1533, under the direction of John Matthias, a
baker of Ilaerlem, and John Bockholdt, a journey-
man taylor of Leyden. Aided by a powerful party
from the country, they seized on the arsenal and se-
nate-house in the night-time, and with drawn swords,
and dreadful bowlings, ran through the streets, cry-
mg out, " repent and be baptised, and depart ye un-
godly." In the midst of this scene of confusion and
disorder, the magistrates and the respectable part of
the inhabitants fled, and left the fanatics in undis-
turbed possession of the city. Matthias framed a
new constitution, ordered every man to bring forth
his money and valuable effects, and deposited the
wealth thus accumulated in a public treasury, for the
common beiu'fit oi' all. The members of the new
commonwealth were commanded to eat at public
tables, and the very dishes which wei-e to be daily
served up were specified ; and at the same time
he did not forget to provide prudent means for
tie defence of the city, which was dignified with
the name of Mount Zion. Tlie bishop of Munster
advancjd witli an army to besiege the town ; the
fanatical leader sallied out, attacked liis camp, and,

after a severe conflict, returned to the city loaded Anacardinm
with rich spoils. Elated by success, he appeared a- ||

niong his i'ollowers next day, and declared, that, like Anacharsis.
Gideon, he would, with a handful of men, smite the
ungodly. I'hirty persons were selected to accom-
pany him in the mad enterprise of attacking the
enemy, but not one escaped. After the death of
Matthias, Bockholdt assumed the government, and
declared himself the king of Zion ; and under the
pretext of Christian liberty, of being altogether un-
restrained by the regulations of human institutions,
lie and his followers indulged themselves in all kinds
of indecencies, and were guilty of every species of
licentiousness. Among other practices, a plurality
of wives was inculcated, and the leader himself, to
exhibit a proper example, had fourteen wives. To
suppress these disorders, the German princes fur-
nished supplies of men and money to the bishop of
Munster, who besieged the city, and reduced it to
the utmost distress for want of provisions. The walls
were scaled in the night by a party of the besiegers,
who, unperceived by the enenij', opened the gates to
their companions, and the fanatics being thus sur-
prised, were, after an obstinate but ineffectual resis-
tance, either put to the sword, or taken prisoners,
after fifteen months possession of the city. Bock-
holdt himself was taken prisoner, and after being car-
ried about from city to city, and exhibited as a spec-
tacle, was cruelly tortured, and put to death at
Munster.

Those who have adopted the doctrines of this sect
in the present day not only renounce their licentious
tenets and practices, but even reject the name of
Anabaptist. In England they are denominated Bap-
tists ; in Holland Mennonites, from Menno their great
reformer, and sometimes Waterlandians, from Wa-
terland, a district of North Holland.

ANABASIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
class Pentandria.

ANABOA, a small island near the coast of Loan-
go, in Africa, which contains several fertile valleys,
and produces large quantities of cotton, and abun-
dance of all kinds of tropical fruits. N. Lat. 1°. E.
Long. 9°.

ANACARDIUM, the cashew nut tree, a genus
of plants belonging to the class Enneandria, one spe-
cies of which, anacardium occidentale, is a native of
the West Indies, and produces an agreeable acid fruit,
which is sometimes employed as an ingredient in
punch, and the cashew nut, which is frequently
brought to this country^ grows attached to the end of
the fruit.

ANACHARSIS,a Scythian philosopher, who flou-
rished 600 years befdre Christ, was tlie son of a
person of rank in his nation, and a Grecian lady.
By her he was instructed in the Greek language, and
acquired a taste for Grecian literature. He was ap-
pointed by his fellow-citizens on an embassy to
Athens ; and having resided several years in that ce-
lebrated city, he travelled into different countries in
quest of knowledge, and returned to iiis own for the
purpose of instructing his countrymen in the laws
and religion of the Gretks ; but they were not prepar-
ed to receive the wisdom and learning of that polish-
ed people. While he was performing sacrifice to the

ANA

277

ANA

Aoaclioret goddess Cybele, he was slain by an arrow, which is
' II said to have been discharged by the hand oi' his own

Anacreon. brother, who was then king of Scythia, and was Httle
disposed to encourage the innovations of Anacharsif.
The history of Anacharsis has furnished the subject
of a popular work, the Travels of Anacharsis, by Bar-
thclemy, an eminent French writer.

AN ACHORET, or Anchoret, a hermit or solitary
monk, who retires from human society, to avoid the
temptations of the world, and to devote himself to
■ meditation and prayer. Anachorets, among the
Greeks, were chiefly monks who retired to caves or
cells, with the permission of the abbot, and an al-
lowance from the monastery ; or such as were tired
of the service of the establishment, purchased a
spot of ground to which they might retreat and
spend their days, returning to their monastery only
on solemn occasions.

ANACHRONISM, from two Greek words, which
signifies above and time, is an error in chronology, by
which an event in history is placed at an earlier pe-
riod than when it really happened ; as when Virgil
places Dido in Africa at the time of jf^neas, which
was 300 years before the actual period; but, in a
more general signification, it is applied to any error
in time, whether the event shall have happened at an
earlier or later period than what is specified.

ANACLASTIC Glasses, a kind of low flat bot-
tles, resembling inverted funnels, and having the bot-
tom, which is slightly convex, extremely thin. These
glasses, from the flexibility of the bottom, emit a
considerable noise, merely by the action of the breath.
By breathing into a bottle of this description, the
convex flexible bottom becomes concave, and, by
sucking out the air it returns to the convex state,
and from these motions of the flexible bottom the
sound proceeds. By breathing strongly into these
vessels, there is considerable risk of fracture ; and
even a gentle inspiration when the bottom is concave,
or drawing out the air when it is convex, produces
tlie same eftect. These glasses are manufactured in
Germany, where the property was first observed.

ANACREON, a celebrated lyric poet of Greece,
who was born at Tens, a city of Ionia, and hence is
frequently called the Teian bard, flourished about 530
years before Christ. His poetical talents procured
for him an invitation to the court of Polycrates, the
tyrant of Saraos, and he lived to the age of 85, when,
it is said, he was choaked with a grape stone, which
stuck in his throat while he was regaling himself with
new wine. A fevv fragments only of the works of Ana-
creon are extant, and both of the poet and his writ-
ings very opposite characters have been drawn ; for
while he is charged by some with licentiousness and
sensuality, he is held up as a model of moral purity
and virtue by others. His verses are described by
one critic as s^veeter than Indian sugar. His beauty
and chief excellence consist in imitating nature, and
in presenting to the mind only noble and natural
images. The odes of Anacreon, says another, are
flowers, beauties, and perpetual graces. Flowing
always soft and easy, the joy and indolence of his
mind are diffused through his verse, and his harp is
tuned to the smooth and pleasant temper of his soul.
The Englisli translation by Mr Moore is perhaps not
surpassed by tlie original.

ANACREONTIC verse, or poetry, is that which
imitates the poetry of Anacreon, and is descriptive of
amatory or bacchanalian sul)jects. This far-famed poet
has found imitators in the Latin, English, and Ger-
man languages. The most successful among the last
are Lessing, Kleist, Goetz, and, above all, Gleim,
who has been distinguished by tlie name of the Ger-
man Anacreon. When the word is restricted to the
structure of the verse, it refers to that which consists
of three feet and a-half, and is usually composed of
spondees and iambuses, and sometimes anapu..--ls, as
the verse of Horace :

Lydia, die per omnes.

ANADYR, a river of Siberia, which derives its
origin from a lake, and, running to the south-east,
falls into the sea of Anadyr, which is part, of the Pa-
cific ocean. This river forms a singular boundary
between two very ditt'erent countries. A region of
absolute sterility lies on the north, while the country
on the south side is covered with lofty forests or rich
pastures.

ANAGALLIS, or Pimpernel, a genus of plants
belonging to the class Pentandria, two beautiful spe-
cies of which are natives of this country.

ANAGNOSTA, or Anagnostes, a kind of literary
domestic in the families of persons of distinction a-
mong the Romans, whose business was to read to
them at their leisure hours, and particularly during ■
meals. The emperor Charlemagne, who greatly en-
couraged literature and learned men, established a
similar practice, and the same custom was observed
by the ancient monks and clergy.

ANAGRAM, from two Greek words, signifies the
transposition of the letters of a word or sentence, so
that a word or sentence of a different signification is
formed, as when angelus is formed from the word Ga-
lenas ; Akuinus, which is the anagram of Cahiniu,
and assumed by Calvin in the title of his Institutions.
An anagram is sometimes formed by dividing one .
word into several, as the three words stis, tinea, riius,
which are names of animals formed from, the verb
sustineamus. As an example of an anagram formed
of a sentence, the question put by Pilate to Jesus
Christ, quid est Veritas '^ has been transposed into an
answer est vir qui adcst ; but the ingenuity of tluj
learned is now rarely occupied in this trifling literary
amusement, for which, even in t!ie 17th century, a
composer of anagrams was retained, with a pension,
at the French court.

ANAGYRIS, stinking baw trefoil, a genus of
plants belonging to the class Dccandria.

ANALEMMA, a projection of the sphere on the
plane of the' meridian, orthographically made by
straight lines and ellipses, the eye being supposed at
an infinite distance in the east or west points of the
horizon. The same word also denotes an instrument
of brass or wood, on which this kind of projection is
drawn, and it is employed to solve astronomical pro-
blems.

ANALOGY denotes a certain relation and agree-
rnent between two or more things, which, in otiier
respects, are altogether dift'erent. A great deal of
the reasoning of mankind depends on analogy ;
and when it appears that the things compared have
a great resemblance, it is fair to concluda that they

ANA

278

ANA

• Aaaljisu are subject to the same laws. Thus, in observing the

II appearances in the motions of the planets which be-

Ananiooka. long to tlie solar system, and in discovering a reseni-

^■""Y^^ blance between their piotions and those of the earth,

a strong degree of probability is obtained that these

planets are the habitations ot various orders of living

beings.

But as reasoning from analogy affords only pro-
bable evidence, great caution is necessary to avoid
error in employing forced resemblances and inaccu-
rate comparisons. Comparative anatomy furnishes
an excellent example of just analogy in examining
the teeth of the huge animals whose bones were dis-
covered in the western regions of America, and in
concluding from the resemblance which is observed
between them and those of a race of animals exist-
ing at the present day, and whose habits are well
known, that the fossil teeth belonged to graminivor-
ous animals ; and an example of false analogy is de-
rived from a comparison of the stapelia, a genus of
plants which are natives of the arid deserts to the
westward of the cape of Good Hope, and are re-
markable for their succulency, with the camel, which
is furnished with a peculiar bag or stomach for re-
taining a supply of water to support the animal in its
fatiguing journics through the burning sands, and
from this mistaken resemblance the stapelia has
been, with little propriety, denominated the camel of
the desart. But the structure, functions, and habits
of the plant and animal present no precise similarity,
and any conclusions drawn from the one and applied
bv analogy to the other must prove erroneous. Rea-
soning by analogy is extensively and successfully em-
ployed in Bishop Butler's celebrated work on the
" Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the
Constitution and Course of Nature."

ANALYSIS, in its general acceptation, signifies
the resolution of something compounded into its ori-
ginal and constituent parts. Mathematical analysis
is the method of investigating a proposition to some
known operation, or acknowledged principle. Logical
analysis consists chiefly in combining our perceptions,
arranging them into classes, and communicating our
thoughts under appropriate forms of expression, and
representing their several divisions, classes, and rela-
tions. Chemical analysis is the decomposition of a
compound body, or the separation of its principles or
constituent parts. The same word is employed to
denote a syllabus, or table of the principal heads and
subdivisions of a discourse arranged in the order and
relative connexion in which the subject is treated.

ANAMABOA, a town in the kingdom of Fantin,
on the Gold Coast of Africa. The town is one of the
most opulent and populous upon the cofist, and the
neighbouring territory is distinguished by a rich and
productive soil, which affords abundance of corn and
iVuits. Anamaboa was formerly considerable for the
slave trade, ftr the protection of which the English
erected a fort in the immediate vicinity of the town,
and is still understood to be a place of some trade.
ANAMOOKA, or Rottekdam, an island form-'

ing one of the groupe called Friendly Islands, in the AnaHiwpt*.
Pacihc ocean, is about 18 leagues distant from Am- sis.
stcrdam island, to which it has a strong resemblance II

in appearance, soil, and productions. The chief bar- Anathema,
hour is on the south-west side ; the greater part of '
the coast is precipitous towards the sea, and the reefs
and sand-banks which surround the island render na-
vigation dangerous.

ANAMORPHOSIS, a deformed or distorted re-
presentation of an object, which, being seen from a
certain point, or reflected from a plane or curved
mirror, assumes its natural or proper form, and ap-
pears in just proportion. See Optics.

ANANAS, a species of Bromelia, or the trivial
name of the pine apple,

ANAP7EST, a fooc in Latin poetry, which is com-
posed of two short syllables and one long, as scopii-
los. Anapaestic verses consist entirely of such feet.

ANARCHIC AS, or Wolf-fish, a genus of apodal
fishes. See Ichthyology.

ANAS, a genus of birds belonging to the order
ofAnseres. See Ornithology.

ANASTATICA, or Rose of Jericho, a genus of
plants belonging to the Tetradynamia class.

ANATHEMA, from the Greek word which signi-
fies to dcposite or lay down, was an ofiering present-
ed to some deity, according to the views of ancient
mythology, and this offering was either laid on the
floor of the temple dedicated to the god, or suspend-
ed from the wall. By offerings of this kind, the per-
sons who had escaped from shipwreck or other im-
minent danger, or who had enjoyed a large share of
prosperity, expressed their gratitude to the patron
deity who presided over their good fortune. The
usual offerings on such occasions were garlands,
crowns, garments, or vessels of gold or silver. It
was not unusual also for those who retired from any
occupation, to dedicate the implements of their trade
or profession to the presiding divinity.

Anathema is also employed to denote the sepa-
ration of a person from the society and privileges of
the church to which he belongs, and is different from
simple excommunication, because it is accompanied
with curses and execrations. The anathema was
practised in the primitive Christian church against
great offenders. It was expressed according to the
following form : — " Let no church of God be open
to Andronicus, but let every sanctuary be shut against
him. Private men and magistrates are admonished
to receive him neither under their roof nor at their
table ; and priests more especially, that they neither
converse with him living, nor attend his funeral when
dead." Anathemas are pronounced against such as
should attempt to corrupt the purity of doctrines ;
" If any one should be thus guilty, let him be anathe-
ma." Anathemas are either judiciary, when they are
denounced by a council, the pope himself, or a bishop;
or abjuratory, when a convert to be received into the
bosom of the church renounces and anathematises
the heresy which he abjures.

279

ANATOMY.

IntroJuciion That part of natural science which teaches the in-
N.^V'^' vestigatiou of the structure and functions of animal
bodies by dissection, is called Anatomy, from the
Greek word which signifies to cut up or dissect. In
treating this subject, it has been usual either to con-
sider merely the structure of animal bodies, or to
combine with that examination only those functions
which are called organic, and which are explained
chiefly by the structure of the organs by which they
are performed. But, in the present treatise, we pro-
pose to take a general and connected view of the whole
animal economy, in all the various classes of animated
nature, from man to the lowest tribes of those beings
which possess life and voluntary motion.

Introduction.

All the objects of nature, when compared together,
are capable of being arranged under one or other of
two great divisions. Some of them are composed of
parts that are easily separated without destroying the
nature and properties of the whole; they increase by
the approximation or aggregation of their component
particles, and possess no inherent power of resisting
those changes that may be produced on them by ex-
ternal agents. Such are called inorganic bodies, or
crude matter, and compose the numerous mineral
substances which are dug from the bowels of the
earth, or lie motionless upon its surface. Others a-
gain have their component parts arranged in systems
or organs, which arc generally different in different
parts of the same body ; they increase hy groivth, and
nourishment, and they possess within themselves, to
a certain degree, the power of resisting the effects of
other bodies. These are called organized beings, and
are said to be composed of living matter. Such are
plants and animals.

General Anatomy may be said to include the con-
sideration of the structure of both these divisions of
organized beings ; but as the anatomical examination
of plants is generally treated of under Botany, we
shall here confine our attention entirely to tlie animal
kingdom.

Division. — Anatomy has been divided into human
and comparative, the former being confined to man,
the latter extending to the inferior animals compared
with man or with each other. The present treatise
is intended to be strictly comparative in the former
sense, for though we shall take man as our model,
and be more minute in our account of his structure
and economy than in that of the brute creation,
we shall be careful to notice all the more remarkable
peculiarities which distinguish other animals from the
human species.

Advantages of anatomy. — On the utility of anatomy
and physiology, much might be advanced; and indeed
there are few subjects more interesting, whether we
consider them in themselves, or as forming a necessary
and important introduction to other sciences, particu-

larly natural history and medicine. In contemplating lotroductiou
the works of nature, with the view cither of gratifying a ^^- ,^r
laudable curiosity, or of m iking ourselves acquainted ~ ^ ^
with those objects that continually surround us, and
either minister to our wants and comforts, or O)ipose
and obstruct us in our pursuit of these comforin : sir
with the more sublime and elevated view of raising
our minds and affections " from nature up to nature^
God ;" all are peculiarly interested in the study of
the animal economy. The structure and functions
of man, and of those animated beings that resemble
him, are objects which demand the particular attention,
of those who are to devote themselves to the medical
profession, as they constitute the very foundation of
medical science. To the zoologist, who wishes not
merely to study the habits and manners of animals,
but to understand the nature and principles of mo-
dern classification, comparative anatomy is essential,
as the characters of the classes, orders, and genera of
animals, are drawn as much from their intimate struc-
ture as their external forms. Several artists, too, as the
painter and the statuary, require a pretty correct
knowledge of the forms and proportions of the ani-
mal body before they can faithfully represent them
in a picture or a statue. The prominences of the
bones, the rounding of muscles, in their ordinary state
of tjuiescence, as well as when rendered more pro-
minent by action, must all be accurately studied ;
and that artist who knows them best will most suc-
cessfully copy nature, and of course please most in
his profession.

Before entering on a particular examination of the
structure and economy of animals, it will be of great
importance to take a general comparative view of the
organic functions in the order in which we propose
to consider them.

The organic functions of animals are. Motion, Sen-
sation, Digestion, Absorption, CirciJaiion, Respiration,
Secretion, Excretion, Intcgumaiion, and Reproduction.

Voluntary motion All animals possess the faculty

of voluntary motion, though this function, and the
organs subservient to it, are extremely different in
degree and complication in the several classes of ani-
mated nature. The more perfect animals have solid
organs, called hones and cayiilages, or gristles, connec-
ted together by ligaments, so as to form joints or ar-
ticidations. These bones are set in motion by fleshy
fibrous organs, called rraiscles, generally connected
to the bones by tendons or sinews. Many classes and
tribes of animals have however no bony system,
though all must possess something analagous to mus-
cles. That part of anatomy which describes the
bones of an animal is called osteology ; that which
describes the ligaments is called syndesnwlogy, and
that which treats of the muscular system is deno-
minated myology.

Sensation. — As a connecting link between volun-
tary motion and sensation, all animals must possess'
certain sentient organs, though, in all, these are not ■

280

ANATOMY.

Ijiiroductlon «l>stinctly perceived. In what are called the more
perfect animals, the sentient organs are 'very compli-
cated, consisting of a pulpy mass within the head,
called brain, and numerous filaments or cords con-
necting tliis with various parts of the body, and called
nen'^s. These nerves in many cases form knots called
ganglions, ani sometimes they are connected with each
other into a sort of net -work called plexus. A great
proportion of the animal kingdom have nerves, with-
out a brain, and in many even the nerves camiot be
distinctly traced. That part of anatomy which treats
of the brain and nerves, or nervous system, is denomi-
nated Neiirnlogi/.

Digestion. — Animals are farther distinguished from
plants by their mode of growth. Tliej- do not, like
the latter, merely imbibe nourishment from the me-
dium in which they live, but receive the means of
•support into a particular cavity, where it undergoes
certain changes, which fit it for becoming part of the
animal body. In this function, which is called diges-
tion, animals also differ considerably from each other.
In some tlie apparatus is still more complicated than
in the two fuiicWons already noticed. In some the
food is recen-ed into a mouth, chewed or masticated
by teeth and gums, swallowed by a gullet, whence
it is carried into a stomach, and, after remaining
for a certain time, passes into a continuation t)f the
same tube, called intestines, to undergo those changes
which fit it for nutrition. Many animals have a
mouth, but no teeth ; some, as having no head, are
destitute of both, though they possess both stomach
and intestines ; while others have only one short ca-
vity, serving at once the purpose of mouth and in-
testinal canal.

Absorption After the food has undergone tlie ne-
cessary digestive process, the nutritious particles of
it are taken up by particular tubes, thence called ab-
sorbent, and either carried directly to their place of
destination, as in the more simple animals, or con-
veyed through a more or less complicated apparatus
of tubes and bodies called ^/(77;f/«, to a common re-
servoir, from vrhich they i) re afterwards distributed
'to those organs of which they are to form a part.
This function is called absorption, and the organs
subservient to it the absorbent sijsterti.

Circulation All animals have the body composed

partly of solids and parti}' of fluids. In a great pro-
portion of them the fluids are in considerable quan-
tity, and constitute what is called their blood. This
blood is contained in innumerable canals or vessels,
communicating with each other, and in most cases
composing two sets or systems. In all the more per-
fect animals, the blood continually moves from the
larger parts or trunks of one set of vessels, called ar-
teries, to the extremities of their branches, whence it
enters the branches of die second set of vessels, cal-
led reins, and proceetls through the trunks of these
'latter to a common reservoir or centre. This centre
is a' hollow fleshy cavity, more or less complex, cal-
led the heart, the use of which is to propel theblood
into the arteries and receive it back from the veins ;
this function is called circidation, and the whole ap-
paratus of heart, arteries, and veins is called the cir-
culating or sanguiferous system. Tiiat, part of ana-
•temy which treats of thi* system is called Angeioln^.

Jiespiration. — In all the animals with which we are inirodHcUon
acquainted, the continual or occasional presence of
atmospheric air is necessary for the perfect perform-
ance of their several functions, though many of them
do not carry on what can properlj- lie called i-espira-
tion. In the higher classes, however, there is a pe-
culiar set of respiratory organs adapted to the me-
dium in which they usually reside. Those which live
entirely or chiefly in the air, respire by means of
menibranaceous spongy bags called Itmgs, which are
alternately distended and contracted during inspira-
tion and expiration. Again, those which live entirely
in the water respire through vascular plates, called
gills. Many of the less perfect animals also possess re-
spiratory organs similarto gills, denominated branchice.

Secretion. — In all those animals which possess a
true circulating system, and in those which have on-
ly vessels for containing the general fluids, certain
parts are continually separated fi om the general mass
of blood, to answer some important purpose in the
animal economy. This function is called secretion,
and the organs subservient to it secretory organs.
On these we cannot at present dwell, but shall treat
of them in their proper place.

Excretion, S;c — There is a function similar to secre-
tion, by which the useless, noxious, or cxcrementitious
parts of the food or fluids are thrown out of the body.
This is called excretion, and its organs excretory or-
gans. All animals have the faculty of reproducing
or propagating tlieir like. In mast cases this is ef-
fected by peculiar organs ; but in some, as in the
lowest tribes of animated nature, the young are pro-
duced by shoots or offsets from the parent animal.

Those organs, which are contained within the
principal cavities of the animal body, are technically
called viscera ; and that part of unatomy which treats
of them is called splanchnology.

All the organs now enumerated are connected to-
gether, lined, or covered with extensive expansions,
denominated membranes ; and the whole body is co-
vered and defended by hitegmnents.

Diversity of structure. — On comparing the differ-
ent tribes of animated nature with respect to their
structure, we find that they may be conveniently dis-
« tributed under two great groupcs. Some of them
have an internal skeleton, or assemblage of bones
' united together by moveable joints; and, in particu-
lar, they have a series of these articulated bones, ex-
tending from the head to the opposite extremity,
called by anatomists the vertebral column. These are
hence called vertebral animals, and include man,
quadrupeds, cetaceous animals, birds, reptiles, ser-
pents, and fishes. The other great subdivision of
animals has no internal skeleton, and of course no
proper vertebrae. These are, therefore, invertebral
animals, and comprehend those classes which are
called crustaceous animals, insects, moUusca, worms,
and zoophytes.

The vertebral animals have all more or less of a
brain within the cavity of the head. Some "of them
have a heart, with two independent fleshy cavities,
called ventricles, for propelling the blood into the
vessels that convey it through the body ; and the
blood contained in these vessels is said to be warm,
because it considerably exceeds the mctbuni tempd-

ANATOMY.

281

Introduction mature of the atmosphere. These are called warm-
blooded animals, and they breathe by means of
lungs. Some of them are vivipnrnus, or bring forth
living young, which they suckle by means of teats,
as man, quadrupeds, and cetaceous animals ; wiiile
others are oviparous, or produce eggs, which are af-
terwards hatched, and do not suckle their young, as
birds. In the other subdivision of vertebral animals,
we find a heart, either with a single fleshy cavity,
or with two, which freely communicate with each
other ; and their blood is said to be cold, as its tem-
perature is seldom much greater than that of the air
or water which they inhabit. These are the cold-
blooded animals. They are all essentially oviparous.
Some of them have lungs and jointed members, as
reptiles ; others have lungs, but no jointed members,
as serpents ; and the rest breathe by means of gills,
as fishes.

The invertebral animals have no brain. Some of
them have an external articulated case, which can-
not properly be called a skeleton, and jointed mem-
bers ; while others are destitute both of articulated
case and jointed members. The first subdivision
of invertebral animals comprehends the crustaceous
animals and insects ; the former having a circulating
system, and generally a calcareous covering, and
breathing by means of gills, called branchice : the latter
without circulating system, having a horny exter-
nal covering, and breathing by means of porous or-
gans, called trachea:. The second subdivision of in-
vertebral animals comprehends those which have sim-
ple nerves, called mollusca ; those which have knot-
ted nerves, generally denominated worms ; and those
which have no perceptible nervous system, called
zoophytes.

Living power. — The remarks now offered embrace
a general view of the organic functions which dis-
tinguish organized beings from inorganic matter, and
refer to the property of resisting the effects of ex-
ternal agents possessed by the former. We shall now
consider the nature and effects of that cause which
enables organized beings to resist those changes to
which brute matter is continually exposed. We find
that this power resides in organized beings only for
a time ; and that a period at length arrives, when
tliey are as much exposed to the action of chemical
powers as the minerals which form a part of the
substance of the earth. When that period arrives,
tlieir organical functions have ceased to act, and tiie
organized body has lost something by which these
functions were supported. This something is distin-
guished by the name of life.

Life, then, is that poxver by which organized beings
t.re enabled to resist external agents, and to carry on
their organical functions. Of its essential nature we
know nothing, as we see it only by its effects. The
cause of life, whatever it may be, is called the vital
principle, or the principle of vitality ; and this prin-
ciple exists in all organized beings, which are there-
fore called living beings. It does not, however, ex-
ist in an equal degree in all living beings, or reside
in the same proportion in all parts of the body.
Those animals which possess the fewest functions,
as zoophytes, seem also to possess a lower degree of
vitality ; but it is more equally diftused throughout

VOL. I. i-ARI I.

their substance. If a polype be cut in pieces, each Bones, &e»
piece lives and grows, and in time becomes a com- "

plete polype. The more perfect animals, who exer-
cise all the organical functions which we have enu-
merated, also possess the highest degree of vitality,
but possess it more completely in some particular
organs, as the heart, the brain, or the stomach. The
heart of a frog palpitates for some hours after it is
removed from the body ; and the head of a t\irtle or
a snake has been known to bite for hours, or even
days, after separation. In the higher classes, <ni!y
the cuticle, or scarf-skin, the knir, and nails, or ana-
logous parts, are entirely destitute of life.

All animals are not equally tenacious of life ; and,
in general, the more perfect the animal, that is, the
greater the number and complication of its functions,
the more easily is it deprived of life. A sudden vio-
lent blow on the temple or the stomach is often' suf-
ficient to kill a man ; the insertion of a pointed in-
strument into the spinal marrow, instantly converts
a living ox into a dead carcass : but an eel may be
flead alive, and cut in several pieces, and still shew
evident marks of vitality ; a salamander may be de-
prived of its heart, and still swim about as usual ;
and a tortoise may have its brain scooped out from
the cavity of the skull, and still walk about with
apparent indifference.

The duration of life is extremely various, but ge-
nerally keeps pace either with the complication of
the functions, or the tenacity of the vital principle.
There are insects which, in their perfect state, live
but for a day ; others of the same class enjoy exist-
ence for a summer, or a year or two ; — while, in the
higher classes, the existence of a few, as the raven "
and the elephant, is prolonged for nearly a century;
and man, the lord of the creation, though generally
restricted to threescore and ten, is sometimes found
to linger out for more than a century and a half.

Chap. I. Of the Bones and Organs of Motion.

The bony system of animals cannot properly be
said to constitute any part of their organs of motion,
but ratlier furnishes the levers anA fulcra, or props on
which the moving organs act, while it gives strength
and solidity to the whole animal machine. It is to
the bones that the body owes its diversity of figure,
and these solid parts form the cavities in which the
more important organs are lodged, and by which they
are defended.

Sect. I. Of the Bmes.

Nature of hones. — In their substance the bones are
the most solid parts of the body, being formed in a
great measure of that peculiar earthy substance called
phosphate of lime, cemented together by animal gela-
tinous matter. In a full grown body the bones are
more or less of a white colour, especially on their
outer surface, but in young animals they are bluish,
and sometimes of a reddish colour. When cut or
broken in a living animal, the inside exhibits the ap-
pearance of numerous red points. In general they
are harder on the external surface than within, and
this hardness increases with age.

N N

282

A N xA. T O M Y.

*oiios, 3te. Form. — The form of the bones differs considerably
in various parts of the body. Sometimes they are
long and nearly cyUndrical, as those of the arm, thigh,
and leg ; sometimes they are flat, and of an oblong
or rounded form, as the blade-bones ; at otliers they
are arched, so as to be convex on the one side and
concave on the other, as the bones of the skull ; and
frequently they we very irregular in their form and
structure. They are generally described as being
composed of a body and processes, or protuberances,
and these processes receive different names accord-
ing to their form and relative position. The round
protuberances at the extremities of the long bones
are called heads, which are sometimes united to the
body of the bone by a.contracted part called neck,
and, when formed so as to move like a hinge on other
bones, condi/les ; when round and rough they are cal-
led tuberosities ; when extending to meet another
bone, so as to form an arch, zygomatic ; and sometimes
they are denominated mastoid, styloid, pterygoid, co-
racoid, &c. according as they are supposed to resem-
ble a nipple, a pencil, or stylus, a wing, a bird's beak,
&c. These processes, and in general the extremities
or edges of a bone, and sometimes its superficial
cavities, are covered with cartilage, which is often
smoother, more elastic, and of a bluer colour than
the bony substance.

Cavities. — The bones have also various cavities, hol-
loivsj or depressions. Some of them, as the long bones,
have an internal tubular cavity, extending for a con-
siderable length ; others have large hollows, called si-
nuses, formed within their substance; some haveexter-
nal hollows, more or less deep, for receiving the heads
or condyles of other bones ; and in most bones there
are furrows, canals, or holes, for the passage of blood-
vessels or nerves. In general, the extremities and
protuberant parts of bones are more loose and spon-
gy, in their internal texture, than the body or middle
of the bone ; and sometimes the texture is so loose
that numerous cells are formed communicating with
each other.

Covering Bones are covered on their outside with

a fibrous membrane, called periosteum, and their in-
ternal cavities and cells are lined with a similar but
more delicate membrane, of a net-like texture.
Within the interstices of this latter membrane there
is lodged a thick oily matter called marrow.

Formation of hone. — In a foetus, or young animal,
before birth, the bones are in a soft or gristly state,
and gradually acquire their proper consistence as the
animal advances towards maturity, the gristly sub-
stance being removed and replaced by bony matter.
Tills process is termed ossification, and takes place
in a very gradual but uniform manner. A few white
specks appear first in the middle of what is to form
the body of the bone ; these gradually increase till
they form fibres, which either run in a radiating di-
rection from a common centre, as in the flat bones,
or extend in successive bony rings from the middle to
the extremities, as in the cylindrical bones. In the
foetus, too, each bone is made up of several pieces,
' which are afterwards united ; and commonly the pro-
cess of ossification is going on at the same time in
each of the component pieces.

Arliculalimi. — The bones are connected or articu-

hited together in several different modes, according Bones, &ie..
as they are immoveable or moveable on each other. -^N'^W^
Sometimes the edge of one bone is intimately and
closely united to that of another, so that their junc-
ture is scarcely visible ; sometimes the edges are in-
dented into each other as if they were stitched toge-
ther, forming what is called a suture ; in a few in-
stances, the edge of one bone lies over that of an-
other, like a scale ; and, in others, one bone is firmly
fixed in the body of another, like a nail in a piece
of wood. All these connexions are immoveable.
Of the moveable articulations there are three prin-
cipal kinds ; 1st, where the extremity of one bone
moves on that of another, like a hinge, as in the
elbow and knee ; 2d, where the head of one bone
moves in almost all directions within a cavity or de-
pression of another, as in the shoulder and hip-joints ;
and, 3d, where one bone moves upon another by a
sort of rotatory motion, as the hand upon the elbow,
or the head upon the neck. Anatomists have enu-
merated many more varieties of articulation, and
have given to each appropriate names.

Ligaments. — The articulations of the bones are pro-
tected by strong fibrous membranes, extending from
one bone to another. These are the ligaments, and
have received different names according to their si-
tuation and direction. Thus, there are central liga-
ments, extending from the head of a bone to the ca-
vity in which it moves ; capsidar ligaments, forming
a bag, more or less loose, round the head of a bone
and the brim of its receiving cavity ; lateral, crucial
ligaments, &c. The extremities of these ligaments
are sometimes attached immediately to the bone or
cartilage ; but in general they are united to the bones
through the medium of the periosteum.

Mucous follicles In the m.oveable articulations

there are several circumstances to be considered,
which assist the motions of one bone upon the other.
In all the principal joints there ai'e little bags, or
hollow membranes, containing a glairy mucilaginous
fluid, so situated that the pressure produced by the
motion of the joint squeezes out a portion of the
fluid, so as to lubricate the contiguous surfaces of
the articulated bones, as oil assists the motions of
machinery by diminishing the friction of one part
upon another. The fluid thus prepared within the
cavities of joints is called syiiovia, and the membranes
which contain it are termed synovial bags, or mu-
cous foUicUs. The fluid itself, in colour and con-
sistence, resembles the raw white of egg.

Moveable cartilages Besides this synovial appara-
tus, there are, in some of the joints, moveable carti-
lages between the articulated surfaces, which being
compressible and elastic, tend to diuiinish both the
pressure on the lower bone and the friction of the
bones upon each other. In other joints, as those
of the back, there is sometimes an elastic substance,
resembling cartilage, but immoveable, interposed
between the bones ; and sometimes, as in fishes,
each of the contiguous bones forms the half of a
double close cavity, filled with a mucilaginous fluid,
resembling the synovial apparatus.

General remarks. — The greater blueness or redness
of the bones in young animals depends on their greater
vascularity, or tlie greater proportional quantity of

A ISI A T O M Y

285

blood that circulates through them. As the animal
advances in age, and especially after he has acquired
his full growth, many of the vessels in the bones be-
come obstructed or obliterated ; hence a less propor-
tional quantity of blood is transmitted through them,
and they become of a whiter colour, and harder con-
sistence.

The cavities, and internal spongy texture of bones,
make them both lighter and more capable of resisting
external force, while they serve to contain the mar-
row, which helps to keep the bones sufficiently moist
and flexible. The larger extremities and processes
of bones, serve for the attachment of ligaments and
muscles, while they facilitate the motions of the ani-
mal.

The periosteum, besides other uses to which we
cannot at present properly refer, assists in checking
the overgrowth of the bones, strengthens the connec-
tion of the bones with their ligaments and cartilages,
and helps to protect them from external injuries.

The division of each bone into several parts, in the
young. animal, has several important uses. It enables
the animal to occupy a smaller space before birth, by
increasing its flexibility ; it materially assists the easy
exclusion of the foetus at birth, and it accelerates
the formation of bone by increasing the number of
Qssifying points.

Diversity in different animals. — The differences in the
general structure of the bony system, in the various
classes of animals, are not very considerable. The
bones of quadrupeds resemble those of man, except
that in the larger species theyareproportionally strong-
er, their texture coarser, and their prominences more
distinctly marked. The whale tribe of animals have
the fibrous texture of their bones looser than that of
man and most quadrupeds, and the internal cavities
more conspicuous, and filled with a thinner and more
oily fluid. In birds the bones have also very large
internal cavities, but they are destitute of marrow,
and are filled only with air, a structure which con-
tributes materially to increase the buoyancy of those
animals in the atmosphere. In one order ot fishes the
skeleton is entirely cartilaginous, and in the rest the
proportion of gelatinous, compared with that of earthy
matter, is very great. In reptiles and serpents the
texture of the bones is very uniform, and, in some
cases, their solidity is very considerable. In these
animals, as well as in fishes, tlie bones are much
more simple in their form, and have fewer prominen-
ces than those of the superior animals.

The hard parts of the invertebral animals, though
sometimes called their external skeleton, have little
analogy with the bones of vertebral animals, except
in similarity of substance. They are more properly
integuments than skeletons, and, with the horns, hoofs,
and nails, will fall to be considered under the head
of Integumation. We now proceed to describe
the several parts of the skeleton, which is usually di-
vided into the head, trunk, and extremities.

Bones oj the Head. — The head is composed of nu-
merous pieces, connected together, with only one
exception, by immoveable articulations. The com-
ponent bones are conveniently arranged in two
groupes, those of the skull and those of the face.

Bones of the skull. — In man, the skull, or brain-

case, called by anatomists the cranium, is cemposed Bones, 8m.
of eight bones ; one forming the forehead, and com- ~ '~
posing the upper part of the orbits or sockets of the
eyes, termed xhe frontal bone ; a second forming the
back part of the head, called occipital bone ; two ly-
ing between these at the top of the head, the parie-
tal'bones ; one placed on each side below the parietal,
forming the temples, and called temporal hones ; a
seventh, connected with the frontal bone, above the
root of the nose, called ethmoidal ; and an eighth,
wedged in the lower part or base of the skull, cnllcl
sphenoidal bone.

Thejrontal bone extends in front between the two
prominent points that may be felt on the temporal
sides of the orbits, and, forming two arches below
the eyebrows, runs down a little in the middle to
meet the nose. From the orbitar processes it runs
backward about an inch on each side forming part
of the temples, and then takes a semicircular sweep
nearly over the top of the head.

The whole top of the head, and part of its sides,
backward from the frontal bone, are formed by the
parietal bones, which are each of an irregular four-
sided figure, united to each other in the middle of
the top of the head, by a straight suture called the
sagittal suture, and to the convex edge of the frontal
bone by two concave edges, forming the coronal su-
ture.

The occipital bone forms that remarkable protu-
berance or ridge at the back of the head, is of an.
oblong, irregular, four-sided figure, with very ob-
scure angles, and is united to the parietal bones, and
to those that are immediately to be described, by a
suture, which, from its fancitd resemblance to a
Greek letter, has been called lambdoidal. This bone
has several remarkable ridges and depressions on its
lower surface, and a very large oval hole near its an-
terior extremity, and towards the fore part of this
hole there are two remarkable protuberances or con-
dyles.

The temporal bones form the rest of the sides of
the head, occupying the region of the ears, and may
be readily distmguished in the living body by a re-
markable protuberance behind the ear at their back
part, and by an arch extending from the fore part
of the ear towards the clieek. Each is composed of
two parts, one called the squamous portion, thin and
broad, overlapping the parietal bone, and an irregu-
lar, very hard, and thick part, called the petrous }>or-
tion, extending inwards, and containing flie organ of
hearing, with a remarkable external orifice, by which
it communicates with the air. Tlie projection be-
hind the ear is called the mustoid, and the arched
portion before the ear the zugomiUic process. Besides
these there is a remarkable long and pointed process,
not perceptible externally, called the styloid, which
runs forward and inward, and serves, like the two
former, for the attachment of muscles.

The ethmoidal bone is the smallest of those that
belong to the skull. No part of it is perceptible ex-
ternally, but it occupies the upper part of the nose
and of'^ the space bet%veen the eyes. It is composed
chiefly of a spongy body, full of cells, that are lined
with a membrane, having an upper plate perforated
with numerous holes, from the middle of which rises
2

284

AK ATOMY.

Bones, &.C. a thick, flat process, upwards within the skull, while
from its lower surface there descends a similar plate
of larger dimensions, forming part of the partition
that separates the nostrils from each other. The
sides of this bone next the orbits are flat and smooth.

The sphenoidal bone is exceedingly irregular, and its
figure is not easily understood without actual obser-
vation. The body of it is wedged in the base of
the skull, and from it extends a broad process on
each side to meet the temporal parts of the frontal
bone, while two other long processess, with deep
furrows on their back part, pass downwards at the
back of the mouth, and between these latter is a
sharp ridge. This bone is pierced with numerous
holes, and within the substance of its body are two
of those large cavities called sinuses.

Interior of the skull. — In the above descriptions
we have purposely avoided tlie inner surface of the
bones, which we shall now notice in giving a gene-
ral view of the interior of the skull. The upper part
and sides of this cavity are nearly smooth, except
a few superficial depressions and furrows, marking
tlie protuberances of the brain and the course of
blood-vessels ; but its lower surface, or base, is render-
ed very unequal by numerous hollows and processes,
especially at its middle, lateral, and back parts. Near-
ly in the middle of.the base is fixed the body of the
sphenoidal bone, with a considerable depression, sur-
rounded by three remarkable processes. On each
side of these there are two deep hollows, formed by
the broad processes of the same bone, and immedi-
ately behind its middle is a considerable declivity
leading to the large hole in the occipital bone. On
each side of this lie the petrous portions of the tem-
poral bones, with numerous furrows, depressions,
and holes in their neighbourhood. Tire back part
of the occipital bone is marked by two considerable
prominent ridges, crossing each other in the middle,
and forming four hollows, in which are lodged parts
of the brain. From the upper internal process of
the ethmoidal bone, there is either a ridge or furrow
extending along the middle of the upper part of the
skull, backwards and downwards, till it meets the cru-
cial ridge of the occipital bone, the whole serving
as attachment' to a strong membrane that lines the
«kull and envelopes the brain.

Bones ofthefac^ -^The face is composed of four-
teen bones, besides the teeth ; these are generally di-
• vided into the upper jaw, containing thirteen bones,
all articulated immoveably together, and the lower
jaw moveable on the former. The thirteen bones
composing the upper jaw are :

Two nasal bones of an oblong irregularly four-sided
ligure, convex on the outside and concave within,
forming the upper part or bridge of the nose ;

Tiuo ungual bones of a rounded form and very thin
: substance, sitviatcd on the internal or nasal sides of
. the orbits ,'

Two malar or cheek bones, of an irregular, foursided
form, with four remarkable angles, and a concave
arch above, forming the external or temporal, andpart
of the lower edge of the orbits, their body constitut-
ing the well known bony projection of the cheeks ;

2'u!0 superior maxillary bones, forming the princi-
pal part of the upper part of the upper ^aws, the

sides and floor of the nosfrils, the sockets of the up- Bobm, Sec.
per teeth, and the greatest part of the palate or roof
of the mouth, and each having within its substance
a large cavity or sinus communicating with the nos-
trils ;

Tivo palate hones, making up the back part of the
palate, with two concave arches towards the throat,
two long irregular perpendicular processes extending
upwards towards the orbits, of the floor of which
they form a part, and a middle ridge between these
where the two are united to each other ;

Tko injerior spongy bones withinside the nostrils,
where they are connected with the ethmoidal, supe-
rior maxillary, palate, and ungual bones; and the

Vomer, extending between the middle ridge of the
sphenoidal and the junction of the palate bones with-
in the nose like a plate, so as to form the greater part
of the bony partition between the nostrils.

The lower javo bone resembles the capital letter U,
with its extremities turned at an obtuse angle up-
wards and backwards ; it is narrowest at the chin,
and its branches gradually diverge to the angle,
where its sides rise into two remarkable processes,
one backward, terminating in a rounded flattened
head, articulating with the temporal bone before the
zygomatic process, and the other pointed with a deep
furrow within, for the attachment of one of the strong
muscles by which the lower jaw is raised and presag-
ed against the upper. The substance of the body of
this bone is hollowed into two canals, communicating
by holes with the back of the mouth, and externally
with the sides of the chin. In its upper edge are
formed the sockets of the lower teeth.

Facial angle. — In comparing the skulls of different
animals, it is of consequence to attend to what is
called the facial angle, which is formed by two ima-
ginary lines supposed to be drawn, the one horizon-
tally, in a direction parallel to the floor of the nos-
trils, and the other upwards, touching the inferior
margin of the upper sockets of the tqeth and the
most projecting fore-part of the skull. This angle is
greatest in the human subject, especially in a well
formed European, and in those quadrupeds which
most nearly resemble man, as apes ; becoming gra-
dually more acute as we proceed downward in the
scale of animals to cetacea, birds, reptiles, andjishes.

Varieties of form, &-c. — The skulls of different ani-
mals vary considerably in their general appearance,
composition, and proportion, between the cranium
and the face. In a few instances, as in the ourang-
outang and the elephant, the vertical diameter of the
head is at least equal to its horizontal diameter ; but
in most cases the reverse is found to prevail. The
head is roundest in quadrupeds, birds, and most rep-
tiles and longest in some ot the cetacea, most fishes,
and in crocodiles among reptiles.

The proportion between the cranium and face is
extremely various, though it generally observes a
pretty regular gradation as we descend from man to
fishes. In the human subject the cranium is about
four times as large as the face ; in apes and monkeys
more than twice as large ; in baboons, and most
beasts of prey, the proportion is nearly equal. In the
ruminating quadrupeds, again, the face is double the
cranium ; in the hippopotamus, or river horse, the

A N A T O M Y.

285

Bones, Stc. latter is three time? as large ns the former; and in
the horse it is four times as large. In some oi" the
cetaceous animals the outline of the cranium is very
large, in proportion to that of the face. In birds,
again, in reptiles, and in fishes, the area of the face
is many times greater than that of the cranium.

With respect to the number of bones composing
the head, this does not differ so much as might have
been expected. The cranium of quadrupeds is ge-
nerally composed of the same number of pieces as
that of man, though, in some instances, the frontal,
or splienoidal bones are divided into two, and in
others the parietal bones are closely cemented toge-
ther. In the elephant, all the principal bones of the
cranium are consolidated info one uniform long shell.
In the cetacea, the parietal, occipital, and temporal
bones are united.

There is a remarkable difference between man and
quadrupeds, in tlie situation of the great occipital
hole. In man this hole is almost in the middle of the
base of the skull, and in nearly a horizontal position.
In apes, especially the ourang-outang, which some-
times imitates man in his erect posture, this hole is
situated a little farther back ; while in the lower
quadrupeds it is still nearer the back of the head,
and is so placed as to form a considerable angle with
the horizon.

The trunk The bones of the trunk are arranged

by anatomists under three divisions ; the spine, or
vertebral column, the pelvis or basin, and the tho-
rax or chest ; and this division, with the exception
of the pelvis, holds in all the classes of vertebral ani-
mals.

Vertebra,— The spine consists of numerous pieces,
called vertebra, which are divided into those of the
neck, back, and loins. Each vertebra, except the
one next the head, which is little more than a bony
ring, with two depressions for receiving the condyles
of the occipital bone, is divided into a body, a pro-
cess extending backwards, and generally more or less
pointed, called ,'(/;/«o!W process; one extending oneach
side outwards, called transverse processes ; and two
on each side, one above and one below, with articu-
lating surfaces, having an oblique direction, and
therefore called oblique processes. The body of the
vertebra is more or less of a rounded form, with a
smooth, flat, or rather concave surface, next the spi-
nous process, where there is a considerable hole, and
having two flattish surfaces for its articulation to the
contiguous vertebrae.

The vertebra of the neck, which, in the human sub-
ject, are seven in number, are distinguished from the
rest by having a circular hole through each of their
transverse processes. Their bodies are also smaller,
and the great hole proportionally largcn-. The se-
cond of them has a process standing perpendicularly
from the body, shaped somewhat like a blunt tooth,
and resting against the inner fore-part of the verte-
bra above, which is articulated with the head, and
turns round to a certain extent upon the second ver-
tebra. The first cervical vertebra is called atlas, as
supporting the head.

The vertebra of the back differ from the rest in hav-
ing their bodies very convex, the spinous processes
long, pointed, and sloping downwards, and lateral

depressions on each side for the articulation of the Bones, &o.
ribs. In man, they are twelve in number.

The vertebra of the loins are distinguished by the
spinous processes, which are strong, blunt, and ho-
rizontal, and by the want of lateral articulating sur-
faces. Their number in man is five.

All these vertebrae are united to each other in two
ways. Between their bodies there is interposed a li-
gamento-cartilaginous substance, which, from its elas-
ticity, enables the bones to move freely on each other,
and by their oblique processes they are so articulat-
ed, and, as it were, wedged among each other, while
their connexion is strengthened by numerous liga-
ments and muscles, as not easily to suffer dislocation.
When united, the large holes between the bodies and
spinous processes form a long continuous canal,
which, in the recent body, is lined with a strong
membrane, and contains that part of the nervous sys-
tem commonly called the spinal marrow. Besides
the lateral holes in the cervical vertebrae, through
which important blood-vessels pass to the inside of
the head, there are numerous orifices between the
vertebrae for the passage of blood-vessels and nerves.
The vertebral column does not form one straight
line, but is variously bent in different parts. That
part of the neck next the head retires a little back-
wards, while the rest of the neck advances forwards.
The dorsal vertebrae form a curve, with its convexity
next the back, and in the lumbar vertebrae the con-
vexity is carried forwards. These various inflections
answer several good purposes. Besides assisting in en-
larging the cavities on the one hand, and supporting
their contents on the other, they have considerable
effect in balancing the several parts of the body, and
regulating the centre of gravity.

Varieties. — The comparative differences in the ver-
tebral column respect the number of pieces of which
it is composed, and the greater or less complication
of their structure. It is remarkable that almost all
quadrupeds agree with man in having seven cervical
vertebrae. The long-necked giraffe and camel have
no more than the mole or the mouse. One excep-
tion only is known, the three-toed sloth, which is said
to have nine cervical vertebrae. The number of dor-
sal vertebra;, again, differs in the various tribes, ac-
cording to the number of ribs. Some of the apes
and lemurs haive fourteen, one species of ant-eater
sixteen, the horse eighteen, the elephant nineteen,
and the two-toed sloth twenty-three. In the cetace-
ous animals the number of cervical vertebrae may be
considered as seven, though many of them are so ce-
mented or united together as to form but one piece.

Birds differ from other vertebral animals in the
number and composition of the vertebrae. In general
they have more cervical vertebnc than other animals,
the number varying from ten to twenty-three, and
they are articulated by cylindrical eminences, so as
to admit of free and extensive motion. The dorsal
vertebra;, which vary in number from seven to eleven,
are so cemented together as to be immoveable, and
the rest of the spine forms another consolidated im-
moveable piece of bone.

In some reptiles, as turtles and tortoises, the ver-
tebrae of the back are cemented together, and united
to the upper shell ; but in the other orders they are

286

ANATOMY.

Bones, &c. distinct. In serpents the number of vertebrae is very
considerable.

In some fishes the number of pieces in the vertebral
column is very great. Thus, for instance, the eel has
more than a hundred vertebrae, and some sharks have
above two hundred. In both these last classes the
structure of the vertebras is very simple, and their
processes either very few, or extremely minute.

Pelvis. — The pelvis is situated at the lower extre-
mity of the spine, and is composed of four principal
bones, two forming a continuation of the vertebral
column, called sacrum and coccyx, and one on each
side, large and irregular, which has no proper name
for the whole, though its several parts have been
distinguished by particular appellations.

The sacrum in man is a large triangular bone,
broadest at its upper part, where it is firmly united
to the last vertebrae of the loins, convex behind and
bending forward below, so as to form a concavity on
its anterior surface. It bears the marks of having,
in the foetal state, consisted of five separate bones,
now cemented together. At its upper, or large ex-
tremity, is the termination of the vertebral canal,
and through its substance are formed four pairs of
holes, for the passage of nerves and blood-vessels.
On its back part are spinous processes.

The coccyx, or rump-bone, is small and triangular,
and is articulated with the sacrum, which it resembles
ia its general structure and original conformation.

The side bones of the pelvis are each composed of
three parts, one broad .and flat, called ilium, or
haunch-bone, convex externally, concave within,
with a thick rough margin, and ending below in a
hollow that forms part of a considerable cavity for
lodging the head of the thigh bone ; a second, called
ischium, or hip-bone, forming the lowest part of the
pelvis, of an irregular arched form, convex on its
lower edge, and rising upwards to form another part of
the great cavity ; and a third stretching from the lower
part of the ^7^«n^ in front, and, meeting its fellow on
tJie opposite side, so as to form a strong bony arch in
front of the pelvis, caWeApubes, or share-bone. Where
this last joins the ilium it is very thick, and helps to
form the large cavity, or acetabulum, for the articu-
lation of the thigh-bone. Between the share-bone
and the ischium, on each side, there is formed a large
hole called thyroid, which, in the recent subject, is
nearly closed by a strong ligamentous membrane.
The whole pelvis taken together forms a large open-
ing, or cavity.

The comparative anatomy of the pelvis shews us that
in no animal, except man, has it that hollow basin-
like appearance. Its parts are proportionally smaller
and more elongated in quadrupeds than in man, and
some of those animals have the pelvis open in front.
Cetaceous animals have no pelvis, but only a pair of
small bones, resembling the pubes, next the tail. The
coccyx is much longer in most quadrupeds than in
man, forming, in fact, the bony part of the tail.

The pelvis of birds is most perfect in the ostrich,
as in most of them the two side bones are at a consi-
derable distance from each other. In these animals
there is a coccyx, composed of from seven to nine
pieces, to support the tail.

The pelvis of most regtiles is very small, and ge-

nerally very imperfect, serving, in most instances, gonci, &«.
merely for the articulation of the hind legs. Fishes
have no pelvis.

Bones of the chest — The thorax, or chest, in man is
composed of the twelve dorsal vertebrae already de-
scribed, twelve ribs on each side, and the sternum, or
breast bone.

The ribs are not all of equal size, the middle ones
being the longest and roundest. They are all more
or less arched, so as to form a considerable convexity
externally, and a corresponding concavity within.
They are flattened on their convex surface, especial-
ly towards the breast-bone, and the upper edge is
rounder than the lower, in which latter there is a
groove internally for lodging nerves and blood-ves-
sels. Seven of these ribs are called true, and are ar-
ticulated with the breast-bone, through the medium
of long flat cartilages, whose length increases as the
ribs descend ; and the other five are termed false ribs,
because the cartilages attached to them do not reach
the breast bone- AH the ribs are fixed each between
two vertebrae, by an articulating head, and a flatten-
ed tubercle beyond the head, admitting of considera-
ble motion upwards and downwards, and thus enlarg-
ing or contracting the cavity of the chest.

The sternum, or breast-bone, of the human subject,
is generally composed of three parts ; one next the
neck, nearly resembling a heart, with the upper ))art
very thick and notched in the middle; a second, long,
thin, and narrow, compared with the former ; and a
third, smaller than the other two, generally more or
less pointed at its extremity, and somewhat cartila-
ginous, hence called the ensiform cartilage. Along
each side of the sternum are seven holes for the in-
sertion of the true ribs, and on each side of the heart-
shaped portion there is a cavity for the articulation
of the collar-bones.

The thorax of quadrupeds is generally longer,
narrower from side to side, and deeper from back to
breast, than in man ; the sternum is longer and nar-
rower, and composed of more pieces ; and the ribs
are straighter and generally more numerous, follow-
ing the proportion of the dorsal vertebrae. Among
these animals, however, bats and armadillos have on-
ly eleven pairs of ribs.

The thorax of birds has several peculiarities. The
ribs are few in number, perhaps never exceeding ten
pairs ; and the sternum, besides being broader and
thinner, has a remarkable broad, thin, and sharp pro-
cess, extending perpendicularly from its middle, thus
allowing large and deep spaces for the attachment
of those strong muscles which move the wings.

Some reptiles, have a very large and extensive ster-
num, as turtles and tortoises, when the office of that
bone is supplied by the lower shell or breastplate,
and the crocodile, which, besides the ordinary ster-
num, has an additional bony plate, extending from
the thorax to the pelvis. Some of them, as the sala-
mander, have ribs but no sternum, while others, as
the frog, have a sternum but no ribs. In many, as
the lizards and chameleons, the ribs are very nume-
rous. This is also the case with serpents, which
have a prodigous number of ribs, but no sternum.
In fishes the structure of the thorax is similar to that
of serpents, except that in some the ribs arc not con-

ANATOMY.

■oiie», fee. nected with the vertebrse, and in the cartilaginous
fishes tliere are no proper ribs at all.

For the sake of general application in comparative
anatomy, we shall, with Dr Barclay, divide the ex-
tremities into atlantal and sacral, the former boing
those next the head, the latter those at the opposite
end of the body.

The atlantal extremities in man consist of the scapula,
or blade-bone ; the clavicle, or collar-bone ; the /;«•
mcrus, or shoulder-bone ; the radius and ulna, or
bones of the fore-arm ; eight bones of the carpus or
wrist ; five metacarpal bones in the palm of the hand ;
two phalanxes, or joints of the thumb, and three of
each of the fingers.

The blade-bone, is that broad triangular bone which
is situated on the back, covering the upper ribs, be-
ing broadest at its upper or atlantal edge, and be-
coming gradually narrower towartls its lower or sac-
ral points ; its longest side next the vertebrae is called
the base. On the side next the ribs it is concave,
and convex on the other side ; and across this convex
part, near the top, extends a perpendicular process,
called the spine, which separates the convex part of
the bone into two unequal portions. The spine ter-
minates in a broad flat process called acromion, and
near this there proceeds from the body of the bone a
crooked pointed process, called coracoid. Between
these, and a little lower, the bone is very thick, and
forms a broad superficial cavity for the articulation
of the shoulder-bone.

The coUar-bone is long and round, and has nearly
the form of the long italic lettery; It extends be-
tween the acromion process of the blade-bone, to
which it is united by a broad flat extremity, and the
heart-shaped part of the breast-bone, where it retains
its cylindrical form. The chief use of this bone is to
keep the blade-bone and arm in a proper position,
and regulate their motions.

The humerus is long, cylindrical, a little twisted,
and, like all the other long bones, smallest in the mid-
dle. Next the scapula, it terminates in a large round
smooth head, situated a little obliquely with respect
to the body of the bone, and surrounded by a rough
furrow, and on the outside, near the head, is a con-
siderable tubercle ; at the other extremity, where the
bone becomes broader, there are several processes,
particularly two condyles, and a smooth part between
them, which, in the motions of the elbow, performs
the office of a pully. From the upper and fore part
of the bone, near the large tubercle, there is formed
a remarkable groove for lodging the tendon of one of
the large muscles of the arm.

Of the tvio bones of the fore-arm the ulna is the larg-
est at the extremity next the humerus, where it forms
the elbow, by a process projecting backwards, and a
hollow for receivmg the pulley of the humerus. Hence
it passes in a direction a little curved, tapering to-
wards the wrist, where it terminates, on the side next
the little finger, in a roundish head and a small pro-
jecting point.

The radius is smallest next the humerus, with which
it is articulated by a round head, and with the side
of the ulna by a lateral tubercle ; hence it passes to
the wrist, growing a little larger as it proceeds, and
is articulated by a considerably irregular surface to

287

the bones on the side of the hand next the thumb.
Between the radius and ulna passes a strong liga-
ment called interosseous, which strengthens the con-
nection of the bones, regulates their motions, and
assists in giving attachment to muscles.

The bones of the carpus, or wrist, are eight in num-
ber, and are placed in two rows ; three of them, viz.
the scaphoid, lunar, and cunei/orm, being articulated
with the radius and ulna, and five others, caWedpisi/brm,
trapezium, trapezoid, the large bone, and the unciform]
or hook-like bone, connected on one side with the
three bones just mentioned, and on the other with
the metacarpal bones.

The metacarpal bones constitute the frame-work of
the palm of the hand. They are long, terminate at
each extremity in a head, are flattened next the in-
side of the palm, and rounded next the back of the
hand. One belonging to the thumb, has a freer ar-
ticulation than the rest, and is therefore moveable in
more directions.

The phalanxes, or bones of the fingers, resemble
the metacarpal bones, except that they are shorter
and more cylindrical. Those forming the tips of the
fingers and thumb are the shortest and flattest, and
have a rough surface near their extremities. The
articulation of all these bones forms a simple superfi-
cial hinge, except where the bones of the fingers
join the metacarpal bones, where the articulation is
more free and the motion less confined.

Almost all the vertebral animals, except serpents,
possess atlantal extremities. In quadrupeds and rep-
tiles they constitute the fore legs, except that in bats
and flying squirrels, among the former, and in the
flying dragons of the latter class, they perform the
office rather of wings than legs ; in cetaceous ani-
mals they form the swimming paws, or, as they arc
improperly termed, the pectoral fns ; in birds, they
are the wings ; and in fishes they support the real
pectoral fins.

All quadrupeds, cetaceous animals, birds, and most
reptiles, have a scapuln ; and in fishes there is a bone
supporting the bones of the pectoral fin, which re-
sembles a scapula in office, if not in figure.

A considerable number of quadrupeds have no cla-
vicle, though it is by no means confined to apes, le-
murs, and bats, or the order denominated by Linn6
primates. It is found in all those quadrupeds that
make much use of their fore-legs ; either for holding
objects, as the squirrel and beaver ; for climbing, as
the sloth ; for digging and raking the ground, as the
mole, the ant-eater, and the hedgehog. Some other
quadrupeds, as the fera and some glires, have a small
bone analogous to a clavicle, but not immediately ar-
ticulated with the other bones. Cetaceous animals
have no clavicle.

There is a peculiarity of structure in birds which
deserves particular attention. The bone in poultry,
which, in the vulgar language of the table, is called
hug-me-close, really consists of two bones, the sca-
pula, which lies horizontally and nearly parallel to
the vertebrae, and is flat, and more or less broad,
and the clavicle, which is cylindrical, and passes
down at a considerable angle with the scapula to
be articulated with the breast-bone. Besides these,
there is a fork-like bone, commonly called the merrjf

Bones, &o.

288

ANATOMY.

Bones, &c. thought, having its angular point articulated with the
most prominent part of the keel of the breast-bone,
and the ends of its two branches join to the clavicle
and scapula where these are united. By this me-
chanism, the wings are kept from approaching too
near each other in the rapid motions of flying, while
the whole articulation of the atlantal extremities is
strengthened.

Many reptiles have a clavicle, which, in tortoises,
is articulated with the humerus. No clavicle is found
in fishes.

The humerus forms an essential part of the atlan-
tal extremity in all the vertebral animals that have
articulated members ; but it is generally shorter,
proportionally stronger, and more crooked than in
man.

The radius and ulna are likewise very generally
found in all these animals, though the former is want-
ing in the bat ; and, in some cases, the two bones
are closely united. In some reptiles, too, they form
but a single bone, divided at each extremity into
two conical pieces. They are not found in fishes.

Carpal and metacarpal bones are found in quadru-
peds, cetaceous animals, birds, and reptiles, but vary
considerably in their structure and proportion. In
most quadrupeds the metacarpal bones are extremely
long, forming what is called the leg. In cetaceous
animals, again, these bones are short and thick. In
birds there are two carpal and two metacarpal bones,
of which the latter are consolidated together.

Several animals, both quadrupeds and reptiles, and
some cetacea, resemble man very nearly in the struc-
ture of the fore-paw. This is particularly the case
with the primates in the first class, sand the porpoise
in the last. In many quadrupeds, however, the num-
ber of toes is small, often two, and in some instances
only one ; and very few have what may be properly
termed a thumb.

The sacral extremity in man is composed of the
thigh-bone, the patella or knee-pan, two bones of the
leg called tibia and fibula, seven bones of the tarsus
or instep, five of the metatarsus, and fourteen of
the toes.

The thigh-bone is the longest and strongest of the
human body. It is articulated with the pelvis by a
large spherical head set to the body of the bone by
a long cylindrical neck, at the base of which there are
two protuberances called the greater and less tro-
chunters. The bone becomes broader and flatter as
it passes to the knee, where it terminates in two
very prominent condyles and a middle pulley.

The patella, rotula, or knee-pan, is of a rounded
triangular form, narrowest next the leg, convex ex-
ternally, and concave and very smooth internally,
where it covers the knee. It is not firmly con-
nected with the thigh-bone, but is loosely articulated,
through the medium of strong tendons and a liga-
ment.

The tibia forms the principal bone of the leg. It
is not cylindrical, having a sharp ridge in front, con-
stituting what is called the shin. It is largest at the
end which joins the thigh-bone, where there are two
superficial cavities divided by a double prominent
ridge for receiving the condyles of that bone. It
again grows large at the instep, where it terminates

in two protuberances, of which the larger forms the jones Sec-
inner ancle.

The Jibida i« a long slender bone, of nearly equal
size throughout its whole extent, except that its two
extremities are a little enlarged. It passes down on
the outside of the tibia, has a small head, with a su-
perficial cavity on one side by which it is connected
with the upper side of the tibia, and terminates be-
low in an oblong flattened protuberance that forms
the outer ancle.

The knee-joint, formed by the thigh-bone, tibia
and patella, is a very curious piece of mechanismi
The condyles of the thigh-bone do not rest imme-
diately on the corresponding hollows of the tibia,
but there is interposed between them on each side
a flat cartilaginous substance of a semilunar form,
and thickest at the edge, by which the pressure and
friction of the one bone against the other are dimi-
nished. Tlie articulation is greatly strengthened by
strong lateral ligaments, and crucial ligaments be-
hind ; while the tendinous and ligamentous expansion
attached to the patella gives additional strength to
the fore-part of the joint, and the whole is secured
by a firm and complicated capsular ligament.

The tarsus, or instep, is formed of the heel-lone
projecting behind, the astragalus, supported on the
heel-bone, and having a smooth round process for
the articulation of the tibia, the navicular bone, join-
ing the fore part of the astragalus on the inside next
the great toe, the cuboid bone, connected on the
other side with the fore part of the heel-bone, and
three cuneiform bones, that form a separate row, for
the articulation of the metatarsal bones.

Of the metatarsal bones, that which supports the
great toe is the thickest and strongest. In general
they resemble the bones of the metacarpus, except
that they are proportionally larger, flatter on the
sides, and the round heads by which they are arti-
culated with the bones of the toes are smaller.

Tlie plialaiixes of' the toes very nearly resemble
those of the fingers, and are articulated in a similar
manner.

The form of the human Jbot is admirably adapted
both to support the great weight which it is required
to sustain, and to facilitate the motions of walking
and running, without allowing these motions to be
so free and lax as to encounter the risk of frequent
dislocation. The bones of the tarsus and metatarsus
are so connected together as to form a very secure
arch, the highest part of which is the astragalus,
which forms a sort of keystone to the whole fabric,
while the foot rests chiefly on the projecting part of
the heel-bone and the distant extremities of the me-
tatarsal bones, as on the buttresses of the main arch.
The bones are so firmly connected together by arti-
culating surfaces and surrounding ligaments as not
easily to be displaced, while they allow such a de-
gree of motion as to prevent too great a shock of the
body in the various actions in which the feet are
chiefly employed.

All quadrupeds have the sacral extremities ; for
though some of these animals, as seals and walrus-
ses, appear to have no hind legs, they have bones
connected with the pelvis perfectly analogous to the
thigh-bone, &c. though they approach too near each

ANATOMY.

289

Benes, See. Otlier, and are thrown too far backwards to serve the
purposes of feet. In a few instances, as in apes and
bears, the ibrni and proportion oi' the several parts of
the sacral extremity nearly resemble those of man, ex-
cept that the heel is raised more above the groui.d in
walking. In tlie majority of quadrupeds, however, the
thi^h-bone is very short, and projects butlittle from the
body. Many quadrupeds also want the fibula. Here
we must notice a particular construction that pre-
vails in the ruminating quadrupeds, and those of the
horse tribe, both in the atlantal and sacral extremi-
ties. What is properly the knee in all these animals,
that is, the conjunction of the thighbone and tibia, is
situated far up the limb, and is entirely hidden by
flesh ; but there is a long metacarpal or metatarsal
bone, called in veterinary anatomy the cannon, and
the carpus is improperly termed the knee. From
the distant extrenlity of the cannon commences the
foot, consisting, as in man, of three phalanxes, called
m \he horse the srcat pastern, the little pastern, and
the coffin bone. Thus these animals rest on the point
of the toes.

There are no sacral extremities in cetaceous ani-
mals. In birds they resemble those of man and qua-
drupeds, consisting of a moderately long cylindri-
cal thigh-bone, a tibia, to which, in some instances,
there is added a small slender fibula, closely adher-
ing to the tibia, a single long metatarsal bone, arti-
culated with the tibia, without the intervention of a
tarsus, and generally either three or four toes. These
toes are differently situated in different tribes. Some,
as the ostrich and the plover, have them all pointing
forward ; a few, as woodpeckers, have two directed
forwards, and two backwards ; but, in most instances,
three of them stand forwards and one backwards.

Almost all reptiles have sacral extremities when
arrived at their perfect state, one of the most re-
markable exceptions to this rule being the siren. In
their general structure they resemble those of qua-
drupeds.

Fishes cannot be said to have sacral extremities,
though their abdominal fins have sometimes been re-
presented as analogous to those organs.

We have now noticed all the bones of the skele-
ton, except one attached to the tongue, which we
shall mention when describing that organ, some
small bones, constituting a part of the internal organ
of hearing, to be noticed under Sensation, and the
teeth, which will be considered under the head of
Mastication. In reckoning up all the bones that
compose the human skeleton, we find them to amount
to about 240.

The proper moving organs of the animal borli/ are
the muscles. These are bundles or masses of fleshy
fibres, of a red colour in the warm-blooded animals,
and of a whitish colour in the cold-blooded. They
are generally found next the surface of the body,
covering the skeleton, but a few of theni are within
the principal cavities ; and indeed there are but few
of the soft organs of which muscular fibres do not
form a part. A large and strong muscular expan-
sion separates the chest from the belly, and the heart
itself is principally a large hollow muscle. It is
with the external muscles, however, which are attach-
ed to the bones, that we are now chiefly concerned.

VOL. I. PART I.

The nmscles are generally composed of two parts ; Bones, &«;
one called the belly of the muscle, composed entire- ^
ly or chiefly of fleshy fibres, collected together first
into small bundles, and these again into larger, and
arranged for the most part parallel to each other ;
the other a white glistening substance, similar to li-
gament, and called tendon or sinew, which sometimes
terminates the muscle at one extreuiity, in a few in-
stances at both, and is sometimes extended along
one side, into which the bundles of fleshy fibres are
inserted.

Most of the muscles are attached to bones, gene-
rally by both extremities, and as in many instances
one of the bones is more moveable than the other,
the attachment of the muscle to the less moveable
bone is called its origin, and that to the more move-
able bone its insertion.

In classing the muscles according to their real or
supposed offices, those which bring two bones nearer
together have been called adductors ; those which draw
them more apart abductors ; those which bend a joint
are denominated ^eaow ; those which extend it ex-
tensors; and when two muscles, or two sets of
muscles, act in opposition to each other, they are
said to be antagonists.

Muscles have also received various names accord-
ing to the direction of their component fibres. Thus,
when the fibres run in a longitudinal direction they are
called straight muscles, and when they run in an
inclined direction the muscle is called oblique. In
the latter case there is sometimes a middle tendon
with fibres inserted obliquely into it on each side,
forming what is called a pennijorm muscle ; in a few
cases there are two or three origins, and only one in-
sertion, to a muscle. In this case it is said to have
two or three heads, and is called biceps or triceps.

In enumerating the muscles of the human body,
we shall adopt nearly the arrangement of Albinus
dividing the body into regionsj'and noticing the prin-
cipal offices of the muscles which are situated in
each region, premising, that, as the body is divisible
into two equal and similar halves, the muscles
are enumerated in pairs, as they are generally situ-
ated on both sides of the body.

Two pairs occupy the skull, and serve chiefly to
contract the skin that covers it ; these are called
occipito^rontales and corrugatores supercilii. Eight
muscles occupy the space about each eye, and with-
in each orbit, viz. one for closing the eye-lids, orbi-
cularis palpebrarum ; one for raising the upper eye-
lid, levator palpebrce supcrioris ; and six for movmg
the eye-ball in various directions, rectus attoUens oculi,
rectus deprimens oculi, rectus adducens oculi, rectus
abducens oculi, obliquus superior oculi, and obliquus in-
fcrior oculi. One pair is ^situated on the nose, and
called compressores narium. Eleven pairs are situated
about the ear, or within its internal cavity, viz. attol-
lentes aurem, anteriores auricula', relrahcntes auricu-
lam, tragici, antitragici, majores helicis, minores helicis,
transversi auriculce, cxtcriii mallei, tensores tympani,
stapedii. Eight pairs and one simple nmscle form the
fleshy part of the cheeks and lips, acting chiefly upon
the latter, viz. Levatores/ingtdorutn oris, Icvatores Inhii
supcrioris alnrumque nasi, depressores labii superioris
alarjimque nasi, depressores labii iiiferioris, depressores
o o

290

ANATOMY.

bres

B<Sne5 8tc. aiigiilorum oris, zygomatici, biiccinatores, levatores labii
iH/rrioris, and orbicularis oris. Connected with the
lower jaw more immediately are four pairs ; two which
draw it directly upwards, the temporal and masselers ;
and two which, acting separately, move it to a side,
while together they assist the former, pterygoidei ex-
terni and interni. Connected also with the lower jaw,
and generally drawing it downwards, are four pairs,
bivcntres maxiUce, mylo-hyodei, genio-hyodei, andigenio-
hyo-glossi. Connected with the tongue and back of
the mouth are ten pairs, and one single muscle, viz.
linguales, hyo-glossi, stylo-glossi, stylo hyoidei, stylo
pharyyigei, circumjlexi palati mollis, levatores pcuati
mollis, palati-pharyngei, constrictores pharyngis, con-
strictoresisthmifaucium, andazygos uvulce ; the three
first pairs of which perform most of the motions of
the tongue, while the rest assist in the act of swallow-
ing. Eleven pairs are connected with the larynx, or
top of the wind-pipe, and may be called muscles of
the voice, though many of them assist in swallowing,
viz. Crico-thyroidei, crico-pharyngei, crico-arytenoidei,
.siylo-thyroidei, thyro-hyoidei, thyro-epiglottidei, thyro-
arytenoidei, thyro-pharyngei, tnyro-staphylini, aryte-
Twidei, aryteno-epiglottidei.

Seventeen pairs are situated about the neck, and
more or less attached to the head, viz. sterno-thy-
roidei, stemo-hyodei, latissimi colli, sterno-mastoidei,
omo-hyoidei, coraco-hyoidei, longi colli, trachelo-mastoi'
dei, splenii capitis, recti capitis interni, recti capitis la-
teralis, recti capitis postici majores and minores, com-
plexi, obliqui capitis superiores and injeriores, and tra-
pezii. Of these the hrst five, when acting in pairs,
draw the head downwards, while acting singly they
turn the head to one side, and most of the rest turn
the head round upon the neck. Many of them also
assist in swallowing. The last of them, acting toge-
ther, draw the head and bend the neck backwards.

Besides these there are twenty-two pairs or sets of
muscular fibres on each side, covering the back of
the neck, the back, breast, loins, and belly, which
are not connected with the head or extremities, but
serve to perform the principal motions of the spine,
act upon the ribs in respiration, and form the walls
of the bellj'. These are, interspiualcs colli ; spinales
cervicis ; interlransversarii colli ; transversales cervi-
cis ; cervicales desceiidentes ; multijidi spinae ; semi-
spinales dorsi ; serrati postici, superiores and itiferi-
ores; sculeni; levatores costarum duarum; quadrati lum-
borum ; sacro-lumbales ; longissimi dorsi; psoae parvi;
obliqui eiterni abdominis ; obliqui interni abdominis ;
iransversi abdominis; recti abdominis; triangulares
sterni, and intercostales externi and interni.

Five pairs, and one single set of fibres, are also
found about what is called the perinaeum, acting chief-
ly on the rectum and genital organs, viz. coccygei ;
curvatores coccygis ; levatores ani ; sphincter ani ; acce-
leratores urinae, and transversales perinaei.

About forty-five pairs, and several sets of muscular
fibres, are connected with the atlantal extremity, from
the shoulder to the fingers. Of these five pairs act
Riore immediately on the scapula, as the subclavii,
rhomboidei, kvaiores scapulae, serrati antici, serrati
majores ; ten pairs are inserted into the humerus,
which they move in every possible direction, accord-
ing; to their situation and the direction of their £•

viz. deltoidei, peciorales, supraspinati, injra* ^^^

spinati, teretes majores and minores, subscapulares, co- . ~ ■

raco-brachiales, tricipites, and latissimi dorsi ; eleven
pairs are concerned chiefly in the motions of the
ibre-arm, bending or extending the elbow, rolling
the radius, so as to place the hand in the prone po-
sition, or with the palm downwards, or in the supine
position with the palm upwards, and occasionally
tiiey act upon the humerus and carpus or wrist, as
the bicipites brachii, brachiales interni, radiales exter-
ni, supinatores longi, ulnnres externi, anconei, supina-
torcs breves, ulnares interni, radiales interni, pronato-
res tei'cles, andpronatores quadrati ; and nineteen pairs
are concernea in the various motions of the fingers,
viz. extensores communes digitorum, extensores majores
poinds, extensores minores pollicis, abductores longi poU
licis, Jlexores longi pollicis, abductores breves polTicis,
opponentes pollicis, Jlexores breves pollicis, adductores
pollicis, sitfdimes profundi, palmares longi, palmares
breves, indicatores, abductores indicum, extensores digi-
torum minimorum, ahdtictores digitorum minimorum,
Jlexores parvi digitorum miyiimorum, adductores meta-
carpi digitorum minimorum ; besides several bundles
of muscular fibres, called lunibricales and interossei,
lying in the palm of the hand, and partly betweea..
the metacarpal bones.

About forty-eight pairs or bundles of muscles are
connected with the sacral extremity, reckoning from
the pelvis to the toes. Of these, ten pairs lie chiefly
in the region of the pelvis, and are attached to the
thigh-bone, which they move in various directions,
and, when that is fixed, assist in bending the body.
These are, the psoae magni, iliaci interni, glutei mag-
ni, medii and minores, pyrifoi-mes, gemini, obturatores
interni, pectinei, and obturatores externi. Fourteen
pairs are seated chiefly on the thigh, and act partly
on the knee-joint and partly on the thigh, or even
the trunk of the body, viz. quadrati Jemorum, bicepi-
tes crurum, semi-iendinosi, semi-membranosi, tensores va-
ginae^fanorum, recti crurum, sartorii, vasti externi and
interni, crurales, adductores longi Jemorum, adductores
breves Jemorum, adductores magni Jemorum, and gract-
les. Twelve pairs lie chiefly on the leg, and act,
some on the knee-joint, some on the foot or toes,
and some occasionally on either, according as the
one or the other may be more fixed. These are the
gemelli, solei, (both forming the chief part of the calf
of the leg) plantares, poplitei, Jlexores longi digitorum
pedis, tibiales postici, Jlexores longi polhcimi pedum,
peronei longi and breves, extensores longi digitorum
pedum, peronei tertii, tibiales antici, and extensores pro-
prii pollicum pedum. The rest, amounting to eight
pairs, and several independent bundles, are found
about the foot and between the toes, of which they
regulate themotions, y'lz.extensorcs breves digitorum pe-
dumjlexoresbrevesdigitorum pedum, abductores pollicum ■
pedum, abductores digitorum minimorum pedum, JleX' ^ .
ores breves pollicum pednm, adductores pollicum pedum,
iransversi pedum, jtexpres breves digitorum mimmorum
pedum, lumbricales pedum, and interossei pedum.

Thus it appears that there are above four hundred
distinct muscles in the human body, of which the
greater proportion is concerned in the motions of the
head and face and the extremities.

The physiology of the muscular motions is of consia

ANATOMY.

291

Saaet, 8tc. derable importance ; but we must here confine our-
selves to general remarks. When a muscle acts, its
fibres contract and are shortened. Hence the whole
muscle swells, becomes broader and thicker, while
its whole length is proportionally diminished, and it
feels to the touch harder and tenser than in its natu-
ral state.

The shortening of muscles, by the contraction of
their fibres, is in proportion as they are inserted more
obliquely into the tendon. Hence we see the reason
why most of the muscles of the human body are
composed of oblique fibres, since a small contraction
of the fibres may produce a considerable action of
the whole muscle. Again, a muscle composed of op-
posite oblique fibres, or what is called a penniform
muscle, acts with much greater force than one which
has but a single row of oblique fibres.

All those muscles that are inserted into bones, are
thus furnished with levers ; and as in levers in gene-
ral the action is different, according to the relative
situation of the fulcrum, the power and the resist-
ance, the same takes place in the muscular motions
of the animal body. Thus, when the head moves
backwards and forwards on the atlas, the fulcrum
furnished by this bone lies between the resistance,
that is, the weight of the head and the power, that
is, the contracting muscles, as in what the writers on
mechanics call a lever of the first kind. Again, when
the heel is raised by the action of the muscles com-
posing the calf of the leg, the resistance represent-
ed by the pressure of the tibia upon the astragalus,
is between the power acting at the heel and the
fulcrum at the toes, or the lever is of the second
kind. Lastly, when we raise a weight held at the
palm of the hand, by bending the elbow we use a le-
ver of the third kind, in which the power exerted at
the elbow is between the resistance at the palm of
the hand and the fulcrum at the lower end of the
humerus.

The motions of the bones, as produced by the
muscles, are the combined effect of different forces,
and hence a small number of muscles is capable of
producing, with steadiness and accuracy, an almost
mfinite variety of motions by the various combina-
tions in which they act. Thus we have seen, that
only about forty-five muscles are required to produce
the infinitely varied motions of the human arm and
hand, by which so many ingenious arts are exercised,
and such wonderful examples of mechanical genius
are produced.

The contracting power of muscles is said to be ow-
ing to their irritability, or the capacity of being excited
to action by an external stimulus. Tiiis property is
supposed to be peculiar to muscular fibre, and con-
tinues to reside in the muscles of some animals for
some time after the life of the animal is extinct.
This is the reason why the parts of an eel, the heart of
a frog, or the head of a tortoise, moves for some time
after it is separated from the body ; and hence the
Galvanic influence throws the muscles of an animal
newly killed into contraction.

Jn the comparative anatomy of the muscles, we may
remark, in the first place, thiit the flesh of all warm-
blooded animals is more or less red like that of man,
smd the general structure and position of the muscles

are very similar in all these classes. Tliere are some
quadrupeds that have fewer muscles tlian man, but
in the greater number there is a very important fleshy
expansion, called the subcutaneous muscle, or fleshy
panicle, which is attached to the skin, and serves to
contract or wrinkle it when the animal wishes to shake
off insects or crush them between the folds of his skin.
The muscles of birds are said to possess less irritabi-
lity than those of quadrupeds, and their tendons are
often bony. Mostreptiles,exceptthosewhichhavevery
long or prehensile tails, have fewer muscles in )>ru-
portion to their size ; but in serpents the muscles are
extremely numerous. In both these classes the mus-
cles are of a pale colour ; but in most fishes they are
white, are destitute of tendons, are proportionally
larger than those of other animals, and are disposed
in layers or flakes. In some of the Crustacea, espe-
cially crabs and lobsters, there are very strong and
large muscles, that move the claws and tail. Insects,
though so full of motion, possess but few muscles, ex-
cept in their larva, or caterpillar state, in which they
are extremely numerous. In the mollusca, on the
contrary, muscles are generally nnmerous, and in
some instances very strong, particularly in the shell
fish. The muscles of worms resemble those of larvae,
or caterpillars.

There are some organs of motion found in the in-
ferior animals different from those we have described
in man. Thus, a great proportion of quadrupeds, al!
cetaceous animals, all birds in a greater or less de-
gree, most reptiles, all serpents, and all fishes, have
a tail which performs many important offices. In
certain cases, as in some monkeys, in opossums, and
in chameleons, it performs the office of a hand,
and enables the animal to take a firmer hold oit
branches of trees, &c. ; in all those animals that swim,
it serves the purpose of an oar or a rudder, to impel
them forward or regulate their course ; in birds it has
great effect in assisting and regulating their flight ;
and to almost all animals it becomes a useful defen-
sive, and to many a very formidable offensive weapon.

Some quadrupeds, as the rhinoceros, the tapir, and
more especially the elephant, have the snout pro-
longed into a proboscis, or trunk, which admirably
supplies the place of hands in seizing objects and
gathering their food.

In several of the mollusca there is a fleshy organ
called the foot, which greatly assists the animals in
their progressive motions, or in their endeavours to
find a speedy retreat from danger.

Among the crustaceous animals and insects there
are several peculiar organs of motion, of which we
may particularise the large claws in crabs and lob-
sters. These are used not so mucli for progressive
motion as to seize the animal's prey, and to break the
hard shells in which it is commonly contained. Thus
they serve the purpose both of hands and teeth, be-
coming at once organs of motion and of mastication.
Similar organs are found in several insects, and many
of these have a proboscis or trunk.

We are now to explain tlie progressive motions of
animals, or the actions of walking, leaping, running,
climbing, flying, and swimming ; but we nmst, in the
first place, make a few remarks on the attitude of
standing.

2

Bailee, if-e.

292

ANATOMY.

Bones. &c. To stantl erect, wlietlipr on two legs or four, no-
thing more is required tiiiiii to exert the extensor
muscles of the legs, so as to preserve the equilibrium
of the body. It is evident that (juudrupeds have in
this respect a great advantage over man, and more es-
pecially over birds ; and hence we iind tlie reason why
the extensor 'muscles of the thigh are proportionally
stronger than those of all other animals. Hence, too,
we see why it is so difficult for dogs, bears, and some
other animals, which are occasionally exhibited in the
attitude of dancing, to support themselves long in
that awkward and unnatural position. The long-neck-
ed birds would find it extremely difficult to support
themselves in a standing position, especially on one
foot, in which attitude they commonly sleep, were it
not for a particular mechanism of the metatarsal
bones, consisting of a particular eminence, which
shuts into a socket at the end of the lihia, in such
a manner as to oppose the flexion of the joint, and
thus keep the limb in a steady position.

In standing on four feet, the|[atlantal extremities
support the greater part of the weight of the body,
as from the great weight of the head and neck in
most quadrupeds, the centre of gravity is thrown for-
wards.

In the action qfivalking the centre of gravity is al-
ternately moved by one part of the extremities and
sustained by the other, so that the body is never at
one time completely suspended above the ground.
In walking on two legs the animal first advances one
foot, so that the advanced leg makes an obtuse
angle with the tarsus, while that behind makes an
acute angle. From the resistance of the ground to
the foot behind, it is necessary to raise the heel and
leg ; and to do this, the trunk, supported on the pelvis,
is moved upwards, forwards, and a little to one side,
moving round the fixed foot as a centre. Thus the
other leg is thrown forward, and rests its foot upon
the ground, while the other now forms an acute angle
with its leg, and gives occasion to a similar motion
»f the trunk on the other side. In these motions the
extensor muscles act first, and the flexors immedi-
ately after. As the undulatory motion that neces-
sarilj' attends walking cannot be perfectly regulated
on both sides, it is evident that a person cannot walk
on a perfectly straight line, and that [to walk in a
direct course requires the assistance of the eyes.
Hence we find, that in the experiments which are
sometimes made to walk or drive a wheel-barrow di-
rectly to a certain object blindfold, the attempt is
uniformly unsuccessi'ul.

In walking upon four feet, the quadruped first slight-
ly bends the hind legs and then extends them so as
to throw the body i'orward ; and now, as by this mo-
tion the fore legs incline backward, the animal would
fall if he did not throw forward the fore legs to sup-
port him. When this is done the body is drawn up
on the fore Jegs, and the former motions repeated. In
this motion, however, the two fore legs, or the two hind
are never used at once ; but the step is performed by
one leg belonging to the hind and one to the fore
pair, though these sire not always of the same side.
Those animals which have their fore-legs consider-
ably shorter than their hind, as jerboas, kangaroos,
hares, rabbits, and frogs, rather leap than walk.

In leaping, the body is for a time raised complete- Bones, &».
ly from the. earth, 'l^his action is pertbrnied by first
throwing the sacral arfcculations into an unusual de-
gree of flexion, and tlien suddenly and strongly ex-
erting all their extensor nmscles. The force and
extent of the leap depend on the proportional length
of the bones and strength of the muscles. Hence
those animals that have the sacral extremities consi-
derably longer and thicker than the atlantal, leap the
best. The smaller the animal, too, the greater pro-
portionally is the leap ; and perhaps there is no ani-
mal that exceeds the flea in the length and agility
of leaping, it being computed, at a moderate leap,
to measure i'OO times its own length.

Several animals that have no feet perform a mo-
tion analogous to leaping ; that is, they spring from
the surface on which they are moving into the air.
Serpents do this by folding up their bodies in a spi-
ral form, and then suddenly uncoiling them. Sal-
mon, and some other fishes, leap up cataracts, by
bending their bodies as much as possible, and then
unbending them by a strong elastic spring. Shrimps,
and other cray fish, leap by suddenly extending the
tail after it has been bent beneath the body ; and
maggots spring to a distance, by arching their bodies
nearly into a circle, and suddenly relaxing them in-
to a straight line.

Rimnins differs from leaping, inasmuch as it ig
performed by the alternate progression of each leg,
while it differs from walking in the body being pro-
jected forward at each step, and the hind foot being
raised before the other touches the ground. It
consists in a series of low bounds, in which the
body is inclined forward, in order to place the centre
of gravity in a position proper for receiving an im-
pulse from tlie hinder leg, while the fore leg is mov-
ed rapidly forward to prevent falling. The trotting
and galloping of quadrupeds are running upon four
feet, and they diftier from each other in the mode of
raising the feet. In trotting, the diagonally oppo-
site feet rise at once and fall at once, each diagonal
pair alternately, but so that for a moment all the feet
are off the ground. In galloping, the animal raises
the fore feet at each step, and throws forward the
body by the extension of the hind feet. When the
two fore feet touch the ground a little after each
other, it is called a canter ; when both fore feet
touch the ground at once, and are followed by the
two hind feet also touching the ground at once, it is
a full gallop.

Climbing consists in hanging from and strongly
grasping any object capable of being seized by the
fingers, toes, or tail, and by successive efforts rais-
ing the body in opposition to its weight. Hence
those animals are the best climbers that have their
paws and feet most deeply cleft, their divisions most
flexible, or their claws longest and sharpest. Alan
is but an indifferent climber, as he can make no use
of his feet in this action, and can only grasp the ob-
ject with his legs, while he holds by his hands.
Among quadrupeds, apes and lenuirs climb the best,
from the form of all their tore feet being similar to
that of the human hand. Cats also climb well froni
the sharpness of their claws. Of birds, woodpeck-
ers, nut- hatches, and those called creepers, also

A N A T O M Y.

293

Bones, Sec. climb by means of tbeir sbarp talons. Lizards, cha-
meleons, and some other reptiles, climb well, partly
from the length and flexiliility of their toes, and
partly, in some of them, from the prehensile proper-
ty ol the tail.

Flying, properly so called, is performed only by
birds and insects. It may be considered as a suc-
cession of leaps, assisted and prolonged by the re-
sistance given to the air by the wings and tail. In
commencing its flight, a bird leaps either from the
ground or from some elevated object, and unfolds its
wings in a horizontal direction. It then suddenly
depresses the wings, so as to form an angle with the
vertical plane of the body, and the resistance aftbrd-
ed by the air to this motion produces a re-action on
the body of the bird, and impels it forward. These
actions are repeated ; and as long as the wings thus
act tlie bird ascends ; and when it wishes to descend,
it has only to intermit the action of the wings, and
cither fall by its own gravity or descend gradually
by occasional lesser vibrations. In flying horizon-
tall)-, a bird does not move long in a straight direc-
tion, but describes a succession of curves, alternately
ascending and descending in an oblique course. The
action of the tail in flying is various. When it is de-
pressed, it impels the bird upwards, and vice versa ;
and when moved to one side or to the other, it assists
in turning the bird's body in an opposite direction.

Butterflies, and other winged insects, are, from
the lightness of their bodies, easily supported in the
atmosphere by means of the gentle and continued
vibrations of their wings.

Several animals besides these imitate the motion
of flying. Bats, flying lemurs, flying squirrels, and
flying dragons, have a membranous expansion ex-
tended between the phalanxes of the fore toes, and
sometimes from these to the thighs, by means of
which, when they leap from one tree, they are easily
supported in their gradual progress towards an-
other. The motion of the flying-fish, by which it
raises itself from the water and remains for a short
period in the air, as some suppose, more nearly re-
sembles flying than that of the last-mentioned ani-
mals ; but it is worthy of inquiry, whether the mo-
tion of the flying-fish out of the water ought to be
considered any thing else than a long leap, which the
great length of its pectoral fins enables it to take.

Swimming is performed by a great variety of ani-
mals besides fishes. It is probable that almost all
quadrupeds are capable of this motion ; and wc
kno»v that the bulkiest among them, the elephant
and hippopotamus, swim with great facility. Many
of them, as seals and walrusses, are even considered
as amphibious ; and the polar bear passes much of
its time in the water. Amor)g tiie birds, all those
that are web-footed naturally swim ; and there are
tew reptiles to whom this motion is not familiar.
The action is of course ditterently performed, ac-
cording to the shape and habits of the animal.
Quadrupeds and birds swim by employing their feet
as oars or paddles, and probably their tail as a rud-
der. Cetaceous animals, seals and walrusses, impel
their bodies through the water by paddling with
tlieir atlantal extremities or paws, and moving their

sacral extremitiee or tail in various directions, ac-
cording to the required velocity and line of tlieir
course. Of reptiles, frogs swim in a manner similar
to man, by throwing their fore legs forward and
their hind backward at the same time.

Fishes, however, are the only animals that swim
with perfect ease, as the form of their bodies, the
number of their fins, and the air or swimming blad-
der, with which most of them are provided, all con-
tribute towards this purpose. They are impelled
through the water chiefly by the pectoral and ven-
tral fins, and by the broad vertical fin that termi-
nates the tail, while the swimming bladder, as it is
more or less compressed by its appropriate muscles,
increases or diminishes their specific gravity, and
thus enables them to descend or ascend at pleasure.
The air bladder is so important an organ in the eco-
nomy of fishes, that we find those in whom it is
wanting, as the flat fish, always remain near the bot-
tom, though their fins enable them to make way
through the water horizontally.

Chap. II. Of Sensation.

The organs of sensation are either general or par-
ticular. The former, commonly called the nervous
system, comprehends the encephalon, the spinal mar-
roiv, and the nerves ; the latter constitute the organs
of the senses.

Sect. I. Of the Nervous System,

All the brainy mass contained within the cavity of*
the skull is hence called encephalon. It consists of
various parts ; and a perpendicular section longitudi-
nally through its middle divides it into two equal and'
similar halves. On cutting through the frontal, tem-
poral, parietal, and occipital bones, by a horizontal
section just above the eyes and ears, and removing
these bones, we first observe a dense and thick vas-
cular membrane, called by anatomists dura mater,
which adheres to the bones in various parts, but>
more especially to the upper longitudinal line, ex-
tending from the nose to the occiput. On cutting'
through this membrane, after the manner of the for-
mer section, we find that its middle longitudinal up-
per part is prolonged downwards, forming a partition
between the two halves, or, as they are called, he-
mispheres of the brain. This mass, now brought into
view, displays, through a thin membrane that lies
over it, numerous undulating prominences which are
enveloped in a Very fine transparent membrane, and-
are of a reddish grey colour. These are the convo-
lutions of the brain. On extending our examination
downwards, we find that the two hemispheres are
flattened, and pretty smooth, where they were divid--
ed by the dura mater, and that they are joined near-
the middle by a central part more solid than the rest.'
This is called the callous body.

On cutting into the substance of the brainy mass,^
we perceive that it is composed of two very diflercnt
substances, one external, of a reddi.^h grey colour,
called the cortical or cineritions matter, the other
forming the internal or central part of the mass, ,
white and pulpy, though, on a close and careful ex-

Scnsatiea.

«94

ANATOMY.

Seatation. amination, it Is found to be composed of very deli-
cate fibres. This latter has been called the medtdlary
substance.

On raising the back parts of the two hemispheres,
we find them supported by an expansion which forma
a horizontal partition between what is usually called
the brain, and a lesser portion of the encephalon,
called cerebellum, or little brain. This is also com-
posed of two parts, or lobes, united by a middle cen-
tral portion, and this latter joins the central portion
that unites the hemispheres of the brain. On remov-
ing the whole brainy mass from the skull, by cutting
it across at the bottom of the great occipital hole,
and dividing a number of white cords, by which it is
connected to the base of the skull, wefind that its lower
side, which rested on the base, is extremely irregu-
lar. In the first place, we see a conical or pyramidal
part, which filled up the occipital hole, and which,
by some writers, is considered the commencement,
by others the termination of the encephalon, and
which has been called the oblong medulla. Behind
this lies the cerebrum, to the fore-part of which the
pyramidal portion is united by transverse parts, cal-
led crura, or legs, and before is seen a transverse
broad portion, called annular tuberosity or bridge of
Varolius. Farther on lies a spherical body, called pi-
tuitary gland. We also see that the lower surface of
the cerebellum is marked with circular prominent
lines, while the lower surface of the proper brain
has convolutions similar to those above. This latter
is also seen divided into three unequal parts on each
side, the anterior lobes lying on the frontal bone, the
middle lobes lying over the temporal and sphenoidal
bones, and the posterior lobes lying partly on the oc-
cipital bone, and partly on the membrane that sepa-
rates them from the cerebellum. On cutting vertically
into the substance of the cerebellum, we observe an
appearance resembling a shrub, that is, a middle white
trunk, from which numerous branches pass off on
each side ; this has been called arbor vita, or the
•tree of life.

When we examine more minutely the internal
structure of the brain, we find that its substance is in
several parts separated, so as to form cavities called
ventricles. Of these cavities anatomists have enume-
rated four, sometimes five. The two nearest the up-
per surface are called lateral ventricles, as they lie on
each side of the middle callous portion, and are sepa-
rated by a thin pellucid double partition, which ter-
minates below in an arch covering the third ventri-
cle. The fourth is more deeply situated, and farther
back. On what is called the^oor of the lateral ven-
tricles, are several prominences that have received
particular names, especially optic thalami, or apparent
origin of the optic nerves, and two long vascular bo-
dies which approach each other towards the fore-part,
where they pass through a hole leading to the cavity
below. AH these cavities communicate with each
other, and are often found containing a watery fluid.
A little behind and below the lateral ventricles are
found five remarkable protuberances, one of which is
the pineal gland, which was formerly supposed by
philosophers to be the seat of the sold.

The dura mater is composed of two layers, and
forms numerous cavities within its doublings. These

are called sinuses, and in the living body are filled SeasaUoiu
with blood. One is situated longitudinally at the top
of the head, the superior longitudinal sinus, and one
on each side of the body of the sphenoidal bone, the
lateral sinuses.

The size of the human brain varies in different in-
dividuals, but, in general, it is proportionally larger
in a young person than in an adult. The largest
brain of an adult man weighs about four pounds, and
the smallest about two pounds and a half. On a me-
dium calculation, the human encephalon bears to
the size of the whole body the proportion of one to
twenty-seven. Of the whole brainy mass, the brain,
properly so called, is about nine times the size of
the cerebellum ; and, of these nine parts, about six
are occupied by the hemispheres, or general sub-
stance, while the rest comprehends the part more im-
mediately connected with the nerves.

The spinal marroiu is that substance continuous
with the oblong portion of the encephalon, which
fills the canal formed by the junction of the large
central holes in the vertebrae of the spine. It is si-
milar in structure to the encephalon, except that the
whiter part of its mass is exterior, and it is envelop-
ed in similar membranes. Towards its lower, or sa-
cral extremity, it is divided into numerous fibres,
supposed to resemble a horse's tail.

Connected with the encephalon and spinal mar-
row, but whether arising from these or terminating
in them we shall not determine, as these are disput-
ed points, are numerous white pulpy cords, of veiy
diflerent sizes, and most of them connected with
each other, either by cross filaments, or rounded, en-
larged portions, called ganglions. These are the
nerves, and they appear in pairs, one on each side of
the encephalon and spinal marrow. They are surround-
ed by membranes, similar to those of the general
brainy mass, except at their minute ramifications.

There are generally reckoned ten pairs of nerves
connected with the encephalon, and passing through
the holes that are seen in the base of the skull. The
two that are most forward are undivided, and pass to
the nose through the holes of the ethmoidal bone.
These are called the olfactory nerves, or nerves of
smelling. Immediately behind these are two larger
nerves, which meet each other, apparently unite
their substance, and pass separately, one to each or-
bit, to be distributed on the interior of the ball of
the eye. These are called the optic nerves. The
third and fourth nerves also enter the orbits and sup-
ply the muscles of the eye-ball. The fifth pair con-
sists of three bundles, of which one goes to the or-
bit, a second supplies the greatest part of the upper
jaw or face, and the third the lower jaw. The sixth
pair is distributed chiefly on a particular muscle of
the eye-ball. The seventh pair, or what by some is
called the first portion of the seventh pair, supplies
the internal cavity of the ear, and is thence called
auditory nerve. The eighth pair, or second portion
of the seventh, is distributed extcrnrtlly on various
parts of the face, and is thence called facial nerve.
The ninth pair, according to some the eighth, is
chiefly distributed on some of the important organs
of the chest and belly. The tenth pair, by some
called the ninth, is distributed on the tongue and

ANATOMY.

295

Sensation, organg of Speech, and is called Ungual or hypo-glos-
sal.

Thirty principal nervous trunks are immediately
connected with the spinal marrow on each side, pass-
ing through holes in the interstices of the vertebinc.
Of these spinal nerves, the three highest supply the
sides of the neck and head ; the five next unite to-
gether in a large pkxiis or net-work, and afterwards
form a considerable trunk that is branched out on
the atlantal extremity ; the twelve next supply the
spaces between the ribs ; and five, or, according to
some writers, seven, between the ribs and sacrum,
conspire to form two considerable trunks that supply
the sacral extremity and parts adjacent.

Besides these, there is a very important nerve, or
series of communicating nerves, called the great sym-
pathetic, formed chiefly by a nervous cord extend-
ing from the head to the sacrum, passing on each
side through the neck, chest, belly, and pelvis, and
communicating, through the medium of ganglions,
plexuses, and nervous filaments, with almost all the
nerves of the body.

We have seen that all the vertebral animals have
an encephalon ; but this is very different in its struc-
ture and proportion in the different classes. The
brain of the mammalia, indeed, nearly resembles that
of man ; and in a few instances, as in the ape tribe,
is nearly as large in proportion to the body. In
most quadrupeds, the anterior lobes of the brain are
lengthened out into processes, terminated by the ol-
factory nerves, and in many instances the partition
formed by the dura mater between the brain and ce-
rebellum assumes a bony texture. The convolutions
on the surface of the brain are often less numerous
than in man, and the proportional size of the cere-
bellum is considerably greater.

In the cetaceous animals the brain is generally smal-
ler, in proportion to the body, than in quadrupeds ;
but its substance is denser and more evidently fi-
brous, and the distinction between the cineritious
and medullary substance is extremely well mark-
ed. The lateral ventricles and optic thalami are pro-
portionally large. The spinal marrow in these ani-
mals is very small.

The brain of birds is often larger, in proportion to
the body, than in man and quadrupeds, but it is very
differently formed. It is smoother in its surface, and
the optic thalami, instead of being within the lateral
ventricles, lie behind and below those cavities form-
ing a part of the lower surface of the brain. The
dura mater, too, in this class, is scarcely ever produ-
ced between the hemispheres, and there is no callous
central portion, or annular tubercle, and probably no
pineal gland.

In reptiles and serpents the brain is small and sim-
ple, consisting of five roundish eminences, two he-
mispheres, two nervous thalami lying behind them,
and a simple cerebellum, that exhibits no appearance
of the arbor vitae. The dura mater forms no pro-
cesses. In these animals, however, the spinal mar-
row is, proportionally, much larger than in the supe-
rior classes.

In fishes the brain is very small, and does not fill
6i& cavity of tlie skull. It is constructed in a man-

ner similar to that of reptiles, and is surrounded by Sensafialt'.
a simple undivided dura mater. In most of these ani-
mals the trunks of the optic nerves evidently cross
each other.

The common centre of the nervous system, or
common sensoriam, as it has been termed, consists
in Crustacea and insects, of a medullary cord, inter-
spersed with knots, or ganglions, running through
the body, and being generally a little larger towards
the head. In the larvce of some insects this enlarged
part is double, and is supposed to resemble a bniln.

In some mollusca, as the cuttle-fish, the nervous
cord is double from the head downwards. In toon7ts
it resembles that of the larvae of insects.

The nerves of quadrupeds nearly resemble those of
man, except that they are larger in proportion to the
brain. In cetaceous animals the olfactory nerves are
wanting. In the inferior classes, the nervous trunks
are less numerous and more simple, as we descend to
zoophytes, in which no such cords appear.

The brain is allowed on all hands to be the centre
of sensation and of intellect. Tliese faculties, how-
ever, do not keep pace with each other. Many of
the inferior animals excel man in the acuteness and
delicacy of some of their senses. The scent of the
hound, and the sight of the eagle are proverbially
superior, and it is probable that the taste of many
animals is more discriminating, if not more delicate
than ours. But no animal, not even the elephant, can
rival man in his intellectual powers, and none possess-
es like him the rational faculty of speech. To what is
all this owing ?

We have already hinted at a division of the com-
mon sensorium, into that part which occupies the
upper and middle parts of the skull, and that which
lies upon the base, and gives out or receives the
nerves, and have stated, that, in many, the former is
at least twice as large as the latter. If we suppose
with Soemmering, that the former portion is the cen-
tre of intellect, and the latter that of sensation, we
may conclude that, all other things being equal, the
measure of intellect or mind possessed by an animal,
is to be estimated by the proportional size of the up-
per part of his brain. Man exceeds all other animal
m this respect ; and we find that in proportion as he
approaches the inferior animals in the lowness of the
forehead and the flatness of the crown, the more he
descends in the degree of intellectual powers.

Respecting the offices which the common senso-
rium performs in the animal economy, we are still
very much in the dark. That the brain is a secreting
organ, forming a peculiar fluid that is conveyed
along the nerves, and therefore called the nervous
fluid, is at least highly probable, and that through
this organ we receive irom without, and exercise the
several voluntary functions of the body, is generally
allowed ; but how these communications take place,
and especially how mind is connected with body, we
never have been, and perhaps in this state never shall
be, able to determine.

There are, however, certain established facts or
principles respecting the physiology of the nervous
system, which it is necessary here to notice. Tlius,
we find that the nerves which supply Uie organs of

296

ANATOMY.

sensation, the senses corttmunicate immediately with the brain,
wliile those which supply the organs of voluntary
motion communicate more directly witli the spinal
marrow ; that when pressure is made upon a nerve,
a numbness, and loss of motion or of action in the
part to whicii the nerve leads is the consequence; that
when pressure is made on the spinal marrow, all the
parts below the scat of the pressure have their sensi-
bility and mobility diminished or destroyed, and
that pressure on tlie brain itself is attended with more
or less of general torpor and paralysis. It is probable
that the real seat of sensation is the brain, or centre
of the nervous system, though we commonly refer
the sensation to the extremity of the nerve most re-
mote from the scnsorium, as when a person who has
lost his leg occasionally feels pain at the stump,
which he refers to his toes.

Variouj sympathies which take place in the animal
economy are explained from the connection of ner-
vous filaments. Thus, when we know that branches
from the fifth pair of nerves supply the nostrils, tlie
scalp, and the eyes, we shall not be surprised that
violent scratching of the head, as witli a sharp comb,
produces sneezing, and that the sudden inhalation of
pungent odours excites a copious secretion of tears.

An intimate connection is found to subsist between
the nervous and the muscular systems. Thus chil-
dftn aud delicate people, who possess unusual sen-
sibility, have also a more irritable muscular fibre, or
are more subject to spasmodic and convulsive di-
seases. Again, whatever increases the sensibility of
the muscles, increases also their irritability, and vice

It has lately become fashionable to explain the
temper, dispositions, virtues, and vices, both in
man and inferior animals, from the prominences
of the brain, as shewn externally, by the corres-
ponding inequalities of the skull. A person whose
head is unusually prominent at its upper mid-
dle part must be remarkable for piety ; one whose
skull projects more than is ordinary above the ears,
is disposed to murder his fellow creatures ; and one
who has the fore-part of his temples more than usu-
ally developed, as it is termed, is more witty than
his neighbours. Notwithstanding all that has been
written and asserted by Messrs Gall and Spurzheim,
and their followers, we cannot help believing, that
there is more of fancy than reality in this doctrine,
and that a great addition of observation and experi-
ence is required before we can judge successfully of
either our human or brute fellow-creatures from the
prominences of their skull more than from tlie diver-
sity of their features.

/Sect. II. Of the External Senses.

Physiologists have agreed in limiting tlie number
. of the external senses to five, though of late it has
been supposed that some animals possess a sixth.
The most generally diffused of all these senses ap-
pears to be that oi' feeling.

The lowest orders ot animals are evidently sus-
ceptible of inqjressions, and probably have a sense of
pain and pleasure, though in a degree very inferior
U> those which possess a visible nervous system. We
would say that these animals possess sensitivitt/, but

not semibiliiy ; and in this respect polypes and other Sensatioib
zoophytes are raised but one step above the vege-
table kingdom.

Feeling — The organs of feeling are either general
or particular. The general organ, in almost all ani-
mals, is the skin, and more particularly that part of
it on which the nerves terminate, called the papiUary
portion. To avoid repetition, we shall not at pr^ent
describe even the human skin, but shall treat of it with
the other integuments among the organs of Integu-
mation.

The particular organs of feeling are, in man, the
hands, and more especially the points of the fingers,
which, in some persons, acquire such a delicacy of
sensation, as to enable them to read by feeling the
impressions made on paper by the types of a printing
press. It is probable that the toes have also natu-
rally a considerable nicety of feeling, though in most
persons their sensitive power is blunted by pressure
and want of habit. We know that young children
commonly employ their toes in grasping a finger, or
similar object ; and those who are without hands em-
ploy their toes very successfully as substitutes for
those important organs.

Only those quadrupeds called quadrimana, includ-
ing apes and lemurs, appear to employ their fort-
paws as organs of feeling, but many of them possess
organs of very delicate feeling power. Thus, the
trunk of the elephant is able to perform even the ni-
cer actions of the human hand. iWith this organ the
animal unties knots, draws bolts, and we have seen
one of them take up a sixpence from the ground,
holding it between the lip and margin of its trunk.
The lengthened snout of the rhinoceros and the ia-
pii, seem to answer the same purposes in a less de-
gree. Many quadrupeds have whiskers, by means of
which they appear to judge of the diameter of hole«
through whicli they have to pass.

In birds, the bill, which is well supplied with
nerves, is supposed to be one of their most delicate
feeling organs, more especially in those that seek
their prey in shallows, or among the mud.

What particular feeling organs are exercised by
reptiles we have few means of discovering. In nianj'
of them, especially those whose bodies are covered
with shells or scales, the sense of feeling cannot be
very acute; but it is certain that frogs, toads, and si-
milar soft reptiles, readily perceive the contact of
other bodies and it is probable tliat the feet of the
tree-frogs are sufficiently sensible of touch.

Among fishes the lips and the cirrhi, or tentacula,
which project from them in many species, appear to
be the principal feeling organs.

In Crustacea and insects, there are two organs, ei-
ther or both of which .may be the instrument of
feeling, the palpi, commonly called the feelers, and
the anlcnncc.

The tentacula of mollusca and worms, and the arms
of cuttle-fish, star-fish, and polypes, must be consi-
dered organs of feeling, as well as means of taking
their prey.

By feeling wc judge of the roughness or smooth-
ness, hardness or softness, figin-e, temperature, and
other tangible properties of material .substances. For
the complete exercise of this sense, it is necessary

ANATOMY.

297

Sensfttion. that the papilla of the skin be soft and flexible, and
that the cuticle which covers them be soft and thin.

Tasting. — Tasting is the sense which seems most
nearly allied to feeling. Its organs are chiefly the
tongue and the palate, though, in some instances, the
taste of sapid bodies is not perceived till they have
passed these organs, or is most evident in the gullet
or the stomach.

The tongue, even in man, is an organ destined to
many different purposes, and, on the whole, tasting
is not one of the most important. We shall, how-
ever, complete our description of it in this place. The
human tongue is composed partly of muscle and dense
cellular substance, and partly of numerous nervous
papillcE, of different forms and sizes. Besides its pro-
per muscular fibres, constituting the lingual muscles,
there is a considerable irregular mass of flesh above
these, and immediately below the nervous papilla.
Both the upper and under surface of the tongue is
covered with a smooth mucous membrane, helow
■which lies a texture similar to what we shall after-
wards describe as one of the integuments, consisting
chiefly of a net-work of minute vessels, and within
this again is the proper skin of the tongue, abound-
ing, especially on its upper surface, with nervous and
mucous papilla. What are regarded as the mucous
papilla are arranged towards the root of the tongue,
where they form an angular groupe, diverging from
a point next the root towards the fore part and sides
of the tongue. They are of a spherical or oval fi-
gure. The nervous papilla occupy about two-thirds
of the tongue towards the tip. Some of them are
like tubercles, with a narrow neck of a whitish colour,
•pretty large, but few in number ; others are conical,
pointed, small, and numerous. These papilte appear
to constitute the immediate organ of taste.

The bony palate already described is covered with
a dense, thick, mucous membrane, smooth next the
mouth, adhering strongly to the bones, with interme-
diate mucous and nervous papillae. From its back
part hangs a membraneous curtain, commonly called
tlie soft palate, having an oblong glandular body, cal-
led wiuta, hanging from its middlemost depending
part, and two other glandular bodies, called tonsils,
or almonds, connected with the lower part of the
membrane at its sides.

Connected with the tongue at its lower part are
two glands on each side ; one pair, called sublingual,
as lying immediately below the tongue on each side
.oi tntijranu7n, or vertical membrane, that ties down
the tongue to the parts beneath ; and the other pair
-called submaxillary, attached to the inside of the low-
er jaw, below the sockets of the teeth. There is an-
other pair of glands called parotid, lying one before
each ear, and communicating, as well as the two for-
mer, with the cavity of the mouth, by hollow tubes or
duds. All these glands are called salivary, because
they secrete the saliva, or slaver, a transparent, watery,
tasteless fluid, so far necessary to the sense of tast-
ing that all solid bodies must be more or less dissolv-
ed in it before they can affect the nervous papilla
that constitute the immediate organs of taste.

Hence those substances are in general most sapid
wliich are most easily soluble in the saliva, as acids,
ijsalts, sugar, &c.

VOL. J. PART 1.

Though the tongue be regarded as the essential Scnietioo.
organ of taste, it is certain that the palate materially
assists in this sensation, as we find that tasting be-
comes more exquisite when we press the tongue with
the sapid bod)- on it against the roof of the mouth.

T/ie comparative anatomy of the organs of taste ia
very obscure. We know that almost all the verte-
bral animals, and many of the invertebral, have a
tongue ; but in most of them the structure of that or-
gan is such as to fit it rather for the act of swallow-
ing than the sensation of taste. Most of the iju»d-
rupeds, indeed all the cetaceous animals, many of
the reptiles and serpents, and some of the fishes, have
a soft moist fleshy tongue, provided in a greater or less
degree with nervous papilla ; but as many of these
animals swallow their food without chewing, it is pro-
bable that in these cases the sensation of taste is very
slight. Very few birds, as parrots, and some preda-
cious and water birds, have a soft thick tongue, pro-
vided with nervous papilla, and moistened with sali-
va ; but in general, the tongue of birds is horny, stiff,
and dry, and supplied with few nerves.

It is probable that the hinder pair of palpi, or feel-
ers, in several insects, possesses in some degree the
sensation of taste. What is called their tongue seems
to be merely intended for taking food.

Smelling. — The immediate organ of smelling ap-
pears to be that highly vascular and nervous mem-
brane called by anatomists pituitary, which lines the
nostrils and adjacent cavities.

The nose in man consists partly of several bones of
the skull and face, which articulating together form
the walls or sides of the nostrils and part of their in-
ternal contents, partly of cartilage, and partly of skin
and muscle. The upper part of the nose is formed
by the Jrontal and nasal bones in front ; the upper
maxillary, ungual, and partly the sphenoidal, on the
sides ; the sphenoidal on the back part ; the upper max-
illary forming the base or floor of the nostrils ; the
ethmoidal constituting the greatest share of their up»
per internal part, and a portion of the long partition
that separates the nostrils, with the spongy bones
hanging on each side, while the rest of the partition
is formed by the vomer, and a thin cartilaginous ex-
pansion extending between this and the ethmoidal
bone. The lateral parts of the nostrils below the
7iasal bones are formed of a thick, soft, flexible carti-
lage, covered on the outside with a dense skin with
numerous pores.

The nostrils communicate above with the Jrontal
sinuses, (or two cavities formed by the separation of
the outer and inner plates of the frontal bone in the
lower part of the forehead,) behind and below with
the mouth, and with the sphenoidal sinuses; and at the
sides, a little backwards, with the sinuses in the supe-
rior maxillary bones. All these communicating ca-
vities are lined with one continuous pituitary mem-
brane, and the same membrane covers the spongy
bones within the nostrils and the ctlmioidal cells.
The surface of this membrane is kept moist by the
continual secretion of a mucous fluid, which is in-
creased by the action of irritating substances received
into the nostrils during inspiration.

The medium through which odours impart tl>e
sensation of smelling is the air, which being inhaled
p P

29&

ANATOMY.

Sensation, through tlie nostrils during ingplration, cai/ics with
it those minute particles which are coiitinaally flying
oft" from odorous bodies, and which are comnionly
called effluvia. If these effluvia be very irritating,
they excite sneezing, which consists in a sudden and
violent expiration, tor the purpose of dislodging the
offending matters, the effects of which are also coun-
teracted by the iiicreascd secretion of /««««.

The organs of smelUng in the itiftrior aninmls are
essentially the same as those in man, but differ con-
siderably in structure and complication in the seve-
ral classes and tribes. Those quadrupeds which we
know to be remarkable for the nicety of their scent,
as dogs, cats, bears, and weasels, and several others
which we judge to be so from analogy, as the ele-
phant, the hedge-hog, the mole, and the ruminating
quadrupeds, have the nasal cavities either very large
or very complicated.

The cetaceous animals having no ethmoidal bone, and
no peculiar olfactory nerves, are supposed to be very
defective in the sense of smelling.

Nor does this sense appear to be very acute in
lirds, as their nostrils are in general small and con-
tracted. The same may be said of reptiles aaA ser-
pents.

Fishes, considering the element in which they live,
which appears capable to a certain degree of com-
municating odours, are more remarkable than the
two preceding classes for the stvuctuve of their smel-
ling organs. Most of them have double nostrils on
each side, and their pituitary membrane is elegantly
disposed in semicircular folds.

It seems an undoubted fact, that most itisects pos-
sess the sense of smelling, but the organs by which
they excercise this sense have not been satisfactorily
ascertained.

Hearing. — The organ of hearing is situated in and
about the temporal bom: It consists partly of inter-
nal and partly of external parts, though, in a great
variety of animals, the latter are either wanting or
extremely imperfect. The external parts are pecu-
liarly fitted for receiving the pulsations of the air by
which sounds are produced, and conveying them to
the internal cavities, where they are propagated or
reverberated, so as to excite the sensation of hearing.

The external ear in man consists chiefly of a car-
tilaginous substance, variously contorted, covered
with skin, and provided with numerous muscles,
though in most persons the cartilage is scarcely sus-
ceptible of motion. The prominences and depres-
sions of the cartilaginous auricle have received differ-
ent names, according to their supposed form or their
situation. The outer rim is called helix, and the in-
ner rim immediately contiguous to this anti-helix, and
the depression between these two, at the upper part,
is called scupha, or the boat. I'he eminence below
the upper and fore part of the helix, next the face, is
ealled tragus, from its being sometimes covered with
hair like a goat's beard ; and the lesser eminence,
neuily opposite, in which the anti-helix seems to ter-
Miinate below, is called Qiiti-tragus ; the depending
soft skinny part is the lobe of the ear.

From the auricle there is a winding cartilaginous
passage, lined with a delicate skin, between which
and the cartilage are niungrous glands,- secreting a

thick fatty substance, called the wax of the ear. Tin's
winding cavity terminates in a circular bony rim, fil-
led witii a firm elastic membrane, restnibling parch-
ment, called the memi)rane of the drum of the ear.

Here properly begins the internal ear, which is of
a very complex structure. In the first place, there
is a small cavity behind the membrane just mention-
ed, called the drum of the ear, which contains four
small hard bones, and has several openings. Two of
the bones are connected with the membrane of the
drum, and are closely articulated together. One of ,
these is called the hammer and the other the anvil.
This latter has two processes, of which the shorter
is contiguous to an opening leading to cells in the
mastoid process, while the longer is articulated through
the medium of a very minute round bone with the
fourth bone, named from its shape the stirrup. The
openings from the drum are one forwards towards
the mouth, into which it opens by a cartilaginous
tube called the eustachian tube, and two openings in-
wards, one ofwhicli is filled up by the stirrup and the
other by a membrane.

More internally behind the drum is another cavity,
called, from its complexity, the labyrinth. This la-
byrinth is composed chiefly of three circular hollow
passages, within the substance of the bone, called the
semicircular canals,land a double spiral cavity, which,
from its resemblance to a snail's or periwinkle's shell,
has been termed cochlea, all communicating with a
common central cavity. Through these winding pas-
sages are distributed branches of the auditoru nerve,
and the rest of the cavity is filled with a gelatinous
fluid.

The vibrations of the air, generated by sounding
bodies, being received by the broad expanded hollow
of the external ear, are conveyed through the wind-
ing passage to the membrane of the drum, on which
they strike, and set in motion the little bones behind.
These again communicate the pulsations to the gela-
tinous fluid within the labyrinth, by means of which
the auditory nerve becomes affected, and excites in
the brain the sensation of sound. Sounds are also
partially communicated through the mouth, by mean*
of the eustachian tube ; for when this tube is obstruct-
ed hearing becomes imperfect.

Internal organs of hearing are found in all the ver-
tebral animals, and in a few of the invertebral. Many
of the former division also possess external organs
more or less perfect ; but what are properly called
auricles, or external ears, are found only in quadru-
peds.

We know of only four tribes- among the mtwimalia
that want the external ears ; but this is the case with
most seals, walrusses, the mole, and the duck-billed
animals. In many quadrupeds again, as the common
bat, the elephant, the fennec, the squirrel, and the
ass, the ears are remarkably large. The structure of
the internal ear in quadrupeds is similar to that which
we have described in man.

The cetaceous animals have only a small externa!
auditory passage, and the bony part of their internal
ear is but loosely connected with the skull. They
have, however, a large eustachian tube ; but all the
parts of the labyrinth, especially the semicircular ca-
nals, are remarkably small. Yet these animals seem

ANATOMY

299

Scnsatioa. to hear well ; a circumstance which is probably owing
to the superior power that water possesses of con-
ducting sounds.

In birds there is commonly a very regular arrange-
ment of the feathers round the openings that lead to
their internal ears, and their cavities are connected
together by air cells passing round the skull, and the
eustachian tubes have a sort of common opening in
the arch of the palate. These animals have no codilea.

Of the reptile tribes, only the crocodile has any
thing like an outer auditory passage. In the rest, the
membrane of the drum is either level with the skin,
or immediately below it. In some of them the eusta-
chian tube is wanting, and the internal ear is, in other
respects, very imperfect.

The organ of hearing in fishes consists chiefly of
three large canals, and is farther distinguished from
that of the superior animals by its increasing in size
according to the age and growth of the animal ; where-
as in the other classes which we have mentioned, the
internal ear is fully developed at a very early period
ef existence.

Among the crustaceous animals, the cancer tribe
have an evident internal organ of hearing, situated
on each side at the root of the falpi, with a small
bony tube by which it communicates with the water.

If we except the cuttle-fish and the animals just
mentioned, we know of no invertebral animals that
have manifest auditory organs, though it is probable
that many of them can distinguish sounds.

Seeing. — The eye and its appendages, constituting
the organ oi vision, merit particular attention. The
ball of the eye is encased in a bony cavity, where it
is securely lodged, and through the back part of
which it communicates with the brain.

In man, and those animals which resemble him,
the cavity of the orbit is composed of seven bones, of
which \}[ie frontal hone forms its upper part, or loof,
the upper maxillary the greater part of its floor, the
sphenoidal and malar its outer sides, and the ethmoi-
dal and ungual the greater part of its inner side,
while the palatal bone forms a small portion of its
lower part within. In its general form it is conical,
having a large opening in front, surrounded with a
strong bony ridge, and drawing nearly to a point
within. It is lined with periosteum and fat.

Round the outer bony circle of the orbits is at-
tached the orbicular muscle that forms the fleshy part
of the eye-lids, the rest of these curtains being com-
posed of loose skin and cellular membrane, and ter-
minated at their edge by an arched cartilage, called
tarsus, supporting the eye-lashes, and having a num-
ber of minute orifices that form the outlets of minute
glands ; and not far from the inner corner of the eye
are two more remarkable orifices, one in each eye-lid,
from which proceed two canals, meeting at the inner
corner, and leading to the nose. Tliese form the lac-
ryraal points and ducts that carry off' the superabund-
ant tears Into the nostrils. That part of the upper
eye-lid which supports the eye-brow, is provided with
thicker cellular substance ; and the inside of each lid
■is lined with a very fine, soft, and delicate mem-
brane, which, being reflected over the greatest part
of the front of the eye-ball, forms what is called the
white of the eye.

The ct/e-hall is' composed principally of tliret; or Sciuatio*.
four membranes called con^s, and three fluids, of more
or less density, called humours. The outer coat is
dense and fibrous, and, being of a firm texture, is cal-
led sclerotic, or hard coat, and covers about Ibur-fifths
of the eye-ball. The remaining fifth, forming a small
spherical prominence in front of the ball, is protected
by a pretty thick transparent part, closely united at
its edge to the sclerotic, and called cornea. Withia
the sclerotic coat is another called choroid, composed
of numerous convoluted blood-vessels, and luicd
with a dark opaque mucous matter, called by anato-
mists pigmadum nigrum. Within this again is a very
delicate nervous expansion, evidently proceeding
from the trunk of the optic nerve, which is consider-
ed as the third coat of the eye, and called retina.

The Interior of the eye-ball may be regarded as
composed of three cavities, each hned with a pecu-
liar membrane, and containing fluids of very different
densities. By far the greater portion, including all
the back part of the ball, is filled with a fluid very
much resembling, In colour and consistence, the
white of eggs before it Is coagulated. This is called
the vitreous, or glassy humour. It has a circular con-
cave depression In the middle of its anterior part, in
which lies a body of a double convex figure, but flat-
ter on its fore part, and of much greater density thai*
the vitreous humour. It is inclosed in a thin transpa-
rent membranous capsule, and, from its form and
transparency, is called crystalline lens. Its mar-
gin Is surrounded with a plaited membrane, attached
to the vitreous humour, and called ciliary plica: The
remaining part of the eye-ball In front of the lens is
filled with a clear watery fluid, thence called the
aqueous humour ; but this cavity is divided Into two
unequal portions, called the anterior and posterior, by
a broad circular colom-ed membrane, extremely vas-
cular, called the iris, with a central circular opening,
capable, In the healthy state of the eye, of contrac-
tion and dilatation, called the pupil.

If we suppose a line drawn through the centres of
the cornea, the pupil, and the crystalline lens, it| will
form the axis ot the eye-ball. Now the part vihere
the trunk of the optic nerve communicates with the
eye-ball is not In this axis, but on the side of it next
the nose, and its entrance is marked by a small sphe-
rical prominence projecting within the eye. Nearly
at the posterior extremity of the axis there is a small
spot on the choroid coat, of a yellowish colour, and
not covered with the expansion from the optic nerve,
so that the retina appears here to be perforated.

The eye-ball is nearly enclosed in four straight
muscles, which, acting separately, mwe it upwards,
downwards, to, or from the nose, but, acting toge-
ther, press It backwards, and jirobably flatten it.
There is a peculiarity of structure in the course of
the superior oblique muscle, that deserves to be notic-
ed. Its tendon passes through a perforated cartilage,
attached to the inner or nasal side of the orbit, and
forming a pulley on which the tendon moves, so as
to alter materially the direction in which the fibres
of the muscle would act were it not for this contri-
hence this has been called the trochlear

vance
muscle.

In the upper part of the orbit, between the eyq-

500

ANATOMY.

Seniation. ball and periosteum, on the temporal side, is a com-
pound glandular body, whose office is to secrete the
tears, whence it is called the lacrmnal gland. Troni
it there pass several tubes through the substance of
tlie upper eye-lid, and opening towards the cornea,
and through these the tears continually exude, and
are spread over the eye by the motions of the upperlid.

Tlie imraediute organ of vision appears to be tlie
retina ; for when the o))tic nerve is rendered insensi-
ble, as in the disease called amaurosis, thougli every
part of the eye-ball is in a sound state, vision is de-
stroyed ; and expej'iment has proved that no sensa-
tion of vision is produced on that yellow spot we have
mentioned at the bottom of the eye where the retina
is deficient.

Vision is produced by the rays of light, which, en-
tering the eye through the transparent cornea, are
variously refracted in passing tlwough the aqueous
hum9ur,crystalline /e;2.5,and vitreous humour, and strike
upon the retina. As the rays of light come from va-
rious points of a visible object, and pass in straight
lines to the pupil, they must cross each otlier ; and
we know that when an eye, taken from the body and
properly prepared, by removing the sclerotic and cho-
roid coats from its back part, is held at a proper dis-
tance from a luminous object, a picture of this object
in an inverted position appears upon the retina.
Hence it is natural to conclude, that the picture of vi-
sible objects formed by the rays of l.'ght on the reti-
na of a living eye, are inverted, though habit and ex-
perience enable us to represent them to the mind in
their natural position.

There is a certain distance, or Jbcus, at which every
object is most distinctly seen, but this distance varies
in different individuals. Thus, a middle-aged person,
with good eyes, can read an ordinary type most dis-
tinctly at the distance of about eight inches. A young
person, or one that is near-sighted, requires the ob-
ject to be much nearer the eye, and an old person
sees best at a greater distance. Tlie reason of this
is, that in the former, at the medium distance, the
rays of light are refracted too much, and meet in a
point before they reach the retina; while in old people,
or those who are called far-sighted, the rays are less
refracted tlian usual, and do not meet in a point up-
on the retina unless the distance of the object is in-
creased.

For perfect vision, it is necessary that the cornea,
tl»e crystalline lens, and the humours be perfectly
dear and. transparent, the pupil round, open, and •
easily susceptible of contraction and dilatation ; that
the retina be sensible to luminous impressions ; and,
in general, that the mucous pigment that covers the
iJioroid coat be ol' a dark colour.

The great use of this pigment seems to be to ab-
sorb the rays of light, and prevent the confusion that
would be occasioned by their reflection. This is pe-
culiarly necessary in a strong hght. Hence people,
in general, wJiose pigment is black, and whose pupil
i-eadily contracts, ste most distinctly in a strong
hght ; whereas those who have weak eyes, or whose
pupil is less sensible to the stimulus of light, see best
when the light is moderate, as in twilight. This is al--
so the case when the centre of the lens becomes
ftpatjue; for then, as the rays of light can pass only

through the margin of the lens, it is necessary that Sensatim,
the pupil should be considerably dilated before a suf-
ficient number of rays can be admitted, and this in.
such eyes can happen only in a moderate light.

Persons with light hair and light eye-brows and-
eye-lashes, have generally the pigment of a cor-
responding light colour ; and those persons called
Albinos have it of a reddish colour, as is the case
with white animals among the interior classes. None
of these can bear a strong lif^t, and the latter see
distinctly with a very faint light. This also depends
much on habit. Those who have been long shut up
in a darkened room or dungeon, can at length dis-.
tinguish objects which, on their first entering the^
apartment, were totally invisible.

Some persons, especially when young, have the
cornea unusually convex, which occasions them to be-
near-sighted. The opposite infirmity is produced in •
old people by the flattening of the cornea, and the
sinking of the eye within the orbit, in consequence
of the absorption of some of the fatty matter with
which the eye-ball is surrounded. The former de- ■
feet is generally remedied by concave, and the latter
by convex glasses. The circumstance of our seeing ,
an object single with two eyes, though there is no
doubt that an image of the object is painted sepa- ,
rately on the retina of each eye, has not yet been sa-
tisfactorily explained. It is generally supposed to-
be the effect of habit ; but even persons who have
been born blind, and have their sight suddenly re- •
stored by a surgical operation, do not see objects
double; while any person may, under certain cir--
cumstances, make himself see double, though gene-;
rally accustomed to see in the usual way.

If we except one of the mammalia, the blind rat,/
one reptile, theproteus, and one fish, the mi/xine glu-
tinosa, all the vertebral animals with which we are.
acquainted possess the sense of vision ; for even the ■
mole, which has often been represented as blind, has,
perfect, though very minute eyes. In all these .
classes, too, the eyes are always two in. number,,
though in one of the inferior orders of insects, there
are animals which have six or eight eyes.

The eyes of the inferior animals differ much ia
proportional magnitude. Among 'quadrupeds, the ,
mole and the shrew have proportionally the smallest,
eyes ; but, in general, the magnitude of the eye-ball
is in an inverse ratio to that of the animal. This .
holds true also in other classes. In the largest,
whale, measuring sixty or eighty feet in length, the.
eye-ball is not larger than a middle-sized orange.
The eyes of young animals are also proportionally
larger than those of the adult.

The eyes also differ in direction. Only the ape
tribe have them directed forwards as in man ; in all
other quadrupeds, in birds, and most reptiles, they
look sideways. In some reptiles, and in many fishes,
the eyes are situated nearly at the top of the head, ■,
so that they are naturally directed upwards.

In general structure the eyes of quadrupeds near-
ly resemble those of man, except that the sclerotic ,
coat is generally thicker and firmer, especially at its
back part ; that the choroid coal, at the bottom of
the eye, is, in many instances, especially in those .
' quadrupeds that play by night, of u brilliant colour i.

ANATOMY.

301

Siensation. that the corned is often more convex and protube-
.^^'V^' rant ; that the retina is often evidently fibrous ; and
that the figure of the pupil is frequently of an ob-
lon;^ or oval form. Souie quadrupeds, too, have a
third eye-lid, or what is called a nictitating mem-
brane, which draws over the cornea sideways, and
defends the eye either from too much light or from
external injury. This membrane is most remarkable
in the cat tribe, the opossum, the seal, and the ele-
phant. Few quadrupeds have eye-lashes.

. The eye of cetaceous animals has the back part
of the sclerotic coat thick and cartilaginous, while its
fore part is thin and soft, and their crystalline lens
is much more convex than that of man and quadru-
peds.

The eyes of birds are generally very large, and
lodged in ample, but usually shallow orbits. The
cornea is very convex, and where it joins (he sclero-
tic there is a bony ring formed of plates lying over
each other. There is a peculiar organ in these
animals called 7narsupium, or the purse, which passes
through the vitreous humour from the retina nearly
to the crystalline lens. It is an angular membrane,
very vascular, and covered with a dark substance
like the Mack pigment, and seems intended for ab-
sorbing superabundant rays of light. In birds, the
lower eye-lid is larger than the upper; and in al-
moiSt all of this class, the eyes are closed by raising
the former. They have also a large nictitatuig mem-
brane, moved by two peculiar muscles.

In reptiles, the eye is constructed much like that
of birds, having a similar bony ring round the mar-
gin of the sclerotic coat in many of the species, and
in general a nictitating membrane. Many of them,
however, have no eye-lids, but only a transparent,
immoveable curtain formed from the cuticle. This
also is the case with serpents.

The eyes of fishes differ from those of other ani-
mals, in having the crystalline lens of a spherical fi-
gure, the choroid coat and retina composed of seve-
ral lamincB, and in having a firm body, shaped like a
Iiorse-shoe, between the internal and middle layers
of the choroid. There is also a membrane some-
what similar to the marsiipium of birds.

Among the crustaceoos animals there are several
that have but one eye, but most of them have two,
■which, in some instances, are sessile, or close to the
body, while in others they are pedunculated, or rais-
ed on a moveable footstalk.

Of the mollusca, only the cuttle-fish, under which
we include the sepia and octopus tribes, and the snails
and slugs, have proper eyes, which in the latter tribes
are situated on footstalks. "^

Most insects have eyes, and of these the arackrii-
des, or spiders, and similar animals, have from two to
eiglit ; while in some other insects, as the dragon-
fly, the exterior of the eye is composed of a vast
number of small six-sided convex surfaces, each of
which seems to perform the office of an eye.

Sect. III. Of the Infernal Senses and of Sleep.

Certain affections of the mind, which seem to de-
pend on the action of the brain, as memory, imagina-
tion, judgment, have been called the internal senses.
Although the consideration of these belongs proper-

ly to metaphpics, it may be expected that we should sensation,
briefly notice them here. >

Of the internal senses, memory is the most genera^
among animals, and that which appears to be the
soonest developed. A very considerable number of
the inferior animuls enjoy this faculty in common
with man, and many of them apparently in an equal
degree. The dog, the horse, and the elephant, are
instances familiar to every one ; and indeed all those*
animals that are susceptible of domestication show
evident proofs of memory. The y;fl)To/ remembers tlw
lessons he is taught ; the canary bird whistles correct-
ly the tune he has acquired ; the tortoise holibles to
meet the hand that is accustomed to feed it ; and
even the toad resorts to the spot where it receives"
its daily food. It is probable that in most animals
memory is confined to what has been called remini-
scence, or the. passive remembrance of past events,
though man is not the only animal capable of recol-
lection, or the faculty of recalling former ideas and
perceptions. When the dog, after an absence of some
months or years, sees a person with whom he wa*
formerly intimately acquainted, he usually looks and
smells for some time before he recognises his former
friend ; and when he is satisfied of his identity, sud-
denly breaks out into rapturous expressions of joy at
his return. In this case we think he exhibits proofs
of recollection; and such proofs are- occasionally ex-
hibited by some other of the nobler quadrupeds.

The faculty of memory, as far as respects suscepti-
bility, is strongest- in childhood; but the mind is'
more retentive in youth and manhood. As age in-
creases, the susceptibility of the memory declines ; and
an old man, who can readily remember the transac-'
tions of his boyish days, often finds it difficult to re- ■
collect the occurrences of yesterday.

Memory evidently depends much on the- state of'
the body, and particularly on that of the nervous-
system. A fever, or a stroke of apoplexy, terminat-
ing in palsy, sometimes completely oversets the me-
mory, and erases from the mind all traces of former
ideas. A fit of intoxication has the same effect as'
to the events that took place during this temporary
derangement of the mental powers.

Imagination, as far as we can conceive, is confin-
ed to man ; though it differs in degree or vivacity
in different individuals of the human- species. It is-
generally most lively in youth ; being not yet form--
ed in early childhood, and subsiding with the ad-
vance of age. It does not seem to depend so much'
as memory on the state of the body, except that, in
certain diseases, it becomes more lively, in others
more or less depraved.

The faculty of judgment, as it depends on the ex-
ercise of reason, is certainly most remarkable in the
human species ; but is, we are satisfied, by no means-
the exclusive privilege of man. That dogs, elephants,
horses, cats, compare, discriminate, ami judge, can-'
not be doubted by those who have studied the natu-'
ral history of those animals.

Unlike the two former faculties, judgment in-
creases with age, at least till that period of dotage
arrives when all the human faculties begin to sink
into oblivion. This faculty never varies with the
State of the body. In some diseases it is depraved,

302

ANATOMY.

hctsation. in others nearly destroyed. Indeed, it is intimately
connected with memory, and of course undergoes
corresponding changes.

As connected with the nervous system, physiolo-
gists have also considered the passions. These, in a
physiological point of view, are divided into the ex-
citing and depressing. Of the former, the most re-
markable are hope, joy, love, desire, anger, and rage;
of the latter, envy, jealoiisii, fear, grief, terror. The
exciting passions quicken the circulation and respir-
ation, increase the animal heat, propel the blood to
the head, and, when in an extreme degree, produce
phrenzy, apoplexy, or death. The depressing pas-
sions act more on the nervous than the circulating
system, though some of them, too, quicken the cir-
culation. In their highest degree, especially when
acting suddenly, they induce fainting, palsy, or
death, from a sudden cessation of the motion of the
heart.

Sleep forms another subject connected with the
physiology of the nervous system, and is generally
.regarded as an affection of the mind.

Tile alternate states of watchfulness and sleep
seem necessary in the economy of all animals ; but
the degree and manner of repose by sleep are very
different. Some animals, as reptiles, and a few quad-
rupeds, appear to pass the greater part of their lives
in a state of sleep, or torpor resembling sleep, while
many of the human species scarcely occupy a fourth
part of their time in this state of inactivity. The de-
gree of sleep, however, depends much on age and
habit. The younger the animal, the more sleep is
necessary ; and those who pass a life of indolence,
sleep much more than the active and laborious.

The darkness of night, as it naturally invites to
sleep, by withdrawing the objects of the senses, forms
the natural season of repose to most animals. Some,
however, as beasts and birds of prey, are most
watchful during this period, which they employ ia
hunting.

The attitude in wliich animals sleep is also differ-
ent. Many of them lie in a recumbent posture, as
man and quadrupeds ; some sit. perched on a twig, or
similar object, as most birds ; others of the feathered
tribes sleep standing on one leg ; a few, as bats, hang
suspended by the hind legs ; and seveVal fishes, and
other iparine animals, lie motionless on the surface
of the water.

During sleep the voluntary animal powers are sus-
pended, and the senses lie inactive, though some of
them, as hearing particularly, are capable of being
excited without banishing sleep. The involuntary
actions, as circulation and respiration, are continued,
but are slower than in the waking state. The ima-
gination too, is generally very active, as appears from
dreaming.

The immediate cause of sleep is supposed to be the
exhaustion of what different physiologists call the ir-
ritalnlity, excitahility, or sensorial power of the system.
It is evidently connected with a diminution of the
nervous energy.

The sut)ject of dreams being rather metaphysical
than physiological, belongs to a different subject ; but
that of torpidili^ we shall consider after describing the
phenomena of" respiration.

Chap. III. Oir Digestion.

Nature points out to all animals the necessity of
repairing the waste of the body that is constantly
going on by the appetites of hunger and thirst. There
are indeed many animals, especially among the rep-
tiles, that can endure abstinence for days, weeks,
or even years, (see Abstinence ;) and one among
quadrupeds, the camel, can travel for several days
without a fresh supply of drink ; but all these animals
bow at length to nature's laws, and perish if the sup-
ply of food or drink be too long delayed. There is
perhaps no animal that bears hunger and thirst less
easily than man ; but man is the creature of habit, on
which these appetites materially depend.

The younger the animal, the more frequent and
imperious are the calls for food. Tliis is evidently
owing to the growth of parts, and the. progressive evo-
lution of the whole bodj-, v/hich is continually going
on during the early stages of life. When the body
has acquired its full growth the demands for nourish-
ment are less urgent ; and as age increases, both the
appetite for food and the power of digestion general-
ly diminish.

As all animals do not live on the same kinds of
food, they are divided into three classes, according
to the nature of their aliment. Those which live en-
tirely on vegetable food are called herbivorous animals^
those whose diet consists entirely of animal substance
carnivorous; and such as feed equally or indifferently
on both are denominated omnivorous. Perhaps man
is the only animal that is naturally omnivorous, though
many animals may be compelled by hunger, or taught
by habit, to subsist on food to which their digestive
organs are not naturally adapted.

Stages of digestion. — The general function of di-
gestion consists of several stages. In the vertebral
animals the food is first received into a mouth,
where, in some cases, it is chewed or masticated by
means of teeth, and mixed with saliva, wliile in others
it is swallowed whole. From the mouth it passes
through the gullet, by the act of deglutition, whence
it is received into a stomach where it undergoes so-
lution, and forms a crude mixture called chyme.
This being received into the small intestines, and
mixed with other fluids, forms chyle, which is gradu-
ally taken up or absorbed in the manner to be after-
wards explained, while the superfluous, noxious, or
excrementitious part is carried off by the large in-
testines, and finally expelled. Hence we divide di-
gestion into mastication, insalivation, deglutition, and
chylification.

Sect. I. Of Mastication and Insalivation.

The organs subservient to these stages of digestion
are, the mouth, with its contained organs, the teeth,
and tongue.

Mouth, — The cavity of the mouth is composed
partly of hard and partly of soft parts. The hard
parts are the jaws or mandibles, the palate, and the
teeth, where these are to be found. The soft parts
are the lips and cheeks externally, and the soft palate
and gums within. The jaws and palate have already
been described.

ANATOMY.

SO^

Ei|resl!on. Variety of teeth. — Many animals are without teeth.
~ ' Tliis is the case witli ant-eaters, manes, armadillos, and
the duck-billed animal among quadrupeds ; with the
balencs, or proper whales, among cetaceous animals ;
with all birds ; with tortoises among reptiles ; and with
most invertebral animals. The teeth vary considera-
bly in number, figure, and proportion, in the different
tribes and classes of animals, but, in general^ may be
divided into three classes, cutting teeth, tearing teeth,
and grinding teeth. The first are more or less flat
and wedge-shaped, terminating with a cutting edge ;
the second are more or less conical, pointed at the
tip, and often curved ; and the third are broad and
thick, generally terminating in several pointed protu-
berances, or a broad unequal surface. Some animals
have only the second kind, and some only the first
and third, and others only the second and third ; only
a few have them of all the three classes. Tliis is the
case with man and those quadrupeds which resemble
him.

Structure of the teeth The teeth are generally

composed of two parts, a body, and fangs or roots ; the
body being that which projects without the jaw, and
the fangs these parts by which the tooth is fixed in
its socket. The culling, and generally the tearing
teeth, have but one fang, but the grinders have seve-
ral. In their intimate texture the teeth are formed
of two substances, differing from each other in colour
and consistence. The fangs, and part of the body of
the tooth, are composed of bones similar to that which
forms the skeleton ; the rest of the body is formed of
an extremely hard brittle white and shinmg substance,
called enamel, v/hich in some cases covers the tooth
like an external shell, in others is intermixed with
the bony part of the body of the tooth. The teeth
are provided with blood-vessels, and probably with
nerves, which passthroughtubularhollowsin the fangs.

An animal has not the same number of teeth in
every period of its life. A certain number, called
temporart/ teeth, make their appearance some time af-
ter birth ; these are shed, and are succeeded by a
greater number, which continue permanent.

In man there are twenty temporary teeth, which
usually begin to make their appearance about seven
"or eight months after birth. They generally appear
in th£ following order. Two of the front teeth in the
lower jaw are first cut, and are soon followed by two
in the upper jaw, and so on till the eight cutting teeth
are produced. Then two of the grinders next the
front are cut in each jaw, and after these the point-
ed teeth called dog-teeth, and in the upper jaw
eye-teeth. These are followed by the rest of the
grinders, till all the temporary teeth are produced,
which generally happens within three years after
birth. When the child is about six or seven years
of age it begins to shed the temporary teeth, to
make room for the permanent teeth, which are cut
in much the same order as the former. They are
generally 32 in number, and consist of eight front,
or cutting teeth, four canine, or eye-teeth, four bicrts-
fidated, or fhrst grinders, and sixteen other grinders,
the latest of which are sometimes called msdom-teeth,
as they seldom make their appearance till about the
age of puberty.

Teeth of quadrupeds, — Of those quadrupeds that

have teeth, the apes, lemurs, and bats nearly resem- Digestif
ble man in their number and proportions. Those -
constituting part of Linnaeus' second order, as the
slotiis, rhinoceroses, and elephants, have no cutting
teeth in either jaw, while in the order Ferce, includ-
ing most of the beasts of prey, there are numerous
front teeth, but they are rather tearing than cutting
teeth. The glires, comprehending, among others,
porcupines, beavers, rats, and mice, marmots, hares.
and rabbits, have two long and strong cutting teeth in
each jaw, and a few grinders in the back part of the
mouth, with large intervening spaces. The ruminat-
ing animals, including camels, sheep, deer, antelopes,
goats, and horned cattle, have cutting teeth only in
(he lower jaw; while of the last order, bellita; all have
cutting teeth in the both jaws; and some, as the hog
tribe and river horse, have the canine teeth prolonged
into formidable tusks.

Of cetaceous animals — The cetaceous animals that
have teeth are chiefly the cachalots, or spermaceti
whales, which have teeth only in the lower jaw, and
the dolphin, porpus, and grampus, which have teeth
in both jaws, all generally of the pointed tearing
kind ; but those called unicorn fish have a very long
taper tusk (sometimes two) standing out from thft
muzzle. The proper whales have those peculiar
horny plates, terminating in a hairy margin, impro-
perly.called whale-bone, whicii, though they answer
not the purpose of mastication, serve to retain the
food taken into the mouth.

Of birds. — Though birds have no teeth, many:6f.
them employ their mandibles for cracking seeds, &c.
or for perforating the bark of trees in search of in-
sects.

Of reptiles Among the reptiles all those called

sauriens, comprehending lizards and similar tribes,
have pointed cutting teeth in each jaw, and some
have them in the palate. Frogs have teeth only in
the upper jaw, salamanders in both, while toads have
them only in the palate. Serjjents liave generally
numerous sharp-pointed teeth in both jaw«; and those
which are venomous have sharp curved tusks in the
upper jaw, that are perforated witli a tubular canal,
and connected with a bag containing a poisonous
fluid, which, when pressed on by the tooth, suffers
the poison to flow down through the tubular opening
into the wound inflicted by "the animal. *

Of fishes. — The teeth of fishes are usually small but
very sharp ; but some of the larger tribes, as the
shark, have them of a very formidable size and num-
ber, and attiU'hed to the palate as well as the jaws.

Crabs, 8f€ Of the invertebral animals that have

teeth, the principal are crabs, lobsters, sea-mice,
leeches, sea-urchins, and star-fish.

Gums. — The gums are rather membranous than
fleshy. They arcveryvascular,but,having few nerves,
possess little sensibility. They serve to strengthen
and support the teeth.

Cheeks, &;c The cheeks and lips are most re-
markable in man and those quadrupeds which re-
semble him, though they are found' to a greater or^
less extent in almost all the animals that have teeth.
They are formed partly of what is called the com-
riion integuments, that is, the skin and contiguous
mcmbraues, partly of the muscles formerly enumerate

504

A N A. T O M r.

Dieestion- ed, and partly of a mucous membrane that lines the
whole cavity of the mouth. Through the substance
of the cheeks there passes on each side a pipe from
the parotid glands, pouring the saliva into the mouth.

Mastication Only man and quadrupeds can pro-
perly be said to masticate. The toothed cetacea,
reptiles, serpents, and fishes, appear to swallow their
food whole, and their teeth are evidently formed ra-
ther for seizing and retaining their prey than for
chewing it. Many of these latter tribes, however,
parti cuhirly serpents, employ the process of insaliva-
tion, licking their prey all over before proceeding to
swallow it.

Many cntstaceous animals are furnished with jaws
and othororgans,eitherforbreai;;ingdown their food or
cutting off substances for which they have occasion.
Thus, crabs and lobsters, besides the proper jaws,
have the two large claws toothed and furnished with
very strong muscles, by which they are enabled to
break the shells of the testaceous mollusca on which
they feed, and wasps are able to cut off" pieces of flesh
for their food, or particles of wood for constructing
the cells in wliich they live, by means of their jaws.
Some insects have several pairs of jaws, but in gene-
ral there are only two pairs which move laterally.
The larvse, or caterpillars of insects, have also jaws
with which they bite the vegetables that constitute
their food.

Mastication is performed chiefly by the lateral
motions of the jaws, by which the food is ground be-
tween the teeth, while it is mixed with saliva, and
thus renderedmoresolublein the juices of the stomach.

Rumination. — The process of rumination, which
takes place in Linnaeus' order Pecora, and a few
other animals, is a sort of second mastication ; the
food, after being received into one of the stomachs,
being partially disgorged and chewed again before
passing into another cavity where it is to undergo a
more perfect digestion.

In some animals, there are certain cavities where
the food is laid up for a time before being finally
swallowed, and where, probably, it undergoes a par-
tial insalivation. Such are the cheeks, pouches of
some apes and rats, and the crops of granivorous
birds.

Sect. II. Of Deglutition.

Tlie organs employed in deglutition are chiefly the
pharynx, the gullet, and the tongue, of which the
last has been already described.

Pharynx. — The pharynx is that opening which is
seen at the back of the tongue. Its figure is nearly
that of a funnel, being expanded above where it is
connected with the sphenoidal bone and bone of the
tongue, and growing narrower below where it termi-
nates in the gullet. It is partly membranous and
partly muscular, and the membrane that lines its in-
ner surface is of a pretty deep red colour.

Gullet. — The gullet in man is a tube of consider-
able length, partly membranous, but furnished with
numerous fleshy fibres. When distended it appears cy-
lindrical, but in its usual state of collapse it is ra-
ther flat. It extends from the termination of the
pharynx in the upper part of the neck, through the
rest of the neck, and through the chest, close beside

the vertebrae, but not exactly in a straight direction, Djgejtiot.
till it enters the stomach. Though very small in its '

inactive state, it is susceptible of considerable dila-
tation, except at its lower extremity.

In quadrupeds. — Only the vertebral animals have a
gullet distinct from the stomach ; and its differences
in the several classes are not very remarkable. A-
mong the quadrupeds these differences consist chief-
ly in the greater or less muscularity of this tube,
being most muscular in herbivorous animals, and
most membranous and dilatable in the carnivorous^
The muscular fibres run downwards in a spiral di-
rection, crossing each other.

In cetaceous animals, — The gullet of cetaceous ani-
mals has a peculiarity of structure, consisting of a
fleshy tube extending from its upper part to the in-
ternal opening of the nostrils or blowing holes, fur-
nished'with circular fibres, which, contracting during
the act of swallowing, interrupt the communication
which would otherwise subsist between the pharynx
and the nostrils.

In birds. — The gullet of birds is sometimes of con-
siderable size, especially in those which feed on fish.
The crop of birds is merely an expanded portion
from the lower part of the gullet, and forms a bag in
front of this tube, and out of the natural direction
of its cavity.

In reptiles, Sfc. — In most reptiles the gullet is lar-
ger in proportion to the stomach than in quadru-
peds, and has numerous longitudinal folds which
render it susceptible of considerable dilatation. In
tortoises and turtles, its inner surface projects into
numerous conical processes directed towards the sto-
mach, evidently intended to prevent the return of
the food. The gullet of serpents is remarkable for
its great length and extreme dilatability, so that
these animals can swallow a substance of greater dia-
meter than that of their own body. The gullet of
fishes is very short, but proportionally wide.

DegliUitio)!. — The act of deglutition requires but
little explanation. The food being thrown back by
the tongue is received into the pharynx, whence,
partly by its weight, and partly by the muscles at-
tached to the pharynx, it descends to the gullet,
along which it is propelled chiefly by the muscular
action of this tube, assisted, in some cases, by the
neighbouring muscles of the neck.

Sect. III. Of Chylification.

The stomach. — This organ is the only part of the
intestinal canal which is found in all animals, but
perhaps there is no organ which presents greater va-
rieties. In most animals it is a single cavity ; but, in
many, it is either composed of several cavities, or
divided into several compartments.

In man. — The stomach of man, in figure, has been
compared to the bag of a bagpipe. It is largest at
the extremity next the gullet, smaller at the oppo-
site extremity, and is distinguishable into two com-
partments by a constricted portion nearly in the
middle. The orifice by which it communicates with
the gullet is called cardia, and is at some distance
from the broad extremity. The other orifice by
which it communicates with the bowels, and which
is exactly at the small end, is called pj/forjw. Hepce

ANATOMY.

505

Digestion, the two Compartments of tlie stomach liavc been
V^r>y-^^ termed its cardiac and pyloric portions, of «hich tlic
former is at least twice the size of the latter. Tlie
stomach is said to have two curvatures, a smaller
extending from the root of the gullet to the pylorus,
next the vertebral canal, and a larger on the oppo-
site side, which, when the stomach is empty, is di-
rected downwards, and when the stomach is distend-
ed is turned forwards. The stomach is situated in
the upper part of the belly, but nearer the left than
the right side, occupying great part of what from it
is called the epigastric region. It is composed of
three principal layers ; a peritoneal coat, derived from
the common lining of the belly ; an internal villous
coat, forming part of the mucous membrane that
lines the whole intestinal canal ; and a thin muscular
coat, most evident next the pylorus, and lying be-
tween the other two. The stomach is provided with
several large arteries, numerous branches of nerves,
and mucous glands. It is attached to the neighbour-
ing parts by doublings of the peritoneum, and has
hanging from its large curvature a fatty membrane ex-
tending over the bowels, and called omentum or caul.

The division of the stomach into cardiac and pylo-
ric portions is most evident after taking food, when
the constriction is generally so great as, for a time,
to prevent the food from escaping out of the cai'diac
into the pyloric portion.

Gastric juice. — There is a fluid formed within the
Stomach, different from the mucus, which naturally
moistens the inside of the whole alimentary canal.
It is limpid, and possesses no very sensible proper-
ties, and yet it has considerable solvent powers.
This is called the gastric juice.

Intestines. — The remaining and longest part of the
alimentary canal, called the intestines or bowels, is,
by anatomists, divided into two primary and six
subordinate portions. Taken as a whole, it is divid-
ed into small and large intestines, and each of these
are subdivided into three parts. That portion of the
small intestines which extends for about twelve inch-
es from the pylorus, is denominated duodenum. It
passes obliquely across the vertebrae towards the
right, and is of larger diameter than the rest of the
small intestines. It takes several turns, and in the
posterior part of what is called its third flexure it is
perforated obliquely by the biliary ducts coming
from the liver and gall-bladder.

The rest of the small intestines, which anatomists
have chosen to distinguish into jejunum and ileum,
occupy the greater part of the lower belly, where
they make numerous turnings or convolutions. To-
wards the fore part and sides of the belly they float
Joose, but towards the back they are secured toge-
ther and fastened to the vertebrae by an extensive
plaited membrane called jneseyitery.

The large intestines comrhence in the right side
of the belly, by a portion of considerable diameter,
tailed ccectlm, into which the small intestines open
by a projecting part which acts imperfectly as a valve.
The ccecum forms a bag of nearly a cubical form.
From this bag to within about a ibot of the termi-
nation of the bowels, the intestinal canal takes the
name of colon. This portion commencing, on the
right side of the belly, makes a turn upwards, and

VOL. I. PART I.

then crosses the belly immediately below the sto-
mach, to the left side, where it makes two short
turns so as to form a figure resembling the letter S,
and then terminates in the rectum or straight intes-
tine.

This last is situated chiefly in the hollow of the
sacrtim and coccyx, and grows larger as it descends
till it terminates in the anus or fundament. At this
exterior opening there are several muscles which act
chiefly either in compressing the sides of the bowr!,
thus promoting its evacuation, or in contracting- i'.i
outer extremity, and thus preventing the involuntary
escape of its contents.

The intimate structure of the whole intestinal ca-
nal resembles that of the gullet and stomach, but
the internal folds of its villous coat are more remark-
able, especially in the small intestines, where theyform
numerous projections internally, and thus increase
the interior surface of the bowels. The colon, too, in
consequence of three sets of longitudinal muscular
fibres, is contracted into numerous compartments or
cells, which are most remarkable in the transverse
arch and flexures on the left side.

Chylijiccrtion. — The process of chylification ap-
pears to take place in the following manner : The
food having entered the stomach, is dissolved, or re-
duced to a pulp, chiefly by the chemical agency of
the gastric juice, and partly by the mechanical pres«
sure of the stomach. This j)rocess appears to take
place in the cardiac portion ; and when it is sufficient-
ly completed, the stricture between this and the py-
loric portion is gradually relaxed, and the aliment,
now become chyme, or imperfect chyle, passes into the
latter portion, where it is probably mixed with a por-
tion of bile passing upwards. Hence it is propelled
by the muscular action of the pyloric portion through
the pylortis into the duodenum, where it is mixed with
the bile coming from the liver, and with a fluid re-
sembling saliva, coming by another pipe from an orga»
called the pancreas, (to be hereafter described) and
called the pancreatic ;«/ce. In this waj' probably is
formed the perfect chyle, which is a fluid resembling
milk.

The chyle, together with the superfluous or ex-
crementitious part of the aliment, now proceeds for-
ward through the convolutions of the small intes-
tines, by what is called the peristaltic motion, which
is the effect of the contractmg power of their mus-
cular coat, excited to action by the stimulus of their
contents, and especially by the bile. In the progress
of the aliment througli the small intestines, in the
healthy state of the body, the greater part of the
chyle is gradually absorbed by innumerable small
vessels opening internally among the folds of the vil-
lous coat, while the rest is gradually propelled into
the ca'cmn. Here it probably undergoes a farther
change, and hence it passes through the cofon, where
it appears. to lose its remaining nutritious j)articles ;
and when it reaches the rectum it becomes mere ex-
crementitious matter.

Tlie comparative anatomy njt\te intestinal canal is of
importance both to the naturalist and physiologist ;
and it is chiefly from it that several valuable facts re-
specting this function have been derived. We find
that the length- and complex structure of tliis ca.

Digeslioi.

306

ANATOMY.

Digestion, nal depend much on tlie nature of the aliment em-
ployed.

In c(ir«woroa«'aninials the whole canal is in general
proportionally short, and the stomach simple ; wliere-
as in those animals that live on vegetable food, the
intestines are remarkably long, and the stomach is
often of a very compound structure.

Stomach of quadrupeds. — The stomachs of quadru-
peds, in then- general structure, resemble that of man,
except that their muscular coat is generally stronger
and more evidently fibrous ; and that in several in-
stances, as in the hare, rabbit, horse, and ass, the di-
vision into cardiac and fijloric portions is very mani-
fest and permanent. The stomachs of apes, bats, and
lemurs, nearly resemble that of man in figure, ex-
cept that of bats, which is rounder.

Ruminating animals. — It is chiefly among the ru-
minating quadrupeds that the stomach is formed in-
to several separate cavities, though this compound
structure is not confined to that oi-der. Thus, the
hamster-rat has two distinct cavities, the kangaroo
three, and the sloth four. The structure of the sto-
machs of ruminating quadrupeds, as exemplified in
the cow and sheep, is nearly as follows : The first
stomach, or paunch, is the largest in the adult ani-
mal, and has its internal coat beset with numerous
flattened papillce. The second stomach is called/jo?iey-
C07nb bag,\u\gar\y!ciiig'shood, and is considerably smal-
ler than the former, from which it differs chiefly in the
elegant cellular appearance of its internal membrane.
The third cavity, called the many-plies, from the nu-
merous folds of its internal coat, is the smallest of
the four ; and these three are connected in such a
manner, that, under dift'erent circumstances, the food
can pass from the gullet, either into the first stomach
only, or the third only, withoutentering either of tlie
others, in the first instance. The fourth stomach,
commonly called the red, is nearly as large as the
first, is shaped somewhat like a pear, and its internal
coat is longitudinally wrinkled.

Camel. — In addition to this general structure, the
camel tribe have numerous cells formed in the sub-
stance of their first and second stomachs, capable of
being closed or opened at pleasure, and it is in these
ceils that the animals deposit the store of water which
•cerves to quencli their thirst when traversing the
burning sands of the desert.

Cetaceous animals. — The stomachs of cetaceoits ani-
vials is generally compound, and resembles in struc-
ture the stomachs of ruminating quadrupeds. This
is the more remarkable, as these animals appear
to live entirely on fish, mollusca, young seals, or the
smaller species of their own tribes.

Botli in quadrupeds and cetaceous animals the
distinction between the small and large intestines is
very general ; but their proportional length differs
very nmch,. the large intestines being usually longest
in the graminivorous quadrupeds. Many of the tpiad-
f upcds have no cceciim. In the cctacea, the folds of
the villous coat are most remarkable, and the «hol»
canal appears divided into cells.

Birds. — The stomachs of birds also differ in struc-
ture, according to the nature of their aliment. In
tliose that feed on insects and smaller birds, the prin-
cipal part of the stomach is a thiu membranous bag ;

whereas in granivorous birds the stomach consists circulation,
principally of two very thick and fleshy hemispheri- &<;.
cal portions, connected by a strong membrane, and
lined with a thick horny internal coat, constituting
what is generally called the gizzard.

The intestiues of birds are proportionally longer ia
those that are granivorous, though even in them much
slujrter in proportion than in quadrupeds, and the
distinction into small and large is very obscure. The
intestines in these animals open befiow into a cavi-
t}', which forms a common outlet to the excrements
and eggs in the female.

Reptiles, &c. — In reptiles and serpents the stomach
is generally simple, though sometimes it is divided
into two compartments. Its figure is extremely va-
rious, being globular in the crocodile, oval in the guana,
pear-shaped in the flying dragon, and in most of the
other tribes forming a long cylindrical tube but lit-
tle distinguished from the gullet or intestines. The
intestinal canal of these animals is generally very
short, resembles that of birds, and terminates below
in a similar manner.

Fishes. — In fishes the stomach is usually small,
thin, and membranous, but in a few instances its sides
are thick and fleshy, bearing a distant resemblance
to that of birds. Their intestinal canal is also short
and very uniform in its structure.

Among the mollusca, one species of helix, has a
muscular stomach, and the laplysicc, or sea-hares, have
three of these, with bony processes within. Their
intestines are short, but generally a little convoluted.

Crtislaceous animals. — The stomach of some crus-
taceous animals, as the crab and lobster, consists of a
membranous bag, supported by a long frame, and
having at its farthest outlet those hard parts that are
called teeth. There is a verj' short straight intestine.

Insects. — The stomach of insects is generally sim-
ple and membranous ; but the intestinal canal of the
locust is very complicated, and connected both with
a membranous and muscular stomach.

Polypes Polypes may be said to be all stomach,

being formed almost entirely of a membranous tube,
open at one extremity, into which their prey is con-
veyed by numerous arms, and b}' which, after suf-
cicnt solution in the cavity, the undigested portion
is thrown out.

There are certain organs in the neighbourhood of
the stomach which ajipear in a greater or less de-
gree to assist in digestion, and are therefore some-
times described among the digestive organs. These
are, the liver, the spleen, and the pancreas, which will
be considered under the organs of Secretion.

CiiAP. IV. Of Circulation and Absorption.

The circulating and absorbent systems are inti-
mately connected. By the latter the chyle is taken
up from the intestines and fluids, and decayed or
noxious parts of the body are removed from situa-
tions where they miglit do injury, and conveyed in-
to the general mass of fluids, the former to be dis-
tributed by the general circulating system to every
part of the body, and the latter to be thrown out by
jieculiar channels connected with the circulating sys-
tem. Hence it will be of advantage to consider thera

ANATOMY.

507

CirculatioB unilcr the same chapter, tliougli tlic organs of circu-
8tc. latioii must first be described before those of ab-
sorption can be properly understood.

Sect. I. Of Circulation.

The organs of circulation in the more perfect ani-
mals consist of the heart, the arteries, and the veins,
and, connected with these, certain vessels called ex-
halanis.

The heart is the centre of the circulating system.
Taken as a whole, it is generally of an oval form,
largest at one end, and consists of several cavities,
with strong fleshy sides.

The heart of man is to be regarded as a double or-
gan, being composed of two sets of cavities connect-
ed each with appropriate vessels ; and, to understand
its structure, it will be necessary to make a few ob-
servations on the nature and uses of the blood.

The vessels of the human body, as well as those
of quadrupeds, cetaceous animals, and birds, con-
tain two kinds of blood, one of a florid red, the other
of a dark crimson colour. The former is that which
is fitted for the nourishment of the system, is con-
veyed to the different parts of the body by the arte-
ries, and is therefore distinguished by the name of
arterial blood. The crimson blood is that which has
already been distributed to the system, has lost, in
some measure, its nutritious properties, and circu-
lates through the lungs for the purpose of regaining
what it had lost in its former progress through the
body. This blood, which is carried back to the heart
by the veins, is therefore called venous blood. The
cavities and vessels on the right side of the heart
are always found to contain the crimson or venous
blood, and those on the left side the florid or arte-
rial blood.

The human heart lies in the fore and lower part
of the chest towards the lefl side, with its small end
or point nearly opposite to the sixth rib, and its
large extremity or base a little raised. It rests on
one side upon that muscular membrane that forms
the floor of the chest and divides it from the lielly.
From its relative position, the heart is divided into
the right and left side.

The right ventricle, which forms nearly one half of
the body of the heart, is a triangular cavity, extend-
ing nearly to its point, provided with thick, fleshy
sides, and having its internal surface rendered irre-
gular by numerous bundles of fleshy fibres, some of
which are loose at one extremity, and are connected
with tendinous parts, so fixed towards the base of
the heart, that when the cavity is full, and the fleshy
bundles are thrown into action, the blood is prevent-
ed from leaving the ventricle in that direction. Near
the base of the heart, at the upper and back part of
the right ventricle, is an orifice leading to a large
vessel that conveys the blood from the ventricle to
the lungs. This orifice is the mouth of the pulmonic
artery, and is provided with three membranes, that
are concave towards the ventricle, and convex to-
wards the M'tery, and are constructed in such a man-
ner, that when blood is passing from the ventricle
into the artery, they lie close to the side of the lat-
ter ; but when the artery lias reseived its blood, they

converge and form a vnhe that prevents the return circulaikw,
of the blood into the ventricle. &e.

Immediately connected with the right ventricle is V^'y^*'
a cavity witfa thinner sides, part of which hangs
loose from the base of the heart towards the right
and fore part ; this is the right auricle. It is an irre-
gular cavity, with numerous openings, especially
two coming from large vessels, tlie one from the up-
per and the other from the lower parts of the body,
called the superior and inferior vena cava, whicll, by
their meeting, form a hollow with thinner sides than
the rest of the auricle, and denominated simis. The
inside of this sinus is smooth, but has some remark-
able folds ; the inside of the rest of the auricle is
rendered irregular by muscular fibres. Where the
right auricle joins the right ventricle, tliere is an
opening, about an inch wide, which admits the blood
to pass from the auricle to the ventricle, but is so
guarded by the apparatus already noticed as to pre-
vent its return.

The left side of the heart is formed in a similar
manner of a ventricle, auricle, and sinus, connec-
ted with the aorta and pulmonic veins. The left
ventricle is longer than the right, and has thicker
sides. It is joined to the right by a fleshy part com-
mon to both, and acting as a partition between them.
At the upper part of its base is an opening leading
to the great trunk of the aorta, guarded, like that of
the right ventricle, with three membranous valves,
and an opening communicating with the next cavity,
capable of being closed by fleshy -and tendinous fi-
bres, as in the other side of the heart.

The left auricle is joined to the right by a partition,
which, in the adult state, is impervious. The sinus
of this auricle is larger than that of the right au-
ricle, and has more openings communicating with it,
in particular four orifices of the pulmonic veins that
bring the blood from the lungs. The communication
between this auricle and its corresponding ventricle
difl'ers from that between the right cavities in having
its valve formed of two principal portions, instead of
three, as on the other side.

The heart is inclosed in a pretty strong mem-
branous bag, called pericardium, doublings from
which pass over the great trunks of blood-vessels,
and immediately and closely invest the external sur-
face of the heart.

The arteries proceeding from the heart form two
large trunks, from which many principal branches
and innumerable lesser ramifications are sent off.
Those of the pulmonic artery, which have received
no particular names, distribute the blood through
the lungs, not for the nourishment of these organs,
but for a purpose already hinted at, and to be more
fully explained in the following chapter.

The large artery called notia, is the most impor-
tant, and above a hundred of its ramifications have
been distinguished by names. It will be necessary
only to enumerate the larger branches and the parts
to which they are principally sent.

The aorta rises a little upv.irds from the lefl ven-
tricle, but soon makes a turn or arch, after wliich
it proceeds downwards to pass through the belly.'
While yet in the chest, it gives off two corouanj «r-'

308

A I^ A T O M Y.

Circalation, teries to the substanee of the heart ; and from the
&-C. arch rise three principal brandies, one on the right
^"^^V"*^ and two on the left. The branch on the right soon
divides into two, of which one passes to the right
shoulder and arm, and is named right subclavian, or
rityjit brachial, while the other, called the right caro-
tid, rises up the neck to the head. The two branches
on the left are the left subclavian and the left carotid.
When the subclavians reach the arm, each is, at some
point between the shoulder and the elbow, divided
into two or three branches, of which the principal
are, the radial, that passes down the fov'e arm beside
the radius, and is felt beating at the wrist, and the
■ulnar on the opposite side.

WTien the carotids reach the top of the neck, they
are subdivided into external and internal. The
former supply the neck, jaws, head, and face, by
eight principal ramifications ; and the latter enter
the skull at its base, to supply the brain and its ap-
pendages.

The subclavians also give off several branches to
supply the lower part of the neck, the external and
internal sides of the chest, and one material branch
called vertebral, which passes ui)wards through the
lateral holes in the vertebric of the neck to the brain.

The aorta having entered the belly, gives off the
the hepatic artery to the liver, the splenic artery to
the spleen, the coronary arteries to the stomach, and
as it passes downwards beside the spine towards the
left side it gives oif the superior and iiiferior mesenteric
to the mesentery and the bowels, the renal to the kid-
Beys, and the lumbar to the loins and sides of the belly.

When the trunk of the aorta has reached nearly
the last vertebra of the loins, it divides into two
common iliac arteries, which, like the carotid, are
soon subdivided into external and internal ; the latter
supplying the contents of the pelvis, the former pass-
ing to the thigh and leg, and receiving, according to
its situation, the names o^i femoral in the thigh, jjo-
pliteal in the ham, and tibial, &c. in the leg.

Structure of the arteries The arteries, in their ge-
neral structure, are cylindrical tubes, formed of
strong membranes, interspersed with muscular fibres.
Their cavities are not interrupted by membranes
projecting'inwards; and in the living body they have
a pulsatory motion perceptible to the touch, and
constituting what is called the pulse. In consequence
of this innate contractile power, they propel the
blood which they receive toward their extreme
branches, and here they terminate in very minute
tubes, called capillary vessels. They give off their
branches at angles more or less acute, and several
of these branches communicate together by what is,
called inoscidation or anastomosis.

Pulsation. — The pulsation of the arteries, or the
pulse, varies in frequency and strength at different
ages and in different individuals. Its frequency is es-
timated by the number of pulsations that take place
in a minute ; and it is found, that in a healthy, mid-
dle-aged man, these are about seventy. In women
tire pulse is generally more frequent than in men,
and weaker ; its frequency is greatest in infancy
and childhood, and least in old age, when it often
foils below fifty in a minute.

Veins. — Where the capillary arteries termioate, the

veins begin. Tliese are elastic tubes ; but except in circulation,
the larger trunks they appear to possess no muscu- &.c.
larity. They are distinguished from the arteries by
their want of pulsation, and by having their cavities
interrupted by numerous membranous valves project-
ing within them, and preventing the passage of the
blood from trunks to branches, while they permit it
to flow in the opposite direction. The veins arc
more numerous than the arteries, each trunk of the
latter being generally accompanied by two of the
former. They are also more sujjerficial. The arte-
ries, in general, lie close to the bones, or deep among
the muscles ; but besides the veins that accompany
these deep-seated arteries, there are many others
that appear near the surface, just below the skin, es-
pecially on the extremities and the neck, where they
are evident in most people by their blue colour, and
become still more visible when pressure is made on
them. In this case, as the blood flows from the
smaller to the larger parts of the veins, that part be-
yond the ligature, or farthest from the heart, becomes
distended in consequence of the interrupted flow of
blood.

A considerable number of the principal veins have
received names which, in general, are similar to those
of the arteries. The most important are the follow-
ing : The pidmonic veins bringing the blood from the
lungs ; the ascending and descending vena cava, the
former chiefly in the belly, or on the right side of the
aorta, the latter in the chest ; the jugular veins in the
neck ; the basilic and cephalic in the arm ; the mesen-
teric upon the mesentery ; a large vein called vena
porta;, which performs the office of an artery in dis-
tributing blood through tlie liver ; thejemoral vein in
the thigh ; and the saphaia in the leg.

The exhalants are small arterial branches out of the
general course of the circulating system, whose office
is to pour out into particular cavities, or on the sur-
face of membranes, those watery, mucous, and other
fluids, intended for lubricating the surfaces of cavities
and organs. They require here no particular des-
cription.

Circulation of the blood.— The reader is now pre-
pared to understand the general circulation of the
blood. Commencing with the right auricle, it pro-
ceeds in the following course : The blood from every
part of the body, except the lungs, being collected
by the branches and trunks, accumulates in the right
sinus and auricle of the heart, from which it is poured
into the right ventricle, when the latter is not con-
tracting. The ventricle having received its blood,
contracts, and, closing the valve of communication
between it and the auricle, impels the blood into the
pulmonic artery, by the trunks and branches of which
it is distributed through the lungs. From these or-
gans the blood is brought by the branches and trunks
of the pulmonic veins, and collected in the left sinus
and auricle, whence it is poured into the left ventri-
cle. By the contraction of this latter it is propelled
into the aorta, by the trunks and branches of which
it is distributed to every part of the body, passes
through the capillary vessels, and is collected by the
branches and trunks of the veins, brought back to
the right side of the heart, and circulated as before.

Thus it appears that the blood undergoes a double

ANATOMY.

CirculatioD, circulation, first tlirough the lungs and then through
6.C. the system. Tlie blood is impelled through the ar-
V^^i'-fc./ teries chiefly by the contractile power of the heart
acting from behind, and tlie innate muscularity of the
arteries. It is carried through tlie veins partly in
consequence of the opposition to its return afforded
by the valves, and partly by the pressure of the mus-
cles contiguous to the veins.

The description just given applies chiefly to the
adult state of man. There are some peculiarities
both in the structure of the heart and the circulation
of the blood before birth, which will be noticed along
with other peculiarities of the Jcetus in a subsequent
chapter.

The blood contained in the veins and ptdmonic ar-
tery is of a dark red, and that in the aiierinl vessels of
a bright red colour, but this is tiie only sensible dif-
ference between them. When blood is drawn either
from an artery or vein, it has a uniform red appear-
ance ; but if in any considerable quantity, on being
suffered to stand at rest in a vessel, it soon separates
into portions of a very different texture and consis-
tence. A great part of the blood thus changed con-
sists of a clear fluid, generally of a pale straw colour,
resembling whey, and called the serum of the blood.
Within this floats a solid mass called the coagulum,
or clot, which consists chiefly of two portions, a pretr
ty dense gelatinous substance above, and a deep red
matter, easily broken, on the lower part. The upper
gelatinous part is called coagulable lymph, and the
under part is composed of what have been denomina-
ted the red globules of the blood. By heat the serum
coagulates.

The specific gravity of blood is rather greater than
tliat of water; it has an unctuous feel, a saltish taste,
and, when fresh drawn, a peculiar odour.

The general differences in the circulating system
among the inferior animals have been already noticed
in the introduction. The particular variations res-
pect chiefly the heart.

Heart qf quadrupeds — The heart of quadrupeds
and cetaceous animals nearly resembles that of man,
but is not situated in the same manner. It does not
lie so much to the left side, and rests chiefly on the
sternum, with its base forwards. The arteries in these
animals are distributed nearly as in the human spe-
cies ; but in some particular tribes, especially the ru-
minating quadrupeds, those which go to the brain
have the trunk more minutely divided, so as to check
the impetus of the blood in the depending posture of
the head which these animals employ in feeding. A
similar minute division of the arterial trunks that sup-
ply the limbs occurs in some of those animals that
are remarkable for the slowness of their motions.

Birds. — The heart of birds has a peculiarity of struc-
ture in the right ventricle, consisting of a strong tense
muscle, nearly of a triangular form, so placed as to
assist in driving the blood with greater force into the
Jungs.

Reptiles. — The heart of reptiles varies in the differ-
,' ent orders. In the turtles, tortoises, and the crocodile

tribe, it consists of a compound ventricle, with the
compartments communicating with each other, and
of two independent auricles ; while in frogs, toads,
and salamanders, it consists of a single undivided

509

A similar circnlat
&c.

conical ventricle, and a single auricle,
structure to this last prevails in serpents,

The circulation through the lungs in reptiles and
serpents is limited and imperfect ; and from the im-
mediate communication of the ventricles, the distinc-
tion between the venous and arterial blood is scarcely
manifest. From this peculiarity of structure these
animals are capable of suspending respiration when
below water, or in other circumstances where thev
are prevented from receiving continued supplies of
pure atmos()heric air.

Fishes, Sfc. — In fishes the heart is small in propor-
tion to the body, and exceedingly simple in its struc-
ture, consisting of a single auricle and ventricle, from
the latter of which arises a single artery that (jussos to
the gills, through which the blood circulates, and is
brought from them to an artery that distributes it
through the body. The blood-vessels of fishes are
few in number. The heart of mollusca in general re-
sembles that of fishes, but that of the cuttle-fish is
composed of three muscular cavities analogous to
ventricles. Crustaceoiii animals have a still more sim-
ple heart, consisting of a muscular cavity that pro-
pels the blood through the system before it passes to
the gills. In no other of the invertebral animals be-
low these is there any proper circulating system.

Nutrition. — It is chiefly through the medium of the
arteries and the blood that the nutritioyi of the animal
system seems to be effected, though we cannot pro-
perly explain the mode in which this is brought a-
bout. We know that the blood contains within itself
the component principles of the animal body, and
in the course of circulation these are deposited where
they are required.

This affords some explanation of those remarkable
phenomena that take place in many animals with res-
pect to the reproduction of parts that have been in-
jured or destroyed, as in the claws of crabs and lob-
sters, the tail and legs, and even the eye of reptiles,
and the bones and some other parts of the human
body. It also explains how parts that are separated
may be reunited, and how a part taken from one ani-
mal may be made to grow to a newly cut suri'acc in
the body of another.

Sect. II. Of Absorption.

The absorbent system is composed of two sets of
vessels and glands, and a general receptacle for col-
lecting the absorbed fluids.

Lacteals. — One set of vessels and glands serve the
purpose of conveying the chyle into the circulating
system. The vessels, from containing the milky
chyle, are called lacteals; and thp glands, from being
situated on the mesentery, are denominated mesenter-
ic glands.

LymjJiaticsj—T\x other set of absorbing apparatus
consists of vessels which, from containing a clear
watery fluid, are called lymphatic, and of lymphatic
glands. It is the office of these to remove superflu-
ous fluids, to absorb matters by the skin, or convey
away particles that are noxious or useless, or that are
to be exchanged for new fluids.

The lacteal and lymphatic vessels resemble minute
veins, except that their coats are thinner and more
transparent, and they are provided witli many more

ion.

Re-opiration.

310 ANATOMY.

valves. Thsy open upon the internal membrane of

the intestineti, aiirl traverse the mesentery through
the mesenteric gfands. The lympliatic vessels are
partly deep-seated, arising from internal cavities, or
internal organs, and partly superficial, running longi-
tudinally-below the skin, as shown in the full length
figure of Plate 10. These vessels also pass through
lymphatic glands ; and it is remarkable, that the ves-
sels which leave the glands on the side next the heart
are fewer in number than those which enter them from
the opposite extremity.

Almost every part of the body is provided with
absorbent vessels, whicli, %vhether called lacteah or
hjniphatics, have a similar structure and appearance,
resembling jointed tubes.

Glands. — The mesenteric and lymphatic glands al-
so nearly resemble each other. They are bodies of a
flattened ovul form, and of ureddish brown, or greyish
colour. They are composed partly of numerous mi-
nute vessels, and partly of a pulpy matter, by which
these appear to be connected, and they are each en-
veloped in a pai'ticular membrane. They are of va-
rious sizes, from that of a millet-seed to that of a
small pigeon-egg, and are usually placed in groupes
of three or four togethur. The lymphatic glands are
most evident in the neck and about the large joints,
as in the groins, arm-pits, and about the knees.

llinracic ditct. — The general receptacle in which
the lacteals and lymphatics terminate is called the
thoracic duct ; but though the greater pai-t of it is
situated within the tiiorax, it appears to commence
in the;bel!y at about the third vertebra of the loins.
It lies partly behind and partly on the right side of
the aorta, sometimes single and sometimes double, and
forms two remarkable expansions, the lowest of which
is called tlie reeeptade of' the chyle. In the thorax it
unites with the left subclavian vein, ijito which it
empties its contents, to be thence carried to the right
side of the heart.

A regular absorbent system, such as we have des-
cribed in man, is not found in all the inferior classes,
though it is probable that absorption takes place in
all of them. In the higher classes the whole absor-
bent apparatus resembles that of man, and the differ-
ences tliat take place in the rest are not sufficiently
remarkable to render a particular account of them
necessary.

The mode in which absorption takes place has not
been completely ascertained. It is supposed that the
absorbent vessels exert an active power, in the first
instance, in sucking up the matters they have to ab-
sorb ; and though these mattei's often consist of the
solid parts of the body, it should seem that these
must beveducedto a more or less fluid state before
entering the mouths of the absorbents. The absorb-
ed fluids appear to be carried onwards from joint to
joint, by whajt mechanical philosophers term tr/piY/aj^
■cttradion, and in passing through the glands they pro-
bably undergo some necessary or imjwrtant change.

Chap. V. Of Respikation and Voice.

All animals, whether they live in air, earth, or
water, require occasional supi>lies of atmospheric air
10 renovate their blood or juices ;.andstlicy have all

organs, some extremely complicatea, and other* very Rtspimtioa.
simple, b)' means of which they alternately receive
and discharge the air, or water mixed with air, by
what is called reajtiration. Most of the more perfect
animals also utter sounds, or have a voice, and their
vocal organs are immediately- connected with the
general organs of respiration.

Sect. I. Of the Organs and Phenomena of Respir'
ation.

The general organs of respiration consist of the
'windpipe, the lungs, and diaphragm, assisted in their
mechanical action by numerous muscles. The upper
part of the windpipe also contains the organs of voice
in what is called the larynx.

Without at present minutely describing the organs
of voice, it will be proper to take a general view of
the larynx, and windpipe, from the commencement
of the former at the root of the tongue, to the ter-
mination of the latter in the lungs.

Larynx, — Immediately at the root of the tongue is
situated the hyoidal bone, or bone of the tongue,
which has received its former name from its resem-
blance to a Greek letter. It consists of a body and
two horns, with cartilaginous appendages, with which
the upper and back part of the larynx is intimately
coimected.

The external part of the larynx is composed of se-
veral cartilaginous pieces,so united as to form a short
tube attached at the top of the neck, andforming there
a protuberance partly angular and partly rounded,
while its back part next the gullet is chiefly compos-
ed of membrane and muscles. The most conspicu-
ous part of the larynx is composed of two flatfish, ir-
regular, four-sided cartilages, which, by their meet-
ing, form that angular protuberance so remarkable at
the upper and fore part of the neck, called by ana-
tomists Adams apple. These two pieces united, form
what is called the thyroid cartilage. Between these,
on the upper part, there is a moveable oval cartilage,
convex next the tongue, to which it is attached, and
concave towards the aperture of the larynx, over
which it is turned by the motion of the tongue in tlie
act of swallowing, so as to prevent the food and drink
from passing into the windpipe. Below the thyroid
cartilage there. is one resembling a ring, and thence
called cricoid, or annular. This is the hardest part
of the larynx, and completes tliat tube below, while
two other small cartilages above and behind this, cal-
led arytenoid, make up the rest of the larynx. AH
tliese cartilages are connected together by ligaments
and muscles.

Windpipe. — The windpipe commences iinmediate-
ly below the cricoid cartilage, passes down the fore
part of the neck into the chest, and soon after enter-
ing this cavity divides into two branches, which pass,
one on each side, into the lungs. The windpipe is
a tube of considerable size, formed on its fore part
and sides by circular cartilaginous rings, placed one
below another, while its back part is flat and mcm-
bi'anous where it is contiguous to the gullet. Its in-
ternal surface is lined with a mucous membrane, while
its outer surface is covered with a strong fibrous
membrane of considerable thicivness. On the upper
part of the windpipe, aad extending over a part of

ANATOMY.

Rtspu'ation. the thyroid cartilage, is a body called the thyroid
'^""^^'^"'' gland.

Cavil)/ of the chest. — This is a bony cavity, of a co-
nical form, broadest next the belly and narrowest
at the neck. Its front is formed by the breast-bone
and the cartilages to which the ribs are attached, its
back part by the twelve dorsal vertebra;, while the
ribs constitute its sides. It is lined iaternally by a
dense serous membrane, which invests all the contents
of the chest, and forms two doublings in the middle,
extending from the inside oi' the breast-bone to the
vertebrae, and forming a double partition called me-
diastinum. Thus the cavity of the chest is divided
into three compartments, two lateral, containing the
right and left lungs, and one central, containing the
heart, the large blood-vessels, the gullet, and greater
part of the thoracic duct. The floor of the chest is
formed by the diaphragm, which is also covered next
the cavity with the pleura.

Lungs. — The lungs are large, membranous, cellu-
lar, spongy bags, capable of considerable expansion
and contraction, and supplied with numerous blood-
vessels. They take their general figure from the ca-
vities of the chest in which they are lodged, being
convex next the ribs, a little concave next the dia-
phragm, flattened next the mediastinum, narrow
above, and broad below ; their colour is generally a
brownish red, brighter in childhood and youth than
in advanced age ; they are smooth and glossy on their
outer surface, and, in the healthy state, are easily
compressible, and so light as to float in water. The
lungs of each side are divided into several smaller
portions, or lobes.

The greater part of the lungs is composed of an
infinite number of very minute membranous cells,
surrounded with cellular substance ; and interspersed
with innumerable ramifications of blood-vessels, with
nerves and lymphatics. The membranous cells have
no immediate commimication with the surrounding
cellular substance, but they freely communicate with
each other by means of short pipbs, which gradually
become larger and more cartilaginous as they ap-
proach the divisions of the windpipe. The blood-
vessels consist partly of those which nourish the lungs,
but chiefly of the ramifications oi' the pulmonic arte-
ry and veins which circulate the blood through the
Jungs. The blood thus circulated does not enter the
membranous cells, but passes round them, within its
proper vessels.

Diaphragm. — The diaphragm, or midriff, is that
extensive partition which separates the chest from
the belly. It is composed partly of flef hy and partly
of tendinous fibres. At its sides it is attached to the
ribs, in front to the sternum, behind to the dorsal and
lumbar vertebrae, and in the middle to the mediasti-
num, in such a manner that it forms two convex sur-
faces towards the chest, and two corresponding con-
cavities towards the belly. It is perforated with se-
vei'al holes, especially one forward and towards the
right side, for the passage of the great ascending
vein ; a second near this, but more in the centre,
of an oval form, for the gullet ; and a third be-
hind this, for the descent of the great artery, or
aorta.

Mespiration. — This function is partly mechanical

311

and partly chemical. Tlic air inhaled by the mouth Respiration,
and nostrils enters the larynx, and, by its own weight,
descends through that tube and its ramifications into
the air cells of the lungs. To assist this inspirutioA,
the cavity of the chest is enlarged, partly by draw-
ing up the ribs by the muscles suited to that office,
and partly by the contraction of the muscular fibres
of the diaphragm, by which its convexities next the
cavities of the chest are flattened. Wlfen the cavity
of the chest is thus enlarged, the air cells of the lungs
are expanded by the rarefaction of the air which iln v
contain, and readily admit the introduction of Iresh
air from without. While the lungs are thus dilated,
the blood sent to them from the heart flows more
freely than when they are in a contracted state.

Inspiration being completed, expiration follows.
This is effected chiefly by the abdominal and neigh-
bouring muscles drawing down the ribs, while the
muscular fibres of the diaphragm are relaxed, and
this partition is pushed towards the chest by the
pressure of the contents of the belly. This action is
assisted by the elasticity of the air-cells of the lungs,
and of the cartilages of the ribs, by which the former
are naturally contracted, and the latter drawn down-
wards.

A healthy adult man respires about twenty times "
in a minute, and appears to take in, during an ordi-
nary inspiration, about forty cubic inches of air.

The chemical effects of respiration respect either
the changes produced on the respired air, those pro-
duced on the blood that passes through the lungs, or
those effected in the system at large.

It is found that the air respired suffers a sensible
diminution in its bulk, though this is probably but
trifling, amounting to about six parts in a thousand ;
that during respiration the air loses a part of its oxy-
genous constituent ; that it acquires an additional
quantity of carbonic acid, or fixed air ; and that it is
emitted by the lungs impregnated with watery va-
pour.

Hence it appears that, during respiration, a small
quantity of atmospheric air is absorbed, that oxygen
is consumed, and that carbonic acid and water are
produced.

As the blood sent to the lungs by the pulmonic ar-
tery is of a dark red colour, while that brought back
by the pulmonic veins is of a florid red, it is evident
that a change has' been eftected on jt by passing
through the lungs. It appears that this change con-
sists chiefly in the loss of its hydrogen and carbone,
acquired in its circulation through the system, which
is attracted by the oxygenof the respired air produc-
ing water and carbonic acid. The chemical theory
of respiration is, however, still imperfect.

The effects produced by respiration on the system
at large are partly the increase of vital energy and
activity, produced by the exciting power of tlie arte-
rial blood, and partly the support of animal heat.

Experience shows, that, when the breatliing is free
and rapid, the circulation is most vigorous and ac-
tive ; that breathing a pure, clear atmosphere, excites
agreeable sensatiors in the mind, and disposes to
mirth and cheerfulness, whde the animal motions are
rendered free and vigorous, and the digestive powers
are increased : whereas, when respiration is impeded,

3t2

A N A T O M Y.

Rosjiiretion. Of when a person is compelled to breathe an impure
atmosphere, the circulation, especially through the
lungs and head, becomes slow and languid, a pecu-
liar anxiety is felt at the breast, which is partially
relieved by yawning, sighing, or a deep inspiration ;
the head becomes heavy and oppressed ; the face
swells, and generally feels heated ; tlie sight becomes
blunted or depraved; the mind confused; and mus-
cular action is rendered feeble and languid.

Animal heat. — Physiologists are now generally a-
greed, tliat animal heat depends chiefly on respiration.
Those animals whose respiration is quickest and freest,
as birds, have the greatest temperature, while those
whose respiration is slowest and most languid, as
I'eptiles, have their temperature proportionally low.
The natural healthy temperature of the human body,
or wiiat is called blood heat, is about 98° of Fahren-
heit's thermometer. To account for the production
and continuance of animal heat, it is supposed that
the venous blood, in passing through the lungs,
imbibes a quantity of that heat which is extricated
during the decomposition of the atmospheric air, or
has its specific heat increased, and that in circulat-
ing through the body it imparts a portion of this
heat to the parts to which it is distributed.

Few circumstances are more remarkable in the
animal economy than the power which animals pos-
sess of preserving an equable and moderate tempe-
rature. Most of them can exist for a considerable
time in air heated to a degree greatly superior to
that of the blood, or cooled below the freezing point;
and still, while life remains, the heat of the body is
not materially increased in the former, or materially
diminished in the latter case. A dog has been kept
in air heated to 260°, without having his heat in-
creased more than 2°, and men have breathed an at-
mosphere of 1 30° without being greatly incommoded.
Alligators and fish have been found sporting at their
ease in the waters of a hot bath ; while, on the other
hand, many reptiles have been enclosed in a block
of ice, and still survived. These phenomena are to
be attributed to the conservative effects of the vital
principle ; but we know that in those animals which
perspire, a free and copious perspiration, the natural
■effect of increased heat, contributes to cool the sur-
face of the body, and preserve its equability of tem-
perature.

Torpidily The periodical torpidity, or hyhernu'

tion, that takes place in many different animals, is
intimately connected with the general phenomena
of respiration. Among quadrupeds, three species of
bats, at least two of bears, the badger, the hedge-
hog, the hamster rat, some marmots, the dormouse,
and a i'ew others, pass the greater part of winter in
U' state of inactivity, differing from sleep in the slow-
ness of their circulation and respiration, and their
little suscq)tibility of impressions from external sti-
muli. The same circumstances take place in a still
more remarkable degree among tortoises, lizards, and
other reptiles ; and some birds and fishes, though
hybernation is not common in these classes, are oc-
casionally found in a state of torpor. Most insects
that survive the autumn pass the winter in a torpid
State ; and even man has been known to remain for

several days in a state of suspended animation, from Respaiitiot
the effects of cold, without finally perishing.

It is chiefly, however, in quadrupeds and reptiles
that the phenomena of hybernation have beeu mi-
nutely examined ; and the following is the result of
the examination. During this state of torpidity, the
animals appear scarcely to live ; their sensation
seems entirely suspended ; their irritability is so
much diminished, that they may be cut, torn, or
have their legs or tail broken oft', without giving any
signs of motion, or expressing any mark of feeling.
Their digestion, or at least their appetite for food, is
also suspended, and their secretions and excretions
are discontinued. The only functions which appear
to be carried on, and shew that vitality is not en-
tirely extinct, are those of circulation and respira-
tion, which are so languid, that the animal can but
just be said to breathe, and the heart to beat. In
some quadrupeds too, the absorbent system still con-
tinues active ; for these animals are commonly very
fat when they retire to their winter quarters, but
quite emaciated when they leave them in the spring.
This, however, is scarcely the case with reptiles,
which are found to lose very little of their weight
during hybernation. In those animals which hyber-
nate under the protection of man, it is found, that if
they are removed from their retreats, and exposed
to a gentle heat, they partially recover the use of
their faculties, and sink again into torpidity, when
remanded to their cell ; but if the heat to which
they are exposed be too great, or too suddenly ap-
plied, the animal is commonly destroyed.

To what immediate cause these phenomena are to
be attributed, has not yet been satisfactorily ascer-
tained. There is no doubt that they are connected
with a languid state of respiration, and this seems to
be one of their most constant precursors ; but this
alone does not afford a sufficient explanation.

The comparative anatomy of the general respiratory
organs, offers many and important varieties. In most
quadrupeds the lungs are similar to those of the hu-
man subject ; but in those which live chiefly in the
water, as the sea-horse, and in cetaceous animals,
the lungs are long and flat, are not divided into lobes,
and adhere to the diaphragm and to the pleura,
and this last membrane is of a firmer texture than in
man and most quadrupeds.

There is one peculiarity in the respiratory organs
of cetaceous animals that requires particular notice,
'i'here are in the skull of these animals two bony
canals proceeding from the back of the mouth, tra-
versing the interior of the skull in a curved direction,
and opening externally in some part of its upper
surface. These canals constitute what are called the
blowing holes, and it is through them that the animals
spout those jets of water which form so remarkable
an object in the Greenland seas. These canals gener-
ally unite, except in the proper whales, near the top
of the head, and form externally a single opening.
There are numerous membranous and bony cavities
connected with these canals, and muscles for con-
tracting and regulating their diameters.

Cetaceous animals, in their usual attitude, are in-
capable of breathing through the mouth, and are

A N A T O M Y.

?13

Resjiirau'on. therefore pro^-ided witli tlio^e openings at the top of

v^^V"^' the head, whicli is generally out of water; and these

openings serve both as nostrils to admit the passage

of air to and from the lungs, and to discharj^o the

water taken in by tlie mouth along with the food.

The lungs of birds are small, flattened, adhere above
to the chest, and are covered by the pleura only on
their anterior surface. The air cells are of consi-
derable size, and the lungs are not divided into
lobes. There are also membranous air cells extend-
ing to tha belly, and among them are muscular fibres
which seem to supply the place of the diaphragm,
an organ that is not found in birds. Besides the
membranous air cells, there are large vacuities in the
bones of birds, particularly in the blade bone and
thigh bone, which are filled with air instead of mar-
row.

In reptiles the lungs are proportionally larger, and
of a looser texture than in quadrupeds and birds, and
the air cells are in general of considerable size. In
these animals, too, there is no diaphragm. In the
tadpoles of toads, frogs, and salamanders, which pass
the earlier stages of their existence entirely in the
water, there are also temporary gills, consisting of
several fringed vascular membranes, projecting on
each side of the neck, and communicating with the
back of the mouth. When the animals approach
their perfect state these drop oft'; but there are two
species of reptiles, the proteus and the siren, in which
they are permanent. In serpents there is properly
but one lung, consisting of a very long spongy bag,
a great portion of which forms a single cavity, while
the other cells are very large. They also have no
diaphragm.

This simplicity of structure in the lungs of reptiles
and serpents is well suited to their habitation and
manners of life. They are thus enabled to receive
a large quantity of air at once, and to retain it for a
considerable time, while the very open texture and
little vascularity of their lungs make them swim and
dive more readily. The respiration in these animals
is naturally very slow, and can be suspended for a
very considerable time.

Fishes have no lungs, but respire by means of gills,
which arc placed on the sides of the neck, and gene-
rally consist of four vascular plates, attached imme-
diately to as many arched bones or cartilages, which
are connected with the hi/oidal bune. In the bony
fishes there is but one external opening to the gills of
each side, and this is covered with a bony or cartila-
ginous lid, which opens and shuts alternately as the.
animal respires. In the cartilaginous fishes there are
several openings to the gills on each side of the neck,
and no gill-covers.

Most crustaceous animals have gills situated near
the attachment of the legs. Some of the mollusca,
too, as the snail and slug, have similar organs, com-
municating with the extirnsl air through a small ap-
erture in the side of the neck, that.can be opened
and shut at the pleasure of the animal. It does not
appear that any of these last animals inspire air by
the mouth.

Insects have air vessels passing below the skin a-
long the body, which are largest in the caterpillar
state. They communicate with the air by apertures

VOL. I. PART I.

called stigmata. In general these openings are placed Rtr,p:r»ii(m.
on both sides of the body, , ' •

The respiratory organs of worms resemble those of
insects; but zoophytes, though they evidently re-
quire atmospheric air, or water that is impregnated
with this air, have no perceptible breathing organs.

Sect. II. Of the Organs ami Phenomena of Voice.

A great variety of animals are capable of prodviring
sounds, but only the vertebral animals possess what
may be called vocal organs, and of these animals a
great many are entirely dumb. The most remarkable
for voice are a few quadrupeds, most birds, and some
reptiles and serpents.

The essential vocal organ is the larynx, assisted in
the propagation of sounds by several ot the neighbour-
ing cavities, and assisted also in their articulation, in
those animals that possess an articulate voice, by the
tongue, the lips, the teeth, and the palate.

The external part of the human larynx has already
been described; it remains to notice its internal parts,
which are more immediately concerned in the pro-
duction of vocal sounds.

This internal part of the larynx is called the glottis,
and consists chiefly of several membranes, which are
so situated and connected with the external cartila-
ges, and with numerous muscles, as to produce an
almost incalculable variety of tones, by regulating
the quantity and velocity of the air which is made to
pass through them in a given time. Two of these
internal membranes have the appearance of fibrous
bands, running from the side of each arytenoid carti'
/age to the internal fore-part of the thyroid cartila<^6.
At this latter part they meet and diverge from each
other towards the back part, but in such a manner
that the space between them, constituting the princi-
pal opening or chink of the glottis, is capable of vari-
ous degrees of contraction and dilatation, acco^'ding
as the arytenoid cartilages are made to approach each
other by the action of the contiguous muscles, or re-
cede from each other by their own elasticity. Below
these are two other ligamentous membranes, having
similar attachments with the former, but larger, and
generally more distinct, though not moveable to the
same extent. Besides these, there is on each side a,
membranous cavity, produced by a reflection of the
membranes already described, and these are callcj
the ventricles (>flhe glottis.

The several parts of the larynx, including the
glottis, have their motions varied and regulated by
23 pairs of muscles. Hence it may easily be con-
ceived how great must be the variety of tones and
inflections capable of being produced by the human
voice; especially if we consider that to these must be
added as assistants all the muscles that act upon the
tongue, the lips, and the lower jaw, and even the
principal muscles of respiration. It is computed that
the number of combinations, and consequently of va-
rieties of sound, capable of being produced by these
muscles, co-operating in different manners with each
other, amounts to above 17,000,000,000,000.

The general mechanism of voice and speech re-
quires but little explanation. In the ordinary silent
state of the vocal organs, the membranes and muscle*
oi t\ie glottis are in a state of relaxation ; but whcii,

R R

514

A N x\ T O M Y.

R€<:piration. by the contraction of the muscles, and consequent
approxhnation of the niemhranes, the chink of tlie
glottis is diminished, sound, or voice, is produced,
and this is more or less shrill according to the con-
traction of the aperture, and more or less loud ac-
cording to the quantity of air forced through it in
a given time. By this variation in the glottis alone,
however, only inarticulate sounds, or vowels, are
produced. To utter articulate sounds, we call in the
aid of the tongue, the lips, the palate, the teeth, and
even the nose, and the articulation is more complete
according as these parts are perfect and healthy.
Swelling or soreness of the tongue, dryness, or im-
perfections in the lips, loss of the front teeth, defi-
ciency in the palate, or obstruction in the nostrils,
each contributes to render the speech imperfect and
indistinct.

iJeveral quadrupeds have a characteristic voice,
produced by peculiar organs, consisting, as in man,
of four tense membranes and membranous cavities,
with the addition, in some instances, of a sinus in the
hynidal bone.

The neighing of the horse seems to be produced
by the vibrations of a delicate laminar membrane, at-
tached by its middle to the thyroid cartilage, and
having its extremities running along the external
edges of the opening of the glottis. The braying or-
gans of the ass consist of a similar membrane, with
two large membranous bags communicating with the
larynx, and a hollow in the thyroid cartilage. In
the cat there are two delicate membranes situated
below the ordinary membranes of the larynx, the vi-
brations of which are supposed to occasion purring.
Two species of monkey, generally called hoxuling apes,
from the loud and horrible sounds they occasionally
utter, appear to produce these by reverberating the
air through a spherical cavity in the hyoidal bone.
The lowing of cattle, and bleating of sheep, depend
probably on the large cavities in their skull and horns.

There is a peculiarity in the larynx of cetaceous
animals, which is thought to disqualify them from ut-
tering peculiar sounds. This consists in a consider-
able swelling, or dilatation, below the opening of the
glottis, while this latter is very much contracted. It
is, however, asserted by those who have observed
these animals in their native element, that they emit
rounds resembling a dull lowing or bellowing.

In birds, the windpijip is provided with two la-
rynxes, one at each extremitj', having a peculiar
opening, provided with membranes. It is also re-
markable that these "organs frequently differ in the
male and female birds. Thus, in the male of the wild
swan the windpipe makes a large convolution, which
is contained in the hollow of the breast-bone, whence
it is enabled to make a whistling sound, while the fe-
male, especially in the tame swan, has this organ
straight, and is dumb. The windpipe of singing-
birds very much resembles a flageolet, or similar
wind instrument, having the reed, or mouth-piece,
next the lungs, and the orifice, by which the sounds
are regulated, analagous to the holes of the instru-
ment, next the head.

It is supposed that only two species of reptiles are
entirely dumb. Many of them have characteristic

voices. Thus tortoises hiss or sigh ; crocodiles low
or roar, sometimes in a very loud tone, and the young
of these animals utter jjiercing cries, said to resemble
the mewing of a cat, when they are attacked ; guanas
whistle; and frogs and toads croak. Still it would
appear that the vocal organs of reptiles are very sim-
ple, consisting of a single larynx, without epiglottis ;
but in frogs and toads, especially in the males, the
membranes of the glottis are very large, and there are
peculiar cavities in the sides of the head or neck
connected with the glottis.

Serpents, like reptiles, have no epiglottis, and their
larynx is extremely simple. Many of them are dumb,
and the voice of the rest consists only in hissing.

The voice of animals alters with age ; it is shriller
in the young and very old, and deeper in middle-aged
animals.

It is remarkable that some animals lose their voice
when carried to particular countries. Thus it is said
that dogs in some parts of America never bark ; and
that quails and pigeons in Siberia are altogether
dumb.

Chap. VI. Of Secretion and Exciietion.

Secretion is that function in the animal economy
by which certain principles are separated from the
general mass of blood, by peculiar organs, for some
important purposes in the system. Excretion differs
from secretion in separating those matters which
would be injurious to the system if retained, and
throwing them out ot' the bod)'. The secreting and
excreting organs are either membranes or glands.
The former, as aflbrding covering and defence to the
several parts of the body, more properly fall to be
considered under the head of integumation in the fol-
lowing chapter ; the latter will Jbe immediately de-
scribed. These consist chiefly of the liver, the pan-
creas or sweet-bread, the spleen, and the kidneys, with
several other lesser glands, that have either been al-
ready noticed, or will be mentioned in a subsequent
chapter.

The glands just enumerated lie within the belly ;
and as they form the only contents of that cavity not
already described, it is necessary now to consider the
form and composition of the belly.

The belli/ extends in front from the ensiform car-
tilage of t'lie breast-bone to the share-bone or pubes ;
behind it is bounded by the vertebrce of the loins, and
at the sidesby the lower ribs above, and by the haunch
bones below. Its sides, or walls as they are called,
are composed chiefly of large and strong muscles,
interspersed with fat and cellular substance, and it
is lined within by a serous membrane called the pC'
ritoneum, which has numerous doublings that invest
all the contents of the belly.

This cavity is divided by anatomists into nine parts,
or regions. That part in front, extending from the pit
of the stomach to within about an hands-breadth of the
navel is called the epigastric region, as lying above
the stomach, and this is bounded on the right and
left by two hypochondriac regions, so called from be-
ing situated chiefly below the cartilages of the ribs.
The middle regions are the umbilical or navel region.

Sccrotlun.

A N A T O M Y.

315

Sforetlon. ^^''l^' t^'C right and /e/l lumhar at its sides; and below
these lie the liypogastric in Front, and the iliac re-
gions to tlie right and lefl.

The livc7- is the largest gland in the human body.
It is situated chiefly in the right hypochondrinc and
epigastric, and partly in the left hypochondriac re-
gions, and is divided into two principal lobes called
right and left, of which the former is the larger. It
is convex towards the ribs and rf/a/;/»rto-)H, concave
towards the stomach and bowels, a little flattened
and broad at its back part, and having a sharp edge
for its anterior -margin. It is supported and con-
nected to the adjacent parts, by membranous liga-
ments, either formed by doublings from the perito-
neum, or covered by that membrane. Its lower sur-
face is extremely irregular, from numerous hollows
and protuberances ; and here are numerous vessels
and tubes connected with the liver, in particular the
hepatic artery and veins, and the great vein called
•vena portiB, entering by what is called the gate of
the liver, and performing the office of an artery in
distributing the blood through the glandular sub-
stance of this organ. Hence the liver is extremely
vascular, but its vessels are so minutely divided, and
so intermixed with the proper substance of the gland,
that when cut into, it exhibits a very uniform ap-
pearance, and pretty solid consistence. It is of
a dusky red colour, and sinks in water.

Connected with the liver is a hollow receptacle,
chiefly membranous, but partly fibrous, by some sup-
posed to be muscular, and called the gall-bladder, as
receiving and retaining for a time the bile secreted
by the liver. This bag is of an oblong form, is at-
tached through its whole length to the concave sur-
face of the liver, and communicates directly with it
by numerous tubes or ducts. From its smallest end
or neck proceeds a pipe called the cystic duct, which
soon unites with a similar tube called the hepatic duct,
coming directly from the liver ; and these two uniting
form a commou tube by which the bile is conveyed
into the duodenum.

Bile is brought continually from the liver by the
hepatic duct, and occasionally from the gall-bladder
by the cystic, and the fluid from both these sources
is of the same nature, except that what is collected
in the gall-bladder acquires a greater consistence,
and deeper colour, in consequence of the absorption
of its thinner parts. Bile is a dark greenish fluid, of
considerable density, viscid to the feel, of a bitter
taste, and a peculiar unpleasant odour. Its specific
gravity is greater than that of water. When agi-
tated, it becomes frothy like a solution of soap,
readily mixes with water, and forms with it a yel-
lowish fluid.

The bile appears to be secreted in the glandular
substance of the liver from the blood of the vena
portce. It undoubtedly serves impoitant offices in the
animal economy, the chief of which are probably
to separate the chyle from the excrementitious part
of the aliment, and by its stimulating property to
propel the latter through the intestinal canal.

Only the proper worms and zoophytes appear to
be entirely without a liver or analogous gland ; for
it is found at least in every animal that has a com-
plete circulating system.

The liver of quadrupeds is much more minutely Secretion.

divided than that of man especial!^', in those that are '

carnivorous. In many of those annuals, especially in
the rat, hare, guinea-pig, and sloth tribes, in the
elephant, rhinoceros, deer, and c.imcl, in horses,
seals, and walrusses, there is no gall-bladder, and
in general this organ is confined to carnivorous qua'
drupeds.

The liver of cetaceous animals is divided much in
the same way as in the human species. None of
these animals have a gall-bladder. -'

In'birds the liver is divided into two equal lobes,
and the hepatic duct is distinct from the cystic. The
liver is larger in domesticated than in wild birds. In
general these animals have a gall-bladder ; but it is
wanting in some species, particularly the parrot and
the pigeon, the latter of which has been proverbial
for having no gall, an assertion which is not strictly
true.

The liver of reptiles is always large, and in some,
as the salamander, it is of very considerable magni-
tude. It is generally divided into two lobes, but is
sometimes simple, especially in lizards. All reptiles
have a gall-bladder but this is proportionally smaller
than in quadrupeds and birds. A similar structure
is found in serpents.

Many fishes have the liver of considerable size, and
many of them have a gall-bladder. In some cases
the liver surrounds the intestinal canal, and it fre-
quently abounds'with oil, even in those fish that are
generally destitute of fat, as the skate and cod.

All the mollusca have a liver, which is generally
very large ; but it does not appear that these animals
possess a gall-bladder.

In crustaceous animals there is a large organ ana-
logous to the liver, consisting of several tubes, closed
at one extremity, and opening at the other into the
intestinal canal.

There are in insects several processes attached to
the alimentary canal, and containing a bitter yellow
fluid ; and these are considered to be their biliary or-
gans.

The pancreas may be considered as a large salivary
gland, more immediately connected with the diges-
tive organs than those of the mouth, as it secretes
a fluid very similar to saliva, and evidently destined
to assist in the process of chylification. It exists in
almost all the vertebral animals, and its structure is
pretty uniform in the several classes. In man it is
of a long flattened form, having a small angular pro-
tuberance at the end next the duodenum. It is of
a greyish colour, and internally is composed of nu-
merous small lobes, connected together by a cellular
membrane, and invested with a general external coat.
Along its whole length runs a whitish tube, connected
with numerous small tubes on each side, and pass-
ing in nearly a straight direction to the duodenum.
It is situated across the belly, and behind the sto-
mach, with its flat sides pointing forwards and back-
wards ; and being among organs that are much ex-
posed to UjOtion, the progress of its secreted fluid
through the general tube is thus accelerated. This
fluid is commonly called the pancreatic juice.

The comparative diiferenccs in this organ relate
chiefly to its colour, consistence, form, and compo-

o

516

ANATOMY.

Secretion, sition ; but these are not so important as to require
particular notice here. The pancreatic ducts are
sometiines more numerous than in man, and enter the
duodenum by openings at a distance from the bi-
liary ducts.

The spleen is found in all the vertebral animals,
and its situation and structure are pretty uniform in
all. It varies in form, size, colour, consistence, and
vascularity. It is largest in man and quadrupeds,
and smallest in fishes.

The spleen of the human subject is of considerable
magnitude, though much less than the liver. It is
placed in the left hypochondriac region, between the
cardiac extremity of the stomach and the false ribs,
being contiguous to the diaphragm above and to the
cdlon below. Its general figure is an oblong oval, a
little compressed. It is of a soft consistence, and of
a purple colour. It is sometimes cleft about the edges,
and as if formed of different lobes. It is extremely
vascular, being inferior in this respect only to the
lungs and liver, and, like the latter, it is partly of a
glandular structure, consisting of numerous cells of
a whitish colour, containing a peculiar fluid.

The uses which the spleen answers in the animal
economy are not yet well understood. There is an
intimate connection between its vessels and those of
the stomach. It has lately been conjectured, that
one of its principal uses is to carry off from the sto-
mach a part of its fluid contents to the urinary blad-
der, by a shorter passage than through the absor-
bent vessels.

In those quadrupeds that have a compound sto-
mach, the spleen is situated near the paunch; and
in the ox and sheep it is more evidently cellular
than in the rest of tliis class.

In some cetaceous animals, as the porpoise, the
spleen is composed so as to appear as if there were
several. As in the rummating quadrupeds, these
are most immediately connected with the first sto-
mach.

In birds this organ is situated just before tlie left
lobe of the liver, within a doubling of the perito-
ileum.

Among the reptiles, the spleen of turtles and tor-
toises is kidney-shaped. In lizards and salaman-
ders it is oblong, while in frogs and toads it is sphe-
rical. It is generally situated in the mesentery, pret-
ty near the rectum.

The situation of the spleen in fishes is generally
near the commencement of the alimentary canal. Its
form in this class is extremely variable.

Before describing the kidneys, it will be proper
to notice some peculiar secretions that take place
among the inferior animals. Thus, among quadru-
peds, the beaver has certain glands near the extre-
mity of the rectum, in the form of oblong bags, which
secrete that peculiar resinous matter called castor ;
and the civet-cat and musk animals have appropriate
prgans for secreting the odoriferous substances from
which they derive their names. Several species of
v.'easel have the property of producing a very offen-
»ive matter from the ))ores of the skin, v-ihcn they
ihiuk thenvselves in danger of being injured, and
^lius driving off their assailants.

Among cetaceous animals, the cachalots produce,
in cells within the skuU, and in some other parts of
the body, that concrete oily substance commonly
called spermaceti; and ambergris is a product of the
same tribe, being generally considered as a concre-
tion formed within the intestinal canal.

Birds have peculiar glands situated on the rump,
near the root of the tail, from which is derived the
oily fluid with which they trim their feathers. These
organs are most remarkable in water birds, whose
feathers are consequently very greasy.

Some peculiar secretions take place in reptiles, as
the acrid liquor secreted from the feet of geckos,
said to be oi a poisonous nature, and the irritating
fluid which exudes from the skin of toads and sala-
manders when injured. The most remarkable secre-
tion in serpents is the venom collected in bags at
the root of the upper tusks in the vipers and rattle-
snakes.

In fishes there is a mucous fluid produced in tubes
below the skin, and poured out by tubes or pores be-
tween the scales, for the purpose of lubricating the
external surface of the body.

Many remarkable secretions take place among in-
sects, as that viscid fluid formed by silk-worms,
which afterwards hardens into the strong and beau-
tiful matter of silk, and a similar glutinous liquor
that produces tlie web of the spider ; that acrid mat-
ter, somewhat similar to the poison of serpents, si-
tuated at the root of the sting in bees, wasps, hor-
nets, &c. ; the lac that constitutes the basis of seal-
the acrid matter of cantharides, the colour-
and several others.
Among the mollusca, the ink of the cuttle-fish
forms one of the most remarkable secretions ; and
perhaps we may reckon among those secreted sub-
stances the silky threads by which the sea-mussel
and some other testaceous mollusca attach them-
selves to the rocks.

The kidnetfS are glands fitted for separating the
urine from the mass of blood. They are found in all
the vertebral animals, and are pretty uniform in their
situation and figure. They are always two in num-
ber, and are generally connected with a membranous
receptacle, or bladder, into which the urine is con-
veyed by proper pipes, called ureters, and where it
accunmlates till it be discharged. Hence the kidneys
may be regarded as both secreting and excreting or--
gans.

The kidneys in man are situated in the right and
left lumbar region, near the spine, and consequently
in what is called the small of the back, lying in such
a manner behind the bowels that the top of the right
kidney is immediately below the right lobe of the li-
ver, and the upper extremity of the left contiguous
to the lower part of the spleen, the right being ge-
nerally a little lower than the left, and their upper
extremities rather longer than their lower. They are
of a firmer consistence than either the liver or the
spleen, and of a pale red colour. They are the only
contents of the belly which are not covered by the
peritoneum, but are involved in a considerable quan-
tity of loose, fatt}', cellular substance, from which is
partly derived the proper membrane that covers the

Secretion.

mg-wax,

ing matter of cochineal,

ANATOMY.

.Secretion.

outer surHice of the kidneys, which is of a whitish
colour and fibrous texture. The kidneys are less
vascular than the liver or the spleen. They are
composed of two substances of diiFerent structure
and consistence, one called the cortical substance, as
it forms the outer part of the gland, of a dark colour
and pretty soft consistence, the other called medul-
hiry, con.Isting of several conical divisions, terminat-
ing in what are called papilla;, which converge to-
wards the concave depression on the inner side of
the kidney, where they unite in a membranous cavi-
ty, from which rises the membranous tube called
ureter.

The urine appears to be formed in the medullary
part of the kidney, and collected by the membra-
nous tubes into the cavity at the commencement of
the ureter, whence it passes through these tubes, i. e.
one to each kidney, to the bladder. The ureters pass
behind the peritoneum, from which they receive a
part of their investing membrane. They are simple
membranous tubes, but not regularly cylindrical,
and they are capable of considerable dilatation.

The human bladder, when distended, is nearly of a
spherical form, a little flattened in front. It lies in
the fore part of the pelvis, just before the rectum. It
is partly membranous and partly muscular, and is
perforated obliquely behind and near its lower part or
neck, by the two ureters. It is attached to the neigh-
bouring parts by membranes and ligaments, and to
the 7iavel by a ligamentous cord.

The general appearance of the fluid separated
by the kidneys is well known. It is of rather greater
specific gravity than water, and contains in solution
a great variety of saline matters, and a particular
substance called urea.

It is unnecessary to be more minute respecting
this excretion in the human body. We shall there-
fore proceed to a comparative view of the functions
in other animals.

The kidneys of quadrupeds vary chiefly in compo-
sition. In some tribes, especially the carnivorous
quadrupeds, they are extremely simple ; while in
others they consist of numerous lobes, loosely con-
nected by cellular substaiKe. This structure is so
remarkable in bears, that each of their kidneys re-
sembles a bunch of grapes. All quadrupeds have a
urinary bladder, which is proportionally smaller in
carnivorous than in herbivorous quadrupeds ; and in
particular is very large in the hare and in cattle. It
is more loosely connected with the neighbouring
parts in quadrupeds than in man.

The kidneys of cetaceous animals are longer, flat-
ter, and more lobular than those of quadrupeds, and
the ureter proceeds from their posterior extremity.
The bladder in these animals is comparatively small,
and of an oblong form.

In birds, the kidneys consist of a double row of
glandular bodies, situated on each side of the lum-
bar vertebriE. There is no urinary bladder in this
class, and the ureters empty tlieir contents immediate-
ly into the cloaca.

The structure of the kidneys in reptiles and ser-
pents is extremely simple, but their form and situa-
tion vary. In tortoises they are short and thick, and
are situated in the posterior part of the belly. Iwliz-

517

ards, they are of an oblong, oval, flattened form, and inicpm
lie very near the tail. Tortoises, chameleons, dra- , tion.
gons, guanas, stellios, salamanders, toads, and frogs,
have a urinary bladder, which is single in all but the
three last tribes, in whom it consists of two membran-
ous bags. Of course, in those that have no bladder,
the ureters terminate as in birds.

Though all fishes possess kidneys, the majority of
them are destitute of a urinary bladder.

There are several other excreting organs in the iini-
mal body. Thus, the skin excretes the perspirukie
matter ; the lungs, watery vapour; and the bowels the
excremeniitious pari of the aliment f but the consider-
ation of these organs^ docs not belong to the present
chapter.

Chap. VII. Of Integumatiok.

The whole surface of the body, all the internal Ga»-
vities, whether muscular or bony, all the bones, mus-
cles, blood-vessels, nerves, and, in short, almost every
component part of the animal body, arc invested or
lined by membranes, dift'ering from each other in their
nature, texture, and extent. Many of these are se-
creting surfaces, and might therefore have been treat-
ed of in the preceding chapter; but as even the
fluids they secrete chiefly serve the purpose of adapt-
ing them better to integuniation or defence, we have
thought it preferable to bring the whole under one
connected view in the present chapter.

The most general investing organ of integumation
is the cellular membrane, which serves partly as a co-
vering and partly as a mean of separation to every
organ and almost every fibre of the body.. It is com^
posed of filaments and' plates, intimately interwoven,
and crossing each other in every direction, forming,
by their interstices, numerous spaces or cavities filled
with a serous fluid or fatty matter. The fibres of
which it is composed are of a whitish colour, and.
elastic.

The cellular membrane is one of those organs
which perform more than one important oftice in the
animal economy. Besides covering mid defending
the parts which it surrounds, the cells of that part of
it which is most external, and which cover certain
organs, as the kidneys, the heart, &c. contain and
probably secrete the fat, and hence this part has
been called the adipose membrane. This fatty matter
not only serves the purpose of jireserving tlie equable
temperature of the parts which it surrounds; and
preventing friction by its lubricating quality, but
seems also, in many instances, especially in those
quadrupeds that pass the winter in a torpid state, to
supply the want of food.

There are some animals in whom tliis fatty matter
is particularly abundant, and these are generally in-
habitants of the waters. Thus all the cetaceous ani-
mals have a very thick layer of fat cellular membrane
lying between the muscles and the skin, constituting
what is called the blubber. A similar structure, but
to a less extent, obtains in the aquatic quadrupeds,
especially seals and walrusses, which are commonly
hunted ibr the sake of their oil. Many fishes, too,
especially the salmon and the herring, have a consi-
derable quantity of oil within their cellular mem-

518

ANATOMY.

laieftnma- biane, thougli, in general, these animals are very de-
tion. ficient in fat.

Another very general investing membrane is that
called serous, trom the watery tluid which bedews
its inner surface. ISicnibranes of this class are found
in all the great cavities of the body. Within the
head they constitute a delicate reticulated mem-
' brane, lying within the thira mater, and called the
arachnoid coat of the brain; within the chest they
form the plcxra, and in the belly the peritonemn.
Each of these may be said to form a distinct bag,
thougli, in some measure, they communicate wit^h
each other throiu'h the openings between adjacent
cavities. The serous membranes are of a whitish
colour, of a shining appearance, having a rough, ir-
regular surface towards the parts to which they are
immediately attached, and one that is smooth and
even next the cavity of which they form the lining.
They are of a cellular rather tlian of a fibrous tex-
ture, capable <if considerable though gradual dilata-
tion, in a small degree contractile and elastic, but
possessed of little sensibility.

A third membrane, scarcely less universal than the
-preceding, is that called mucoux, which lines all the
tavities that communicate with the external air, as
the nose and contiguous sinuses, where it constitutes
the piluitarij membrane-, t\mlarynx, windpipe, bronchia;,
and, probably the air-cells of the lungs, the mouth,
pharynx, gullet, stomach, and intestines, and all the
excretory ducts, opening externally from glands or
membranous receptacles. Like tlie former they have
two surfaces, an inner, rough and irregular, and an
outer, (u- that next the cavity, smooth and moist, but
seldom regular. These surfaces, however, are com-
posed of distinct layers, and have between them nu-
merous small glands that secrete the mucous fluid,
for which these membranes are so remarkable. The
mucous membranes possess but little sensibility and
contractility, though they are capable of very great
dilatation.

A fourth class of investing membranes is called
Jibrous, because, more than any of the rest, they are
composed of distinct fibres. Among these are the
periosteum that covers the bones, and the apo)icuroses,
■ or sheaths, that envelope the muscles on the arms
and thighs, the ccpmlar ligaments of the joints, the
du7-a muter of the brain, the sclerotic coat of the eye,
&c. These are of a white glistening colour, resem-
bling tendons, and, though sometimes connected
with secreting membranes, appear to perform no se-
creting office in themselves.

These are the principal internal organs of integu-
mation. The external are the skin, the mucous net-
work, and the cuticle, with its numerous appendages
• of hair, nails, horns, hoof's, feathers, scales, sliells, &c.

S{-iii. — The skin in the human body is composed of
three distinct layers, the coriort, tl;e reticular portion,
and t\\e.papillary, or nervous portion. The corion con-
stitutes'the substance of the skin, and is of various
degrees of thickness in different parts of the body,
being thickest in the palm of tli.e hand and soles of
the feet, the back, the skull, and back of the neck,
while in some parts, as the li])s, it is extremely
.thin and delicate. It is of a fibrous texture, and
the fibres cross each other in every direction, and

are interspersed with numerous blood vpssels,
nerves, and absorbents. They arc of a white colour,
of a gelatinous texture, and capable of considerable "
extension. The corion is every where perforated
with numerous holes, constituting wliat are called
the pores of the skin, which are arranged so as to
form pretty regular angular figures of three, four, or
five sides. The corion gives strength and firmness
to the skin, and forms a connecting membrane for its
nerves and vessels. In itself, it appears to have lit-
tle connection with the sense of feeling.

The reticular jmpion forms the outer surface of
the true skin, and appears to be produced by the ra-
mification of numerous vessels passing through the
pores of the corion, and forming a sort of net-work
upon its surface. It is in this layer that the pustules
of small pox and similar eruptions have their seat ;
hence it has been called, by Mr Cruickshank, the
membrane of the smallpox.

The papillary, or nervous portion of the skin, is
that which covers the outer surface of the corion be-
low the reticular portion, through the meshes of
which last the papilla; project, and thus appear to
form the outer layer of the skin. This portion ap-
pears to consist of tl>e extremities of those nervous
filaments that are distributed through the corion,
and forms the immediate organ of feeling. The
papillae are arranged in bundles of small white
fibres, not always of the same length, forming a
sort of pencil. They are situated very close to
each other, and form together a villous surface,
well suited to receive impressions of feeling. They
are found on the outer surface of the corion wher-
ever this membrane has been examined by the mi-
croscope, but they are most remarkable at the point
of the fingers, in the lips, in the palms of the hands,
and soles of the feet. Hence, probably, these parts
are so susceptible of tickling. The nervous papilla;
are most evident when stinmlated by the gentle con-
tact of an external liody, and they are generally
most sensible in females and young persons.

The surface of the skin is kept moist, and the sen-
sibility of the papillie preserved, partly by the matter
of perspiration, and partly by an oily fluid formed
by very minute glands, called miliarij or sebaceous,
which are particularly abundant in some parts of the
body, as in the arm-pits, behind the ears, &c. The
matter of perspiration consists chiefly of a watery
fluid, containing, in solution, a little saline matter,
and commonly mixed with the fluid from the seba-
ceous glands. It ai)]>ears to be formed by the exha-
lant vessels of the corion.

Anatomists have generally described a membrane,
called the mucous nct-tco7-k, frele mucosum,) as being
always found between the cuticle and true skin ;
and It is certain, that in negroes, mulattos, and pro-
bably other persons with dark skins, that such a
membrane is capable of being shewn. This is usually
described as a layer of mucous and glairy fluid, of a
more or less dark colour ; and, from its lying innne-
diately above the reticular portion of the skin, it has
often been confounded with this membrane. There
seems no doubt, that the apparent colour of the skin
in natives of different comitries, depends nmch on
the existence or colour of this substance. If, as we

A N A T O M Y,

319

InteRuma- suspect, it be not properly a membrane, but only a
lion. layer of mucous matter, secreted by the parts be-
•'^^V^^ neath, it may, in certain cases, be absorbed, and thus
the dark colour of the skin may disappear. There
is now living in Edinburgh, a Bengalee mulatto, about
60 years of age, who was brought to this country
50 years ago. He was then of a very dark colour ;
but for many years this dark hue has gradually worn
away, till at present (June 1816) there remain only
a few scattered dark spots, the rest of his skin re-
sembling that of a native European.

The outermost integument of the body in all ani-
mals with which we are acquainted, is the ciUicle or
scarf skin. This is an organic insensible membrane,
consisting in the human body of two evident layers,
possessing little extensibility, and scarcely any elasti-
city. It is of very different degrees of density or
thickness in different parts of the body ; a circum-
stance which depends much on the greater or less
pressure to which it is exposed. In the palms of the
hands, and soles of the feet, it is extremely thick,
whereas on the lips, nipples, iSrc. it is thin and deli-
cate. When thick, it is composed of several layers
which occasionally peel off from each other. When a
part is excoriated or deprived of its cuticle, this
membrane is, in general, speedily reproduced.

The outer layer of the cuticle is composed of scales
lying over eacli other, with openings or pores be-
tween them that probably communicate with the
pores of the corion. These scales are in some places
so arranged as to form curved parallel lines, an ap-
pearance very evident at the points of the fingers,
its inner layer has more of a reticulated than scaly
appearance, and probably has often been mistaken
for the mucous nct-woyk. The cuticle is naturally
white, and nearly transparent. It is capable of being
raised from the parts beneath by scalding fluids, or
by the action of blisters ; and, in these cases, the rais-
ed portion is destroyed, and a new one produced.
The origin of the cuticle has not been satisfactorily
ascertained. It appears to be inorganic, as no ves-
sels can be traced communicating between it and
the skin. Small filaments, indeed, have been de-
scribed as passing from the skin to this membrane ;
but if these were of a vascular nature, it is not pro-
bable that the extensive separation of cuticle, which
is sometimes the consequence of vesication, could
easily take place. It is by some supposed to be an
exudation from the skin, tliat hardens on exposure
to the air ; and this supposition is rendered probable
by what takes place in some of the inferior animals
that cast their caticle.

The common appendages to the cuticle, in the hu-
man species, are the hair and nails; though, perhaps,
the former cannot strictly be regarded as an appen-
dage of the cuticle, as it appears to originate in the
cellular membrane below the skin, and passes through
the pores of the skin and cuticle, receiving an inves-
ting membrane i'rom the latter.

Hair The structure of the hair is very curious.

It rises from a sort of bulb within the cellular mem-
brane, and, as it passes thence to the cuticle, each
particular i)air is enveloped in a small membranous
transparent cylindrical tube, perfectly distinct from

the hair itself. It has been supposed that the hair is
invested by productions from the cuticle to its far-
thest extremity ; but, though this supposition is car-
ried too far, the sheaths formed from the cuticle are
of considerable length. These sheaths are always of
a white colour, and transparent, so that the real co-
lour of the hair is seen through them. The hair it-
self, though possessed of no sensibility, has, from its
growth, been regarded as a vascular" body ; and we
know, that in a certain disease, ( Plica poUmici'.j it
becomes so extremely vascular as to bleed on being
cut. The growth of the hair always proceeds from
the roots. Except in particular constitutions, and in
old age, hair that falls off during disease is generally
renewed ; but if it be torn up by the root it never
grows again.

When a single hair is examined, it is found to pos-
sess a sliglrt degree of extensibility and contractility,
and, considering its size, it is very strong. When
drawn between the fingers, its outer surface appears
quite smooth, and even if drawn from root to point,
but rough in the contrary direction, which is found
to be owing to small conical scales lying over each
other, so that their attachments are towards the root
of the hair that form the cuticular coat. Hair is
found to contain a considerable quantity of oil.

Nails — That the nails are truly appendages of
the cuticle appears evident, both from the circum-
stance that they are sometimes separated together
with this membrane, and that they are similar in
texture, though of a firmer consistence. They are
distinguished into three parts ; one forming about
a sixth of the whole, constituting the root, and closely
attached to the cuticle; a second forming their outer
edge, distinguished from the rest by its colour be-
ing properly whiter than the rest ; and a third por-
tion, of considerable breadth, forming the body of
the nail. The root of the nail is fixed between two
plates of cuticle, or rather it is covered by a fold of
the skin and a portion of cuticle on its convex sur-
face, and is lined with cuticle within, while the con-
cave surface of the middle portion lies over the skin,
to which it is firmly attached by a very delicate mem-
brane that is usually regarded as a reflection of the
cuticle. If the nails arc suffered to grow, they gra-
dually turn round over the points of the fingers, and
diminish the delicacy of the sense of touch.

In their intimate structure the nails are composed
of several layers, the number of which is greatest
next the root, so that tlie nail is thickest at tliis part.
On their external surface tliey are longitudinally
streaked.

The nails appear to possess neither vessels lipr
nerves, and are of themselves insensible ; but the skin
which they cover possesses acute sensibility, and
hence any injury done to the middle portion of the
nail excites considerable pain. The nails, like the
hair, grow from the roots.

2'lie compardtixie aiiatonii/ of the integuments respects
chiefly the skin, the mucous net-work, the cuticle
and its appendages.

The texture of the skin is nearly the same in all
the vertebral animals as in man, differing principally
in thickness and in its degree of attachment to the

320

ANATOMY.

fclegiuna-
tion.

subjacent muscles. In j^or.cral its thickness is in pro-
portion to the size of the uninial.

Among quadrupeds, thcretbre, the skin is thickest
in the elephant, rhinoceros, walruss, horse, and ox
tribes, and it is generally thicker on the back than
the lower part of the body. In most of these animals
it is closely attached to the muscles beneath, especial-
ly to the fleshy pannicle ; bui in a few instances, as the
sloth, the badger, and the honey-weasel, its attach-
ments are but fev/. It often happens that some of
the outer cavities in quadrupeds are tinged of a beau-
tiful colour, as the nostrils in some species of the ape,
and the inside of the external ear in the fennec.
This is supposed to be owing to their mucous net-
work being thus coloured. Otherwise, this part,
vliere it is found, resembles the same substance in
tlie human body.

The cuticle of quadrupeds is of a thickness pro-
portional to that of the skin, and in the larger ani-
mals is often marketl on its surface with numerous
furrows, or wrinkled into remarkable folds. In some
instances, as the manes, or scaly lizards, and arma-
dillos, it is composed of hard and firm scales, in the
latter tribe resembling shell ; and in several other ani-
mals which make much use of their tail in laying
hold of objects, this organ is covered with a scaly
cuticle.

The Afl/V of quadrupeds resembles that of man in
its general structure. When very coarse it takes
the name of bridles, and when very fine it constitutes
t\ie Jiir or ivool of an animal. All quadrupeds appear
to have a covering of hair ; but in a few instances, as
the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the walruss, the
hairs are few and thinly scattered. The strong hairs
that constitute the bristles of hogs, the manes and
tails of horses, and the whiskers of seals and other
animals, seem to be permanent ; but the softer hair
is generally shed or cast once a year.

Along with the hair some quadrupeds have spines,
as the hedge-hog, or quills as the porcupine, both of
which partake of the nature of horn. In the foi-mer ani-
mals they are fixed, and therefore are properly appen-
dages of the cuticle; in the latter they are so loosely
attached as to fall but on violent exertion of the ani-
mal, and are commonly cast by moulting.

The nails of apes and lemurs, the claws of bats,
sloths, and ant-eaters, manes, dogs, cats, and other
beasts of prey, bears and badgers, opossums, kanga-
roos, beavers, cavies, rats and mice, marmots, squir-
rels, jerboas, dormice, hares, and rabbits, and the
hoofs of the rhinoceros, elephant, camels, musks,
deer, antelopes, goats, sheep, cattle, horses, the hip-
popotamus, the tapir, and hogs, all partake of the na-
ture of the human nails, except that they are of a
firmer consistence, and especially the hoofs are com-
posed of a great number of layers. They are all at-
tached to tlie last joints of the toes, and grow from
the roots outwards.

The horns of quadrupeds are of two different na-
tures. Some, as those of tlie rhinoceros, antelopes,
goats, sheep, and cattle, resemble, in their anatomi-
cal structure and chemical properties, the nails and
claws. They are generally of a conical form, with
a broad liasis next their attachment to the cuticle ;
and in many cases they are formed upon a bony

mould, which constitutes their internal support, and inte^uma-
from which they may be separated by boiling or ma- tion.
ceration.

The second kind of horns are long, as those of
deers and the giraffe, but in the former tribe they
are cast and renewed every year, while in the latter
they are permanent, and are real processes from the
frontal bone.

In cetaceous animals the outer surface of the skin
is extremely villous, and the papillae are soft, elastic,
vascular, and often of considerable length. The skin
of these animals is very thick, possesses but httle
elasticity, and is, in general, tensely stretched over
the surrace of the body.

The mucous net-work in these animals is very ap-
parent, and much thicker than in quadrupeds. As
in other animals, it is of various colours, which, shin-
ing through the transparent cuticle, distinguish the
colour of the animal.

The cuticle of cetaceous animals is a dense, tough,
inelastic substance, composed of several layers, smooth
and shining on its outer surface, but rougli and re-
sembling coarse velvet within. It is entirely without
hair or scales, but is pierced with numerous large
holes through which exude oil from the blubber,
and mucus from the glands of the skin, to lubricate
the outer surface of the cuticle.

There is nothing remarkable in the skin or cu-
ticle of birds ; but their appendages, viz. feathers,
down-hair, beaks, and spurs, merit attention. All
birds are covered with feathers, but they do not in
all species extend over the whole body. Thus the
neck of the vulture, and the legs of wading birds,
are bare of feathers ; while in the owl, and some va-
rieties of poultry, the feet are covered to the very
claws. In a few water-birds, as the penguins, the
wings are covered with scales rather than with fea-
thers.

The structure of feathers is extremely curious.
At first they appear like small hairs, growing from a
bulbous root, within a small, black, C3'lindrical tube.
By degrees they assume the appearance of down,
and progressively that of feathers. The feathers ap-
pear first on the wings and tail, and the quills are the
last in being developed. The shaft of the quills is
at first a gelatinous cylinder, with a hard, conical
point, and containing blood-vessels. It is covered
with a layer of black matter, which gradually splits
and forms the barbs.

All birds change their feathers once a year by
moulting, and the feathers fall off successively.

Both down and feathers are composed of a shaft and
barbs, but the texture of both is finer in the former.
Intermixed with these, especially in old hirds, there
is commonly a few scattered hairs, scarcely differing
from that of quadrupeds.

The beaks, claws, and spurs of birds, are compos-
ed of a horny substance, resembling the finalagous
parts of quadrupeds. The spurs are supported upon
a central bone, similar to that within the horns of
cattle.

The structure of the skin in reptiles differs but
little from that in the preceding classes, except that
in some tribes, as frogs and toads, it adheres to the
parts beneath only at a few points, so as to form

ANATOMY.

521

Intpgumaiion round the animal a 8ort of looss ba^^, capable of oc-
casional inflation. The lizards and similar tribes
have generally numerous and strong subcutaneous
muscles, between which and the skin there is an in-
timate connexion. This structure is most remark-
able in the tail.

There are several diversities in the cuticle of rep-
tiles, and especially in its appendages. In the turtles
and tortoises the whole body is covered with cuticle,
which is soft and delicate, except on the head, tail,
and legs, where it is more or less scaly ; but what is
most remarkable in those animals is, the shell with
which they are enveloped. This is generally a strong
and hard horny substance, forming two principal
divisions, one called the shield, covering the back,
and another, the breast-plate, covering the whole
lower part of the body. The former is more or less
convex, the latter flat, and sometimes a little con-
cave. Each is composed of numerous pieces, or
plates, of which those on the shield are most deserv-
ing of attention. They are angular pieces of horn,
joined together at the edges, sometimes in a smooth
and even manner, and sometimes so as to overlap
each other. These plates, in some species of turtle,
constitute what is commonly called tortoise or turtle-
shell. This whole shelly covering is invested with a
thin and delicate cuticle.

Most reptiles have their toes furnished with claws,
similar to those of quadrupeds; but the most remark-
able appendage to the cuticle, in these tribes, is the
scales with which most of them are covered. These,
in some instances, as the crocodiles, consist of strong
broad plates, of almost a metallic hardness, while in
others, as some of the lizards, they are soft and deli-
cate. The scales are also covered with a cuticle.

The cuticle of frogs and toads is generally smooth
and slimy, but in some species it is raised into nu-
merous tubercles or warts.

All reptiles, except turtles and tortoises, change
the cuticle once a year. In most instances the cu-
ticle is detached in separate scales, or pieces, till the
whole is thrown off.

The integuments of serpents resemble those of the
lizard tribes in reptiles, except that the subcutaneous
muscles are more numerous. They, too, change
their cuticle, but in them it is generally sloughed off
whole.

The integuments of Jlshes resemble those of the
smaller cetaceous animals, except that they are pro-
portionally thinner, have in general but little fat, and
the cuticle is covered with scales. It is probable
that they have a distinct mucous net-ivork, to which
may be attributed their variety of colours.

Some of the mollusca are covered with a naked
skin and a smooth slimy cuticle, which is sometimes
plaited into folds. The rest of these animals, consti-
tuting the testaceous mollusca, or shell-fish, are pro-
vided with a hard calcareous covering, sometimes in
one piece, as the univalve shells, sometimes composed
of two or more pieces. These shells are covered with
a cuticle, and are capable of being renewed when
thrown off, or repaired when injured, by a fresh secre-
tion of calcareous matter from the body of the animal.

Crustaceous animals, as their name imports, m-e in-
vested with a solid covering of more or less density

vox,, I. PAur I.

and hardness, being hardest and thickest in lobsters Reprodu
and crabs. In geuural its structure resembles that lion,
of the shells of mollusca, but sometimes it is so thin
and elastic as to resemble rather horn than shell.

The integuments oi insects consist chiefly of a cu-
ticle, which is generally more or less horny, and is
frequently cotvered with hairs or scales. In their lar-
va, or caterpillar state, they have a pretty dense skin,
with numerous subcutaneous muscles ; but this skin
is repeatedly thrown ofl' and renewed as the animul
increases in size. The body of the chrysalis is en. 1<m-
ed in a uniform annular horny covering, which bursts
often with considerable violence when the insect as-
sumes its perfect state.

The skin of ivonns is thin and delicate, and, in
most instances, well provided with minute subjacent
muscles ; the cuticle is also thin and transparent in
some cases, smooth and slimy in others, covered with
protuberances, or clothed with hair. The naked
worms appear to cast their skin.

Chap. VIII. Of Reproduction.

Having now described the several functions which
are subservient to the support of animal life, and to
the intercourse that takes place between an animal
and the external objects by which he is surrounded,
it remains only to take a view of that function by
which the species is continued, to trace the gradual
progress of the young animal, and to explain the cir-
cumstances by which it is distinguished from the adult.

Here anatomical description is not necessary, and
indeed, in a treatise like the present, it is not intend-
ed to teach anatomy as a professional science, but to
give such a comprehensive and connected view of the
animal economy, as to gratify the laudable curiosity
of the general reader, and admirer of nature's works.
An abundant field for physiological inquiry, on the
subjects of the present chapter, opens, without enter-
ing on descriptions that can be useful only to the
medical practitioner, and which cannot be interest-
ing unless they are minute.

A difference of sex prevails in all the vertebral ani-
mals; but in many of the inverlebral classes, either the
sexes are confounded, or there are no external organs.

In the human species, those glands which form the
principal preparative organs of reproduction are com-
posed chiefly of numerous ramifications of arteries
and veins, forming convolutions, and connected with
numerous small tubes which act as secretory ducts,
and these tubes at length unite in a common canal,
which, after a very tortuous winding course, enters
the pelvis, and opens into what is called the bulb ot
the urethra. These organs are properly internal in
the Jcetus, and become external only a short time be-
fore birth, sometimes not till considerably after that
period. Then they are enveloped each in its own
membranes, though contained in acommon receptacle.

Of the female reproductive organs the most mate-
rial are the uterus and its appendages. The uterus
is a triangular cavity situated in the lower part of
the pelvis, between the bladder and the rectum, and
retained in that situation by numerous ligaments and
surrounding cellular substance. In the unimpregna-
ted state it scarcely exceeds three inches in length, by

522

ANATOMY.

Reproduc-
tion.

aboiit two at its broadest part, and its internal cavity
is so small that it would with difficulty contain a large
hazel nut. In shape this organ resembles a pear ; its
sides are thick, fleshy, and vascular, and capable of
very considerable extension both in length and thick-
ness in consequence of impregnation.

Connected with the uterus, on each side, lies an
oval body called ovary, as containing the ova, or ru-
diments of the feet us, and between each of the ovaries
and the uterus there is a tube of communication, by
which the ova from the former are conveyed into the
latter.

When an ovum is thus detached from the ovary,
and received into the uterus, it is soon attached to one
Bide, gradually becomes enveloped with peculiar mem-
branes, and surrounded by a fluid. The gradual de-
velopement o^ the. J'cetus during pregnancy is extreme-
ly curious. About four weeks after conception the
embryo is not larger than a common fly, of a soft
mucilaginous consistence, without extremities, but
having the rudiments of intestines covered by a trans-
parent membrane, a moving point that is to form the
future heart, and an evident head, with two black
dots in the place of eyes. It appears suspended by
the belly, and attached to the uterus by a slender
cord. In a fortnight more its size increases to that
of a small bee, its consistence grows firmer, and the
rudiments of the extremities begin to make their ap-
pearance. At the end of three months its shape is
tolerably distinct, and it is about three inches long.
At four months, it is about five inches long, and its
inotions begin to affect the mother. By six months
it has acquired the length of nine inches ; and in
one month more it is in general capable, if expelled
from the uterus, of being kept alive and nourished.

K foetus of eight months has« the following peculi-
arities. Its bones are soft and cartilaginous ; their
protuberances form distinct portions, and, in particu-
lar, the bones of the head, are soft, yielding, and not
all united to each other, especially the frontal and
parietal bones, between which there long remains an
imossified space, called the opening of the head. The
liead itself, and consequently the brain, is much lar-
ger in roportion to the rest of the body than at any
future period. The muscles are soft, white, and flac-
cid, the spinal marrow and nerves proportionally
large, the nose broad and flat, the external auditory
passage imperfect and cartilaginous, the eye large
and protuberant, the mouth small and without teeth.

The heart, and large blood-vessels in immediate
connexion with it, present several important differ-
ences in \k\Q foetus. There is an oval hole in the
partition between the right and left auricles, provided
with a valve so situated as to permit part of the blood
from the right auricle to flow into the left, while it
prevents any from flowing in a contrary direction.
There is also between the right and left arteries a
large canal forming a complete communication be-
tween them, so that most of the blood from the right
ventricle flows directly into the aorta, and a very
small quantity is transmitted to the lungs.

Hence the lungs of the /<ae/!i5 are smaller, firmer,
and of a darker colour than those of a child after
birth.. Indeed they much resemble the livc-r in con-
ti$tpnce, and like it sink in water. In the upper and

fore part of the chest, between the folds of the me- lleprod*
diastinura, there is found in theyieto a large glan- Uon.
dular body called the thymus gland, the use of which s^V^
is not certainly known, though it is supposed to be
connected with the nutrition of the foetus.

The liver in the foetus is very large, and its two
principal lobes are nearly of equal size. From it
there pass blood-vessels through the navel of the
fcetus, to and from that vascular mass called the pla-
centa, by which it is connected with the uterus. The
vessels are enveloped by integuments, and form what
is called the umhilical cord or navel string.

From what has now been said, it appears that the
circulation of \.\\e foetus before birth ditiers in seve-
ral respects from that of the child after birth. It
proceeds as follows. Ihe fcetus is in the first place
supplied with blood from the mother through the
medium of the placenta, from which it is conveyed
through the umbilical vein to the liver. Hence one
part of the blood, without entering the liver, is car-
ried off by a branch of the umbilical vein, and through
a neighbouring branch of one of the hepatic veins,
into the great ascending vena cava, while the rest
of the blood circulates through the liver by the ra-
mifications of the vense portae, and is thence also
carried into the ascending vena cava. The blood
from the placenta and the blood from the liver are
conveyed into the right auricle, whence part of it is
sent through the oval hole into the left auricle, while
the rest passes into the right ventricle, by the con-
traction of which it is propelled into the root of the
pulmonic artery ; but on account of the large com-
munication between this and the aorta, most of it
passes immediately into this latter vessel, while a
small portion is sent to nourish the lungs, whence it
is brought to the left auricle of the heart, from which
it passes into the left ventricle, and is propelled into
the aorta. Now, while part of the blood is sent
through the system by the ramifications of the aorta,
another part is carried aside by the internal iliac ar-
teries through the two umbilical arteries, and along
the umbilical cord to the placenta, whence it is brought
back and circulated as before.

The natural food of an infant for some months af-
ter birth is the milk secreted in the breasts of its
mother. These glands are situated between the in-
teguments and the pectoral muscles, to which latter
they are attached chiefly by cellular substance and
fat, and the breasts contain a quantity of fatty matter
in their composition. The proper glandular part
consists of several lobes that are extremely vascular,
and are well supplied with nerves and absorbents.
The principal secreting part is composed of a great
number of small tubes, called lactiferous ducts, which
appear to originate in the extremities of the arteries,
gradually uniting into trunks, and passing in a radi-
ated manner from each lobe to the base of the nip-
ple. Here they are usually coiled up in a spiral form,
though capable of being distended when the nipple
is drawn out. They form from twelve to eighteen
orifices opening on the surface of the nipple.

The milk of the human female differs from that of
the cow chiefly in three circumstances ; in having
a greater quantity of oily matter, which cannot easily
be separated from the curd ; in containing much less

ANATOMY.

525

Repnsduc- curdy matter in its serous part ; and in containing a
tion. greater quantity of saccliarine matter.

Without adverting to the usual sexual distinctions,
here we may notice the general differences that dis-
tinguish the male and female of the human species.
These differences have been remarked in almost every
part of the organization. Thus the whole female
skeleton is said to be generally smaller than that of
a male of the same age ; the head, hands, and feet,
proportionally smaller ; the neck longer ; the lower
extremities shorter ; the pelvis more capacious ; and
the prominences of the bones less remarkable. The
muscles are also in general smaller and more flaccid ;
the ball of the eye proportionally smaller, its coats
and membranes thinner; the skin of the eye-lids of a
lighter colour and less wrinkled ; the arch of the eye-
brows less prominent ; the eye-brows themselves finer
and thinner ; the aperture between the eye-lids when
the upper lid is raised smaller and narrower, and the
corners of the eye more acute. The larynx is smal-
ler in women than in men in the proportion of nearly
one-half, and the angular projection of the thyroid
cartilage is much flatter in the former. The integu-
ments in general, are thinner, softer, and less hairy.

The preparatory glands of quadrupeds in their in-
timate structure resemble those of man ; but in many
tribes and species they are rather internal than ex-
ternal, being concealed within the belly.

The uterus of female quadrupeds differs considera-
bly in form and composition. In apes and lemurs it is
a single cavity of a pyramidal or oval form. In bats,
in the dog tribe, the seal, the hedgehog, the mare,
and cow, the principal cavity is also single, but there
are connected with it two tubular openings or horns,
which in some tribes are convoluted towards their re-
mote extremities. A third class of quadrupeds has
the uterus partly double, or provided with capacious
horns, as the hare tribe ; and a fourth, as the opos-
sums and kangaroos, have it double through its whole
extent. The sides of the uterus in quadrupeds are
much thinner, and more membranous, than in the
human species.

Some quadrupeds, as kangaroos, and some of the
opossums, have a sort of supplemental uterus, into
which the young are received immediately after birth,
and where they are sheltered and nourished till they
are capable of sustaining the injuries of the weather.
This is called the abdominal pouch, and consists of a
cavity formed by a fold in the integuments of the
belly, and provided with an external opening, capa-
ble of being more or less contracted by appropriate
muscles, and enclosing the dug and teats.

The dugs or mamma; of quadrupeds differ from the
breasts of women in most tribes. In apes and bats
indeed they are situated on the breast, but in most
other quadrupeds in the posterior part of the belly,
or the teats are arranged along the belly in two rows.
It is generally supposed that the females of quadru-
peds have twice as many teats as the number of young
which they usually produce, a rule to which, how-
ever, there are several exceptions. The teats of quad-
rupeds differ from the nipple of the human breast in
having a single large tubular opening for the passage
of the milk.

The time of utero-gestaiion, or the period of preg-

nancy in female quadrupeds, is extremely various,
though in general proportional to their size. Thus
the scjuirrel, rat, ferret, and probably the guinea-pig,
go with young about six weeks ; the fox about the
same period; the hare and rabbit about a month; the
cat eight weeks ; the bitch and otter nine weeks ; the
wolf rather more than three months ; the sow four
months ; the ewe and hind five months ; the rein-deer
eight months; the cow and arctic walrus nine months;
the mare eleven months ; the camel twelve months ;
and the elephant twenty-one months.

The usual number of young produced at a birth,
by various species of quadrupeds, as far as it has
been distinctly ascertained, is as follows. The sloth,
rhinoceros, elephant, walrus, camel, hind, cow, and
mare, usually produce one ; the ape, seal, porcupine,
rein-deer, she-goat, usually two ; bats from two to
five ; the bitch, fox, wolf, lioness, tigress, cat, otter,
Virginian opossum, mole, squirrel, hare, produce
four, five, or six ; the jackal, ferret, guinea-pig,
mouse, rabbit, from eight to ten, or sometimes twelve ;
and the rat and sow from ten to eighteen or twenty.

The reproductive organs of cetaceous animals
nearly resemble those of ruminating quadrupeds ; but,
from the peculiar form of these animals, the situa-
tion of these organs is a little different. The milk
of the female is said to resemble that of the cow,
but to be rather richer. Their period of gestation is
not exactly known, but it is supposed that the fe-
male goes with young about ten months. They ge-
nerally produce only one at a birth, which they suckle
for about a year.

This function in birds offers several peculiarities
both in organization and phenomena. The seminal
glands lie within the belly, near the kidneys, and
their excretory ducts terminate near the rectum in a
dilated part. In both sexes the external organs are
situateci within that cavity we have already describ-
ed as common to these organs and the extremity of
the intestines, and called c/o«<:a. There is in birds
a single ovary, situated near the liver, and generally
consisting of numerous, round, yellow bodies, con-
tained each within its own membrane, and forming
the future yolks of the eggs. With the ovary is
connected a membranous, expanded tube, from which
arises another membranous tube, long and convolut-
ed, called the oviduct. This is susceptible of consi-
derable dilatation, and terminates in an expanded
portion, connected with the cloaca by a short tube,
contracted in the usual state of the animal, but
easily dilatable. The rudiment of the egg is first ex-
tricated from the membrane that contains it in the
ovary, and is received by the first expanded portion,
where it is completed as a yolk. Hence it passes in-
to the oviduct, where it remains till it has acquired
its white and shell, after which it is gradually pro-
pelled into tlie cloaca.

The period of incubation, or the time during
which a hen-bird sits on her eggs, varies in the dii-
fercnt species. Thus the humming-bird sits twelve
days ; the canary-bird, black-bird, wren, and pigeon,
a fortnight ; the hen three weeks ; the duck, goose,
turkey, and eagle, about a month ; and the swan and
ostrich about six weeks.

The general structure of a bird's egg is familiar t»

ReproduC'
tion.

524

ANATOMY.

Rcproduc- everj' one ; but it may be proper to mention the
lion, names by which physiologists have distinguished its
several parts. Tlie skin lining the shell is called the
membrane of the alhumai, or white of the egg.
Within this are two whites, of which the inner sur-
rounds the yolk, enveloped in a peculiar delicate
membrane, called the yolk-bag. From the two oppo-'
site sides of this bag there extend two white, knot-
ty bodies, called chalazte, terminating in the white of
the egg by a flocculent extremity. On the surface of
the yolk-bag, there is a small, white, round spot,
commonly called traddle, surrounded by one or more
whitish concentric circles, called hahnes. The use
of these latter parts is not known.

The progress of the chick during incubation has
been minutely examined in the common domestic
fowl, and is as follows. At the end of the first day,
there is perceived, near the traddle, a small shining
spot, of an oblong form, with rounded extremities,
and narrowest in the middle. On the second day
this has acquired a curved form, and resembles a ge-
latinous filament, closely surrounded by a peculiar
membrane, and there is a slight appearance of red
vessels on the surface of the yolk-bag. On the third
day the heart is obser%'ed to pulsate. It resembles a
convoluted canal, consisting of three dilated por-
tions, lying close together in the figure of a triangle,
and forming the rudiments of an auricle, a ventricle,
arid an artery. About the same time the vertebral co-
lumn of the chick is observable, of a crooked form,
and the rudiments of the eyes appear. By the fourth
day the chicken is nearly half an inch long, and the
stomach, bowels, and liver, are discernible, and a
vascular membrane forms about the navel, from which
it extends within the membrane of the albumen, co-
vering nearly the whole inner surface of the shell.
The lungs are alsa apparent, but respiration is not
yet properly begun. By the sixth day the chick is
about seven lines long, and begins to shew signs of
motion. On the ninth day ossification commences,
and several bony points appear, especially round the
edge of the sclerotic coat of the eye, which then re-
sembles a circular row of pearls. By this time ele-
gant yellow vessels begin to appear on the surface of
the yolk-bag. On the fourteenth day the rudiments
of the feathers are visible about the wings, and the
chick opens its mouth for air, if taken from the shell.
On the nineteenth day it is capable of uttering
sounds ; and on the twenty-first it quits its prison.

In rcptiks, the seminal glands are also internal or-
gans, and are situated, as in birds, near the kidneys.
In the males of some of these animals, there are
hard, brown, or blackish tubercles attached to the
thumb and palm of the fore feet, which are most vi-
sible during the pairing season. This structure is
found in frogs and toads. The female organs re-
semble those of birds, except that in some species,
as turtles and tortoises, there are two ovaries. In the
female of one species of toad, the pipa, or Surinam
toad, there are numerous hollow cells in the back of
the animal, in which the ova are placed by the male
after being fecundated, and where they remain shut
up, by the skin contracting round them, till they are
capable of maintaining a separate existence.

All reptiles, like birds, are oviparous, tliQJUgh in

the salamardrr the egjrs remain in the oviduct till
hatched. T!;e eggs of turtles, tortoises, and the se-
veral varieties ot lizards, nearly resemble those of
birds, but are of a rounder form, and are often co-
vered with a membrane resembling parchment, in-
stead of a calcareous shell. The eggs of frogs and
toads are gelatinous, and connected together like a
twisted string of beads.

The progress of the young animal in some of the
reptile tribes is not less curious than that of thejbe-
tus or the chicken, especially in the frog and toad
tribes, the young of which is called a tadpole, and
undergoes several remarkable changes. When first
extruded, there is onlj- a small dark speck in the
centre of the gelatinous o\-um, which in two davs is
a little enlarged, but still retains a spherical form.
In four days, this central spot resembles a small kid-
ney-bean, and in one day more has assumed the
slifipe of a half crescent. On the sixth day it has
increased in length and thickness, and become
straighter, and the distinction of head and tail, with
the rudiments of eves and mouth, is visible. By the
.seventh day this distinction is more evident, and
there are visible the rudiments of feet and gills. The
tadpole has now increased considerably, and quits the
egg. About the ninth day the head and body are
enlarged, and the tail increased in length. From this
time to the twentieth day, the gills are very evident,
but by the latter perioil are withdrawn below the
skin. Hitherto the tadpole has had only the hinder
legs, but by the twenty-fourth day the fore-legs be-
gin to make their appearance. The body of the lit-
tle animal is still transparent, and the bowels are dis-
tinctly seen through the integuments. Tlie tail also
still continues, but in a few days gradually disappears.
In about two months all the legs are developed, and
the animal becomes a perfect frog.

No reptile, if perhaps we may except the salaman-
der, hatches her eggs, but buries them in the sand
or earth, or drops them in the waters, to be hatched
by the genial heat of the sun.

The organs and phenomena of reproduction in the
serpent tribes, so nearly resemble those of most rep-
tiles as not to require a separate examination.

The principal male organs ofjrshes constitute what
in the bony fishes is called the soft roe, consisting of
two long flat bodies, of a white colour, and an irregu-
lar outer surfiice, but soft and pulpy within, having
an excretory duct passing through the middle of each,
and terminating at the back part of the rectum. These
bodies are situated beside the intestines, and the left
lobe surrounds the rectum. In the cartilaginous
fishes these glands more resemble those of the warm-
blooded animals in their granular texture, though still
of a soft consistence.

The hard roe of female fishes is also different in the
bony «nd cartilaginous fishes; in the former it consists
of two long bodies, resembling in fomi the soft roe
of the male, but of a much firmer consistence, and
fitted with a prodigious number of glo!)uIar eggs.
These eggs are so numerous, that, in a carp not more
than eigiiteen inches long, there have been counted
350,000. The two parts of the roe are enveloped in
distinct membranes, till they approach the anus,
where they unite by a common tube. In the carti-

R«pro(3ac-

tiOD.

ANATOMY.

325

Reproduc- laginous fishes, the female roes resemble the ovaries
of birds and reptiles, and the ova are like yolks, of
no inconsiderable size. There is also in these fishes
a double oviduct, uniting as it terminates in a chacn.

It is well known that fishes at certain scasonf shed
the o-.'n, or xpau-n as it is called, from their roes,
and leave it to be hatched in the waters.

The seminal glands of ino/luxca generally resemble
the soft roe of bony fishes, but contain a number of
small tubes, which are expelled by the animal in an
entire state. In snails and slugs these tubes resemble
little darts, which the animals, lor these species are
hermaphrodites, shoot at each other.

Most mollusca, however, are male and female, and
the female contain the ovaries. The eggs extruded
from these ovaries are in some species, as the cuttle-
fish, united together, so as to resemble a bunch of
grapes.

Crustnceous animals have generally a distinction of
sex. Thus, in crabs, the male is distinguished from
the female by the smallness and narrowness of his
tail, which, in the latter, is long and broad, and pro-
vided with numerous fimbriated appendages for re-
taining the spawn. In the female crab tliere are two
transparent membranes below the jniddle of the tail,
comnmnicating with the parts within. In many of
the insect tribes there are tiiree genders, males, females,
and neuters. In the first the seminal glands are of-
ten remarkable for their size and the convolutions of
their vessels ; and the ovaries of the female insects
sometimes increase to such a degree before the eggs
are extruded, as to render the animal's belly many
times larger than its ordinary size.

Most insects undergo two changes before coming
to the perfect state. When the egg is hatched, it
produces a caterpillar or maggot, which is called the
larva of the insect, generally having numerous legs,
and jaws capable of cutting and tearing. This larva
gradually increases, occasionally changing its skin, till
it has attained its full size in that state. It then gives
over eating, generally spins a web around it, or con-
tracts its body, and becomes covered with a horny
coat ; it is now a chrt/mlis, or nymph, and remains
in a state of apparent torpidity till the season ar-
rives for its assuming the perfect state, when it
bursts its shell and appears a winged insect.

Several of the -ixiorms, as leeches, earth-worms,
and a few others, are hermaphrodites, and mutually
impregnate each other. Witli respect to others, es-
pecially the intestinal worms, there is a difference of
opinion ; some authors considering them as male and
female, while others seem to regard them us herma-
phrodites.

Some znnphytes, as sea-urchins and star-fish, have
evidently ovaries, which, at certain seasons, form a
very conspicuous part of their structure ; but in ge-
neral the animals of this class have no generative or-
gans, and reproduction in them takes place by sprouts
or buds that form on the body of the parent animal,
and, on being detached, are gradually developed in-
to tlie form and dimensions of their parent.

Chap. IX. Of Death.

The functions considered in the preceding chap-

ter gradually decay as old age advances, and at Of Death.
length cease altogether. This cessation of the func-
tions, independently of accident or disease, consti-
tutes natural death, — an occurrence which, in the pre-
sent state of society, is by no means common.

The approach of natural death is slow and gra-
dual. The external functions cease one after ano-
ther ; all the senses are successively lost, or the or-
dinary causes of sensation pass over them without
making tlieir usual impressions. The eye becui\-..s
obscure and dim, and its humours at length no lon-
ger transmit the images of objects to the retina.
Sounds strike upon the car confusedly, and this or-
gan soon becomes entirely insensible to them. The
integuments gi'ow hard and horny, and, many of
their vessels being gradually obliterated, exercise the
sense of touch in an obscure and indistinct manner.
All the organs dependant on the skin become weak
and decay ; the hair and beard grow white, and, de-
prived of the juices which should nourish them, tlie
hairs of the head gradually fall oft'. Odours are no lon-
ger perceived by the nose, or they are perceived but
faintly. Tasting usually survives the rest of the ex-
ternal senses ; but that, too, at length becomes im-
perfect or depraved.

The functions of the brain partake of the imbecili-
ty of the external senses ; the memory no longer re-
tains those occurrences which are every da}- taking
place, though it long recals those of past times with
relish and delight ; the imagination becomes dull and
often depraved, the judgment weak and wavering.

As the animal functions intimately depend on the
nervous system for their vigour and activity, it is to
be expected that the former must be enfeebled as the
latterdecays. Locomotion becomes difficult and pain-
ful ; the body totters at every step ; the voice grows
weak ; the tongue faulters, and articulation is indis-
tinct. Circulation and respiration diminish in fre-
quency and vigour ; the appetite is in general less
keen and less frequently excited ; digestion lan-
guishes ; many of the secretions no longer take place ;
the circulation in the minute vessels, from the dimi-
nished energy of the heart and larger arteries, gra-
dually ceases ; the heart at length is unable to
propel the blood from its ventricles ; the circulation
through the lungs being thus arrested, these organs
cease to mspire, make their last expiration, and ter-
minate the life of the animal.

Thus, in natural death, the brain may he said to
die first, and the heart and lungs last ; but in violent
or accidental death, life may cease in either of these
latter organs, before it ceases in the brain. The ac-
tion of tin's last may be completely impeded, and cir-
culation and respiration may continue for a consider-
able time ; but, in general, when the actjon of the
heart is suddenly obstructed, as by a wound, or the
lungs ovcr^vhelmed, as in cases of sufibcation, the
death of the brain soon follows.

The usual signs of approaching death are, a quick,
small, indistinct and intermitting pulse, coldness and
clamminess about the extremities, dinmess and hol-
lowuess of the eyes, colla])sed features, an unusual
prominence of the bones of the face, a hollowness
at the temples, and a sliarpness of the nose. The or-
dinary signs of death having actually taken place,

326.

ANATOMY.

nJ.tory. arc, the want of respiration, as commonly shewn by
the brightnegg of a mirror held before the mouth re-
maining undiminished ; rigidity" of the limbs ; com-
plete loss of motion ; the collapse, opacity, and insen-
sibility of the eye ; the want of pulsation in the heart
and arteries ; the coldness of the body ; the paleness
or lividity of the countenance, the relaxation of the
lower jaw, the regurgitation of liquids to the mouth ;
the insensibility of the membrane of the nostrils ; the
collapse, paleness, and wrinkling of the lips ; and,
lastly, putrefaction. Of all these, however, the last
is the most certain and indubitable.

Few circumstances can be conceived more humi-
liating to the pride of man than the changes produ-
ced on his frame by death. Let us, for example, con-
template a female in the prime of youth and the
bloom of health and beauty. Those elegantly round-
ed and finely formed limbs, that graceful flexibility
of movement, that gentle warmth, those cheelis crim-
soned with the roses of delight, those eyes brilliant
with the spark of love or the fire of genius, that coun-
tenance enlivened by the sallies of wit, or animated
by the glow of passion, altogether seem united to
form a most enchanting being. A very short time
suffices to destroy the illusion. Often, without any
apparent cause, motion and sensation cease, the body
loses its heat, the muscles collapse and disclose the
angular prominences of the bones, the eyes lose their
lustre, the cheeks and lips acquire a livid hue. These
are but preludes to changes still more disgusting.
The flesh becomes successively blue, green, black,
and attracts humidity ; and while one portion evapo-
rates in infectious effluvia, another dissolves into a
putrid sanies, which, ere long, is also dissipated. In
a word, after but a short lapse of time, there remain
only a few earthy or saline principles. The other
component elements of the body have mingled with
the air of the atmosphere, and are destined to enter
into new combinations.

On the particular cause of death, it is not the bu-
siness of this treatise to enter, and the general imme-
diate cause is involved in much obscurity. It has ge-
nerally been attributed to the increased rigidity of
the animal fibre ; but this alone is insufficient to ac-
count for the change produced. In our investigations
concerning the cause of death, as with respect to
the causes of many other natural phenomena, we
reason in the dark ; and, in fact, we can better de-
scribe what death is, than point out its immediate or
proximate cause.

Chap. X. History of Anatomy and
Physiology.

The early history of anatomy and physiology is of
course but little known. That mankind had, at a
very remote period, some acquaintance with the
structure and functions of the human body, and of
those animals that were killed in the cliacc, or offer-
ed as sacrifices to the Deity, is reasonably to be in-
ferred from the natural curiosity and observant facul-
ty of man. The field of battle might occasionally ex-
hibit parts of the human skeleton, and extensive
wounds might sometimes alTord an opportunity of ex-

amining the structure and position of some impor<
tant internal organs.

Among the Egi/ptians.— As a science, physiology
is supposed to have been first cultivated in Egypt,
where the pillars of Hermes were inscribed with all
the medical knowledge of that people. These in-
scriptions so completely regulated the practice of
medicines that if a practitioner deviated from their
rules in the slightest points, and his patient died, he
was considered guilty of murder, and subjected to
punishment. It has been supposed that the practice
of embalming, which was employed among the Egyp-
tians from time immemorial, attords a proof that this
people were skilful anatomists. But this operation,
as far as it required anatomical skill, was very sim-
ple, consisting chiefly in abstracting the brain and
contents of the chest and belly, and filling these ca-
vities with resins and spices.

The Greeks. — Scientific anatomy and physiology
were early cultivated among the Greeks, as we learn
from the writings of Homer, which contain several
passages that shew him to have been acquainted with
the animal structure.

Democritus, the philosopher of Abdera, contem-
porary with the great physician Hippocrates, appears
to have been one of the earliest dissectors of dead
bodies. He is said to have examined several of the
inferior animals with a view to discover the nature
and seat of the bile, on the morbid state of which he
conjectured madness to depend.

Hippocrates, among his numerous writings, has
left several chapters on anatomy. He enumerates
the bones, and describes their forms, processes, and
connexions ; he mentions several of the ligaments,
particularizes some of the muscles and nerves ; he
describes the structure and pulsation of the heart,
and even speaks of a circle of the blood. He sup-
posed that a native fire resided in the left ventricle of
the heart, and that the use of respiration was to cool
and moderate this fire, and thereby preserve the equa-
ble temperature of the system. This native fire also
acted as a vital principle, and regulated all the func-
tions both of mind and body, through the interme-
diate agency of certain faculties or powers.

The writmgs of Plato and Aristotle contain the
rudiments of the physiology of their times. Plato
supposed the heart to be the source of courage and
passion, and the liver of desire ; the head to be the
seat of reason, the chest of strength and anger ; and
he agreed with Hippocrates in his notion of the use
of the lungs as coolers of the body. Aristotle attri-
buted to the soul these faculties which he denomi-
nated nutritive, sensitive, and rational ; the first being
the principle of life, the second the origin of feeling,
the third the source of the understanding. This phi-
losopher cultivated comparative anatomy, and in his
history of animals frequently adverts to their inter-
nal structure. In his general physiology he agrees
with Hippocrates.

In the school of philosophy established at Alex-
andria, Herophilus and Erasistrltus were celebrated
for their knowledge of tlie animal economy. They
were assiduous dissectors, and, if we may credit the
historians of that age, were allowed to dissect alive

Histor7.

ANATOMY.

327

History, the bodies of condemned criminals. Herophilus paid
great attention to the nervous system, and was well
acquainted with the structure of the brain. He is
said to have been the first anatomist who employed
a human skeleton for teaching osteology. Erasistra-
tus first discovered the valves of the heart, and he
suggested the idea that the bile was secreted by the
hver. He also seems to have traced the chyle, in its
passage through the intestines.

The early anatomists supposed that the arteries
contained only air ; and it was not till the beginning
of the second century of the Christian aera that Ru-
fus Ephesius proved that they contained blood. He
supposed, however, that the blood entered the arte-
ries only after death.

Galen, who flourished in the middle of the second
century, established a system of physiology, which
prevailed in the schools of medicine and philosophy
for many ages. He proved that the arteries natural-
ly contain blood; and he was the first to demonstrate
that the larynx was the organ of voice ; he adopted
the principle of Plato, and introduced the notion of
teaiperaments. Of these he supposed there were
four, which he denominated, from the humour that
prevailed in each, sanguineous, phlegmatic, bilious, and
melancholic.

Among the moderns. — Modern anatomy and physi-
ology may be said to have originated in the beginning
of the fourteenth century with Mundinus, a physician
of Milan, who published a regular system of anatomy,
which superseded the treatise of Galen ; but it was
not till after the invention of printing had facilitated
the circulation of books, that these sciences began to
make any considerable progress.

In the sixteenth century there arose many eminent
anatomists, who materially advanced the progress of
the science by their original and important discove-
ries. We may particularise Berengarius of Carpi,
professor of Bononia, Charles Stephanas, Fernelius,
Andernach, and more especially Vesalius. This
last eminent anatomist demonstrated that the blood
could not pass immediately through the partition be-
tween the ventricles of the heart, as had been sug-
gested by some preceding writers. It was now sus-
pected that there was a communication between the
arteries and the veins, though how the blood flowed
from the former into the latter was not ascertained,
Columbus, the disciple of Vesalius, produced addi-
tional proof that the blood flowed from the arteries
into the veins in the lungs ; and Caesaipinus, who lived
towards the latter end of the sixteenth century, prov-
ed that the blood passed from the extremities of the
arteries into the extremities of the veins, and that in
these latter vessels it sometimes flowed from the
branches into the trunks. Still, however, he enter-
tained the idea that the blood flowed backwards and
forwards from arteries into veins, and from veins in-
to arteries. About the same time, Fabricius of Aqua-
pendente, professor at Padua, discovered the valves
of the veins, which had however been observed,
though not distinctly marked, by some preceding
anatomist. Fabricius had the merit of tracing them
fully, and calling the attention-of his disciples to their
nature and uses.

Circulation of the blood discovered.— Oae of the dis-

ciples of Fabricius was our countryman Harvey, who
ardently prosecuted the investigation of the valves
in the veins, till he discovered their true use to be im-
peding the passage of the blood towards the arteries.
Thus he shewed, that having entered the veins, the
blood must proceed through them towards the heart ;
and as it was known that the blood flowed in the arte-
ries from trunks to branches, he naturally concluded
that there must be a perfect circulation from one side
of the heart to the other. Harvey, therefore, is now
generally allowed to have been the real discoverer of
the circulation of the blood, a discovery which he pub-
lished to the world in 1628. This important discovery
was followed by as important a revolution in the the-
ory of medicine, which wilt afterwards be noticed.

Absorbent vessels. — The discovery of the circula-
tion of the blood was soon followed by another scarce-
ly less important, that of the absorbent system. The
lacteals were first observed by Asellius of Pavia, in
1622, in consequence of his opening a living dog.
He traced them as far as the mesenteric glands, and
gave them the name of lacteals, from the milky co-
lour of the chyle. He thought, however, that they
terminated in the liver. Soon after Pecquet, a French
anatomist, discovered that the chyle passed to the
heart, and observed the thoracic duct. Olaus Rud-
beck and Thomas Bartholine, the former a Swedish,
and the latter a Danish anatomist, some time after the
discoveries just noticed, observed the lymphatic ves-
sels, and found that they terminated in the thoracic
duct. In 1654, Glisson proved that these lymphatics
are absorbents ; and in 1664 and 1665 their valvular
structure was discovered by Swammerdam and
Ruysch.

Van Helmont, 8;c. — During all this time physiolo-
gy had been making slow advances. From the time
of Arnold of Villa Nova, and Paracelsus, it had been
founded almost entirely on chemical or astrological
principles, till Van Helmont introduced an intelligent
being, called archceus, seated in the epigastric region,
and having under him several subaltern ministers, si-
tuated particularly in the head, chest, and belly, by
whom he executed all the animal functions.

The archaus of Van Helmont was superseded by
the animal spirits of Willis and Descartes; and thence-
forward the nervous system, and especially the pineal
gland, the supposed seat of the soul, became an im-
portant object of attention.

Boerhaave, Sfc. — The metaphysical system of Des-
cartes continued with some modifications till the
end of the seventeenth century, when the mechani-
cal philosophers, with Pitcairn and Boerhaave at their
head, effected a new revolution. Borelli had some
time before shewn how the muscular motions of the
animal body might be explained on the principles of
mechanics ; and his disciple, Bellini, had extended
the application of these principles to other functions.
The animal body was now likened to a machine, the
tt/lid parts of which act according to their figure,
bulk, and proportion, and according to the general
lawsof motion, while the direction, qualities, and effect
of the circulating fluid, were subjected to the laws
of hydrostatics. In short, every thing in the animal
machine was reduced to an assemblage of cords, le-
vers, pulleys, conduits, and canals.

History,

328

''ANATOMY.

Bisiorv. Mc'clianicnl pliysiology was soon, however, modi-
fied by Hofliiian and Stalil, the former of whom saw
tile necessity of a mutual action between the solids
and the Huids ; while the latter, corivinced of the in-
sufficiency of mechanical principles alone to explain
the phenomena of vitality, strongly and successful-
ly recalled the attention of physiologists to the ef-
fects of the rilal principle, and introduced tlie theory
of a self-preserving action, or what he culled the
liealing power of nature. According to him, every
thing in the animal body depends on llie union of its
organic parts with the active self-preserving prin-
ciple which governs, according to special laws, those
phenomena which may be more particuhirly termed
viud, and which are most independent of the will.

Haller. — Holler improved on the theory of Stahl ;
and pursuing the route that had been marked out
for philosophical inquiries bv the immortal Bacon,
set himself to collect and arrange the physiological
facts that had been already observed. Haller saw
the inconvenience of strictly applying the laws of
mechaniciil philosophy to the actions of the living
system, and explained the animal motions on the
princijile of irritability, a power which he consider-
ed peculiar to the annual body. To Haller we are
indebted for many curious researches respecting the
formation of bone, the mechanism of respiration, the
action of the nervous system, the structure of the
heart, the circulation of the blood, the pulsation of
the arteries, and the developement of the fcetus.
He also cultivated comparative anatomy, which he
regarded as of the greatest importance in 'the im-
provement of physiojogy.

Ciillfii — The physiology of CuUen is founded
rhiefly on that of Hoffman, and -coasists in referring
the actions of the animal economy to the movement
of the vital solids, as regulated by the fundamental
Jaws of the nervous system. The vital solid?, by
vhich are meant the nmscular fibres, tlie blood-ves-
sels and nerves, were all supposed to originate from
the last, and to be concentrated in the brain ; and all
the physical actions of a living being were supposed
to depend on the contractility inherent in the mov-
ing hbres, excited either by their own extension, by
the application of external stimuli, or by the imme-
diate action of the nervous fluid.

JIuiiler. — Coteniporary with CuUen were the two
Hunters and the second Monro, all eminent both as
{tnatoniists and physiologists. Ur William Hunter
improved the anatomy of the absorbent system and
that ol' the gravid uterus. Mr John Hunter added
considerably to our knowledge respecting the struc-
ture and formation of the teeth, and the nature and
properties of the blood, which he supposed to be the
innnediate seat of vitality. Monro improved both
the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and ab-
sorbent systems ; made several discoveries in the
structure of the eye and ear ; considerably advanced
the study of comparative anatomy, and was amoi^^'
the first to draw the atteiition of physiologists to the
eSects of electricity or galvanism on the animal cco-
jioiuy,

Brttxun. — John Brown, at first the disciple and af-
terwards the rival of Cullcn, for snme time attracted
considerable notice in consefjueuce of a modihca-

tion of Hallcr's doctrine of irritability, which he call-
ed excitability, and which he considered as tlie rul-
ing agent that directed all the operations of the ani-
mal economy-. By the action of stimuli, or exciting
powers, the excitability is exhausted. By the ab-
straction of stimuli, or by rest and sleep, it is accu-
mulated ; and on the proper adjustment of the ex-
citing powers, so as to prcsei-ve an equable and mode-
rate excitement, depends the healthy state of the
animal system. It would be out of place here to de-
tail the doctrines of these medical physiologists, as
they must hereafter come under our review in the
history of Medicine. It will be sufficient, therefore,
to remark, that the theory of Darwin, lately so
fashionable in the medical world, is little more than
a modification of that of Brown ; and that the sen-
sorial power of the former is synonymous'vvith the
excitability of the latter.

During the latter half of the eighteenth century,
the anatomy of the human body received consider-
able imjjrovement iVoni the writings of Winslow; Al-
binus, especially on the bones and muscles ; Dou-
glas, chiefly on the muscles ; Zinn, on the eye ; Sa-
batier ; Soemmering, on several parts of anatomy, es-
pecially the brain, eye, and ear ; and Scarpa, chiefly
on the nerves, the em-, and the nose.

Of late considerable attention has been paid to
Comparative Anatomy. This had been cultivated
by Eustachius, Vesalius, Harvey, De Graaf, Blasius,
Swammerdam, and Tyson, among the earlier modern
anatomists ; and in the latter end of the 18th centu-
ry, by Vicq d'Azyr, Daubenton, Townson, Bonnet,
the Hunters, the second Monro, Camper, and Blu-
menbach. In the present century it has received
many important additions and improvements from
Cuvier, Dumeril, Lamarck, Lacepede, Macartney,
Carlisle, and Sir Everard Home.

Chemistry connected xvith physiology. — Chemistry
holds some share in the physiology of the present
day. From the rhapsodies of Paracelsus and his
followers, chemical physiology had fallen into disre-
pute, till it was in some measure revived by Boyle,
Mayow, and Hales, in the latter end of the 17th
century. The two latter, in particular, pointed out
the relation of chemistry to physiology in the func-
tion of respiration, and shewed that the pure part of
the atmosphere, now called oxygenous gas, and de-
nominated by Mayow the nitro-aerial particles of the
atmosphere, performs an important office in the ani-
mal economy. Chemical physiology was farther im-
proved by Black, Crawford, Cavendish, Irvine, and
Priestley, and still more lately by Lavoisier and the
chemists of tlie* French school. Within these few^
years, however, it was carried to an extreme little
less absurd than the doctrines of Paracelsus, by some
German chemists, particularly Hufeland, Girtannei-,
and Humboldt, who, transferring the operatione of
the laboratory to the animal body, hav§ supposed
life to depend on the combinations of oxygen with
the vital principle, and on the reciprocal balance of
the chemical affinities of all the elements of the ani-
mal body. At present, the application of chemistry
to physiology is confined chiefly to the functions of
digestion and respiration.

(}t:l-ani<>n — 'I'liere is one other department of

Hiitorv.

AiN^^TOMY

PLATE

I'if/.i .

/■'li/. s.

/■Vr/. 3.

ANATOMY.

329

History, natural science, connected partly with mechanical
philosophy and partly with chemistry, that has for
some time influenced the physiological doctrines of
the present day, — we mean animal electricity or Gal-
vanism. The effects of ordinary electricity on the
animal body, especially in the concentrated form of
lightninj;, had been long ago observed by Dr Frank-
lin ; and Professor Galvani of Bologna having ob-
served convulsive motions to take place in the limbs
of a frog, in consequence of its nerve being touched
with an instrument in connection with an electrical
machine, pursued tlie inquiry, and discovered that
modification of electricity which received its name
from him. The effects of Galvanism on the animal
system were successively investigated by Valli, Fow-
ler, Robison, Volta, Wells, Humboldt, Aldini, and
Hitter.

System of Bichat Among the latest systems of

physiology, deserving particular notice, is that of
Bichat, who divides life into organic and animal, the
former being common to all organized beings, plants
as well as animals, while the latter is confined to ani-
mals alone. Eacli kind of life comprehends two or-
ders of functions which succeed each other in an in-
verse series. Thus, in animal life, the first order of
functions commences with external objects, and pro-
ceeds towards the brain, comprehending motion,
voice, external sensation, internal sensation ; while
the second order begins in the brain with internal
sensation, and proceeds externally to voice and mo-
tion. In the first order of functions the animal is
passive ; in the second he is active : through the me-
dium of the first, external objects act upon the body,
while, by means of the second, the body reacts on
external objects. The functions belonging to orga-
nic life are those of digestion, respiration, circula-
tion, absorption, secretion, and reproduction. The
brain is the centre of animal lil'e,— the heart, of orga-
nic life.

According to Bichat, the proper balance of life is
preserved by the due proportion between the action
of surrounding bodies, and the reaction of the sys-
tem. As the reaction is greatest in youth, the vital
principle is then predominant, and tliis principle is
defective in old age, as the reaction is then the least.
The measure of life, then, is the dirt'erence existing
between the eftbrts of external agents to destroy life,
and the internal resistance to support it. The ex-
cess of the former indicates the weakness of life, that
of the latter shews its strength.

Explanalinn of Plates.
Plate 6 — Fig. 1. A front view of the Skeleton. A,
the frontal bone ; B, the parietal bone ; C, the tem-
poral bone ; D, the upper maxillary or jaw-bone ; E,
the lower jaw-bone ; F, the vertebra; of the neck ;
G, G, the clavicles ; H, H, the scapulse, or shoulder-
blades ; I, I, the humerus ; K, the radius, and L, the
ulna, the two bones of the fore-arm ; M, the bones
of the carpus, or wrist ; N, tlie bones of the hand,
or metacarpus ; O, the bones of the fingers ; P, the
.sternum, or breast-bone ; Q, Q, tiie ribs ; R, tlie ver-
tebra; of the loins ; S, tlie sacrum ; T, T, T, T, the
bones of the pelvis ; U, U, the femur, or thigh-bone ;

VOL. I. P.\R1 I.

V, V, the patella, or knee-pan ; W,\V, the tibia, or large
bone of the leg ; X, X, the fibula, or small bone of
the leg; Y, Y, the os calcis, or heel-bone ; Z, Z, tlie
metatarsal and tarsal bones of the toes.

Fig. 2. Side view of the Human Skull. A, the fron-
tal bone ; B, the parietal bone ; C, the temporal
bone ; D, the upper jaw-bone ; E, the lower jaw-
bone.

Fig. 3. The skull of the Monkey. A, the frontal
bone ; B, the parietal bone ; C, the temporal bone ;
D, the upper jaw-bone ; E, the lower jaw-bone.

Fig. 4. The skull of the Elephant ; the most re-
markable parts of which are tlie projections of the
jaw-bones. A, is the upper jaw-bone from the pro-
jecting part of wliich, at B, proceed the tusks C ; D,
is the lower jaw-bone, and the projecting |)art is at E.

Fig. 5. Is the skull of a species of Hog, the sm ha-
hyroiissa. A, is tlie frontal bone ; B, the upper jaw,
from which arise the remarkable tusks D, wliich are
curved backwards and downwards; C, the lower jaw.

Plate 7. — Fig. 1. exhibits a general view of the
muscles: 1, \s tho triceps extensor cubiti ; 2, the del-
toid muscle ; 3, the teres major ; 4, latissimus dorsi ;
5, pectoral muscle; 6, obliquus descendens abdominis;
7, rectus abdominis ; 8, 8, sartorius ; 9, 9, rectus Jemo-
ris ; 10, 10, vastus extern us ; 11, 11, vastus interims ;
12, gastrocnemius ; 13, solccus ; It, tibialis anticns.

Fig. 2. is a view of the bones of the right hand.
The palm of the hand is here represented : a, is the
radius ; b, the ulna ; c, the scaphoid bone of the car-
pus or wrist ; d, the lunar bone ; e, the cuneitbna
bone, Jl the pisiform bone ; g, trapezium ; h, trape-
zoides ; /, capitatum ; k, unciform bone ; /, the four
metacarpal bones of the fingers; m, the first phalanx;
n, the second phalanx; o, the third phalanx; p, the
metacarpal bone of the thumb ; y, the first joint ; /•,
the second joint.

Fig. 3. is a representation of the palm of the left
hand, when the integuments are removed, and the
muscles and ligaments of the fingers are brought in-
to view: a, tendon oi' the flexor carpi radialis; b, ten-
don oi' the Jlexor carpi idnaris; c, tendons oi' thcjlcx-
or sublimis perforatics, profundus peijorans, and luin-
bricales ; d, abductor pollicis ; e, e, [flexor pollicis lo/i-
gus ; J", Jlexor pollicis brevis ; g, palinaris brevis ; h,
abductor of the little finger ; i, annular ligament of
the carpus ; k, k, tendons of Jlexor di;nloram sublimis,
which arc perforated by /, /, the Jlexor digilorumpro-
Jundus ; in, lunibricales ; n, adductor of the thumb.

Fig. 4. is a view of the inferior surface of the
bones of the left foot : a, the great knob of tlic heel-
bone ; b, a prominence on its outside ; c, the hollow
for tendons, nerves, and blood-vessels ; d, the ante-
rior extremity of the heel-bone ; e, part of the astra-
galus ;_/; its liead covered with cartilage ; g, the in-
ternal prominence of the navicular bone ; h, the cu-
boid bone ; i, the internal ci.iieiibrm bone ; k, the
middle, and /, the external cuneiform bone ; m, the
metatarsal bones of the lesser toes; n, the first, o, the
second, and p, the third phalanx of the lesser toes ;
q, the metatarsal bone of the great toe ; r, the first,
and s, the second joint.

Fig. 5. a view of tlic upper part of the left foot,
shewing the tendons of the muscles of the toes : a, the

1 X

Plates
explained.

330

ANATOMY,

PUtfi cut extremity of the tcndo Achillis ; b, upper part of
explained, the astragalus ; c, heel-bone ; d, tendon of the libialin
anticus ; e, tendon of the extensor poUicis longus ; f,
tendon of tlie pcroiKeus hrevis ; g, tendon of the flexor
digitorum longus; h, h, the whole of they/ej;or digito-
rum brevis.

Plate 8. — Fig. 1. exhibits a view of the viscera of
the thorax and abdomen.

A, B, the right and left lungs ; C, the heart; D,
the right auricle ; E, the vena cava descendens ; F, F,
the subclavian veins; G, G, the internal jugular veins;
II, the descending aorta ; I, the pulmonarj' artery ;
K, the anterior edge of the diaphragm ; L, L, the
two great lobes of the liver; M, the round ligament;
N, the gall-bladder ; O, the stomach ; P, the spleen ;
Q, Q, some of the large intestines ; II, R, the jeju-
num and ilium.

Fig. 2. which represents the stomachs of the la-
ma ; 6, the gullet ; c, c, the paunch ; d, the cells that
appear in two places of this stomach ; f, the second
stomach, or hood ; e, the canal leading from the gullet
to the third stomach, g, g, g, g ; h, h, the fourth sto-
mach ; /, a tubercle opposite to the orifice of the py-
lorus ; k, I, the juncture of the third and fourth sto-
machs.

■;Fig. 3. exhibit* a section of the brain. Xfix, the
caUoiui body, or central portion of the brain ; MM,
the third ventricle ; mm, fourth ventricle ; (p, canal of
communication between the third and fourth ventri-
cles ; E, pineal gland; 16, mammillary portion of the
brain ; 47, 48, situation of the organ of amativeness,
according to Spurzheim ; 57, 58, 59, transparent par-
tition of the brain; 61, anterior commissure of the
brain ; 62, centre of the fundamental part of the
cerebellum ; 86, 87, 88, 90, fibres in the middle line
of the nervous apparatus ; II, the organ of philopro-
genitiveness, according to Spurzheim ; III, organ of
inhabitiveness ; X, organ of self love ; XIII, organ of
benevolence ; XIV, organ of veneration ; XVIII, or-
gan of firmness, or determinateness ; XIX, organ of
individuality ; XX, organ of form ; XXIX, organ of
language ; XXX, organ of comparison.

Fig. 4. represents the anterior part of the right
external ear, the cavity of the tympanum, the small
bones, cochlea, and semicircular canals : a, the mal-
leus ; b, the incus, with its long leg resting on the
stapes ; c, membrane of the tympanum; d, e, the Eus-
tachian tube, covered hyf, f, part of the circumflex
muscle of the palate ; 1, 2, 3, the three semicircular
canals ; 4, the vestibule ; 5, the cochlea ; 6, the por-
tio mollis, or soft portion of the seventh pair of
nerves ; A, the malleus ; B, the incus ; C, the stapes,
which is connected to the latter by the intervention
of D, the orbicular bone. The bones of the ear are
represented in the lower figure, in which they are se-
parated, by the same letters.

Fig. 5. is a representation of the right eye and its
appendages, part of the bones of t^ie orbit being cut
away. A, the eyeball ; B, the lacrymal gland ; C,
the abductor of the eye ; D, attollens ; E, levator
palpebrae superioris ; F, depressor oculi ; G, adduc-
tor ; H, obliquus superior, with its pulliy ; I, its in-
sertion into the sclerotic coat ; K, part of the obli-
quus inferior ; L, the anterior part of the frontal
bone cut away ; M, the crista galli of the ethmoid

bone ; N, the posterior part of the Bohenoid bone ; ruttt
P, the carotid artery ; Q, the carotid artery within explaiaed-
the cranium ; 11, the ophthalmic artery ; aa, the op- ~ ~
tic nerve ; b, the third pair ; c, its joining with a
branch of the fifth pair ; d, the ciliary nerves, from
the lenticular ganglion; the remaining letters of this
figure denote the nerves going to the dift'erent parts
of the face.

Plate 9. — exhibits a general view of the blood ves-
sels : A, the heart, from the left ventricle of which
proceeds B, the ascending aorta ; C, the arch of tlie
aorta, from which arise D, D, the carotid arteries ;
E, E, the subclavian arteries; F, F, the subclavian
veins coming from the superior extremities and uniting
with G, the vena cava superior ; H, the jugular vein,
which also joins the vena cava superior ; I, the tempo-
ral artery ; K, the humeral artery which divides in-
to L, the ulnar artery, and M, the radial artery ; the
two latter arteries in their minuter divisions commu-
nicate with each other, and are distributed to the
palm of the hand and the fingers : N, the descending
aorta, which in its course gives off arteries to 0,0, the
kidnies, and the other viscera, and divides at P into
the two iliac arteries ; these latter, when they pass out
of the cavity of the body and proceed along the thigh,
assume the name of the femoral or crural arteries ;
Q, the bladder ; 11, the vena cava inferior, formed of
the two iliac veins, by which the blood is brought
from the lower extremities and conveyed to the right
side of the heart, from which it is sent by the pul-
monary veins to the lungs ; the ramifications of the
arteries and veins in the lungs are seen at S, S.

Plate 10. — Fig.l. exhibits a view of the lymphatics,
in an entire subject, which was prepared by the per-
severance and industiy of Mr Fyfe, demonstrator of
anatomy in the University of Edinburgh ; and to his
liberality we are indebted for permission to copy
the figure for the illustration of this part of our
work.

A, section of the upper extremity of the sternum,
and of the inner extremity of the clavicles, which are
turned up ; B,B, the internal jugular veins ; C, cavi-
ty of the right side of the thorax ; D, D, the pericar-
dium cut ; E, the heart ; F, F, the convex surface of
tfce diaphragm ; G, G, the integuments and abdomin-
al muscles turned up ; H, part of the liver ; I; the
stomach, and part of the colons hrivelled ; K, K, the
descending aorta ; L, right common iliac artery ;
M,M, inferior vena cava ; N, N, mesentery and small
intestines turned to the left side ; O, cavity of the
•pelvis; F, the pubes; S, S, S, inguinal glands distend-
ed with quicksilver; T, T, T, branches of the vena sa-
phena major.

The course of the absorbents is so obvious in the
figure that letters of reference become unnecessary.
They are seen on the upper part of the feet deriving
their origin from the toes, and trunks arising from
the soles of the feet appear behind the inner ancles.
The lymphatics from the outside of the feet and an-
cles run across the tibia to the inside of the leg ; and
the principal lymphatics of the leg lie near the great
vena saphena, and proceed to the inner side of the
knee, and from thence to the inner side of the thigh.
In the course of the lymphatics upwards, they forna
an irregular plexus on the inside of thelinibs in gene-

ANATOMY.

551

Wates ral. The inguinal glands at the upper extremity of
explained, the thigh receive the lymphatics from the inside of
the thigh. These glands are distinctly seen on the
right side of the figure, and the vessels appear shoot-
ing from them in a radiated form ; and on the same side
is seen the iliac plexus, formed by the trunks which
ascend, partly from the inguinal glands behind Pou-
part's ligament, and partly from the contents of the
pelvis, along with the iliac blood-vessels. The lympha-
tics which originate on the surface of the os sacrum
are visible at the bifurcation of tlie aorta. Some ap-
pear at the sides of the inferior cava, and over the
aorta. The vessels and glands forming the lumbar
plexus are also seen, and a few of many injected
Jacteals on the mesentery directing their course to-
ward the thoracic duct.

Trunks of absorbents descend from the lower part
of tlie liver, and from the other viscera, and meeting
with the lacteals and lumbar plexus, terminate in the
thoracic duct. A large lymphatic gland which seems
to be formed of convoluted branches appears on the
convex surface of the diaphragm, and large lympha-
tic vessels which perforate the diaphragm from the
right side of the liver enter this gland.

On the superior extremities an extensive plexus is
formed by the superficial lymphatics which pass from
the anterior side of the extremity upward, and receive
nuiny branches which ascend in an oblique direction
from the opposite side of the arm. The lymphatics
of the superior extremities enter the axillary glands,
and the principal trunks proceed from these glands,
and terminate in the trunk of the left arm along
with the thoracic duct. On the right side of the
neck are seen some of the lymphatic vessels and
glands which form the jugular plexus ; and the gene-
ral termination of the lymphatics of the right side of
the head and neck, right arm, &c. is in the angle form-
ed by the right internal jugular and subclavian veins.

Fig. 2. exhibits an outline view of the diflPerent
layers of the skin of a negro who died of smali-pox ;

a, is the cuticle ; b, a layer of a finer texture ; c, the
rete mticosum, which in the negro is black ; d, the
membrane of small-pox and other cutaneous erup-
tions, according to Mr Cruikshank ; e, the cutis, or
true skin.

Fig. 3. is a representation of the arrangement of
the pores of the skin, as they appear in the corners
of certain angular parts of the surface.

Fig. 4. is a view of the gall bladder, its ducts and
connection with the intestines : a, the gall bladder ;

b, the cystic duct ; c, the hepatic duct ; d, the duc-
tus communis choledochus, or common duct ; e, e, the
pancreatic duct ;J~, the entrance of the common duct
into the duodenum.

Fig. 5. exhibits a view of the jejunum, a part of
the small intestines of a person who died soon after
taking food, when the lacteals distributed on the
mesentery were distended with chyle ; a, b, c, the in-
testine ; d, d, the minute branches of the blood-vessels ;
e, e, the trunk* of the blood-vessels ; Jlf, thelacteals ;
g, g, g, the mesenteric glands.

Errata in Anatomy.

P. 285. col. 1. line 1. for latter read former, and for
Jbrmer read latter.

294. col. 1. line 22. for cerebrum read cerebellum.

295. col. 2. line 37. for mani/ read man.
300. col. 2. last line, for plai/ read pre^.
303. col. 1. line 30, for bones read bone.

306. col. 2. line 56, insert a comma after intestines,

and omit it after fluids.
316. col. 2. line 57. for longer read larger.
324. col. 2. line 60. for Jilted read /died.
326. col. 2. line 52. for these read three:

Plates
e^splaioeJ.

INDEX.

Index.

A

Bones, diversity of,

285

Digestion, stages of.

302

Absorbent system,

509

Brain described

295

Duct thoracic

310

Acetabulum,

28G

varieties in diflcrent animals

295

Anatomy, definition,

279

seat of sensation and intellect

ib.

E

advantages of

ib.

physiology of,

ib.

Ear, structure oi; . .

29

history

526

Braying of the ass

31*

Ethmoidal bone

283

early

ib.

Breast, bones of,

28(i

Extremities, bones of,

287

among Egyptians

ib.

upper varieties of,

ib.

Greeks

ib.

C

inferior.

288

Modems

527

Camel, curious structme of stontacll

30G

varieties of.

289

Discoveries in - -

ib.

Carpus, or wrist

287

Eye, structure of.

299

comparative, cultivated

528

Cartilages ...

282

in different animals,

300

Animals, vertebral,

280

Ccllulai- membrane

517

inverlebral

ib.

Chemistry connected with physiology

528

F

Chest, bones of.

286

Face, bones of,

81

B

Chyle, nature ofi . -

505

Facial an;,f|e,

ib.

Bile, nature of,

313

Chylification

50*

Feathers, structure of.

320

Blade-bone ...

287

Circulation of the blood

308

Feeling, or touch, sense of,

296

Bleating of sheep

314

discovered

327

varieties,

ib.

Blood, circulation of; ' -

308

Climbing, how eflected

292

Fibula, smuU bone of the leg.

288

nature of

509

Coccyx ...

286

Flying, how performed.

293

vessels

507

Collar-bone .

287

Foetus, cvol'itioii of.

382

Bones, nature of,

281

peculiarities.

ib.

form

282

D

circulation of blood,

ib.

cavities

ib.

Death, natiu-al, slow

325

Foot, bones o^ . -

288

covering

ib.

signs of - .

ib.

Fore-arm, bones of; - -

287

formation of - .

ib.

putrefaction the most certain

526

Frontal bone

283

articulation

iJ>.

Deglutition ...

30*

Functions, organic,

279

Index.

Inde*'

332

Gastric juice,

O

Gland, pineftl, . . .

SU))]>OSC<l tCBt of tJit (ohI -
Glands, lymphatic,

mesenteric,

'Gullet ill man,

iu other animals,

H

Hair, structure of, - - . 529

Hand, bones of, - - - 287
Harvey discovers circulation of the

blood, ... ,i27

Haunch-bouc, . - . 28G

Head, l)ones of, - - - 285

Heat, animal, accounted foi*, - 31^

"Hearing, sense of, - . 298

varieties of, . ib. 299

Heart described, ... 307

Hiplwne, .... 286

Horns of animals, structure of, - 5W

Houlinif of apes, - - - .Sli

Hybernation of animals, - 512

INDEX.

Motion, organs ot, - -

i>05 Mouth, parts of, - .

294 Muscles, organs of motion,
ib. stj-ucturc of,

510 of the head,

ifc. of the eye and car,

304 of the jaw,

ib. of the neck, tuc.

of the extremities,
phy.^iology of -
comparative anatomy xi,
action of,

N
Kails, strocture ot - ►

Natural objects, division of,

orfjanized,

inorganic,
Neighin;^ of the horse
Nerves from the brain,

spinal marrow,

rfium, or haunch-bone, . - Z8S

Imagination confmed to man, - 501

Integinuation - . . . 517

Intestines . ... 505

Ischium, or hip-bone . . 286

Jaw-bones, ... 284
JuSgrnent not confined to man, . 501

Kidneys, structure and functions, - 3 5
JCnec-pan, .... 288

Xacteals, - - . 509

in ever)- part of the body 510

Larynx, structure of - . .313

Leaping, how cflected, - 292

Leg, bones of, . . 288

Life, duration of, • . 281

Jjgaments, ... 282

Liver, stnicture and functions, - 315

in dilfcrcnt animals, - ib.

Living jwwer defined, . . 281

Lungs, nature of, - - 311

Lymphatics, - . 309

M

Slastication, - - 302
Memory very general among animals 301

Metatarsus, bones of, • 'ZSS

Occipital bone.
Organs of motion,

of muscular motion,

of brain,

Pancreas, structure and fimctions,
in different animals.

Parietal bones,

Paiisions, effects of.

Patella, or knee pan,

P«lvis, Ijones of,

varieties of.

Periosteum . - »

Pharynx, ...

Physiology,

Pubes, or share-babe,

R

Radius, ...

Reproduction, organs of

in different animals.
Respiration, organs of . -

process of,

varieties of in animals,
Ribs,

Rotula, or knee-pan,
Running, how performed.
Rumination, nature oi^ - -

Sacrum,

Secretion, function and otgans.
Secretions, peculiar.
Sensation, organs of.

281
302
289

Ji).

ib.

ib.
2!«)

ib.

ib.

«..
291

ib.

519
279

ib.

ib.
314
294
295

283

281

ib.

295

315
il>.
285
302
288
286
ib.
282
304
290
286

287
.321
322
310
511
512
286
288
292
504

Senses, exUtnaJ,
internal,
Scapula, or blade-bone.
Seeing, scn.sc oC

varieties of,
Serons membrane,
Sini^itig of birds.
Skin, stiTi'iturc of.
Skull, interior of,

varieties of form,

«96
301
287
299

ib.
31S
514

ib.
284

ih.

Indec

Sleep, connected with nervous s; stem, 30'i

Smelling, sense of, . - 297

varieties of; . . 298

Sphenoidal Ixincs, - - 281

Spinal maiTow, - . 294

Spleen, structure and functions, 316

Standing, attitude of; - - 2.92

Sternum, or breastbone, - - 2H6

Stomach, ... 504—505

of ruminating animals, . 306

ofbiixls, • - ib.

Swinuning, motion oj; - - 293

Tarsus, bones <jf, . . -
Tasting, sense of,

varieties of.
Teeth, structure of, and varieties.
Temporal bones, . . .

Thighbone, . . .

Thorax, tones of,

varieties of.
Thoracic duct.

Tibia, or large bone of the leg.
Toes, boncS^ of.
Torpidity of animals,
Trunk, bones of, . . .

Ulna,

U

Vertebrae,

of the neck,
of the back,
of the loins.
Vertebral colujnn, varieties of,
Vision, nature of,
jierfcct,
imperfect.
Voice, organs of,

in dillereut animals.

286 W

314 Walking, how effected,

316 Windpipe,

393 Wrist, bones of,

288
2.97

ib.
308
285
288
286

ib.
310
288
288
312
285

287

285

ik.

ib.

ib.

ib.
500

ib.

ib.
315
514

2.92
510
287

Analeime. ANALCIME, a variety of the mineral substance
^^^--/'•^^ called Zeolite has received this name from its defi-
cient electric property. See MiKERALooy.

ANAXAGOllAS, an eminent philosopher of an-
cient Greece, who flourishtd about 500 years before
the Christian era. He is represented as a man of
rank and wealth in his native country, Ionia ; but
with an eager thirst after knowledge, he relinquished
the whole to his friends, and engaging in the pur-
suits of philosophy, " devoted himself wholly," as
Cicero expresses it, " to the divine pleasures of
learning and the investigation of truth." He repair-
«d to Athens ; became a disciple of the Ionian school

established by Thales, and spent 30 years of his life Anaxagw»s
in that celebrated city, either as a scholar or a '"*"
teacher of philosophy. Pericles, famous for his mi-
litary skill and martial prowess, and Euripides, the
tragic poet, were numbered among his pupils. But
the opinions of Anaxagoras were too refined for the
crude. notions which prevailed in the period when he
lived. He was charged with innovation in the doc-
trines of religion, and condenmed to death. By the
influence of Pericles, this sentence was commuted
into banishment. The sayings of the philosopher on
these transactions are recorded to have been the fol-
lowing : On the first, be observed, " Nature, long "jj

ANA

533

AN C

A nnximas-
dcr

.«
Annxiincncs

af»o, proneunced the same sentence against me ;"
and when a friend expressed regret on account of
lii8 exile, lie replied, «ith a consciousness of bis
own importance, which some may not unreasonably
be disposed to charge to self-conceit, " It is not I
who have lost the Athenians, but the Athenians who
have lost me." He died at Lampsacus, to which
place he retired after his expulsion from Athens ;
and, in commemoration of the sublime knowledge
which he taught, an altar was erected, on which the
words Trnth and Mind were inscribed.

The traditionary history of the philosophical doc-
trines of Anaxagoras is vague and contradictory.
But if it be true, as Cicero has asserted, that he first
taught, that " the arrangement and order of all
things were contrived and accomplished by the un-
derstanding and power of an infinite mind," no mean
opinion can be held of the extent of his intellectual
powers, the grandeur of his views, and the accuracy
of his reasonings and conclusions.

ANAXIMANDER, a Greek philosopher, who
flourished 600 years before Christ, was the disciple
and successor of Thales in the Ionic school, and is
said to have been the first of the Grecian philoso-
phers who taught in public, and delivered tiie prin-
ciples of his doctrines in writing. As a proof of the
progress of this philosopher in mathematical and as-
tronomical learning, the discovery of the obliquity
of the ecliptic, the invention of the sun-dial, and
the construction of an artificial globe, on which
were delineated the divisions of land and water, are
ascribed to him. He supposed that the stars are
■composed of air and fire, which are carried round in
their spheres by portions of a divine animating
power ; that the sun, which is 28 times larger than
the earth, occupies the highest place in the heavens ;
the moon holds the next, and the planets and fixed
stars the lowest, while the earth is stationed in the
common centre or middle of the universe. To infi-
nitu, concerning the precise meaning of which in-
quuy would be useless or unsatisfactory, Anaximan-
der attributed the first principles of all things, or the
origin of the universe. " All things are produced by
infinity, and all things terminate in it," was the ge-
neral expression of his doctrine. The followers of
this philosopher were denominated Anaximandrians.

ANAXIMENES, a Greek philosopher, flourished
about 556 years before Christ, and was the disciple
and successor of Anaximander in the celebrated Io-
nic school. Anaximenes ascribed the first principle
of all things to air, or a subtile aether, which is infi-
nite, immense, in perpetual motion, and animated by
a divine principle. From this air or aether, which
seems to be analogous to the moisture of Thales, and
bhe infinity of Anaximander, proceed fire, water, and
earth, by the process of rarefaction and condensa-
tion. The earth he supposed to be a body with a
flat surface, resting on the air, and the sun, moon,
and stars to be igneous masses.

ANBERTKEND, a word which, in some of the
oriental languages, has the expressive signification
of " the cistern which holds the water of life," is ap-
plied to a celebrated Brahrainical book containing
an exposition of the Hindoo religion and philosophy.
This work consists of fifly discourses, each of which

is divided into ten chapters ; and a translation from A&ccstor*
the original into the Arabic is designated " the mar- \\

row of intelligence." Anchor.

ANCESTORS, derived from a Latin word which
.signifies " to go before," denote those from whom a
person is descended in a direct line. The peculiar
marks of respect and honour, often approaching to a
kind of worship, bestowed on ancestors, forms a
striking feature in the character of different nations,
both ancient and modern. The veneration in which
the departed spirits of their ancestors were held by
the Romans, and the ceremonious duties performed
to their images, which were distinguished by the
name of /ares, lemures, or, household gods, are faniiliaf
to the classical reader. Impressed with similar sen-
timents, the Russians honour the memory of their
ancestors by the celebration of anniversary festivals,
under the appropriate name of hinsmatt's sabbaths,
when they make solemn visits to the tombs of the
dead, with offerings of provisions. Some of the
African tribes, believing that the spirits of theiri" a-
thers exercise a guardian care over their concerns,
undertake no affairs of importance without a previ-
ous sacrifice of rice and wine to conciliate their fa-
vour ; the groves, which are supposed to be the resi-
dence of these invisible protectors, are regarded as
peculiarly sacred, and no woman or child is permitted
to approach them. The Moors on the northern shores
of Africa shew great respect to their deceased friends.
Their tombs are kept clean and whitewashed; and to
small temples which are erected over the tombs they
resort on holidays, to offer up solemn supplications.
But the veneration paid to ancestors by the Chinese
is still of a more marked character. Private acts
of adoration, accompanied with offerings of perfumes
and spiceries, are performed at stated times, and so-
lemn festivals, which are held in spring and autumn,
are instituted by public authority in honour of their
ancestors. But the striking peculiarity in these ce-
remonious observances among the Chinese, is the in-
genious fiction of elevating their deceased relatives
to the same rank with their descendants, when the
latter are fortunate in attaining a higher station in
society than the former enjoyed, and according to
this rank the kind of worship to which they are con«
sidered as entitled is regulated.

ANCHISES, a Trojan prince, and the father of
ilLneas, who is celebrated by Virgil as the great pro-
genitor of the Roman people. According to fabu-
lous history, Venus, captivated with the personal
charms of Anchises, appeared to him under the as-
sumed character of a nymph, and bore him iEneas,
in whose perilous adventures she acted a conspicuous
part. At the destruction of Troy the aged Anchi-
ses was carried from the scene of desolation on the
shoulders of his son, and died in Sicily.

ANCHOR, a strong, heavy, and crooked instru-
ment, which is attached to a vessel by a rope or
cable, and is dropped to the bottom of the water ia
which a vessel floats, for the purpose of retaining it
in any station that is required. For the construction
of anchors, see Ship-building.

Anchor, to cast, is the act of letting go the an-
chor when a vessel is brought to the requisite sta-
tion ; riding at anchor , is when a vessel is secured ox

ANC

534

ANC

Anehor^ retained in a proper station ; weighing anchor, is the
II act of heaving up the anchor from the bottom when
Anvona. a vessel changes its station, an operation which is
performed hy means of the windlass in small vessels,
and by the power of the capstan, wrought by numer-
ous hands, m large sliips ; and svieeping an anchor is
performed by dragging a rope, the ends of which
are fastened to two boats, and the middle is sunk
with a weight, along the bottom where the an-
chor which has been detached from the cable is
supposed to lie, and in tliis way to discover and se-
cure it.

ANCHORAGE, the dut^ which is levied on ves-
sels for the privilege of commg to anchoring ground,
and is analogous to shore dues paid by vessels fre-
quenting a port or haven.

ANCHORET, a hermit, or solitarj' monk. See
Anachobet.

ANCHOVY, a species of clupea, which is very
abundant in many parts of the Mediterranean, and is
the source of an active and lucrative fishery. See
Ichthyology.

ANCHUSA, Alkanet, or Bugloss, a genus of
plants belonging to the Pentandria class. The root
of the anchnsa tinctoria communicates a fine red co-
lour to oily matters, and is, on account of this proper-
ty, employed in pharmacy as an ingredient in plasters
and ointments. This species is a native of the Le-
vant.

ANCIENT DEMESNE, a tenure by which all
Kianors belonging to the crown, in the time of Wil-
liam the Conqueror and St Edward, were held.
Their numbers and names were entered in Doomes-
day-Book. The tenants in ancient demesne are of
two kinds, one of which holds their lands by charter,
and the other by copy of court-roll, at the will of
the lord, according to the custom of the manor.
Tenants holding originally by this tenure were bound
to perform certain services for the maintenance of
the king's household ; and they were entitled to pe-
culiar privileges.

ANCISTRUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the Diandria class.

ANCLAM, an ancient sea-port town in the duchy
of Pomerania, and in the circle of Upper Saxony,
in Germany, is secured on one side by lofty walls
and deep moats, and on the other by a considerable
extent of marshy ground, interspersed with rich
meadows, which have been long celebrated for ex-
cellent pastures ; is the capital of a small territory ;
has manufactures of soap and silk stuffs, possesses
some trade ; and corn, wood, and glass-ware are
enumerated among the exports. N. Lat. 53. 50.
E. Long. 13. 42.

ANCONA, a province of Italy, with the title of
Marquisate, which is bounded by the gulf of Venice
■on the east, and is about 65 miles in length, and
nearly 50 miles in breadth. The soil, which is fer-
tile and well cultivated, produces abundance of
corn, wine, hemp, and wax. The province is wa-
tered by numerous streams ; the population ex-
ceeds 330,000 ; and Ancona, Ascoli, and Loretto,
•are some of its chief towns.

ANCONA, a flourishing sea-port town of Italy,
•nd capital of the marquisate of thefame name. Tra-

ditionary history ascribes its origin to a colony of
Syracusans, whom the tyranny of Dionysius drove
from their native country, 400 years before the
Christian era. Ancona afterwards fell under the
dominion of the Romans ; was highly favoured by
the emperor Trajan ; and, by the improvements and
benefits which it received from that prince, rose to
great commercial prosperity. A splendid triumphal
arch of beautiful marble was erected by the grate-
ful inhabitants to commemorate his name. Soon
after the commencement of the 18th century, An-
cona, by the liberal policy of the popes, was de-
clared a free port, with additional privileges ; but,
in 1797, it was seized by the French ; and in 1799
it was recovered by the allied forces of Austria,
Russia, and Turkey, after a sev^e siege and block-
ade.

Ancona presents a beautiful appearance when seen
from the sea ; some of its public edifices, particu-
larly the exchange, were distinguished by their mag-
nificence, but have been defaced or entirely demo-
lished by the rude and unsparing hands of the French
revolutionists ; the population amounts to '20,000,
and the chief exports are corn, wool, and silk. Ancona
is 107 miles N.N.E. from Rome, and in N. Lat. 43°
58', and E.Long. 13° 29'.

ANCUS MARTIUS, the fourth king of the Ro-
mans, and the grandson of Numa Pompilius, con-
tributed greatly to the power and prosperity of his
country, by the extension of its territory, and the
enlargement of the city, and died about 615 years
before the Christian era.

ANCYLE or ANCILE, a shield which it was
pretended fell from heaven in the time of Numa Pom-
pilius, and accompanied with a supernatural declara-
tion that Rome should continue the sovereign of the
world, as long as she retained this sacred gift. To
obviate the risk of its loss, eleven shields were made
exactly of the same form and appearance, and were
formally deposited in the temple of Vesta, under the-
superintendance of twelve priests who were appoint-
ed to that service ; and at the festival of the ancylia,
or the 1st of March, the twelve shields were carried
round the city in solemn procession.

ANDAI^USIA, a province of Spain, which is
bounded on the north by Estremadura and New Ca-
stile, by the Straits of Gibraltar and the Atlantic
ocean on the south, and by the Portuguese territory
on the west, is more than 300 miles in length and
about 150 miles in breadth, and is distinguished by
the fertility of its soil. This province is watered by
the Guadalquiver. Its productions are corn, wine,
oil, fruits of the richest kinds, sugar, barilla, and
silk. The horses of Andalusia are celebrated as the
best in Spain ; and the sheep afford wool of an ex-
cellent quality. Mines of quicksilver, lead, and
some other metals, have been discovered in the moun-
tains. The air of this province is temperate and
salubrious. The estimate of the population exceeds
1,200,000; Seville is the capital; and Cadiz, Cor-
dova, and Xeres de la Frontera, are ranked among
the chief towns.

ANDALUSIA, NEW, a district or division of
Terra Firma, in South America, which is included
under Spauisli Guiana.

Ancus

Andmlusia.

AND

535

AND

Andaman

Andero.

ANDAMAN ISLES, a cluster of islands in the
bay of Bengal, and opposite to the coast of Malacca,
two of which are distinguished by the name of Great
and Little Andaman, The Great Andaman is about
140 miles in length, and about 20 in breadth, the
coasts are deeply indented with creeks and arms of
the sea, some of which form excellent harbours ;
much of the surface is covered with thick forests,
among which ebony and the Nicobar bread-fruit
trees are abundant, and the most common quadrupeds
are rats, monkies, and wild hogs. The extent of the
Little Andaman is stated at 2,5 miles in length and
15 in breadth. During the wet season these islands
are exposed to incessant torrents of rain.

The inhabitants of the Andaman islands, the num-
ber of which is estimated at 2000, or 2500, are still
in a condition of extreme barbarity ; they depend
chiefly on fishing for their precarious subsistence, and
their huts, and implements, and utensils of every de-
scription, are of the rudest construction. They are
altogether without clothing, and cover their bodies
with a plaster of mud, which, being dried in the sun,
defends them from the troublesome attacks of insects.
They are generally of a diminutive stature, and their
flat noses, thick lips, and woolly hair, indicate, as
some suppose, their descent from an African race.
Of late years a British settlement, to which convicts
are transported from Bengal, has been established in
the Great Andaman.

ANDELY, Great and Little, two towns in
the department of Eure in France, the former situ-
ated on the banks of the Gambion, and the latter on
the Seine. The population is about 4-000. The
woollen manufactures, which were established in the
beginning of the fifteenth century, now afford active
employment to 1000 persons ; a copper foundery oo-
cupies the industry of another portion of the inhabi-
tants, and Andely deserves notice as the birth-place
of the celebrated painter Poussin.

ANDERAB, a rich and populous city of inde-
pendent Tartary, situated on a river of the same
name, and at the foot of the mountains which divide
India and Persia from Great Buckharia. The only
route to India is through this place. An oppressive
duty of four per cent, on all goods in their passage,
is a source of considerable revenue to the khan, or
ruler of the province. Lapis lazuli is a production of
the neighbouring mountams, and the scanty localities
of this beautiful and sparingly distributed mineral
have been magnified into the name of quarries.

ANDERNACH, the Anloniacum ot the Romans,
some of whose defensive works are still visible, is a
town of Germany, formerly belonging to the electorate
of Cologne, and, during the revolutionary extension
of theFrench territory, included under the department
of the Rhine and Moselle, is situated on the banks
of the Rhine ; has a considerable trade in pottery,
timber, and millstones, and derives an ample revenue
from the duties levied on vessels which navigate the
river, and particularly from tlie immense rafts of tim-
ber which are conveyed down the Rhine to Hol-
land-

ANDERO, Saint, or Santandeu, a sea-port
town of Spain, on the Bay of Biscay. The popula-
tion is estimated at 5000, a considerable propor-

tion of whom are engaged in successful commerce : A»d«f«>«>
the harbour admits vessels of moderate burden, but
the access to it is not very commodious ; and the
establishment of a royal dock-yard for building ships
for the Spanish navy is now abandoned. N. Lat. ■iS''.
27'. W.Long. 4-°.

ANDERSON, Alexander, an eminent ma-
thematician, and an assiduous student of ancient ge-
ometry, who flourished about the beginning of the
seventeenth century, was a native of Aberdeen, in
Scotland, and in early life removed to Paris, where
he became a teacher of mathematics. Mr Anderson
was the author, or editor, of various works on the
subjects of his favourite pursuits, chiefly relating to
the more profound disquisitions of the ancient geo-
meters ; and in the latter character he published the
works of V'ieta, a celebrated French mathematician,
to which he not only furnished an able preface, de-
dication, and appendix, but, by his learned commen-
taries, supplied what was defective, and illustrated
what was obscure. The works now alluded to ap-
peared between the years 1612 and 1619, But the
scanty biography of this distinguished mathematician
is equally silent in reference to the time of his death,
and to the exact period of his birth.

A remarkable coincidence of kindred genius ex-
isted in the family of Anderson. His brother David,
the proprietor of Finzaugh, a small estate in Aber-
deenshire, was no mean proficient in mathematical
and mechanical knowledge ; and the daughter of
David Anderson, who married the Reverend John.
Gregory of Drumoak, in the same county, was the
mother of James Gregory, the inventor of the reflec-
ting telescope. To the tuition of this lady, with
what truth we know not, is ascribed that strong bias
to abstract investigations, which seemed to become
hereditary in her family, and continued long to as-
sociate the name of Gregory with the sublime de-
partments of mathematical science.

ANDERSON, John, a learned philologist and
naturalist, was descended from a Swedish family,
who had settled in Hamburgh, and was born in that,
city in the year 1674'. His early life was assiduous-
ly devoted to the acquisition of languages ; and his
knowledge of the Greek tongue was so profound and
familiar, that when he travelled in Holland in the
train of Peter the Great of Russia, the learned men
of that country regarded him as a native of Greece.
He was originally destined for the church, but his
own inclination led him to the study of law, which
he practised for some time as a profession after his re-
turn to his native city. For several years he execut-
ed the office of a public functionary of Hamburgh,
was engaged in various political negociations, and in
] 732 was raised to the dignity of chief magistrate.
But the laborious duties of an active citizen did not
altogether preclude him from the cultivation of
science, and an occasional correspondence with Leib-
nitz, and other learned men. His death happened
in 174'3, and he left behind him various manu-
scripts on subjects of philology and political econo-
my ; but he is Ijest knowii as the author of A Na-
tural Historu of Iceland and Greenland, which ap-
peared orignially in the German language, and was
afterwards translated into French. He contributed li-

AND

556

AND

Anderson, berally to the enlargement and improvement of a pub-
lic museum of natural history, which was established
by his father at Hamburgh.

ANDERSON, Adam, author of a work on com-
merce, was a native of Scotland, which, it would ap-
pear, he had left in early life, lor he was long em-
ployed as a clerk in the South-Sea House, was after-
wards promoted to the office of chief clerk of the
Stock and New Annuities, and was appointed a trustee
for csublishing the colony of Georgia in America.
In fulfilling the duties of the dilltrent situations
which he held, his attention was probably directed to
the consideration of those topics which form the sub-
ject of his Historical and Chronological Deduction of
'Trade and Commerce, which was published in 1762,
a very elaborate work, and the only literary production
by which he is known. He died in 1775.

ANDERSON, Dr James, a distinguished writer
on rural attairsandsomebranchesof political economy,
was born at Hermanston, a village near Edinburgh,
in the year 1739, and was destined when very young,
in consequence of the death of his parents, to the
occupation and management of a small farm which had
continued for several generations in the possession of
the family. Guided by his own sagacity, or directed
by the advice of friends, he saw the importance of ge-
neral knowledge in conducting the complicated bu-
siness of husbandry, and, among other acquirements,
he bestowed a large share of his attention on che-
mistry, which he studied assiduously under the ce-
lebrated Cullen. At the age of fifteen he entered
on active life, remained a few years on the posses-
sion long held by his ancestors, and removed to a
large farm in Aberdeenshire, on which he resided
for twenty, years. In 1771 his Essays on Planting
appeared periodically in the Edinburgh Weekly Ma-
gazine, under the signature of Agricola, and were
published, in 1777, in a collected form. In 1780, he
received from the University of Aberdeen, the hono-
rary title of Doctor of Laws, and three years after-
wards he returned to the vicinity of Edinburgh.
A pamphlet, on the subject of the North British Fish-
eries, which he circulated among his friends, attract-
ed tiie notice of Government, and, under the autho-
rity of the Lords of the Treasury, he surveyed, in
1784', the western coast of Scotland, with a view to
the improvement of the fisheries and other depart-
ments of internal economy ; and in the succeeding
year, the substance of his Report of the Survey was
published.

After the lapse of a few years, the literary labours
of Dr Anderson took a wider range, when he com-
menced the Bee, a periodical work, which appeared
in 1791, in weekly numbens, and swelled out to
eighteen volumes 8vo, an unusual magnitude for such
undertakings. But when it is known that a large
proportion of its multifarious disquisitions were con-
tributed by.hiraself, further proof is not needed of
the various acquirements and laborious industry of
the author.

Dr Anderson fixed his residence in the neighbour-
hood of London, in 1797; and in 1799, he under-
took another periodical work, under the title of Re-
creations in Agriculture, Natural HiUory, Sfc. which
he continued, by furnishing 4 considerable share from

the store.* of his own mind, till six volumes 8vo were
completed. This was his last literary production,
with the exception of Selections from his Corre-
spondence with General Washington, and a pamph-
let on the Causes and Means of obviating the Scar-
city of Grain in Britain. After this publication
ceased in 1802, the only subjects which seem to have
occupied the attention of Dr Anderson, in his retreat
at Isleworth, were the construction of a hot-house
without artificial heat, experiments to determine the
lieat and moisture most suitable for different plants,
and the means of destroying wasps to jirevent their
depredations ou fruits. The method suggested by
Dr Anderson, for the extermination of these destruc-
tive insects, was to discover and destroy the queens
before they deposited their eggs in the early summer
months; and for tiiis purpose an association was formed
and rewards ofl'ered for every queen wasp presented
within a limited period. But the plan was either
defective in its principle, or it was not pursued
with sufficient zeal and perseverance ; for it is not
understood that the ravages of the wasp in that neigh-
bourhood have at all diminished.

For some years previously to the close of life, Dr
Anderson began to feel the infirmities of declining
health. He died in October 1808, in the 69th year
of his ago. Of thirteen children, by his first wife,
five sons and a daughter only survived him; and one
of his sons, who became eminent as an engraver on
wood, has since terminated his mortal career. His
second wife was a widow lady in Isleworth.

Beside the works already noticed, Dr Anderson
was the author of numerous productions, chiefly re-
lating to rural economy, as well as of various me-
moirs on kindred topics, which appeared in periodi-
cal publications. All his writings bear the stamp of
a vigorous understanding and a well-informed mind.
The charge of prolixity which has sometimes been
made is not altogether groundless ; and some of his
speculations may be pronounced fanciful, as in his
treatise on peat-moss, which he attempts to prove de-
rives its origin from the growth and increase of a liv-
ing vegetable, and not from the decay of dead plants,
according to the generally received and obvious opi-
nion. Dr Anderson's claim to the discovery of the
new mode of draining, for which a parliamentary re-
ward was granted to Mr Elkington, has been stated
in the chapter on Draining, under Agricultuke.

ANDES, a chain of mountains in South America,
which, by their vast extent and immense height, ex-
ceed every other elevated ridge in the Old World.
This mountainous range stretches more than 4-000
miles from the straits of Magellan, in the 53d degree
of south latitude to the isthmus of Darien, which lies
in the 8th degree of north latitude, and preserving a
mean distance about HO or 150 miles, runs nearly
parallel to the western shores of the American con-
tinent. The chief information relative to the Andes
is derived from the Academicians who visited these
lofty regions in 1736, and more recently from the
enterprising exertions of the adventurous and inde-
fatigable Prussian Traveller, Humboldt, whose scien-
tific descriptions have in some degree rendered Euro-
peans familiar with the surprising features of vliis por-
tiou of the New World.

Amies.

AND

Wt

AND

A«J-t. Dniuom of the Andes The great mountainous

chain of the Andes presents * )mtural division into a
principal and three siibordin;itc ridges. The princi-
pal ridge runs IVom south to nortli. the whole length
of South America, and the three subordinate branch-
es pass oil from the main trunk, nearly at right
angles-, penetrate far inland, in an easterly direction,
and divide that wide continent into three immense
vallies.

The grand primary ridge of the Andes divides to the
southward of Cucn/.a, and continues double to the
northward of Popayan, a distance of 500 miles ; and in
this double ridge is included the elevated plain of Qui-
to. The western ridge in this part of its course is
about 120 miles from the shores of the Pacific ocean.
This long valley rarely exceeds the breadth of 20
miles, and in some places it is nuich narrower ; but a
fertile,wetl cultivated, and populous plain, raised to the
astonishing elevation of between 8000 and 9000 feet
above the level of the sea, presents a striking feature
in the wonderful scenery of the American continent.
As the principal mountains of the double ridge ap-
proach or recede from each other, they form small
vallies, some of which are distinguished as the station
of diiferent towns or cities, as Cuenza, Riobamba,
Latacunga, and Quito.

Principal mountains. — The lofty summits of the
principal mountains of this portion of the Andes,
which are invested with perpetual snow, exhibit an-
other grand feature in the New World. Pinchinca,
contiguous to the city of Quito, on the north, and,
in a southward direction, Corazon, Ilinissa, Carguay-
raso, and, the loftiest of the whole, Chimborazo,
are the chief mountains of the western ridge ; and
Cayamburo, Antisana, Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, Al-
tair, and Sangai, form the highest summits of the
mountainous boundary on the east and south.

Pinchinca. — This mountain has acquired scientific
celebrity from being the station selected by one par-
ty of the academicians, who were engaged in 1736 in
measuring a degree of the meridian. It is a volcanic
mountain, and its crater, when visited by Condamine
at the time alluded to, was extinct, and covered with
snow ; but in 1802, when it was examined by Hum-
boldt, symptoms of activity appeared. On a rock
projecting from the side of the crater, that adven-
turous traveller took his station to survey the dread-
ful gulf below. The mouth of the volcano presents
a circular opening not less than a league in circum-
ference. The interior of this huge excavation is dark
and gloomy ; but within its black walls the peaks of
several mountains of inferior magnitude are distinct-
ly seen. The observations of Humboldt fix the height
of Pinchinca, above the level of the sea, to be about
15,000 feet.

The academicians, during their stay in this eleva-
ted station, experienced all the horrors of winter,
with the rapid and singular contrast of an occasional
glimpse of sunshine. The field-tents, which had hi-
therto served for their accommodation, were here al-
together insufficient to protect them from the seve-
rity of the cold, or to resist the fury of the tempest.
The whole party crowded into a single small hut, and,
to supply them with liglit and heat, lamps were kept
burning day and night. The wind blew with dread-

VOL. 1. PART I.

ful violence, and the accumulated fogs became so
dense as to veil them at noon in the darkness of
midnight. Sometimes the scerte changed ; the thick
mists were seen collecting in regions far below them;
the lightnings flashed through the dark clouds ; and
the distant roar of the thunder re-echoed i'rom the
surrounding mountains ; while the air resumed its se-
renity, and the sun's rays darted a clieering influence
on their dreary abode. But this was only a tempo-
rary cessation of the storm. The fogs again return-
ed and gathered around denser and darker ; the wind
blew with redoubled rage ; and the showers of hail
and snow were almost incessant. In the midst of this
tempestuous war of elements, the danger of being
overwhelmed under a thick mass of snow, or of be-
ing swept down the precipice by the fury of the
blast, alternately presented itself. Tlie severity of
the cold produced violent effects on the bodies of the
travellers ; their feet became inflamed and swelled,
so that they could not walk without great pain ; and
the lips also inflamed, swelled, and bled, witli the
slightest motion.

Chimborazo. — Chimborazo rears its snowy head to
the greatest height of all the mountains of the ele-
vated ridge of the Andes. No traveller has yet
reached its summit. The enterprising Humboldt, by
pursuing his ascent along a ridge of volcanic rocks
which were free from snow, was not more than 1400
feet from its loftiest pinnacle. Arriving at the altitude
of 18,000 feet, his respiration was uneasy and labori-
ous, fr*n the thinness of the air ; but, determined to
accomplish his arduous and unparalleled undertaking,
he was not deterred from proceeding, till a deep and
impassable fissure, which crossed his path, precluded
his fartlier progress, and forced him to abandon it in
despair. In this dreary region of perpetual winter,
no living sound was heard ; all was melancholy, dismal,
and silent ; the scanty productions of vegetable life
were limited to diminutive mosses ; and the few ra3's
of light, which occasionally penetrated the thick fogs,
unveiled the horrors of tlie yawning abysses around.
Scorified rocks and masses of pumice-stone, which were
observed on different parts of the mountain, are con-
sidered as indications of volcanic agency; but no re-
cords are preserved of Chimbora/o having been in a
state of activity. The height of this mountain, esti-
mated by the trigonometrical measurement of Hum-
boldt, is stated at 3267 toises, or a little more than
20,000 feet.

Antisana. — In attempting to reach the summit of
Antisana, Humboldt arrived at a higher point than
the academicians. Having ascended more than
16,000 feet above the level of the sea, the air was so
much rarified that the blood burst out from different
parts of his face ; all his attendants were seized with
extreme debihty, and one of them actually fell into
a fainting fit. The Ijarometer had sunk to 14 inches
and 7 lines. Antisana, which is one of the mountains
of the eastern ridge, is volcanic.

Cotopaxi. — Cotopaxi, the seat of another volcano,
belongs to the eastern range ; and its altitude, accord-
ing to Condamine, falls little short of 1 8,0(X) feet. The
first eruption of this volcano, of which any record is
preserved, coincided nearly with the time of the Spa-
nish invasion, and, it is said, facilitated the conquest
u u

An^es,

AND

338

AND

Andct of that devoted country, in consequence of a predic-
tion, current among the natives, that the period was
now arrived when their land should be occupied by
strangers ; and regarding that natural event as a warn-
ing signal of the dreaded calamity, yielded up their
■ territory an easy prey to their rapacious invaders.
After the lapse of more than 200 years, indications
of an approaching eruption were observed ; and in
17+3, when the flames burst out from various open-
ings near the summit, they were immediately suc-
ceeded by a prodigious torrent of water, which
swept off detached cottages, towns, and villages, in its
irresistible course, and carried devastation and ruin
far and wide. After'a few days the torrent of water
ceased to flow ; but the flames, which continued
longer, were accompanied with a tremendous noise,
which was supposed to proceed from the violent
rushing of the wind through the new openings of
the mountain. Might it not, with more probability,
be ascribed to the sudden conversion of a large quan-
tity of water into vapour ?

Sangai is another volcanic mountain, included in
the double range, and is remarkable for the fright-
ful sounds which are distinctly heard at the distance
of 30 or 40 leagues, when it is in a state of activity.
Aitair and some others are also the seat of volca-
noes ; and Tunguragua, long celebrated for its hot
springs, is the frequent resort of invalids from the
surrounding country to enjoy the benefit of warm-
bathing. The character of the American vplcanoes
is very different from those of Europe in tiie nature
of the ejected matters. Immense torrents of mud
and water take place of the ashes and lava which are
discharged by the latter ; and, what is not the least
singular fact connected with the history of the vol-
canic eruptions of the New World, a particular kind
of fish, to which Humboldt has given the name of
pimelodus cyclopum, are sometimes thrown out in
great numbers along with the mud and water. The
origin of these fish, which has been the subject of
speculation, is probably to be sought for in some of
the lakes or rivers in the vicinity which have a com-
munication with the excavated regions of the moun-
tains by means of the numerous fissures by which
they are traversed, or by temporary openings pro-
duced by earthquakes, which often accompany vol-
canoes.

Subordinate ridges. — Three subordinate branches,
or cordiUeras, according to the Spanish appellation,
pass off from the grand primary chain of the Andes.
Thcfrsl branch, in tracing the great ridge from south
to north, is the cordillera of Chiquitos, which tra-
verses a province of the same name. Proceeding
in its course eastward, this subordinate ridge forms
a sweep between the 15th and 20th degree of south
latitude, and connects, by a mountainous chain, that
portion of the Andes which is contiguous to Chili
and Peru on the west, with the elevated regions of
Brazil and Paraguay on the east. The tributary
streams of the La Plata flow down the southern side
of this ridge ; numerous rivers, which swell the wa-
ters of the Maragnon, have their sources on its
northern declivity ; and the Pampas, a dead flat, of
immense extent, formed to a great depth of alluvial
soil, and clothed with a luxuriant growth of tall

coarse grass, which feeds innumerable multitudes of
wild cattle, stretches to the southward of the cordil-
lera of Chiquitos.

The middle branch, which is sent off from the
principal ridge of the Andes, has been denominated
by Humboldt the cordillera of the cataracts of the Oro-
noco. Of this elevated tract 600 miles were survey-
ed by that enterprising traveller ; but the greater
part of the chain consists of inaccessible regions,
which are very little known. When it leaves the
main ridge, the course is nearly eastward ; about the
fifth degree of north latitude it crosses the Oronoco,
and takes a north-east direction towards the source
of the river Caronis. Between the fourth and fifth
degree the breadth is greatly diminished ; and stretch-
ing to the south and south-east, joins the granitic
mountains of Guiana. The scanty information which
has been obtained concerning these extensive wilds,
is derived from the singular adventures of a Spaniard,
who, being familiar with the language of the different
native tribes, assumed the Indian garb, travelled un-
suspected among the ferocious inhabitants, and hav-
ing reached the lake of Parime and the Amazons
river, returned in safety. The fabled account of El
Dorado, or the golden mountain, which had long
gratified the credulity of ignorance, was corrected
and explained by his observations, from which it ap-
pears, that this far-famed mountain, which stands
on the banks of the Mao, a tributary stream of the
Oronoco, is composed chiefly of a shining micaceous
schistus. The mean altitude of this chain is about
4000 feet above the level of the sea ; but Duida, a
volcanic mountain, and the highest of the whole
ridge, rears its lofty head to more than 8000 feet.
This cordillera is most abrupt and precipitous on the
south ; and through the valley, of which this chain
forms the northern boundarj', and which is covered
with impenetrable forests, the Maragnon rolls its
mighty stream.

The most northerly of the secondary branches, is
the highest and the narrowest. It passes off from
the Andes near Popayan, proceeds in a northerly
course towards the Caribbaean sea, approaching the
lake Maracaybo, turns suddenly to the east, and ad-
vances along the coast to Trinidad. Some of the
mountains of this subordinate ridge are remarkable
for their elevation. The Sierra Nevada, or, as its
name imports, snowy summit of St Martha, in 10*
of north latitude, rises to the height of nearly H.OOO
feet above the level of the sea ; and the altitude of
the Sierra Nevada of Merida, in north latitude 81°,
exceeds 15,000; and although they are covered with
perpetual snow, springs of boiling sulphureous water
continually flow from their sides. From that part of
the chain which stretches between Merida and its ter-
mination near Trinidad, two parallel ridges branch off,
and form the boundaries of three vallies of unequal
elevation, which are ai'ranged from east to west, and
seem to have been the beds of ancient lakes. The
valley of the Caraccas, measured by Humboldt, ba-
rometrically, is more than 2500 feet above the level
of the sea ; the valley of Aragua is lower, and is esti-
mated at 1300 feet; while the valley or plain of Mo-
nai rises only about 500 or 600 feet above the sur-
face of the ocean. Another lofty part of this chain

An<l«t.

AND

539

AND

Aadei.

is what is denominated the Silla or Saddle of the
Caraccas, whose height determined by Humboldt,
by barometrical observations, exceeds 8000 feet ; but
the mean altitude of the whole cordillera is between
4000 and 5000 feet.

Mineral prodttctinns. — The mineral riches of this
remarkable portion of the trlobe roused the avarice
of the Spaniards, and urged them, through blood and
carnage, to the subjugation, and in many places the
utter extermination of the native inhal)itauts. With
the exception of lead, the Andes are the repositories
of almost every other metal ; but of the precious
metals silver has been always the most abundant,
and still affords a large annual supply to the Spanish
treasury.

The rocks which compose the stupendous- ridges
of the Andes, belong partly to the primary, and
partly to the secondary class ; granite, quartz, mica-
ceous, and argillaceous schistus, are the prevailing
rocks, in a large proportion both of the principal
and subordinate chains. In some places the primi-
tive rocks are covered with sand-stone, lime-stone,
and small patches of gypsum. But the geological
constitution of the central Andes exhibits peculiari-
ties in the immense thickness of the strata, which
find no counterpart in any other part of the world.
The loftiest summits of the principal ridge are en-
tirely composed of porphyry, which is distributed in
enormous masses of more than 10,000 feet thick ;
the thickness of a stratum of sand-st<me is stated at
5000 feet, and that of a huge mass of pure quartz
exceeds 9000 feet ; and the basalt of Pinchinca is
deposited at an elevation exceeding 15,000 feet,
which is 10,000 feet higher than any locality of that
kind of rock yet discovered in the Old World.

Fissures The Andes are not more distinguished

from the raountair^s of other parts of the globe by
their great extent and elevation, than by the remark-
able fissures with which they are traversed. Perpen-
dicular rents or fissures are not uncoumion in basal-
tic regions. Hooker, who visited Iceland in 1809,
mentions various chasms wliich he met with in that
rugged countr}', one oi' which In; describes as 200
feet high, and about 20 yards broad. Through this
chasm the traveller passes in his progress to one
quarter of the island. But the rocky chasms of Ice-
land, with all their horrors, dwhidle into tameness
and insignificance, when compared with the tremend-
ous rents of the Andes, some of which ai-c nearly a
mile in depth. Some of these fissures have natural
bridges, which attbrd an easy communication to the
traveller. A bridge of this description, which con-
nects the two sides of a rent called Icononzo, and
through which a river flows from the mountains, is
50 feet long, iO feet broad, and at its middle part
about eight feet in thickness. The height of this
arch above the surface of the stream is not less than
300 feet, and about 60 feet a smaller arch, consist-
ing of three masses of stone, is projected over the
same fissure. The Peruvians sometimes form a com-
munication with the opposite sides of these rents, by
means of hanging bridges, constructed of ropes, ma-
nufactured from the strong fibres of the American
aloe, and covered with reeds ; and to reader them

2

more secure, a border of a kind of basket work is
sometimes added.

Climate. — Every variety of climate prevails in the
Andes. Perpetual spring reigns in the lower regions,
and the glowing influence of a vertical sun produces
the gayest and most luxuriant vegetation ; the dreary
abode of winter is for ever fixed in the loftier sum-
mits, from which all vegetable and animal hfe is ex-
cluded ; while the intermediate regions present all
the diversified shades of the milder and more tempe-
rate portions of the earth.

The line of perpetual snow, or that point where
it freezes during some part of every day throughout
the whole year, is at the height of about 15,000 feet
above the level of the sea, under the equati r ; and
it has this peculiarity, that the uniformity of tempe-
rature which prevails in these regions, preserves this
line always at the same height. — The reader's trouble
will be amply rewarded, by the acquisition of much
curious information concerning these stupendous
mountains, in the perusal ot Ulloa's Travels in South
America, and of the later work of Humboldt on the
same subject.

ANDOVER, a borough town of Hampshire, in
England, with a population exceeding 3000, has some
trade in malt, and a manufocture of shalloon ; is not-
ed for its excellent inns, and the traces of Roman
encampments which are still visible in the vicinity.
Andover is on the great road between Exeter and
Plymouth, and is about 65 miles west from London^
and 18 miles E. N. E. from Salisbury.

ANDRACHNE, or Base Orpine, is a genus of
plants belonging to the Monoecia class.

ANDRENOVIAN ISLANDS, a group of islands
forming part of the chain which is included under the
general denomination of Aleutian islands, and whicl)
stretches between the western shores of America and
the eastern continent of Asia in the Northern ocean.
See Aleutian Islands.

ANDREW, the Apostle, the son of Jonas, and
the brother of Simon Peter, was a native of Betli-
saida in Galilee, followed the occupation of a fisher-
man, and had been a disciple of .John the Baptist.
Convinced of the divine mission of Christ, in conse-
quence of the miraculous draught of fishes, they for-
sook tlieir employment to preach and propagate his
doctrine. After the ascension of Jesus Christ, the
apostles determined by lot to what countries their la-
bours should be severally directed. The apostle
Andrew was appointed to Scythia and the adjoining
regions ; and proceeding on his destined mission, he
journeyed through various parts of Greece, and had
reached Patra, a city of Achaia, then a Roman pro-
vince, where he was apprehended by the command of
the governor, severely scourged, and condemned to
the death of the cross, the form of which is said to have
been that of the letterX, and hence called St Andrew's
cross. Bound with cords instead of being fastened
with nails, he lingered two days in this painful situ-
ation before he expired. He suffered martyrdom on
the 30th November, the day on which his festival is
celebrated in those churches in which such observ-
ances are attended to ; but the year is undetermined.
His body was afterwards removed by the Emperor

Asdes.

AND

540

AND

Andrewi. Constantine to the great church at Constantinople,
which he erected in honour of the apostles.

ANDREWS, James Pettit, a historian and
miscellaneous author, was a native of Berkshire in
England, and was born in the year 1737, spent part
of his early life in the militia regiment of his own
county, and was afterwards appointed a commission-
er of police in London, the duties of which he faitli-
fully discharged till his death. The first of his liter-
ary productions was a biographical sketch of his
friend and relation, Mr Penrose, to an edition of
whose poems, published in 1781, it v.as prefixed as
a prefatory discourse. A pamphlet in behalf of
Chinmey-sweepcrs Apprentices, exposing the cruel-
ty and barbarit)' of their treatment, which aj)peared
in 1788, was followed in the succeeding year by An-
ecdotes Ancient and Modem, and by his History of
Great Britain, connected inth the Chronology of Eu-
rope, 2 vols. 4to. in 1794' and 1795 ; which latter is
the most elaborate work of the author, and is con-
ducted on a peculiar plan, which is well calculated
to exhilMt a chronological view of European history.
While the history of England is detailed on one page,
the opposite page, presents a brief notice of the more
important cotemporary events of the principal nations
of Europe ; and longer narratives of the state of
government, manners, literature, and science, are oc-
casionally interposed in the form of appendix. The
work commences with the period of the Roman in-
vasion of Britain, and terminates with the accession
of Edward VI. INIr Andrews published, in 1796, a
continuation of Henry s History of Britain, in one ito
volume. Beside the works now enumerated, which
aiTord ample proof of industry and if search, he was
the author of various literary productions of a more
fugitive nature. Mr Andrews died in August 1797,
in the 60th year of his age.

ANDREWS, St., an ancient borough and sea-
port town of Fifeshire, in Scotland, and the seat of
the oldest of the four Scottish universities, stands
on a rocky promontory at the bottom of a bay of the
same name, and on the south side of the frith of
Tay.

Origin and Antiquities According to the tradi-
tionary legend, Regulus, a Greek monk, warned by
a vision from heaven to preach the gospel to the
Picts of Britain, left his native country towards the
end of the ^th century, and having encountered a
tempestuous voyage, was ship^vrecked in the bay of
St Andrews. But the Pictish king received the saint
hospitabi}-, embraced Christianity along with many
of his subjects, gave him one of his royal palaces for
a residence, and built a church bearing the name of
St Regulus or St Rule, from that of the saint; and
to which it is said, but surely with little probability,
that part of the walls, and the tower, which is 20
feet square and 103 feet in height, yet remaining,
and still a -solid structure, belonged. The name of
St Andrews is derived from the relics of the apostle
Andrew, which Regulus brought with him into the
. country ; and when the Picts were subdued by the
Scots, the seat of government was transferred, in
840, from Abernethy, the capital of the Pictish king-
dom, to »St Andrews.

Tlie priory, to which great privileges and rich re- Andrews,
venues were annexed, was founded in 1120. But,
excepting the surrounding wall, scarcely any other
-vestiges remain. The piety of succeeding ages ex-
tended the religious establishments of St Andrews by
the erection of two convents, of whicii the only re-
mains are part of a chapel, which is deservedly ad-
mired as a fine specimen of Gothic architecture.
The cathedral church, begun in 1159, was not final-
ly completed till 157 years had elapsed, and was de-
molished by the misguided fury of the populace, in-
flamed by a sermon of the great reformer Jolm
Knox against idolatry, exactly at the end of four
centuries from the commencement of the edifice.
The mouldering remains of the east and west ends
and part of the south wall, present to the contem-
plative mind a melancholy contrast with its former
magnificence. St Andrews was erected into an arch-
biehoprick after the middle of the 15th century, and
continued the seat of the primate of Scotland during
the episcopal establishment.

The castle, of which little now remains, was built
in the 12th century, on a rock projecting into the
sea, and was long conspicuous in Scottish history.
It was the usual residence of the prelates of St An-
drews, the birth place of James III. of Scotland, and
the bloody scene of the murder of Cardinal Beaton,
by a party of the covenanters, which was regarded
as an act of retributive justice for his cruelty in con-
demning to the stake George Wishart, a protestant
reformer, and witnessing from a window, which is
still pointed out, the execution of the horrid sen-
tence.

University — The university of St Andrews, found-
ed by Bishop Wardlaw in 1411, incKided formerly
three colleges : 1. St Salvator"s, founded by Bishop

Leonard's, founded by
3. St Mary's, or the

Kennedy in 1458 ; 2. St
Prior Hepburn in 1522; and.

New College, from its later erection, begun by James
and David Beaton, and finally estabhshed by Arch-
bishop Hamilton, in 1553. St Salvator's and St Leo-
nard's colleges were conjoined in 1747 under the
name of the United College ,- and the buildings of
the latter were sold and converted to private use.
Divinity, Church history, and Oriental languages
only are taught in St Mary's college ; but in the
United College, beside the ancient languages, the
usual academical courses of philosophy are deliver-
ed. The number of students in both colleges rarely
exceeds a hundred. The church of St Salvator is
adorned with a fine Gothic tomb consecrated to the
memory of the founder. In this tomb, as tradition
reports, six maces of magnificent workmanship, sup-
posed to have been secreted for preservation in times
of civil dissension, were found concealed about the
end of the 17th century, one of whicli was present-
ed to each of the other three Scottish universities,
and the remaining three were retained.

Modern state. — The situation of St Andrews, on a
steep, projecting promontory, with a fertile country
to the westward, and extensive downs, or links, on
the north and south, is striking and picturesque ;
and buildings, venerable from antiquity, or ruined
towers, rearingtheir crumbling heads among edifices

A N D

241

A N E

Long. 2° 50', and 38 miles N. E.

Amlicws of modern form and construction, cxliibit altogether
I) a singular feature in its character. The three prin-

AndroiHcda. cipal streets, which run from east to west, are inter-
' seated by sn\aller lanes. The buildings of the Philo-
sophy, or United college, are in North Street ; and
those appropriated to St Mary's, or the Divinity col-
lege, are in South Street. This town was erected
by David I. ia 11 tO, into a royal borough ; and the
charter of Malcolm II. written on a small slip of
parchment, is still preserved.

With a population not much exceeding 3000, ma-
nufactures must be limited. The making of golf-balls
employs a few liands ; and in 1793 the manufacture
of sailcloth, of a particular fabric for strength and
durability, was introduced by Mr Dempster, the in-
ventor, who obtained a patent for his improvement.
At one period the trade of St Andrews was consider-
able ; but it has now declined, and the few vessels be-
longing to the port are employed in the coasting
trade. In comparing the present state with the
more splendid and flourishing periods of its history,
it has been stated that 70 bakers were required to
supply it with bread, while nine or ten in the pre-
sent day are quite adequate to the demand. Archery
once .flourished, but has now gone into disuse; and
golf and foot-ball are now said to be the chief amuse-
ments of the inhabitants. It is curious to observe,
that the two latter games were formally prohibited by
an act of the legislature in the time of James II., as
hurtful and unprofitable. St Andrews is in N. Lat.
56° 19', and in W. "
from Edinburgh.

ANDREWS, St. or Andre's, St. an island in
the Caribba;an sea, opposite to the province of Ni-
caragua in Mexico, and remarkable for the magni-
tude of the cedar trees, and not less so for the ab-
sence of birds and beasts from the land, and fish from
the rivers ; an assertion which has probably proceed-
ed from careless or inaccurate observation, and re-
quires farther investigation to be fully verified.

ANDROIDES, a machine in the human form,
•which, by means of mechanical contrivances, per-
forms the motions or actions of man ; such were the
flute-player of M. Vaucanson, and the chess-player
of M. De Kempelen, which were exhibited some
years ago in different parts of Europe, and more
lately the figure of a young lady which plays the
forte-piano, the magician, and some others, construc-
ted by M. Maillardet, a most ingenious Swiss arti-
san. See Automaton.

ANDROMEDA, according to fabulous history,
was the daughter of Cepheus, a king of Ethiopia; and
Cassiopeia, the mother, vain of her beauty, thought
herself entitled to be preferred to Juno or the Ne-
reids ; Neptune, as a punishment, inundated the
kingdom, and let loose a sea-monster to ravage the
country. The response of the oracle declared, that
the calamity could only be averted by exposing An-
dromeda to be devoured by the monster. She was
chained to a rock, delivered by Perseus, afterwards
became his wife, and was translated to the heavens
by Minei-va.

ANDROMEDA, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere, near Cassiopeia and Perseus, the body
of which is distinguished by three brilliant stars dis-

posed in the form of an arch, and nearly equi-distant iLnfcphagJ
from each other. ')

ANDROMEDA, or Marsh Cistus, a genus of Anf^rism.
plants belonging to the Decandria class, of which
one beautiful species, polifolia, is a native of marshy
places in Britain.

ANDROPHAGI, an appellation of similar im-
port with Anthropophagi, or man-eaters, according to
the Greek derivation, was applied, by some ancient
writers, to a nation contiguous to Scythia. It has
been found to be the practice of many barbarous na-
tions to drink the blood and to eat a portion of the
flesh of their enemies taken in war ; but otherwise
the name is not strictly applicable to any race of hu-
man beings who subsist on the bodies of their own
species.

ANDROPOGON, or Man's Beard, a genus oC
plants belonging to the Polygamia class.

ANDROS, or Andro, one of the ancient Cyc-
lades, or cluster of islands in the Archipelago, is
conspicuous in history on account of the inhabitants
joining the Persians when Xerxes invaded Greece ;
of their resistance to the Athenians : of their conquest
by Alexander the Great, and of their submission to
the Roman dominion. This island, which is about
90 miles in circumference, is now subject to the
Turks ; some parts are mountainous, but the plains
are well watered and fertile; it produces grain, wine,
and oil, honey, wax, cotton, and fruits ; the popula-
tion, distributed into numerous villages throughout
the island, is about 12,000; and it is in N. Lat. 37°
50* and E. Long. 25" 25'.

ANDROSACE, a genus of plants belonging to
the Pentandria class.

ANDRYALA, or Downy Sow-thistle, a genus
of plants belonging to the Syngenesia class.

ANDUXAU, or Andujar, atown of the province
of Jaen in Spain, stands on a plain on the banks of the
Guadalquiver, is adorned with somebeautiful churches
and religious houses, has a population which exceeds
2000, with some trade in silk ; the surrounding coun-
try abounds in grain, wine, oil, and fruits ; and it is
40 miles east from Cordova.

ANDUZE, a town of the Cevennes, or depart-
ment of Garde in France, with a population of 5000,
and manufactures of woollen stuffs, silk stockings,
and hats. It is 27 miles distant from Montpelier,
and 21 miles from Nismes.

ANEMOMETER, an instrument for measuring
the force and velocity of the wind. See Meteoro-
logy.

ANEMONE, or Wind-flower, a genus of plants
belonging to the Polyandria class.

ANEMONE, Sea, the trivial name of the genus
Actinia, or animal flower. See Helminthology.

ANEMOSCOPE, an instrument for observing the
direction of the wind, of which the vane, constructed
of a thin plate of metal, moving on an upright rod,
and usually fixed on the top of lofty buildings, as
spires and towers, is an example.

ANETHUM, Dill and Fennel, a genus of plants
belonging to the Pentandria class.

ANEURISM, fVom the Greek word which signi-
fies swelling, is the morbid dilatation of an artery,
which for its cure requires a surgical operation.

ANG

342

ANG

Angel. ANGEIOLOGY, derived from two Greek words,
which signify x'csscl and discourse, is that part of ana-
tomy which treats of the blood-vessels and lympha-
tics.

ANGEL, an order of created intelligences, supe-
rior to man. That there is such an order, we are
expressly informed by the inspired writers ; and, in
reasoning from analogy on the subject, we are led to
the same conclusion. So vast is the distance of what
is finite and partly material, from what is infinite and
wholly immaterial, that to suppose ourselves the next
in rank to the eternal and incowiprehensible God,
would be to admit a chasm in the chain of existence,
a chasm not sanctioned by that regular gradation
downward from the place which we hold, to that
of the passive inanimate objects which are scat-
tered around us. Hence a class of beings, purely
spiritual, seems necessary to form the connecting
link between us and the great Creator. But though
divested of all corporeal substance, as they certainly
must be, notwithstanding the Christian fathers and
scholastic divines have generally ascribed to them
thin, ethereal, or fiery bodies, they have, when occa-
sion required, become visible to man, by the assump-
tion of a human or other appearance.

At wliat particular period angels were created, we
are not told. Yet it is evident they were prior to
the formation of the earth ; for when the Almighty
Architect laid its foundations " the morning stars
sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for
joy." It is maintained by St Jerome, and the author
of the book De Trinitate, among the early Christian
writers, and by Burnet and Stackhouse, among the
moderns, that they were attendants in the court of
heaven long before this jilanetary system sprang from
the hands of God. To this it is objected : If the term
" beginning," which Moses employs as the date of
the creation, signifies the commencement otlime, and
this obviously is the only meaning of which it is sus-
ceptible, then to ascend a step higher in the scale of
duration is to go beyond the bounds of finitude, and
to enter on the regions of eternity ; and, according-
ly, to deny that angels were produced within the six
days on which the other works of God were achiev-
ed, is virtually to assert that a paiie ante they are
eternal, an attribute peculiar to deity alone, and al-
together inapplicable to limited and dependent be-
ings. Besides, on giving to them such an antiquity,
what comes of the argument, so much insisted on m
scripture, for the pre-existence and divinity of Christ,
" who was before all things," and " without whom
was not any thing made that was made ?" We must,
therefore, either allow that the origin of angels is
included in the Mosaic account, or adopt a senti-
ment which proves too much. Indeed, the most pro-
bable opinion is, that they were made on the first day,
along with the heavens, and that they were present,
chanting their songs of exultation and praise at every
successive manifestation of creating power.

Accordingto sacred scripture, theangels, taken col-
tectively, constitute an immense multitude. Daniel in
liis vision saw " thousand thousands," of them minis-
tering to " the Ancient of Days ;" and our Lord de-
clared, that if he chose to decline his sufferings, he
could call from heaven " more than twelve legionB"

of them to his assistance, that is, upwards of 78,000,
estimating the Roman legion at 6500 men. Nay, in
reference to human arithmetic and human concep-
tion, an apostle styles them " an innumerable com-
pany"

Different gradations have been assigned, to these
celestial beings. By the Jews they are aiTanged m-
tojbur orders, over which Michael, Gabriel, Uriel,
and Raphael respectively preside ; by Dionysius the
Areopagite, and after him the Roman Catholic wri-
ters, into nine orders, three of which form a hierarchy,
namely, seraphim, cherubim, and thrones, — dominions,
principalities, and powers, — virtues, ai-changels, and
angels ; and by Mr Mede and others into seven or-
ders, with an archangel at the head of each, as de-
signed by the seven lamps in the Jewish tabernacle
before the mercy-seat, and by the seven spirits of
God sent forth into all the earth. But, while the
volume of inspiration countenances a diversity of
rank and dignity in the angelic host, such distribu-
tions and arrangements of them are mere conjectures.

Angels, as the name in the original indicates, are
envoys or messengers ; and, in various parts of the
sacred writings, they are represented, not only as
standing before God, performing solemn acts of praise
and adoration, but as waiting in readiness to obey
his commands. Hence they are called ' ministers
who do his pleasure," and " ministering spirits, who
are sent forth to minister for them who shall be heirs
of salvation." In the zealous discharge of their du-
ties, they appeared to Jacob in his dream at Bethel,
as " ascending and descending" on the ladder which
he beheld stretched from heaven to earth ; ascending,
to bear the prayers of the saints before the throne,
and to report the performance of their own services ;
and, intrusted with fresh commissions, descending, to
bestow the favours and to execute the mandates of
the Most High. It has been an opinion generally
received among Jews and Christians, that empires,
kingdoms, and individual men have their guardian
angels ; an opinion by no means unfounded in the
word of God, Psal. xxxiv. 7. ; Eccles. v. 6. ; Dan. x.
3. ; Mattl). xviii. 10. ; Acts xii. 15. The heathens,
also believed, that nations, cities, houses, and per-
sons have their tutelary genii.

Angels, of all the creatures in the universe, hava
the nearest resemblance to Jehovah ; and are, on this
account, sometimes denoTiinated gods. They are
perfect in holiness, having their thoughts, desires,
affections, and conduct duly regi.dated by the laws
of righteousness and truth. Their knowledge, ren
suiting from immediate intuition, the disclosures of
revelation, and the long experience of nearly 6000
years, is very extensive ; but being still circumscrib-
ed, there are many things of which they are entirely
ignorant ; and though not omnipotent, their strength
is so prodigious, that no material substance can re-
sist or impede their operations. We read of their
bursthig open the doors of the prison, of their shut;
ting the mouths of furious lions, and of their quench-
ing the violence of the fiery furnace.

But it must be remarked, that, not long be-
fore the fall of Adam, occasioned by their instru-
mentality, a revolt took place among the angelic
spirits ; and those who kept not their first estate wcio

Angel.

ANG

343

ANG

Angel expelled from heaven, and consigned to tlie abodes
{{ of misery, where they are reserved in chains unto

Angeloi. the judgment of the great day. How many of them
rebelled against the Eternal, is a point on which we
have no specific information ; yet the number must
be considerable, since it is sufficient to constitute a
kingdom, under the government of a prince, named
Satan, Beelzebub, or the Devil. They are distin-
guished by an apostle into principalities, powers,
rulers of the darkness of this world, and spiritual
wickednesses in high places. Nor do we know what
the particular crime was through which they for-
feited their honour and their happiness. It is com-
monly supposed to have been pride or envy : the Ma-
hometans say, it was their refusing to do homage to
the first man. Yet, of this we are certain, that they
are the enemies of all good ; that their hearts rankle
with the blackest malignity ; and that their unwea-
ried study is to produce anarchy, desolation, and
wretchedness in the creation of God. The inimi-
table poet, Milton, in his " Paradise Lost," thuS'
describes the apostasy, character, and punishment
of the archfiend and his associates :

The infernal serpent ; he it was, whose guile,
Stirr'd up with envy and revenge, deceiv'd
The mother of mankind, what time his pride
Had cast liim mit of heaven, with all his host
Of rebel angels ; by whose aid, aspiring
To set himself in glory above his peers.
He trusted to have equall'd the Most High,
If he oppos'd : and with ambitious aim
Against the throne and monarchy of God
Rais'd impious war in heaven, and battle proud,
With vain attem.pt. Him the Almighty power
Hurl'd headlong flaming from the ethereal sky,
With hideous ruin and combustion, down
To bottomless perdition ; there to dwell
In adamantine chains and penal fire,
Who durst defy the Omnipotent to arms.

But there are some who deny the existence of
these wicked spirits, and maintain, that wherever
they are mentioned in scripture, we are to under-
stand only a personification of the abstract principle
of evil.

ANGEL-FISH, a species of Squalus. See Ich-
thyology.

ANGELICA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Pentandria class.

ANGELO, Michael, the name of several Ita-
lian artists who flourished in the 16th and 17th cen-
turies. The most distinguished were Michael An-
gelo Buonarotti, celebrated as a painter, sculptor, and
architect ; and Michael Angelo de Caravaggio, who
rose to eminence as a painter. See Buonakotti.

ANGELOS, PUEBLA DE LOS, or City of the
Angels, the capital of the province of TIascala in
Mexico, is described as one of the most flourishing
towns of South America. A spacious square in the
centre of the city is occupied on one side by a mag-
nificent cathedral, and on the other three sides by
elegant and uniform buildings ; and from this square
many broad and regular streets proceed in various
directions. It contains numerous churches, which
are distinguithcd by their splendour, two colleges,

and many convents and nunneries. The population
is stated at 60,000, variously occupied in manufac-
tures of cotton cloths, hats, glass, fine earthen ware,
swords, soap, and in the coinage of the silver from the
mines of Zacatecas, which this town shares with
Mexico, from which it is 22 leagues distant to the
south-east.

ANGER, a strong emotion excited in the mind,
the character of which is a propensity, or feeling,
which prompts to repel an injury, and to avenge it
on the ott'ending party. When this emotion is re-
strained in its operation, it is distinguished by the
name of resentment ; but when it bursts out into the
determined purpose of inflicting punishment on the
offender, it is denominated revenge. Moralists and
divines have distinguished anger into deliberative, or
rational, and instinctive. The first is an important
principle, implanted in the human mind, and in-
tended, by the natural expression with which the e-
motion is accompanied, to protect from injury, or to
denote, by suitable marks of disapprobation, the feel-
ing excited by offences received. The second, or
what is called instinctive anger, is a principle which
man possesses in common with the inferior animals,
and leads to acts of immediate revenge on the ob-
jects of offence. It has been observed, that anger is
not altogether a selfish passion ; for it is excited by
the injuries offered to others as well as to ourselves;
and hence it seems designed, by the Author of na-
ture, to rouse us to vigorous action, not only in our
own defence, but to interest us in the defence and
protection of others who are injured and helpless.
The emotion of anger, then, is a powerful principle
in the constitution of man, and well calculated for
his protection, or for the defence of others ; but the
excess of this feeling, as well as of every other in-
terwoven in the human frame, is blameable and de-
grading to the character of a moral agent ; and in
this view the apostolic precept, ' Be ye angry, and sin
not,' is to be understood.

ANGERMANNIA, or ANGERMANNLAND,
a mountainous province of Sweden, bounded on the
north by Lapland and Bothnia, on tlie east by the
gulf of Bothnia, and partly on the west by Nor-
way, contains about 80 square miles. In some
places the forests are extensive ; and in others the
soil is fertile, and produces corn and flax. A ri-
ver of the same name, one of the largest in the
kingdom, and partly navigable, traverses the pro-
vince. Iron ores are abundant ; and some ores of
copper have been wrought. The manufacture of li-
nen, and other cloths, has been established on a li-
mited scale ; and Hermosand, a small place, is the
only town of -the province.

ANGERS, an ancient city of France, and capi-
tal of the former duchy of Anjou, now of the de-
partment of Maine and Loire, stands on the banks
of the river Maine, which traverses the city. An-
gers was the frequent scene of warfare between the
French and English ; and the ruined towers and
mouldering walls of the castle, which was reared on
a projecting rock in the 13th century, still attest
the strength of its ancient military defences. The
cathedral is a magnificent structure, and presents
some peculiarities in its architecture which have

Angei-

II

Angers,

ANG

344

ANG

Angiotpcmua been {i^eatly admired. Tlie university was establish-
II cd about tlie middle of the ] 3th century, and the

Angleiea. academy of Belles Lettres towards the end of the
ITtli century. The population, in tlie 17th century,
amounted to 50,000; but the impolitic revocation of
. the edict of Nantes, which thinned France of its in-
habitants, reduced Angers to 36,000 in 1697 ; and
now it can scarcely reckon more than 30,000. The
chief manufactures are linen, woollen stutfs, and
wax candles ; and white wines, grain, flax, and fruits,
are the principal matters of commercial enterprise.
N. Lat. 47° 28'. W. Long. 0° 33'.

ANGIOSPERMIA, from two Greek words, sig-
nifying a vessel and seed, is one of the ordecs of the
class Didynamia in the Linnsean system of Botany.
See Botany.

ANGLE, is the inclination of two lines meeting
each other in a point, or thu divergence or separa-
tion of two straight lines.

ANGLER, a species of fish belonging to the
genus Lophius. See Lophius, under Ichthyo-

lOGY.

ANGLES, called Angli by the Roman liistorian
Tacitus, were an ancient German nation, who mi-
grated to the territories of Denmark, afterwards in-
vaded Britain, and subdued great part of the coun-
try, and it is supposed gave the name of Anglia or
England, to the southern division of the island.

ANGLESEA, or ANGLESEY,an island and county
of North Wales, is separated from Caernarvonshire
by the narrow strait called Menai, and is about 24
miles long and 18 broad. The eastern shores are
adorned wth elegant mansions and thriving planta-
tions ; but the island in general is destitute of wood.
The hills, which have no great elevation, arc chiefly
composed of limestone and argillaceous schistus, and
they give origin to numerous small streams which
. water the vjiUies.

The soil is fertile, and produces such abundance
of grain as to afford, in favourable seasons, a con-
siderable exportation ; and the pastures annually
supply the English market with 8000 or 10,000 head
of cattle, 5000 or 6000 sheep, and an equal num-
ber of swine. The population, estimated by the
number of houses, in 1563, amounted to about
10,000; in 1776, from a similar estimate, the num-
ber had nearly doubled ; in 1801 it had increased to
nearly 34,000; and, in 1811, to 37,000. The island
is divided into 74 parishes, and Beaumaris is Uie prin-
cipal town.

Anglesea is the Mona of the ancient Romans,
the Mon or Moneg of the Welsh, and was the re-
sidence of the chief priest of the Druids before
the Roman invasion. In several places circles of
stones, which are supposed to be the remains of Dru-
idical monuments, are still visible. The Romans
attacked the Druids in their sacred retreat in the
59th year of the Christian a'ra, vanquished the ar-
mies of the Britons, and destroyed the consecrated
groves. ^

The mineral productions of Anglesea form the
most important feature in the later period of its his-
tory. The discovery of masses of lead and copper,
and of an ancient smelting hearth, is an indication of
the existence of mining operations in this island at

a remote period ; but the connnenceraent of the
Pary's mountain estublishnient, in 1768, was tlie con-
sequence of a new discovery, and hits proved to the
proprietors one of the most beneficial concerns in
the kingdom. The body of Pary's mountain, which
belongs to Lord Uxbridge and the Reverend Mr
Hughes, and is about a mile in length, is chiefly
composed of copper ore, the greatest part of which is
dug out in the manner of an open quarry ; for the rock
of aluminous schistus forms little more than the ex-
ternal covering to the accumulated mass of ore.
Two quanii's or mines are wrought, and in some
places have been carried to the depth of 50 fathoms.
Including the smelters, 1300 men were at one
time employed at both mines, and from 50,000
to 80,000 tons of ore were annually dug out ; but
the mines are now far less productive, and scarcely
afford occupation to half the number of workmen.
The varieties of ores are, native copper, in small
quantity ; black ore, a mixture of galena, calamine
and a little silver ; green and blue carbonate of cop-
per ; and copper pyrites, which is most abundant.
The sulphate of copper, which is dissolved in the
water of the mines, is precipitated by means of iron,
and affords a large proportion of pure copper, which
is carefully collected. Alum and green vitriol are
manufactured to a limited extent from the materials
furnished by the mines of Pary's mountain.

ANGLING, is the art of fishing with a rod, to
which are attached a line fitted with a hook and bait,
which latter is either natural or artificial. See Fish-

IKG.

ANGLO-CALVINISTS, an appellation by which
those members of the church of England are distin-
guished whose opinions coincide with those of other
Calvinists, excepting in matters relative to ecclesi-
astical government.

ANGLO-SAXON, is an appellation applied to
the language spoken by the English Saxons, in op-
position to the true Saxon and the modern English.
The same designation is given to the people who
spoke this language, and who invaded and conquered
England after the departure of the Romans. The
first invasion of England by the Anglo-Saxons took
place in the middle of the fifth century ; and, after
a struggle of 135 years, when the oppressed and
dispirited Britons were driven to the mountainous
fastnesses of Cornwall and Wales, seven different
kingdoms were at last established, a constitution
which is well-known in English history, under the
denomination of the Heptarchy. The kingdoms of
the heptarchy were united, in 827, under Egbert,
who was crowned king of England, and the Anglo-
Saxon government continued during a period of 239
years, when the Norman race of kings commenced
m the person of William the Conqueror, who in-
vaded Britain in 1066, and, after obtaining a com-
plete victory over Harold, established himself on the
throne.

ANGOLA, formerly called Abonda, is a king-
dom of Africa, stretching 480 miles along the west-
ern coast, and between the 8th and 16th degrees of
south latitude. Excepting along the sea-coast, An-
gola presents a movmtainous aspect; and in some
plactts the sumuiits of the mountains arc so elevated

II
Anjrol«.

ANG

545

ANG

Angola

Aii^itra.

as to be covered witli snow in certain geasflns of tlie
year. The Danda and Coiinza, wliich are the prin-
cipal rivers, are of considerable magnitude, and are
imvigaI)lo for thirty or forty leagues from their junc-
tion with the Atlantic ocean. The soil on their banks
is rich and fertile ; in some places it is well cultivat-
ed, and yields abundant crops of millet, Indian corn,
and other kinds of grain. The chief town of the
kingdom of Angola is San Paulo de Loanda, which
stands about twelve leagues to the north of the river
Coanza in the province of Loanda. It was begun
by the Portuguese about 1578, contains some good
houses, with a cathedral and convent, and includes
amotley population of Christians, pagans, and slaves,
amounting to 12,000 or 15,000. It is the see of a
bishop, and the residence of the Portuguese gover-
nor.

The Portuguese very early established their au-
tliority in the kingdom of Angola, and through the
influence of their agents, tlie Jesuits, succeeded in
forming alliances with the barbarous native sove-
reigns, and thus acquired numerous facilities of car-
rying on trade, and especially the slave trade which
was probably one of the chief objects of maintain-
ing a tedious struggle in defence of their settlements.
The detailed narratives which have appeared of the
transactions of the Portuguese in this part of Africa,
are filled with accounts of pretended conversions of
the natives to Christianity ; of their apostasy to the
rites of paganism ; of their treacheries and minders ;
and all this under the formal dignity of history be-
longing only to civilized nations, while it appears
that the people of Angola have made no farther ad-
vancement in the arts of life than any other of the
African tribes.

ANGOLA, or Pigeon-pea, is a species of Cytisus,
the cytisus cajan, Lki. which is much cultivated in
Jamaica for the table, is equal to the English pea
when in the green state, and when it is old forms an
excellent ingredient in soups ; is sometimes called
the Christmas pea, from bearing at that season, and
sometimes the seven-i/ears pea, from the plant conti-
Ruing productive for that period.

ANGORA, or Angura, the ancient Ancyra,
the chief city of Galatia, is a town of Natolia, a pro-
vince of Asiatic Turkey, and 212 miles E.S.E. from
Constantinople. The fragments of broken pillars and
marble ornaments, which are seen intermixed with
the stones of which the walls and houses are con-
structed and cemented with mud, present a melan-
choly picture of the remains of its ancient magnifi-
cence. Angora stands in an elevated region, is sub-
ject to the Turks, and has been long celebrated for
a peculiar breed of goats, which are reared in the
vicinity, and produce hair as fine as silk, of which a
highly valued woollen cloth is manufactured. The
finest kind is reserved for the use of the seraglio of
the Grand Signior, and its exportation is prohibited
under the penalty of a capital punishment. But 500
or 600 camel-loads of the common sort are annually
conveyed to Smyrna, and exported to different coun-
tries of Europe. The orchards in the neighbourhood
thrive well, and produce pears, which supply the
market of Constantinople ; and it has some trade in

VOL. I. PART I.

wax and opium, which latter is extracted from pop- Angoulcme
pies cultivated in the surrounding country. The po-
pulation is stated at 80,000, of which 10,000 are
Christians, Greeks, or Armenians, who are chiefly
engaged in commercial affairs, and the rest are
Turks.

ANGOULEME, a city of France, capital of tlie
former province of Angoumois, and now the chief
town of the department of Charente, stands on a
rock near the river Charente, contains 16,000 inha-
bitants, whose chief trade consists in paper, wines,
brandy, and salt, and is in N. Lat. 45°. 39'. and E.
Long. 0° 14'.

ANGOUMOIS, formerly a province of France,
and now constituting the larger proportion of the de-
partment of Charente, is bounded on the north by
Poitou, and on the south by Perigorde, and produces
abundance of corn, wine, and saffron. The brandy,
manufactured in large quantities in the vicinity of
Cognac, one of the towns of the province, is also a
principal source of its trade. In some places iron
mines are productive, and a small quantity of anti-
mony has been discovered.

ANGO Y, a kingdom on the western coast of Afri-
ca, lying between the rivers Cabinda and Zaire, and
bounded on the south by Congo. The coast is flat
and marshy, but at the distance of a few miles in-
land the country rises into an elevated region. The
inhabitants, although they have some intercourse
with the Portuguese and English, who liave set-
tlements among them, are still rude, barbarous,
and indolent, aodicted to idolatry, and indulging in
polygamy.

ANGRA, from a word which signifies a crreic, is
the capital of Tercera, one of the Azores, or West-
ern islands, belonging to Portugal, stands on a bay
on the south side of the island, is well built, and sur-
rounded with walls, is the see of a bishop, and con-
tains some fine churches, and is a magazine for na-
val stores to supply the Brazil and East India fleets
of the Portuguese. The harbour is safe and com-
modious in the summer, but in the winter season it
is subject to furious tempests. The population is
stated at 10,000 ; and their commercial affairs are li-
mited to the exportation of some corn and a little
wine to the Lisbon market. N. Lat. 38° 38'. \V.
Long. 27° 13'.

ANGUILLA, or Snakes' island, one of tlie An-
tilles or Caribbee islands, derives its name from its
supposed resemblance to a snake, is about 60 miles
north from St Christophers, and is 30 miles long and
three miles broad. It belongs to Britain, and was
originally settled by the English in 1650. The first
settlers were greatly annoyed by French pirates, and
afterwards by a party of Irish, who had fled from
their native country at the time of the revolution
in 1688. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, and the
rearing of cattle, are the chief occupations of the
inliabitants.

ANGUIS, or Slow-worm, a genus of serpents,
which are distinguished from others of this tribe of
animals by their sluggish character, which gives ori-
gin to the English name. See OriiioLOGY.

ANGUllIA, or Water-meloiij a genus of plants
s X

ANG

340

ANJ

Aahalt

Anim'.I.

belonging to the class Monoecia, of wlilcli three spe-
cies have been described. They are cultivated in
America and the southern regions of Europe.

ANGUS-SHIUE, a county of Scotland, which is
usually described under the name of Forfar-shire.
See Forfarshire.

ANHALT, a principality of Upper- Saxony, in
the north of Germany, about 60 miles in length and
eight in breadth, and lying chiefly between the rivers
Elbe aiid Saal. This district is fertile in grain, and
aftords a few mineral productions, some of which are
the sources of manufactures. The population is es-
timated at 1(X),000.

ANHO^iT, an island belonging to Denmark, and
situated in the Cattegat. The surrounding shoals
and sand-banks render the navigation of the seas
near this island yery dangerous, and have occasioned
the erection of a light-house ; the exact position of
which is in N. Lat. 56° 44' 20" and in E. Long. 11°
39' 51"; ten miles north from Zealand, and eight
wiles east from the coast of Jutland.

ANJENGO, a small town on the Malabar coast,
in the East Indies, which is defended by a fort erect-
ed by the English ia 1695, is 40 miles north-west
from Travancore, and has some trade in long cloths
and pepper.

ANIMA MUNDI, or Soul of the World, an
imaginary substance among the ancient philosophers,
which was supposed to be a pure, ethereal spirit, dif-
fused tlirough the universe, sustaining its various
parts, and animating the whole in the same manner
as the human soul actuates the body. In some of
the ancient systems of philosophy, the soul of the
world is considered as a self-existent, intellectual,
ajid eternal principle, the prime mover and active
cause of all things in the universe. The human soul
was regarded as an emanation from this intellectual
principle; and, after death and sufficient purifications,
v.-as again restored to its original source. But Pla-
to, who also maintained the doctrine of the soul of
the world, ascribed its origin to the Divinity, or
great first cause of all things, supposed that tl)e soul
which animated the world proceeded from God, and
■ thought that the human soul was derived from it. A
doctrine somewhat similar has been revived in mo-
dern times under the name of plastic nature.

ANIMAL has been defined an organized and
living body possessed of sensation. The three great
classes of natural objects, minerals, vegetables, and
animals, are characterised by Linnseus in the follow-
ing manner : Minerals grow or increase ; vegetables
grow and live ; and animals grow, live, and have the
power of sensation. Later naturalists have divided
the objects of nature into two great classes, orgau-
ifed or" organic beings, and inor<ranic bodies. The
latter includes minerals; and under the former class
vegetables and animals are comprehended. This ar-
rangement furnishes characters sufficiently accurate
and precise for the discrimination of minerals, and
the two clatiges of organised beings, vegetables and
animals ; but the exact definition of vegetables and
animals is still wanting. Sensation and loco-motion,
ascribed to animals, appear in some degree in cer-
tain vegetables ; and some animals seem to have tlie
power of sensation and loco-motiou in as low a de-

gree its some of the objects of the vegetable king- Animalcule
ilom. Mineral bodies are increased by aggregation, ||

by the addition of particles of the same kmd of mat- Anjoa.
ter as that of which they are composed ; but organ-
ised bodies are increased by matter of a different
kind introduced into tubes or vessels within the ve-
getable or animal, and by certain processes chan-
ged and assimilated to the different parts of the indi-
vidual. It has been observed by Dumeril, a French
naturalist, that the masses in which inorganic bodies
present themselves are angular, insulated, and vari-
able in size; that they maybe said to he formed; and
their origin may be traced to attraction. But the
individuals called plants and animals have necessa-
rily a form that is constant, for the most part round-
ed and symmetrical, and their extension is fixed to
certain limits ; and in increasing their size they only
develope themselves. Bodies which increase by ag-
gregation may be divided into very small parts, bear-
ing a near resemblance to the mass from which they
aj-e separated ; but in plants and animals, which de-
velope themselves, no portion can be taken away and
exist by itself, at least unless it develope new parts
for the purpose of replacing those that are wanting.
But the distinction between vegetables and animals,
either from the poverty of language, or the inaccu-
racy of our knowledge, still remains imperfect ; and
no definition which assigns the precise limits between
those two classes of beings has yet been given.

ANIMAL FLOWER, the trivial name of certain
marine animals belonging to the order Molluscs,
and class of Vermes, in the Liimaean arrangement.
Animal flowers are ranked under three different ge-
nera, namely. Actinia, Holothuria, and Tubidaria,
each of which contains numerous species. The ani-
mals of this description are attached by a stem to a
particular spot, and in this respect resemble plants ;
they exhibit somewhat of the form of vegetable
flowers, and hence have been denominated Sea Ane-
mone, or, from their stinging property. Sea Nettle ;
and they often present the richest and most brilliant
variety of colours. See Helminthology.

ANIMALCULE, or little animal, is usually ap-
plied to those animals which are invisible to the na-
ked eye, and cannot, therefore, be distinguished and
examined without the assistance of microscopes.
Animalcules are generally found in water, especially
putrid water ; and as many of them are developed
by the artificial infusions of vegetable and animal
matters, they are denominated Animalctda Iiifusoria,
or Infusory Animals, by Linnaeus, and form the last
order of his class of Vermes, under which they may
be treated. See HELMijJXHOLOGy.

ANIME, a resinous substance, which exudes from
the trunk of a large tree, HymencBa courbaril, or lo-
cust-tree, a native of Brazil and the West-Indies, is
transparent, and of an amber colour, has an agrce.«
able odour, little or no taste, and dissolves slowly in
alcohol and essential oils.

ANJOU, a province of France, part of which is
included in the department of Maine and Loire. It
is 70 miles, long and 60 broad, finely diversified with
hills, extensive forests, and fertile plains, watered by
numerous streams, and produces grain, fruits, flax,
cattle, and sheep.

ANN

347

ANN

Ann

Annan.

ANlO, or Anien, the ancient name of a river of
Italy, now called il l^everone, which falls into the
Tiber four miles from Rome.
' ANISUM, or Anise, the trivial name of a spe-
cies of Pimpinella, an umbellated plant, which yields
an essential oil.

ANN, or Annat, a tax imposed by the see of
Rome on all ecclesiastical benefices to which a new
incumbent was presented, under the authority of the
papal bull. This tax, amounting to a year's reve-
nue, was appropriated to the support of the Sacred
College. Sometimes this tax exceeded the amount
of the annual revenue of the benefice from which it
was levied, and sometimes it was only half that sura.
It seems to have varied, according to the influence
of the Pope, or his representatives, in diftisrent coun-
tries.

ANN, or Annat, according to the ecclesiastical
establishment of Scotland, is half a year's revenue
of a benefice to which the heirs or executors of a
deceased clergyman are by law entitled. The widow
of a clergyman who dies without children has a right
to one half of the ann, and his legal Jieirs to the
other. In the case of children, two-thirds fall to
them, and one-third to the widow ; but if children only
survive, the whole belongs to them.

ANNA, one of the chief towns of Arabia De-
serta, and a great thoroughfare for caravans from
Aleppo, Damascus, and Bagdad, stands on the banks
of the Euphrates, in an elevated region, which is
fertile in corn and fruits, contains about *000 houses,
and is 220 miles south-east from Aleppo, and 260
miles east from Damascus.

ANNABERG, a town of Upper Saxony, is situ-
ated in the mountains of Misnia, and not far from
the frontiers of Bohemia, owes its origin to the silver
mines in the vicinity, and is 38 miles south-west
from Dresden, and 14 miles south from Chemnitz.

ANNABON, or Annobon, an island on the coast
of Loango, in Africa, belonging to the Portuguese,
and discovered by them in the 1.5th century, is in
S. Lat. 1° Sa, and E. Long. 5° W ; yields abund-
antly all the vegetable productions of tropical cli-
mates, is about 30 miles in circumference, and on
the north-east side has a convenient roadstead for
shipping, with good anchorage.

ANNALS, a species of history, in which the re-
lation of events is arranged in the order of time in
vvhich they happened ; such, for example, are the
Annals of Tacitus; and the authors of such works
are called annalists.

ANNAMOOKA, or Rotterdam, an island in
the Pacific ocean. See Anamooka.

ANNAN, a borough town, and the capital of
Annandale, a district of Dumfries-shire in Scotland,
stands on an elevated bank of a river of the same
name, and about a mile distant from its junction with
the Solway frith, has many well-built houses, some
spacious streets, and a population amounting nearly
to 2000, who are employed chiefly in spinning and
weaving cotton, in curing pork, and in the exporta-
tion of grain, hams, bacon, and hog's-lard to different
parts of England. The salmon-fishing, formerly
considerable, has greatly declined. Annan is 16
aoiles distant from Dumfries.
2

ANNANDALE, a district of Dumfries-shire in
Scotland, is a fertile valky, traversed by the river
Annan, and a"'JOUt 2.5 miles long and 15 miles broad ;
from its vicinity to England was subject to prv.datory
incursions, and coiitinueil long waste ana in a state
of coraiiionage, but is now divided, and in many
places highly improved, and contains numerous re-
mains of Roman antiquities, as vvoL as many man-
sions and castles of powerful barons of later times,
now in their progress to decay. The great road
from London to Edinburgh and Glasgow passes
tiirough Annandale.

ANNAPOLIS, the capital of the state of Mary-
land in North America, stands at the mouth of the
river Severn, which was its fornifjr name, has a po-
pulation of 2000, and is distinguished by the state-
house, a magnificent edifice, which occupies the
centre of the town, and from which tire streets
branch off in all directions.

ANNAPOLIS ROYAL, assumed this name for
Port-Royal in 1713, when it was ceded at the peace
of Utrecht by the French to the English, and was
thus denominated in honour of Queen Anne, is a
small town of Nova Scotia in North America, has
some trade in wood, fish, and furs, but is chiefly re-
markable for its situation on the south side of a bay
which forms one of the most spacious and safest
harbours in the world ; it is six miles long and three
miles broad, and capable of admitting 1000 vessels.
The entrance, which is not a mile wide, is difficult,
on account of the force of the tides and currents.
Annapolis is 80 miles west from Halifax.

ANNEALING, is a process to which glass-ware
is subjected to render it less brittle. In the manu-
facture of all kinds of glass, it is introduced into an
oven or furnace, called the annealing or nealing-
furnace, the temperature of which is not sufficient
to fuse it, and in this furnace it is allowed to cool
very slowly. Glass-ware which has not undergone
this process, or which has been cooled in the open
air, presents some singular properties, which are il-
lustrated by some striking experiments with what
are called philosophical phials and glass-tears, or
Prince Rupert's drops. The former are made of
crystal-glass, are sometimes near an inch thick in'
the bottom, and may be struck hard on a table or
smooth surface without injury. But when an angu-
lar bit of flint, a few grains weight, is even cauti-
ously dropped into the inside, they fly to pieces.
Prince Rupert's drops are made of common bottle-
glass, which is let fidl, in a state of fusion, into cold
water, and in this way a roundish oblong head, with
a long slender tail, is formed. When the least bit
of the tail is broken off, while the tear is held in the
hand to prevent it from flying about, the whole mass
bursts with a smart shock into minute fragments like
sand. When they are heated to redness, and allow-
ed to cool slowly in the open air, they acquire the
properties of common glass.

When glass passes from the liquid to the solid
state by slow cooling, all the parts are uniformly ar-
ranged, or are regularly crystallized ; and in this
state, in consequence of the crystallization, the mass
has acquired a greater bulk than in the state of fu-
sion ; and then, too, it becomes elastic, and e^uscep*

Acnocdaie

Anneiiliug.

ANN 548

ABnecT

II tible of long continued vibrations. But the sudden

Annexatiou. exposure of glass to cold, when passing to the solid
state, forms a crust or external covcrin}; to the in-
ternal parts before they liave time to assume a regu-
lar arrangement, 'llie internal parts are supposed
to be in a state of tension, or compression, from the
external crust. When a smart stroke is applied to
unannealed glass, as to the philosophical pliial, or
Prince Rupert's drops, the vibration is instantaneously
communicated to the whole mass, and no change is
produced ; but when the tail of the drop is broken,
or the surface of the phial is scratched, the vibra-
tion is conveyed along the crystalli^jed surface, and
the internal parts are allowed to expand, and thus
overcome the cohesion of the outer covering, and
burst into pieces. But neither this explanation, nor
any other which has yet been offered, is at all satis-
factory in accounting for th<i remarkable ditt'ercnce
between annealed and unannealed glass.

Metallic substances exhibit similar differences in
their properties. A mass of iron, when hammered,
becomes brittle, and requires to be heated to reco-
ver its malleable property ; and cast-iron vessels, when
allowed to cool slowly, acquire considerable elastici-
ty, and are less liable to injury.

ANNECY, or Annici, a town of Savoy, annexed
to the department of Mont-Blanc in France, is fine-
ly placed on the banks of a beautiful lake of the
same name, which is nine miles long and three or
four miles broad, is 19 miles south from Geneva, and
contains about 5000 inhabitants.

ANNEXATION, in a general sense, denotes the
act of uniting one subject to another. In the law of
Scotland, this term signifies the union of lands un-
alienably to the crown. By an act passed in 14:55,
the annexed royal property was declared to be un-
alienable without the sanction of parliament ; but by
subsequent enactments, these precautions were re-
moved, and the property of the crown was complete-
ly alienated, with the exception of Edinburgh, Dum-
barton, and Stirling castles, and the feu-duties of
ancient domains.

ANNEXATION of the temporality oflenejices, in
consequence of the act of the Scottish legislature,
includes all church lands which became unalienably
the property of the crown, and for the purpose of
supporting the royal dignity, with the exception of,
]. Lands previously erected into a temporal lord-
ship ; 2. Lands destined to the support of hospitals,
and still appropriated to that use ; 3. Benefices, the
patronage of which, before the Reformation, belong-
ed to laymen ; •t. The glebes and manses which be-
longed to popish churchmen ; and, 5. In particular
cases, grants of pensions out of benefices.

ANNEXATION, quoad sacra, is the union of part
of the lands ojj one parish to another, when such
lands are at too great a distance from the parish
church. This practice was introduced for the con-
venience of the inhabitants in attending the ordi-
nances of religion. Annexations of this kind affect
only the spiritual concerns of the inhabitants. Their
civil connection with the parish from which they were
disjoined remains unbroken. The annexed lands are
still burdened with the payment of stipend to the
clergy of the parisjt from viluch they were separated ;

ANN

and they are still liable to be taxed for their former Anmhiiavion
proportion of expense in building and repairing the ||

church and manse of the old parish. Aanuities.

ANNIHILATION is delined the act of reducing
a created being to nothing, aiid has been a fertile
subject of speculation among different nations. The
Greek philosophers seem to have confined tiieir dis-
cussions to the changes and modifications which are
constantly obsei-ved in the universe, and to have ex-
cluded from their consideration every notion of to-
tal annihilation. In later tiuies, the possibility or
impossibility of" such an event has introduced great
diversity of opinion among philosophers and divines.
Annihilation is regarded by some Christian philoso-
phers as the greatest of all evils ; but some casters
nations consider it as the highest degree of felicity,
because the soul is delivered from the slavery of con-
tinual transmigration. The Persian bramins hold the
opinion, that, after certain long periods, the universe,
and every created thing which it contains, is to be
totally annihilated. But this speculation, like every
other in which the terms are not precisely defined^
or are impericctly understood, admits of endless con-
troversy ; and perhaps it is beyond the grasp of the
human mind.

ANNONA, a genus «f plants belonging to the
Polyandria class, and including the alligator apple,
the custard apple, and the sour and sweet sops of
the West Indies.

ANNONAY, a town of Languedoc in France,
with a population of between .5000 and 6000, which
has been long celebrated for the manufacture of the
finest paper in France, or perhaps in Europe.

ANNOTTO, or Arnotto, is a substance which
is employed in dyeing a fine red colour, and is ob-
tained from the seeds of a plant, the Bixa Orel/ana,
a native of the West Indies and seme parts of the
American continent. It is sometimes called Terra
Orellaiia, and by the French roiicou, and is in the
form of a hard dry paste.

Annotto is prepared by steeping the seeds, separa-
ted from the pods, seven or eight days in water, till
fermentation commences, and then, by stirring the
whole mass, and beating with with wooden stampers
to promote the separation of the red skins. The same
process is several times repeated, till the whole co-
louring matter is extracted. The liquor, after being
strained, is heated in iron vessels, and throws up a
red scum, which is carefully separated, and boiled
down to a proper consistence, made up into cakes,
wrapped into palm leaves, and in a few weeks is rea-
dy for exportation.

Annotto of a superior quality is prepared by the
Indians, without the process or steeping or fermenta-
tion. The seeds are rubbed between the hands, which
have been previously dipped in polm-oil, till the out-
er coat is separated, and the bright shining paste
which remains on the hands is scraped oft' with a
knife, and laid on a clean leaf to dry in the shade.

ANNUALS, or annual plants, are such as spring
up, produce seeds, and decay in the same year.

ANNUITIES are periodical incomes, payable
from time to time, eithtr annually, half-yearly, quar-
terly, or at other intervals agreed upon.

The subject of annuities, and topics of a kindred

ANxNT

349

ANIN^

Anmiitiiji,. natiiri*, may date tlieir origin about the middle of
tlic 17th century, when Huygens, and other conti-
nental mathematicians, investigated the doctrine of
probabilities. The first published discussion on the
theory of probtibilities is a small treatise by Huy-
gens, entitled, De' Raiiociniis in ludo Alcce, which
appeared in IG08. This was followed by a small and
a little-known work on L[fe Annuities, by the cele-
brated Jolm De Witt. Dr Halley constructed a
table of mortality from observations made at 15res-
law, andpointed out how the probabilities of life and
death, and the values of annuities and assurances on
lives might be deduced from such tables. This me-
moir appeared in the Philosophical Transactions of
London for 169S. For the purpose of abridging
calculation, M. De Moivre published, in 1724', a
treatise on Annuities oh Lives, in which he assumed
the annual decrements on lives to be equal. In 1742,
ISIr Thomas Simpson elucidated this subject in a
more comprehensive manner, and accommodated the
formulae contained in his work on the Doctrine of
Annuities and Reversions to any tables of mortality.
A valuable work, by M. Deparcieux, entitled an
JEssay on the Probabilities of Human Life, appeared in
1764. Dr Price's Observations on Reversionari/ Pay-
ments, which was published in 1769, was chiefly in-
tended to fix the principles on which societies might ,
be formed for making provision for the individuals
themselves in old age, or for their widows. Mr Mor-
gan's Doctrine of Annuities and Assurances appeared
in 1779; the 4th edition of Dr Price's work, in
1783, extended the practical application of the prin-
ciples already established ; and The Principles of
the Doctrine of Life- Annuities, by Baron Mascres,
j)ublished also in 1783, contributed to throw fiirther
light on the subject. But the latest, and one of the
completest works on annuities is A Treatise on the
Valuation of Annuities and Assurances on Lives and
Survivorships, by Mr Milne of the Sun Life Assur-
ance Society, which was published in 1815. Beside
the works now noticed, those who are desirous of
entering deeply into this investigation, may consult
with advantage various Memoirs by Mr Morgan,
which are inserted in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1800, and ten or twelve years preceding.

Annuities are usually divided into such as are in
possession, and such as are in reversion ; the former
being those that have already commenced, and the
latter such as will not commence till some particular
event has happened, or some given period of time
has elapsed.

When an annuity is forbom for some years, or
payments not made for that time, the annuity is said
to be in arrears.

An annuity may also be for a certain number of
years only, and then cease ; or it may be withoflt
any limit, and may continue for ever, and it is then
called a perpetuity.

Tiie sum of all the annuities, for the time they
have been forbom, together with the interest upon
each after it becomes due, is called the amount.

The present worth or value of an annuity, is the AmrnitieB.
price or sum which ought to be given for it, sup- >
posing it to be bought off, or paid all at once.

Calculations of annuities are usually made at com-
pound interest, by means of convenient tables con-
structed for that purpose, and to calculate any sum
without them is notliing more than to show how
these tables are formed.

The first thing to be done is tO'find the amount of
L.l, at any rate percent, compound interest, and
then multiply this by the sum of which we propose
to find the amount ; and first, at 5 per cent, to find
the amount of L.l for any number of years, we have
only to state thus; by the rule of proportion, if L.lOO
amount to L.10.5, what will L.l amount to ; the an-
swer is, fractionally, —^^—:^, amount for the first

100 ~"20'

20^21

20 : 21 :

21
20^20

2:

.21

20 "20/

)2x-=^)
/ ^^20 20/

year ;
amount at the end of
the second year ;

amountat theend

£1
20

20^'' 20/"^ ^ 20~20>''^' of the third year
In the same manner it appears, that this last a^
mount, improved at interest, in the same way, dur

^'0

ing the fourth year, will be increased to

20 >

at

21

the end of the fifth year it will be ^ jj ; and so on ;

20

the amount at the end of any number of years be-
ing always determined by applying to the amount at
end of the first year, an index or exponent equal to
the numbtr of years.

If the rate of interest were 4 per cent, the amount

26 V

for five years would be represented by — IS : and at
103 \. . , 25/

"lOy-y^; respecUvely.

3 per cent, by

Ex. 1. Required the amount of L.50 for five years,
at 5 per cent, compound interest :

21 \ 21 \

This would be ^j'^'X-^^' and — J5 = 1.27628

=the amount of L.l, and this multiplied by L.50, or

|i\5x 50= 1.27628 x50=63.814=L.63, 16s. 3|d.

the amount required.

Ex. 2. Required the amount of L.750, for fifty
years, at 4j per cent.

104.5, or ^.^=^yM X 750 = 6774.4725

100:

100

20

=L.6774, 9s. 5 id.

Ex. 3.- Required the amount of L.150 for ninety-
one years, at 5 per cent.

21 \

^j91 X 150=12715.0325=L.12715, Os. 7id.

Ex. 4. Required the amount of L.365, for twenty-
five years, at 4 per cent.

26 \
100 : 104., or 25 J25 X 365=973.032=L.973, Os. 7id.

ANN

550

ANN

Aaauiljff.

A Table might be constructed to facilitate these operations at different rates per cent

At 2 per cent. ~ ^

50

^3 do. ^^^

2 3 1 4 1 5 6
Years Pr. CentlPr. Cent Pr. Cent Pr. Cent Pr. Ceat

1 1 i ' ;

1

• ••

• ••

*•

2

1.020
l.(H04

• ••

1.030

1.0609
...

...
1.0400

• ••

• ••

• ••

1.0816

• ■•

• ••

1.0500

• ••

1.0250

• ••

1.0600

• ••

1.1236

100

- 4 do. 26

25
_5 do. 21

20
_ 6 do. 53

59
The same at 2 years would be as follows :

At 2 per cent. -^^Y

pc ceuu ^j

- 3 do. J21Y

100/

-*"- ir

- ' ^ sr

-^^- sr

5 p. cent. 5p-eent. ip.cent. 5 p.cenl. 6 p.cent.
51 103 26 21 53

1
2
3
4

1.0200
1.0404
1.0612
1.0824

1.0300
1.0609
1.0927
1.1255

1.0400
1.0816
1.1248
1.1698

1.050
1.1025
1.1762
1.2155

1.0600

1.1236

1.19102

1.2625

50 100 25 20 50 "

51 y- io3y 26y 2iy ssy

50/ lOoJ 25/ 20/ 50/ '

5iy losy 26y 2iy 53y

50/ 100/ 25/ 20/ 50/

5iy losy 26y 2iy ssy^

50/ 100/ 25/ 20/ 50/

The amount of L.l annuity may be found nearly
in the same manner — For,

1 year's amount, at 5 per cent, is 1. 1.00000

2 do. do. is 1 +?!=—— 20 2.05000

^20 20

3do.do.isl+|+|i2)=2_P_2o 3.15250

20^^
21 21> 2lA 21*
4 do.do. is 1 +-+-)2+:^}3=^,-20 4.310125

21 21 \ 21\ 21 \ 21'
^''^ + 20+2o)2+2o)3 + 2oJ*=20^"20 5.525631

These quantities may be calculated separately,
but much better4>y summing this geometrical pro-
gression of which the first term is 1, and common

21
ratio — , thejj taking for example the fifth of these,

multiply the last term by the ratio, and from the
product subtract the first term and divide by the
ratio minus 1, that is,

HOj ^20 20j 21'

-=2l=^=20'~20 5.525631

5 per cent, and the amount of any other sum, at
the same rate and time, may be found by multi-
plying this by the sum proposed. Ex. 1. L.lOO,
which must be 100 times this, would amount to

/?L'_2o) X 100=5.525631 X 100=552.563=L532
V20 /

lis. Sd. nearly.

Ex. 2."The amount at 2 p. ct. for same time would be

, 51 5iy 5iy 5iy_5iy __,5V
^'^"sd'^sdJ "^50/ +50/ -50/ ~'- -[W

5o) X 100=5.20404 X 100= 520.404= L.520, 8s. id.

nearly.

"Ex, 3. Required the amount of an annuity of L.50,
in 20 years, at 3^ per cent, compound interest.

100:103.5, or ^h then |2:I is the ratio, and

20.7'

20'^

-20

X 50=28.2797 X 50= 1413.985=LI41S

H»_i

20

20

This is the amount of L.l annuity for five years, at

19s. SJd.

Ex. 4 — Required the amount of an annuity of
L.80, in 30 years, at 4 per cent, compound inte-
rest.

AnBvhi«t>

Annuities.

ANN

S51

ANN

I00:10t, or ?^ is the ratio, then (^- —25) X 80=

25 Vza"^ /

56.0849377 X80=4.4.86.795=L.4.4.86, ]5s. 10|d.

Ex. 5 Ilequirecl the amount of an annuity of

L.40 in 18 years, at -t per cent, compound interest)

theo f^ —25) X «)=25.6-i54. X 40= 1025.826=

^25"^ /

L.1025 16s. 3|d.

The present value of any sum of money may be
calculated for any number of years, at any rate per
cent, in a similar manner ; that is, any sum which is
payable only after a certain number of years.

As L.20 in ready money, at 5 per cent, amount to
L.21 in twelve months, so reciprocally, L.21, which
cannot be received till the end of one year, are real-
ly worth only L. 20. Example 1 — Required the
present value of L. 50, the payment of which is
due at the end of one year, it must be multiplied by

^ or ?2x50, and ^=.95238,

31, 21 ' 21

.95238 X 50=4.7 .619.=L.4.7, 12s. 4 Jd. and at the end

of 3 years it would be r23 X 50= 863838 X 50=L.43

Ss. lOd.

Ex.2. — Required tlie present value of L.246,due at
the end of 30 years, at 5 per cent, compound interest.

This wm be —1 X 246=56.9180=L~56, 18s. 4f d.

Ex.3. — Required the present value of L.239,due a*
the end of 37 years, at 5 per cent, compound interest =

Then p.) x 239 = 39.3002 = L.39, 6s.

A table constructed for facihtating these calcu-
lations would begin thus: 105:100 or 21:20::1:

20 X l=r20

— ,so that the presentvalue of L.l, at the end

then |2x50=

21

20

of 1 year is _ 95238

■^ 21

2 do.

3 do.

2iy

20/ '

20'
201
21-
&c.

.90703

.86384

the exponent of this fraction being always the same
as the number of years.

S 26

% 961538

^ , 924556

it will be
For one year is

2 do. .

26

3 do.

26^
25Y
26/
&c.

.888996

Tlie present value of an annuity is that sum which,
when improved at compound interest, would be suf-
ficient to pay the annuity ; and the present value of
the whole annuity is the sum of the present value of
its several payments. When a certain sum of money
is received annually, it is called an annuity of so
much; if the annual payment be L.l , L.lOO, or L.300,
it is called an annuity of L.l, of L.lOO, or of L.300.

Now the present value of L.l annuity, at 5 per Annwiies.
cent, for example, and then that sum multiplied into
the sum proposed, will produce the present value of
that sum.

lue'^oteruld^be} 10^=^00 or 21:20:

. . 20
For 1 year it is ^i"

„ , 20 20\2 203

2 do. 2j-t-2i-j =20-21.

.20X1
■ 21 -

20
21

, 20 , 20V , 20V
Sdo-Yi+^ry +21/

:20—

20*

21^

.95238
1.85941
2.72325

4 do.

5 do.

3.5459
200

20 20y 20y 30*_2(j_265

-.'+21/ +21/ +21 ~ 21*

20 20\' , 20V 20V . 20V „„ .

"•21+21/ +21/ +2T; +21/ -^^2P ••

&c. [4.32947

Ex. 1. — Required the present value of an annuity

of L.60, for 5 years, at 5 per cent, compound interest,

it would be^20— 22; j x 60:

=L.259, 15s. 4;|d. And at 4 per cent, the present
value of the same sum, for the same number of years,

X 60 =4.4518x60=267.1080=

:4^.32947 X 60=259.7682

25«
■26-

would be, 25-

L.267, 2s. lid.

Ex. 2 — Required the present value of an annuity
of L.50, which is to continue 20 years, at 3f per cent.

100 20
103.5 : 100, or , „„ g= ^q 7 — *"6 ratio, and also tlie

first term.

/'20-221)

V ^lor"/

X50=710.62=L.710, 12s. i^d.

.7

Ex. 3 — Required the present value of an annuity

of L.30, for 7 years, at 6 per cent.

50
106:100, or th is the ratio, and likewise the first term.

Then(50— gg,) x 30=5.5823815 X 30=167.471445

=L.167, 9s. 5d.

Ex. 4 — Required the present value of an annui-
ty of L.20, to commence ten years hence, and then
to continue for 1 1 years longer, or to terminate 21
years hence, at 4 per cent. Here we must find the
difierence between tlie present values of two equal
annuities, for the two given times, which is done by
substracting the value of the one period from that of
the other, and multiplying this difierence by the giv-
en annuity.

25
At 4 per cent, the ratio and first term is ^

(25"" \
25 — 2^21 ) X 20= value of one period,

(25" A
25 — 2610 ] X 20= value of tlie other ;

, . ,.^ . / 25-'= 25" ^

their difference is l2o — ^ggST — 25-}-2gio /X20=:

(2511 25^- A
26^0 —26^1 ) X 20=5.9188 x20=118.366=L.n8,

7s,

3Jd.

Ans.

ANN

'352

A N^

• Abubjum. Each of these sums forms a geometrical progres-
sion, uf which the first term and common ratio aro

20
the same, being -r— '■ and the sum of the progression

is found, as usual, by multiplying' the last term by the
common ratio, and sulrtracttng the first term ; and
dividing this by the ratio, minus 1, gives the sum of
tlie series. Now the sum of all these, if extended to
infinity, would give the perpetuity ; but the powers

continually go on decreasing

of this fraction, ^
'21

20 1

in value, for — = -: , of which the powers of the

'21 1.05 '

numerator are always the same, and those of the de-
nominator continually increasing, evidently decreases
the value of the fraction, till at length it may be
considered as nothing, when '20 will then remain for
the value of the perpetuity.
If the rate per- cent, be L. 3, the formula for

100xl_ 100
103 ~ 103

^^+ !!!? )^' f"" twojears, and the sum will be

this will then be 103 : 100 : : 1

1 then

103

103/

103 7
100

103

100
103

— 1

• — 33^ — - -g

100^
103-

where the perpe-
tuity is 33j.

It appears therefore, in every case, that whatever
be the rate per cent, the first part of this general for-
mula will always represent the perpetuity.

The amounts of sums of money are often calcula-
ted for half-years, and annuities very commonly paid
in half-yearly payments, and sometimes quarterly ;
but the same method of calculation will equally an-
swer this purpose. For if we want to know the a-
mount of L.lOO in 20 years, for example, when the
interest is at 4 per cent, and convertible into princi-
pal half-yearly ; considering that 20 years is equiva-
lent to 40 half-years at 2 per cent, interest for eveiy
half-year, it will be the same as the amount in 40

years at 2 per cent. ; this would be — ^ 40 X lOO =

2.20804 X 100=220.804= L.220, 16s. Id. the requir-
ed amount, and is more than it would have been if
reckoned yearly by L.l, 13&. lOd.

If an anmiity is to be paid half-yearly, it is plain
the one-half must be paid after one half-year, and the
other half of it at the end of the next ; we must
therefore multiply the present value of L.l for twice
the number of years given, by half the given annuity.
If it were required to find the present value of an
a»nuity of L.50 for 21 years, to be received in half-
yearly payments, interest being at 5 per cent, per
annum, or at 2f per cent, every half-year, this ap-
pears as follows :

102.5 : 100 : or i^=±, then 4 — -i-lx 25 =
1'20.5 4.1 4.1"= ■^ "-^ -

25.8206X25=645.515 = L.645, lOs.S^d., the value

requhred ; and exceeds the value when interest and

annuity are payable only once a-year by about L.4,

9». Id.

3..

1.1576S

.1, annuity ) , ,?i.?i\^-^l' nr. S \r,9<in
>m. interest \ ^ +'20 + 2oj -'2a~^° ^'^"^^

ityl20 20\ 20\ ^^0*

est f2r+'2ir + 2lj^-^"~2T'

s. J

2.72325

These four principles, from which four correspon-
ding tables may be constructed, being brought into
one view, if we take, for instance, the term of three
years, and the rate of interest 5 per cent, will ap-
pear thus:
1st, Amount of L.l, fit com-) 21^Y

pound interest for 3 years, j 20/
2d, Amount of!

L.l, annuity I . . 21 , 21

com.

for 3 years, J
3d, Present value, of L.l com-l „_

pound interest to be received V — - ]3 86384

at the end of 3 years, ) 21/

4th,Presentval."]

of IZ. annuity [20 . 20''

com. interest

for 3 years,

These four formulas having all nearly the same
form, may be retained in the memory with the great-
est facility, and the^most useful calculations may be
readily performed without any reference to tables,
which may not always be ready at hand.

From the first and third forms, the results are evi-

dently obtained by raising '_i, and z2, to the power

represented by the number of years ; and, from the
second and fourth, the results are obtained by sum-
ming as many terms of the two geometrical progres-
sions respectively, as are the same as the number of
years proposed.

All these operations become very easy, by using
the logarithms.

ANN UI TIES, ior/-o«u2n^ upon, a method employed
by government for raising supplies. According to this
system, money is raised by borrowing either upon
annuities for terms of years, or upon annuities for
lives. An annuity for a long term of years, although
nearly equal in intrinsic value to a perpetual annuity,
meets with fewer purchasers ; for as the subscribers
to a new loan generally mean to sell their subscrip-
tion as soon as possible, a perpetual annuity, re-
deemable by Parliament, is preferred to an irredeem-
able annuity for a long term of years of equal amount.
The former, as its value continues always nearly the
same, is a more convenient transferable stock than
the latter. Annuities, either for terms of years or for
li'B'es, are sometimes granted as a preramm to the
subscribers to a new loan, in addition to the redeem-
able annuity or interest, upon the credit of which
the loan is suppjosed to be contracted for, and then
they are considered only as an encouragement to the
lender.

Annuities for lives are also granted, either upon
separate or joint lives. Such annuities are denomi-
nated Tontines, from the inventor's name. When they
are granted upon separate lives, the death of every
annuitant relieves the public reveiuie from his annui-
ty. But when annuities are granted upon Tontines,
the liberation of the public revenue does not com-
mence till the death of all the annuitants included in
the scheme ; and the last survivor succeeds to the
whole. Upon tlie same revenue more money can be

Annuities.

ANQ

355

AM S

raised by Tontines than by annuities for separate
lives ; for an annuity, with a right of survivorship, is
really worth more than an annuity of equal amount
for a separate life ; and, from the natural confidence
of every man in his own good fortune, such annui-
ties generally sell for something more than they are
worth ; and on this account Tontines are preferred to
annuities for separate lives, in countries where this
mode of raising supplies is adopted.

ANODYNE, from a Greek word which signifies
•uiithout pain, is the name applied to such medicines
as remove or alleviate pain. Of medicines which pos-
sess this property, opium, or some of its preparations,
are the most certain, and at the same time the most
powerful in their effects. See Materia Medica.

ANOMALISTICAX Year, is the period of the
earth's revolution from one point of its orbit to ano-
ther. It is sometimes also called the periodical year.
On account of the precession of the equinoxes, the
period of this year is greater than the tropical year.

ANOMALY, from a Greek word signifying un-
equal, is any irregularity in the motion of the pla-
nets, or the angular distance of the sun and moon
from their apogee, or of the primary planets from
their aphelion.

ANOMIA, a genus of bivalve shells, one of the
characters of which is a perforation near the hinge of
the lower valve. The fossil species of anomia are not
unfrequent in chalk and limestone in Britain. See

COKCHOLOGY.

ANOREXIA, or Anorexy, from, the Greek, and
signifying tvant of appetite, a disease in which the na-
tural desire for food is diminished, or which is in-
creased to a loathing of food, is to be considered ei-
ther as an original atlection of the digestive organs,
or a symptom of some other disorder.

ANOSSI, a province of tlie island Madagascar,
See Madagascar.

ANQUETIL DU PERRON, Abraham Hya-
cinth, a distinguished Oriental scholar, was born
at Paris in December \1?i5, was admitted, at a pro-
per age, a student in the university of his native
city, and soon became familiar with the different
dialects of the Hebrew tongue. By the advice of
friends, rather than by his own inclination, he com-
menced the study of divinity ; but the bias of his
mind still led him to enlarge his knowledge of the
Hebrew, Persian, and kindred languages. His fre-
quent visits to the royal library at Paris, in the pro-
secution of his favourite studies, attracted the no-
tice of some learned men, through whose influence
he obtained a small share of royal patronage, in the
benefit of a salary as a student of Oriental literature ;
and about the same time the discovery of some ma-
nuscripts in the Zend, or Sacred Book, which con-
tains the religious code of the Persians, induced him
to form the romantic plan of a voyage to India, for
the purpose of collecting the works of Zoroaster, the
great Persian legislator ; and although the applica-
tion of his friends was unsuccessful in procuring for
him an appointment in an expedition destined for
India, which was then in preparation, he was not to
be diverted from his resolution ; he enlisted as a com-
mon soldier, and, with a knapsack on his back, had
actually marched from Pari? to join the troops which
VOL. I. PAax I.

were to sail in the fleet, when, by a second interfer-
ence of friends who could appreciate and admire the
inextinguishable ardour of his mind, a free passage
to India was obtained, and a suitable salary for his
support was appointed. He arrived at Pondicherry
in August 1755; with his usual perseverance soon
became master of the modern Persian ; and in the
hope of acquiring a knowledge of the Sanscrit, he
visited Chandernagore. Disappointed of the last ob-
ject, and after a tedious journey full of perils and
adventures, he returned to Pondicherry, and so«n
after proceeded to Surat, where he enjoyed frequent
intercourse with the native priests, and greatly im-
proved his knowledge of the eastern languages.

The war between France and Britain deranged his
future plans ; and the capture of Pondicherry pre-
cluding all hope of a residence at Benares, which he
contemplated for the purpose of studying the lan-
guages, sacred laws, and antiquities of the Hindoos,
he returned tp Europe in an English ship, landed at
Portsmouth, and having visited London and Oxford,
reached his native city in 1762, after an absence of
seven years.

Destitute of worldly fortune, but rich in the spoils
of Oriental literature, M. Anquetil resumed his sta-
tion in the royal library, was appointed interpreter
of eastern languages, and commenced his labours in
arranging the materials which he had collected for
publication. His large work, Zcnd-Avesia, or Sacred
Writings of the Persians, appeared in 1771, in 3 vols.
4to, and is considered by competent judges a va-
luable accession to Indian literature. He published
various other voluminous works, chiefly connected
with the languages, manners, and establishments of
eastern countries ; and having escaped the storms of
the revolution, during which he secluded himself
from society, and was entirely occupied in literary
labours, he terminated a life of 74 years at Paris in
1805. The ardent zeal, indefatigable industry, and
profound research, ' displayed in a long career of
study, throw a bright lustre on his character ; but it
was obscured by excessive vanity, an unamiable tem-
per, and no small degree of national prejudice.

ANSER, the specific name of the common goose.
See Anas, under Or>jithoi,ogy.
■ ANSERES, one of the orders of birds in the Lin-
naean classification. See Ornithology.

ANSIKO, or Anziko, a kingdom of Africaj which
is bounded on the north by some of the deserts of
Nubia, and on the south by part of Congo. The in-
habitants, according to the scanty accounts which
Europeans iiave received of them, are in a state of
extreme barbarity, and it is said, but it surely ex-
ceeds belief, that they are such cannibals as to have
a public market for liuraan flesh ; but, without in-
quiring into the truth of this assertion, it may be well
doubted whether a people in a state of such rudeness
have any market at all.

ANSON, GEORGE, Lord, a British admiral and
circunmavigator, was a native of Staffordshire in
England, and was born in 1697 ; entered early into
the naval service, and in his 25th year was appoint-
ed to the command of a sloop of war. Promoted
soon after to the rank of post-captain, he performed
several voyages to North Carolina during the suc-

Amcr

Anson.

ANS

Aa«A. ceeding ten or twelve years, and in this service ac-
quired considerable wealth.

But the arduous voyage in which he circumnavi-
gated the globe forms the most memorable incident
of his life. With five ships of the line, and some at-
tendant vessels of a smaller description, placed un-
der his command, he sailed from England in Sep-
tember 1740, for the purpose of attacking the Spa-
nish settlements on. the western coasts of America,
while Admiral Vernon was occupied on a similar
service on the opposite shores of Mexico. In
doubling Cape Horn he encountered the most tem-
pestuous weather ; a severe gale of forty days dura-
tion dispersed his squadron ; and the scurvy made
dreadful ravages among his men. Having repaired
his fleet at Juan Fernandez, he sailed to Peru, and
destroyed the town of Paita on that coast ; but his
diminished numbers and sickly crews prevented any
farther attempt in the prosecution of hostilities on
land, and induced him to proceed westward across
the Pacific ocean in tlie hope of intercepting the
Spanish treasure ship, which passes annually between
the Philippine isles and Acapulco. On this jiassage,
the Gloucester, the only remaining ship o^' his squa-
dron, beside his own, became leaky, and was aban-
doned ; and the united crews, enfeebled by sickness,
could scarcely conduct the Centurion to the Ladrone
islands. They landed on Tinian to water and re-
fresh; and while the commander and great part of
the crew were on shore, a storm arose in which the
ship slipped her anchors, and was driven out to the
wide ocean. Eighteen days of anxious suspense
passed over their heads before tlie Centurion appear-
ed ; and during that period, while their bosoms were
agitated with the varying emotions of hope and de-
spair, they had actually conmienced the equipment
of a small vessel found on the island. With a crew
renovated in health and vigour. Captain Anson sail-
ed to Macao in China ; on his return he had the good
fortune to capture a rish Spanish galleon ; and with
this prize of immense value, he proceeded to Europe
by the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived in England
in June 17'M', after nearly four years absence. Soon
after his arrival he was promoted to the rank of ad-
miral, and appointed a commissioner of the admi-
ralty.

In 1747, while in command of the Channel fleet,
the successful capture of six French ships of the
line and four East Indiamen, made a large accession
to his riches and honours. He was immediately
raised to the rank of nobility ; in a few years was
placed at the head of the naval administration ; and
at last obtained the chief command of the British
fleet. He died in June 1762.

Lord Anson was remiarkable for taciturnity and
equanimity of mind. Under his authority the dis-
cipline of the navy was improved ; and the revival
of the close mode of fighting, which he accomplish-
ed, gave full scope to the undaunted bravery and in-
vincible courage of British seamen. The eventful
narrative of his voyage round the world, published
under the name of Mr Walter, chaplain of the Cen-
turion, was drawn up from Lord Anson's journal by
Mr Benjamin Robins, whose curious experiments
and ingenious researches in physical science have

354 ANT

raised him to a high degree of celebrity as a natural Antpwih
philosopher ; and tliose readers only who have not ||

perused it need be informed, that the English Ian- Anuem.
guage can boast of few works of deeper interest.

ANSPACH, a marquisate of Fianconia in Ger-
many, is bounded by the tei-ritories of Nuremberg,
Wurtzburg, and Bayreuth, is about 50 miles long,
and presents a mountainous aspect. The soil is light
and sandy, but produces grain, pulse, and some to-
bacco. The vine thrives on the banks of the Mayne,
and yields an excellent wine ; and the rich meadows
aSbrd abundant pasture to a fine breed of cattle.
Iron and varieties of marbles are enumerated among
the mineral productions ; and the inhabitants, who
exceed 215,000, beside agricultural affairs, are oc-
cupied in the manufacture of woollen cloths, tapes-
try, hats, silk stockings, porcelain, glass, gold and
silver lace, and needles. This territory was assigned
to the king of Prussia in 1791, during the revolu-
tionary distribution of the French, formed part of
one oi the new German kingdoms, and has now pro-
bably returned to the sovereignty of its former mas-
ter.

Anspach is the capital of the marquisate of the
same name, is about twelve miles distant from Nu-
remberg, and is chiefly known as the seat of a porce-
lain manufactory which was established about the
beginning of the 18th century.

ANT, the trivial name of different insects which
are arranged under different genera; as the common
ant, which comes under the genus J'ormica ; the lion
ant, which belongs to myrmeleon ; and the white ant,
a species oi termes. See Entomology.

ANTA, or Anten, a small mountainous district
on the Gold Coast of Africa, which is about 30 miles
in length, and has been dignified with the name of
kingdom ; but the fertile vallies afford rich fruits,
some grain, and abundance of goats and poultry.
Canoes SO feet long, and seven or eight feet broad,
formed of a single tree, are made in this province,
are capable of admitting a cargo of 10 or 12 tons,
and are reckoned superior to any other in Guinea.

ANTAB, or Antiochette, a town of Syria,
which occupies two hills and the intermediate valley,
is about three miles in circumference, and is watered
by a stream, part of which is conveyed by aquasducts
to the upper parts of the town. The dwelling houses
are erected on the hills, and the shops in the vallies
have terraced roofs, through the openings of which,
for admitting light, a stranger is struck with the sin-
gularity of a crowded street under his feet. Bows
and saddles which are in much repute, and a coarse
kind of printed calicoes, are the chief manufactures
and sources of commercial activity. Antab is 4.<0
miles north from Aleppo.

ANTiTEOPOLIS, the ancient metropolis of the
Thebaid in Egypt, now reduced to a poor village,
which exhibits a sad contrast with the portico of a
temple, the only remains of a magnificent structure
dedicated to Antaeus. A stone which forms part of
the covering of the portico is thirty feet long and five
feet broad ; but the gold and azure colours of the
cieling, as they are described by travellers, retain all
their original brilliancy.

ANTiEUS, according to ancient mythology, vras

ANT

A«tarctic ^ giant of Libya, and the son of Neptune and Terra,
II and was celebrated for his vast strength and his skill

Antcdilu- i" wrestling. Having formed a resolution of erecting
vians. a temple to his father with Jiuman skulls, he slew all
y^^\^^ that he met to supply himself with materials. Her-
cules at last became his antagonist, and perceiving
that he derived new vigour from his mother earth
every time that he touched the ground, raised him
into the air, and squeezed him to death.

AntsEUS and Atlas are supposed to refer to the
same person, from the similarity of the incidents of
their lives. They were both sons of Neptune ; they
were both kings of Mauritania ; both were famed for
their knowledge of astronomy ; both invaded Egypt ;
and both were vanquished and slain by Hercules.

According to the explanation of Sir Isaac New-
ton, Ammon, the father of Sesac, was the first king of
Libya, or that extensive region which stretches from
the confines of Egypt to the Atlantic ocean, the con-
quest of which was accomplished by Sesac, during
his father's reign, about a thousand years before the
Christian era. After the death of Ammon, the Li-
byans were excited to rebellion through the influence
of Neptune ; Sesac was slain, and an army under the
command of Antaeus or Atla» was sent to invade
Egypt. But Hercules, the general of Thebais and
Ethiopia, vanquished and slew Antaus, and thus a
second time reduced the whole of Libya. Antaeus fell
near the spot where the city which received his name
was built.

ANTARCTIC signifies what is opposite to the
arctic, or north pole, as, the antarctic pole, the a7i-
tarctic circle, the antarctic regions, referring to the
south pole and southern regions.

ANTEDILUVIANS, the human race who lived
before the flood. . Their histery which, according to
the most approved computation, embraces the long
period of 1656 years, is narrated by Moses within
the narrow compass of seven chapters in the begin-
ning of Genesis. While a more detailed account was
unnecessary for accomplishing the object he had in
view, this is the only authentic information that can
be obtained ; and inquiry cannot proceed beyond
these limits without indulging in doubtful specula-
tion. Following the narrative of the sacred histori-
an, we shall state the facts which he records, with
such observations and comments as they may sug-
gest.

Adam and Eve, — In adverting to the primitive in-
habitants of the earth, our two great progenitors pre-
sent the first claim to our attention. On the sixth
day from the commencement of the creation, when
this terrestrial globe was fitted up as an agreeable
residence for man, Adam and Eve were brought into
existence, as actors on the mighty stage, and admirers
of its rich and magnificent scenery. Unlike their
descendants, who enter life in a state of infancy and
weakness, they sprang from the. hands of their Ma-
ker in the fullest corporeal and mental perfection ;
their bodies possessing all that is exquisite in beauty
proportion, and strength ; and their minds all that is
vigorous in mtellect, noble in sentiment, holy in de-
sire, or pious in feeling. This was the Golden Age
alluded to by the writers of classic antiquity, when
fidelity and virtue were spontaneously cultivated
2.

355 ANT

when the Supreme Judge was sincerely worshipped,
and when guilt and wretchedness were unknown.

Yet, high as they stood in perfection, Adam and
Eve were still mutable ; and in an evil hour, by lis-
tening to the suggestions of the deceiver, they dis-
obeyed the divine command, and forfeited their ho-
nour and their happiness. Fear and remorse now
agitated their breasts, the heavens lowered upon them
in darkness, and the fair creation of God denied them
its smiles.

Earth felt the wound, and nature from her seat
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe,
That all was lost.

Amid their consternation and distress, which, but for
some gleam of consolation, would have proved insup-
portable, the offended Creator made known to them
his merciful intentions, in declaring that the seed of Ike
ix'oman shoidd bruise the head of the serpent, by whom
they had been betrayed into rebellion, and plunged in-
to misery. Having interrogated them on the crime
they had committed, and, in anticipation, held out
to them the dawn of a brighter day upon the world,
he clothed them with coats of skins, instead of the
fig-leaves with which they had been formerly covered;
expelled them from the Garden of Eden, where they
had enjoyed whatever could gratify the senses, please
the imagination, or elevate the soul, and doomed .
them to drag out a life of anxiety, toil, and pain, un-
til death should reduce them to their original dust.
In this melancholy event we recognise the Silver Age
of the poets, when the corruption of the human heart
began to be displayed.

Different opinions have been entertained respect-
ing the interval between the formation of our prime-
val parents and their apostacy from God. Accord-
ing to one opinion, they lost their innocency and
were banished from paradise in the evening of the
very day on which they were made ; according to
another they fell on the eighth day of the world, it
being supposed probable that, as thefin-t week termi-
nated with their creation, the second would terminate
with their departure from righteousness. A third
opinion is, that the}' revolted on the tenth day, since,
in remembrance of that catastrophe, the great day of
atonement was observed on the tenth of Tisri, the
month with which the Jewish civil year commenced ;
and a fourth is, that they maintained their rectitude
^forti/ days, as many of the principal trials recorded
in scripture, and especially the temptation of Christ,
of whom Adam was a type, lasted a similar period.
The first of these opinions, which was adopted by
most of the Jews and some of the Christian fathers,
is by no means probable, because it crowds too many
incidents into a short space, and allows not time sufif-
cient for the multifarious transactions in which they
were engaged previously to their violation of the
covenant. But which of the other three, or whether
any of them be founded in truth, it is impossible to
determine, for want of proper data on which to pro-
ceed in drawing a conclusion.

Cain and Abel. — Soon after the expulsion of Adam
and Eve from the garden, their first son, Cain, whose
name denotes possession, was born. Looking on
him, it should seeni; as the promised seed who should

ANT

356

ANT

Aatedih- vanquish the devil, and repair the ruin he had occa-
sioned, Eve exclaimed in a transport of joy at his
birth, " I have gotten a man from the Lord ;" or,
as it might otherwise be rendered, " I have acquired
a man, even Jehovah." No such expectation was
formed, or exultation expressed, when she brought
forth her next son, whom she called Abel, to signify
something vain, or transient, probably because she
now felt her hopes disappointed with regard to the
Messiah's immediate appearance ; or, because she
was now taught, by bitter experience, that all eartlv
ly enjoyments were " vanity and vexation of spirit."
The Former of these sons was "a tiller of the ground,"
and the latter a keeper of sheep ; and if their em-
ployments were dift'erent, so also were their disposi-
tions of mind. Cain was fierce, cruel, and dissem-
bling ; Abel was gentle, harmless, and open. Cain
was abandoned to iniquity ; Abel was religious and
upright. An event at length occurred which stamp-
ed infamy on the character of the one, while it shed
a glorious lustre on the character of the other. Each
uf them, at the time and place appointed, presented
his offering to the Lord, but Cain's was refused and
Abel's accepted. From that moment sentiments of
jealousv began to operate in the bosom of Cain, and,
cherishing tlie most deadly intention against his bro-
ther, he proposed to him a walk in the fields, that,
removed from human eye, he might the more easily
accomplish his sanguinary purpose. Abel, who, on
the other hand, beheld him with the tenderest frater-
nal affection, suspecting no c.il, readily complied,
and fell a victim to his maddening fury. This fixes
the era oi'the Brazen Age, when men, though as yet
not wholly corrupted, became savage in their tem-
pers, and prone to deeds of violence and oppression.

- a'enea proles

Savior ingeniis et ad horrida promptior arma.
Nee scelerala tamen. Ovid.

With the Mosaic account of Cain and Abel, hea-
then tradition remarkably coincides. Sanchoniatho,
in his Phoenician history, tells us that the immediate
descendants of the two first mortals, Protogonus and
Eon, were Genus and Genea, a male and a female ;
and Bishop Cumberland, in his Annotations accom-
panying his translation of the fragments of that his-
tory handed down to us by Eusebius, infers, from
various circumstances, that Genus and Genea were
Cain and his sister. In the Hindoo mythology the
first Menu, surnamed Swayambhuva, or son of the
Self-existent, had by his wife Satarupa, besides three
daughters, two jo7!,s, who were particularly distinguish-
ed, and, from what) is said of the Deity descending
from heaven to be present at their offering, it would
appear that this distinction was such as marked the
respective characters of Cain and Abel. And among
the IroquQis Americans it has been believed from time
immemorial, that the first woman, after she was se-
duced from her obedience to God, and, in conse-
quence, driven from Paradise, bore two sons, the one
of whom was attacked and slain by the other.

Sign given to Cain. — On the murder of his brotJier
Abel, and the denouncement against him for that
nefarious transaction, Cain felt all the horrors of sul-
len despondency, and exliibited a melancholy picture

of misery and impenitence. No relentings seem to
hare taken place in his soul ; the only considerations
which extorted a complaint from his hardened breast,
were the severity of the pynishment to which he was
doomed, and the fear of being put to death by
any one who might chance to meet him in the
way. But as banishment, and labour on an unpro-
ductive soil, were all that his sentence imported, the
Almighty was pleased to favour him with a sign, or
token, sufficient to satisfy his mind that the destruc-
tion he dreaded should not overtake him ; adding, at
the same time, that whoever should do him violence,
would expose himself to " sevenfold vengeance."
What this sign or token was is unknown, and many
are the conjectures to which it has given rise. Some
think it was a brand in his forehead ; others a parti-
cular garment with which he was invested ; others a
continual shaking of his body ; others the blasting of
his face with lightning ; and others the trembling of
the ground under hiui wherever he went.

Descendants of Cain. — Now we behold this fratri-
cide banished in ignominy from the Schechinah, or
symbol of the divine presence, and after wandering
about through different tracts of uninhabited country,
at length settled in the land of Nod, at a distance
from Eden, where, it is generally supposed, he be-
came a worshipper of the sun. By the sacred histo-
rian no mention has liitherto been made of his wife,
who is now first introduced to our notice at the birth
of Enocli ; although it is extremely probable he was
married before he slew his brother and left his father's
house. When his progeny began to multiply, he
built a city for them, which he named after Enoch,
that, by uniting togetlier, they might be the better
prepared to repel the hostile incursions which his
guilty conscience led him still to dread. From Enoch
sprang Irad ; from Irad, Methujael ; from Methu-
jael, Methusael ; from Methusael, Lamech ; and from
Lamech, Jabal, who constructed moveable tents, and
made improvements in the management of cattle,
Jubal, who invented musical instruments, and Tubal-
cain, who discovered the art of extracting iron from
its ore.

If it be true, as Josephus relates, that Cain, instead
of improving by the afflictions and trials that attend-
ed him in his banishment, gave himself up to all man-
ner of wickedness, enriched himself by rapine and
plunder, changed the simplicity of former times, and
made choice of the most abandoned for his compa-
nions, we may easily judge of the bad effects which
his example would produce on the conduct of his
offspring. We have every reason to conclude that
they became licentious, cruel, rapacious, and vindic-
tive. Indeed Lamech, the first polygamist of.whom
any account is recorded, seems to intimate as nuich
in the following speech to his two wives, Adah
and Zillah : " I have slain, (said he,) a man to my
wounding, and a young man to my hurt. If Cain
shall be avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy
and sevenfold." For whether these words be read
nffirmativelu or interrogatively, they plainly presup-
pose that Lamech had been chargeable with murder,
but that, being less criminal than Cain, who, unpro-
voked, had assassinated a brother, he might, with
much greater justice, expect the divine protection

ANT

357

ANT

against his adversaries. His wives, it should seem,
vrere sensible of his guilt, and apprehensive of dan-
ger, and such was the argument he employed to
overcome their fears.

Seth and his descendants. — From the rapidity with
which Moses describes the antediluvian ages, many
things must be omitted. In the course of 130 years,
Adam unquestionably had other children besides
Cain and Abel, before the birth of Seth, a fact which
is obviously implied in the sacred narrative. We are
told by Cedrenus, quoted by Bishop Patrick, that
he had 33 sons and 27 daughters, but any specific
enumeration ought to be regarded as merely fanciful
and gratuitous. Seth was distinguished for his piety
and virtue ; and from the appellation Enos, signifying
weakness, which he gave to his first child, we are led
to believe, that he deplored the miserable and helpless
condition of mankind in consequence of the fall. It
is said, that at this time " men began to call on the
name of the Lord ;" an expression, the import of
which, however differently understood by different in-
terpreters, the original words and the strain of the his-
tory determine to be this: "men," that is the progeny
of Seth, " began to call themselves by the name of the
Lord." Very little is recorded concerning his offspring
as individuals, before the flood, if we except the
duration of their lives, and the place which they oc-
cupy in the genealogical catalogue of the patriarchs,
from whom the postdiluvians were to descend. E-
noch the son of .Jared, and Noah the son of Lamech,
are the only two whose characters are mentioned
with particular approbation. The former " walked
with God," and was translated to heaven without
tasting of death ; and the latter was righteous, and
" found grace in the eyes of the Lord." Of the rest
we know, in general, that they were attentive to the
duties of religion, and were honest and upright in
their moral deportment.

Intermarriages, and corruption. — At length the male
descendants of Seth, styled " the sons of God," be-
gan to associate with the female descendants of Cain,
called " the daughters of men ;" and enamoured with
their beauty and accomplishments, entered into con-
nubial alliance with them, and by incorporating form-
ed one people. Mr Selden, in his book, De Diis
Syris, relates, from an eastern writer, that the chil-
dren of Seth, who had sworn by the blood of Abel,
never to leave the mountainous parts of the country
which they inhabited, to mingle with the children of
Cain, were now induced to violate their oath, by the
attractive charms of Naamali, and the delightful mu-
sic of her brother Jubal. The manner in which they
were captivated is thus described by the Poet Mil-

" They on the plain

Long had not walk'd, when from their tents, behold
A bevy of fair women, richly gay,
In gems and wanton dress : to th' harp they sung
Soft amorous ditties, and in dance came on.
The men though grave, ey'd them, and let their eyes
Rove without rein, till in the amorous net
First caught, they lik'd, and each his liking chose.

But from whatever cause the union of these two
families may have arisen, it is not surprising that it
proved subservient to the most pernicious consequen-

ces. And if ever the maxim, that " evil communi-
cations corrupt good manners," was verified in actu-
al experience, it was so at this period in an awful de-
gree. An almost universal depravity took place ;
genuine religion was abandoned for idolatry; and the
whole earth was filled with impurity, fraud, rapine,
and violence. With this the Age of Iron couuncnced,
which is depicted by Ovid in the following lines : —

Protinus irrumpit vena; pejoris in avian
Omne nefas : JtigSre pudor, verumquejtdesqnc;
In quorum subiere locum Jraudesque, dolique,
Insidicsqiie, et vis, et amor sceleratus habendi,

*****

Victajacet Pictas ; ft Virgo ccede madentes
Ultima ccelestum terras Astraa rcliqKit.

Giants.— From these intermarriages sprang up a
race of giants, who were mighty and renowned for
their valorous exploits. Not indeed that giants were
never heard of until now, for it seems intimated
by the inspired historian, that they existed before
Seth's posterity united with the posterity of Cain.
And we are informed by Sanchoniatho, that from
Genus, or Cain, were descended sons of vast
bulk and height, whose names were given to the
mountains on which they 'lived. Hesiod also tells
us, in his description of the Brazen Age, that the
men of that period were fierce, strong, warlike, and
insulting; their hearts being of adamant, their corpo-
real powers immense, their shoulders broad, and their
nervous arms irresistible. But though there were
such beings in the earth previous to that alliance,
yet, in consequence of it they began to multiply, and
to present a more threatening aspect. After all, it
is very doubtful, whether by giants we are to under-
stand persons of extraordinary size, or persons of ex-
traordinary voickedness. Both senses may be inclu-
ded in the term, inasmuch as they would naturally
become proud and overbearing on account of their
prodigious strength ; and they were probably the.
ringleaders in degeneracy during that period of pro-
fanity and crime.

Preaching of Noah. — The antediluvians had reach-
ed the highest pitch of iniquity ; and the Almighty,
provoked to indignation, resolved to destroy them
with a flood of water, unless they repented of their
deeds, and renewed their allegiance to his law and
government. He communicated his intentions to
Noah, who, amidst the profligacy of the age, was " a
just man, and perfect in his generation, and walked
with God." To save him and his family, along with
a pair of each species of animals, from the impend-
ing ruin, he was directed to build an ark of sufficient
dimensions for their accommodation. For 1 20 years,
which were allotted for the raising of this huge struc-
ture, Noah was commissioned to forewarn mankind of
their alarming situation, and to exhort them to re-
form their lives, and to supplicate forgiveness ere it
was too late. Hence he is styled by an apostle, " a
preacher of righteousness ;" and indieed all the time
he was engaged in preparing the vessel, he may be
considered as delivering to them one continued prac-
tical discourse. But his ministry among them was
attended with no success. Ignorant of the divine
power, or perhaps trusting to tlie unwearied opera-

ANT

558

AISTT

Antedirn. tion of divine grace, they disobeyed his exhortations
and counsels, us the result of" weak and superstitious
fear. And thus " because sentence against an evil
work was not executed speedily, their hearts were
fully set in them to do evil.' Such was the plenitude
of their awful infatuation.

Destruction bti the Flood. — The ark was at length
completed, and the period of (iod's long suffering
patience brought to a close. IS'oah and his family,
with the animals accompanying them, entered this
asylum, and the Almighty " shut them in," and seal-
ed up the doors. The founiains of the great deep
were broken up, and the flood-gates of heaven were
thrown open, through which the rain rushed in cata-
racts to the earth, to inflict vengeance on the guilty
and impenitent sons of men. Behold the miserable
victims running in every direction from the fury of
that storm which they so lately derided ! Some cling
to the ark and im lore admittance ; othets repair to
the roofs of houses ; others climb to the tops of the
loftiest trees ; and others ascend to the summits of
the highest mountains ; but the impetuosity of the
elements drive them from their stations, and the over-
whelming waters swallow them up to rise no more.
Amid this wreck of nature, this scene of desolation
and of death, Noah and his wife, with his sons and
their wives, were upborne on the swelling flood ; and
while thousands fell on their right hand, and ten
thousands on their left, they were shielded by the
arm of the omnipotent Jehovah, and were preserved
to be the progenitors of a new world. The deluge
commenced about the beginning of our November,
and lasted one whole year.

This event, so particularly described by Moses, is
also alluded to by the writers of heathen antiquity.
Berosus, the Chaldean, informs us, that Xisuthrus,

i another name for Noah,) was warned in a dream of
le approaching destruction of mankind by a flood ;
tliat he was ordered to build a ship for the protection
of himself, his friends and his relatives, together with
fowls and fourfooted beasts ; and that, in yielding a
compliance with that premonition and command, he,
and all that were with him, were saved from the ra-
vaging waters. The same story is related by Abyde-
nus, quoted by Eusebius in his Preparatio Evangeli-
ca. And, to pass over in silence the inundations
which happened in the time of Ogyges and Deucali-
on, and the traditions of a deluge in almost all na-
tions ; the memory of this tremendous catastrophe, as
the learned Bryant and Faber have abundantly shewn,
pervades the whole of Pagan Mythology.

Beligion of the Antediluvians. — From what has been
already observed, it is evident that the antediluvians
were by no means ignorant of the truths and conso-
lations of the gospel. The prophetic promise of the
Messiah was given to our first parents immediately
subsequent .to then fall, and in the accomplishment
of this promise they seem to have firmly believed ;
for, abstracting from other considerations, on what
principle can we account for the death of those ani-
mals with whose skins they were covered, but on the
supposition that they were slain in sacrifice, as a
prefiguration of the death and atonement of Christ?
In all proba ility, no beasts had as yet died of them-
eeWes ; and it is clear, notwithstanding what has been

urged by the opponents of this doctrine, that flesh
was not used as food before the grant made to Noah
after the deluge.

It has been much disputed whether sacrifices, pre-
viously to the flood, were of divine institution; and very
learned men have arrangeil themselves on both sides
of the controversy. Dr Spencer, Dr Sykes, Bishop
Warburton, and others, have adopted the negative of
the question ; and they have been ably answered by
Dr Kennicot in liis Tmo Dissertations ; Dr Jennings
in his Jewish Antiquities ; and Dr Magee in his work
on Atonement and Sacrijice. From the cursory man-
ner in which Moses relates the affairs of the antedi-
luvian world it is not to be wondered at, that he says
nothing concerning the appointment of sacrificial ob-
lations. Yet, from some of the incidents which come
under his notice, we may warrantably infer, that the
practice must have arisen not from human contri-
vance, but from the positive injunction of heaven.
How, otherwise, is it possible to understand why God
should have refused the sacrifice of Cain, while he ac-
cepted the sacrifice of Abel? That of the former consist-
ed only of inanimate objects, namely the fruits of the
earth, as an expression of his gratitude for the boun-
ties of providence, without any reference to his ruined
condition, or to the blood of the promised Redeemer ;
whereas that of the latter, besides inanimate eucha-
ristic gifts, consisted also of the firstlings of the
flock, as a burnt-oftering, to symbolize that expia-
tion which Christ was to make for sin, when the ful-
ness of time should come. Now, since the divine
favour was so signally displayed towards Abel on ac-
count of his faith, that faith must have had other
grounds than the mere conclusions of his own rea-
son on which to rest ; inasmuch as God, who is jea-
lous of his prerogative, would have by no means ap-
proved of an act of will-worship. Indeed there is
nothing in human nature which could lead men a
priori to suppose, that the Deity would be pleased
with the death of his creatures. The truth then
seems to be, that sacrifices originated in a divine
command, as early as the first mention of Christ ;
and hence he is represented in Scripture as a lamb
that had been slam from the foundation of the
world.

The doctrine of the soul's immortality was also
known to the antediluvians. It was intimated by
the promise of the Messiah to our primeval parents;
for, unless this be allowed, it will be difficult to con-
ceive how that promise could impart any real con-
solation to their minds, under the sentence of death
to which they were subjected. It was intimated by
the acceptance of Abel, a little before he fell a vic-
tim to the fury of his brother, since this acceptance
implied blessings in which he could never have par-
ticipated had he not afterwards existed in another
State. And it was intimated with still greater clear-
ness by the translation of Enoch ; because, if this
was the reward of his walking with God, then he
only exchanged earth for heaven, and time for eter-
nity. Nor at this period were mankii:d u linstructed
in the future judgment of the world ; the apostle
Jude informs us, that Enoch prophesied of that^
event.

With regard to the Sabbath, some have denied

ANT

559

ANT

Antedila- that it was appointed before the giving of the law.
vians. But we are told that " God blessed the seventh day
and sanctified it, because that in it he had rested
from all his works which God created and made."
And besides, without admitting that it was instituted
at the creation, it will be difficult to assign any
reason for the sacredness of the number seven, and
the portioning of time by the septenary revolution
of days, which has universally prevailed among the
heathen nations. They could not have borrowed
this division from the writings of Moses, to which
they had no access ; nor could they have been led
to it by any observations on the motion of the earth,
or of the celestial bodies. It cannot, therefore, be
accounted for on any other principle but that of tra-
dition.

Form of government. — If Cain's apprehensions of
danger on the murder of his brother, and Lamech's
speech to his wives, who were afraid of the ven-
geance which his crimes might provoke from the
hand of justice, be excepted, no traces of a civil po-
lity among the antediluvians appear in the sacred
page. Yet asjsuch a polity is necessary for the well-
being and comfort of society, it is natural to suppose
that they must have had a government under some
form or other. This was undoubtedly patriarchal ;
the exclusive power being lodged in the fathers of
families. Not only would each father be considered
as supreme in his own household, but he would also
be regarded as invested with paramount authority
by all the families who were descended from him.
How long such a form existed, it is impossible to
say. It may even be fairly questioned, whether it
continued to the time of tlie flood ; because men of
superior strength and superior acquirements might,
by address or compulsion, have gained an ascendan-
cy over the particular sphere in which they moved.
Nay it is not unlikely, that, after the union of Seth's
posterity with that of Cain, there was no effective
government at all ; for then the utmost anarchy and
disorder prevailed.

Arts, S;c. — Although the inspired records give us
little information concerning the antediluvian arts,
yet we may decypher, amidst the partial darkness in
which they are mvolved, their rudiments or general
character. Doubtless, compared with the perfec-
tion at which they have arrived in modern times,
by the accumulated experience and improvement of
nearly 6000 years, they were then in an infant and
unpolished state. Husbandry and pasturage were
the first objects which engaged the attention of
men. Adam was employed in dressing the garden,
Cain in tilling the ground, and Abel in grazing the
flock. But agriculture implies the use of imple-
ments fitted for the purpose ; which probably con-
sisted of shells, sharp-edged stones, or pieces of wood
whetted at the point. It was not long, however, be-
fore these rude implements were laid aside, when the
art of Metallurj^y was discovered by Tubal-cain.
Architecture, carpentry, and music, were also ob-
jects of attention ; for we are told that Cain built a
city, that Jabal constructed tents, that Jubal taught
to perform on the harp and organ, and that Noah
erected that immense and complicated fabric the
avk. The Arabians ascribe the invention of colours

and painting to Naamah, and of letters and writing
to Seth. And if we may believe Josephus, 8eth
and his descendants were well acquainted with as-
tronomy and other useful sciences ; and being in-
formed by Adam that the world should be destroyed
by water, they set up two pillars bearing inscriptions
of their knowledge of these sciences, as monuments
to future ages. Whether the antediluvians had any
traffic we are not told ; yet from the progress they
made in the arts, and from the hint given us by the
sacred historian concerning the introduction of pro-
perty, or of exclusive right among them in the time
of Jabal, it is very likely that tliey carried on some
kind of trade by barter or exchange. Marriage, in-
stituted by the appointment of God, was restricted
to one man and one woman ; but the original insti-
tution was soon transgressed by Lamech, who mar-
ried two wives, and thus set an example of polyga-
my which, perhaps, was generally followed, espe-
cially among th^ posterity of Cain.

Ldngi'vity. — V* hen we think of threescore and ten
years, the present standard of human life, we are
apt to wonder at the vast ages which the antedilu-
vians reached. Lamech, the youngest of them who
died a natural death, lived 777 years, and Methuse-
lah 969. In almost perfect coincidence with the
Mosaic account, Manetho, Berosus, Mochus, Hes-
tiaeus, Hieronymus, and many other heathen liisto-
rians relate, as Josephus informs us, that the first
inhabitants of the earth lived even to 1000 years.
The causes which led to their longevity are com-
monly considered to have been the strength of their
corporeal powers, the mild and uniform temperature
of the air which they breathed, the sobriety of their
habits and simplicity of their diet, and the excellent
and invigorating quality of the fruits and vegetables
on which they fed. But whatever may have been
the proximate causes, the ultimate cause was the will
of the Creator, who ordains every thing for the ac-
complishment of the wisest ends. Thus, provision
was made for the more speedy propagation of the
species, and peopling of the earth ; for the transmit-
ting of religious knowledge in a state of purity, in
the absence of written document and memorial ; and
for making discoveries and improvements in those
arts and sciences which were useful for the conveni-
ence and comfort of society.

In place of admitting such a longevity to the an-
tediluvians, it has been maintained tliat their lives
ought to be reckoned, not by solar but by lunar
years, of about 30 days each ; an assertion than
which nothing more palpably absurd can well be
advanced. For, independently of the consideration
that it would be impossible to know when to leave
off this mode of reckoning, and to calculate by an-
nual revolutions of the earth round the sun ; the ages
of the patriarchs, in general, would be reduced to a
much shorter term than we ourselves attain ; even
Methuselah would have been only about 80 when lie
died. Besides, Enos, at the birth of his first son,
would have been seven, and Cainan, Mahalaleel, and
Enoch, five years old. To this we may add, that if
the years after the flood were also lunar, then Abra-
ham liad Ishmael in the 7th, and died, ' an old man
and full of years" in the 14th year of his age. But

AfltcdUa-

ANT

560

ANT

enough has been said to refute the lunar hypo-
thesis.

As the lives of the antediluvian patriarchs vary
according to the different computations of the He-
brew, the Samaritan, and the Septuagint text-s of the
Bible ; and as there have been advocates for eacli of
these computations, we shall here subjoin the follow-
ing tables : The first column denotes the year of the
world when ttie patriarchs respective!}' began their
lives ; the second, their ages at the birth of their
sons ; the third, the time they lived with Adam ; the
Jburth, the time they lived with Noah ; and theji/th,
the time they lived in all.

I. Hebreui Computation.

Adam . . . .

1

930

Seth

130

130

800

912

Enos

235

105

695

84

905

Cainan ....

325

90

605

179

910

Mahalaleel .

395

70

535

234

895

Jared ....

460

65

470

366

962

Enoch . . . •

622

162

308

365

Methuselah .

687

65

243

600

969

Lamech . . .

87*

187

56

595

777

Noah . . . .

1056

182

II.

Samaritan Compidation.

Adam ....

1

130

223

930

Seth

130

105

800

335

912

Enos

235

90

695

433

905

Cainan. . . .

325

70

605

528

910

Mahalaleel .

395

65

535

583

895

Jared ....

460

62

470

600

847

Enoch ....

522

65

408

180

365

Methuselah .

587

67

343

600

720

Lamech . . .

654

53

276

600

653

Noah ....

707

500

223

in.

Septuagint Computation,

Adam ....

1

230

930

Seth

230

205

700

1042

Enos

435

190

495

113

1340

Cainan. . . .

625

170

305

498

1535

Mahalaleel .

795

165

135

823

1690

.Tared ....

960

162

1220

1922

Enoch ....

1122

165

947

1487

Methuselah .

1287

187

1881

2256

Lamech . . .

1474

188

2039

2227

Noah . . . .

1662

500

Of these three computations, that of the Hebrew
is the most generally received, and is supported by
the most respectable authorities. If, according to it,
we add 600, — Noah's age when he entered the ark,
— to 1056,'the age of the world when he was born,
the period from the creation to the deluge will
amount to 1656 years.

Numlier at iliejiood. — It is impossible to arrive at
any thing like certainty with regard to the popula-
tion of the antediluvian world ; all that can be stated
on the subject is merely conjecture. Yet it is certain,
from the general term of the patriarchal hves, that

the human race at the flood must have been very Anicnnik
numerous. Mr Burnet, supposing Adam and Eve to ||

have left, at the end of the first century, 10 pairs, Anteqoer*.
, and taking a quadruple, instead of a decuple ratio,
for the succeeding centuries, gives us 10,737,418,240
inhabitants. Mr Whiston, proceeding on the prin-
ciple, that mankind began to procreate as early as
they do at present, and continued as long in propor-
tion to their ages, and fixing, according to fancy,
the period of doubling at irregular and assumed in-
tervals, produces 549,755,813,888. Mr Cockburn,
again, who adheres to the Septuagint chronology,
after having made due allowance for every circum-
stance, such as the age of puberty, and the time of
nursing, &c. brings out, in one table, with 50 for'
the period of doubling, 429,496,729,600 ; and, in an-
other table, with 40 for the period of doubling,
54,975,581,388,800. Whatever result may be ad-
opted as the most probable, it will far exceed the
present population of the earth, which is computed
at 800,000,000.

On this subject the reader may consult with ad.-
vantage Patrick on Genesis; Shuckford's Connexions,
Vol. I. ; Stackhouse's History of the Bible, VoL I. ;
and Faber's Horce Mosaicce.

ANTEGO, an island in the West Indies. See
Antigua.

ANTEJURAMENTUM, an opposition of oaths,
denominated also juramentum calumnice, or oath of
calumny, was an oath which the person who brought
an accusation, as well as the accused, was required
to swear before tibial in ancient times. The ac-
cuser bound himself to prosecute, and the ao-
cused swore, on the day on whicli he was to un-
dergo the ordeal, that he was innocent of the
crime.

ANTELOPE, the trivial name of different spe-
cies of quadrupeds belonging to the genus Capra.
See Mammalia.

ANTENNiE, the horns or feelers of insects
which are of an articulate and flexible structure,
commonly two in number, and found in all perfect
insects with six legs ; but in such as have a greater
number of legs the feelers are either wanting, or
there are more than two, as in the crab and lobster.
In thickness, length, shape, and structure, the an-
tennae exhibit as great diversity as in the form and
magnitude of the insects which are furnished with
those remarkable appendages ; and even in the male
and female of the same species, a striking difference
often prevails. The antennae of insects have been
variously regarded by naturalists, as the organ of
feeling, of smelling, of tasting, and of hearing. But
of the real use of those organs, the numerous expe-
riments which have been instituted to ascertain it
seem to lead to no positive conclusion.

ANTENOR, a Trojan prince, the son of Laome-
don, and the younger brother of Priam, is one of
the characters who make a conspicuous figure in the
Iliad and JEneid, and is supposed to have settled in
Italy after the fall of Troy.

ANTEQUERA, or ANTEQUIERA, a town of
Grenada in Spain, although it is said tabe included
neither under Grenada, Cordova, nor Seville, near
the confines of which it stands, is divided into the

ANT

561

ANT

Anthoxan-
thum.

AmtTielioa upper and lower town ; the elevated division is oc-
cupied by the higher ranks ; and the lower town,
which covers a fertile plain, watered with numerous
streanjs, is the residence of mechanics and farmers.
The waters of a lake on the higher region afford salt
by spontaneous evaporation in summer ; and the wine
called Mountaiii is obtained from the vineyards on
the mountainous districts to the southward. The
population exceeds 19,000.

ANTHELION, from the Greek, signifying in
opposition to the sun, is a luminous spot in the hea-
vens opposite to the real sun, and produced by re-
fraction in a peculiar state of the atmosphere.

ANTHEUX, the interior protuberance of the ex-
ternal ear, of a semicircular form in the inner side,
and running parallel to the helix.

ANTHELMINTICS are such medicines as are
employed for the expulsion of worms. See Materia
Medica.

ANTHEM, a passage selected from Scripture,
and set to music, which is performed by alternate sing-
ing in the cathedral service, and it was originally
applied both to psalms and hymns; but, in a more li-
mited sense, it is restricted to a sacred musical com-
position, adapted to a particular solemnity. The an-
them was first introduced into the reformed service
of the church of England in the beginning of the
reign of Queen Elizabeth.

ANTHEMIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
Syngenesia class, under which genus are included
sxvecl chamomile, corn chamomile, may-xveed, SjX.

ANTHER, or Anthera, is that part of the sta-
men in the flower of plants which is attached to the
extremity of the filament, and is easily recognized
by the fine dust with which it is covered as the flower
advances in maturity.

ANTHERICUM', Lancashire or Scotch Asphodel,
a genus of plants belonging to the Hexandria class.

ANTHOCEROS, or Horn-flower, a genus of
plants belonging to the Cryptogamia class.

ANTHOLOGY, from the Greek, signifying a
discourse of flowers, or a collection of flowers, is
an appellation of a collection of the flowers of poe-
try, or of beautiful passages from diiferent authors ;
and it is applied also to a collection of epigrams, ta-
ken from several Greek poets.

ANTHOLYZA, Mad-flower, a genus of plants
belonging to the Triandria class.

ANTHONY'S, St. FIRE, is synonymous with Eri-
* sypelas or Rose, and is supposed to have derived
this name from the power of curing this disease which
was ascribed to St. Anthony of Padua.

ANTHONY'S, St. ISLAND, one of the Cape
de Verd islands on the western coast of Africa, is a
mountainous district, inhabited chiefly by negroes,
and produces abundance of rich fruits, with some
cotton and indigo.

ANTHONY'S, St. FALLS, a grand cataract on
the river Mississippi, where the whole body of the
stream, which is 750 feet in breadth, falls from the
height of thirty feet.

ANTHOSPERMUM, Amber-tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the Polygamia class.

ANTHOXANTHUM, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the Diandria class ; one species, the odoratunij

VOL. I. PARX 1.

or sweet scented vernal grass, communicates the fine Aathn^xdite
fragrance to h«v. {[

ANTHROPOLITE, from the Greek, signifying Antibe..
stone-man, denotes a petrified human body. Among
the numerous remains of the organized beings of a
former world, whether belonging to the animal or
vegetable kingdom, the largest and most perfect
quadrupeds, and all parts of plants, the stems, the
leaves, the flowers, and fruits, have been found in a
petrified state ; but the discovery of the petrifaction
of a human body is a rare occurrence. The petrified
human subject, which was found in a limestone-rock
in Guadaloupe, in the West Indies, and, excepting
the head, was dug out pretty entire, aft'ords one au-
thentic instance of this remarkable change. This
curious specimen was transmitted to Britain by the
care of Sir Alexander Cochrane, and is now deposit-
ed in the British Museum.

ANTHROPOPHAGI, from two Greek words,
which signify maji and to eat,' is an appellation ap-
plied to tliose nations who are supposed to be cait-
nibals, or feed on human flesh. In considering the
probability of any people, even in the most barba-
rous period of their history, indulging in this prac-
tice from choice, and not driven to it by famine, or
actuated by a spirit of revenge, it seems to have
been seldom taken into view that few animals feed
on their own species. It is not easy to see why man,
whose resources are more numerous and various than
most other animals, should be excluded from the in-
fluence of this natural feeling. But after all the
learned discussion to which this fruitful subject of
controversy has led, it may be fairly doubted, whe-
ther those who are desirous of discovering a true
race of cannibals have succeeded in their researches
either among ancient or modern times.

The fictions and fabled accounts of the poets and
historians of antiquity allude to such a practice ; and,
in the doubtful narratives of modern travellers, it is
asserted that, in China, great markets are furnished
with human flesh for the better sort of people ; that
in some parts of Africa, human legs and arras are
hung upon wooden shambles, and exposed to sale
like outcher-meat ; and commanders of armies, when
on an expedition, carry with them young women,
some of which are daily slaughtered to gorge the
appetites of those supposed cannibals. But when
this information, and the sources from which it is
derived, are strictly investigated, the inquiry traces
the practice to the pressure of hunger, the spirit of
revenge, or some superstitious ceremony. Prisoners
taken in war are the usual victims of this barbarous
repast ; and in many cases it seems pretty obvious,
that the gratification of the passion of revenge in
the celebration of this bloody triumph over the dead
body of an enemy, is connected with a religious rite,
in which the sacrifice of human beings is considered
the most acceptable ottering to guardian divinities,
or to the souls of departed warriors. *

ANTHYLLIS, Kidney-vetch, a genus of plants
belonging to the Diadelphia class.

ANTIBACCHIUS, a metrical division in ancient
poetry, consisting of three syllables, of which the
first two are long and the last is short, as anibire.

ANTIBES, the ancient Antipolis, a sea-port tow*
z z

'ANT

362

ANT

Aitti-

hurghers

II
Anlicyra.

of Provence, in France. Salted fish forms the chief
part of its commerce ; the surrounding country a-
bounds with fruits, tlie climate is genial, and the
population is about 3000.

ANTIBURGHERS, a class of seceders in Scot-
land, distinguished from the burghers by their oppo-
sition to £he burgess-oath, or that part of it which
is connected with religious establishments. But the
name is not considered by the .class to whom it is ap-
plied as their proper designation.

ANTICHORUS, a genus of plants belonging to
the Octandria class.

ANTICHRIST, from the Greek, signifying, in_
opposition to Christ, or assuming his place, is some
personage under this denomination, or that of " the
man of sin," referred to in Scripture, who should ap-
pear in some period of the world, and concerning
whom much controversy and diversity of opinion have
prevailed in all ages and countries. But the ques-
tion yet remains unsolved. Some think that the cha-
racter applied to this personage in Scriptiire belongs
only to the devil, and that he is the true Antichrist.
According to some. Antichrist was to be a Jew, and
a descendant of the tribe of Dan ; while others at-
tribute that character to the Jewish high-priest and
sanhedrim. By the divines of the Romish church
who have discussed this point, the emperor Caligula
is pronounced to be " the man of sin ;" but, among
protestant divines, this character is generally attach-
ed to the pope. Some apply the denomination, not
to an individual person, but to a civil or religious es-
tablishment, as to pagan Rome, Judaism, or pope-
ry ; and others think that Antichrist appears in the
three great forms of popery, Mahometanism, and
infidelity. One author, whose work, it is said, is de-
posited in the Bodleian library in Oxford, attempt-
ed to prove that Oliver Cromwell wa« Antichrist ;
and another, at a much later period, regards revolu-
tionary France as " the man of sin," and Bonaparte
as the last head of the beast. From all this vagueness
and diversity of interpretation of the passages of Scrip-
ture to which this subject refers, the sober-minded
may perhaps hesitate in adopting any opinion which
has yet been oiFered ; and perhaps the expressions
which have been so variously explained, ought to be
taken in a figurative sense, and applied to the gene-
ral conduct of men in wilfully resisting and unrea-
lonably rejecting the doctrines and precepts of
Christianity.

ANTICOSTI, an uninhabited island in the mouth
of the river St Lawrence in North America, is above
100 miles in length from east to west, and about 25
miles. in breadth ; is covered with pine trees; has a
rocky coast ; is well supplied with fresh water ; and
the soil is fertile, but in many places marshy. The
^ores abound with cod fish, of large size and excel-
"lent quality. The beneficent establishment of a fa-
mily on this island for the purpose of affording assis-
tance to. mariners unfortunately shipwrecked on its
coasts, which was at one time projected by the Bri-
tish government, has not yet been effected. N. Lat.
49. 30. and between W. Long. 61. 30. and 64.°.

ANTICYllA, a city of Phocis on the bay of Co-
riatti, was ravaged by Philip of Macedon in revenge
far the sacrilege of the Fiiociaos in seizing the tern-

pie of Apollo at Delphi, during the ten years sacred AntUernva
ijoar; fell under the dominion of the Romans when ||
their power extended to Greece, and afterwards he- Antign*.
came famous for its hellebore, a vegetable production <
of the mountainous districts in its vicinity, and a fa-
shionable place of resort for invalids to whom that
medicine was recommended. Asprosprizzia, or
White hon,ses, is the modern name, and it enjoys some
trade in the exportation of corn.

ANTIDESMA, or Chinese laurel, a genus
of plants belonging to the Dioecia class.

ANTIGUA, or Antego, one of the British West
India islands, is in N. Lat. 17. 30. and W. Long. 61.
SO. about 50 miles in circumference, and includes an
area of nearly 69,000 acres, of which about 34,000
acres are destined to the culture of sugar and pas-
ture land. Antigua was discovered by Columbus in
his second voyage ; but it was quite destitute of in-
habitants, when some Frenchmen, driven from St
Christophers, in 1628, by the Spaniards, sought a tem-
porary asylum in it ; and which, it is supposed, the
want of fresh water made them abandon in a short
time. In 1732, some English families fixed their re-
sidence in Antigua, for the purpose of raising tobac-
co ; but, in consequence of a grant from Charles II.
Lord Willoughby established a more efficient and
more numerous colony, whose prosperity was check-
ed by an invasion of the French and Caribs from Mar-
tinique, and their property pillaged and destroyed.
Restored to Great Britain at the peace of Breda, in
1668, and aided by the experience of some planters
from Barbadoes, who settled in it in 1674, this island,
under all its disadvantages, began to rise in value,
when the soil was found suitable for the cultivation
of the sugar-cane.

The districts on the southern parts of the island
are mountainous, but no part of it rises to any great
elevation. Two kinds of soil predominate, one of
which, a black mould on a subsoil of clay, is rich and
fertile, when the crop escapes the severe droughts
which are not unusual in the climate of Antigua ;
and the other, a stiff clay on a marly subsoil, is less
productive, and is soon impoverished by culture. No
springs but such as yield a brackish water flow in An-
tigua, and no rivers water its vallies. To compen-
sate for this serious inconvenience, rain-water is col-
lected in large cisterns ; and when the rainy season
is not unusually abridged, a sufficient supply is ob-
tained. The harbours are safe and commodious.
English-harbour, where a royal dock-yard and ar-
senal have been established for careening and repair-
ing ships of war, is capable of admitting those of
the largest class.

St John's is the chief town, and capital of the
island, which is divided into six parishes, which are
served by five rectors, who are provided with annual
stipends from L.660 to L.450 currency. Four Mo-
ravian missionaries have four chapels in the island,
and nearly 9000 slaves under their ministry ; and two
preachers of the Methodist persuasion have three
places of worship. Some of the white inhabitants
are Roman catholics, but have no chapel or resident
priest, A governor or captain-general, whose autho-
rity extends to several other islands, with a council
of twelve members, and an assembly of twenty-fiv^

ANT

363.

ANT

members, compose the legislative body of Antigua.
The judicial establisliments are assimilated to those
of the parent country.

Sugar and rum, the staple productions of Antigua,
which, either from ignorance of the culture of the
cane, or from the imperfect mode of manufacture,
were, in the infancy of the colony, unfit for the Bri-
tish market, are now so much improved as to be
equal in quality to similar produce from any other
of the West-India islands. The uncertain climate
renders the sugar crop precarious ; but 17,000 hogs-
heads, of 1600 pounds each, with the usual propor-
tion of rum, is reckoned an average crop. Some
cotton is raised, and dye-woods are enumerated a-
mong the exports.

From a census, under the authority of the colo-
nial legislature, io 1811, it appears, that the number
of white inhabitants was 2102, exclusive of troops ;
the number of free persons of colour was IT'lT, and
of free blacks 438 ; and of slaves 28,317. The slave
population, in 1807, when the slave-trade was sup-
pressed, amounted to 30,282, from which it would
seem, that a decrease, approaching to a tenth part
of the whole, had taken place in three years. But
Governor Elliot, suspecting some inaccuracy in the
statement, had the enumeration brought down to
January 1812, when the number entered at the pub-
lic office amounted to 30,968, which, with 484 who
had obtained their freedom within the same period,
shews an actual increase of- 1170 slaves since the
abolition of the trade in 1807. This corrected state-
ment aftbrds a gratifying prospect to the friends of
humanity in the improved condition of the slaves,
and must also prove satisfactory to the planter, who
sees the number of his labourers increased under his
fostering care without foreign importation. The
same valuable document notices the progressive ap-
proach of some part of the negro population to the
rights of citizenship. Of the free black persons, 148
are proprietors of lands and tenements, are under no
restriction in the purchase of heritable property or
slaves, and have the privilege of voting for the elec-
tion of a representative in the House of Assembly,
in the same manner as white freeholders. Another
portion of the same description of persons possesses
the same privileges, excepting the right of voting,
and the purchase of land exceeding ten acres ; and
the testimony of all free persons is admitted in the
criminal and civil courts of tlie island. The wliole
population of Antigua, in 1812, amounted to 35,255 ;
and the estimate of the number of the slaves in 1787 ,
drawn from erroneous information, and stated in the
general sketch of America at page 259, must be cor-
rected.

ANTIHELIX, or Anthelix, a protuberant por-
tion of the external ear in man.

ANTILLES, the French designation of the West-
India islands. By some geographers they are divid-
ed into Greater and Lesser Antilles. Cuba, St Do-
mingo, and Porto Rico, belong to the first division,
»nd all the others are included under the second, or
the Lesser Antilles.

ANTIMONY, the Stibium of the ancients, a brit-
tle metallic substance, which has been long the sub-
ject of chemical research, was at one time prohibited
2

from use in France on account of its Supposed poi-
sonous properties, and, at another, was regarded as
one of the most valuable medicines, is now chiefly
limited in its use to the purpose of an alloy with lead
in printers types. See Chemistky and Mineha-

LOGY.

ANTINE, Frakcis d', the celebrated author of
a chronological work, was born at Gourieux, in the
territory of Liege, in 1688, studied at Douay, and,
in 1712, assumed the monastic habit. He taught
philosophy for some time at Rheims ; and the ob-
ject of research, in which he was long occupied,
as compiler and editor of the Decrctalia andGlossarium
Scriptorum Medii JEvi, probably suggested the plan
of a most elaborate undertaking, L' Art de verifier
les Dates, or the " Art of fixing the dates of Events,"
which he commenced, and had proceeded far in its
compilation, when he was seized with apoplexy,-
which, after repeated attacks, terminated his life, in
the year 1746. What was left unfinished by the au-
thor was completed, and the work was published.
The third edition, in three large folio volumes, which
is esteemed the best, was printed at Paris between
1783 and 1787. This valuable work exhibits a chro-
nological view of ancient and modern history, a list
of sovereigns or rulers of kingdoms and states, with
the time of their accession, a catalogue of eclipses
of the sun and moon since the birth of Christ, lists-
of councils, calendars of saints, with the record of
all other memorable transactions from which the
date of past transactions may be ascertained.

ANTINOMIANS, from the Greek words signify-
ing " in opposition to the law," are those who deny
the obligation of the moral law under the gospel dis-
pensation, or who maintain doctrines which seem to
supersede the necessity of good works and a virtuous
life in those who profess Christianity. The charge
of holding such opinions was brought by Luther
against John Agricola and his followers in Germanj',
in 1538, and this appellation was bestowed upon them
by the great reformer. But as they were inferences
which were supposed to follow from his doctrine, ra-
ther than any positive expression of his principles,
the imputation was disclaimed by Agticola, whose
opinions did not embrace morality in general, but
the laws of the ten commandments, which he consi-
dered as addressed to the Jews only, and now super-
seded by the dispensation of the gospel.

Opinions of a similar character were propr.gated
in England in the time of Oliver Cromwell ; and by-
some of those who maintained them it was expressly
declared, that the elect cannot fall from grace, or for-
feit the divine favour, and, as their wicked actions
are not really sinful, forsaking sin, confession, and re-
pentance are not considered essentially necessary to
salvation.

ANTIOCH, an ancient city of Syria, which stood
on the banks of the river Orontes, about twenty miles
from theplaceof its junction with the Mediterranean,
was built by SeleucusNicator, received the name from
that of his father, and became the residence of the
Macedonian princes, under whose dominion that part
of Syria was reduced. The wealth and magnificence
of this famous city obtained for it the splendid appel-"
lation of the Queen of the East, a character which be-

Antine

Antioch.

ANT

364

ANT

AHiiparoj. longed to it for the long period of 160p years ; but
tVoni its origin, three hundred years before the Chris-
tina era. till its tinal decay, the records of its history
are <illed with a crowded detail of the calamities of
war, and famine, and pestilence, of civil commotions,
fire, and earthquakes, while the inhabitants, during
the intermediate gleams of prosperity, when it reco-
vered its fplendour, were immersed in every kind of
luxury and dissipation. After the fall, or extinction,
of the race of its first sovereigns, the Romans, the
Persians, the Saracens, and the Turks, became suc-
cessively masters of Antioch. Having withstood a
siege of eight months, it was taken at the end of the
eleventh century by the Duke of Normandy, in the
time of the crusades ; and in 1262 it fell under the
dominion of the Sultan of Egypt. It is vaguel)' stat-s
ed that the population, in the most flourishing periods
of its history, exceeded half a million.

The modern Antioch, which stands on the sou-
thern bank« of the Orontes, is described by recent
travellers in a ruinous condition, the houses built of
mud and straw, the streets narrow and dirty, and ex-
hibiting altogether a melancholy picture of misery
and wretchedness. It is forty miles southwest from
Aleppo. The so^l of the surrounding country is fer-
tile, but neglected ; and tlie feeble industry of the in-
habitants is limited to the management of a few plan-
tations of vines, olives, figs, and mulberry trees,

ANTIPAROS, the Oliaros of the ancients, is an
island of the Grecian Archipelago, and, as the name
imports, is opposite to Faros, from which it is divided
by a strait, which is scarcely a mile in breadth. It is
about sixteen miles in circuit, produces some wire,
cotton, and corn, and the greater proportion of the
iniiabitants, about 400 or 500, is collected in a vil-
lage at one extremity of the island.

A spacious natural grotto, or cavern, supposed on
doubtful authority to have been known to the an-
cients, and which was brought into notice in the 17th
century by an Italian traveller, has given great cele-
brity to Antiparos, and rendered it an attractive ob-
ject to future travellers. It was first particularly de-
scribed by the learned French naturalist, Tournefort,
!iud the visit of Mr Saunders, an Englishman, is mi-
nutely detailed in the British Magazine for 1746.
But vast and magnificent as this cavern assuredly is,
some abatement must be made of the awful horrors
and splendid, beauties which it exhibits to the in-
trepid visitant, Tlie entrance is at the side of a low
liiil in tho centre of the island, and the immense ex-
cavation is in a mass of limestone, or marble, which
Is probably the prevailing rock. It is nearly 1000
feet in Icngtii, more than 300 feet in breadth in some
places, and the deepest part is 250 feet below the sur-
face of the earth. The wliole is adorned with innumer-
able columns and pilasters attached to the sides, de-
pending from the roof, or rising from the floor. These
columnar structures owe their formation to the fil-
tration of water, holding lime in solution, through
the superincumbent strata, and either dropping from
the roof, or passing along the sides, the lime is de-
posited as the water evaporates, and thus, as the ra-
pidity of the process is greater or less, all the varie-
ty of forms is produced.

The older naturalists, ia describing stalactitical

Aatipat

processes, made a distinction between the columnar
mass formed from the roof, and that which arose
from the floor of petrifying caves. The first was Amipater.
called stalactite, and the last stalagma, as having
dropped from above. As the process proceeds, the
stalactite increasing in length from the roof down-
wards, and the stalagma by the continued deposi-
tion of earthy matter from the water as it drops,
shoots upwards, and the two at last uniting, form
one entire column.

A stalagmitical concretion, without a counterpart
from the roof, has been distinguished by the name of
altar for a century and a-lialf, in consequence of a
grand celebration of mass which was conducted in
presence of the French ambassador to the Ottoman
Porte in the year 1673, and an assembly of 500 per-
sons. This magnificent natural altar, the gradual pro-
duction of many ages, is more than 20 feet in height
and not less in diameter. The grotto was illuminated
with 100 torches; 400 lamps were kept continually
burning during the whole of the impressive ceremony ;
and an inscription on the base of the consecrated
pillar records this remarkable celebration of mass at
midnight of Christmas in the year 1673.

ANTIPAS Herod, a son of Herod the Great
and of Cleopatra, a native of Jerusalem, was nomi-
nated, by his father's first will, the successor to his
dominions, but a new destination appointed his bro-
ther to sliare his territory. By the decision of the
Emperor Augustus, to whom the disputed right was
referred, the greater part of Galilee and the country
beyond Jordan fell to Herod. The strength and se-
curity of his kingdom were the first objects of his
government. He adorned and Ibrtified the principal
towns, and built a fine city on the banks of the lake
Genneserat, which, in honour of the Emperor Tibe-
berius Ca;sar, was named Tiberias.

The wife of Herod Antipas was the daughter of
Aretas. king of Arabia. A passionate attachment for
Hcrodias, his brother's wife, and his purpose of divor-
cing his own, induced the latter to throwherself under
her father's protection. Herod married Herodias, and
was involved in a disastrous war of four years dura-
tion with the Arabians. The Jewish nation were of-
fended at his marriage, which was considered unlaw-
ful ; the expression of censure which his conduct
drew from John the Baptist, excited the resentment
of Herod against tliat prophet ; and, at the instiga-
tion of Herodias, John was thrown into prison and
beheaded. When Jesus Christ was brought before
Herod by the order of Pontius Pilate, he was treated
with every mark of indignity, clothed with a white
robe as a reproach, and sent back to the governor of
Jerusalem.

Herod Antipas, ambitious of the title of king,
which his nephew Agrippa Herod had obtained from-
Caligula, made a journey to Rome to prefer his suit
to the emperor. His request of being invested with,
regal dignity was not only rejected, but he was strip-,
ped of his government, banished to Gaul, and died in
Spain, where he spent the last days of his life. Mark
vii. Luke xxiii.

ANTIPATER, a celebrated Macedonian general,
first under Philip and afterwards under his son Alex-
ander the Great, was much distinguished by his pru- .

ANT

365

ANT

tlencc, fidelity, and bravery, in the councils and mi-
litary enterprises of the Grecian hero; and, after the
death of Alexander, assumed the government of Ma-
cedonia and some contiguous provinces. Antipater
was the pupil and friend of Aristotle, and was great-
ly respected among his counti-ymen for liis literary
attainments. He died 320 years before the Christian
era.

ANTIPATER, the son of Antipas, governor
of Idumea, and the father of Herod the Great, was
deeply concerned in the long contested struggle be-
tween the brothers, Aristobulus and Hyrcanus, for
the office of high-priest in Judea, and, after the re-
storation of the latter to the pontifical dignity, by
the command of Pompey, obtained the chief in-
fluence in the direction of Jewish affairs. Julius
Caesar, as a reward for his faithful services, conferred
upon him the rights of a Roman citizen, and ap-
pointed him to an important official situation in Ju-
dea; and in his administration his piety, justice, and
patriotism were peculiarly conspicuous. But the
Jews became jealous of his power, a conspiracy a-
gainst his life was formed and discovered ; and al-
though the parties concerned were pardoned, they
succeeded in bribing a menial servant to destroy him
wifh poison, which was accomplished 43 years be-
fore the Christian era.

ANTIPATHES, a genus of zoophytes, including
various marine productions, which, from their resem-
blance to vegetables, are denominated sea-cypress,
sea-heath, and sea-fennel. See Helminthology.

ANTIPATHY, derived from the Greek words,
signifying against and passion, is defined a strong a-
version which is excited in a sentient being by the
presence of certain objects, and is set in opposition
to sympathy. In attempting to trace the origin of an-
tipathies, moral and physiological writers discover no
small degree of diversity of opinion, whether the dis-
like or painful feeling produced by the sight of cer.-
tain objects, the smell of some substances, the taSte
of others, or the hearing of peculiar sounds ought
to be ascribed to some instinctive principle, or mere-
ly to the pov/er of habit. Some animals, it has been
observed, liave an antipathy or aversion to the sight
of others, as the sheep, which is terrified at the ap-
pearance of the wolf ; but here a sense of danger be-
gins to operate fvom the presence of an enemy. In
the same way a whole brood of chickens, warned
perhaps by the parent, flee for safety when the
hawk is seen hovering above them. The aversion to
the toad and serpent, which many persons are unable
to repress, may proceed from early impressions o£
the supposed poisonous nature of those animals; and
the strong dislike to particular kinds of food, may
arise from disagreeable eflects formerly experienced
from the use of such substances or those of a similar
nature. Certain odours may produce, in persons
whose sense of smelling is peculiarly delicate, head-
ache and sickness ; and, to a nice musical ear, sing-
ing out of tune, or the performance on a harsh in-
strument, is attended with very unpleasant sensa-
tions. But the indulgence and strong expression of.
such aversions render them habitual, and easily ex-
cited by association, when similar odours are pre-
sented or analogous sounds are hcard>

It some cases it may no doubt be difficult to ac- Antipodes
count for the antipathy or dislike which arises from ||

the impression of certain objects on the senses ; but Antiquary,
in many it may be suspected that it proceeds from
caprice, or an affectation of singularity and excessive
refinement, as in the instance of a lady whose sense
of smelling was so extremely delicate as to be alto-
gether overpowered by the fragrance of a single rose
in the same room, and actually fainted away at the
sight of an artificial flower.

ANTIPODES, from the Greek words opposite
smdfeet, is expressive of the position of the mhabi-
tants of the globe who live diametrically opposite to
each other. The)' are under the same meridian and
under the same parallels of latitude, but on opposite
sides of the equator. The days and nights are of the
same length to the antipodes on different sides of the
earth, but in opposite seasens. It is noon with the
antipodes of tlie southern hemisphere, when it is mid-
night with those of the northern ; and the longest
day of the antipodes of the northern hemisphere is
the shortest with those of the southern.

ANTIQUARY, a person who investigates and stu-
dies the remains of antiquity, as statues, inscrip-
tions, coins, medals, implements of war and of the
arts, edifices public and private, fragments of his-
tory, manners, &c. Societies have been established
in different countries for the encouragement and pro-
secution of such researches ; hut it has rarely hap-
pened that institutions of this kind have fulfilled the
expectations of the public; and perhaps it requu-es a
much wider range of scientific acquirements than is
generally imagined for the successful inve.'-tigatioa
of the history of remote ages, — a comprehensiveness
of view, and a nicety of discrimination, which the ad-
mirers of a rusty piece of armour, an old coin, or the
insulated fragment of an ancient building, are little
aware of, and seldom possess, however pompously
they assume to themselves; the designation of anti-
quary.

If indefatigable industry and powerful genius be
requisite in the composition of modern history, and in .
the delineation of modern manners, the materials of
which are accessible, how much more necessary is
the vigorous exertion of similar talents in rearing a
solid and connected superstructure from broken and
detached fragments, or what I^ord Bacon has forci-
bly denoininated the ivrcch of history ? He who is
unacquainted with the general history of an ancient
nation, can make no satisfactory progress in study-
ing the manners, the customs, the dress, or the build-
ingsof that nation, and the changes induced by war,
emigration or trade. One branch of the objects of
antiquarian research serves to elucidate another.
The literature of ancient Greece and Rome throws
light on the arts and political establishments of these
renowned states ; and a knowledge of their manners
and institutions, illustrates the noble monuments of'
genius displaced in these historical and poetical com-
positions which have escaped the ravages of time and ,
the destructive hands of barbarians.

The utility of the study of antiquities, when it is
prosecuted with competent talents and rightly direc-
ted, is sufficiently obvious, not only in giving con-
sistence aiid connexion to the history of any ancient

ANT

566

ANT

Aflii«ceptic« people of whose arts or learning memorials are pre-
II served, but it is not less conspicuous in aiding in-

^uisthenes. quiry to retrace to a certain origin many of the insti-
*'"*^'^"" tutions of modern nations, and some ot the peculiar
usages around which time has thrown a dark veil,
which can only be penetrated by the reflected light
of co-existent objects. The reproach and ridicule to
which the labours of the antiquary have been some-
times exposed by those whose objects of pursuit are
different, may appear in some degree merited in con-
sidering the superficial nature of his researches, which
lead to no useful application, and seem to be alto-
gether unproductive. But it ought to be recollected
that he who digs the stone from the quarry, although
inferior in dignity to the architect who designs and
arranges the ditterent parts of a fine edifice, is still
a necessarj' agent in rearing the superstructure ; and
the mere collector and preserver of a fragment of the
wrecks of history may contribute something to its
elucidation.

ANTIRRHINUM, Snap-dragon, or Calves-
snout, a genus of plants belonging to the class Didy-
namia, some of the species of which are natives of
Britain, and others are the well known ornaments of
the flower-garden.

ANTISCII, from two Greek words, signifying op-
posite shadotvs, is a geographical term applied to the
inhabitants of the globe whose shadows at noon fall
in opposite directions. The shadow of the inhabi-
tants of the northern hemisphere at noon is projec-
ted to the north, and that of the inhabitants of the
southern hemisphere towards the south ; and they are
said to be Antiscii to each other.

ANTISEPTICS, a general appellation of those
substances which are employed in the preservation
of animal and vegetable matters. Saline substances,
of which the most common and best known is sea-
salt, are applied to this use ; but saccharine and
aromatic substances are successfully employed for a
similar purpose. See DiiEXETics.

ANTISPASMODICS is a term applied to those
medicines which are employed in the cure or pre-
vention of spasms. See Materia Medica and
Medicine.

ANTISTHENES, a Grecian philosopher, and the
founder of the Cynic sect, flourished about 4-20 years
before the Christian era, was the disciple of Socra-
tes, and seems to have been more anxious to put in
practice the precepts of his master with regard to
virtue and moderation than to indulge in speculative
discussions. But in the exercise of frugality and
temperance, his manners became repulsive and mo-
rose ; and even his indifference in disregarding and
despising the accommodations and comforts of life,
displayed no small degree of ostentation. " I see
your vanity," said his master Socrates, " through
your tattered garments."

A place called Cynosargum, or the temple of the
white dog, without the walls of Athens, was chosen
by Antisthenes for his school, from which, as some
suppose, the name of the sect is derived ; but, accord-
ing to others, it is indebted for its origin to the snar-
ling and capricious manners of the phflosopher.

The unsparing severity with which Antisthenes
censured the faults and follies of others, the rigid

self-denial which he inculcated, and the moroseness Aaiithcut
and gloom which overspread all his actions, limited ||

the number of his disciples and followers. Regard- Antoaious.
ing pleasure as the greatest evil, he indulged only in
the plainest food, wore a single cloak of the coarsest
cloth, and wandered about with a wallet and staff, the
whole extent of his property, like a common beggar.
He was the author, it is said, of many books; and if
the sentiment quoted by Cicero from some part of
his works be really his, that " the gods of the peo-
ple are many, but the God of nature is one," he seems
to have held correct notions of natural religion.

ANTITHESIS, from the Greek wordswhich signify
to set opposite, is the contrast or opposition of words,
or expressions, in speaking or writing, for the pur-
pose of marking the difference more strongly. This
mode of composition was not uncommon among the
ancients, and was very frequent among the older
English writers. Cicero affords a good example of
antithesis in one of his orations, when he says, " On
one side stands modesty, on the other impudence ;
on one fidelity, on the other deceit ; here piety, there
sacrilege, &c. The following is an example in poe-
tical composition.

Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ;
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full.

ANTITR AGUS, a protuberance of the cartilage
of the external ear in man.

ANTONINUS PIUS, a celebrated Roman em-
peror, was descended from a noble family in Gaul,
and was born at Lavinium, near Rome, in the 86th
year of the Christian era. His father and grandfa-
ther had enjoyed the consular dignity, and his ma-
ternal grandfather, under whose care he was edu-
cated, had risen to the same distinguished rank. Pos-
sessed of great wealth and influence, which he derived
from his rich and powerful relations, he was called
to fill various official situations in the state ; in the
year 120 was appointed consul, became afterwards
proconsul of Asia, and in 138 was adopted by A-
drian as his successor. The death of Adrian in
the following year opened his way to the throne,
and he assumed the reins of the imperial govern-
ment amid the undivided acclamations of the senate
and people. The mildness of his character, or his
regard for religion, obtained for him the simame of
Pins ; he merited and was honoured with the titles
of High Pontiff, and Father of his Country ; and
the prudence, equity, and disinterestedness which
marked his administration, and the peace and pros-
perity which his government secured to the empire,
shewed that he was worthy of such distinguished
appellations. He resided almost constantly in his
capital, and although he was anxious to avoid laying
new burdens on the people, and frugal in the public
expcnce, yet he was liberal in gratifying the desires
of his subjects for shews and spectacles ; and he
erected various ornamental and useful public edifi-
ces, among which are enumerated the temple dedi-
cated to his predecessor, Adrian, in Rome, and the
magnificent structures of the amphitheatre and aquee-
duct at Nismes in France.

The celebrated wall, of which some remains are
still visible, and which extended from the Frith of

ANT

567

A N't

Antonomasia Forth to the river Clyde, in Scotland, wns erected
II about the year 1 40 by the orders of Antoninus. The

Antrim. modern appellation of this rampart is Grahams dyke,
^^^'Y'^ supiKJsed to be corrupted from Gryme or Grym,
which signifies strong, or is the name of the warrior
who made an irruption into the Roman territory.
When this great military structure was entire, it
consisted of a ditch 40 feet wide and 20 feet deep,
and a rampart on the south side 24 feet thick and 20
feet in height, with a military way behind it. The
whole length exceeded 36 miles ; and as a defensive
work against the Scots and Picts, which was the ob-
ject of its construction, it was strengthened by 21
forts, which are suppoised to have been erected by
Agricola. The materials of which the rampart was
composed, seem to have been dug out of the ditch
on the north side ; for when it passes through rocky
strata the proportion of stones is increased. But for
a. fuller description of this famous wall, the reader
may consult Gordon's Itmerarium Septentrionale,
Horsley's Britannia Romana, or Roy's Military An-
tiquities of the Romans in North Britain.

The wife of Antoninus was Annia Faustina, the
daughter of Annius Verus, a woman of licentious
character, to whom the weakness or indulgence of a
husband, who survived her, permitted divine honours
to be paid after her death. "Two sons and two daugh-
ters were the offspring of his marriage. The sons died
in early life, and the younger daughter, Faustina,
was married to Marcus Aurelius, who, at the desire
of Adrian, was adopted by Antoninus, and succeed-
ed him on the imperial throne. After a pacific reign
of 23 years, Antoninus died in the 75th year of his
age. Accompanied by the most splendid funeral ce-
remonies, his body was consigned to the tomb of
Adrian, and divine honours were paid to his me-
mory.

ANTONOMASIA, a form of expression, in which
an official or professional denomination is put for a
proper name, or a proper name is put in place of an
appellative ; as when the king is called his majesty ;
the philosopher, for Aristotle ; the orator, for Cicero ;
or when a grave man is called a Calo, and a wise man
a Solomon.

ANTRIM, a county in the province of Ulster, in
Ireland, bounded on the north by the northern ocean,
on the east by the Irish channel, on the south by the
county of Down, and on the west by Lough Neagh
and the river Bann ; is about 56 miles in length and
1)0 miles in breadth, and includes an area of 970
square miles. The mountainous districts of this
county are towards the east and north, but no part
of the elevated land rises to a great height. Knock-
layd in the north, Slenish in the middle of the coun-
ty, and Devis, near Belfast, are the principal moun-
tains. The prevailing rocks in the county of An-
trim are basalt, limestone, and in some places
sandstone. Gypsum is dug out, for exportation, near
Belfast ; coals have been long wrought at Bally-
castle, on the northern coast ; the shores of Lough
Neagh furnish masses of petrified wood ; and pearl-
stone, a rare mineral production in the British
islands, is found at Sandy Brae, 20 miles from Belfast.
But the stupendous range of basaltic strata, exhibit-
ing, in many places, magnificent colonades, par-

ticularly at the celebrated Giants' Causeway, and Anirk,.
stretching almost the whole length of the northern
coast, forms the most striking object to the geolo-
gist. The northern and eastern districts are destitute
of wood, and much of the low grounds is covered
with marshes ; but in the southern parts of the coun-
ty the surfiice is clothed with thriving plantations,
and the soil is richer, more fertile, and better culti-
vated. The Lagan, which falls into the sea near
Belfast, is part of the southern boundary, and is na-
vigable to a considerable distance inland, and the
Bann, famous for its salmon-fishery, are the chief ri-
vers. The principal towns are Belfast, Carrickfer-
gus, Lisburn, Ballimena, and Ballimoney. Cairns,
cromlechs, and mounts, are enumerated among the
remains of antiquity in Antrim ; and three round
towers, those singular structures, the purposes of
which have hitherto baffled the researches of anti-
quaries, are yet to be seen in the county.

Population, mamifactures, 8fc. — In 17S8, the popu-
lation was estimated, perhaps on vague authority,
at 160,000; but, according to the Statistical Sur-
vey of Mr Dubourdieu, the county of Antrim con-
tains 240,000 inhabitants, many of whom are de-
scended from natives of Scotland. No county in
Ireland includes a larger proportion of presby-
terian protestants. As the manufacturer and tiller
of the ground are often united in the same person,
the farms are small, and agriculture has not reached
its highest degree of improvement. Flax, potatoes,
barley, and oats, are the chief crops. The cattle are
of small size ; the mountainous pastures feed nume- ■
rous herds of goats ; and the rearing of swine is ex-
tensive and profitable. Seventy thousand, of 200
pounds each, have been exported from Belfast dur-
ing the salting season in a single year.

The staple manufacture of the county of Antrim .
is linen, which has long flourished ; but has given •
place to that of cotton, which occupies between
20,000 and 30,000 of the inhabitants in the vicinity
of Belfast and the surrounding country. Kelp is
manufactured en the shores of Antrim, and at Car-
rick-a-rcde, a singular spot on the eastern coast, an
extensive salmon fishery is successfully prosecuted.
A frightful chasm, sixty feet in breadth, separates
the island from the mainland ; and to facilitate the
communication for the convenience of the fishery, a
bridge, formed of strong ropes, covered with boards,
is annually constructed.

Rathlin island, five or six miles long, and nearly
a mile broad, which lies a few miles off the northern
coast, is included in this county. The prevailing
strata are limestone ; the inhabitants are estimated
at 12,000; and they are occupied in agriculture,
fishing, and the kelp manufacture. To Antrim also
belongs Ram island in Lough Neagh, on which one
of the round towers of doubtful origin and use, al-
ready alluded to, is erected.

The assizes, elections, &c. are held at Carrick-
fergus, and the quarter-sessions at Antrim. Five
members are returned from this county to the Im-
perial parliament, two of whom are chosen by the
county, and one each for Belfast, Carrickfergus,
and Lisburn.

ANTRIM, a town of the county of the same

ANT

568

ANU

'Antwerp, name in Ireland, enjoys a fine situation on tlie banks
of Lough Neagh, is 84 miles north from Dublin,
and 12 miles north-west from lielfnst ; the inhabi-
tants are chiefly engaged in the linen manufacture ;
and the surrounding scenery is adorned with the
beautiful domain of the Earl of Massareene.

ANTWERP, a city of the Netherlands, and in-
cluded in the new kingdom of that name, stands on
a wide plain on the eastern bank of the Scheldt, is
seventy-five miles south from Amsterdam, and
twenty-five miles north from Brussels ; and from
its local position, with ready access to the ocean
on one hand, and an easy communication with the
interior of the continent by means of rivers and
canals on the other, has often risen to the highest
commercial prosperity. About the middle of the
15th century the trade of Antwerp was extremely
limited ; but, towards its cloie, it became the rival
of Bruges, afterwards the emporium of the Portu-
guese trade to the east, and, by the establishment of
great fairs, attracted mercantile adventurers from
every part of Europe. In the middle of the 16th
century, 2(X)0 vessels have been seen at one time in
the port of Antwerp. But the wars of the Low coun-
tries cliccked its growing prosperity, the persecu-
tion of the Protestants drove many of the most en-
terprising inhabitants to seek an asylum in England
and Holland, and the commercial influence of the
Dutch cut off its communication with the ocean by
means of the Scheldt. Excluded from foreign com-
merce, the industry and resources of the inhabitants
were directed to manufactures. Lace, tapestry, silk,
and woollen stuffs, and an extensive hat manufac-
tory, occupied a considerable proportion of the po-
pulation ; and the establishment of banking and assu-
rance societies has been long an abundant source of
profitable speculation. The occupation of Antwerp
by the French during the revolutionary war, and the
unrestricted navigation of the Scheldt, gave a tem-
porary activity to the commerce of Antwerp, and
Its local advantsi^es seemed favourable to the ambi-
tious schemes of Bonaparte, who had projected many
great works for its improvement, and had selected
It as one of his chief naval arsenals, for which pur-
pose the breadth of the river, which is nearly half a
mile, and the depth of water from 20 to 40 feet,
render it peculiarly appropriate.

The streets and squares of Antwerp are numerous,
and many of them are spacious and elegant. The
public edifices are distinguished by their magnifi-
cence ; the exchange is a superb structure ; and the
cathedral is a noble pile, with one of the finest
steeples in the world. The abbey of St Michael,
and some of the other churches, are enumerated a-
mong the splendid ornaments of the city ; and the
storehouses and cellars connected with the house of
the Hanse towns, which were filled with all kinds of
merchandrse, in the flourishing period of its history,
are altogether unequalled in any other commercial
city. Antwerp is surrounded with strong walls, and
defended by a citadel, which were erected about the
middle of the 16th century. The reverses to which
this city has been subjected, have been particularly
marked in the decline of its population, which, in
the height of its commercial prosperity, was esti-

mated at 100,000, and even double tliat number ac-
cording to some calculations. It had decreased to
50,000 a few years ago ; but the re-establishment of
peace will give new vigour to the enterprise of the
inhabitants, and in a short time add to their num-
ber.

ANUBIS, an Egyptian deity, worshipped under
the figure of a man with the head of a dog, is sup-
posed to be a symbolical image, derived from astro-
nomical observations, and intended as a sensible ex-
pression of certain appearances or changes of the
heavenly bodies. The mythological history of Anu-
bis has been variously explained, both by ancient
and modern writers. The Egyptians worshipped the
sun under this name when he appeared in the hori-
zon, or at his rising and setting ; and to denote the
glowing beauty of the morning and evening, the
image of Anubis was of pure gold. The dog, the
emblem of fidelity, was consecrated to Anubis, be-
cause that deity, the symbolical representation of
the horizon, is the faithful attendant of Isis or Na-
ture, seeking her lost Osiris, or the sun. The dimi-
nished solar influence, in winter, was represented by
processions, in which the priests, with tears and la-
mentations, carried about the images of Isis arid A-
nubis ; and Isis, by the help of Anubis, having re-
covered Osiris, the discovery was celebrated witli
every expression of joy and exultation.

ANVIL, a solid mass of iron, of a square form,
on which inalleable metals are hammered. Cast-iron
anvils are sometimes employed, l)ut when a bright
surface and great hardness are required, forged iron,
faced with steel, is preferred. The forge for the
construction of anvils is similar to the common smith's
forge, but with single bellows ; and coak, which af-
fords a strong heat and produces little flame, is used
for fuel. A crane, which moves on a pivot, and
transfers the red hot masses of iron from the fire to
the anvil, is fixed near the hearth. The anvil is a
mass of cast metal, raised about a foot from tlie
ground, and eighteen inches square on the face.

The common smith's anvil is composed of seven
pieces ; the body, or core ; the four corners, for en-
larging the base ; a projection at one end, in which
a square hole for a chisel is formed ; and a beak of a
conical shape, for rounding hollowed work. The
body is formed by welding several smaller masses to-
gether, and when it is heated for the purpose of unit-
ing the other pieces, three holes, about one inch
square and two inches deep, are first made, one in the
bottom and one at each end, for inserting a bar of
iron connected with the crane, and thus enabling the
workmen to manage the heated mass. The differ-
ent pieces are separately welded to the core, and
when they are large two hearths are requisite. All
the pieces being united, the heating and hammering
are repeated till the anvil has acquired its proper
sha])e.

Facing with steel is the next operation. A plate
of steel, as thin as it can be firmly welded, for when
it is too thick it is liable to crack in the hardening,
is first prepared, of the size of the anvil. The
anvil is brought to a strong welding heat in one
fire, and the steel is heated in another, lAit to an in-
feri»r degree. The masses being heated, the unit-

Anubi)

AnTiJs.

AON

569

APA

AoTllle

Aonidcs.

ing surfaces are brushed, laid together, and rapidly
hammered. In the process of hardening, the face of
the anvil is brought to a full red heat, and suddenly-
plunged and moved about in a large quantity of wa-
ter, or, what answers the purpose of cooling better,
exposed to a copious stream. The face is then ground
perfectly even ; and when it is intended for the pla-
nishing of metals, it must be finely polished with
emery and crocus.

ANVILLE, John Baptiste Bourignon, D', a
celebrated geographer, was born at Paris in July
1697, discovered at a very early age a strong passion
for the study of his favourite science, and even in his
twelfth year, while he was engaged in reading the
classic authors, he began to construct maps for the
illustration of the countries to which they refer ; and
such was his successful application, that the maps,
whicl^^he delineated and published about the twenty-
second year of his age, were universally admired.

The elucidation of ancient geography occupied a
large share of the industry of D'AnviUe ; and as his
materials were chiefly drawn from books of history
and travels, his indefatigable labour in collecting
them, and sound judgment and nice discrimination
in their arrangement and distribution, were conspi-
cuous in all his works, and in a remarkable degree
supplied the want of astronomical observations and
geometrical measurements. Of the numerous maps
which he published many are accompanied with
memoirs, detailing the authorities on which he pro-
ceeded in their construction. Towards the close
of a long life he was admitted to share those honours
which are connected with the associates of learned
societies. He became a member of the Academy of
Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, and contributed
many memoirs to their transactions ; he was nomi-
nated to fill the only place in the Academy of Scien-
ces which is appropriated to the science which he cul-
tivated and adorned, and about the same time he was
appointed geographer to the king. The valuable
and extensive collection of charts and maps which
D'Anville had made in the long course of his study
was purchased by the king, and it was the last un-
dertaking of the laborious geograi)her to arrange it.
This task was scarcely completed when his mental
vigour declined, and, having reached the 85th year
of his age, he died in January 1782.

With a feeble constitution, but with temperate
and regular habits, united to great gentleness and
mildness of character, D'Anville was able to devote,
during sixty years of his life, from twelve to fifteen
hours of daily appHcation to study. His recluse
manners, and undivided attaclunent to one pursuit,
seem to have contracted his views, for he rarely took
part in conversation, excepting on the subject of
geograpliy, and here he was impatient of contradic-
tion, and is charged with rudeness in expressing his
opinion on controverted points. His Ancie?tt Geo-
graphy, 3 vols. 8vo. is one of the most popular of his
works.

ANZIKO, a kingdom on the western coast of
Africa. See Ansiko.

AONIDES, an appellation of the muses, which is
sometimes employed by the poets of antiqufty', and
is derived from Aonia, a district oi° ancient Boeotia.

VOL. I. PAKX I.

Aonian groye and Aonian spring have a similar ori- Ao<ist

gin- . I!

AORIST, from the Greek, and signifying without ApainM.
limitation, is a tense in verbs which is understood by
some grammarians to be expressive of an action inde-
finitely, without regard to past, present, or future
time, but it is usually restricted to indefinite /larf
time. The Greek verb has two aorists, the first, ac-
cording to some writers on grammar, denoting past
time generally, and the second signifying indefinite
past time ; while others maintain that both have the
same meaning, and that the second Greek aorist is
the imperfect of some obsolete theme of the verb, and
is altogether redundant.

AORNUS, or Aornos, a hill fort in the vicinity
of Bijore, in the East Indies, holds a conspicuous
place in ancient history on account of the brave de-
fence of the natives when they were attacked by Al-
exander the Great, and the repulses which his army,
unused to defeat, experienced before he obtained pos-
session of the place ; and this he effected only by ar-
tifice and treachery. This fortified rock is described'
as being 25 miles m circumference, and about a mile
and a half in height. A narrow path leads to the
summit, which is partly arable land, and partly cover-
.ed with dense woods.

AORTA, thegreat artery which conveys the blood
from the left ventricle of the heart, and by it» nume-
rous ramifications distributes it to every part of the
body. From its origin in the heart to the arch which
it forms when it passes downwards, it is called the
ascending aorta ; and from the arch to the division in-
to the ili^c arteries, it is denominated descending aorta.
AOSTE, or Aousta, the Augusta Prcctoria of the
ancient Romans, because a colony of 3000 Prostoriaii
soldiers was settled in it by Augustus, in place of the
native inhabitants, who were sold as slaves, is a town
of Piedmont in Italy, and was formerly the capital of
a duchy of the same name; stands on the river Doria,
near the foot of the Alps ; has a population exceed-
ing 5000 ; is surrounded with a wall, now greatly de-
cayed ; and the remains of an amphitheatre, a trium-
phal arch erected in honour of Augustus Csesar, and
other vestiges of antiquity, give it a venerable aspect.
With the rest of Italy, Aoste fell under the dominion
of the French during the revolutionary war. It is
50 miles north-west from Turin.

APACTIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
Dodecandria class.

APALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, an elevated
ridge which begins at the gulph of Mexico, and
stretches northward, nearly parallel to tlie eastern
coast of North America. See Alleghany.

APALACHICOLA, a river of North America,
which has its source in the Apalachian mountains ;
forms the boundary, in one part of its course, between
Georgia and West Florida, and, in another, between
East and West Florida ; and having run nearly 4-00
miles, discharges its waters into the Mexican gulph.
APAMEA, the name of several ancient cities in
Asia Minor, one of which was placed in Bithynia,
another in Mesopotamia, and another on an island in
the river Tigris ; but the most celebrated was called
Apamea Cibotos, and stood near the confluence of
the Orontes and Marsyas.
■ 3 A

A P A

570

A P H

Apanage A medal struck at this city, in the time of Philip
H the elder, and hence called the Apamcan medal, has

Apennines, transmitted its name to modern times, on accovmt of
the diversity of opinion and controversy which the
device and inscription, equally remarkable, have ex-
cited among antiquaries. One side of the medal con-
tains the head of the emperor, adorned with a wreath
of hinrel, and surrounded with the following inscrip-
tion in Greek capitals : " The Emperor Ca-sar Julius
Philip Augustus." The reverse represents a square
chest floating in water, the lid is open, and a male and
female human figure appear in the inside, and two
figures seemingly in the act of devotion. A bird,
supposed to have some resemblance to a pigeon, sits
on the open lid, and another bird, with a small branch
of a tree in its claws, appears flying towards the chest.
On the side of the chest itself, and under the male
figure, the word Noe, also iu Greek capitals, is in-
scribed ; from which, and from the device, it is con-
jectured the medal has a reference to the general de-
luge, and to the name of Noah. But the reader who
wishes to investigate this curious subject may consult
Bryant's Mythology, Vol. V. which contains a repre-
sentation of the medal.

APANAGE, or Appenage, is an appellation of
that portion of land which is destined by a sovereign
for the support of the younger sons of his family, and
which returns to the crown on the failure of the male
line of that branch to which it was assigned.

APE, the trivial name of a division of the genus
smia, which includes the whole tribe of apes and
monkeys ; tlie first are distinguished by the want of
tails, and die second have long tails. See Mam-

iJALIA.

APELLES, one of the most celebrated painters
of antiquity, was a native of the island 6f Cos, and
flourished about the time of Alexander the Great.
Numerous anecdotes are recorded of the graphic
skill of this ancient artist ; but many of them, it is
probable, are tlie invention of his enthusiastic bio-
graphers in succeeding ages. Among others, it is said,
that an exquisitely finislied picture of Alexander and
his horse, did not escape tlie critical remarks of the
conqueror of the world ; but a real horse being in-
troduced, was so deceived by the painting that he
neighed, and drew from the artist an expression of
his opinion, that the horse was a better judge than
the king.

The picture of Venus rising from tlve sea, or, as it
is usually denominated, Venus Anadyomene, which is
described as the most splendid production of his pen-
cil, was painted for his countrymen, and carefully
preserved in the temple of /Esculapius, in the island
of Cos, was obtained from the inhabitants by Au-
gustus, at the price of a hundred talents of tribute,
which he remitted, and was transferred to Rome ;
l)ut the ravages of time had completed the work of
destruction-on this precious relic in the reign of the
emperor Nero, and a copy, or imitation of the origi-
iftal, was executed and substituted in its place.

APENNINES, a ridge of mountains which
branches off from llie Swiss Alps, sweeps round the
gulph of Genoa, advances eastward to the centre of
Italy, aad then etretching to the south-east and ap>

preaching nearer to the Adriatic than the Mediter- Apenttl
ranean, terminates in the southern extremity of the n

Neapolitan territory. Monte Velino, near the middle Aphorism,
of Italy, and Cimone, farther to the northward, are
the highest mountains of this chain ; the latter is
600<) feet, and the former exceeds 7S00 feet above
the level of the sea.

The mineral productions of the Apennines be-
long partly to the primary and partly to the secon-
dary class of rocks. Granite, gneiss, micaceous schis-
tus, serpentine, and the celebrated Carrara marble,
compose the strata in Tuscany and in the districts
contiguous to Genoa ; and similar rocks with the fa-
mous Sienna marble, and some metallic ores, appear
in the territory of Sienna ; while a grey limestone, i«
which petrified organic remains arc sparingly em-
bedded, is the prevailing rock in that part of the
ridge which lies to the southward of Bologna.

APENZEL, a town and canton of Switzerland.
See Appenzel.

APEPSIA, from the Greek, and signifying tcoiif
of digestion, is a synonymous expression with dyspep-
sia, or dijfictdt digestion, which is more commonly
used by medical writers to denote indigestion, or
those symptoms which indicate a deranged statie of
the stomach and other digestive organs.

APERIENTS, or Aperient Medicines, arc such
as are supposed to produce the effect of removing
obstructions in the glandular or vascular systems of
the body. See Materia Medica.

APETALOSE, or Apetalous, a botanical term
applied to such flowers as have no petals, of which
the flowers of the nettle and carex, or sedge-grass,
are familiar examples.

APHANESjOr Parsley Piert, a genus of plants
belong'ng to the Tetrandria class.

APHEK, the name of several cities mentioned in
sacred Scripture ; as Aphek in the tribe of Judali,
near which the Philistines encamped and took the
ark which was brought from Shiloh ; Aphek in the
valley of Jezreel, which was occupied by the Pliilis-
tines, whfle Saul and his army were upon the moun-
tains of Gilboa ; Aphek belonging to the tribe of
Asher, and near the country of the Sidonians ; and
Aphek, one of the chief cities of Benhadatl's king-
dom in Syria, near which the battle between Ahab
and Benhadad was fought, and the Syrians being-
routed, retreated precipitately to the city, and 27,000
were destroyed by the walls which fell upon them.
Joshua XV. and xix. 1 Sam, xxix. and 1 Kings xx.

APHELION, from two Greek words, signifying
from the sun, is that part of tlie orbit of a planet,
which is the most distant from the sun, and is oppos-
ed to perihelion, or that point of the orbit which is
nearest to the sun.

APHIS, the Plant-louse, Vine-fretter, orPuceron,
a genus of insects belonging to the order Ilemiptera,
and including numerous species, which latter derive
their characteristic appellations from the plants of
wliich they are inhabitants. More than 70 species
have been described ; and the natural history of the
whole tribe has been long a subject of curious inves-
tigation. See Entomoi.ogv.
APHORISM, from the Greek, and signifying t«

API

371

A PO

Aptoodya seprtrafe, a sententious expression, containing a raax-
II im or principle of a science, as, in medicine, the apha-

Apis. risms of Hippocrates, of Boerhaave, &c. and apho-
" ■ risjyis of civil law, &c.

APHRODISIA, festivals instituted in honour of
Venus in different parts of Greece, the most splendid
of which were celebrated in the island of Cyprus.

APHRODITA, a genus of marine animals be-
longing to the class of Vermes, several species of
which are natives of the British shores. Aphrodita
aculeata, or sea-mouse, is remarkable for the beauti-
ful iridescence of the hairy appendages which are the
instruments of locomotion, and seem to supply the
place of feet.

APHTH.^, from the Greek, signifying to injlame,
a disease of the mouth in which small superficial ul-
cers appear. See Medicine.

APH YLL ANTHES, Leafless Flower, as the word
imports, or blue Montpelier pine, a genus of plants
belonging to the Hexandria class.

APHYTEIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Monadelphia class, formed from the only species yet
known, Hydnora, which is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope.

APIARY, a place where bees are kept. For an
account of the economy and management of those in-
sects,— see Bee.

APICIUS, seems to have been a general appella-
tion for a glutton, or rather epicure, among the Ro-
mans ; at least the celebrity of three persons of the
same name, who lived at ditFerent periods, is record-
ed. The most famous of this group of epicures lived
in the time of Tiberius, and was possessed of im-
mense wealth. In obtaining the choicest, the rarest,
and most expensive dishes, among which are enu-
merated some entirely composed of the tongues of
nightingales and peacocks, to gratify the luxury and
caprice of a depraved appetite, he expended more
than L.800,000 Sterling ; and finding that his for-
tune was diminished, by this wanton expenditure, to
L.80,000 Sterling, another depraved feeling seized
his mind. The dread of starvation threw him into
despair ; he swallowed a poisonous draught, and thus
miserably terminated an inglorious life.

APIS, the bee, a genus of insects belonging to
the order Hymenoptera, and including nearly 300
species, of which more than a hundred are natives
of Britain. For the characters and classification,
see Entomology; and for the economical history
and management of the domestic bee, see Bee.

APIS, the sacred bull of the Egyptians, which
was an object of veneration as the representative of
Osiris. The bull, from its utility in the labours of
the field, was consecrated to Osiris, who was the
inventor of husbandry ; or, according to the doctrine
of transmigration, the soul of Osiris passed into that
animal, and hence it became a symbolical deity, and
at last a real object of worship.

The mythological history of the sacred bull traces
his origin to the influence of lightning, and assigns
certain external marks as the real characteristics of
his divinity. A white square spot on the forehead,
a white crescent on the right side, the figure of an
eagle on the back, the rest of the body jet black,
and a knot like a beetle under the tongue, were
2

Apium

considered the true signs of the animal that was
destined to receive divine honours ; and when a bull
with these indications appeared, the discovery was Apocrypha,
announced to the people ; solemn festivals were in-
stituted at his installation ; an annual celebration of
seven days was appointed and observed throughout
the kingdom; the deified animal was attended by a nu-
merous train of priests ; was consulted as an oracle,
and the prediction of future events was pronounced
favourable or adverse to the person from whom he
received or rejected proffered food. Twenty-five
years were fixed as the utmost period »f his exist-
ence ; and if he survived that period, he was drowned
in the fountain of the priests. His death produced
universal despair; but when another divinity was
found and announced, grief and lamentation were
succeeded by exultation and joy.

The worship of Apis, or the veneration paid to
the sacred bull, it has been alleged, with some de-
gree of probability, has some reference to Astro-
nomy ; Apis was the tutelar divinity of the new
form of the solar year, and the time prescribed for
his life corresponds with a period of the sun and
moon. In the mythology of this emblematical deity,
some allusion is made to a presiding power over the
inundation of the Nile, an event on which tlie ferti-
lity of the soil, and the abundance of the fruits of
the earth, essentially depend in Egypt. The idola-
trous worship of the golden calf, into which the Is-
raelites fell, is supposed to be derived from this E-
gyptian superstition,

APIUM, or Parsley, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the Pentandria class, and to the natural or-
der of umbellated plants.

APLUDA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Polygamia class, the species of which are natives of
America and the East Indies.

APLYSIA, or Laplysia, a genus of animals
belonging to the order MoUusca, under the class
Vermes. See Helminthology.

APOCALYPSE, or the Revelation, one of the
sacred books of the New Testament, which is un-
derstood to contain predictions concerning future
events in the condition of the Christian church. It
was written, according to some commentators, about
the 96th year of Christ, in the island of Patmos, to
which place St John the Evangelist, or the Divine
as he is called, was banished by the emperor Domi-
tian. But others assign to it an earlier date, and
some ascribe it to a different author. The authenti-
city of the book of Revelations has not been always
acknowledged; and, among others, it was excluded
by Luther from the canonical books of sacred Scrip-
ture. But it was admitted by the principal fathers
of the church in the fourth and fifth centuries,
and continues to hold the same place in protestant
churches.

APOCOPE, a figure in grammar, by which a let-
ter or syllable is cut off from the end of a word, as
ingeni, for ingenii, die for dice.

APOCRYf'HA, from the Greek, signifying con-
cealed or obscure, is the name of such books as are re-
jected from the canon of Scripture by most churches,
because they are of obscure or doubtful authority.
It is supposed, that the books to which the dcnorai-

APO

372

APO

Apotynum nation Apocryphal is now applied, were not consi-
* II dered authenti* by the Jews ; tliey are not alluded
Apollo, to by the writers of the New Testament ; and they
were not admitted into the canonical scriptures of
the Christian church in the early period of its histo-
ry. Some part of the apocryphal books is received
by the church of Howe ; the church of England re-
commends them to be read as examples of life and
instruction of manners ; but they are altogether re-
jected by the church of Scotland. See Prideaux's
Connections.

APOCYNU^^, or Dogsbane, a genus of plants
Belonging to the Pentandria class.

APODES; signifying «ivV/(0!tf_/frf, is the first or-
der in the class of fishe* according to the Linnsean
arrangement, and is thus characterised because the
fishes included in it are destitute of ventral fins. See
Ichthyology.

APOGEE, signifying ^ow the earth, denotes that
point in the orbit of a planet which is most distant
from the earth.

APOLLINARIAN GAMES were instituted at
Rome in honour of Apollo, and were at first cele-
brated only occasionally, according to the pleasure
of the prator ; but about 542 years from the build-
ing of the city, a law was passed, appointing an an-
nual celebration on a certain fixed day, which was
on the 5th of July. Singing and instrumental music
were originally the principal part of the entertain-
ment ; but dancing, and other performances, were
afterwards introduced, and the spectators were de-
corated with crowns of laurel.

APOLLINOPOLIS, Great and Small, the ancient
name of two celebrated cities in Egypt, now called
Etfou and Kous, which are only miserable villages, exhi-
biting a melancholy contrast with the magnificent
remains of their former splendour, which are still
visible. See Denon's Travels, vol. iii.

APOLLO, the most celebrated of the heathen
deities among the Greeks and Romans. Four divi-
nities of the same name are noticed by Cicero ; but
the Apollo who is described in mythological history
as the son of Jupiter and Latona was the most fa-
mous, and always received the most distinguished
honours. The name of Apollo is derived, accord-
ing to one etymology, from the Greek, signifying
the Destroyer, and according to another the Deliver-
er; but his epithets, expressive of his influence and
attributes, are numerous. He is called Pythius, ei-
ther because he slew the serpent Python, or because
lie is the god of augury ; Pcean, from the word to
strike, because he is the god of archery ; Phoebus,
ec the light of life ; Phanceus, from his splendour ;
Deliiu, from the island Uelos, his birth-place ; Cyn-
thins, I'rom a mountain in the same island ; and No-
niius, or the Shepherd, from the fertility and enliven-
ing influence which he communicates to the earth.

Divine honours were paid to Apollo as the god of
poetry and music, of medicine, augury, and archery.
lie is represented as a beautiful youth, with a bow
and arrows in his rigiit hand, and in his left a harp
or lyre ; and he is considered a symbolical deity, of
whom the sun- is the great antitype. Ancient my-
thology describes him as the soa of Jupiter, because

ApoD*

that god is the author of the world ; his mother was
called Latona, signifying hidden, because before the
creation of the sun all things were wrapped up in Apopbysi*.
the darkness of chaos ; he is always in the bloom of
youth, because the sun grows not old ; the bow and
arrows imply the piercing solar rays ; and the cere-
monies of his worship had an obvious reference to
the great source of light of which he is the repre-
sentation.

Youth and beauty
Eternal deck his cheek ; from his fair head
Perfumes distil their sweets ; and cheerful healtfi,
His duteous handmaid, through the air improv'd,
With lavish hand, diffuses scents ambrosial.

The spearman's arm, by thee, great god ! directed,
Sends forth a certain wound. The laurel'd bard,
Inspired by thee, composes verse immortal.
Taught by thy art divine, the sage physician
Eludes the urn, and chains or exiles death.

Pkioh.

APOLLO BELVIDERE, one of the most cele-
brated statues of antiquity, shone conspicuous among
the noble monuments of art which adorned the halls
of the Louvre at Paris, but is now restored to its na-
tive soil.

APOLLONIUS, of Perga, a city of Pamphylia,
was one of the most distinguished of the ancient
mathematicians, flourished about 200 years before
the Christian era, and by his profound investiga-
tions merited and obtained the noble appellation of
the Great Geometer. He studied at Alexandria un-
der the disciples of Euclid, and wrote various works
on the subjects of his studies ; but a Treatise on Co-
nic Sections is the only monument of his genius
which time or accident has spared, and of this work,
which was composed in eight books, seven have
been preserved, four in the original Greek, and three
in Arabic translations. A splendid edition of this
work was published by Dr Halley at Oxford in 1710.

APOLLYON, or, the Destroyer, is mentioned in
the book of the Revelations, and corresponds with
the Hebrew Abaddon. See Abaddok.

APOLOGUE, a moral fable, or fictitious narra-
tive, which is intended as an agreeable and impressive
method of communicating useful instruction. In the
parable, the incidents are drawn from what passes in
real life; among mankind, and the narration must be
clothed with probability ; but the apologue is not re-
stricted to the rigid rules of probability ; the actions
of inferior animals, and even of inanimate objects, are
introduced. This mode of writing is common in
eastern countries ; and the fables of ^^sop are a fa-
miliar example.

APONEUROSIS, a tendinous expansion which
stretches over the muscles, and which seems to be
intended to facilitate their action ; was sup{>osed by
the ancient anatomists to be derived from the nerves,
and hence the name.

APONO, PEfEU D', or Abano, a physician and
philosopher of the 13th century. See Abano.

APONOGETON, a genus of plants belonging to
the Dodecandria class.

APOPHYSIS, an anatomical term for those pro-

APO

573

APP

Apoplety cesses of bones which grow fiotn the bone itself, as

II the word imports, and are not attached by cartilages.

Apostrophe. APOPLEXY, a disease in which the patient is

deprived of sensation and voluntary motion. See

Medicine.

APOSTLE, in its original sense, signifies a mes-
senger sent by another on some particular business,
and it is the usual appellation of the twelve disciples,
who were commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach
the gospel. Twelve apostles were chosen, it is sup-
posed, in allusion to the twelve patriarchs, or to the
twelve chief heads, or rulers of the tribes of Israel.
The first commission which the apostles received from
Christ in the third year of his ministry, limited their
labours to the Jewish nation. They were sent out
two and two ; and in obedience to the command of
their Lord, they visited all parts of Palestine, preach-
ing the gospel and working miracles. Their second
commission, which was deh'vered before our Lord's
ascension, empowered them to preach the gospel to
all nations. Having exercised thoir ministry for 12
years in Judea, they resolved to disperse to different
parts of the world, and determined bj' lot what coun-
try should be assigned to each. According to this
aiTangement, Peter and John went to Pontus, Ga-
latia, and some other provinces of Lesser Asia ;
St Andrew to the northern country of Scythia ; St
Philip to Upper Asia, and some parts of Seythia ;
St Bartholomew to Arabia ; St Matthew to Chaldea,
Persia, and Parthia ; St Thomas to different parts of
India ; St James the less remained in Jerusalem, and
became bishop of that church ; St Simon went to
Egypt, Cyrene, Libya, and Mauritania ; St Jude to
Syria and Mesopotamia ; and St Matthias, who was
chosen in tlie room of Judas, to Cappadocja and
Colchis. Two apostles, Paul and Barnabas, were ad-
ded to the original number ; and the former is called,
by way of eminence, the Aposik, and sometimes the
Apostle of the Gentiles, because, through his ministry,
the conversion of the gentile world was chiefly ae-
complished.

In representations, or paintings, the apostles are
distinguished by peculiar badges, or attributes ; St
Peter is painted with the keys ; St Paul with a sword ;
St Andrew with a cros^ ; St James the greater, with
a. pilgrim's staff and a gourd bottle ; St James the less,
with a fuller's pole ; St John with a cup, and winged
serpent flying from it ; St Bartholomew with a knife ;
St Philip with a long staff, whose upper end is shap-
ed like a cross ; St Thomas with a lance ; St Matthew
with a hatchet ; St Matthias with a battle axe ; St
Simon with a saw ; and St Jude with a club.

APOSTROPHE, from theGreek,andsignifies<!im-
ing atvay, is a figure in rhetoric by which those who
are absent or dead are addressed as if they were pre-
sent, and in this way the speaker turns away his dis-
course from the audience before him. This figure
of speech, which is the natural expression of strong
emotion, and is chiefly employed by orators and po-
ets, is closely allied to personification, which is also
the effect of strong feeling, which addresses itself even
to the inanimate objects of nature. The apostrophe
was much employed by the celebrated orators of an-
tiquity. The address of Demosthenes to the Greeks
■vthfs fell in tlie field of Marathon, is a fine example

of, this figure. In the oration for Ligarlus, the ap- Apodiecftrj-
dress of Cicero to Tubero is not less splendid, and ||

has been always regarded as one of the most beauti- Apparition,
ful passages in the works of the Roman orator ; and
in his oration for Balbus, he thus apostrophizes in-
animate nature to bear witness to the virtues of Pom-
pey : " I invoke you, mute regions ; you most dis-
tant countries; you seas, havens, islands, and shores:
For what coast, what land, what place is there, in
which the marks of his courage, humanity, wisdom,
and prudence are not visible ?" Such figures are not
unusual in sacred Scripture ; thus, " Hear, O hea-
vens ! and give ear, O earth ! for the Lord hath spo-
ken ;" and, " Be astonished, O ye heavens ! at this."

APOTHECARY, a person who practises the arfc-
of pharmacy, who sells drugs employed in medicine,
and prepares them according to the prescriptions of
physicians. The apothecaries of London, who con-
stitute oi>e of the city companies, were incorporated
by royal charter in the time of James I. by which,
and subsequent enactments, they are entitled to cer-
tain privileges. They are obliged to make up their
medicines according to th% directions of the College
Dispensatory ; and their shops are subjected to visi-
tations by the censors of the Royal College of Phy-
sicians, who are empowered to destroy all medicines
of a bad quality, 'fhose who wish to trace the his-
tory of the establishment of apothecaries in different
countries, may consult Beckmann's History of In-
ventions, Vol. II.

APOTHEOSIS, or deification, the ceremony of
consecrating heroes and great men after death, ob-
served among the ancients, by which they were
enrolled among the gods. Temples and altars were,
erected to their honour, priests were appointed, and
a system of worship was instituted. The form of
apotheosis was the following : The body of the de-
ceased for whom this honour was destined was burnt
with the usual solemnities ; an image of wax, having
an exact resemblance, was placed on an ivory couch,
where it lay in state for seven days, attended by the
seuate and ladies of the highest rank, in mourning.
The young senators and knights then bore the couch
through the Sacred Way to the Old Forum, and af-
terwards to the Campus Martius, and placed it on an
edifice constructed in a pyramidal form. Combus- •
tible matters and aromatic substances were strewed-
around the couch ; the knights walked round the
pile in solemn procession, and tiie new emperor set .■
fire to it with a torch ; while an eagle with a fire-
brand, mounting in the air from the summit of the
pile, was supposed to carry the soul of the new di-
vinity to heaven.

APPARENT, a term used by astronomers, and
expressive of the appearance of- the heavenly bodies,
as, the apparent distance or magnitude of the sun or
planets, in opposition to the real distance or magni-
tude as they are ascertained by observation and cal-i
culation.

APPARENT HEIRS, a term ia law, denoting

' those whose right of inheritance is undoubted and,

fixed, provided they survive the ancestor or possessor,

as the eldest son, or his offspring, who, by the course

of common law, are heirs to the father at his decease.

APFAKITION, in its general jpeaning, denotes

APP

374

APP

AppaArot simply the appearance of an object, but in its more
II restricted sense it signifies the preternatviral appear-

AppcoL ance of departed spirits. Such preternatural appear-
ances are recorded both in sacred and profane his-
tory. Samuel, who was raised by the witch of En-
dor, is mentioned in the Old Testament ; and the ap-
pearance of our Saviour, after his crucifixion, to some
of his disciples, and of the angel to the apostle Pe-
ter in prison, is detailed in the New Testament. The
apparition which presented itself twice to Brutus,
the first time before he left Asia, and again on the
night before the battle of Philippi, is one of the most
remarkable examples in ancient history. A similar
apparition is noticed by Clarendon, in his history of
England ; it was the apparition of Sir George Vil-
liers, the father of the duke of Buckingham, which
was seen by an officer, and warned him of the assas-
sination of the duke.

Of the preternatural appearances, or apparitions,
which are recorded in Scripture History, it has been
generally admitted that they ought to be regarded as
deviations from the ordinary course of nature, which
are permitted for the accogipHshment of some useful
purpose, or the communication, or confirmation, of
some important instruction or essential doctrine. But
the existence of other apparitions is usually ascribed
to delusions of the imagination, or to lively impres-
.Etons produced in the mind by those objects which
excite deep interest, and strong emotions. In this
way the apparition of Sir George Villiers is accoun-
ted for. The indignation against the duke of Buc-
kingham had become general, and the dread of as-
sasination had taken strong hold of those whose for-
tune or expectations were connected with the life of
that royal favourite. The officer who saw the appa-
rition was perhaps one of those whose minds were
agitated with conflicting passions, in the fear of that
event. The father of the duke, who might be sup-
posed, by no great effort of imagination, to be in life,
or even his unembodied spirit, could not contemplate
with indifference the approaching fate of his son; and,
in the perturbation of thought which filled the mind '
of the officer, he seemed to appear to his alarmed
apprehension, to warn him of the impending blow.

APPARITOR, a general appellation applied to
all the attendants of the Roman judges and magis-
trates who were appointed to receive and execute
their orders ; but in modern times it is restricted to
the messenger, or officer, of an ecclesiastical court,
or to the beadle of a university, who carries the mace.

APPEAL, a law term, which denotes the removal
of a cause from an inferior court to a superior tribu-
nal. In ecclesiastical cases in England, the right of
appeal lies from the archdeacon's court to the con-
sistory court of the diocesan bishop, and from this
latter to the archbishop of each province, or the
court of arches, and, last of all, to the king in chan-
cery, as the head of the church. In civil cases, ap-
peals lie from all the inferior courts in England, as
well as from the equity courts of chancery, to the
House of Lords. See Blackstone's Commentaries.

In matters connected with the church in Scotland,
appeals lie from the kirk-session of each parish to
the presbytery, from the presbytery to the synod,
and, lastly, to the General Assembly, whose judg-

Apt>eal

mcnts are final. In civil causes in Scotland, appeals
lie from all the inferior courts to the Court of Ses-
sion, and from the Court of Session to the House of Appeiiation.
Lords. Appeals also lie from the inferior courts in - - -
Scotland to the circuit, or criminal court of the dis-
trict, in certain criminal cases, and in civil cases
where the subject in question exceeds not twelve
pounds sterling. Appeals are brought from the in-
ferior courts to the Court of Session by advocation,
reduction, or suspension. See Appeal, in BelFs Dic-
tionary of the Law of Scot/and.

APPEAL, also a term in English law, denotes a
criminal prosecution, at the instance of a private in-
dividual, to obtain the award of punishment on ac-
count of a particular injury, rather than in the view
of an offence against the public, and, in this sense,
corresponds with the accusation of civilians. This
mode of prosecution, which seems to have had its
origin in those times when compensation was made
for offences by the payment of money to the injured
person, is still in force, but rarely resorted to ; and
even at this day, according to the Turkish criminal
code, murder is regarded as a private injury, and is
prosecuted by the relations of the deceased. See
~ Blackstone's Commentaries.

APPELLATION, the name by which any object
is distinguished or known. Singular corruptions of
names have arisen, from ignorance either of the lan-
guage from which they are derived, of the manners
and customs in which they originated, or the changes
to which they have been subjected. Some of these
corruptions are not a little ludicrous. The O yes of
the crier of courts of justice, is a corruption of the
French verb oyez, hear ye, or liften ; Beef-eaters, ap-
plied to the yeomen of the royal guard, is derived
from Buffetiers, because, on great solemnities, they
waited at table, or attended at the buffet ; Blanc Nez,
or White Headland, has been transformed into Black-
ness ; and V Aiguille et Fil, the Needle and Thread,
by mis-spelling has been changed into L'Aigleet Fils,
and being literally translated Eagle and Child, has
given origin to a common sign.

The capture of the town of Boulogne, in the time
of Henry VIII. was a popular event, and gave birth to
two signs, which, under various changes, have been
transmitted to the present day, but altogether unlike
the original prototype. The port, or harbour of
Boulogne, was the sign of a well-known inn in Hol-
born, in London, which was distinguished by the ap-
pellation of tlie Boulogne Mouth ; but its origin was
forgotten, and, from the corruption of the name, a
new edition of the sign appeared, and exhibited a
b7dl and a gaping human mouth, and, under the title
of the Bull avd Mouth, is recognised at this day. The
sign of the Bull and Gate acknowledges a similar ori-
gin. The gates of Boulogne at the same time being
transported from France, and deposited at Hardes in
Kent, as a monument of the victory, became also a
popular sign, under the appellation oi Boulogne gate,
which was afterwards converted into the Bull and
Gate. The sign of the Bell and Savage, or, as it is
familiarly called. Bell Savage Inn, is supposed to be
derived from La Bell Sauvage, the beautiful savage,
alluding to a female found in the woods in France,
or from Lady Arabella Savage, to whom the pro-

A P P

575

APF

ApiicUaiive P^rty originally belonged. The sign representing a
II bell and a xvild man, is conjectured to have been in-
Appogiatura tended as a rebus for her name.

APPELLATIVE kames, are such as are applied
to a class of objects, as citj/, river, vinn, bird, in op-
position to proper names, which arc limited to a
single object.

APPENKADE, or ABENRADE, atown of the
duchy of Sleswick, in South Jutland, in Denmark,
stands on a bay of the Baltic, and is four miles dis-
tant from Fleiisbourg ; the surrounding hills protect
the harbour, which is commodious, from storms ; the
trade is considerable, and ship-building is extensive ;
its commercial prosjierity has greatly increased the
number of tlie inhabitants.

APPENZEL, a canton of S^v-itzerland, about thir-
ty miles in length and twenty miles in breadth, is a
mountainous district, but aftbrds good pasture, and
fields some grain and fruits. The population exceeds
50,000, of whom L'3,000 are Roman catholics. Some
iincn, crape, fustian, and thread are manufactured.

APPENZEL, a town of Switzerland, and capital
of the canton of tlie same name, stands on the banks
of the river Chus, is forty miles east from Zurich,
and in N. Lat. *7° IT', and E Long. 9° 31^ .

APPETITE, in its general signification, is the
desire or inclination which is supposed to be condu-
cive to our happiness. Writers on morals have di-
videtl appetites into sensitive and rational. Under
the first are included those which proceed from the
impulse of the senses, or from a blind propensity to
a certain object, and are not subjected to the influ-
ence of reason ; but the rational appetites originate
from reflection on the intrinsic value of the object,
and thus are under the guidance of reason. The
word appetite is properlj' limited in its application by
Dr Reid to that class of desires which arc accompa-
nied with an uneiisy sensation, and which are strong
or weak in proportion to the desire of their proper
objects, which are not constant, but, being sated by
their objects for a time, return after certain periods.
Of such desires, or appetites, hunger and thirst are
examples.

APPIAN, an eminent Roman historian, who was
a native of Alexandria, flourished about the begin-
ning of the second century, in the time of Adrian,
Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, and became celebrated
as a pleader at Rome. His History of the Roman
Empire is composed in the Greek language, and is
included in twenty-four books, fragments of some of
which only are extant; but the narrative is generally
regarded as authentic, the stile is simple, and the
•work displays great knowledge of military affairs.

APPLAUSE denotes the approbation of an audi-
ence at a public spectacle, which is expressed by
the clapping of the hands. See Acclamation'.

APPLEBY, the county town of Westmoreland,
in England, stands on the banks of the river Eden,
was a Roman station, and at one period of its history
enjoyed great privileges and prosperity. It is now
chiefly distinguished by an abundant corn market.
The population scarcely exceeds 800, and it is 29
miles distant from Carlisle.

APPOGIATUR A, from a word which signifies to
lean upon, is a small additional note introduced be-

t A^een two other notes, for the purpose of embellish- Appro ntict:-
ment in musical compositions. ||

APPRENTICE, from the French word which Appieniice-
signifies to learn, denotes a person vrho is engaged to s*"'?-
serve a master for a fixed period, for the purpose of
being instructed in some art or profession. Various
regulations, with regard to the obligations under
which masters and apprentices bind themselves, and
with regard to the privileges and immunities which
belong to tiiose who have served a legal apprentice-
ship, have been enacted by the legislature from the
time of Queen Elizabeth down to the present day.

APPRENTICESHIP, the period of service dur-
ing which an apprentice, by the contract he has en-
tered into, is bound to remain with a master, for the
purpose of learning an art or profession. The na-
ture and mutual obligations of engagements of this
kind, hold a conspicuous place in the modern code ;
but as such contracts are passed over in silence in
the Roman law, and even no word in Greek or Latin-
expressive of such a connexion, it is supposed that
they were unknown in ancient times. Is it not pro-
bable that those arts and trades for which appren-
ticeships are thought necessary in modern times,
were exercised by slaves among the Greeks and Ro-
mai\s, and in this way were overlooked in their poli-
tical regulations ?

The duration of apprenticeships is different in dif-
ferent towns and trades in Franco. In many trades
five years is the usual term in Paris. The act of the
legislature passed in the fifth year of Queen Eliza-
beth's reign, and called the Staiide of Apprenticeships,
fixes the period at seven years ; and this became the
public law in all arts and trades practised in market
towns ; but its operation is understood to be limited
to those trades which existed when the enactment,
was made. No general law has prevailed in Scotland
to regulate the term of apprenticeship. The period
is therefore different in different corporations, and
rarely exceeds three or five years. The restrictions
relative to apprenticeships in Ireland are similar to
those of England ; but by a regulation of the Irish
government, fwhich was ratified by a legislative en-
actment in the reign of Charles II., foreigners and
aliens are admitted freemen in any city or corpora-
tion, on payment of the small fine of twenty shillings
to the municipal authorities.

The necessity and inconveniences of apprentice-
ships have been a subject of controversy among wri-
ters on political economy. Apprenticeships are ne-
cessary, it is alleged, to give sufficient time to those
who are to be employed in any art or trade to ac-
quire habits of industry, and at the same time to in-
sure to the public perfect workmanship in the pro-
ductions of any trade or manufacture. But, on the
other hand, it is maintained, that the apprentice re-
ceiving no wages is a loser, and the master a gainer
by the fruits of his labour, in a very disproportionate
degree ; and the loss sustained by the one and the
gain of the other, increase in proportion to the length
of the period of service. It is supposed also that ap-
prenticeships are injurious to the public, by exclud-
ing competition, and thus preventing the productions
of art from being brought to market at the lowest
possible price. But the erij^ which arise from cor-

APS

5T6

AQU

•Afjiriang poration laws, when rightly investigated, may per-
' II » haps appear to be more imaginary than real ; the ex-
Apsin. pedients resorted to for relief often obviate their ef-
fects; and in England the more oppressive restrictions
were removed, in 1813, by a repeal of parts of the
statute of Elizabeth.

APPRISING, an action in the law practice of
Scotland, by which a creditor attached the estate or
property of a debtor for payment of a debt, which
property was redeemable by the debtor within a pre-
scribed period. This form of diligence is now disused,
and tlie mode by adjudication substituted in its place.
APPROACHES, a term used in fortification, to
denote the works which are thrown up*by besiegers
to enable them to approach nearer a fortress without
being exposed to the guns of the enemy.

APPROACHING, a method of engrafting a shoot
of one tree on -a branch of another, without removing
it from the parent stem till the union be completed.

APPROBATION, a tenn used by writers on mo-
rals, and expressive of the satisfaction which is felt
in the contemplation of certain actions. The prin-
ciple of approbation is ascribed by some to the feel-
ing of self-interest, and by others to motives of pure
benevolence, altogether independent of private hap-
piness.

APPROPRIATION, a terra in English law, which
denotes the separation of a benefice, and its perpetual
annexation to some religious corporation. When the
parochial clergy were first instituted, the tythes were
divided into four parts ; one part was destined for the
bishop, one for defraying the expence of repairs of the
church, a third for the poor, and a fourth as a provision
for the incumbent. Wlien the bishops were otherwise
provided for, they were excluded from their share of
the tythes, which were then distributed into three parts
only. The monasteries devoted a small portion to the
support of the officiating priest, and reserved the re-
mainder to the pious uses of their own institutions.
All the advowsons within their reach were obtained
by gift or purchase, and the benefices were appropri-
ated to their own corporations. To complete such
appropriation, the king's licence in chancery must be
obtained, and the consent of the patron and incum-
hent when the church is full, and of the diocesan
and patron when the benefice is void. See Black-
stone's Commentaries.

APPROXIMATION, a term in arithmetic and al-
gebra, which denotes the nearer and nearer approach
to a root or other quantity sought, without finding it
exactly.

APPULSE, denotes the approach of a planet to a
conjunction with the sun or a star. Some astrono-
mers employ this term to express the apparent con-
tact of the two bodies ; and by others it is considered
synonimous with occuUation, when one of the bodies
is completely obscured by the other.

APRIL, derived from the word aperio, " to open,"
is the fourth month of the year, according to the
common computation ; and is thus denominated from
the opening or expansion of the buds, or, in a more
extended signification, because the earth in this sea-
son opens her bosom for the production of vegetables.
APSIS, a term in astronomy, denoting the two
points of a plaoet's orbit, when it is at the greatest

and least distance from the sun or earth. The line Aptcra

connecting these points is called the line of the ap- \\

sides. The higher apsis is the point nearest the sun AquaTofana.

or earth, and corresponds with perihelion or perigee; '

and the lower apsis, which is analagous to aphelion,

or apogee, is the point most distant from the sun or

earth.

APTERA, from the Greek, and signifying viiith-
out "xmgs, is the seventh order in the Linnaan clas-
sification of insects, and, as the name imports, in-
cludes those insects which are destitute of wings.
See Entomology.

APULEIUS LUCIUS, a Roman philosopher,
who professed to be a disciple of the Platonic sect,
but is chiefly celebrated as the author of a singular
romance under the title of the Golden Ass, was a
native of a Roman colony in Africa ;' flourished in
the second century under the Antonines ; studied
at Carthage, Athens, and Rome, and in a short time
became so perfect in the Latin language that he ac-
quired great reputation as a public pleader. He was
charged with using magical incantations in obtain-
ing a rich widow in marriage ; and it is supposed
that the accusation may have originated either in
his o^n belief in the art of magic, or from the re-
markable adventures detailed in the Golden Ass,
many of which are accomplished by means of that
occult science ; but it is more probable that it arose
from the prevailing notions of the times. In the
work alluded to, which is considered as the original
of all succeeding romances, the author is introdu-
ced ingratiating himself into the confidence of the
female servant of a sorceress, from whom he acquires
the secrets of the art of her mistress. Anxious to
possess the means of extending his knowledge, he
expressed a wish to be transformed into a bird ; but
the wrong ointment being applied, effected his trans-
foi-mation into the form of an ass ; in this form he is
seized by robbers, loaded with their booty, and con-
ducted to a cave, the scenery of which, the inhabi-
tants, and the incidents that occurred during his re-
•idence in it, have a near resemblance to the descrip-
tion of the cave of the robbers in the celebrated Gil
Bias of Le Sage ; and having encountered many
other adventures, he is at last restored to his own
proper form.

APYROUS, a term which is equivalent with in-
combustible, is applied to those substances which
remain unchanged in the strongest heat.

AQUA FOllTIS, or the common nitric acid of
the shops, in that degree of dilution which is neces-
sary for many purposes in the arts.

AQUA llEQIA, a compound of nitric and mu-
riatic acids, was so denominated by the alchemists
and older chemists, because it dissolves gold, the
king of the metals. See Chemistry.

AQUA TOFANA, a poisonous liquid, which is
said to have been extensively employed at Naples
and Rome during the latter half of the 17th centu-
ry, and has been the subject of some very learned
dissertations to prove its existence and effects. Six
hundred persons, according to the pretended confes-
sion of the inventress, Tofania, are said to have fal-
len victims to this secret poison. But the whole sto-
ry forms such a tissue of improbabilities, absurdi-

AQU

377

AQU

Aqua ihx. ties, and contradictions, that a sober enquirer would
^^^r^^ be almost disposed to doubt the whole. Of the in-
famous Tofania herself, it is said, that " the little
that we know of her rests upon the authority of tra-
vellers, and is evidently exaggerated, and sometimes
irreconcileable with established facts." One travel-
ler asserts, that Tofania was dragged from a sanc-
tuary by the civil power, and after being strangled,
her body was thrown at night into the court of the
convent, for the purpose of suppressing the indigna-
tion of the clergy on account of the violation of the
sanctuary. Bat at the distance of 15 and 20 years,
two other travellers declare that she was alive and in
prison. It is stated by one author, who visited Na-
ples in 17S0, that this poisonous liquor was still in
use, while another regards it as an unfounded ca-
lumny.

The nature and effects of this liquid exhibit the
most extraordinary part of its improbable history.
It is described " as being as limpid as rock-water,
and without taste ;" and there was not a lady in Na-
ples who had not some of it lying openly on her
toilette among her perfumes. " It was generally be-
lieved that the effect of this poison was certain
death ;" and that it could be so managed as to prove
fatal in any determinate time, from a few days to a
year or upwards. Four or six drops were reckoned
a sufficient dose, and they were said to produce no
violent symptoms, or but very seldom ; no pains,
convulsions, inflammation, or fever, but only a feel-
ing of indisposition, without any very definite symp-
toms, except, sometimes, inextinguishable thirst.
The victim, however, sunk into a languid state ; and
with disgust at food, and weariness of life, death
closed the scene. It was at last discovered, that le-
, mon-juice, early and copiously administered, was

sometimes a certain antidote, and brought the poi-
son into disrepute.

That crimes of so deep a dye exist among a dis-
solute and licentious people, as well as among na-
tions more distinguished by morality and humanity,
can scarcely be tloubted ; but that they prevailed to
such extent, aad were perpetrated by means of a li-
Tjuid " as limpid as rock-water, and without taste,"
and with a few drops of this liquid, which had no
perceptible effects on the unfortunate victims, and
could be so managed as to produce certain death at
the end of a few days, or at the end of twelvemonths,
exceeds all power of belief. The whole story must
either be regarded as a mere fiction, invented for the
amusement of the credulous, or it may be traced to
an aberration of the mental faculties, somewhat akin
to the notion of witchcraft, which had taken a strong
hold of the minds of the inhabitants of the northern
part of this kingdom about the same period, and
spread so rapidly in New England as to threaten the
' depopulation of that infant colony. See Beckmann's
Historic of Inventions, and Aqua Tojana in Supple-
ment to Enctjclo-pcedia Britannica.

AQUA VITiE, or water of life, spirits obtained
from vegetable ])roductions by means of fermenta-
tion and distillation. The spirits from the fermented
juice of the grape are well known by the name of
brandy, and from grain by the denomination of lultis-

VOL. I. PART I.

Aijusp

hy, in Scotland. To the latter production the term
aqua vitm is restricted by some.

AQUiE, along with some descriptive appellation, Aquarius.
is applied to many places which were formerly un-
der the dominion of the ancient Koruans, and were
usually places of resort on account of mineral wa-
ters ; as Aquce Calida, from its hot springs, now
Bath, in England ; Aquce Calidce, for the same rea-
son, now Orense, in Spain ; and Aquce Sextice, a co-
lony founded by Sextius Calvinus, contiguous to a
spot abounding in cold and hot springs, and now
Aix in France.

AQUiEDUCT, an artificial structure for convey-
ing water over an unequal surface. Unacquainted
with the hydraulic principle of water that is convey-
ed in pipes to whatever depth they are laid below the
level always rising to the height of its source, the
ancients supplied their cities with that necessary
fluid, by conducting it nearly on a level, or at least with
a gentle slope to produce a current towards the place
of discharge ; and when the inequality of surface
over which the water was to be carried, did not ad-
mit of such a conveyance, an artificial course was
formed, by perforating mountains, and raising ranges
of arches in vallies. The stupendous works of the
Romans, which were constructed for this purpose in
different parts of their extensive empire, still excite,
in their magnificent and mouldering remains, the
wonder and admiration of succeeding ages. The
arches were constructed of stone or brick, and when
the valley was deep, several ranges of arclies, one
above another, were formed. Some of the arcade?
of a Roman aquaeduct, which conveyed a large body
of water across the Moselle, are still visible near
Metz ; and 159 arches composed of massy stone's,
joined without mortar, yet exist a striking monument
of Roman grandeur at Segovia in Spain. In this
aquaeduct a double range of arches raised the water
to more than 100 feet.

The most splendid aquaeduct of modern times was
constructed by Louis the XIV. of France, for con-
veying the waters of a river to Versailles. It con-
sists of 2i2 arches arranged in three rows, and the
length of the course is 7000 fathoms. In Britain
such structures are usually destined for conveying
the waters of canals across vallies. A magnificent
aquaeduct carries the Ellesmere canal over the vale
of Llangollen in North Wales ; and the vale of the
Kelvin five miles from Glasgow is traversed by an
aquaeduct on a smaller scale for continuing the course
of the Forth and Clyde canal.

AQUAMBOE, or Akambo, a kingdom on the
coast of Guinea, in Africa, which occupies only about
20 miles of the coast, but extends more than 100 miles
inland. The natives are described as a warlike race,
divided into tribes, which are subject to the king of
Aquamboe, whose authority is stated to be highly
tyrannical and oppressive. With a soil generally
fertile, the produce of their agricultural labours se-
cures them not always from a scarcity, and their
trade is of no great account.

AQUARIUS, or the water-carrier, is the eleventh
sign of the zodiac, through which the sun moves in
the month of January.

3b

AQU

578

ARA

AqMrtia AQUARTI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
II Tctrandria class.

Arabia. AQUATINTA, a method of engraving on cop-

per, from which soft and beautiful impressions, re-
Komblin^ drawings with Indian ink, are obtained. See

ENCiRAVING.

AQUILA, a constellation of the northern hemis-
phere which is generally united with Antinsus, and
includes, according to the Britannic catalogue, 71
stars.

AQUILA, a town of Naples, and capital of far-
ther Abruzzo, contains 10,000 inhabitants. The
culture of saffron in the neighbourhood %vas formerly
extensive. This town suffered a dreadful calamity
from an earthquake in February 1703. On the first
shock the inhabitants fled from the city, but return-
ed to vespers in the evening, when the shocks were
repeated, and 24,000 persons were buried in the
ruins, 1500 were wounded, and a church with 800
persons, who had fled to it for shelter, was swallowed
up. Aquila is 30 miles distant from the sea.

AQUILEGIA, or Columbine, a genus of plants
belonging to the Polyandria class.

AQUILEIA, once a flourishing and populous
city of Italy, has now dwindled to a small village.
It stands at the entrance of the gulf of Trieste. In
the fiftli century it resisted a siege of three months,
but at last was forced to yield to the victorious arms
of Attila king of the Huns.

AQUINAS,Thom AS, a scholastic divine of the 13th
century was born at Aquino, in Italy, from which he
derives his name, in V22i; and died in 1274, is great-
ly celebrated for his profound studies and voluminous
writings, to which high authority is attached in the
Roman Catholic church. He was canonized in 1323,
by the Pope; and, in the 16th century, Pius V. dis-
tinguished him by the honourable appellation of the
fifth doctor of the church.

AQUITANIA, an ancient province of Transal-
pine Gaul, which was conquered by Ca;sar and his
lieutenants, was, after various revolutions, erected
into a kingdom by Charlemagne, in the_8th century,
but was reduced to the rank of a dukedom by Charles
the Bald. The wealth and effeminate manners of the
Aquitani rendered them an easy prey to the warlike
Romans. Guienne and Gascony are supposed to in-
clude this province.

ARABESQUE, or Moresque, a style of orna-
mental painting and sculpture, which was practis-
ed by the Arabs and Moors, for the decoration of
their apartmeots ; the origin of which, it is said, is
derived from the prohibition of the use of images of
Ken or other animals, by the Mahometan religion.
Imaginary plants, stems, and foliage, are substituted
in their place.

ARABIA, a large country in Asia, is distinctly
bounded by the Red sea on the west, the Indian
' vcean on the south, the Persian gulf and the Euphra-
tes, or more correctly speaking, the deserts towards
the west of tliat river, on the east; while the north-
ern limit, which is much less obvious, may be said
to be determined by Palestine and Syria, or the bleak
apd almost uninhabitable countr}' which extends from
tjie isthmus of Suez to Palmyra, and the same river,
fi»rjuiDg part of the modem PachoUc of Dituiasc\is.

Its length, from Cape Babelmandel, at the entrance
of the Red sea, to the north-east extremity on the
Euphrates, is estimated at from 1500 to 1800 Bri-
tish miles, and its breadth, in the direction of the
tropic of Cancer, at about 800; so that, in general
terras, this country may be conceived to be nearly
four times larger than the kingdom of France, ac-
cording to its ancient and restricted dimensions.

Divisions. — This extensive region, from the time
of Ptolemy tlie geographer, has been divided into
three unequal portions, the names of which, though
not recognized by the natives, are very characteristic
of some striking peculiarities. Thus, Arabia Petra;a,
or the Stoncy, designates a small country in the
nortli-west corner, adjoining the Red sea, Egypt,
and Palestine, remarkable for the abundance of rocks
and hills; Arabia Deserta is the significant term ap-
propriated to an immense sandy plain, occupying most
of the central and eastern regions ; and the enviable
title of Arabia Felix, or the Happy, is, comparatively
speaking, merited by the beautiful and on the whole
fertile lands in the south-west quarter, on the shores
of the Red sea and Indian ocean. But other dis-
tinctions, established in the course of political revo-
lutions, and become familiar to Europeans in the
progress of geographical discovery, require to be spe-
cified. Of these the following are the most noted :
Yemen, an interesting and much celebrated province
in the south-west angle, described by Sir William
Jones, in his Essay on Asiatic Poetry, as a kind of
paradise, not more gratifying to the senses than cal-
culated to excite the energies of creative imagina-
tion ; Hedjas or Ilejas, a district stretching on the
coast of the Red sea, to the north of Yemen, and
presenting some of the objects and places most me-
morable in the page of Arabian history; Hadra-
maut, a large province lying on the south coast, east-
ward of Yemen; Schadschar, or Seger, and Mahrah,
two tracts partly sea-coast and partly inland, still
farther to the east ; Oman, a detached and hilly pro-
vince, which forms the eastern corner of Arabia, at
the mouth of the Persian gulf; Lachsa or Bahrein,
as it is sometimes called, situate on the western
border of that gulf, and of course opposite to the
kingdom of Persia ; and Neged or Nedsjed, a very
large inland country, comprising the two districts of
Ared and Kerge, and extending across the peninsula
so as to occupy most of the central regions. All of
these provinces, or states, as they may be called,
from the circumstance of separate and tolerably in-
dependent governments, are subdivided into smaller
districts.

Jippearance Arabia has been variously described

— as bearing a strong resemblance to Africa in its
larger features — as a group of mountains encircled
by an immense belt of sandy deserts — or as a vast,
flat, and unprofitable plain, skirted by fertile eleva-
tions, and sparingly studded with verdant patches.
The accounts on the whole concur as to its general
unproductiveness and gloom, and its partial exuber-
ance and splendour, but differ somewhat in the allot-
ment of those extraordinary discordancies. W* may
safely hazard the assertion, that vpith some few excep-
tions, chiefly on the shores of the seas by which it
is (enclosed, Arabia is a dreary arid waste, scarce!}^.

Amlni.

ARA

579

ARA

Anbia> fitted for animal habitation, and almost utterly pre-
cluding the visits of travellers, by the fervour of the
tropical rays to which it is exposed, and the vi^ant of
those common blessings which are essential to the
support of life. Some stinted herbage, and other fee-
ble indications of moisture, occasionally, and at ter-
rific distances, tantalize rather than gratify desire ;
but wood, water, and fruit, are hardly to be met with
in many days journey ; the air itself, which in other
countries affords so salubrious a refreshment, is often,
by its heat and noxiousness, the swift messenger of
death ; and even the earth, or rather the sand which
supplies its place in this region of calamities,not unfre-
quently joins in the alliance against the presumptuous
passenger, rising up into waves more dangerous and
scarcely less lofty than those of the ocean, and threa-
tening every moment to obliterate every token of his
existence. By some of these means, particularly the
last mentioned, whole caravans and armies have pe-
rished, without leaving a single memorial of the ca-
tastrophe.

Climate, &;c The characteristics of the climate,

it will easily be understood, are heat and drought.
But there are some exceptions, especially in the hil-
ly part of Yemen and on the borders of tlie Indian
ocean. In the former, a regular rainy season pre-
vails from the middle of July to the end of Septem-
ber ; though even in that country, it is said, the sky
is seldom obscured for an entire day, and in some of
the plains a whole year passes without a shower of rain.
The rainy season occurs earlier in Oman. A few hills
scattered throughout the internal districts occasion-
ally attract vapour from the atmosphere, which de-
scends in small showers scarcely sufficient to prolong
feeble vegetation among the thirsty sands, or is collec-
ted into small pools, the possession of which is eager-
ly and sometimes fatally contended for by the no less
needy inhabitants and travellers. In Yemen, where
the finest climate is enjoyed, and where the highlands
are most distinguished by their fertility and agreea-
faleness, the thermometer frequently and for long pe-
riods rises above 90° ; but the average temperature
of Arabia does not exceed SO" throughout the year.
Soil, Sfc — The soil is generally thin and poor. But
some crops thrive in different places with remarkable
luxuriance. Grain of various kinds, as maize, mil-
let, and wheat, are cultivated, but yield only sparing
returns, in consequence, probably, of the very un-
skilful management adopted. Beans and barley are
more plentiful. Rice and oats are almost quite un-
known. Culinary vegetables, a variety of fruits, cof-
fee, and sugar, abound in some favoured districts ;
certain provinces in the south have been long cele-
brated for aromatics and spiccries ; and even the dis-
mal monotony of the desart is now and then inter-
rupted by the friendly palm-tree and the generous
vine. Arabia is destitute of forests ; but clusters, or
groves of trees, are to be seen on some of its moun-
tains, especially towards the west and south-west
coasts. The botany is scanty and rather uninterest-
ing. Among the larger productions in this depart-
ment of natural history, may be enumerated several
species of palm-tree, the orange, fig, apricot, and
almond, all of which are considered indigenous ; the
tamarind, pomegranate, and cotton tree, supposed to
2

have been introduced from Persia or India; to vi^hich
may be added a great variety of melons and gourds,
mimosa nilntica, which yields the gum Arabic of the
shops, and the amyris opohaL'.amum, from wliich is
obtained the costly gum of Mecca ; and among the
shrubs and herbaceous plants we distinguish the rici-
nus ov pahna-chrinti, the seeds of which afford by ex-
pression the valuable substance generally denomina-
ted castor oil, the senna, and liquorice, all three used
in medicine.

Zoology. — The first place in the zoology of Arabia
is due to the horse, of which it is considered by some
naturalists the original country, though others refer
it to Independent Tartary. The breed is small in
size, but full of spirit, admirable for activity, and pos-
sessed of the noblest generosity of temper. Perhaps,
indeed, the genuine Arabian steed is the most com-
pact piece of powerful and efficient mechanism in
the brute creation. The natives, who are justly s.en-
sible of their value, pay the utmost attention to their
genealogy and education, carefully witnessing and
registering the former, which is said, in .some cases,
to be several centuries old, and spending a great
portion of their time on the latter. Next to tlie
horse, in point of rank, and superior in certain im-
portant qualities, is the camel. This extraordinary
animal appears to be a native both of Arabia and
Africa ; to the peculiarities of both of which coun-
tries it is very obviously accommodated. Its eastern
title, the Ship of the desert, is well merited by a variety
of excellencies, which fit it, almost exclusively of all the
rest of the carrying race, for passing a desolate and un-
stable ocean of sand. The species found in Arabia, ac-
cording to Niebuhr, is that with only one hunch on its
back, commonly denominated the dromedary. This
is said to be much lighter, and to have far more
speed than the other sort with two hunches, which
seems to prevail most in the Crimea and Tartary.
In the list of quadrupeds are mentioned the hyena,
jackal or chacal, panther, wild boar, wolf, fox,
monkey, and jerboa. Eagles, vultures, the ostrich,
and pheasant, are met with. Land-tortoises and lo-
custs are sometimes used as food. The variety of
the serpent kind is considerable ; and some of tliem,
particularly a very slender species, called beatan,
give a bite that is said to prove speedily fatal.

Mineralogy has not hitherto received much acqui-
sition from this country. The precious metals are
no where found in it, with the exception of a small
portion of silver in the lead mines of Oman ; and of
the richer gems, it is not cevtain that any are to be
met with which have not been brought from India
in the course of commerce. The onyx-stone has
been discovered in Yemen ; a kind of agate, called
Mocha stone, comes from the place so named, near
the strait of Babelmandel ; alabaster, selenite, ba-
salt, and various sorts of spars, are enumerated by
Niebuhr among its more conmion productions. The
mountains in general, it is believed, are of the pri-
mitive order ; and the ever-memorable Rlount Sinai,
in particular, is said to exhibit two strikhig summits
of red-coloured granite.

Population. — The Arabs are an original and a
very ancient people. They boast of a descent from
Ishmael, the son of Abraham, by his concubine Ha-

Ambia.

AHA

380

ARA

Arabia. R*' ! ^^^ perhaps have undergone fewer changes of
feature or character than any of the eastern nations,
all of whom are so much noted for permanency of
manners and customs. Some circumstances render
it probable, that the southern provinces were peopled
even earlier than Abraham's tirrte, by a branch from
the same stock, whence the Assyrians had their ori-
gin. But the distinction, though sometimes kept
up by prejudice and animosity amongst the natives
themselves, vanishes from the view of the philoso-
pher, who sees only one characteristic generation,
merely modified, like the casts of India, by peculia-
rities m their occupations and modes of life. Of this
kind it is necessary to mention the threefold classi-
fication, into Bedouines or Bedoweens, Maedi or
Moaedan, and Fellahs. The first, in whom the na-
tional peculiarities are most strongly marked, main-
tain an irregular and desultory residence in the de-
sert,, living under tents, and rarely visiting any of
the towns, which are mostly situate on the coast.
They are remarkable for activity and the love of in-
dependence. The Maedi are shepherds, whose em-
ployment requires and produces greater steadiness
«>f character and longer continuance in one place.
TJie last class includes the agriculturists, who are, of
course, still more restricted to a fixed abode, and are
confined indeed to (ew and very distant portions of
the country. The inhabitants of the cities are un-
derstood to have suffered material changes in the
progress of time through the influence of political
events, and differ considerably therefore from those
of the country. It does not appear that tlie popu-
lation is any way proportioned to the vast magni-
tude of this region, which is readily explained by
what has already been mentioned ; but of its amount
no satisfactory estimate, and scarcely, indeed, a plau-
sible conjecture, has been offered.

Government. — Arabia is divided among a number
of chiefs, having different titles and powers, almost
entirely independent of each other, but occasionally
acknowledging one nominal head, and sometimes
really united for one common purpose. The prin-
ciple of government which prevails is that of a fa-
ther over his family. His power is almost unlimited,
and it is generally hereditary. But the chiefs of the
tribes, who are usually denominated Sheiks, or
Schiecks, have been sometimes deposed for their ty-
ranical conduct ; and those sheiks who have associ-
ated under a common chief, exercise the right of ap-
pointing his successor, who is generally chosen, in-
deed, out of the same family, but not without due re-
gard being paid to superiority of talents for the of-
fice. This privilege, and the power of deposition,
render eondescenieion and mildness of behaviour very
requisite on the part of the grand sheik. The sheiks
possess no fiefs, as in the feudal governments, but
have a kind of property in the persons of their sub-
jects. They lead the armies, administer justice, ei-
ther directly or by deputy, and decree peace and
war, but seldom without taking the advice of com-
petent persons in the tribe. The structure of the ge-
nuine Arab government is altogether remarkable for
simplicity and force. But in modern times, and
chiefly through the agency of a religion highly fa-
veurable to despotism, if not refinement of policy, va-

rious distinctions and institutions, formerly unknown,
have taken place, and they prevail most in those
parts of the country where civilization has made the
greatest progress. Under such an influence, unequi-
vocal resemblances to the monarchial establishments
of other Asiatic Countries appear. The title of
imam, which implies vicar, that is of Mahomet, is, pro-
perly speaking, ecclesiastic, but is often applied to
chiefs of superior dignity, and becomes synonymous
in some instances with the better known name of
caliph. It is therefore given to the sovereigns of se-
veral provinces, and appears to entail a greater de-
gree of authority and consequence than is possessed
by the sheiks. An imam, in fact, is the head of a
country, rather acquired by conquest, than volunta-
rily associated under him, having various tributaries,
who are soinetinies the sheiks themselves, and pos-
sessing the almost entire and unrestricted administra-
tion of civil, ecclesiastical, and military affairs, which,
however, he finds it convenient to allot to subordi-
nate and responsible officers. But though absolute,
generally speaking, it seems, according to Niebuhr's
information, with respect to Yemen at least, that his
authority over life, if not some other important con-
cerns, is liable to check from a tribunal of which he
is merely the president, and before which all capital
cases must be decided. This restraint is probably
more nominal than real, and is rarely exercised :
Such is the inference to be drawn from the circum-
stances of the imam appointing the assessors of this
tribunal, and his having the power of removing them
at pleasure. We are told, indeed, that these sove-
reigns have never found their advantage in violent
measures, and that acts of tyranny have commonly
ended in the destruction of the agents. This may
be true ; but the very fact itself proves the influence
now suggested, though the testimony of experience
condemn its exercise.

Ranks, SfC. — There are many public officers, but
few titles of honour in the court of the imam. His
first minister is sXyXeAfakih. This term is somewhat
equivalent to our gentleman, and can scarcely be
thought, therefore, to denote uncommon dignity.
The titles of ittali, dola, and emir are given te the
subordinate governors of districts, but this last name
is not unusually considered of equal import with imam.
Sherriffe is the denominatien of certain descendants
of Mahomet, who posses sovereign power in some
cities of Hedjas. Miifti and cadi signify persons en-
gaged in the ecclesiastic and civil judicatures. But
the prince himself is usually the high priest, as well
as the supreme judge.

Religion. — Arabia is the birth-place of Mahomet,
and the country in which he first established his doc-
trines. The Koran is universally received as the
standard of faith ; but according to the prediction
of that singular man, and as might, indeed, have
been expected, from the caprices as well as the
improvement of human nature, it has given rise to
a variety of sects, who are exceedingly hostile to
each other. In general, it has been said, they are
more remarkable for credulity than purity of morals.
Of late years, a sect difltjring essentially from all
other believers, and called after Waheb their foun-
der, has made astonishing progress in ovevturuing

Arabia.

ARA

581

ARA

Arabia, both the rellgious opinions and the political esta-
blishments of this country.

Commerce, Sfc — Previously to the discovery of
the course to India by the Cape of Good Hope,
the commerce of Arabia was very extensive. Since
that period it has rapidly declined. The exports,
which are chiefly from Yemen, consist of aloes,
myrrh, senna, and a few other drugs, frankin-
cense, and coffee. The Arabs import the useful
metals, either in mass, or wrought into various im-
plements and utensils, glass, colouring substances,
certain kinds of cotton goods, and difterent luxuries.
These imports are rarely from Europe direct, but
are supplied from the European settlements on the
coast of India. Africa furnishes Arabia with ivory,
gold, and slaves. The few manufactories carried on
in this country are generally in t^e hands of stran-
gers, who reside in the cities and towns on the
coast, especially that of the Red sea. But the na-
tives appear to be endowed with every intellectual
faculty requisite for their perfection, and to need
only to be encouraged to excel.

Cities, Sfc, — Arabia cannot boast much of its ci-
ties. Mecca Is the most famous ; but being sacred
among the believers of Mahomet, and in consequence
inaccessible to the people of any other religion, it
has seldom or ever been described in a satisfactory
ntauner. It is situate a full day's journey from Jicl-
da, or Jeddo, a port nearly about the centre of the
eastern shore of the Red sea. The buildings, which
are mostly of stone, are said to be better than those
in any other city in Arabia. Excessive heat pre-
vails in it during the summer months. The inhabi-
tants are wont to shut their windows to avoid it.
They water their streets also, in order to moderate
the temperature. But it is not unusual for persons
to be suffocated by the burning wind called Sanwum,
or Samiel, if accidentally exposed to it. Of the size
and populousness of this city, no correct informa-
tion has been obtained. The principal edifice, from
which it derives its importance in the minds of the
orientals, is the Kaba, or Caaba, i. e. House of God,
in which is deposited the most precious object of
Mahommeddan superstition. This is a black stone,
said to have been brought by the angel Gabriel from
heaven. It was at first, according to report, of a
bright white colour, so as to dazzle the eyes of the
beholder ; but being of a compassionate nature, and
having wept long for the sins of mankind, it gradu-
ally lost its complexion and clearness, and at last
assumed its present hue and opacity 1 In point of
architecture, the Caaba is an awkward, clumsy build-
ing, totally unworthy of notice. There is decisive
reason to believe, that, even earlier than the days of
Mahomet, this city was highly venerated by his
countrymen, and that he merely availed himself of
the current opinion to enhance its importance. The
governor of Mecca, previous to the time of Waheb,
was a temporal prince, whose revenue was augment-
ed by gifts from the various sovereigns professing
the same faith. Medina, to the north of Mecca, at
the distance of about 200 miles, and like it about
a day's journey from the coast of the Red sea, is
but a small place, without any thing remarkable,
except the tomb of Mahomet, which is erected ia a

mosque, and is of plain mason-work, In the form of
a chest, inclosed within iron rails, for the obvious
purpose of keeping the populace at a distance, who
are said to have been in the habit of throwing dirt
upon the tomb, which tliey afterwards scraped off,
and preserved as a relic. In this circumstance, we
apprehend, may be seen the origin of the absurd re-
port so prevalent amongst the Mahometans, that the
coffin of their prophet is suspended in the air by
means of magnets. Pilgrims usually visit the tomb,
but this is not essential to any religious exercise. It
is placed between two tombs, in which are deposited
the remains of the two first caliphs, and is not more
magnificent than those of the founders of most other
mosques. The building which covers it is decorated
with a piece of embroidered silk, and was commonly
guarded by forty eunuchs, for the security of the
precious stones and other treasure occasionally offer-
ed to it by wealthy Mussulmans.

Sana or Saana, at the bottom of a mountain called-
Nikkum, in the south-west part of Yemen, is a large
town, reputed indeed the chief in Arabia. It is a-
bout four miles in circuit, but much of the space \n
occupied by gardens. The houses are mostly built
of bricks dried in the sun, fuel being very scarce. The
walls are of the same material, and have seven gates,
and there are several palaces, some of which are of
stone. It is a place of some trade. Some small
streams fertilize the neighbouring country, which ie
noted for its beauty and rich fruits. The palace of
the governor, or prince, which is at a little distance •
from the town, is denominated " the castle of de-
lights," a phrase very agreeable to an eastern imagi-
nation.

The town of Mokka, Mocho, or Mocha, which lie*
near the entrance of the Red sea, is an indifferently
built place, containing about 10,000 inhabitants, who
are chiefly occupied in trade, and possessing a con-
venient harbour, for small vessels. The coff'ec which
comes from this town, and which constitutes its prime
commodity, is in the highest esteem throughout the
world. Out countrymen have of late years almost
entirely engrossed the trade of this thriving place.

Jidda, or Jeddo, the sea-port of Jlecca, is small,
situate in an unhealthy barren tract, badly supplied
with water.

The province of Hadramaut, according to the
scanty intelligence which Niebuhr collected, appears
to contain an immense number of towns and villages.
Of those he has mentioned, the following may be
considered most important. Schibam, about eight
days journey from Sjina, the seat of a powerful prince,
and perhaps the Saba of the ancients ; Keshim, a sea-
port, visited by the Englisli ; Dafar, or Dofar, a sea-
port, near Cape Morbat, noted for its exports of in-
cense ; and Ainad, greatly to the east, famous for a
fair, and for the tomb of an ancient prophet, called
Kachtan, or Jaktan, spoken of in the Koran. '

The towns of Oman are not worthy of description.
It is enough to specify the names of Sur, Kalabat,
Kuriat, and Muscat. This last place was formerly
of consequence in the hands df the Portuguese, but
since their expulsion by the Arabs it has gradually
declined. In respect of position, at the mouth of
the Persian gulf, it lies well for trade, and seems to

Arabia.

ARA

582

ARA

ArAkk court the visitation of strangers. English vessels
coming from India not unfrequently touch at it.

Lahsa, the capital of the province so called, on
the Persian gulf, is a goodly town by all accounts,
but is comparatively little known. There is a pearl-
fishery in its vicinity. Some maps lay down a river
as entering the gulf at this place. In all probability
it is merely a brook, only sometimes filled with rain
from the mountains in Neged. Katif, to the north
of Lahsa, was once important. The Portuguese had
a fortress near it, the ruins of which were to be seen
in Niebulir's time. Roueit, Grocn, or Grane, is far-
ther to the north. Its inhabitants carry on a pearl-
fishery. Here also the same people had a fortifica-
tion.

Several islands in the Persian gulf are subject to
the Arabs. The towns, or rather villages, of the de-
sert, have little claim to attention.

National character It is not easy to give a faith-
ful representation of national character, even where
the materials are constantly in the view of the observ-
er, and have become familiar by frequent examina-
tion. The manners and the conduct of a few individ-
uals arc too apt to obtain undue consequence in his
mind ; nor is it always practicable, however voluntary
and conscientious his efforts may be, to divest himself
of prepossessions, arising as well from the peculiari-
ties of his own temper and disposition, as from the
education and treatment to which he has been sub-
jected. In general, it may be observed, that pro-
fessed estimates of character, in the abstract, are ei-
ther faulty from the causes now mentioned, or par-
take much more of the fancy and the method of the
composer, than the substance and irregularity of
fact. A safer, though less splendid delineation, is
afforded in the detail of specific manners and cus-
toms, which, though b}' no means exactly either the
cause or the consequence of national character, have
sufficient power to modify it, and give prominency
to its essential features. It is certainly allowable to
deduce inferences from these indicatipns, to a cer-
tain extent ; but in every such process we ought to
recollect, that human nature is tlie same throughout
every region in which it is to be found, and that our
conclusions must never imply any radical differences
of its constituent parts. In other words, we must
confine ourselves to the mere varieties of modifica-
tion under which that nature is presented. These
reflexions, obvious and elementary as they are, will
be found important in all cases where the diversities
of nations are considered, but are more imperative-
ly necessary when every step of (5ur inquiry leads us
to some institution or practice quite at variance with
our own habits, and indeed, at first sight, utterly ir-
reconcileable with those notions of projiriety or ex-
pediency with which we have been imbued. The
instance before us demands this caution in the higli-
est degree. No two creatures, in fact, appear more
unlike than the genuine Arab and a native of any
country of Europe ; and yet a close investigation of
the most glaring dissimilarities will terminate in the
conviction, that both have the same origin, and par-
take of the same nature. But it is time to attend
to gome of the discriminating features of the former.

Boys, in Arabia, are commonly confined among

the women till the age of five or six, when they are ArabU.
removed to the company of their fathers, from whom
they acquire a gravity of manner which despises
the trifling employments of youth, and a habit of
thoughtfulness which scarcely admits the neces-
sity or recognises the influence of ordinary plea-
sures. They early become men, capable of en-
countering the difficulties of their lot, and worthy
of confidence in those offices and duties to which
they are called by their own ambition or the preju-
dices of the tribe. Their seriousness is quite consis-
tent with vivacity of disposition, though this displays
itself father in promptness of action, where some va-
luable object is to be obtained, than in the greedy
prosecution of licentiousness, .or the inordinate de-
mand for trifling amusements. They are fond indeed
of company, but apparently for reasons derived from
the same source, because it aflbrds room for ingenu-
ity, emalation, and the intercourse of thought, not
as administering occasion to intemperance, or encou-
raging vice by the force of example. A good, but
perhaps a partial judge, Sir William Jones, does not
scruple to denominate them a " majesticerace," and
describes tliem as having " eyes full of vivacity, their
speech voluble and articulate, their deportment man-
ly and dignified, their apprehension quick, their minds
always present and attentive, with a spirit of inde»
pendence appearing in the countenances even of the
lowest among them." Some explanation, perhaps,
may be given of their claims to so high aneulogium.
Hitherto, with the exception of those towns and their
immediately adjoining districts in which usurpation
and tyranny have engendered indolence and debauch-
ery, the Arabs have had to contend almost perpetu-
ally for their liberty by personal valour, and there-
fore no individual has been suffered to think himself
exempted from the restraints of military virtue. But
it must be admitted, on the other hand, that their ex-
cellencies are not without alloy. Nay, they almost
necessarily produce some unhappy evils. Thus, the
Arabs are vindictive beyond the ordinary measure of
wrath, carrying animosity for the greater part of life,
and inflicting punishment on the most innocent rela-
tives of the hated object ; their pride is so irritable,
that it is raised to madness by the slightest disre-
spect, and so lordly, ^that it requires the blood of the
offender before it can be appeased ; their activitj' is
the fruitful source of unjust and cruel aggression ;
and in the maintenance of their own freedom, wild
and lawless as it may be, they would not hesitate to
inflict the most degrading slavery on all the rest of
mankind. In addition to these most serious cliarges,
which, unfortunately, many particulars in their his-
tory serve to substantiate, they have been represent-
ed as despicable cheats and arrant hypocrites. But
Niebuhr testifies the exaggeration, if not the falsity,
of this odious estimate ; and it is very certain, from
his account, that tliey are ready to admire the beau-
ty, as well as to admit the value of good faith and
honest behaviour. As a warrior, the Arab is entit-
led to unquahfied praise. No danger appals him
which it would not be madness to encounter ; he
appears always confident of victory, but never ne-
glects the means by which it is to be accomplished ;
and in the midst of the greatest difficulties and suf-

ARA

383

ARA

Arabia. fering, he consoles himself with the certainty of fu-
ture happiness, should his bravery f4il of a present
reward. His onset is terrific, over»vhelming, deci-
sive ; nor is it the least of his martial qualifications,
that he has the skill to make his fiilthful companion
contribute to his success by its strength, or ensure
his safety by its speed.

Stale o/' li'omcii, SfC. — The condition of females in
this country, is, on the whole, comfortable, though
they be denied access to assemblies, as fit only for
men, are interdicted music and dancing, as indecent,
and are occasionally subjected to the divided regards
of their husbands. Polygamy, though allowed, is
far from being general, n)08t of the Arabs finding a
single wife abundantly expensive for their finances.
It is the rich, therefore, who indulge in a plurality,
unless in cases immediately to be mentioned, where
marriage is a sort of commercial speculation. Di-
vorce rarely occurs, and, indeed, is rather dishonour-
able, except when the most warrantable of reasons
enjoin it. A woman may exercise it, if she find
herself ill used. In this case, she is entitled to her
dowry, over which, according to the equitable cus-
tom of the country, she continues to enjoy the ])ower,
even in the married state. It frequently happens,
therefore, that a man is dependent on his wife, whom
it is consequently his interest to please, and from
whom he cannot separate without loss. For these
reasons, rich parents will bestow their daughters on
poor men, rather than on the wealthy. But it is no
less true, on the other hand, that fathers in the lower
ranks sometimes add to a list of wives in expecta-
tion of presents from their sons-in-law. Marriage,
altogether, is eagerly sought by the women, who
universally consider it disgraceful to be without chil-
dren. They will in consequence content themselves
with the poorest husband, and even submit to have
partners in his affection, rather than incur the re-
proach of barrenness ; and as the men, again, profit
by their dowry or their labour, there are few persons
v/ho continue single beyond a certain early period of
life. Wives possess great authority in their families,
and are treated with courtesy and tenderness, which
they seem to deserve by their becoming conduct and
affectionate solicitude. The women in general are
cautious against being seen, and it is thought very
unpolite to look them stedfastly in the face, if on
any occasion uncovered; yet they will sometimes
kiss the hands of a man of distinction, and even
kneel to kiss his feet.

Hospitality, <^c The Arabs are very attentive to

strangers, liberal in the distribution of their sub-
stance to those who need, and far from being so nar-
row-minded as to exclude from their friendship per-
sons of very different religious opinions. All creeds
indeed are not equally respected, though all be tol-
erated, in the widest sense of the word. Christians
meet with least aversion — then Jews — the Banians of
India are most disesteemed ; — but any one of these
may experience the hospitality and kindness of an
Arab whose honour has been engaged by confidence,
or with whom he has once had the good fortune to
partake of a common meal. It is good policy in a
traveller, therefore, as soon as possible to secure
Arabian protection by a social repast, the instance*

of treachery, after such an implied engagement, be-
ing too rare to justify the least suspicion. An Arab,
in reality, ap})ears to proclaim his hostile intentions
by refusing to be entertamed.

Salutations arc numerous and respectful. ' Sa-
1am Aleikuni,' ' Peace be with you,' is a common
form. They shake hands — a superior suffers his fing-
ers to be kissed — equals einbrace — pipes and per-
fumes are presented at ordinary visits, and guests are
sprinkled with rose-water when about to retire. The
greatest care is takei\ to promote and preserve clean-
liness of person. Temperance in eating and drink-
ing is almost universally practised; and certain in-
dications of over-repletion or indigestion are reckon-
ed so disgraceful, that a man has been known to fly
his country after a transgression which no legislator
has ever yet deemed immoral. The superstition of
the Arabs induces them to wear amulets and use
charms. Their religious worship is performed with
commendable humiliation, and is always preceded
by stripping off their rings, jewels, and other orna-
ments. Both sexes are subjected to circumcision in
early life.

Language, SfC — The Arabic language, it is well
known, is exceedingly ancient. It is no less re-
markable for its copiousness and nice adaptation to
the varieties and complexity of human thought. The
cultivation of it appears to have constituted a national
and universal object of regard in the earliest times,
and hence an abundance of compositions both writ-
ten and oral, with which few other countries, if any,
can compare. Those dialects which are now in com-
mon use, vary very considerably from the language of
the Koran, which appears to nave been adopted by
Mahomet from the tribe of the Koreish, to whom had
been committed the preservation of the temple of
Mecca, so long the central point of the national
faith. iVIahomet himself thought so highly of that lan-
guage, that he sometimes appealed to his book as in-
disputable proof of his divine mission. Niebuhr thinks
the differences of the prevalent dialects equal to
those found in the states of Italy, and in a few cases
to be about as great as are exhibited by the Spanish
and Portuguese.

Reading and writing are common qualifications
among those who engage in business ; but, on the
whole, education is very limited both in kind and
quantity. The acquisition of learning does not ap--
pear to exalt the consequence of an individual, as,
according to Niebuhr, he is rarely, on that account,
alone, promoted to any higher office than that of a
schoolmaster or transcriber. The less fortunate li-
terati are often forced to gain a livelihood by read-
ing or reciting for the entertainment of those who
frequent the coffee-houses, a place and species of re-
creation very common in Arabia. Whatever they
were in former times, it is pretty certain that neith«-
poetry nor eloquence is now in a prosperous condi-
tion ; but the very circumstance just now mentioned
implies a degree of taste beyond the sensuality of
vulgar minds. Science, formerly also highly culti-
vated, is equally defective among the Arabs. Their
astronomy is little better than a system of astrologi-
cal quackery, of which they are still the dupes. Other
occult studies are in repute ; Vi-hence we may infer ■

Arabia.

ARA

384

ARA

Ar»bi* the absence of true philosopRy. Medicine is wretch-
edly practised, and no less wretchedly recompensed.
"All the physicians in Yemen," says Niebuhr, " with
whom I was acquainted, acted at the same time as
chemists, apothecaries, surgeons, and horse-doctors,
and yet, by the practice of all these arts together,
tliey could scarcely make a livelihood."

Mode of eating, Sfc The Arabians, like most of the

eastern nations, squat themselves on the ground at
meals, of which they partake with the hand, not mak-
ing use of knives or forks. They generally place a long
linen c^pth under their knees, instead of a table-napkin.
However numerous the party may be, it is usual for
the whole to put , their hands into the same dish in
which the victuals are presented. But as they pay
the greatest regard to cleanliness, Niebhur says that
in reality their mode of eating is little less delicate
than that of Europeans. It is managed with surpris-
ini' rapidity. Among their common dishes are, boil-
ed rice, milk, butter, whipped cream, and pastry of
various sorts; animal food is little used ; bread made
of coarse millet-rseed, kneaded with camel's milk and'
oil or butter, is eateH by the poorer people. Though
mills for grinding are known, the Arabs generally
prefer the practice of bruising their corn, as yielding
a sweeter flavour. The usual beverage is water, ei-
ther pure or with some simple addition ; but strong
drink, though forbidden by the Koran, is occasionally
indulged in privately, wlien it can be procured.

Dress, SfC. — The ordinary dress of the Arabs is
very simple ; a large shirt, either white or striped
with blue, a loose cloak, or mantle, a pair of drawers,
.and a kind of turban, which consists of a number of
linen or cotton caps. This head-piece is represented
as both cumbersome and expensive, the people of rank
wearing sometimes no less than fifteen folds, the up-
permost being embroidered with gold. It forms an
excellent defence against the heat of the sun, which
might prove fatal if not thus excluded. The men
of learning are often distinguished by the magnitude
of their turbans. Sandals are used in place of shoes,
but people of fashion wear slippers. The women
veil their faces ; rings are applied to the nose and
cars, as well as to the fingers and arms. It is usual
-to stain the nails red, to paint the circles of the eyes
and even the eye-lashes black, with a metallic prepa-
ration called kochlel, and the hands and feet are often
died of a brownish-yellow colour. The natural com-
plexion is a deep yellow, though persons with fair
skins are sometimes seen. The men shave their
heads and preserve their beards, but there are va-
rious exceptions to both practices. When the lat-
ter become white irom age, some fanciful folk con-
trive to give them a reddish hue ; the folly of the
device, however, is so obvious, that, on the whole,
there are not many who adopt it. Fashion exerts her
sway here as elsewhere, but, in general, is not very
capricious.

The Arabs are of the common stature, and are
slenderly made, or, more properly speaking, seldom
become corpulent, in consequence, no doubt, of
their moderation, or rather abstemiousness as to
eating and drinking, and the freedom and frequency
©f exercise to which they are accustomed.

In concluding the account of this interesting peo-

ple, it may be proper to mention, that the best traits
of the character assigned to them are most certainly
found in those parts of the country where the state of
society is somewhat between the extremes of ungovern-
ed licentiousness and the oppression of unmitigated
despotism. Nothing can be more unjust than to draw
their picture from those ruffian bands in the northern
boundaries, who have for ages carried on a system of
pillage and cruelty, which has invested the name of
Arab with the most terrific and detestable associa-
tions. The descriptions given of them by travellers
in Egypt, Syria, &c. are nearly the most hideous
pictures of human depravity. One of the last of
these we have seen is in Jaclison's Account of Mo-
rocco, in which are detailed the particulars of the
treatment experienced by Europeans, not excluding
our own countrymen, be it remembered, who had
the misfortune to be taken, by whatever means, ei-
ther on or off' the Barbary coast, and who, after be-
ing plundered, were sold as slaves to these vile mis-
creants. Britain, it must be allowed, had too long
and too supinely overlooked such enormities. Hu-
manity, now somewhat hopeful, waits to learn whe-
ther the voice of indignation, at length extorted,
shall prove effectual for their prevention.

History. — The early history of Arabia is extreme-
ly obscure. It may be traced, with some semblance
of probability, to Assyria, one of the first civilized
countries of which we have any satisfactory ac-
counts. A tradition among the Arabs themselves
derives some of their sovereigns from the neigh-
bourhood of Samarcand. These appear to have
been worshippers of fire, and were styled Tobba,
which was either their family or their official name,
like the Pharaoh of the Egyptians. A correspon-
dent opinion, prevalent in Persia, affirms, that the
conqueror who founded the ancient capital of that
kingdom came also from the same country, and
hence is presumed the connexion between the Per-
sians and Arabians. Niebuhr endeavours to confirm
this inference by the circumstance of the similarity
of character noticed by him in certain inscriptions
met with at Mocha and Persepolis ; from which, of
course, he deduces likewise the identity of language
used by these people in ancient times. But there is
some imperfection in the evidence, which, though
not sufficient to discredit the theory, must necessa-
rily abate the confidence of a cautious inquirer.

It is more certain that, previously to the era of Gre-
cian history, the Arabs had attained considerable
power as a nation, in which capacity they acted an
important part in the theatre of the world. Thus the
shepherd kings, as they are called, who invaded and
conquered Egypt, are, with great probability, ima-
gined, by Bryant and others, to have proceeded from
part of this region, or at least from the land of Ba-
bylonia, which is judged to be the original seat of the
Arabs. It was in memory, it is believed, of two of
the cities in their own country, that these people, de-
nominated Auriloe, from Aur, a Hebrew word signi-
fying fire, which was the great object of their wor-
ship, built a place of the same name, but corrupted
into {//-, and Babylon in Egypt. But Memphis was
their chief city in that land, into which they appear
to have established their own religion. They were

Arftbia,

ARA

Arabia, expelled from Egypt after a residence, and indeed a
tyranny, of more than 400 years duration.

Of the state and fortunes of Arabia itself in this
period, we have only the most vague and imperfect
conjectures. During the successive empires of the
■ Persians, Greeks, and Romans, the affairs of this
country were almost altogether unnoticed by histo-
rians. All of these powers appear to have made at-
tempts, some of them frequently, to subdue it, but
with very insignificant success. Thus the Arabs,
then, may boast of an exemption from foreign domi-
nion probably unexampled in the records of any
other people of equal importance in civilisation.
Their independent constitution of government was
not less singularly prolonged. It does not appear that
Arabia was ever united under one head till the pe-
riod of Mahomet and his immediate successors ; and
even tlien the union was merely nominal with respect
to several tribes. Kings of the Hamjare or Hamiar
race, it is true, reigned over considerable parts of it,
more especially Hadramaut; and the provinces of
Yemen, besides having been repeatedly and success-
fully invaded, as Gibbon notices, were also occa-
sionally governed by one sovereign. But the rest of
the country, and particularly the internal districts,
must be allowed to have continued free from both
species of subjugation. This remarkable peculiarity
in Arabian history, has been treated of by the writer
now named, with his wonted vigour and sagacity ; but
he has not suffered the exceptions just hinted at to
escape him, without a sarcastic sneer at the indiscre-
tion of certain authors, who had drawn conclusions
from the Arabian independence in support of a sys-
tem, which neither required their oiBciousness, nor
can be injured by his malignity.

Relipion of Mahomet Though both the Jewish

and Christian religions had been introduced into
Arabia before the time of Mahomet, the former,
probably, by Jews from Ethiopia, whither they had
fled from Roman enmity, and the latter at least
as early as the middle of the third century, if
not at the very commencement of its success a-
mong the heathens, it does not appear that his
countrymen had advanced far in refinement of man-
ners, or the cultivation of the arts and sciences.
Some of the chief nobility, it is likely, and the men
of learning, were so far enlightened as to have be-
come pure theists. But their influence was very
small over the prejudices and stupidity of the vulgar
mass, which still remained sunk in contemptible ido-
latry. A system, which, without violently opposing
popular indulgencies, inculcated opinions "become fa-
shionable among the great, had some reasonable
chance of succeeding with a people of lively intel-
lect and warm imagination. Mahomet, accordingly,
seems at first to have relied entirely on the power of
persuasion in promulgating his doctrines ; and it is
liighly probable, that at this time he himself had the
firmest belief in the truth of what he taught. But
the conversion of about fourteen persons in the space
of three years, did not correspond with the enthu-
siasm of his feelings. He now gave himself out as
a prophet, and perhaps thought that he was one.
In the course of ten years following this assumption,
he laboured publicly, and with considerable effect,

VOL. I. PART I.

585 ARA

especially among his fellow- citizens of Mecca. His
success at length alarmed the friends or interested
adherents of the ancient idolatry, particularly the
Koreish, from whose determined opposition and
threatenings he was induced to consult his safety by
retiring to Medina. This flight, which took place
in the year 622 of the Christian era, from its mighty
consequences, became the epoch of his disciples,
under the name of Hegira.

Propagated by arms. — At Medina, where his preten-
sions had already been known and admitted by many,
Mahomet endeavoured for some time to conciliate h'i«
opponents by gentle means ; but as these did not an-
swer his expectation, and as there appeared a necessity
for vigorous measures to ensure his welfare and the
extension of his cause, he had recourse to arms,
and asserted the duty of combating for the faitlu
The sword was found quite agreeable to his doctrines,
and a much fitter instrument for making converts
than any he had hitherto employed. Victory follow-
ed victory, and in a few years the banners of the
crescent waved over all Arabia. Maliomet died in
632, at Medina, where he commenced his military
career, and which henceforward was sacred to his
memory, though, for reasons already assigned, and
after having failed to procure the countenance of the
Jews, by appointing Jerusalem as the place to which
prayer should be addressed, Mecca was still regard-
ed as the holy city. His countrymen, new united in
his faith, axiA acknowledging him for their spiritual
head, were not by any means altogether subjected to
his temporal power. Some tribes, on the contrary,
no way diverted from the love of freedom by fanati-
cism, maintained iheir independence under their own
chiefs, both during his lifetime and in the reign of
his successors. This anomaly was most conspicuous
in certain provinces bordering the Red sea, and seems
strangely inconsistent with the rapid and wide spread'
influence of so militant and domineering a religion.

Causes of its success — The causes of the extraordi-
nary success which attendedthedoctrinesofMahomet,
have not been well understood. " That a victorious
impostureshould continually extendJtsinfluence,"sayg
a late very judicious writer, " amidst the deplorable
dissensions which then dishonoured the Christianity
of the east, may be easily comprehended; but the ques-
tion is, how it acquired suflicient strength to become a
victorious imposture." The ignorance of the Ara-
bians, and the disunion of their numerous tribes, to
whatever degree they may be supposed to have a-
mounted, explain rather negatively the comparatively
little resistance which he experienced at his outset,
than positively the facile adoption of his opinions,
which perhaps, had they been of another description,
would have met with universal apathy and contempt.
That catholic adaptation of his creed to the peculi-
arities of every existing system, which is one of the
most striking features in his missionary conduct, is
scarcely adequate to the difficulty ; because, as is
noticed by the same writer, his success was obtaine<l
at Mecca, whereas the Christians and Jews, whom
he was so anxious to placate by his condescension,
resided chiefly at Medina. The solution, therefore,
is sought for " in tlie intrinsic merit of the doctrines
which he preached." " To ignorant heatliens, ' con-
3 c

AiaMa.

ARA

586

ARA

juMtu tinaes Dr Millar, " he taught doctrines which were
^^•t^jr^^ borrowed from the pure system of divine revelation,
much debased indeed, but still far nobler, and more
worthy of attention than the rude tenets of their na-
tive paganism ; and ignorant as they were, and inca-
pable of forming a just judgment of his pretensions
to divine authority, these heathens were yet in tliat
state of pastoral refinement in which they could be
captivated by the charms of eloquence, and be struck
with the sublimity of the scriptural descriptions of
God. The religion of Mahomet is, in reality, a coarse
modification of divine truths, brought down to the
capacity of barbarous nations ; and was probably
better adapted to their moral regulation, than the con-
tentious and paganized Christianity, which alone pre-
served among tliem the memory of the gospel."
IPhilosophi/ of Modern History, Dublin 1816.]

This specious elucidation, so complimentary tO
human nature and the sagacity of Mahomet, seems
to require material qualification before it can be a-
dopted as even partially correct. Its justness is ren-
dered questionable by a fact noticed by the author
liimself, viz. the small success which Origen enjoyed
in his labours to proclaim the doctrines of a work
from which it is admitted that Mahomet derived his
most important sentiments. In our opinion, the chief
influence is to be ascribed to the novel circumstance
of a native Arab displaying the ceaseless energy and
the solicitude of an apostle, which could not fall to
produce a very general conviction of the really in-
teresting nature of his communications.

Successors of Mahomet. — Mahomet had named Ali,
his son-in-law, for his successor. But Abubeker,
whose daughter he had married, frustrated his in-
tention, by gaining over the army to his own. interest.
This able man prosecuted the military plans of the
prophet, and extended the new faith beyond the
Boundaries of Arabia. Jerusalem and Damascus,
at this time part of the eastern empire, yielded to his
arms. The reduction of Persia was effected in the
reign of his successor, Omar, who was elected to
the caliphate by the splendid and significant title
of Emperor of the Believers. This important con-
quest proved advantageous to the Arabians in an-
other manner than by merely extending their do-
minion. It rendered them in fact the willing disci-
ples of a people much more advanced in refinement
than themselves, Persia proving to them what Greece
had been, in an earlier age, to its masters the Romans.

Omar was murdered by a Persian during his devo-
tions at Medina. The caliphate was then filled by
Othman, on whose death, Ali, who, from prejudice,
or other not well understood reasons, had been de-
ferred, succeeded to sovereign power. His reign
was splendid, though of short duration, and full of
trouble. Hasan, his son and successor, was speedi-
ly deposed, and afterwards murdered. During these
five caliphs', Medina continued to be the seat of go-
vernment. The new race of the Ommiades chose
Damascus for its residence, and has consequently
been denominated the Syrian Dynasty. It lasted for
about 90 years, when it was succeeded by the Abbas-
sides, the descendants of Ali, who built Bagdad, on
the Tigris, where they reigned for nearly five centu-
ries, tW laet of the cediphs being put to death by the

Tartars, at the capture of that place, b the middle of j^f^^^
the 13th century. This long period, which coincides s
with the dark ages of European history, was illustra-
ted by the brightest efforts of Arabian literature and
science, though the caliphate had lost its military
importance and extensive empire. The names of
Haroun al Raschid, so signalized in that marvellous
work the Arabian nights tales, and his son Almamon,
the munificent patron of learning, adoru the list of
the Abbassides.

TheMahomedan religion, with various modifications
and sundry dissentions, now prevailed fromHindostan
to the northern regions of Atirica, and had actually
extended through Spain to tiie Pyrenees, if not into
France, as far as the Loire. But these diversified re-
gions acknowledged a variety of sovereigns besides
the caliphs of Bagdad, whose influence at last be-
came a mere shadow of what it had once been.

Arabia, enjoying a state of independence under its
indigenous chiefs, appears to have remained much
unnoticed till the arrival of the Portuguese in the
Red sea, subsequently to their discovery of the course
to India by the Cape of Good Hope. This induced
the sultan of the Mamalukes, El Gury, to fit out a
naval force, for the purpose of opposing them, and
which, availing itself of the opportunity, seized almost
all the sea-ports in that sea belonging to the Arabs.
These places fell again, for a short time, into the
hands of the natives, when the Turks established
their power in Egypt, but were afterwards taken pos-
session of by that people, under Soliman Pacha,
whose successors pushed their conquests over a great
portion of Yemen, henceforward considered a pro-
vince of the Ottoman empire. But the spirited
chiefs of the interior defied the ambition of these
new enemies, and by a bold resistance, followed up
by repeated attacks, drove them to the coasts, which
they were at last compelled to abandon, with the
exception of a few places where they retained a mere
semblance of authority. Even this may be said to
have vanished, in consequence of some recent events.

New Religion It has been mentioned, that a new

religious sect has lately arisen in Arabia, deriving its
origin and name from Waheb. Its progress, the ra-
pidity of which has been so alarming to previous
establishments, is the only remaining portion of the
history of this country deserving minute attention.

But we have to regret that the accounts of it hi-
tlierto published are both imperfect and contradicto-
ry. Abdul Waheb was a native of El Aiane in the
province of Nedjed-el-Ared. After having finished
his study of the sciences in Arabia, and travelled
through Persia, he undertook to reform the religion
of his country, condemning a variety of abuses, and
endeavouring to introduce greater simplicity of faith
and greater purity of conduct. Without derogating
from the honour of the prophet as a divine teacher,
he insisted on confining worship to the Supreme Be-
ing alone, of whom it seems pretty certain he en-
tertained more correct notions than the Mahometans
in general, though it be scarcely possible, from the
information we have respecting his principles, to as-
certain his peculiar sentiments. The doctrines of
Waheb were eagerly adopted by some of the tribes,
and shortly his influence began to be felt throughout

A R A

387

ARA

Aralaa. f g^'cat part of Arabia. Opposition, of course, arose
among the retainers of the ancient creed, who, as is
usual, denominated reformation heretical, and thought
it most conyenient as well as most commendable to
abide by an established faith. His enemies did not
find him unprepared when they attacked him with an
armed force in his native city. He obtained a vic-
tory over some thousands, which had the double ef-
fect of confirming his doctrine and augmenting his
power. No wonder that it also excited his ambition
and animated his efforts.

Success often inspires wisdom as well as energy.
Waheb appears to have possessed both in a consider-
-able degree. He now declared his opponents to be
enemies of religion, and liable to punishment in their
persons and estates ; and as his ability to inflict it
was already great and on the increase, several per-
sons of the highest importance saw it expedient to
submit to his authority, and to attempt the promo-
tion, or at least the preservation of their own inter-
ests, by contributing to his measures. Thus his
followers, originally consisting of the lower orders
of the people, whom a specious delusion and the
hopes of a favourable change had united under his
bamiers, were rapidly increased, and obtained re-
spectabilitj' of character from their consequence as
•well as their number. The whole of Neged declared
in their favour, and Yemen now became the theatre
of their successful exertions.

Progress of the Wahabees. — Mecca yielded to their
arms in 1803, on which occasion they are reported to
have committed the most enormous excesses and cru-
elties. From this city the chief of the reformers wrote
a letter to the sultan, reminding him that the title of
Calipli belonged to the protector of the holy city,
and that therefore the dignity attached to it devolved
on himself as the conqueror. The Ottoman armies,
already in march against tliese enthusiasts, were un-
able to withstand their progress, almost all Arabia
hawing espoused their cause, which was acknowledged
also and maintained throughout many other parts of
the sultan's real or nominal dominions.

The capture of Medina, now projected, seems
to have been prevented by the breaking out of
the plague and the small pox among the insurg-
ents, who were even obliged to retreat into the
desert, leaving only a few hundred men to garri-
son Mecca, which was soon retaken by the Turks.
A truce followed, but was probably deceitfully en-
tered into by both parties, as in a short time hosti-
lities recommenced, and the interval seems to have
been spent in animosities and mutual preparations
for another contest. At what time the death of Wa-
heb happened we have not been able to learn, the
works from which we have hitherto derived our in-
formation differing in their statements. It seems to
have been occasioned by the malice, or the zeal, of a
fanatic, employed in the service of the Ottoman Porte.

Abduluziz succeeded his father in leading the
new religionists to avenge the murder of their
founder, and to establish his cause. In spirit, am-
bition, and intelligence, the son appeared to merit
this distinction ; nor did his fortune, at first at
least, belie his exertions. Mecca was re-captured,
and Medina taken, but he himself was assassinat-

ed at Darail by one of his countrymen, whose
daughter he had long before carried off by force,
and who had continued with most persevering dili-
gence to seek a fit opportunity for revenge. The
religion of Waheb was now most extensively spread,
and seemed to defy farther opposition. Suud, the
son of Abduluziz, was recognized as its head. It
is by this person, we ought to observe, according^,
to one account, that the capture of the two cities,
Mecca and Medina, above mentioned, and the accom-
plishment of several objects were effected, which by o-
thershave been ascribed to his father and grand-father.

The conquest of Mecca, by whomsoever made,
may in one sense be considered the death-blow to the
superstition of Mahomet. This city, for more than
a thousand years, had received the prayers and the
gifts of the faithful ; and during all that period was
not once entered but with the intention of contribut-
ing to its glory and prolonging its claims to venera-
tion. " It appears to me almost certain," says Mr
Scott Waring, in the Account of his Tour to Shi-
raz, &c. that the pilgrimages to Mecca have had
nearly as great an effect in supporting this religion,
as the first victories and conquests of Mahomed."
What substitute can be adopted for so essential a
bulwark? Who, among the multiplied and greatly
discordant followers of the prophet, is either entitled
or able to supply its place, or to remedy its loss ?
Even the recovery of his temple, and the purgation
of it by the blood of his enemies, which their pre-
sent supremacy and augmenting force render a very
improbable event, could not wipe away this calami-
tous stigma, nor vindicate the sacredness and the ef-
ficacy of the law which forbids the approach of arm-
ed men within a certain distance of its walls. De-
spair, then, and contempt may finish what selfishness
and rebellion commenced ; and, ere long, a system,
to the dominion of which no limit could be discover-
ed in the credulity or the patience of so great a pro-
portion of mankind, may moulder down into the va-
nity of dead and forgotten things. " All they that
take the sword shall perish with the sword," is a
maxim more peculiarly applicable to every religion
which promotes conversion by violence, and accepts
of slaves for disciples. There must and will come a
time when blood shall cry for blood, and will be
heard by Him whose prerogative has been impiously
assumed.

Refections. — It is not our province to discuss the po-
litics of the times, nor would our readers probably be
inclined to relish conjectures and prophecies at our
hands. We relinquish the labour; but it may not be al-
together improper to hazard a reflection on the expe-
diency of Britain aiding the efforts Of the Arabs, un-
der the newreligion, to maintain and to embellish their
independence. We cannot but regret that the friend-
ly solicitations repeatedly addressed by the Wahabee
powers to the government of Bombay have hitherto
been totally disregarded. This we learn from the
travels of Lord Valentia, to whom we are indebted
for much of the information we possess of the curious
transactions of these people. There was a period,
certainly, within the times in which these applica-
tions were made, when no alliance with the Ottoman
court could have been pleaded in excuse for such

Arabia.

ARA

388

ARA

ArakU negligcnce. Nor do we conceive that any assistance,
H of the nature required by them, couhl at all, even
Axacan. during such an alliance, be construed into an infrac-
tion of it ; though it were, the offence, we presume,
would not entail any very formidable evils. The
Arabs were surely entitled to the common respect
generally paid to independent nations, however they
may have contrived to be ranked among them, and
have every right to wish and endeavour to promote
their own welfare. This, we think, may be effect-
ed without injury to ourselves, probably with advan-
tage. Here it may not be ill-timed to suggest, as
some evidence of this opinion, the decided benefit
which might have already resulted from a different
line of policy than that which has been adopted. The
indignation of Britain was lately poured out on
some of the w^orse than savage monsters of the Bar-
bary states, and all Europe joined in expectation of
the completeness and rapidity of the retribution which
should redeem her long and humiliating torpor.
Would it not have been judicious to have previously
obtained the good understanding of the Arabs, with
whom they trade, and who, notwithstanding their
participation in the traffic of human flesh, are accus-
tomed to treat them, especially the Algerines, with
the most sovereign contempt ? We can hare no
doubts on the subject, nor can we hesitate to extend
our views much farther, so as to anticipate a most
salutary revolution in the affairs of the eastern world
as the consequence of our interference.

ARABIC GUM, a gum which exudes from the
Mimosa Nilotica, probably was thus denominated be-
cause it was originally imported from Arabia. See
Chemistry and Materia Medica.

ARABIS, Bastard Tower Mustard, a genus of
plants belonging to the Tetradynamia class, and or-
der Siliquosae.

ARACAN, a region of Asia, on the bay of Ben-
gal, which was subdued by the Birmans in 1783, and
became a province of their empire ; is bounded on
the east by the Birman empire, and on the south by
Pegu, and presents a diversified aspect of lakes, rivers,
mountains, and plains. The soil in the flat country
produces excellent rice, the richest fruits of tropical
climates abound, and the mountainous pastures feed
numerous herds of cattle. The buffaloe, the ele-
phant, and the camel, are substituted for horses in
the labours of agriculture, as well as for domestic
purposes. The northern districts of Aracan, posses-
sing a fine climate and a rich soil, are covered with
opulent towns and populous villages ; but the south-
ern part is a wild and inaccessible desert, the undis-
turbed abode of tigers, buffaloes, and elephants. The
natives are in a state of great barbarity and ignorance;
and in religion and manners resemble the other unci-
vilized nations of the east. The Dutch and Portu-
Huese formerly had a considerable trade with this
country ; but it is now transferred to resident Maho-
metan merchants, who exchange cloth, cotton, pep-
per, iron, steel, &c. for elephants, ivory, tin, stick-lac,
and precious stones.

ARACAN, the capital of the province of the same
name, occupies a remarkable spot on the banks of a
tiver ; is surrounded by lofty and rugged mountains,
W.hJch. form a natural fortification, through which

the entrances and gates of the city are cut in the
solid rock ; and it is distant 50 miles from the sea. The
population, now about 16,000, is said at one time to
have been equal to 160,000; and the city was 15
miles in circuit, contained 600 temples, and a splen-
did palace, richly decorated with golden ornaments.
The river, also called Aracan, traverses the city, and
forms a most capacious harbour, which admits ships
of the largest burden ; but as the tide rises from 1 5
to 20 feet, the current of the stream is extremely
rapid. N. Lat. 20°, 45.' E. Long. 93°, 5'.

ARACHIS, Groundnut, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the Diadelphia class.

ARACHNE, the inventress of the art of spin-
ning and weaving, according to ancient mytholo-
gy, was a maid of Lydia, and had reached such
perfection that she ventured to become the rival of
Minerva. The goddess of wisdom was offended at
the presumption of a mortal, tore her work, and chas-
tised her with blows. Driven to despair by this rude
treatment and disgrace, she destroyed herself; but
JNIinerva, regretting the violence, and moved by com-
passion, restored her to life, and transformed her in-
to a spider, which still exercises the same trade.

ARACK, a spirituous liquor prepared by distilla-
tion in the East Indies. See Arrack.

ARAEOMETER, from the Greek words signify-
ing rare or lisht, and measure, is an instrument for
determining the specific gravity of liquids, and is an-
alogous to Hydrometer. See Hydrometer.

AREOPAGUS. See Areopagus.

ARAFAT, signifying the mountain of knowledge^
is a mountain near Mecca, in Arabia, which is held
in great veneration by the faithful. The Mahome-
tans suppose that Adam and Eve, after their expul-
sion from paradise, and a separation of 120 years,
met on this mountain ; and part of the solemn de-
votions which are required of those who make the
pilgrimage to Mecca, is performed on the ninth day
of the last month of the Arabic year, on this sacred
spot. With uncovered heads, and with every other
expression of humility and mortification, they spend
five hours of the evenmg of this day on the mountain;
and having received the honourable appellation of
hadgis, which is conferred by the priest, and belongs
to those who have proved their piety by this extraor-
dinary ceremony, they retire to Mecca.

ARAGON, a provmce in Spain. See Arragok.

ARAL, a lake, or inland sea of Independent Tar-
tary, and 120 miles to the eastward of the Caspian
sea, from wliich it is separated by an elevated plain,
is above 100 miles in breadth, and more than 200
miles in length, from north to south. The western
shores are high and rocky ; and the rivers Sirr and
Gihon, the ancient laxartes and Oxus, discharge their
waters into this lake ; and the same kinds of fish which
frequent the Caspian, are found in it. Having no
visible outlet, the waters are strongly impregnated
with common salt, which is extracted by spontaneous
evaporation. The Lake of Eagles is an appellatioa
sometimes applied to lake Aral.

ARALIA, or Angelica Tree, a genus of plants
belonging to the Pentandria class.

AR ANEA, the spider, a genus of insects arranged,
under the Aptera order. See EjJTOMOLOGy,

Artclus

Aranea.

ARA

S89

ARB

AnajuM

ARANJUEZ.a town in the province of New Cas-
tile in Spain, which has been selected as a residence
Arancania. of the royal family, occupies a charming spot on the

■ banks of the Tagus, is about 20 miles from Madrid,

and during the visit of the court in the spring season
contains about 10,030 inhabitants. From an incon-
siderable village, Aranjuez has been converted, in lit-
tle more than half a century, into an elegant town,
with spacior* squcires, broad streets, and Sue houses.
A magnificent church is erected in the principal
square, which is also ado?ned with a splencfid foun-
tain for supplying the town with water. The amphi-
theatre, for the exhibition of bull fights, is a brick
building, 180 feet in diameter. The palace, origi-
nally erected by Philip II. and improved by succeed-
ing sovereigns, has nothing striking in its external
aspect. Among its internal decorations are enume-
rated the Annunciation by Titian, and other excel-
lent specimens of the productions of celebrated paint-
ers. But the royal gardens, watered by the Tagus,
and unrivalled in extent and variety of scenery, ex-
hibit the most splendid assemblage of all the beauties
of nature and art.

ARAR, the modem Saone, a navigable river of
Celtic Gaul, mentioned by Caesar, and over which his
soldiers built a bridge in a single day. The Arar joins
the Rhone a little below Lyons.

ARARAT, a mountain of Armenia, on which it is
supposed the ark of Noah rested after the diminution
of the waters of the cleluge. Numerous conjectures
have been ^offered concerning the position of this
mountain. According to some, it is one of the moun-
tains which divide Armenia from Mesopotamia, and
border on Assyria ; but others describe mount Ararat
as a detached mountain in the middle of Armenia,
which, from an extensive plain, rears its double sum-
mit in the form of a sugar-loaf, and is covered with
perpetual snow. Large masses of sandstone and loose
sand compose the lower regions of the mountain ;
a few stunted shrubs include the whole of its vege-
table productions ; and on one side a deep chasm
adds to the gloomy aspect of this sterile scene. See
Tourneforfs Travels.

ARATUS, a Greek poet, was a native of Cilicia,
flourished about 270 years before the Christian era,
and was the author of a poem entitled Phenomena,
which contains a detail of the astronomical opinions
of the ancient philosophers. This poem was trans-
lated by Cicero ; but a fragment only of his transla-
tion has been preserved. A translation by Germa-
nicus Caesar, as well as the original poem, is yet.
extant ; and the quotation of St Paul, in his ad-
dress to the Athenians, "For we are also his offspring,"
(Acts xvii.) is from this poem of Aratus.

ARAU, or AnAw, a town of Switzerland, which
stands on the right bank of the Aar. The inhabi-
tants, amounting to about 2000, are chiefly employ-
ed in the manufacture of cotton stuffs, printed cali-
cos, ribbons, cutlery ware, and in tanning. The soil
of the surrounding territory is rich and fertile, and
the scenery is picturesque and beautiful.

ARAUCANIA, a territory of South America,
extending along the shores of the Pacific ocean about
200 miles southward, from nearly the 37th degree
•f south latitude, and stretching more tha» 400 miles.

inland towards the Andes, the lower regions of which
are included within its limits. The face of the coun-
try is variegated with extensive plains, some parts
of which are distinguished by their fertility and lux-
uriance of vegetation, mountainous districts, the loft-
ier parts of which are covered with perpetual snow,
thick forests, and spacious lakes.

The inhabitants of Araucania are a warlike race,
and have successfully resisted every attempt of the
Spaniards to reduce them to subjection. Retaining
all their primaeval manners and customs, they seem
to have made scarcely any progress in civilization
since they were first known to the adventurers from
the Old World ; but they have been singularly for-
tunate in having historians who, with little discrimi-
nation, ascribe to them great wisdom and intelli-
gence in arts, religious sentiments, and political esta-
blishments. Even the term Science has been pre-
posterously applied to the very simple attainments
of a rude and barbarous people. They have no
written language ; they believe, it is said, in one Su*
preme Being, but they have subordinate deities, and
especially a god of war, which is quite characteristic
of^ those feelings which their mode of life is most
apt to excite. Their government is somewhat' of a
republican form ; they live in scattered villages ;
their food is chiefly vegetables, as potatoes and corn,
but, when opportunity offers, they indulge in drunk-
enness ; their medical knowledge, which Has been
dignified with the oame of science, is limited to ma-
gical incantations ; and a modern anatomist would
surely smile when he is teld, that a^ people, whose
only lancet is a sharp flint fastened to a stick, have
some skill in dissection. In their marriages, the des-
tined wife is carried ofl' by force, and polygamy is
only limited by the means of support ; and human-
sacrifices, usually prisoners taken in war, are offered
to their deities. With all Vhe vices of a rude people,
the Araucanians possess none of the virtues which
entitle them to the ex.'fravagant praise which they
have received. Their chief manufac ture is the poncho,
or cloak, made of the wool of tlie Llama, or Peru-
vian sheep, and some of them are of a very fine
quality, and bring a high price. These cloaks form
a considerable branch of trade ^«ith . the Spaniards -,
and it is conducted chiefly by barter.

ARAXES, now Ahas, a river which forms the
boundary between Armenia and Media, has its sour-
ces in mount Caucasus, is remarkable for the iiape-
tuosity Crf its current, and after a course of 500 miles
falls into the Caspian sea. It is subject to inunda-
tions in summer, from the melting of the snows in
the elevated regions from which itsi w.atcrs are sup- ■
plied.

ARBA, or Ahbe, an island in the Adriatic sea,
and lying in tlie gulf of Carnaro, is about 30 miles
in circuit, and is annexed to the Austrian territory.
It produces corn, wine, and oil ; and large quantitit^
of firewood are exported to Venice. Sheep, hogs,
and a good breed of horses, are reared, and, with
wool, silk, tunny, and mackerel fisheries, form a con-
siderable trade. The whole population is estimated
at 3000, of which 1 000 occupy a city of the same
name, wliich stands on a peninsular eminence be-
tween two harbours.

Aruet

Arba.

A R B

590

ARC

Arkcl^ ARBELA, now Ikbil, a city of Assyria, whose
II name has been transmitted to postetity along with

Arbui'uuoi. the record of the; celebrated and decisive victory which
Alexander the Great obtained over Darius, whose
army, it is said, amounted to the unwieldy force of
600,000 men, while that of the Macedonian hero
was not equal to 50,000. The conqueror lost only
500 men ; but 40,000 of the Persians were left dead
on the field..

ARBITER, a person chosen by consent of parties,
according to the practice of the civil and Scots law,
who is authorised to perform the duties of a judge
in deciding differences. The office of arbiter being
voluntary, no person could be forced to undertake
it ; but having once accepted, he might, by the Ro-
man law, be compelled to pronounce a decision.
^\rbiters have no legal jurisdiction, and therefore
cannot order witnesses to give evidence, or the pro-
duction of written deeds ; but this power is supplied
by the Court of Session in Scotland, who grant war-
rants for such purposes, on the application of either
of the parties, or of the arbiters tliemselves. When
the authority entrusted to arbiters to determine any
case is limited to a f^xed period, no judgment pro-
nounced after that time is binding ; but when the
award or decreet-arbitral is conformed in all respects
to the terms of the submission, unless fraud or cor-
ruption be alleged and proved, it is final, and not
subject to the review of any court. If two arbiters
be chosen, and they do not agree in their award,
they have sometimes the power of naming an um-
pire, whose sole decree is equally valid with the
original arbiters.

ARBITRATOR, is generally synonjTnous with
arbiter; but the civfi law makes some distinction.
The arbiter, it is understood, decides according to
the rules and practice of law ; but the arbitrator
judges in the case according to his own discretion,
or as he is guided by the principles of equity.

AIIBOIS, a town in the department of Jura in
France, which has a population exceeding 6000, and
has been long famous for its white wines, which are
a very considerable source of trade, and are well
known throughout the kingdom.

ARBUTHNOT, John, a learned physician and
miscellaneous writer, was born neat Montrose in
Scotland about the commencement of the reign of
Charles II. was educated at the university of Aber-
deen; and having been admitted to a degree in me-
dicine, he removed to London, where, it is said, he
taught for some time mathematics, in which he had
risen to considerable eminence. But while he oc-
cupied his literary industry, which seems to have
been always active, in various investigations, he
made rapid advances in professional employment and
reputation. He was first appointed physician to
Prince George of Denmark, and afterwards physi-
cian in ordinary to Queen Anne ; and although, on
the death of the Queen, his connexion with the court
was dissolved, his medical practice continued cxten-
■ sive and lucrative to the end of his life.

Dr Arbuthnot flourished during the bright era of
English literature, and was one of that constellation
of wits which shed an unfading lustre on the annals
of their country. He was the intimate friend and

associate of Popo, and Switlt, and Gay. No man
possessed more varied talents than Dr Arbuthnot.
His " Examination of Woodward's Account of the
Deluge," his " Treatise on tlie Usefulness of Mathe-
matical Knowledge," his " Tables of Ancient Coins,"
&c. and two works immediately connected with hig
own profession, " On Aliments," and " The EiTecta
of Air on Human Bodies," attord ample proof of his
learning and medical knowledge ; his talents for
wit and humour are abundantly conspicuous in the
" History of John Bull," those parts of the " Me-
moirs of Martinus Scriblerus " which relate to ana-
tomy, and dclmeate ancient manners and customs,
and " A Treatise concerning the Scolding of the
Ancients," and the " Art of Political Lying ;" but
it is alleged that the delicacy of his satire is not al-
ways free from asperity, especially when the influence
of party spirit prevailed, as in his attack on Bishop
Burnet, his political opponent, and in the bitter in-
vectives in the famous " Epitaph on Colonel Char-
teris." But, independent of his own literary labours,
tlie name of Arbuthnot, as it is commemorated by
his distinguished friends and associates, will be trans-
mitted to posterity along with their works. Pope
has addressed to him the " The Prologue to the Sa-
tires ;" and Swift, who said of him, " that he has
more wit than we all have, and his humanity is equal
to his wit," has eulogised his knowledge and bene-
volence ;

" Far from his kind Arbuthnot's aid,
Who knows his art, but not his trade."

A severe asthma, which induced a dropsical affec-
tion, terminated his life in London in February 1735.
Distinguished by his attainments in science and lite-
rature, he was not less eminent for integrity, bene-
volence, and pietj%

ARBUTUS, or Strawberry-thee, a genus of
plants belonging to the Decandria class, one species
of which, arbutus tmedo, a beautiful evergreen shrub,
is a native of the western districts of Ireland, and is
a fine ornament to the picturesque scenery of the
lake of Killarney.

ARC, Joan of, better known by the name of
the Maid of Orleans, acted a conspicuous part in
France, in one of the severe struggles against the
English invaders, and was born about the beginning
of the 15th century. While in her 27th year, and
in the humble capacity of servant at an inn in the
village of Domremi, the disastrous fate of her coun-
try had made a strong impression on her mind ; and
fancying that she was commissioned by heaven to be
the deliverer of the kingdom, under this enthusiasm
she appeared before the governor of Vaucouleurs,
who presented her to the French court ; and when
she was introduced to the king, she declared, in the
name of the Supreme Creator, that she would raise
the siege of Orleans, and conduct him to Rheinis to
be crowned- Her extraordinary enthusiasm was va-
riously regarded. While some doubted the reality
of her mission, a council of divines and learned men
pronounced her inspiration to be supernatural ; and
the superstition of the times, or the sagacity of indi-
viduals, employed her as a fit instrument to rouse the
drooping energies of her country. Arrayed in mili-

Arfci'lM

A JR C

591

AR C

tary attire, and displaying a consecrated banner, she
headed an army sent to the relief of Orleans, entered
the place with a convoy, and successfully attacked
the English, who were panic struck, and precipi-
tately raised the siege. After vaviovs si.ccesses, she
proposed to proceed to Rlieims, to perform the
other part of lier mission. The attempt wat- full of
hazard, but she had now inspired unbounded confi-
dence, and no enterprise, liowe.'er arduovi-s, was
dreaded. With an army of 12,000 men she march-
ed towards Rheims, which, as well as tlie country
through which she passed, was then in the hands of
the English, but their progress was unmolestetl ; the
enemy fled before them, and tlie kej's of the city
■were presented on their arrival ; the king was crown-
ed and anointed ; and as a mark of royal favour for
her extraordinary services, her family was ennobled.

The Maid, having accomplished her mission, was
desirous of retiring to her own proper station ; but
the French general, awai-e of the importance of her
eervices, encouraged her to remain in arms till the
final expulsion of the enemy. She threw herself in-
to Compeigne, which was closely besieged ; the gar-
rison thought themselves invincible in her presence ;
but in an unfortunate sally she was taken prisoner.
Her fate was now sealed. Loaded with irons she
was carried to Kouen ; and under the authority of
the Duke of Bedford, regent of the kingdom, she
was charged before an ecclesiastical court with im-
piety and sorcery ; and being convicted, she was
condemned to the flames, and suft'ered that unjust
and cruel punishment, which was dictated partly by
the superstition and partly by the barbarity of the
times, in 1433.

The short but eventful story of the Maid of Or-
leans, has been the subject of various works both in
prose and verse. Voltaire and Chapelaine have de-
lineated her heroical exploits in French verse ; and
more lately, Mr Southey, a bard of our own coun-
try, has wrought up the adventiwes of Joan of Arc
into an epic poem.

ARC A, or Ahk-Shell, a genus of bivalve shells.

See CONCHOLOGY.

ARCADE, denotes any opening in a building
which is formed by an arch.

ARCADIA, a mountainous district of Pcloponc-
Sus, which occupies the central parts of that penin-
sula. The face of the country is uneven and rug-
ged ; it is watered by numerous streams ; the more
elevated regions are clothed with verdant herbage,
and the soil of the vallies is rich and fertile. Corn
has been sometimes raised ; and the vine and the
olive are enumerated among its spontaneous produc-
tions ; but flocks and herds have always constituted
the chief wealth of the Arcadians. In the early his-
tory of Greece, Arcadia holds a conspicuous place ;
and her sons have never failed to distinguish them-
selves by their prowess in defence of their own li-
berties or in the general cause.

Arcadia may be regarded as the native scene of
pastoral poetry, and of many of the incidents of an-
cient mythology. The rivers flow in numbers, and

" Not a mountain rears its head unsung."

Cyllene,- Erymanthus, Olympus, ami Siyrnphalus,

are familiar to every classical reader. The celebrat- ArcesflsHu'
ed Styx is one of the rivers of Arcadia. The cold- {|
ness and noxious quality of its waters diffused the Archangel,
chill of death over every living thing that tasted or — — •
approached them ; and no oath was held msre sa^
cred among gods and men than when it was so-
lemn'y sanctioned by this stream.

ARCESILAUS, a Greek philosopher, who flou-
rished about 300 3'ears before the Christian era ; was
the disciple of Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Cantor,
at Athens, and the founder of the second school, or
middle academy. Science, according to Plato, should
be directed, not to external objects which affect the
senses, but to the pure objects of intellect, as they
have existed as ideas or forms in the divine mind
from all eternity. The inference from this doctrine
shewed that no certain knowledge could be obtain-
ed from sensible objects. But Arcesilaus proceeded
farther, and maintained, that every thing is uncer-
tain to the human understanding. Truth and error
have no distinctive diai'acteristics ; and the powers
of man furnish him only with probable reasonings
and opinions, but which, he admitted, are sufficiently
calculated to guide him in the ordinary affairs of lifc.^.

ARCH, any part of the circumference of a circle
or curved line.

ARCH, a mode of constructing buildings. See-
Architecture.

ARCHANGEL, a considerable town, and capital
of a province of the same name, in the northern part
of the Russian empire, stands on the eastern bank
of the river Dwina, which discharges its waters in-
to the White sea, and is described as thr^e miles in .
length and about a mile in breadth. The streets are
in general narrow, and the houses are chiefly built
of wood. The town-house is a substantial structure
of hewn stone, and consists of three stories. In the
more flourishing periods of its history, Archangel
reckoned 30,000 inhabitants, but the number at pre-
sent is not estimated higher than six or seven thou-
sand.

. Archangel was discovered by the English in
1555, in an expedition under Sir Hugh Willoughby,
which was sent out to explore a passage by the north
of Europe to China and the East Indies. The only ship
belonging to the expedition which escaped the rigors
of a northern winter, had taken shelter in a bay near
the spot on which Archangel was afterwards built.
Captain Chancellor, the commander, was hospitably
received by the Russians, invited to Moscow, and ho-
nourably entertained, and entered into a treaty which
conferred upon the English the high exclusive pri-
vilege of trading in all parts of the Russian territory,
free of every kind of duties. Archangel rose into
importance, became the emporium of Russia, and of
a lucrative commerce to the English, and continued
to enjoy its full share of prosperity, with some sliglu
interruptions from tlie commercial interference of the
Dutch, till Petersburgh became the seat of the im-
perial government, and the comiaencement of the
Baltic trade. In the flourishing period of the histo-
ry of Archangel, an annual fair was held in August,
at which assembled merchants from every part of
that wide empire, to meet the English and other tra-
ders, froia Whom they purchased by barter, or tor

ARC

592

ARC

AtchinslKf money, broad cloths, linens, silk and woollen stuHs,
II paper, lace, toys, cutting instruments, and colonial
Arcbelaus. produce, and gave in exchange tallow, hides, fea-
thers, yam, silk from China and Persia, furs, bristles,
caviar, rhubarb, potash, iron, corn, lintseed, and flax.

Many of the cornmodities above enumerated have
found less circuitous channels, and, being withdrawn
from Archangel, have greatly diminished its prospe-
rity. But it is still the seat of trade for the produc-
tions of the northern and western parts of Siberia,
from which vahiable furs and abundance of iron are
obtained ; and the fisheries of the White sea and the
Frozen ocean furnish large quantities of stock-fish to
be added to its imports. N. Lat. 64" 34'. and E.
Long. 39°.

ARCHBISHOP, a church dignitary of the highest
order, was not known in the east till the year 320,
and was at first only a personal title of distinc-
tion, conferred as a mark of respect on the bishops
of large cities. At a later period archbishops be-
came metropolitans, and had jurisdiction assigned to
them. Four orders, 'or degrees, which were after-
wards introduced, namely patriarchs, archbishops, me-
tropolitans, and bishops, composed the ecclessiastical
hierarchy. In Italy, and some other parts of the con-
tinent, the distinction between metropolitan and arch-
bishop still exists. The latter often holds the title,
but without the authority and jurisdiction which al-
ways belong to the former. Beside the superintend-
ence of the bishops and clergy of his own province,
the archbishop exercises episcopal jurisdiction in his
own diocese.

The ecclesiastical government of England is di-
vided into two provinces, Canterbury and York. The
archbishop of Canterbury is styled wn'mate of all Eng-
land ; previously to the year 1152 liis jurisdiction ex-
tended to Ireland, and it is supposed included Scotland
and the isles. He is the first peer of the realm, takes
precedence next to the royal family, and it belongs
to him to crown the sovereigns of England. Austin,
appointed by King Ethelbert in S98, was the first
who filled this see. The archbishop of York is next
in ecclesiastical dignity, has precedence of all dukes
not of the blood royal, and excepting the Lord Chan-
cellor, of all the great officers of state, and he has the
privilege of crowning the queen-consort. Paulinus
was the first archbishop of York, and he was appoint-
ed by Pope Gregory in 622.

The ecclesiastical establishment of Ireland consists
of four archbishops, namely, Armagh, to which the
primacy is annexed, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.
While the episcopal form of church government ex-
isted in Scotland, St Andrew;s and Glasgow were
archbishoprics. The former was invested with the
authority of metropolitan in MTO by Pope Sextus

ARCHDEACON, a dignitary in the church of
■England, next in rank to the bishop. The archdea-
cons of England amount to sixty.

AIICHELAUS, a Greek philosopher, who flou-
rished about 440 years before the Christian era. He
was the last teacher of the original Ionic school, which
lie removed to Athens, acquired great celebrity, and
was the master of Socrates. He taught that a double
principle exists in all thiogs, namely, the expansion

and condensation of the air ; that heat is ever in mo-
tion, and is the cause of action, and that cold is al-
ways at rest. He ascribed infinity to the universe,
supposed that the earth, oi iginally a chaotic mass of
moist matter, assumed, when dried, an ovate form,
and asserted that all living creatures were produced
from its heat. In morality, it is said, he maintained
that nature had made no distinction between right
and wrong, that all actions are indifferent in them-
selves, and the character of good or evil is marked
only by positive institutions.

ARCHERY is the art of shooting with a bow and
arrow. The origin of this art is undoubtedly coeval
with the earliest period of the history of most nations^
It is particulai'ly mentioned in Sacred history ; and
the Persians, the Ethiopsans, the Egyptians, and Scy-
thians, but especially the latter people, were cele-
brated for the practice of archery. Among the
Greeks the bow was early employed as an implement
of war ; and the Romans, in a later period of their
history, successfully adopted the same instrument.
The (jcoths, the Vandals, and the Huns, were in no
small dog'.Kie indebted to the use of the bow and ar-
row for their rapid progress and victorious career.

The US2 of tlic bow, it is supposed, was unknown
in Britain till': joui, the period of the Saxon invasion.
But in iingland archery afterwards attahied a high
degree of perfection. The famous battles of Cres^y,
Poictiers, and Agincourt, -..-ere won by the skill and
prowess of the English archers. The English go-
vernment liberally encouraged archery, and numerous
statutes, some of which were passed even after the
introduction of fire-arms, were enacted for the regu-
lation of the practice ; and it is curious to observe
that, as late as the thne of Elizabeth, and even later,
treatises were published in which the bow is preferred
to the musket as a military instrument.

Archery was not neglected in Scotland. An act
of James I. required all males to practise the art ;
but it is generally admitted that the Scots were infe-
rior to their southern neighbours in the use of the
bow. The battles of Homildon and Flodden, so fatal
to Scotland, were decided in favour of the English
by the strength and skill of their archers.

Archery is now known in Britain only as an active
andagreeable amusement. Three associations exist in
England for its practice, under the name of The Kent-
ish Bowmen; 7 he Woodmen of Arden ; and The Toxo-
philites. In Scotland two societies are instituted for
the same purpose : The Royal Company of Archers, at
Edinburgh, which is supposed to ifate its origin in the
time of James I., was incorporated by a charter from
Queen Anne; and The Kilwinning Society of Archers
has long held an annual meeting, which is well known
in Ayrshire by the name of Papingoe. Some of the
members of tliese societies possess considerable dex-
terity and skill in the use of the bow and arrow.

ARCHETYPE is the first model of a work ac-
cording to which others are constructed. In the lan-
guage of the mint, the same term is applied to the
standard weight by which others are adjusted.

ARCH^US, signifying piticipid, chief, or Jlrst
mover, is a term applied, by Van Hehnont, to an
imaginary being which he supposed presided over the
animal economy for its preservation. The place at-

ARC

593

ARC

Aicha signed for the residence of the Archaeus was the en-
II trance into the stomach.

Archimedes. ARCHIL, a colouring substance which is procur-
ed from certain species of lichen, and especially lich-
en rocella and pareUns, which are brought from the
Canary and Capo de Verd Islands. The colour is a
rich purple ; and in its preparation it is bruised,
moistened with urine mixed with quicklime, and hav-
ing undergone fermentation, is dried and formed in-
to a hard paste. In this state it is called litmus. Ar-
chil is employed by dyers to heighten their colours,
and the litmus is used as a chemical test.

ARCHIMANDRITE, in the ancient Christian
church, seems to have been nearly synonymous with
abbot.

ARCHIMEDES, one of the most celebrated of
the ancient philosophers for his attainments in ma-
thematics and mechanical science, was a native of
Syracuse, and was born about 280 years before the
Christian era. He began early to devote himself to
his favourite pursuits, travelled to Egypt to improve
and extend his knowledge, and even, it is said, by
the power and vigour of his genius, reflected lustre
on the bright day of learning which then illuminated
the regions of the east. Returning to his own coun-
try, he resumed the prosecution of those profound
investigations of which the fragments are sufficient
to render his name immortal.

The close of the life of Archimedes is almost the
only event which the scanty biography of the philoso-
pher can commemorate, and this too, had it been less
connected with public transactions, might have been
wholly obliterated from human records. In a war
between Hiero,king of Syracuse, and the Romans, Sy-
racuse was closely besieged ; and by the inventions of
Archimedes, the accounts of which are probably ex-
aggerated, when it is said that he set the ships of the
enemy on fire by means of reflectors, and, when they
approached nearer, dragged them out of the water by
engines, the most vigorous eftbrtsof the Roman pow-
er were long frustrated ; but the city was taken by
storm, and Archimedes, intent on a geometrical inves-

tigation, and ignorant of what had happened, was put Archipelago,
to death by a soldier; although it is reported that Mar-
cellus, the Roman general, had issued strict orders
to save the philosopher and to protect his house from
plunder. Marcellus was deeply grieved at his disas-
trous fate ; and, as an act of retribution, conferred
signal favours on the relatives of Archimedes, ho-
noured his memory with a splendid funeral, and or-
dered a tomb to be erected, on which, as the philo-
sopher had desired, a sphere inscribed in a cylinder,
alluding to his beautiful discovery, was sculptured.
The death of Archimedes happened 212 years before
the Christian era. After the lapse of 140 years, Ciceio
visited the tomb of the Syracusan philosopher. No
memorial of it then remained in the minds of his
countrymen ; but, after a diligent search, the top of
a column rising from a close thicket of thorns and
briars was discovered'; and the sphere and cylinder,
which time had spared, marked it as the tomb of Ar-
chimedes.

The discovery of the method of determining the
specific gravity of bodies, which, it is said, he made
while bathing, is ascribed to Archimedes ; his know-
ledge of the power of the lever is illustrated by the
famous apophthegm, " Give me a place to rest up-
on and I shall move the earth ;" and the screw for
raising water, which is distinguished by his name,
the spiral screw, the system of pulleys, and various
compound machines for raising weights, are enume-
rated among his inventions. The works of Archi-
medes yet extant, are, " On the Sphere and Cylin-
der ;" " On the Dimension of the Circle ;" " On Co-
noids and Spheroids ;" " On Spiral Lines ;" " On the
Quadrature of the Parabola;" " On Floating Bodies,"
&c. A splendid edition of his works was published
at Oxford in 1792.

ARCHIPELAGO, a general appellation for a
sea interrupted with island^, was originally limited to
the jEgean sea between Asia and Europe, but is now
extended to any sea divided or broken by numerous
islands.

ARCHITECTURE.

Architecture Architecture, or, the Art of Building, is divided
into three branches, denominated from the purposes to
which they are respectively applied — Civil, Military,
and Naval. It is the first only, which is usually, for the
sake of distinction, called Architecture, that is to be
the subject of this treatise. Our view of it will com-
prehend its most general principles, considered both

as a mechanical science and a fine art. We propose, Architecture
accordingly, to speak, . — — .

I. Of the Materials used in Architecture. II. Of
the Principles of Construction. III. Of Style, or the
Production of Effect. And we shall conclude with
a short history of its origin and progress.

PART L OF MATERIALS.

In treating of the materials which are usually em-
ployed for architectural purposes, two things are to
be considered, — 1 . The kinds and qualities of mate-
rials ; and, 2dly, Their mechanical strength.

VOL. I. PART I.

Chap. I. Of the Kinds and Qualities of

Materials.
Materials may be divided into Constructive,
Uniting, and Ornamental.
3 a

594

ARCHITECTURE.

Sftiiterials.

Sect. I. Of Constructive Materials.

Constructive materials are timber, stone, brick,
earth including clay and turf, slates, tiles, thatch,
&c. some of the metals, and glass.

Timber. — Trees, even in their rudest state, or with
little alteration, are convertible into defences against
the weather and the attacks of wld beasts. The ear-
ly inhabitants of some countries used no other mate-
rials. But it is not this primitive architecture that we
are to contemplate. The term timber is applied to
such trees as admit of being cut into planks and
posts, in which condition chiefly they are employed
in modern times and civilized countries.

Different trees have different natures, and timber,
consequently, is of various qualities. Those princi-
pally required are magnitude, cohesion of fibres, the
capacity of being wrought, and durability. That tim-
ber which has these qualities in greatest perfection,
is of course most valuable. In general, the gifts and
advantages of nature being in some degree qualified,
it is necessary to compound between them ; and the
consideration of expense, dependent on the plenty or
scarcity of the kinds of timber, is an important mat-
ter in the builder's calculation. We may notice a few
particulars respecting certain species used in this
country.

Fir IS plentiful, may be had of great magnitude,
and is easily wrought. Oak surpasses it in absolute
strength and durability, but is dearer, and demands
more labour. Beech is a close compact wood, soon
injured by moisture. Ash affords a neat, tough, and
conveniently worked timber, but does not stand the
weather well. The chief excellence of elm is its bear-
ing to be pierced or bored with nails and bolts, bet-
ter, perhaps, than any other wood, but it is extreme-
ly liable to shrink and warp, and is very cross-grain-
ed, so that it cannot safely be trusted. Spanish ches-
nut has some of the characters of oak. Lime, syca-
more, and poplar, partake of the imperfections of
beech. Memel fir is, perhaps, on the whole, the
most eligible timber for the ordinary purposes of buil-
ders.

Stone.— This is the general name for all the earthy
minerals employed in building, such as sandstone,
granite, porphyry, whin, lime-stone or marble, flint,
&c. These also have different qualities, and are con-
sequently of greater or less value.

Sand-stone. — Sand-stone is usually found in flat
pieces, of variable but seldom very great thickness,
80 that it needs only to be cut transversely, in order
to afford suitable sizes and shapes. This is easily
done when it is soft, but excess of softness is obvi-
ously an essential fault. The contrary extreme is
rarely met with in sand-stone, and can scarcely be
objected to when it is, unless where labour is very
dear. The upper beds of the quarry are generally
softest, and the hardness increases rapidly with the
depth. To this remark, however, there are many ex-
ceptions. Some sand-stone becomes hard by expo-
sure to the atmosphere, as that found near Bath.
The abundance of good sand-stone in its vicinity, has
contributed to the beauty of New Edinburgh. That
procured at Craig-Leith quarry, a little to the north-
west of the town, has been long famed, and is in de-

mand at London, Gottenburgh, and other distant Materials,
places.

Granite. — \Vhen the constituent parts of granite
are pretty uniformly mixed, it is much esteemed for
building purposes. It generally possesses very great
strength, is found in very large masses, and has of-
ten a pleasing variety of colour, but with rather too
much of a sparkling appearance. The town of Aber-
deen is built of a granite, some of which has lately
been introduced into London for its strength and
durability, so requisite in some parts of bridge build-
ing.

Porphtjrn. — Porphyry is often confounded with
granite. The name applies to a vast variety of
stones occasionally used. Whin, or greenstone, a
very abundant production in many countries, is ex-
tremely durable, and may be readily dressed with
the hammer. It is employed for coarse walls and
inside work, being commonly too dark for shew ; in
Scotland, where it is very plentiful, the roads and
streets are paved with it. Clinkstone, basalt, and
some other stones, found in similar situations, may
be ranked with whin.

Limestone — has very diversified appearances and
qualities. When it is hard, as in the marble of some
countries, and when the conversion of it into lime is
not thought to be of greater moment, it is employed
in building. It dresses well, and is easily divided.

Flint, — or siliceous stone, is commonly so hard
and so difficult of receiving form, that it is rarely
used in this art on the large scale. But small flints
may be advantageously had recourse to in some
cases. The method of using them, recommended
in Mr Atkinson's Views of Cottages, &c. deserves
notice. It is very similar to the process of raising
Pisa walls.

Objection to stone. — An important objection to
many sorts of stone is their great power of conduct-
ing heat. It is most remarkable in those that are
very dense and compact, as whinstone. In conse-
quence of it, plaster does not adhere well to them,
and they have a cold, raw, or moist feel. The vul-
gar notion is, that these stones contain water, which
they give out in peculiar conditions of the weather ;
but the fact is to be explained on a chemical prin-
ciple, viz. the abstraction of heat from the adjoin-
ing air occasioning a deposition of the vapour that
had been dissolved in it. The condensation of mois-
ture on the windows of a crowded room during cold
weather, is a phenomenon of a similar nature. The
best remedy, perhaps, or rather defence against the
evil, consists in separating the lathing from the walls
for some distance, and tilling up the intervals with
some bad conductor, sucli as dry earth, sand, brick-
dust. There are few cases in which this practice
would not be found highly conducive to comfort.

Roasting the stones, which some have proposed,
even if any way consistent with time and economy,
will not alter their nature, unless carried to a very
higli degree, and therefore cannot be generally re-
commended.

Bricks In many respects this is a hotter mate-
rial than stone ; and the objection which has some-
times been made to it, namely, its want of durabili-
ty, applies rather to the particular manufacture than

ARCHITECTURE.

595

MateiiKls. to tlie substance itself. Bricks may be made to vie
with stone in this very quality, and even claim the
preference which an Egyptian monarch, spoken of
by Herodotus, seems to liave given them. " Tliis
prince," says that historian, " desirous of surpassing
all his predecessors, left, as a monument of his fame,
a pyramid of brick, with this inscription on a piece
of marble : " Do not disparage my worth by com-
paring me to those pyramids composed of stone ; I
am as much superior to tliem as Jove is to the rest
of the deities ; I am formed of iirieks, which were
made of mud, adhering to poles, drawn from the
bottom of the lake." Beloe's Herod. Eulerpe, 1 36.
This very pyramid, noticed both by Norden and Po-
cocke, is situate about four leagues from Cairo. It
is the only one that is built of these substances,
which are understood to have been sun-dried ; but it
bids fair to last as long as any of those wonderful
fabrics.

In this climate, probably, we have not sun enough
to convert clay into bricks within a reasonable time.
Artificial heat is, accordingly, almost constantly ap-
plied to it. This renders the material costly, espe-
cially where coal or other fuel is scarce. Bricks are
much more easily arranged, occup}' less space, and
are lighter for carriage than stones, but are liable to
several imperfections, arising from the inadverten-
cies and mismanagement of workmen.

Earth, &c. — Earth, including clay and turf, is now
seldom ranked amongst constructive materials, where
the science is well established. They are occasion-
ally used, however, especially in country places, and
are the rather noticed here, because we wished for
an opportunity of stating some useful remarks of
Mr Atkinson's on the construction of mud-walls for
cottages. These when well made are very durable.
The skeleton of the cottage, which is first formed,
consists of upright pieces of timber, about four
inches square, placed at the distance of 15 inches
from each other, and bound together by horizontal
pieces for the support of the roof" and floors. Strong
plastering laths are then nailed horizontally across
the upright pieces, on which the mud or plaster pro-
perly mixed with chopped straw, is to be laid with
a trowel. When this has become dry, a thin out-
side covering of lime and sand is to be applied over
it ; and the inside of the building, which is to be
lathed in the same manner, may be covered with
mud, or with lime and hair. Those mud walls are
said to be best which are composed of clay and a
large portion of sand in rather a coarse state.

Pisa xvalk Here, too, we may describe the na-
ture of Pisa walls, so called because much used in
the city of that name. The foundation is either of
brick or stone raised about two feet from the groimd.
On this is fastened, by means of wedges, a sort of
wooden case, containing the common earth of the
fields, very hard pressed down. This case is moved
always upwards as the work proceeds, and the wall
when dry, is covered with lime and sand. It is a
a process like this that is recommended by Mr Atkin-
son from small flints, as formerly mentioned. These,
as existing in gravel, and combmed with mortar, are
used in place of the earth put into the frame. It is
convenient to know the practibility aiid efficiency of
2

such means, as cases may occur to require their jsiateriaU.
adoption. v«^V^»»'

Slate, Tile, SfC These materials are confined to

the construction of the roofs of houses, of which
they form that part which is exposed to the weather.
They are not all equally suitable to the purjwse, but
the selection is generally determined by local cir-
cumstances and prejudices.

Metals and Glass. — Lead and copper, besides oc-
casional uses in building, are sometimes substituted
for the substances now mentioned, as roofing mate-
rials- Iron is still more extensively employed, and
every day discovers additional proofs of its subser-
viency to the purposes of the builder. In carpen-
try, an important branch of architecture, it has been
long applied to the offices of king and queen posts,
straps, &c. for roofs. Modern artists have intro-
duced it into the construction of windows, stairs,
floors, &c. with decided advantages where great
strength is re(|uired, and especially where there is
unusual hazard of fire. The finest examples of its
value, as a constructive material, is to be seen in
cast iron bridges, those splendid monuments of mo-
dern ingenuity.

Glass is entirely confined to the structure of win-
dows for the admission of light. It is of various
qualities and denominations, as plate-glass, crown-
glass, German glass, &c. In some countries, where
the manufacture of glass is unknown, or where it
cannot conveniently be procured, a substitute for
it has been found in talc, mica, some sorts of shells,
&c. &c. no waj', however, comparable to it in pro-
perties.

Sect. II. Uniting Materials.

The terms Cement, Mortar, Tarras, in masonry,
are often used synonymously. But it would be con-
venient to restrict each to a distinct composition,
viz. the first to such uniting materials as are em-
ployed in a liquid state, — the second to the merelj'
soft mixtures of similar ingredients — and the last to
those of a still move compound nature, used in aqua-
tic buildings. As we cannot reasonably, however,
expect to modify the current language, we must of
necessity continue to speak as others have done be-
fore us.

Nature of mortar. — Thechiefandessential ingredient
in cement is lime, not, indeed, in its natural state, but
after having undergone the process of burning. SoIobc
as limestone contains fixed air or carbonic acid, it is
unfit for cement ; and, all other circumstances being
alike, that lime which has been most effectually sub-
mitted to the action of fire, by which the fixed air is
driven oft' from it, is most serviceable for the purpose.
Now, as it is proved by experiment, that lime, after
this treatment, gradually re-combines with fixed air
if exposL'd to the atmosphere, an obvious precaution
is suggested, viz. that of preserving it covered with
sand or earth, &.c. when not inmiediately in use ;
and on the same principle, it cannot be too power- \

fully inculcated on those concerned, that the sooner,
they use lime after it is burnt, the greater is the
chance of its obtaining its advantages. The inat-
tention of workmen to this important fact, is oftea
so gross as to justify the strongest censure, because

3P6

ARCHITECTURE.

ilitcrwls. t^^ infallible consequence is the speedy destruction
of the building. To them, perhaps, it is quite un-
important whether the stones be cemented or not>
provided they have laid in a sufficient quantity of
what is supposed to answer the design. But the
owner is certainly interested to have a^urable fabric,
and a conscientious artificer will study something
else than the mere appearance of his materials.

It can hardly be said that the ancients had better in-
gredients for the composition of their cemeftts, and
■vet it seems certain that their buildings bid fairer for
prolonged existence, even commencing with the pre-
sent time, than the generality of those which are now
erected. Or if it be admitted that they had, still we
must confess that they derived their superiority chiefly
from their greater circumspection and industry. Here
we cannot refrain from availing ourselves of the
words of en experienced observer, who has done so
much for the improvement of the arts of building in
this country ; we allude to Mr Peter Nicholson, from
whose Architectural Dictionary we quote the follow-
ing passage : " The practice of our modern builders
is to spare their labour, and to increase the quantity
of materials they produce, without any regard to its
goodness ; the badness of our modern mortar is to
be attributed both to the faulty nature of the mate-
vials, and to the slovenly and hasty methods of using
it. This is remarkably instanced in London, where
the lime employed is chalk lime, indifferently burnt,
conveyed from Essex or Kent, a distance of ten or
twenty miles, then kept many days without any pre-
caution to prevent the access of external air. Now,
in the course of this time, it has absorbed so much
carbonic acid as nearly to lose its cementing proper-
lies ; and though chalk-lime is equally good with the
hardest limestone, when thoroughly burned, yet, by
this treatment, when it is slaked, it falls into a thin
powder, and the core, or unburned lumps, are ground
down, and mixed up in the mortar, and not rejected
as it ought to be. The sand is equally defective,
consisting of small globular grains, containing a large
j)roportion of clay, which prevents it from drying
and attaining the necessary degree of hardness. These
materials being compounded in the most hasty man-
ner, and beat up with water in this imperfect state,
cannot fail of producing a crumbling and bad mortar ;
and, to complete the miserable composition, screened
rubbish, and the scraping of roads, are thrown in as
substitutes for pure sand. How very different was
the practice of the Romans ! The lime which they
employed was perfectly burnt, the sand sharp, clean
and large grained ; when these ingredients were mix-
ed in due proportion with a small quantity of water,
tlie mass was put into a wooden mortar, and beaten
with a heavy wooden or iron pestle, till the compo-
sition adhered to the mortar ; being thus far prepar-
ed, they kep,t it till it was at least three years old.
The beating of mortar is of the utmost consequence
to its durability, and it would appear that the effect
produced by it is owing to something more than a
mere mechanical mixture."

In Scotland, generally speaking, there can be no
excuse for the rapidity with Avhich walls moulder
down. We have lime of excellent quality, the mode
of burning it is thoroughly understood and generally

well practised, and sand and pebbles of all sorts may Matcriali.
commonly be had at little expence. We shall not, "^ '"^
then, be thought either disposed to cavil, if we assert
that there is a blanieable inattention to several im-
portant particulars, or officious, by taking it upon us
to suggest the necessity and benefit of greater cau-
tion. Attention 11) the following directions, we have
no doubt, will insure durability and firmness.

Directions fnr its preparation. — In the first place,
let the lime, whatever be its quality, whether com-
mon limestone, chalk, or marble, be sufficiently
burnt. This it is the interest as well as the duty
of the builder to see into, and he is not warranted
in committing the fact to the assertions of the peo-
ple of the kiln whence it comes, or to the notions
of his own subordinate agents. Secondly, let it be
as soon as possible put into use, or, at least, co-
vered from the air till it is so. If it is to be brought
from a distance, it ought to be conveyed in close carts;
waggons, or proper vessels, or, at all events, be fur-
nished with some screen, as ma'«ing, straw, &c. not
in shallow, wide, and unsheltered vehicles, nor late
on Saturdays, when it will almostinfallibly be left un-
protected for at least thirty hours. Thirdly, Having
mimediately slaked it, let the proper proportion of
clean large grained sand be mixed with it, adding
no more water than is barely necessary for working
it, which is to be done as already mentioned. And
here we ought to say a word or two about the quali-
ty and proportion of sand to be used. That which is
large and sharp, so as to prick the hands when rub-
bed, having no earth or mud mixed with it, which
can be easily discovered by washing some of it in
water for a trial, is to be preferred. Fossil-sand
dries sooner than what is taken from rivers, and is
fitter therefore for outside work, where it is of con-
sequence to effect a speedy consolidation ; but it is
apt, if long exposed to the air before being used, to
become somewhat earthy, which is alway a fault. A
white sand is generally very smooth, and conse-
quently not good ; for the same reason, sea-sand,
which has been subjected to a rolling motion, and.
is of course smooth, is not eligible. The pro-
portion of sand must be varied according to the
precise object in view ; sometimes, three parts to
two of lime ; at others, equal parts of each ; whilst,
according to Vitruvius, three parts of pit-sand and
two of river-sand ^niay be used with one of lime.
Wherever this last proportion can be adopted, it is
obvious that the quality of the lime is greatly con-
fided in. Lastly, let the mortar be kept well cover-
ed up for some considerable time before being laid
on ; and before using it, have it thoroughly beaten
over again.

Improved Mortar. — Considerable attention has been
paid of late years to the improvement of cements; and,
in consequence, several very useful processes have been
discovered The addition of bone-ashes, wood-ashes
or charcoal, cellular or comgjct basalt in the state of
powder, limeitself in the state of powder, and a great
variety of other substances, to certain proportions of
the other ingredients, is ascertained to promote their
cementing power. What is called Loriot-mortar, from
a Frenchman who discovered it, is of much efficacy.
It consists in the addition of one-fourth or oue-sixth

ARCHITECTURE.

397

Materials. P^'"'- °^ powdered quicklime to the common mortar,
v_^ -^< only prepared a little thinner than usual. This com-
pound, a few minutes after being made, acquires the
consistence of plaster of Paris, and in a few days
becomes as dry as ordinary mortar at the end of
some months. As a water-cement, which requires
speedy drying and firming, this mortar is extremely
valuable. The tarras, or trass mortar of the Dutch,
long used by them for the mounds and other works
by which they have succeeded in protecting their
low lands from the inroads of the ocean, is no way
inferior to this composition. It is made by mixing
the substance called tvakke, or cellular basalt, re-
duced by grinding to the state of coarse sand, with
the blue argillaceous lime that is got on the banks of
the Scheldt. The process is quite a simple one.
As much quicklime as will be needed in a week is
spread in a kind of bason, to the thickness of about
a foot, and sprinkled with water ; then a stratum of
tarras, such as above described, is laid over it to the
same depth, and allowed to remain for two or three
days, when the whole is beaten and mixed together,
and again left for as long a time. It is now fit for
building, and only requires to be well beaten when
about to be used. The tarras has been imported
from Holland into Britain for the sake of its efficacy.
But this is expensive, and perhaps not altogether in-
dispensable, as, according to Mr Nicholson, common
basalt, provided it be calcined, will answer the pur-
pose. This gentleman specifies the Calton-hill at
Edinburgh as chiefly consisting of cellular basalt, to
which, on the whole, he gives the preference, per-
haps as not requiring tlie expensive employment of
fuel for preparing it. " This hill," he says, " being
but a short distance from the port of Leith, offers
an inexliaustible abundance, at a small cost." We
do not think this hint has ever been taken advantage
of, as it might have been, especially since the great
undertakings lately commenced on that hill have af-
forded an important opportunitj'. On the contrary,
we have reason to believe, that the substance to
which Mr Nicholson alludes, and which has been
dug up, or blown, in large quantities, has been cast
ofT as mere rubbish, for the filling up of vacancies.
It may not be amiss to take notice here of a tradi-
tionary report, regarding an offer once made to the
Magistrates of Edinburgh by some merchants from
Holland, viz. to remove that hill free of expence.
The common notion was, that tliey believed it to
contain gold ; probably they had remarked its abound-
ing in a substance of greater real value.

Pitzzolana. — A peculiar earth, found at Puteoli,
in the bay of Baia;, in Italy, from which circum-
stance it has often got the name of " powder of Pu-
teoli," " Puteolian earth," and, corruptly, ^Mz:o/ana,
was used with great efficacy by the Romans as an
addition to mortar, much in the way we have already
described. As this earth is a sort of ferruginous
clay, that seems to have been calcined by volcanic
fire, there is every reason to believe, that similar
minerals, subjected to the agency of heat, and then
treated in a like way, will be found no less effica-
cious. All that is necessary is, that after burning,
and in some cases this may be dispensed with, the
substance be pounded down to a coarse powder, and

then beaten up with lime, either with or without
sand, in the manner already mentioned. This com-
pound quickly sets under water, and acquires a de-
gree of strength not inferior to that of many stones.
Forge scales, brick and tile powder, coal-cinders, and
a great variety of otlier substances, may be substitu-
ted for puzzolana, with perhaps equal benefit. The
mortar-mill, a machine contrived by Mr Supple, fa-
cilitates the reduction of such substances. In some
cases, where the utmost durability is needed, a cer-
tain quantity of bullocks blood, skimmed milk, or
other glutinous fluid, is added to the water.

Glue, — is a substance of a viscid nature, prepared
from the skins of animals b}' a particular process, and
is used as a cement for wood chiefiy.

The substances denominated solder and putty, be-
long to plumbery and glazing.

Sect. III. Omameiiial Materials.

With regard to ornamental materials, most of the
substances enumerated might here be reconsidered,
as, in fact, almost every thing on which human inge-
nuity can be exercised, is capable of conducing to
pleasing effect. But what we now allude to under
this title, are those substances, which, whether es-
sentially useful or not in the construction of buildings,
are more commonly valued on account of their use
as decorations. There are many substances of tliis
kind, such as the pigments, or colouring matters ; due-
Co; those used in mosaic work ; certain metallic bodies
applied to the locks and handles of doors ; paper for
covering the walls ; marble for statues, slabs, and chim-
ney-pieces. It is enough to have merely mentioned
them here ; and the reader will at once perceive, that
the plan of this publication allots more suitable occa-
sions fbr further notice.

Chap. II. Of the Strength of Materials.

Some materials are stronger than others, that is,
bear greater force, or resist it more effectually, thougli
perhaps of the same shape and size, and placed in
like circumstances. The cases in which sucli com-
parisons have been made are so numerous, that one
might imagine we ought, in this age of the world, to
have been put into possession of an immense mats of
information, highly valuable to the practitioner, and
sufficient for the basis of an accurate science. But
we shall err cgregiously if we take the opportunity of
acquiring information on any subject as the measure
of the quantity acquired. We may lament, but we
can be at no loss to account for tlie fact, that it is
only of late years this subject has received the slight-
est elucidation in any of the elementary books which
are the professed guide s of our operative men. It is
to the carpenter tliat it is chiefly interesting ; and,
fortunately for him, most of the experiments and gb.
servations have been made on the materials of his
art. W^e shall state the most important results, pre-
mising some general remarks.

The heart of most, perhaps of all trees, is weaker
than tlie outer parts, with the exception of that por-
tion which is next to the bark, usually called the
white or blea. The wood that is in the middle of the
trunk is stronger than that at the origin of the branch-

Materiolai

598

ARCHITECTURE.

MateriaU. es, or at the root ; and that of the branches themselves
is weaker than tliat of the trunk. The wood that is
on the souti) side of trees, (those of Europe at least,)
is stronger than that of the north side. The heart of
a tree is always nearer to the north side, which may
account for this peculiarity. Timber is most tena-
cious whilst green, and loses of its strength in drying.
From these remarks, it is evident, that different slips
of the same timber may difter considerably in strength,
and hence a vas,t nutnber of experiments becomes
necessary to afford even a few elementary propositions.
The strength of beams, as of all other materials
used in building, depends on the cohesive and repul-
sive forces of the particles composing them, and these
forces are variously called into action, according to
the nature of the strain. Thus in the case of tension,
that is, when a body is stretched, the form is retain-
ed by cohesion ; in the case of compression, it is the
repulsive force that is first engaged in resistance,
thougli the cohesive force afterwards operates in pre-
venting the particles or fibres of the body from slid-
ing sideways on one another ; whilst, in the third
strain, called transverse, both these forces seem to be
exerted at the same time, only in different parts of
the body. We proceed to consider these strains
more particularly.

Sect. I. Of Transverse Strains.

The strength of beams against transverse strains
has beeti estimated by the weights which they can
tear, or which are necessary to break them when
they are fixed at one end, or at both ends. The
most general theorem on the subject, for which we
are indebted to Galileo, though in some degree hy-
pothetical, is a very useful approximation to the
truth. It may be thus stated :

The weight required to break a beam, having one
of its ends firmly fixed in a wall, is proportional to
the strength of its fibres, multiplied into the area of
its section, and into the distance of the centre of
gravity of this section from the point round which
the beam turns in breaking, divided by its length.
The weight is supposed to be applied to the free end
of the beam ; and the strength of the fibres is esti-
m'ated laterally. It is nearly proportional to the spe-
cific gravity of a given bulk of the timber.

The strength of a beam having a rectangular sec-
tion, all other things remaining the same, is very near-
ly as the square of the depth multiplied into the
breadth. This is the result of some of Buffon's ex-
periments. The real strength is rather less than this
proposition makes it, and the more so the longer
the beam is. But the exlict amount of the decrease
has not been hitherto ascertained, and probably will
not, till the nature of the influence which the length
of timber has on its strength be fully understood.
Dr Robison, late professor of Natural Philosophy in
the University of Edinburgh, proposed something
like a solution of this question, but was candid enough
to admit, that it did not merit implicit credit. Ac-
cording to him, a beam of quadruple length, instead
of having one-fourth of the strength, as the rule
states, has only about one- sixth part.

Tlie strength of beams liaving the same length

and breadth, being as the square of their depths, it materia',-
follows, that the strongest beam that can be cut out ■
of a given cylindrical tree, is that in which the breadth
is to the depth as one to the square root of two ;
hence the strongest beam is not that which has the
greatest quantity of timber, as will be seen when we
mention a problem belonging to this subject.

The strongest form of a beam, however, of given
length and weight, differs in different circumstances.

In general, it ought to be thickest at the part most
firmly fixed. Even the position in which it is placed,
with respect to its own form, has an important effect
on its strength. This is remarkable in the case of a
beam having a triangular section. Its strength, for
example, is no less than twice as great when one
of its faces is uppermost, as when it is reversed.
Similar to this is the very remarkable difference
observed between the strengths of cylindrical beams
and tubes, having the same quantity of matter.
The latter, it is well known, are much stronger.
Nay, there is still a more singular case, which it may
be right to mention, though likely to stagger the
faith of most readers. A tube of metal is said to sup-
port a greater transverse strain, than a solid cylinder
having the same diameter; or a solid cj'liuder is
■strengthened against this strain, by being bored in
the direction of its axis, and having a considerable
portion of its substance removed. Mr Playfair has
given a probable explanation of this paradoxical phe-
nomenon, in his Outlines of Natural Philosophy.

The force necessary to break a beam transversely,
is, very probably, to its force of cohesion, as the
depth to from six to nine times the length ; but can-
not be in a greater ratio than as the depth to twice
the length.

A beam supported at both ends, and having the
same section throughout its length, is weakest in the
middle ; but it will bear there twice as much as either
half firmly fixed would bear at the other end, or as it
is able to bear when supported only at one end.
This will be readily understood, by supposing it to
be inverted, and to rest on a fulcrum in the middle ;
for the fulcrum will bear the sum of the equal weights
at the ends, and the beam will bear a weight on its
middle equal to its pressure on the fulcrum. If each
end of the beam be firmly fixed, instead of being
merely supported, its strength will be doubled, the
circumstance of the ends being prevented from ris-
ing, adding a force capable of supporting the whole
of the weight which the beam could originally sup-
port.

The weight which a beam, firmly fixed at one
end, and projecting with a certain inclination to
the horizon, will sustain, is greater than what it will
support if projecting without any inclination, that is,
if horizontal, in the ratio of the square of the radius
to the square of the cosine of the eingle of inclina-
tion. For the resistance of the beam is increased by
the centre of gravity of the section being removed
farther from the fulcrum; and the momentum of the
weight again is lessened in the oblique position of
the beam, by its perpendicular distance from the ful-
crum being diminished ; now these being each in the
inverse proportion of the cosine of the angle of inch- •

ARCHITECTURE.

399

Materials, nation, their combined effect is in the proportion of
its square. Hence the great advantage of making
the strain on timber as oblique as possible.

As the strength of beams decreases at least in
the proportion of the square of the length, and tlie
weight increases as the cube, it is evident that there
is a limit, which, if a beam of a given shape, and of
given materials were to reach, it could only bear its
own weight. This, therefore, often requires to be
considered. The usual way is to suppose the weight
of the beam to be an addition to its load collected
in its centre of gravity, and to allow for it accord-
ingly. The length of time to which beams are sub-
jected to a transverse strain, requires also to be con-
sidered. ^Vhen a beam, therefore, has to sustain
its own weight, as it does when placed parallel to
the horizon, and is to be left long in this state, we
ought not to put above a third or a fourth part of
the additional weight on it that it is at first able to
sustain.

Two thirds of the weight that is sufficient to
break a beam when first laid on it, will sensibly
impair its strength, and at the distance of some
time, perhaps two or three months, will cause it
to give way. One half of the weight produces a
certain degree of curvature, which, howeTcr, will
remain stationary for any length of time. One third
of the weight will scarcely produce any permanent
effect on the beam, which will recover its shape per-
fectly after having been so loaded for many months.
One fourth part of the weight may be borne for
ever, without producing the slightest set.

We subjoin to this part of the subject the follow-
ing problem, M-hich is of continual use in the prac-
tice of carpentr}'.

Proi. To cut the strongest possible beam out of
a tree, the section of which is a given circle.

Let A E B F, Fig. 1. Plate 11. be the given section.
Draw the diameter AB, divide it into three equal parts,
viz. at d and e. From d or e draw a line perpendi-
cular to the diameter, and cutting the circumference,
as the line e E. DrawAEandEB. Complete the
right-line figure A E B F, by making A F parallel to
E B and B F to A E, both of them cutting the circle
at F. This will give the section of the strongest
beam that it is possible to cut out of the tree : for
the square of the depth A E or B F multiplied by
the breadth E B or FA is the greatest that can lie
produced, as might be demonstrated mathematically.
Now, as the greatest rectangle that can be inscrib-
ed in a circle is a square, and as the section
A E B F is not a square, it is evident that the strong-
est beam does not contain the most timber. To this
we add an important result from some experiments
of M. Buflon, founded on the fibrous or plated tex-
ture of timber, as made up of annual circular addi-
tions, the cohesion of which with each other is much
less than that which exists between their own fibres.
Let Fig. 2. Plate 11. represent the section of a tree,
from which two quarterings as they are called are to
be cut. Let A D and a d be the depths, D C and
d c the breadths. The quartering A B C D will be
stronger than abed, in the proportion where oak is
employed, of. 8 to 7. Xliis, in certain cases, would

be of material consequence, and will of course affect Materials,
the results of experiments not instituted with atten-
tion to the fact. It seems to be on the same prin-
ciple, that a number of planks set edgeways will be
stronger than if laid one above another.

Sect. IL Of Tension.

We have now to speak of that strain by which
timber is drawn asunder, and which is intimately con-
nected with its absolute strength, or the cohesion of
its fibres.

Few experiments have been made on this subject
that lead to practical purposes. Those of Muschen-
broak, for example, were performed on small slips of
timber, and, even admitting their accuracy, cannot
withmuch propriety be held as authority for the <^'ise
of large beams. It is desirable to prove the application
by some on a greater scale ; but this, from the diffi-
culty and expense attendant on it, v.ilF not probably
be soon executed. The fundamental principles ia
this particular case may be briefly stated.

The cohesion, or absolute strength of a fibre, is
that force by which every part of it is held together,
and is equal to the force which is required to pull it
asunder. Supposing the texture of the body, there-
fore, to be uniform, and that consequently every
particle or fibre has the same cohesion, it is evident
that the whole cohesion must be proportional to the
number of the fibres. The absolute strength or co-
hesion, therefore, in any part of a body, and the
force which is requisite to tear it asunder in that
part, are proportional to the section of the area, per-
pendicular to the direction of the extending force..
It follows, that all bodies of the same texture, and
presenting the same area of section thus taken, are
equally strong in every part, and will therefore brealt
alike in every part. And on the other hand, bodies
having unequal sections, will break where the section
is the least. The length of the bodies is immaterial in
this case, and hence a long rope, or other cylindri-
cal body, is neither weaker (as is commonly imagin-
ed,) nor stronger than a short one, in all other re-
spects alike. But here also it may be notieed, a body
may be so long as to break by its own weight. When
hanging perpendicularly, it does so towards the up-
per end, although equally strong, the strain on that
part being, in this case, equal to the weight of the
whole that is below it : and hence we say, tiiitt the
power of any part to resist the strain thus applied to
it, is inversely as the quantity below it. In the case
of the body being stretched horizontally, tlie strain
arising from its own weight, as we liave already seen,
bears a sensible proportion to its entire strength ; it
must then be taken into liccount where an extending
force is also at work. A flexible body, as a rope or
chain, whatever be its strength, may therefore be ex-
tended so far, that is, be so long, that its own weight
will break it ; and hence the absurdity of a proposal
that has sometimes been made, to construct a bridge
of chains over a wide space.

Two-thirds of the weights requisite to tear bodies
asunder will sensibly impair their strength, if long at-
tached to them ; and one-half is the utmost that can
be perpetually attached to them without risk of hiju-

400

ARCHITECTURE.

Miterialj. ry. Those botlies wliich have the straigiitcst fibres
~ ~ are best adapted for sustaining tension.

Sect. III. Of Compression,

We have now to consider a case apparently the op-
posite of the preceding, that of compression, one of
still greater difficulty, and in which, notwithstanding
its extreme importance, less has boen ascertained in
tlie way of scientific principle.

At first sight it appears difficult to conceive how
the compression of a perfectly straight piece of tim-
ber should have the effect of breaking it. The ten-
dency of the force applied at the extremes, seems
rather to favour the cohesion of the parts of the body,
and might be expected, therefore, to increase, not to
lessen its strength. On the supposition, indeed, of
any obliquity in the direction of this force, it is easy
to understand how certain parts may slip on each
other, and, consequently, the beam be fractured. Nor
is it difficult to perceive how a force, acting on the
beam in a direction perpendicular to that in which the
compressing force acts, should produce a certain de-
gree of curvature, and hence allow the approach, if
we may use the expression, of the compressed ex-
tremes, that is, contribute to the fracture. But on the
supposition that the particles of a column are perfect-
ly hard, and in contact, and, at the same time, that
the fibres are all arranged in the direction of the
pressure, it seenis impossible to conceive how they
cfin be disunited by it. But this supposition is a
very arbitrary one. Whether there are such bodies,
may well be doubted ; or whether, if there were, they
•would be totally indestructible and inseparable by
compression, it might be difficult, if not impossible,
to determine. We must content ourselves with the
consideration of such as are commonly met with, and
are usually employed in building.

Timber, beyond all doubt, does not answer these
conditions. Neither are its particles perfectly hard,
nor are its fibres uniformly in the direction of a com-
pressing force. On both accounts, therefore, it may
be expected to yield, and of this we have infallible
proofs. It is very evident that the effect of the pres-
sure will be to increase the curvature of the fibres, and,
therefore, that, at last, by augmenting the weight,
the fibres will give way, and the beam be broken.

The peculiar nature of the wood, it is easily to
be understood from what has been said, will ma-
terially influence the effect now stated to take place.
A very soft wooi is easily compressed. This
may happen either from the particles being at consi-
■derable distances from one another, or because their
iibres are very much incurvated. But some hard
timbers, owing, it is probable, to this last circum-
stance, are less capable of resisting compression than
others which are of a softer nature. Oak, for ex-
ample, though it will endure tension better than fir,
does not carry so great a weight. The proportion
has been rated as high as two to one in favour of the
latter. But this, perhaps, is too high. The artist,
liowever, will attend to the difference, and according-
ly employ these two species of wood for different
purposes. Tlie disproportion between the powers of
'gome bodies, in this respect, is immense. Glass, for

instance, is said to be able to bear a hundred times
the weight that oak will do, though it will not sus-
pend above four or five times as much.

It would be convenient to know the various powers
of different substances, as to this particular. Judi-
cious experiments are required to determine them ;
few have hitherto been instituted on which we can
rely, A very hard freestone, whose section was a
square foot, was found to bear 664',(X)() pounds with
perfect safety. Its highest strength was niucti
grciitcr, 871,000 pounds. Some inferior pieces did
not bear more than 460,000. A soft freestone,
of similar dimensions, bore from 187,000 to 311,000
pounds. The safe load for it was averaged at
249,000 pounds. This is inferior to the strength of
good brick, which is said to carry 320,000. Chalk,
a very soft substance, carries only 9000 pounds.
Sound oak is supposed to require above 60 pounds
on every square line to crush it.

The proportion between the strength of a body
thus tried, and the area of the section which it pre-
sents, has not been ascertained. The theory of Eu-
ler, that the strength was as the biquadratic power
of the diameters, is at variance with experiments.
It is not proportional to the area, as has often been
imagined, nor to any power or function of the area.
In certain cases, there appears to exist a relation
between the forces opposed to tension and compres-
sion, and not in others. In short, the whole subject
requires elucidation.

When a beam or column is overloaded, it is ob-
served to increase in diameter ; it then cracks or
shivers longitudinally, and at last gives way. The
process is called crippling. It may occur in a variety
of situations, as the compressing force is perpendi-
cular to the horizon, parallel with it, or inclined at
any angle. The length of the column has no effect
on its strength, unless a transverse strain takes place ;
and this the carpenter guards against, by the use of
what are called transverse bridles. The employment
of hoops, metallic rings, ropes, &c. materially in-
creases the strength of beams exposed to compres-
sing force.

Sect. IV. Of the Twist.

Tliere is still another kind of strain to which ma-
terials are sometimes subjected. It is the case of
twist. This occurs principally in pieces of machi-
nery, and especially in the axles employed to com-
municate motion. To the house-carpenter, this is
comparatively unimportant, as he rarely has to ex-
pose his materials to such a trial. We shall merely
remark respecting it, that the strength by which an
axle or beam opposes twisting, or being wrenched,
is generally proportioned to the cube of its diame-
ter, and that the internal parts do not resist so pow-
erfully as the external. Hollow tubes, therefore,
have a greater superiority over solid cylinders, in re-
sisting this kind of strain, than a transverse one.
Many cases occur, in which botli advantages may be
obtained, and prove of immense consequence. Ac-
cordingly, engineers are now much in the practice
of using liollow axles of cast iron, wherever the siae
will allow of the preference.

Mittcrialc.

Constrtictio*

ARCHITECTURE.

PART II. OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.

401

Constnrctiim

The chief object of architecture, considered in a
philosophical point of view, is to resist the causes of
motion, or withstand the force of gravitation. The
means of resistance are found in the various kinds
of strength of the materials which it employs ; and,
generally speaking, there are three ways in which
the object is accomplished, viz. support, suspension,
and equilibrium. Every building exhibits at least
one of these modes of effecting stability, and in many
buildings we have examples of all the three combined.
It is unnecessary, after what has been said in the
preceding part, to occupy much room in treating of
the two former, at least in a systematic manner.
The last demands more of our attention, both be-
cause of its extreme importance, and as not having
been so much as hinted at previously. There are
some general laws, however, of an abstract nature,
common to the whole, which we must first elucidate.

We shall treat, therefore, 1. Of the general prin-
ciples of construction, including the third mode of
resisting gravity, now alluded to ; and, 2. Of some
particular principles exemplified in certain produc-
tions of the art.

Chap. I. ■ Gekeral Principles of Construc-
tion.

The chief proposition in the mechanical adjust-
ment of materials, respects the composition and re-
solution of forces. It is of continual application in
practice, and, together with the principles of the
arch, which are afterwards to be considered, may
be said to constitute the theoretical basis of archi-
tectural science. We shall study the convenience
of general readers in our mode of explaining it.

Sect. I. Composition and Resolution of Forces.

If a body at A, Fig. 3. Plate 11. be acted upon at
the same time by two forces; one in the direction of
A B, and the other in that of A D, the intensities of
which are proportional to these two lines, it will be
affected in the same manner as if it were acted on by
one force in the direction of A C, having an intensi-
ty proportional to that line, which is the diagonal of
the parallelogram A B C D. If the forces acted in
the directions of the lines A F and A G, or A K and
AL, or AM and A N, and were respectively proportional
to these lines, a similar effect would be produced, and
the body would be operated on just as if only one force
acted on it in the same direction A C, which is the
diagonal of the three additional parallelograms re-
presented by the dotted lines. A variety of paralle-
lograms might be constructed, of which A C would
be the diagonal ; and there are as many combinations
of forces, as may be conceived, which, acting on the
body at A, would produce a similar effect. The
slightest inspection of the figure will convince the
reader, that as the directions of the forces approach
nearer to each other, or are least distant from the
diagonal, these forces most coalesce, or least oppose
each other ; and, on the contrary, that as the direc-
tions recede from each other, their opposing effect is

VOL. J. PART II.

the greater. If the directions, therefore, be the same,
that is, both in the direction A C, the full effect pro-
duced is the simple addition of the effects of the two
forces, that is, it is proportional to the line A C. On
the other hand, if the directions be contrary, the ef-
fect will be that of the difference of the forces. In
the former case, if the forces be equal, the body will
be moved in the direction of the diagonal with a force
which is double of that by which it would have been
moved by one of them acting alone. In the latter case,
if the forces be equal, the body will remain at rest.

The reader may amuse himself with observing the
effects of combined forces on a moveable body, such
as a ball to which two strings are attached. If the
ball be laid on a horizontal surface, a table, for in-
stance, it may be made to trace the same line by
drawing the strings with both hands, at a variety of
angles ; and by a little practice he can vary also the
intensity of either or both of the forces, so as to re-
present all that we have now mentioned. But he can
more correctly perform these experiments by the
help of small pulleys and weights, as is represented
in fig. 4. This is easily explained.

The pulleys P and K, are fixed on a vertical sur-
face, as a wall, or perpendicular board, so as to allow
the easy motion of the cords, A P q, A R s, to which
the weights q and s are suspended. At A is attach-
ed another cord, A T v, to which the weight v is sus-
pended. These weights, acting separately, would
draw the point A, in the directions A P, A R, A T.
But if they all act at once, provided the weights q s,
together, are greater than the weight v, we shall find
that the point A will settle in a certain position, and
if drawn out of it will always return to it. We say,
that in this case, A is in a state of equilibrium, and
that the weight v is opposed to the joint action of
the weights q and s, and is equivalent to it. Now, an
equal weight, x, attached to the cord A W x, going
over the pulley W, exactly balances the weight v, in
the contrary direction ; we say, therefore, that the
point A, is affected by the joint action of the weights,
q and s, in the same way as if it were drawn upwards
by the single weight x. If, therefore, we take A C
as the measure of the force of x, or of the equal and
opposed force of v, and A D and A B as the measures
of the forces of q and s, having the same proportions
to A C as q and s have to v or to jc ; and if we draw
the lines C D and C B, we shall find that C Dis equal
and parallel to A B, and C B to A D, tjnd that the
line A C is the diagonal of the parallelogram A B C D.
This will always be the case whatever weights we em-
ploy, provided that one which is in the situation of v
be less than the sum of the other two at q and s, and
that no one exceed the sum of the other twot We
can resolve a motion or pressure, therefore, into two
equivalent ones, and combine two forces together, so
as to produce a motion, or pressure, in one direction
only. It is easy to invert tlie arrangement jiow des-
cribed, and to conceive solid materials used in place
of cords. Fig. 5. represents such an adjustment.
The beam A T, loaded with the weight v, rests on
the ends of two beams A P, A II, wh^ile farther ex.
31 ■

402

ARCHITECTURE.

jCtfisti-ucUoD tremitics press on the two masses q and s. The pres-
sure on these two beams is evidently in the direction
of their lengths. In order to ascertain the amount
■which either sustains, we take A C to measure the
pressure of the beam A T, thus loaded, representing
the number of pounds, for example, on a scale of equal
parts. Then we draw C D parallel to AB, and C B
to A D, completing the parallelogram A B C D.
The beam A K sustains a pressure, represented by
A B, and the beam A P a pressure, represented by
A D, both measured on the same scale. If, in place
of the beam A T, there be a weight hung on at A,
as X, at the end of the cord A W, whose force is
also measured by A C, the pressure on the two
beams A P and A R, will remain the same. Nor
will it make any difference, if, in place of this rope,
s beam be supposed in the same situation, and
Hsed in such a manner as that its downward pressure
be still represented by A C. In all these cases, it is
obvious, that the strain produced is that of compres-
sion, and that the measure of it is the same.

But if we vary the angle of inclination of the
beams to each other, we vary also the proportion
of their pressures. This will be perceived from
the inspection of Fig. 6. which may be fully compre-
hended without any verbal explanation. It will be
seen from this figure, similarly to wliat was mention-
ed when speaking of Fig. 3. that as the directions of
the forces approach there is less expence of power,
or, to use a common phrase, the purchase is the
greater ; and that, on the contrary, the strain on the
materials is augmented as their inclination to each
ether is increased.

But compression, we have seen, is not the only
strain to which beams are subjected. They are liable
to be drawn asunder. This will be seen in Fig. 7. a
case which is of frequent occurrence. The beam
A T is not compressed, but suffering' tension, and
might have its place supplied by a cord or rope,
which certainly would not answer if the former sort
of strain were that which it had to endure. In this
case AT is stretched by a force, represented by A D,
and AP, on the other hand, is compressed by a force
represented by A B, the line A C being the diagonal
«f the parallelogram A B C D, and representing the
full amount of the force acting at W. A material
difference in the strain will be produced by altering
the position of AT. Let it be placed in the direc-
tion A E, whilst A P remains as before. The pres-
sure on this last will now be represented by A P, and
the force of tension on AE by AR, both very much
increased. The same thing would happen by chan-
ging Uie position of A P, whilst that of A T remain-
ed the same. This will be seen in Fig. 8. In this
case, AT is stretched by a force represented by A D,
and A P is compressed by a force represented by
AB.

Sometimes both the beams sustaining the strain
are in a state of tension. This can be easily shewn
as in Fig. 9. Here both A P and A E, attached to-
gether at A, are drawn downwards by a weight,
whose force is represented by A C ; it is very obvi-
ous that two ropes might be substituted in their
place. On the otlier hand, the force stretching them

might itself be a beam suffering tension, in which consimeiioa
case all the three beams are on the stretch. This,
though unusual, is occasionally met with.

The reader may easily construct a great variety of
such figures as we have now shewn ; it will be a
good exercise for him, as he will thereby learn
to discriminate between the two states of compres-
sion and tension ; and it may be proper to furnish
liini with a simple rule, the employment of which
will prevent his confounding one with the other in
any combination of materials. This we shall give
in the words of Professor Robison, to whose Trea-
tise on Carpentry, in the First Su])plement to the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, we are indebted for much
useful information on the subject.

Observe the direction in which the piece acts
from which the strain proceeds. " Draw a line in
that direction from the point on which the strain is
exerted ; and let its length (measured on some scale
of equal parts) express the magnitude of this action
in pounds, hundreds, or tons. From its revtoie ex-
tremity draw lines parallel to the pieces on which
the strain is exerted. The line parallel to one piece
will necessarily cut the other, or its direction pro-
duced. If it cut the piece itself, that piece is com-
pressed by the strain, and it is performing the office
of a strut or brace ; if it cuts its direction produ-
ced, the piece is stretched, and it is a tie." We
have given sufficient examples of both for all the
purposes we have in view. The following remarks
from the same work will be found of utility in study-
ing the principles of structures.

" If the straining piece is within the angle formed
by the pieces which are strained, the strains which
they sustain are of the opposite kind to that which
it exerts. If it be pushing, they are drawing ; but
if it be within the angles formed by their directions
produced, the strains which they sustain are of the
same kind. All the three are either drawing or
pressing. If the straining piece lie within the angle
formed by one piece and the produced direction of
the other, its own strain, whether compression or
extension, is of the same kind with that of the most
remote of the otlier two, and opposite to that of the
nearest."

Thus far of the directions of the strain. As to
their measures, it is enough .to remark, that they
can always be obtained by drawing the parallelo-
gram in the manner we have done, the sides repre-
senting it being, of course, measured on the same
scale of equal parts as the diagonal. It is necessary
now to take notice of the strains as propagated to
the points on which the pieces are supported. The
pieces, it is evident, are instrumental in communi-
cating the strains to which they are subjected ; and
it is important to learn how the same measures of
the forces will apply to the supports. All that we
need to offer on the subject are some general consi-
derations.

Bodies act on each other in directions perpendicu-
lar to their touching surfaces. The support, there-
fore, which a prop gives to a beam is in this direction.
Obviously, then, we may, by the same process which
we have hitherto adopted, measure its force, and re-

ARCHITECTURE.

403

CoBstrnctioa solve it into two constituent forces. It is unnecessary
to go over the steps, as the attentive consideration of
wluit has been said on the subject of tlie composition
and resolution of forces, will enable the reader to
make the proper application to the present case. He
will not fail to remember also, that the general rules
for the discrimination of the strain, whether that of
compression or of tension, equally hold true as in the
former case. Examples of the force of tension be-
ing exerted on the prop are of common occurrence,
even where solid materials only are used. This ge-
nerally happens when the forces act very obliquely
on the two ends of a beam, the cohesion of which
only operates in resisting the extension. But the
beam itself must be supported, and hence we are led
to refer the wliole frame to something else, of which
it is a part. This frame, in fact, becomes an element
in a more extensive piece of mechanism, to which it
communicates pressure, much in the manner of a le-
ver. The elucidation of this remark is given, in a
very beautiful and satisfactory way, in the treatise
above-mentioned, to which, and to some other trea-
tises there referred to, we must direct the scientitic
reader.

Sect. II. The Constriictmi of Arches.

By the termxircli is meant a building in the form
of the segment of a circle, or other curve, used in
bridges and other works where great weight is to be
sustained. It is an assemblage of materials in the
form of truncated wedges, so arranged as to give sup-
port to each other when under pressure, and, at the
same time, maintain a communication between dis-
tant points, without filling up the whole of the in-
termediate space below. These wedges, which are
generally of stone, are called the voiissoirs, the cen-
tral one receiving the name oikey-stone, and the sur-
faces which separate the voussoirs from each other
being denominated the joints. Besides these terms,
there are others very commonly in use, when speak-
ing of arches, which it is necessary to define. The
interior curve of the arch is called the intrndos, and
the outward one the extrados. The points on which
the extremities of the arch rest, and which are usu-
ally masses of masonry, are called abutments. That
part of the abutment from which the arch springs is
termed the impost, the beginning of the arch receiv-
ing the name of the spring. The middle of the arch
is called the crotvn, and those parts which are between
the spring and the crown are the haunches. The arch
is said to be an arch of equilibration, wlien the parts
ofwhich it consists are so adjusted as to be in equili-
brio, or to balance one another by their weight only ;
and tills is conceived to be the most advantageous
principle on which arches can be constructed. But
equilibrium of its parts is not alone sufficient to se-
cure the strength of an arch, the powers of coliesiou
and lateral adhesion being also employed. The curve
of the intrados being given, it is evident, from what
has been said, that the weight of the voussoirs is also
determined ; but here, it ought to be remarked, that
as the stones cannot always be made in the propor-
tion necessary for equilibrium, they are supposed to
be extended upwards by courses of masonry, and,
accordingly, the whole mass included between the
2

planes of their joints, thus supposed to be produced Consiirctioi.
as far as that masonry extends, is understood to con-
stitute the weight of each voussoir. For more parti-
cular information respecting the construction of
arches, we must refer to those authors who have ex-
pressly written on the subject, especially to Dr Hut-
ton's Principles of Bridges, and Mr Atwood's Trea-
tise on the Construction, &c. of Arches. Mr Play-
fair has given the most important principles in his
Outlines of Natural Philosophy.

The discovery of the nature and properties of the
arch must] ever rank among the highest benefits
which accident or reasoning has conferred on man-
kind. To the former we do not hesitate to assign it ;
and, farther, we think that the theoretical specula-
tions which have been founded on it in modern times,
have contributed little real improvement to the max-
ims which previously existed. This assertion, it is
probable, will be borne out by the additional remarks
we have to make on the subject. And hence we
shall not seem to have neglected the reader's instruc-
tion, when we scrupulously avoid the intricacies in
which seme profound inquirers have continued to in-
volve it. Without calling in question the validity
of her claims, we doubt the necessity or utility of
the interference of mathematical science, to the
full amount of her attainments, in matters which
had certainly prospered previously to her exalted
pretensions ; though we are well aware of the sa-
tisfaction that arises in the minds of her votaries,
on the discovery of coincidences between her pre-
cepts and the successful exertions of untutored
genius. But it is too much, to insist that such
cases should be ascribed to her inspiration. There
is no evidence for such an opinion, and we are left
accordingly to imagine, as we best can, how the de-
ductions of a very abstract philosophy, fostered, if
not produced in modern times, were anticipated and
acted on by the artists of an earlier age. The theo-
retical principles of arches, in fact, seem not to have
engaged the attention of mathematicians till far on in
the eighteenth century, while the use of them, even
on a large scale, is at least as old as the brighter days
of the Roman empire.

Casual arrangement of materials might suggest the
rude notion of an arch to the primitive builder. In
erecting his wooden hut, it would almost necessarily
happen that some of the trees or beams which he em-
ployed should assume the position represented in Fig.
10. A. Plate 1 1, by falling against each other. Or such
a position would be certainly given them in order to
afford the means of covering his dwelling from the
weather. It is obvious, that a beam, having a ten-
dency to fall to a side, in consequence of its centre
of gravity being out of the line which passes through
its length to the ground, would be prevented from
yielding to it by another beam placed in a similar si-
tuation, but with an opposite inclination. The two
beams thus counteractnig each other's tendency to
fall, would even acquire a new power to resist a thrust
in the plane of their opposition ; and tliis position,
accordingly, might be had recourse to, in certain cir-
cumstances wliere a lateral pressure was to be exert-
ed, which could not at all, or at least so securely, be
encountered by one beam standing upright. But

404

ARCHITECTURE.

CoDiiruciion these beams meeting only in a single point, would be
easily caused to slip on each other by an oblique
pressure, when they would, of course, fall. It was a
simple improvement fo increase their connection by
plaining their heads, so that they pressed toge-
ther through a larger space. Even the intervention
of a third body, between these ends, which, by its
form, accommodated itself to both, might be sugges-
ted by this slight alteration. It is not unlikely, also,
that both the builders in wood and stone might some-
times meet with such an arrangement as is shewn in
Fig. 11. B. Plate 10. in the accidental disturbances of
their materials. If so, ft could not fail to give rise to
some profitable reflections. The upper piece, it
would be seen, could not fall down unless one or
both of the side pieces gave way, and these again,
provided their lower ends were prevented from sHp-
ping, received a degree of counteracting pressure
from it, much in the manner they did when simply
leaning against each other. It was no great stretch
of reason, although no new accident aided in the dis-
covery, to conceive that two pieces pressing against
rach other, as in the first case, might be substituted
in the place of this single piece, as in the second
case. In this last arrangement it would not be for-
gotten to give a firmer hold to the pieces, by making
their place of junction as equal as possible ; nor
would it seem unnecessary to seek for additional firm-
ness by adjusting their abutting extremities to the
ends of the lower pieces. We have now obtained the
construction represented in C, and this, in fact, com-
prises the principles of the arch. If to this a key-
stone be added, as in the second case, we obtain the
arrangement given in D.

So far, the reader will remark, no dependence is
put on any cement which might be used to connect
these materials. Their stability is altogether the
consequence of the proper balance given to them,
by whicJh they support one another. We have now
both pointed and circular arches ; and if we multiply
the pieces of which they consist, giving them proper
length of joints for resting on each other, and suf-
ficiently supporting the lower part of the sides, so
that they may not slip outwards, it is reasonable to
think there is hardly any space too wide to be arched
over.

We have ample proof of the sufficiency of these
simple principles in Gothic buildings, and still greater
in the immense bridges which very common work-
men have executed. Of ^orae of these examples
we shall have occasion to speak presently. All this
is not enough for the zealous mathematician, who
must introduce his diagrams and analytical investiga-
tions, to the utter perplexity of common sense, and, in
truth, if followed faithfully, the utter ruin of all good
practice.

Dr Hooke, certainly an able man, may be said to
have led the way in the introduction of that useless
parade to which we now allude. He pointed out
clearly enough the principle on which the equilibra-
tion of arches might be effected; but, in fact, what-
ever was good in his theory had been anticipated
many centuries before his time, and, on the other
hand, some things in it are at variance with the bet-
ter dictates of experience. We hold it quite useless,

then, to occupy much space or time in discussing the Constmctiom
merits of the Catenarian curve, as it has been called,
or the theoretical deductions which have been made
from it. We shall be vastly better employed in at-
tending to the operations of the architect, whilst ac-
complishing this most important part of his profes-
sion, and providing against the evils which reason
and experience teach liim to apprehend.

Arches are constructed both for ornament and for
use. Those of the former kind, having little or no
weight to sustain, may be of such curves as are held
most pleasing to the eye. Those of the latter kind
may seem to require greater caution, as well in the
selection of the curve to be given them, as in the
mode of finishing. In point of fact, however, arches
intended for use have been executed of curves which
mere theory would have totally proscribed. Circu-
lar arches, for example, have long been common,
and are abundantly trust-worthy, though a celebrat-
ed mathematical theory asserts their absolute incom-
petency, unless, which is absurd, and amounts, of
course, to an interdiction, they be loaded with an
infinite weight where they spring from the liorizontal
line, or at least that the load, for a considerable dis-
tance upwards from the spring, be many times
greater than ever will or can be accumulated. These
arches, too, it may be observed, when they give way,
do so at places very different from those which this
theory would point out. And, on the other hand,
there is good reason for supposing, that the curve
which this theory recommends, is, in fact, almost
the only one that would be found defective for com-
mon purposes. In short, this theory has made as-
sumptions which seldom or ever exist, and has ne-
glected circumstances of universal occurrence. Ar-
chitects of the highest repute, therefore, who them-
selves were acquainted sufficiently with mathemati-
cal science to value its injunctions, have abandoned
this theory, and betaken themselves to much more
obvious principles for the determination of their prac-
tice. This will be seen when we describe some of
the great monuments of their skill in this branch of
the art.

Chap. II. Particular Principles of Con-
struction.

Both carpentry and masonry, the chief practical
branches of architecture, afford examples of those
general principles. It will be best for our purpose
to adduce those only in which there is also some par-
ticular display of science. We propose, tlien, to con-
sider the nature of Hoofs, Domes, Centres, and
Bridges, on each of which we shall make some ge-
neral remarks, and afterwards add a few details by
way of practical illustration.

Sect. I. Of Roofs.

By a roof is understood the covering of a house,
serving to defend the interior and its inhabitants from
the inclemencies of the weather. It is, therefore, a
very essential part of a building ; and its due con-
struction, besides, requires a great degree of skill.

The simplest form, next to a mere flat cover, of
which we need not speak, consists of two beams, ot

ARCHITECTURE.

405

Constrnction rafters, as they are called, as A B and B C meeting
>_,- — ,v in the ridjre B, and resting on the walls E and F;
Fig. 11. pi. 11. A number of such frames, laid pa-
rallel to each other, at certain distances, and con-
,nected by means of cross or horizontal pieces, on
which are fixed the slates or tiling, &c. will an-
swer the purpose of a roof of no great dimensions,
and where there is not much, weight to be sus-
tained. Even in this simple construction there is
room for the exercise of judgment, in the determi-
nation of the pitch or height of the roof, and the
. size or strength of the timber to be employed, be-
sides the consideration of the manner in which the
rafters are to be bound together. The best form will
be that in which the relative strength of the rafters,
and their mutual support, give the greatest product.
But this cannot be determined with accuracy on ma-
thematical principles, without taking into account
the curvature which the supported rafter acquires,
by the transverse pressure of its superincumbent load.
This might give rise to rather intricate calculation,
and is, of course, altogether neglected by the com-
mon artist. Economy usually induces him to prefer
a low pitch ; and he is generally guided, as to form,
by a regard to the appearance of equality in the
sides of the roof, or some peculiar circumstances in
individual cases.

The chief thing to be regarded here is the thrust
which such a roof makes against the walls of the
building, tending to push them outwards. This is
the most hazardous strain to which they can be ex-
posed, as ordinary walls generally require, from their
thinness, to be tied together to prevent separation ;
and this, accordingly, is often done by means of
cross-walls, joists, and roofs. To remedy this per-
nicious defect in the roof now described, it is usual
to introduce another beam connecting A and C toge-
ther, which, from its office, is called a tie, or tie-
beam. This is shewn in Fig. 12. With respect to
the other members of the roof, this can be consider-
ed in no other light than as a rope tying the ends of
the rafters, so that they shall not press the walls
outwards. A s, however, it acts with its whole ab-
solute force, and is generally made of larger dimen-
sions than is necessary, in order to admit of being
firmly fastened to the ends of the rafters, it is often
employed also for carrying the cielings of the apart-
ments under it, and even for supporting a flooring.
If madcof oak, the tie-beam may be safely subjected
to a strain of three tons for every square inch of its
section ; if of fir, to that of two tons.

But when the tie-beam has a great span, or is
much loaded, it may give way, and then the whole
thrust of the rafters would be against the walls, as
already mentioned. It sometimes yields consider-
abl)', or sivags, as the workmen call it. It therefore
needs support, which is aftbrded by what is known
under the name of a king-post. This is a very use-
i'ul contrivance, and admirably answers the end, as
may be easily understood by Fig. 13, in which B D
represents the king-post. The rafters, we have seen,
have a tendency to spread out at the walls on which
they rest. This is prevented by the tie-beam exert-
ing a pressure, by which they tend to compress each
ether. Their weight, however, presses in a contrary

direction ; and the consequence of this is the stretch- ConstruciioB
ing of the tie-beam. But if these be in equilibrio,
the whole frame, ABC, will retain its shape, and
therefore B will become a fixed point, on which the
king-post may properly be suspended. The king-
post is certainly a tie attaching the tie-beam to the
ridge, and suffering tension just as the tie-beam it-
self does.

We have now supported our tie-beam ; but still
our rafters require something to prevent their being
bent under the weight of covering laid on them.
Any thing of the nature of a tie, is here out of the
question ; there is no point from which they could
derive aid in the way of suspension. But the king-
post presents us with assistance. We can raise up
struts, or braces, as they are called, from the foot of
it, in the direction of the rafters, to such places as
seem most likely to bend inwards. This, of course,
is about the middle, to which accordingly the upper
ends of the braces are applied, their lower ends being
firmly fixed or mortised into joggles, as the carpen-
ters speak, on the foot of the king-post. This will
be easily understood from Fig. It. without farther
remark.

These simple constructions are pretty generally
applicable, and may be held as the elements from
which all the more complicated roofs are produced.
There is one piece, indeed, very often employed in
comparatively simple roofs, and of course in others,
which it is necessary to describe. This is called a
truss, or strutting-bcam. It is essential for roof's that
have a flat on the top and two sloping sides ; those
that have a double slope called kirb, curb, or man-
sard roofs ; and others, which, having a valley in
tlie middle, are from their figure denominated M
roofs.

Fig. 15. represents a flat-topped roof, of which B C
is the truss-beam. It lies between the rafters A B
and C D, much in the manner of the key-stone of
an arch, and is evidently in a state of compression.
The pressure which it occasions on the rafters is the
same as if they were produced onwards to the point
of meeting, as in the roofs already described, and a.
weight were laid on them equal to that of B C and
its load. We may conceive the truss-beam, indeed,
as supplying the place of that portion of the rafters
which would be requisite to bring them into contact
in the common manner ; and if it be of dimensions
sufficient to carry its own load, and withstand the
compression of the rafters, it will be equally strong.
The shape of this roof, however, is not so firm as
that before described, at least without some addition
in the way of ties or braces to prevent the change
it is liable to undergo from unequal weights applied
to its sides. The addition of side-posts, such as B E
and C F, is a common expedient. The heads of these
are secured between the rafters and the truss-beam,
or strut, as it is often called, and their lower ends
are connected with the tie-beam, which is thus sus-
pended, umch as it is by a king-post. This is a v«ry
useful construction, as it allows room for garrets.
But it is not quite so strong as the former, at least
without some increase of timber. The truss-beam is
subjected to great compression, besides undergoing
a transverse strain from its own load, and the tie-

406

ARCHITECTUBE.

<C4nMratHion beam, too, is liable to some degree of transverse
strain, when one side of the frame is more pressed
down than the other. Fig. 16. shews another con-
struction for a flat-topped roof, certainly stronger,
but not quite so convenient for garrets. Sometimes
the truss-beam is included very advantageously with-
in the rafters, preserving the common pent form.
But in order to obtain the full benefit of it in such
cases, what are called butting rafters must be placed
under the principal ones, resting on joggles in the
heads of the side-posts. An example of this is
given in Fig. 17. in which also a king-post is repre-
sented as suspended from the ridge of the single
rafters, and serving to steadj' the truss-beam. It ex-
hibits, besides, a set of braces for the upper part of
the single rafters, and another for the butting raft-
ers. This frame, thercibre, is intended for a wide
space, where considerable security is required.

Such, then, are the principal pieces of which a
roof-frame is composed, and such is the general
principle contemplated in their adjustment. It can
rarely happen that more pieces are necessary ; if
they are so, there is reason to think that some inju-
rious cross strain will be produced. In general, the
simpler the construction is, the greater is the secu-
rity from such an occurrence, and the less the dan-
ger of error or imperfection in the workmanship.
These pieces may be very variously combined, so as
to answer different circumstances.

A case of pretty frequent occurrence, and some
nicety, for a simple roof, ought to be noticed. It is
where great elevation is wanted within for arched
cielings or other peculiar purposes. The common
tie-beam would prevent the attainment of this ob-
ject. Two haminer-heaxxis, therefore, or stretchers,
as they are called, are substituted for it, as is shewn
in Fig. 18. and these are connected together with
the king-post, somewhat shortened, and the two
rafters, by means of iron straps. This is not so strong
as the frame in the common way ; and as all roofs
settle a little, this is apt, by making the points Band
D to descend, to cause the rafters to spread out, and
hence occasion an outward pressure on the walls.
Such a roof, therefore, requires farther management
in order to prevent mischief. It may be greatly aid-
ed by introducing something like a truss-beam be-
tween two rafters, the feet of which are supported
lower down on the walls, as is represented in Fig.
19. These take off part of the weight, and lessen
the thrust on the walls.

A curb roof, or Mansard roof, as it has been call-
ed after the inventor, is a still more ingenious con-
trivance, and may rank indeed amongst the chief
productions of modern carpentry. It is formed by
the application of four or more planes to each other,
so that each two may have an external inclination,
the ridge being the point of meeting of the two
middle planes. It may be constructed for any given
height and widtli, and with any number of rafters.
On this account, and because the lower rafters may
be made to spring at a very small angle from the
walls, occasioning therefore little lateral pressure,
this roof has important advantages over the common
ones, where great space is required immediately be-
low it. If the sides be properly balanced, or the

rafters have a just proportion to each other, in which Cowtnictio*
alone consists either the difficulty or the excellence
of the structure, this roof admits of the upper part
being a complete void to the very ridge, or forming
a cylindric arch, in which respect it differs essential-
ly from all those roofs which require tie-beams, king-
posts, &c. in their construction. For the theoreti-
cal and practical principles of curb-roofing, we refer
the student to Mr Nicholson's Architectural Dic-
tionary. Figures 20. and 21 . represent the outline
of some of the usual forms which it takes.

We hare still to notice another kind of roof, be-
fore we proceed to describe some remarkable ex-
amples. It is denominated a Norman roof, from the
circumstance of its having been often used by the
people of that name, after their establishment in the
southern countries of Europe. Its structure is in-
genious, is capable of great strength, has a pleasing
appearance, requires only small pieces of timber,
and, like the last-mentioned, exerts little lateral pres-
sure on the walls. In this roof, represented in Fig.
22. all the rafters are butted on joggled king-posts,
of which there are several, as A F, B G, &c. and
there are braces, or ties, placed in the intervals.
Such is the general principle, but there are several
modifications to be met with, which, however, we do
not think it necessary to particularize. We have
noble examples of Norman roofs in the Parliament
House at Edinburgh, the great hall in Tarnaway
Castle, belonging to the Earl of Moray, in Scotland,
and in Guildhall, London.

The following examples of roofs are chiefly taken
from Nicholson's Carpenter's and Joiner's Assistant,
Lond. 1810, which the artist, who desires to be par-
ticularly informed respecting the dimensions of the
different pieces, will do well to consult. We shall
content ourselves with general observations.

Plate 12. Fig. 1. is the old roof of St Paul's church,
Covent Garden, as executed by Lnigo Jones, which
was consumed by fire in 1795. It is somewhat singu-
lar, the nature of the building requiring it to project
over the walls, which it does to the extent of seven feet
on each side. It could not rest therefore on the tie-
beam, the ends of which were employed in the sup-
port of certain external ornaments, of what has been
called the Tuscan order, to be afterwards spoken of.
But the deficiency is artfully remedied, and that too
with little timber. This was reckoned the highest
roof of its width in London. Mr Nicholson points '
out some imperfections in this structure, which, how-
ever, we think it unnecessary to specify. We agree
with him in giving the preference to the new roof,
Fig. 2. as both simpler and stronger, though, to use
his words, ' it must be observed, in favour of the mo-
dern improvements in carpentry, that a truss of the
old roof contains about 273 solid feet of timber,
whereas the new roof contains only about 198 feet in
each truss." The whole length of the tie-beam in
both roofs was 72 feet. Fig. 3. is the roof of Isling-
ton church, near London, built about the year 1752.
Sundry and serious objections maybe made to it, be-
ing complicated, occupying nmch timber, and sub-
jecting the pieces from the form and positions given
theni to revolve at the angles. In place of it Mr Ni-
cholson proposes, Fig 4. as much better suited to the

ARCHITECTURE.

407

eonstTBction purpose, and evidently stronger, though taking less
timber. \Ve think the claim is just. Fig. 5. is the
excellent roof of the chapel of the Royal Hospital at
Greenwich, constructed by Mr Samuel Wyatt about
the year 1785. It is flat on the top, having what is cal-
led a camber beam for supporting the platform. The
king-post is of iron, and the joints are secured by iron
straps. The structure, though simple enough, is far
from being a common one. It is in such perform-
ances that the genius of an artist is to be seen. Fig.
6. the roof of Birmingham theatre, constructed by
Mr George Saunders in 1794', has very great merit,
being well adapted to the circumstances and required
magnitude, whilst the construction is simple and em-
ploys little timber. The open space in the middle, it
will instantly be understood, is used for the various
work-rooms, &c. necessary in a theatre. Fig. 7. the
roof of the present Drury Lane theatre, construct-
ed by Mr Wj'att, which we have copied on a redu-
ced scale from his account of that edifice, is an ad-
mirable combination of simplicity, strength, and con-
veniency. One of the most scientific, and certainly
the largest roof we have ever heard of, is that of the
riding school at St Petersburgh, said to be the pro-
duction of a native of Scotland. We are indebted to
Mr Charles Black, builder in Edinburgh, for a draw-
ing of it, a reduced copy of which is given in Fig.
10. ; and to Mr James Haldane, teacher of architec-
tural drawing in the same city, for all the informa-
tion respecting it that we have been able to procure.
A short time before his death. Professor Kobison
einployed this last gentleman to make a draught of
it from the scroll and particulars communicated in
a letter of a Russian nobleman. The professor, an
excellent judge, conceived it a master-piece of car-
pentry, and no doubt intended to make it generally
known through the medium of some literary publica-
tion. This, at least, as far as we know, was never done.
The reader will scarcely hesitate in thinking, that
we do a service to a useful art by the present notice.
Whoever attentively considers the width of this roof,
viz. 126 feet clear within the walls, (that of old Drury-
Lane and Birmingham theatres being only 80, ) the
lowness of its pitch, the skilful adjustment of its va-
rious pieces to the nature of the offices which they
perform, and its general indication of judicious de-
sign, with the production, at the same time, of very
pleasing effect, must admit, we believe, that, both
SB a study and a model, it merits the very highest
commendation. With this fine example, then, we
conclude our account of roofs.

Sect. II. Of Domes.

The subject of domes is intimately connected with
that of roofs, a dome being, in fact, an arched or
vaulted roof. They vary in appearance according to
the nature of the surface from which they arise, and
the height to which they are carried, and obtain,
consequently, different names. Thus they are circu-
lar, elliptical, or polygonal ; and these two may be
subdivided. When they arise higher than the radius
of the base, domes are said to be surmounted ; when
fliey are of a less -elevation they are called dimimsh-
ed or surhased domes. Such as have circular bases

are termed cupolas. Tliey generally present a con- conEtmciion
vex surface outwardly and are concave within; some-
times though rarely in this country, they are made
convex below and concave above ; and it is certain,
from the principles on which they are constructed,
that they might be made with a convex surface in-
wardly and a concave one outwardly, and yet be
equally if not more firm.

The construction of a dome evidently requires sci-
ence. Most persons, it is presumed, will conceive it
more difficult than it really is. There is considerable
advantage, in fact, in some of the usual circumstan-
ces of domes. We see, accordingly, that common
workmen, without any particular attention to scienti-
fic rules, succeed perfectly in building very lofty edi-
fices of this kind, such as glass-houses and potters*
kilns. It would be extremely difficult to raise a pent
roof to half the height of some of them. In the case
of a cone, then, at least, some facility seems to be af-
forded by the roundness of the horizontal section,
and therefore we find that even very small materials
will suffice for accomplishing the structure. The
chief thing to be regarded in this case, is a provision
against the bottom flying out, which we can have in
an iron hoop or a stone bandage, &c. It is easy to
understand, that if all the joints of this building be
directed towards the axis, they will all have an equal
tendency to slide inwards, and therefore, as no one
can have a preference, that they will hold one ano-
ther in equilibrio. The pieces, in short, are wedges,
and operate as such. On the same principles, it fol-
lows, that a dome may be loaded immensely at top,
with perfect safety, so long as the bottom course is-
prevented from bursting ; nay, that such load may
even have a good effect in guarding it from the inju-
rious operation of an irregular pressure on its sides..
We have a good example of what a dome may bear,
in this way, in the case of St Paul's cathedral, Lon-
don, the production of the celebrated Sir Christo-
pher Wren. The exterior dome of this fine building,
which is constructed of oak-timber, supported by a
brick cone arising from the same base, sustains on
its top a stone-lantern, weighing the enormous quan-
tity of 700 tons. The pressure in such cases is pro-
pagated along the cone in the direction of the slant-
side, and that, too, equally throughout, so that no
part can have an inclination one way or another more
than the rest. The familiar fact of the great com-
pression that may be made on an egg, when held
lengthwise between the hands, may serve as an illus-
tration. Besides the hoop at the base of this dome,
there are hoops in different courses of the cone, which
secure it, and at the same time cause it to press quite
vertically on the piers. Indeed, altogether, the con-
stitution of this dome, and the arrangetHent of the
other parts of the building, so as to correspond with
it, displaj' the greatest judgment. The dome is re-
presented in Plate 12. Fig. 11. from Mr Nicholson's
work before alluded to ; and the following explana-
tion cannot fail to interest the reader. A A a a A A,
is the dome of brick already mentioned, two bricks
thick, and having, at every rise of five feet, a course
of excellent brick of 1 8 inches long, bonding through
thj whole tb.ickness. Tliis dome, it may be remark(id,

408

ARCHITECTURE.

CcaMnictioa was turned upon a centre, of the nature of which we
shall soon have occasion to speak, and was after-
wards beautifully painted by Sir James Thornhill.

B B b b B B is another cone of bricks, one foot
six inches thick, and this is also painted. Part of
this cone may be seen through the opening at a a,
by a person standing on the floor of the church. It
is on this cone that the timber work is supported,
the horizontal beams C C, D D, E E, F F, being
tied into G, H, I, K, by means of iron cramps.

The diameter of the dome is 104- feet, and there
are 32 trusses in the circumference; but the scant-
ling of none of the timbers, it ought to be remark-
ed, !s so great as is to be found in many churches.
The stairs which lead to the golden gallery at tlie
top of the dome, are carried between the trusses of
the roof. Tlie sides of the dome Jire segments of
circles, which, K continued, would have formed a
pointed arch at the top ; on which is built the cu-
pola of Portland stone, 21 feet in diameter, and
nearly 6i feet high.

The dome of St Peter's church, in Rome, designed
by Michael Angeio, is nearly an ellipsoid externally,
]iaving the longer axis perpendicular to the horizon.
It rises perpendicularly from its base, where it is very
thick. At the height of 50 feet, the vaulting divides
into two, gradually separating from each other, but
connected by thin walls dovetailed into each shell,
and thus forming a very stiff covering. There is an
elegant stone lantern on the crown of the dome. If
this dome had been of the same size as that of St
Paul's, it would, from the manner in which it is con-
structed, have been at least five times as heavy ; but
it is so well supplied with iron bars, and other con-
trivances, that no doubt can be entertained of its
durability. It has long been the admiration of the
world, and would itself have established the charac-
ter of the artist.

The dome of the Pantheon at Rome, still extant,
is the oldest of which we find mention in history. It
was built in the reign of Augustus, and, .like all the
ancient Roman domes, is a much less portion of a
sphere than a hemisphere. It terminates in an open-
ing, called the eye.

Next in antitjuity to the Pantheon, but greater
in fame, is the dome of St Sophia, at Constantinople,
erected in the reign of Justinian. Its early mifor-
tunes were ominous of its fate, and the ruin of the
eastern empire. Anthemius, a Greek architect pa-
tronized by the emperor, undertook to erect a dome
over the church that had been raised on the ruins of
a former one built by Constantine, which should
surpass the boasted grandeur of the Pantheon. He
wished, by a natural enough ambition, that the cross
might triumph over the Pagan world, and the great-
ness of the object called forth all the energies of his
mind, and the accumulated experience of his art.
The church itself was in the form of a cross, and it
was vaulted with stone. Ten thousand workmen
are said to have been employed in it, and it was fi-
nished within six years after laying the foundation.
No wood was used in its structure, except for the
doors, the remembrance of former calamities having
excited strong apprch^sions of the agency of fire.
The dome was raised on a ring formed by four pil-

lars placed at the angles of a square, about 115 feet ConstruftUm
from each other, and arched over, and having tlie
angular spaces fixed up so as to constitute a com-
plete circle. Additional securities were sought. Four
M'alls, nearly solid, running longitudinally, two from
the south, and two from the north sides oi the pil-
lars, from the distance of ^bout 90 feet, were in-
tended to resist the pressure of the east and west
arches ; and besides this, these arches were abutted
upon bj' half domes, resting on cylindrical walls,
capable, it was believed, of resisting the pressure of
the north and south arches. In this last office four
columns of Egyptian granite assisted. But all was
insufficient, as a few months after its completion, the
dome gave way on the east side, carrying with it the
contiguous semi-dome. Isodorus, who succeeded
Anthemius on his death, made an unsuccessful at-
tempt to aid the original plan, by filling up some va-
cuities. The new dome gave way before being quite
finished, and also on the east side. A third time
was it constructed, with farther help from buttresses,
and the greatest care to have the structure made
light, by employing pumice-stone, in place of more
ponderous materials, and keeping the walls slender,
&c. Even these precautions, it seems, w-ould have
proved ineffectual, if the arches on the north and
south sides had not been filled up with new ones of
smaller size, in three stories. Some visible fractures
in the arches shewed the necessity of such assist-,
ance. It is clear, that the architect of this extra*"
ordinary edifice, who was allowed to be the first of
his time, was not well acquainted with the scientific
principles of dome vaulting. If he had, there can-
not be a doubt that he would have secured the base
by hoops, so as to render the pressure as much as
possible a perpendicular thrust. In this respect he
has been much surpassed, and with perfect security,
by both Michael Angeio and Sir Christopher Wren ;
and perhaps any common architect, in modern times,
would be sure to avoid the blunders committed in
this clumsy building.

Arnolfo Lusii projected a dome for the cathedral
at Pisa, but dying two years after, no architect
could be found to execute it according to the origi-
nal plan. It remained unfinished for more than a
century. Then, in a consultation of the principal
architects of Europe, Philip Brunelleschi, a native
of Florence, intended at first for the bar, but whom
nature destined for this profession, asserted the pos-
sibility of erecting a double cupola, with sufficient
room for a staircase between to reach to the top ;
and consequently gave in a proposition to that effect.
This was conceived absurd, and in fact an insult on
those who had assembled. He was accordingly dis-
missed with indignation, and had, for a time, to.
bear the sarcasms of his brethren. But as none
of them offered any thing suitable for the purpose,
the persons who had the management of the building
were induced to pay some regard to his device, and
at last to agree to an attempt at its execution. Some
conditions were imposed on him, and, in the first in-
stance, an ignorant assistant. Getting free of him
shortly, he proceeded in his plan, and at last ac-
complished it, though the lantern with which he pur-
posed to crown the work was not finished is his

ARCHITECTURE.

409

Construction I'f" t'"*®* "^^'^ cupola is octangular, loi Flemish
>_i -,_■ cubits in height, and the lantern, of which Brunel-
' ~ leschi left the model, 38 cubits ; over this is a ball
and then a cross, the whole being above 200 cubits
in height, which is greater than had ever before
been attempted on such a plan. Its dimensions, in-
deed, are greater than those of any of the Roman
domes, v,ith the exception of St Peter's.

The very remarkable wooden dome of the Halle
du Ble at Paris, which was destroyed by fire some
years ago, merits description. Its construction, in-
vented by a carpenter of the name of Molineau, was
extremely simple. It occurred to this man, tiiat a
thin shell of timber might be made so as to be nearly
in equilibrio, and also, when firmly hooped horizon-
tall)"^, to have all the stiffness that was requisite.
His project was submitted by the magistracy of Pa-
ris to the consideration of the Academy of Sciences,
by whom it was favourably entertained, the members
being highly pleased with the justness of the prin-
ciple on which it was founded, and at the same
time surprized that it had not been thought of be-
fore. The circular ribs comprising this dome, con-
sisted of planks nine feet long, 13 inches broad, and
three inches thick, — three such planks, bolted together
so that two joints met, forming each rib. All the
pieces being small, no machinery was required for car-
rying them up. The ribs wereconnected together by
horizontal timbers, and iron straps, which answered
the purpose of hoops. When the work had reached
a certain height, every third rib was discontinued,
and the open space was glazed. At a certain height
above this, again, every second rib was discontinued,
and the vacancy in like measure glazed. Higher
up, still, the heads of the ribs were framed into a cir-
cular ring, so as to form a wide opening, and over
this was placed a glazed canopy, in which was left a
space for the escape of heated air. This dome, which
was 200 feet in diameter, and only a foot thick in
the sides, was extremely beautiful, and used to be
spoken of with admiration by all who had seen it.

The chief objection to wooden domes, is their
incapacity to sustain great weights. Wherever this
is required, it is evident that we must have recourse
to trussed frames similar to those we have already
described ; for it would be absurd to trust to a mere
shell which could not fail to be crushed in at the
top. There are not many cases, therefore, in which
they are useful.

Mr Bunce has lately invented a dome, which we
shall describe in the words of Mr Nicholson : " In
this construction, all the abutting joints arc continu-
ed in uninterrupted vertical planes ; but the horizon-
tal joints of every two stones break on the middle of
the stones on either side ; so that every alternate
stone of a course projects upwards, and leaves a re-
cess for the insertion of the stones of the next course.
Upon this principle, the intervals, as the buikUng ap-
proaches nearer the top become more wedge-form-
ed, and, the interior circumference being less than
the exterior, the stones can be inserted only on the
outside ; consequently, if made so exact as just to fit
into their places, they cannot fall inwardly. This
mode of joining stones may be convenient, as re-
quiring no centering; but unless the courses be

VOL. I. PART u.

nicely equilibrated, it is more liable to burst than ConstmC'tio*
when a dome is constructed in the ordinary manner,
since every row of stones, from the base to the top,
forms an arch independent of the rest."

The octagonal pyramids, which constitute so re-
markable a feature in Gothic architecture, are to be
understood on the same principles as those of domes.
Tliey are very firm though thin, and certainly exhi-
bit much science. Our spires and steeples" are of
this description, and these, it is well known, are ex-
tremely various in form and magnitude.

It is obvious, then, that great freedom has been
taken with the principle of equilibration, whether well
or ill understood. Few persons will doubt, we be-
lieve, that accident or whim has done more to disco-
ver it than science. It is extremely improbable, in-
deed, that the generality of the artists who liave ex-
celled in this way, were so profoundly conversant
with mathematics as to be able to deduce their prac-
tical rules from its abstract speculations. Yet the
whole theory is capable of the strictest demonstra-
tion, and has actually obtained it from some learned
men. We hold it quite foreign to our purpose to en-
ter on such a task, and shall content ourselves, there-
fore, with a very few additional remarks of a less ab-
struse nature. <

The stability of the dome is in general much great-
er than that of an arch, and, on the whole, is easier
obtained. The dome also, as we have seen, may be
left open at top, in which it differs from the arch.
Even the equilibrated dome, which is the weakest,
will admit of this ; and it will admit also another
building to be laid above it, as a lantern, provided
the weight of this addition be not greater than that
of the circular segment of the dome that is left out.
If the curve of the dome be flatter than the curve of
equilibration, the load it will sustain may be increas-
ed above this amount. Lastlj', almost any load what-
ever may be laid on a dome in the shape of a trun-
cated cone, or one in which the contour is convex
towards the axis, provided the base be secured by a
hoop in the way formerly mentioned.

Domes are generally intended for ornament. They
admit of immense variety in form, so as to suit every
fancy. Those of a concave exterior, which are often
seen in Gothic buildings, particularly when vaulted over
with circular sweeps, have an uncommonly pleasing
appearance. Domes, in general, are lighter than any
otlier covering of the same area ; and as they allow
of cylindrical intersections in every direction, spring
gracefully from any polygonal surface, and may be
broken off at any height, they must be considered
as possessing very eminent advantages in the higher
departments of architecture.

Sect. III. 0/ Centers.

The term center is used to denote a mould, or
frame, generally constructed of wood, by which the
materials of vaults or arches are supported during
their erection, and from which they receive their par-
ticular shape.

In common cases, as where the space to be arch-
ed over is small, and admits of intermediate points
on which carpentry work can be raised, the construc-
tion of centers is attended with no material difficulty.
3 F

410

ARCHITECTURE.

tonjtroctioa Any of the frames or trusses used for roofs will be
'\.^~y-mm^ sufficient for carrying the weight and establishing the
shape desired. The principles formerly explained,
therefore, of the abutment of rafters, the prevention
of their lateral secession from each other by tic-bean'.s,
&c. are here in full force ; and some very inconsider-
able modifications of external form, which can be
readily attained by the same means, or the addition
of merely shaped timbers, are all, in general, that
siich occasions require. Much more urgent are the
demands when the span is wide, the weight of mate-
rials consequently g^reat, and when, from the height
^f the arch, or the intervention of deep water, con-
tinually navigated perhaps^ no intermediate support
can be procured. Such a case calls for the greatest
solicitude, and is an opportunity for displaying the
utmost invention and science of the artist. Here
^very thin^ must rest on the piers, or sides, and the
centre or frame, by which tlie materials of the arch
are to be supported, must itself be an arch, depend-
ent on the relations of its constituent parts. Com-
mon workmen, not avyare of this, are in the habit of
heaping timber on timber, with little regard to any
thing but the ultimate form, as if strength consisted
in quantity merely, and there was no danger to be
feared from the very wfeight of the pieces which tliey
were so awkwardly combining together.

The mechanical" principles already explained will
l^ead, us to more judicious, and, at tlie same time, less
expensive and less hazardous constructions.

As the utmost strength of which the materials are
capafilc; rpay be necessary in this nice art, it must
sjlways be remembered to place them in such a man-
ner that tliey shall not be subjected to any other
strain than what is in the direction of their length.
This, we know, may be in two ways, compression and
tension. Tlie former is always to" be preferred where
it is practicable, as in the case of the drawing of tim-
ber, the material to which we are now chiefly allud-
ing, reliance must be put on the manner in which the
beam is united at its ends with other pieces, and this
is almost necessarily a weak security. Sometimes,
indeed, it is impossible, or at least very difficult,
to, avoid ties, and they are accordingly to be seen
ill good specimens of carpentry. But an unskilled
Wforl^ian can scarcely be trusted with them, and even
the highest artists ought to employ them with the
greatest caution, and as seldom as possible. Univer-
sally, it is of essential consequence to know whether
a piece be acting the part of a tie or not, that if it be,
tJie requisite securities may be afforded it ; and no
piece ought to be introduced without a thorough
cpcamination of the nature of the strain to which it is
likely to be subjected. Even the occasional varia-
tions which may and will occur during the progress
of the work, especially from what is almost sure to
bapi>en in some degree or other, the sinking of the
arch, oughtto be guarded against to the full extent of
professional foresight.

Tluis far of the strength of centers. They must
also be so stiff or immoveable, that no weight that can
be laid on them shall vary their form. Suppleness,
supposing it consistent with strength, which it may
he, is an essential imperfection in a center, and must
be obviated by the proper employment of struts,

which will hinder any change in the angles of the Constnicti«»
pieces. It is an important practical maxim for a
structure of this kind, in which changes of pressure
are almost continually taking place, and very often
without allowing time for new contrivimces, to
make the timbers capable of undergoing both the
sorts of strains now mentioned. Nothing indeed
is more usual than for the same piece to be subjected
at one time to compression, and at another time to
be liable to be drawn asunder. But it is certain, that,
with the exception of the pieces which immediately
sustain the parts of the arch, and which may be per-
fectly accommodated, each to its own share, all the
requisite timbers may be placed so as that none oi'
them shall be exposed to a transverse strain. The
strength of the timbers, it is almost needless to sa)',
must be estimated according to the circumstances of
the case and the quality of the materials. And with
respect to the relative position in which thev are to
be placed, it is proper to observe, as aiding in this
estimate, that it is the upper part of the arch which
presses most on the frame. This will be very obvi-
ous, indeed, when it is considered, that each archstone
to be supported, inasmuch as it lies on an inclined
plane, has a tendency to slide down in proportion to
its relative weight ; or, in the language of tlie mathe-
matician, that its weight is to its tendency to slide
down the plane on which it is supported, as radius to
the sine of elevation of that plane.

No rule perhaps can be given for determining the
absolute pressure in different arches. On the whole,
there is room for concluding, that, in those that are
circular, and of a high pitch, about two-thirds of!
the weight are borne by the center before the
key stone is laid on, and that in arches which are
either elliptical or low pitched, the proportional
weight to be sustained by it is greater than this a-
mount. The nature of the curve, therefore, must
be considered in adjusting the magnitude or di-
mensions of the pieces. In all cases, it is obvious,
the greatest attention is required in securing the
abutments of the center, on which the stability of the
whole ultimately depends. Where the nature of the
space to be arched over will admit, it is always pre-
ferable for this end, that the entire opening be divid-
ed into two or more spaces, and that supporters be
raised up, properly secured, on which, in addition to
the piers, the center may be erected. In such cases,
fewer timbers and less complicated workmanship are
needed. But such aid, as has already been noticed,
cannot always be had ; and often indeed, even the
advantage of a long tie-beam is unattainable, from
the circumstances of vessels passing, or the liability
of a river to be greatly augmented in size by tides
or heavy rain.

Examples We now proceed to describe different

kinds or examples of centers, premising only what the
intelligent reader will liavealready understood, that the
strength and stiffness of all of them are ultimately to
be found in the triangular frames or trusses into which
the centers, however complicated, may be resolved.

Various prmciples have been adopted for the con-
struction of centers, by diffbrent artists, some of them
deserving particular notice.

Tliat adopted by M, Ilupeau for the bridge of Or^

AilCllttEiCtURE.

411

Conatruction leans in France, is one of the boldest ever executed,
and is, at the same time, a very simple piece of car-
pentT}'. It may be considered as in fact one large
truss spanning the entire width, supporting at its top
the upper part of the arch, and having its rafters oc-
cupied as foundations for smaller trusses, on which
the other parts of the arch are sustained. The read-
er who has attentively considered the principles of
construction formerly laid down, will easily compre-
liend the general nature of this center fi om the view
given of it in Fig. 1. Plate 13. But that we may not
mislead him into unqualified praise, it is requisite to
say a few words on the history of this case. The
arch is 100 feet span, has a rise of 30 feet, and the
arch stones are 6 feet long. The architect died when
only a few of the first courses of any of the arches
had been laid. M. Perronet succeeded him, and
completed the work. As it advanced, the vertex of
the center rose a good deal, and on being loaded,
sank as much. This shewed the weakness of the
frame, and that its lower parts especially, were giv-
ing little assistance. The two long beams, ad, f g,
which form the diagonals of the quadrangular spaces
aibcd, efgh, were therefore added to it, when it
became sufficiently strong. These pieces are nearly
in the line (continued) of the lower beams, and cer-
tainly quite alter the nature of the frame, bringing it
to the state, as we have called it, of one large truss,
consisting of two long rafters, and a short straining
beam placed horizontally between them. The for-
mer, it will be seen, are trussed up about their mid-
dle, so as to form the side frames, and the latter con-
.stitutes the summit of the center. Some additional
means were found requisite to support the center
during the course of the work. It is certainly far
from being entitled to be held as a perfect perform-
ance, nevertheless it is an admirable example of what
simplicity and attention to the elementary rules of
construction are able to accomplish.

Centers may consist of two trusses independent of
each other, one supporting the crown of the arch,
and the other the sides, or haunches, as they are cal-
led. Of this kind was the frame employed by the il-
lustrious Michael Angelo, for the nave and transepts
of St Peter's church at Rome ; and on the same prin-
ciple, a little modified, are two centers proposed as a
lesson by M. Pitot, a member of the Academy of
Sciences; A few remarks on these examples may
prove amusing as well as instructive.

A person of the name of San Gallo is said to haVe
constructed Michael Angelo's center. It is a judi-
cious performance, and abundantly effective, erring
rather indeed in an excess of strength, and the em-
ployment, consequently, of an unnecessarv quantity
of timber. It is shewn in Fig. 2. and will be easily
discerned to be divisible into two parts, of which the
superior sustains the greater weight. We agree with
Professor Robison, that the innermost polygon, that
is to say the lowermost one, is superfluous, as no stram
can force in the struts which rest on the angles. The
triangle immediately resting on it is pretty much in
the like predicament ; and one might imagine that the
artist thought the king-post acted as a pillar and not
a tie, so that he judged it requisite to secure the tie-
beam against cross strains from it.
2

In Fig. 3. is represented one of M. Pitot's propos- Consiraciiok
ed centers. It is so simple as to be readily compre- ~ ^ ' '
bended, and has great merit. With the exception,
perhaps, of the principal stretcher, which extends
the whole width of the arch, a little above the mid-
dle, all the pieces that are any way essential to the
construction are subjected to one kind of strain, viz.
that of compression ; and this, as we have already
noticed, is an excellence of the highest value. This'
center is proposed for an arch of 60 feet span. Some
objections may be made to it, but we do not think
it necessary to state them. Of its sufficiency we
have no doubt. The other center proposed by the
same person for an elliptical arch, and used by him.
we believe, in the middle arch of the bridge at Lille-
Adam, being 80 feet span, and risingSl, preciselycor-
responds with it, and need not therefore occup}' our
attention. They are both, perhaps, inferior in sim-
plicity and strength to the first one described of
this class.

The next examples we shall give are of a more
complicated construction. The principle is that of
inscribed equilateral polygons. In this, each truss,
which consists of a number of struts, placed end to
end, so as to form a pol3'gonal figure, stretches over
the whole space between the piers. When arranged,
the angles of one such truss occur in the middle of
the sides of that which is next to it, and so on alter-
nately, till as many such polygons are erected as
seem sufficient for the purpose. The trusses, it is'
certain, may be quite independent of each other,
and even when combined together, have been sup-
posed to operate as if they were so, and that in con-
sequence the full amount of their separate agency
is thereby obtained. This is very problematical ;
but, at all events, it has been found expedient to
have them united, whatever be the precise mode in
which their action is realized. By the nature of the
construction, it will readily be conceived, the angles
of the alternate trusses are situate in lines pointing
towards the center of the curve. In consequence,
king-posts, consisting of two beams, one on each side
of the truss, and embracing the truss-beams between
them, are placed in this direction, pointing towards
the center. Other contrivances, which it is unneces-
sary to particularize, are employed to effect a secure
junction ; and it is imagined, that, when loaded on
the top, the whole will .gradually, but conjointly, be
brought to sustain the pressure. Perrault, a physi-
cian, is said to have invented this construction ; but
the principal artist who has availed himself of it is.
Mr Perronet, the architect employed for the bridges
of Cravant, Nogent, Maxence, and Neuilly, in which
cases it was adopted. They differ from each other
in several respects, as accommodated to peculiar cir-
cumstances, and seemingly in order to remedy those
deficiencies which experience pointed out. We have,
therefore, represented the whole of them; but we
must confine ourselves to very general remarks.

Fig. 4. is that of Cravant. The arches in this case
are elliptical, of 60 feet span, and 20 rise, and the
arch-stones were four feet in thickness. The whole
weight of the arch was about 558 tons. Though the
center was perhapssuperabundantly strong, it never-
theless yielded it good deal, and consequently re-

4P2

ARCHITECTURE.

CooitmcUon quired some management in order to have its shape
preserved.

Fig. 5. A. represents half of the center for the
bridge of Nogent, being an arch of 90 feet span and
28 rise; arch-stones ^i feet thick, and the unreduced
load on each frame nearly 235 tons. It cannot be
doubted, that this center, from the dimensions of
the timber used in its construction, was vastly stronger
than was needful.

Fig. 5. B. shews half of the center used at the
bridge of Maxence. The span in this arch is about
76 feet, and the rise little more than six. Its ap-
pearance, therefore, is disagreeably flat, and will
probably seldom have imitators. The center is a
very judicious one of its kind.

Fig. 6. is a delineation of the center employed in
the bridge of Neuilly. Here the arch is 120 feet
span and 30 rise, the arch-stones being five feet
thick. This center was strong enough, but much
too flexible. It consequently yielded and twisted
very remarkably at diticrent periods of the work.
This ought to have been foreseen ; for it is quite ma-
nifest that the angles of the trusses throughout are
vastly too obtuse. Fewer pieces ought to have been
employed. This would have required the angles to
be acute ; the feet of the lower trusses, too, it may
be observed, would have been much better placed at
a lower part of the pier. This last remark applies
generally to M. Perronet's centers, in all of which
the feet of the trusses are too short and narrow. It
is, on the whole, very unlikely that his practice in
this and in several other points will be adopted in
ouv country, where a much better model is to be
J)ad, as we shall immediately show.

The center to which we now allude is that which
■was used at Blackfriars bridge, London, by Mr
Mylne. Its principle is perfectly simple, that of sup-
porting different points of the arch by trusses, con-
sisting of two legs or rafters, the feet of which rest
on the piers, one on each. The rafters have an in-
tfrmediate piece, called an apron piece, applied at
top, which is useful both for strengthening the ex-
terior joints, and giving stiiihess to the ring on
which the stones are laid. This will all be easily un-
derstood from Fig. 7.

The rafters, or legs, consisted of several pieces
firmly abutted together, and occasionally secured,
moreover, by double king-posts ; but sometimes where
they intersected, they were halved into each other.
This last mode has been objected to, as tending to
is-eaken the beams ; but it seems to be almost neces-
sary, owing to the frequency of the intersections ;
and at all events, it is certain, from the nature of.
the construction, as well as the dimensions of the
tintber used in this case at least, (the legs being 12
inches square, ) that the center was abundantly strong
and perfectly firm. As an evidence of this, it is
proper to mention, that not the smallest sinking or
twisting was observed in the progress of the work,
and that the whole sinking of the crown, before setting
the key-stones, did not amount to one inch. Greater
security than this, surely, is not desirable ; and if we
except the consumpt of timber, which is certainly
considerably greater than in M. Perronet's centers,
no. reasonable objection can be made to this plan.

The reader will observe, that the upper part of the Constroctle
center, where, of course, great support is needed,
is fully accommodated to its office by the simple
truss of equal legs extending from side to side ; and
that though, in the lateral points, particularly those
that are low down, one of the legs of the truss is
very oblique, this disadvantage is compensated for
by the nearly upright position of its antagonist. The
principal arch in this bridge, it ought to be men-
tioned, is 100 feet span, and its height from the spring
4-3 feet, the arch itself being above 6 feet in thick-
ness. The center employed in Westminster bridge,
Fig. 8. was constructed on a very similar principle,
which, it cannot be doubted, is perfectly suitable to
arches of any width.

Other centers have been proposed, and sometimes
adopted, but we do not think it necessary to particula-
rize them. Those we have mentioned are sufficient for
the general purpose we have in view, of putting the
reader in possession of elementary knowledge. We
cannot conclude this part of our subject without no-
ticing a recent proposal for a center of a very differ-
ent kind from any hitherto employed. It is the in-
vention of Mr Telford, but, as far as we know, has
never yet been adopted. This gentleman, accord-
ing to a printed report of a committee of the House
of Commons, on the most effectual mode of improv-
ing the mail roads in Wales, &c. recommends a cast-
iron bridge to be laid across the Menai, a small arm
of the sea, dividing the island of Anglesea from
Caernarvonshire, through which the tide, runs with
considerable velocity, and which is constantly navi-
gated by pretty large vessels. In furtherance of this
advice, Mr Telford proposes a single arch of no
less than 500 feet span, 100 feet in height above
high water at spring tides, and 40 feet in breadth.
The nature of tjie bottom of the channel, the depth
at low water, and the great rise and rapidity of
the tides, render the common modes of centering
from below very difficult, if not impossible. A plan
then is devised for accomplishing it from above, which
as far as can be understood from the description af-
forded, lias a plausible enough appearance. It is
impossible not to admire the ingenuity and boldness
that could suggest so stupendous an undertaking ;
and if it shall be found practicable, it can scarcely
be doubted that it will give rise to more magnificent
structures in this department of architecture tlian the
world has yet seen.

Striking a center A few words on the mode of

striking a center, as it is called, will finish what
seems necessary for the general reader on this part .
of our subject. To separate the scaffolding from
an arch, so that it may not receive any material al-
teration from the want of support, is a nicer opera-
tion than most persons might at first imagine. This
will appear from a few very simple observations on
the state in which the arch stones rest on the center-
ing, and on one another. We have already noticed.,
that they are mostly supported on the center, pre-
vioiisly to the adjustment of the key -stone. But.
they are not all ecjually so. The lower courses lean ,
much more on one another, and those which are to-
wards the crown, on the other hand, are nearly al- .
together sustained by tlie center. Besides this, the.

ARCHITECTURE.

41 :

erastiuction moi'tar used for connecting them is but little com-
pressed during the continuance of support from the
center, and least of all, of course, about the upper
parts ; and if much time has been occupied in the
work, it must necessarily be in dilferent degrees of
consolidation. It Ibllo'.vs, then, that an instantaneous
and total removal of the support, would be produc-
tive of irregular, and, in fact, irremediable settling ;
probably, indeed, the upper stones would fall out,
and the whole arch be destroyed. The gradual re-
moval of the center, therefore, seems plainly dic-
tated ; and it is no less obvious, that it ought to take
place first from the lower parts of the arch, or, at
least, in such a manner that the natural process of
abutment which takes place amongst the different
courses may be secured. Various plans have been
adopted. " The best method," says Mr Nicholson,
" is to let the center down all in a piece, by easing
some of the wedges, (introduced between the cen-
ters acd beams on which they rest, and employed
for this purpose ;) to let it rest there for a few hours,
in order to try whether the arch makes any efforts to
fall, or any joints open, or stones crush or crack,
that the damage may be repaired before the center
is entirely Removed, which is not to be done till the
arch ceases to make any visible efforts." M. Per-
ronet was in the habit of cutting away the blocks,
or bridgings, as they have been named, on which the
arch-stones immediately rested, beginning with the
lowest on each side, and advancing graduall)' up-
wards, but rather quickly, till all that had been put
»ut of shape any way, by the bending or shrinking
of the center, was quite detached. The haunches,
now unresisted, pressed inwards, and, of course,
harder than formerly, on the arch-stones which were
nearer to the crown. When this had taken place for
some days, he proceeded, but with greater caution,
to destroy the blocks under those upper stones.
This always produced some degree of shifting, and
towards the end seemed to occasion a very irregular
curve, and a good deal of rising and sinking, against
which he had to employ several cautionary or reme-
dial measures. The former method, which with sun-
dry modifications is generally practised in this island,
is vastly to be preferred, and the happier fortune
of our artists is the most satisfactory test of its su-
periority. Mr Mylne's process for accomplishing
this delicate and important business was peculiarly
excellent. The view given of the centre used by
l)im at Blackfriars bridge, already described, shews
the pieces concerned in it.

Sect. IV. Of Bridges.

Bridges are the most remarkable examples of the
use of the principles of the arch, and merit, from
their beauty and advantages, the most attentive con-
sideration. ,

Wooden Iridges, — We commence with those which
are built of wood, between which and the examples
of centers just now given there is a close and obvious
connexion. The rules recognised in their structure
may be easily traced to the general principles formerly
detailed, and need not, therefore, occupy much atten-
tion at present. But the following preliminary re-
maf k« wiU be found of utility to some readers.

There are two ways in which a piece of timber, Coiutnicti
A B, Plate 12. Fig. 11. may be supported at C, its
middle point, where it is exposed to greatest stress
in its position across a river. 1. It may be suspend-
ed by ropes, &c. &c. as D C, E C, from two fixed
points D E, above it ; or it may be propped up on
the ridge of two rafters, as d C, e C, resting on two
fixed points, d e, below it ; and, 2dly, It may be con-
nected with a point that is so supported, either by
suspending it by a king-post, as F C, coming from
the ridge of two rafters, as A F, B f, or by resting
it on a strut, as C F, which itself is supported by
two ropes, as A f, B f.

Whichever way be adopted, it is very evident that
the support is the more powerful as the angle form-
ed at C, by lines drawn from these points, is the^
more acute. Either plan may be strong enougli ;
but the first case requires greater extent of space ;
and besides this, it may not always be convenient to
find adequate points of support either above or be-
low the beam ; whereas the second, requiring no
other fixed points than A and B, is always practi-
cable. This second method, therefore, is most com-
monly adopted. Room, in short, can always be
found for the simple truss A F B. As the length of
the king-post does not add to the support of C, it
may be proper to find two points, as a and b, in
Fig. 12. at a moderate distance below A and B, from ,
which to erect the rafters, and to employ a shorter
king-post. If the parts AC, C B, of the beam A B,
are conceived still too weak, though by this means
its strength is vastly increased, it may be further aid-
ed by trussing each half, as is shewn in Fig. 13.
which is a very simple, but at the same time a very
strong, and rather neat construction for a bridge,
the intersections of the secondary braces with those
of the main truss forming an agreeable appearance
of a hand-rail. The beam A B may be made of two
pieces, having a certain inclination to each other,
and forming such a structure as is given in Fig. IK
Another mode of supporting A B is shewn in Fig.

15. in which F" G is supposed to be one-third of A iT ;
and sundry modifications and combinations may be
practised with advantage, as is to be seen in Figs. ,

16. 17. 18. These plans, though very simple, whicli,
indeed, is a great commendation, afford room for
skill in the adjustment of the dimensions of timber, .
and are susceptible of strength and accommodatioiv
sufficient for a considerable width. They Jiave been
frequently used in Germany, where their durabihty is
promoted by the judicious practice of covering them .
from the weather by means of wooden roofs. " We
have seen," says Dr Robison, " a bridge of 4-2 feet
span, formed of two oak trusses, the biggest timber of
which did not exceed six inches square, bearing, witli
perfect steadiness and safety, a waggon loaded with
more than two tons, drawn by four stout horses." —
" Another, in the neighbourhood of Stettiu, had a car-
riage road in the middle about 20 feet wide, and on
each side a foot-way about five feet wide. The span
was not less than 60 feet, and the greatest scantling did .
not appear to exceed 10 inches by 6. This bridge con-
sisted of four trusses, two of wliich formed the outside
of the bridge, and the other two made the separation
between the carriage-road and the two foot-way.s. ',

414

ARCHITECTURE.

Coastniction If the width of the river be too great to be accom-
plished by one truss, then several trusses may be
combined together by simple addition, like the arch-
stones of a bridge, as is shewn in Fig. 19. Here
the frames A, B, C, D, are to be considered as se-
parate bodies, supported by mutual abutment ; but
the construction is difterent from that in which the
pieces act, as we have seen, on the principles of
carpentry, and in our opinion is inferior to it,
though sometimes abundantly serviceable. It may
be greatly strengthened by the addition of pieces
operating as ties, as already described ; in which
case, it is very advisable that one of the polygons
into which it is divisible should contain the whole
abutments, and the other should consist altogether of
ties. This may be understood from Fig. 20. in which
the polygon A B C D E F, consisting of two layers
of beams, ( one being supposed too weak, ) contains
the abutments, and the other, A b c d e F, may be no-
tliing more than an iron rod. The whole has a kind of
distant relation to the Norman roof, and this, in fact,
may be often rendered a very convenient construc-
tion. So much for the general principles^ The fol-
lowing descriptions v.ill supply some information as
to particular contrivances.

Ccesar's bridge. — Of ancient wooden bridges very
scanty relations are found in classical authors. Pal-
ladio and others have made drawings from Ca;sar's
description of the bridge by which he conveyed
his army over the Rhine. It seems to have been a
clumsy piece of workmanship, formed by the very in-
artificial mode of driving piles into the bed of the
river, and connecting them together by cross-beams
and transverse pieces, over which hurdles were plac-
ed. It scarcely merits attention in point of science.

To the same writer, Palladio, we are indebted for
an account pf a much finer structure over the Cis-
mone, a river at the foot of the Alps, which divide
Italy from Germany. It is described as a single arch
somewhat more than 100 feet wide, entirely suspend-
ed by the framing which forms its sides. Palladio
has given several plans for wooden bridges, and spe-
cifies three ways m which they may be constructed
without having posts driven into the water.

Schajf'hausen bridge. — A very remarkable wooden
bridge was erected across the Rhine, in the canton
of Schaffhausen, by a plain uneducated carpenter,
named Ulrick Grubenhamm. A stone bridge which
had been erected at the same place, having suffered
injury from the river, fell in 1754. This man propos-
ed a wooden bridge as a substitute. After some he-
sitation, natural enough to the managers, the plan
was adopted, and executed in 1758. The descriptions
given of its dimensions, it is to be regretted, are con-
tradictory, and, unfortunately, the bridge itself is no
longer ia existence ; it was destroyed by the unspar-
ing hands of the French in 1 799. Another bridge
on the same plan, and built either by the same per-
son or his brother, at Wittengen, alsoin Switzerland,
seems to have been confounded with it. Indeed, the
accounts of them are not easily reconciled. The en-
tire length of the former, wc are told, was SG* feet
(the width of the river being, according to Nichol-
son, S90 feet,) and its breadth eighteen feet. The
artist wished to make only one arch, but was posi-

tively enjoined by the magistrates to use one of the Constraci!**
remaining piers of the former stone bridge, as an in-
termediate support. This he so far complied with, as
to divide his bridge into two unequal parts, both, we
are told, apparently resting on this old pier. Tliough
this bridge, it is said, was able to sustain the greatest
loads, yet it would tremble under a single passenger.
It is said, moreover, to have been eight feet out of
the straight line, having its angle pointing down the
river. The distance from this angle to the abutment
nearest the town was 171 feet, the other position be-
ing 193 feet. From the last mentioned circumstances,
it seems that the pier at the angle was really a point
of support.

The bridge at Wittengen is reported to have been
of one arch, 230 feet wide, and, as such, was still
more extraordinary. Professor Rohison, writing on
the authority of Mr Coxe, who slightly describes this
bridge in his Travels in Switzerland, says, the rise
was twenty-five feet, certainly low enough for the
width, and Mr Nicholson, on the other hand, (why,
we do not know,) reduces it to five, which must, we
apprehend, be a mistake. The road-way, it is pro-
per to mention, was suspended between two parallel
arches, having something of the catenarian curve,
and built ot seven courses of solid oak logs, in lengtli*
of twelve or fourteen feet, and upwards of sixteen
inches thick. The logs, we are further informed,
were selected as naturally suited to the intended curve,
and were not any way trimmed by cutting across
the grain. The same artist and his brother were
concerned in the construction of several bridges of
this sort.

Wooden bridge in America. — The ingenuity of
Grubenhamm, undoubtedly very great, was surpassed
by a person of the name of Bludget, who has con-
structed a wooden bridge over the river Portsmouth,
in North America, of one arch, 250 feet span. The
principle is an improvement of what has now been de-
scribed; and so confident was the artist of its strength,
after this trial, that he is reported to have said he
would trust such an arch of four times the width. It
is difficult, indeed, to set limits to such efforts and
skill.

Wooden bridges in Britain. — We have no example
of wooden bridges in this country worthy to be com-
pared with those now spoken of, at least in respect of
magnitude. But from smaller specimens, of equal,
if not superior principle, it is not to be doubted that
our architects are as able to excel in this as in any
other department of the profession. We ought par-
ticularly to mention the following specimens : The
wooden bridge over the Clyde, at Glasgow, built
by Mr Nicholson, and intended only for foot passen-
gers, displays great judgment. It was finished in
1804, and consists of nine openings, each of them 42
feet wide. The river, where it crosses, is 387 feet in
breadth. Since its erection this bridge has sustained
several very high floods without any way yielding.
Its appearance is elegant, and but a small quantity
of timber is used in its construction. Somewhat on
the same plan is the bridge at Walton-upon-Thanies,
the production of Mr Etheridge. The centre arch
is 130 feet wide and 28 feet in height. There are
good examples of wooden bridges between Chelsea

ARCHITECTURE.

413

Constructioaand Battersca, Fulham and Putney, Brentford and
Kew, all over tlie Thames.

The bridge over the Don, about seven miles from
AberdeeH, constructed somewhat different!)', by Mr
James Burn of Haddington, is highly to be com-
mended. It is 109 feet wide, rather more than IS
feet rise, and 18 in breadth. This ingenious artist
has erected bridges on the same principles in other
parts of Scotlantl. . As a pattern, we have given a
view of the fiist-nieutioned in Plate 14. which the
reader, it is believed, will easily comprehend.

Sto>ie bridges An interesting history of ancient

bridges might be given, but would contribute little
to the object we have now in view, the elucidation of
important theoretical principles. The Greeks, ad-
mitting them to have been acquainted with the nature
of an arcli, did not apply it to this use. The Romans
were more expert in the practice of this art, and have
kft some monuments of very judicious bridge build-
ing. China abounds in them. But we prefer more
roodern examples, and especially such as have been
erected since the art has been cultivated under the
qualified influence of mathematical principles. We
shall merely mention, therefore, some of the more
remarkable ancient bridges, occasionally noticing
their most striking features.

' Roman bridges.~ln Rome and its vicinity were eight
bridges, some of which, and the vestiges of other8>
are still extant under different names.

The bridge built by Trajan across the Danube,
which was destroyed by Adrian to prevent the pas-
sage of barbarians into the empire, was one of the
most magnificent ever erected by the Romans ; but
the descriptions given of it are somewhat discordant.

The finest bridge, perhaps, that was built by that
people in Italy, is said to have been that at Narni,
connecting two mountains between which flowetl tlie
river Nera. Its whole length was above 600 feet,
which was divided into four arches, the largest of
which was 142 feet span. The Pont ihu Garde, a
Roman structure about nine railes from Nisraes, is
very remarkable, as serving the double purpose of a-
bridge over the Garden, and an aqueduct for sup-
plying Nismes with water. It is described as consist-
ing of three series of arches, one above another, to
the height of 190 feet, and is built of very large
stones bound together by iron cramps without ce-
ment. There is a noble bridge at Lyons, of Roman
origin, 800 yards long.

Over theTagus, at the city of Valenza de Alcan-
tara, about 25 miles from Madrid, is a bridge which
was built in the time of the emperor Adrian. This
superb work is G70 feet long, divided into six arches,
and its height is more than 200 feet.

The bridge on the river Guadiana, in the province
of Estrem.adura, is reported to have 64 arches, and
to be 1300 paces in length. Perhaps the largest
stone arch in existence is that of the bridge of Bri-
oude, in the lower Auvergne in France, ascribed to
the Romans. The span is 181 feet and the height
68 feet.

The bridge of Avignon is of more recent date,
having been finished in 1188. It was lOOO yards
long, and consisted of 18 arches, some of the ruins

of which still remain. An arch of 160 feet span was Construrtion
built at Verona in 1354.

Modem bridges in Italy. — Italy abounds in bridges
of comparatively modem date. " The Rialto in Ve-
nice, a city which, from its peculiar situation, has
more bridges than any other, is rather singular.
It is a single arch nearly 100 feet span and only 23
in height. Michael Angelo designed it, and it has
always attracted great notice. Its breadth, which is
43 feet, is divided into three small streets, by two
rows of shops in the middle, in the center of which
is an arched opening where the three streets com-
municate. Dallaway says, that the most perfect
bridge he had seen was one at Florence, of three
arches, each 100 feet wide.

In Portugal. — Portugal may boast of its aqutS-
duct bridge, near its capital, as one of the noblest
works of the sort ever executed. Its total length is
2464 feet, and it consists of 35 arches, the eighth of
wliich being the largest is 108 feet span and 227 ii»
height. It was finished in 1732, nearly 20 years af-
ter its foundation.

In France. — We have elsewhere spoken of some
modem French bridges, and have shewn several of
their centers. France has many more bridges well
deserving of attention. Those of Blois, consisting
of 11 arches, the center one being 91 feet span, —
of Mantes on the Seine, of three arches, the largest
being 128 feet span, and the other two 115 each —
and of the Loire at Saumur, which has 12 elliptical
arches of 60 feet span each, justly claim this distinc-
tion. A bridge mentioned by Mr Nicholson, which
is not very unlike the last named, though greater,
and erected at Moulins, over the river Aliier, and
consists of 13 semi-elliptical arches, 64 feet span
each, also merits notice.

In Britain — Great Britain is not defective in this
part of architecture. Several bridges of an ancient
date testily the exertions of her former inhabitants ;
and those of modern times may vie with the produc-
tions of her neighbours.

The bridge at Croyland in Lincolnshire, supposed'
to be the oldest structure of the kind in the island,
is a singular work. It is formed by the meeting of"
three segments of a circle in a point, a circumstance
imagined to allude to the doctrine of the Trinity,
which is not unlikely, considering the period when
it was built, viz. about the middle of the ninth cen-
tury. It is still very sound, and exhibits but few
marks of decay.

London bridge, commenced in 11 TG, required 33
years for its completion. It originally consisted of
20 arches, but two of them were turned into one in
1758. It is a cumbrous building, and is evidently
unworthy of the dignified position it maintains. A
more suitable companion has been projected lor the
bridges of Westminster und Blackfriars. .

About the same ptiiod were built the bridges of
Rochester over the Medway, and at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne. The former is 550 feet long, consisting,
of 11 arches. The latter vras broken down by a flood
in 1771. At Burton-upon-Trent is a bridge erected
in the 12th century; it is 1545 feet in length, and is
the longest bridge iu England. . It has 34 arclies..

416

ARCHITECTURE.

of York bridge is 82 feet wide

Coortnictloa One of the arches
and 27 feet high.

At Winston in the same county, is a single arch
bridge nearly 109 feet span. It was built in 1762
for L.500. Llanwst bridge in Denbighshire, was
designed by Inigo Jones in 1636. It has three cir-
cular arches, the middle one 58 feet span.

The most singular bridge in the island is over the
Taaf, in Glamorganshire, executed by a country ma-
son of the name of Edwards. It is a single arch
140 feet span, being the segment of a circle of 175
feet in diameter ; its height is 35 feet, and its great-
est breadth only 1 1 feet. In jNIr Malkin's Tour in
South Wales will be found a very interesting history
of this extraordinary work.

Of Westminster and Blackfriars bridges over the
Thames, certainly the noblest structures of the kind
in England, it seems unnecessary to say more. For
the sake of comparison it may be merely mentioned,
that the former, which was quite completed in 1750,
consists of 1 3 large and two small arches, of a semi-
circular form, and the middle arch is 76 feet span ;
and that the latter, which was finished about twenty
years afterwards, has nine elliptical arches, and the
middle arch is 100 feet span. They are both nearly
ii feet in breadth.

In Plate 14. is exhibited a view of the Strand bridge
over the Thames.

A magnificent aquaeduct bridge over the Lime, at
Lancaster, was constructed by Mr Rennie. It hdS
five arches, of 70 feet span each, is 57 feet in height,
and the canal which crosses it admits the navigation
of barges of 60 tons burden.

Of bridges in Scotland, the following particularly
merit attention.

The Gothic bridge over the Don, near Old Aber-
deen, was built in 1281. Tlie arch is 67 feet span,
and 344 in height.

The bridge of Perth, on the Tay, is 906 feet
long, divided into nine arches, (besides a land-arch,)
the middle one being 77 feet span, and its breadth
26. Mr Smeaton executed it between 1760 and
1771. The same artist, much about the same time,
constructed a good bridge over the Tweed at Cold-
stream, and another over the North Esk, near Mon-
trose, both of them inferior to that at Perth.

The North Bridge at Edinburgh, built by Mr Wil-
liam Mylne about 1770, is remarkable as having no
water below it. The full length of this bridge is
1125 feet, but the length of the piers and arches oc-
cupies only 310. Its three great arches are about 72
feet span each, and two smaller ones 20 feet. The
entire height to the top of the parapet over the cen-
ter arch is 65 feet, and the breadth about 42 feet.
The arches are semicircular, rising 36 feet from the
spring. The bridge has a perceptible rise from the
middle towards the south end, which, being injudi-
ciously actoinniodated by the bending parapet, im-
presses with the notion of the middle arch having
yielded, which is not the case.

Kelso Bridge, over the Tweed, constructed by
Mr Rennie, has an uncommonly fine appearance,
and does great justijce both to the artist and the si-
tuation. The arches are elliptical, five in number,
each being 72 feet span, and the rise 21 feet. The

road-way is quite level ; and some ornaments of a Constr«ctio«
modest character give no small degree of elegance
to the whole bridge.

Near the junction of the Teviot with the Tweed,
is a bridge over the former, built by Mr Elliot of
Kelso, which has also a fine eftect. It is of three
arches, the middle one being 65 feet span.

A bridge between Dunbar and Berwick-upon-
Tweed, known by the name of Pease, or Peaths-
bridge, is somewhat singular. It consists of four
semicircular arches of different spans, from 48 to 55
feet, crossing a gulley, or hollow, the bottom of
which is 124 feet below the surface of the road.

An arch over the Den Burn, at Aberdeen, is the
largest in Scotland. It is ISO feet span, and second
only, we believe, to that over the Taaf. As origi-
nally proposed by Mr Telford, it would have been
150 feet, surpassing any in the kingdom. But pru-
dential motives induced the magistrates of the town
to adopt the smaller scale.

At Tongue-land, in Kirkcudbright, is a fine arch,
designed by the same able artist, 118 feet span.

A bridge over the Spey, at Fochabers, construct-
ed by Mr G. Burn, has four arches, the two middle
ones of which are 95 feet span each.

The bridge at Dunkeld, built a very few years
ago, is reckoned the finest in Scotland. It consists
of five large arches and two small land ones, the
middle of the former being 90 feet span. Somewhat
strangely, Mr Telford's claim to the merit of its de-
sign and construction has been disputed, and, indeed,
publicly denied in the newspapers, by a Mr Brown
of Jedburgh. As far as we know, there has been
no reply on Mr Telford's part.

Several bridges of various descriptions are either
erected, or about to be executed in Scotland, under
the management of a board of commissioners ap-
pointed by Parliament.

Ireland has but few good bridges. Sarah's bridge,
at Dublin, is among the finest. It consists of one
arch 1 10 feet span. Essex bridge, and Carlisle bridge,
in the same city, are respectable productions.

Iron-bridges. — Some account of iron bridges will
naturally be expected in this place. They are be-
yond all question of British origin, and hitherto, we
believe, have been exclusively constructed in this
island. Their use will likely be extended to other
countries where the material can be obtained so
readily as to render them economical. The prin-
ciples on which they are formed may be easily un-
derstood from a description of the chief examples.

The first iron-bridge was erected at Coalbrook-
dale, in Shropshire, in 1779, by Mr Abraham Darby,
iron-master at that place. It consists of a single
arch 1(X) feet 6 inches span, and is composed of five
ribs of three concentric arcs each, which are con-
nected by radiating pieces, and which pass through
an upright frame of iron at both onds serving as
guides. Plates of cast iron cover these ribs, and
sustain the road-way. The weight of iron used in
this bridge was 378| tons. The abutments are of
stone. As a first attempt, this is a very meritorious
structure ; but it is faulty in several respects, and
has been surpassed by later efforts.

According to Mr Nicholson, the second iron-bridge

ARCHITECTURE.

417

construction was cast by order, and agreeably to the design of
Mr Thomas Paine, of political notoriety, who in-
tended it for America. As he failed to pay for it
when constructed, the manufacturers, who had taken
it up to Paddington, near London, employed its mal-
leable iron in the formation of Bishop Wearmouth
bridge, near Sunderland.

The iron-bridge at this place, which was erected
between 1793 and 1796, under the management of
R.Burdon, Esq. assisted by Mr Thomas Wilson as en-
gineer, and Messrs Walker of Rotheram, the founders,
consists of a single arch 236 feet in span, 32 in breadth,
and 100 feet high from low water. In this bridge,
blocks of iron, consisting of a kind of frame-work,
were used in place of key-stones, each weighing a-
bout 4 cwt. A series of these blocks, to the number
of 105, formed a rib, six of which composed the
breadth of the bridge. On these were laid diagonal
bars, extending to the abutments, to prevent the
swerving of the ribs. Cast-iron rings, diminishing
in size from the ends towards the middle, fill up the
spaces between the arch and the road-way, which
consists of a strong timber frame covered witli ce-
ment and a bed of marie, &c. This magnificent and
yet light fabric required 260 tons of cast iron and
46 of wrought iron, andjcost L.27,000. Vessels of 200
tons burden can pass below it in full sail, while its
strength is sufiRcient for any incumbent load. A
view of it is given in Fig. 9. PI. 13.

A cast-iron bridge was designed by Mr Telford for
Buildwas, on the Severn, and was finished in 1796.
It is 130 feetspan, and employed 173Ttonsof cast iron.

There is one at Staines, over the Thames, consi-
dered the neatest and most complete up to the period
of its erection. The arch is 181 feet span, and is
formed much in the manner of that at Sunderland.

Boston, in Lincolnshire, has an iron bridge 85 feet
span.

There are two at Bristol, each of 100 feet span. ConttractJoH

Mr Telford designed a bridge for an arm of the v^rv^*-^^
sea, between the counties of Ross and Sutherland,
in Scotland. The arch is ISO feet span.

We have elsewhere spoken of the proposal of the
same engineer for an iron-bridge over the Menai ;
and we ought to mention, that he proposed another,
of no less than 600 feet span, in the room of Lon-
don bridge. Of the practicability and advantage of
such plans, we have not the smallest doubt. Indeed,
the almost incompressible nature of the material,
the facility with which it can be brought to any
desired shape, and the readiness with which it ad-
mits of connexion, being considered, in subserviency
to the improved principles and matured judgment*;
of such artists as we have named, it would be almost
presumptuous to speculate on the probable limits to
the practice. The sole difficulty, perhaps, lies in
the centering necessary for very stupendous bridges.
Time and ingenuity, we are convinced, will overcome
this ; and new agents, hitherto unthought of, will
come to our aid, to falsify the puny conjectures of
timid or ignorant men.

Draw-bridges are generally made of wood, some-
times of iron, or of both together, having stone abut-
ments, and are employed on canals, or in fortifica-
tions. They are differently constructed. Till lately
it was most usual to have them to lift up and let down
by means of hinges, and the aid of a kind of balance,
operating vertically. But it has been found more
convenient to make them turn on a center hori-
zontally, so that the leaf or fold of the bridge is
always kept in the same plane. Such bridges are
called swivel bridges. The best examples are at the
West India and London docks. The entrance t«
the wet dock at Leith affords an example on a small
scale.

PART TIL OF STYLE, AND THE PRODUCTION OF EFFECT.

Of Style. Importance of Archilecture. — Architecture has been
sometimes denominated the chief of the mechanical
arts. To this distinction, the important benefits which
it confers on mankind, the magnitude of the materi-
als which it employs, and the skill required in its
nicer operations, may justly entitle it. The degrees
and the manner in which it is practised, form very
striking characteristics of the improvement of differ-
ent countries ; and the durability which attaches to
its productions has contributed to secure and perpe-
tuate the reputation of people long since vanished
from the world. In most of the merely useful arts,
the wants of the present generation alone are con-
templated and supplied. They minister to individu-
als, and to circumstances, indeed, which may often
occur in the compass of a single life. But the archi-
tect, on the contrary, looks into futurity'', and pro-
vides for the welfare and pleasure of distant ages.
His works are destined to abide the judgments of
persons yet unborn, any one of whom may have a
right to bestow praise or censure equal to that of the
original possessor. No wonder, then, that he seeks
the establishment of his fame by the adoption of im-

VOL. I. PART II.

perishable principles, or endeavours to consecrate it Of Style-
by the authority of laws which are universally recog-
nised. Utility is the first object he aims at, and con-
stitutes, indeed, the only but sufficient excellence of
which many buildings c&n boast. The want of it,
we may affirm in general, can be redeemed by no o-
ther quality.

Becomes soon ornamental. — But architecture, unless
among savage nations, is not long confined to the
creation of simply useful edifices. The love of or-
nament is natural to our species ; and, accordingly,
human ingenuity seldom stops in the acquisition of
mere clothing, or the erection of habitable but un-
couth dwellings. Decoration speedily, often imme-
diately follows, and is therefore attempted, and suc-
cessfully too, in one way or other, by every society
of mankind that has emerged from the barbarism of
nature. Its kinds are no doubt various and discord-
ant, but the object is the same.

Certain peculiarities in the materials themselves,

which have been employed in both of the arts now

mentioned, appear to have given the first impulse and

gratification to this powerful propensity, aad to have

8 «

418

ARCHITECTURE

Of Style. Berved long aftervrards as the respected basis of
" " " fashion and the guide of taste. Thus the use of skins
and fur as ornaments in dress, prevails in the most
civilized countries ; and the accidental, perhaps the'
cumbrous appendages of the wooden huts inhabited
by the primitive Greeks, are still copied in the prac-
tice of the most elegant architecture of modern Eu-
rope.

In this art, innovation is indiscriminately condem-
ned. Some monuments of ancient skill, accordingly,
vhich liave survived the wreck of time, and tlie re-
solutions of the world, and on which, it must be al-
lowed, the mould of age has bestowed a sanctity of
character not easily withstood, are held up exclusive-
ly as tlie standard of excellence, from which there
can be no appeal to reason or convenience.

From the admiration of ancient architecture have
sprung the metaphysical doctrine of " proportions
essentially and necessarily beautiful." And " where,
asks the student, are these to be found ?" " In the
Greek orders to be sure," replies the zealous advo-
cate for tlie doctrine, immediately launching out in-
to extravagant commendations of a fewhacknej'ed ex-
amples ; " and these orders, (he continues,) have al-
ways been admired, always will be admired, and, in
ehort, notiiing else can or ought to be admired."

Can it be supposed, that the wretched log-houses
of a nation of barbarians have been the precious
idols of the cognoscenti for some thousand years ; that
it was held little short of heresy or sacrilege to hesi-
tate in paying them homage ; and that it is only in our
own days that an individual has publicly dared to dis-
pute their title to such extraordinary veneration ?
Vet all this is true ; and the clear explicit renuncia-
tion of so monstrous a delusion, ought to be the pre-
liminary step ill any elementary treatise on architec-
ture considered as a fine art.

By such a step, then, we are enabled altogether to
exempt a curious and highly interesting subject from
the absurdities in wliich it has commonly been in-
volved, and to avoid the parade of technical rules,
and a conceited phraseology, which never failed to
perplex tlie judgments and exhaust the patience of
former enquirers. Here we shall avail ourselves of
the remarks of a well known critical journal on Mr
Alison's Essays on Taste ; and this we do the more
readily, because it displays those fundamental prin-
ciples in tlie essays themselves which are most inti-
mately connected with our present subject, and will
eonscqucntly furnish the reader with the most impor-
tant light necessary for its satisfactory investigation.

" There are few things about which men of virhi
are more apt to rave, than the merits of the Grecian
architecture ; and most of those who affect an un-
common purity and delicacy of taste, talk of the in-
trinsic beauty of its proportions a$ a thing not to he
disputed, except by barbarian ignorance and stupidi-
ty, Mr Alison, we think, was the first who gave a
full and convincing refutation of this mysterious dog-
ma; and whilfe he admits, in the most ample terms,
the beauty of the objects in question, has shown, we
think, in the clearest manner, that it arises entirely
from the combination of the following assuciations :
l»t. That association of utility, convenience, or fit-
nets for the -building ; 2d, Of security and etability,

with a view to the nature of the materials ; 3d, Of
the skill and power requisite to mould such materi-
als into forms so commodious ; 4th, Of magnificence,
and splendour, and expense ; 3th, Of antiquity ; and
6thly, Of Roman and Grecian greatness." " This
analysis, (it is added,) is to us perfectly satisfactory.
But, indeed, we cannot conceive any more complete
refutation of the notion of an intrinsic and inherent
beauty in the proportions of the Grecian architec-
ture, than the fact of the admitted beauty of such
very opposite proportions in the Gothic. Opposite
as they are, however, the great elements of beauty are
the same in this style as in tlie other; the impressions
of religious awe, and of chivalrousrecollections com-
ing in place of the classical associations which con-
stitute so great a share of the interest of the former.
It is well observed by Mr Alison, that the great du-
rability and costliness of the productions of this art,
have had the eft'ect, in almost all regions of the world,
of rendering their fashion permanent, after it had
once attained such a degree of perfection as to fulfil
its substantial purposes." " Buildings, (he observes)
may last, and are intended to last for centuries. The
life of man is very inadequate to the duration of such
productions ; and the present period of the world,
though old with respect to those arts which are em-
ployed upon perishable subjects, is yet young in rela-
tion to an art which is employed upon so durable mate-
rials as those of architecture. Instead of a few years,
therefore, centuries must probably pass before such
productions demand to be renewed ; and, long before
that period is elapsed, the sacredness of antiquity is
acquired by the subject itself, and a new motive giv-
en for the preservation of similar forms. In every
country, accordingly, the same effect has taken place ;
and the same causes which have thus served to pro-
duce among us, for so many years, an uniformity of
taste with regard to the style of Grecian architecture,
have produced also among the nations of the east,
for a much longer course of time, a similar ueiformi-
ty of taste with regard to their ornamental style of
architecture, and have perpetuated among tliem the
same forms which were in use among their forefathers,
before the Grecian orders were invented." Edin-
burgh Eeviexu, Vol. 18. ^

Chap. I. Oi Different Styles of Ahckitbc-

TURK.

We now proceed to a slight sketch of the styles of
architecture alluded to in the preceding remarks,
commencing with the Greek ordeis.

Sect. I. The Greek Orders.

The term Order in architecture has been various-
ly defined. It signifies much the same as method, or
arrangement, and is applied to such a portion of a
certain building as comprehends its entire design.
Columns, whether curved or square, these latter be-
ing called pilasters, are generally chosen to indicate
this design, and, in consequence, the word order has
been chiefly appropriated to the arrangement or dis-
play of their proportions. It is, in short, a system of
the dimensions and ornaments of columns and pilas-
ters, as producing a form capable, for reasons already

Of Style.

ARCHITECTURE.

419

assigned, of exciting agreeable or pleasing effect.
Differences in these dimensions and ornaments, or,
more correctly speaking, differences in the propor-
tions of the parts, con.stitiite various orders, each of
which has its peculiar character, and is, consequent-
Ij, appropriated to a certain purpose or design.

The invention of orders is ascribed to the Greeks,
and the language employed to describe their mem-
bers is borrowed from that people. But certain
circumstances would lead to the idea, that the
Greeks themselves had been indebted to the Egyp-
tians for some of the fundamental principles of the
system. One thing is ver}^ clear, that the nature of
the orders, whether orig,inally Grecian or not, mani-
fests them to have been the result of observations on
the wooden huts of an early people. This can be
easily shewn.

Let us form a hut, suppose in r. country abounding
with wood sufficient for the purpose. The size of
the timber will greatly modify the nature of our in-
tended habitation. But we shall imagine that we have
it of dimensions capable of affording much strength
and security, and that we want a house for the ac-
commodation of a large family. We propose, there-
fore, to fix a certain number of good sized posts in
the ground, at equal distances from one another, so
as to form a regular shape, say a square, or other four-
sided figure. Within this space we can arrange si-
milar pieces and branches, either resting on the posts
or twisted round them. But we are chiefly anxious
about a covering at top, to guard us from the rain,
&c. to which we are often exposed ; and, besides this,
our posts, though verj' secure below, are liable to
move a good deal at top, in consequence of having
no connecting medium. We must contrive a reme-
dy for the evil, and make a roof. The first step is
very simple, and leads us towards the whole of our
object. We fix certain pieces longitudinally on the
tops of our posts, connecting them firmly together,
80 that one cannot be moved without affecting the
rest. On these again, and across the breadth, or nar-
rower dimensions of the inclosed space, we lay other
pieces and probably another row, across these too,
for the greater certainty of defence. Still we find
that the rain penetrates, and that our roof is incom-
petent to our wants. It is an obvious suggestion of
reason, that certain pieces of wood, or flat stones,
meeting in an angle in the middle, and sloping down
over the sides of our hut, will carry off' the water from
it, so that the interior may be kept dry. Thus, then,
with various modifications, which peculiar circum-
stances and views will indicate, we have succeeded in
the fabrication of a comfortable abode ; and thus, in
fact, we have ascertained the origin of those famous
orders which are still held as the models of classical
architecture, though the materials on which the art
now operates are essentially different, and might just-
ly be expected to require another liiore ap[)ropriate
treatment. Substitute the term column for post, or
tree, and the term entablature for roof, or covering,
and the mystery of the orders is disclosed. We shall
specify the members into which these parts are di-
vided, and which are common to all the orders, and
afterwards take notice of some distinctions in the or-
ders themselves.

The column is divided into tvro parts, the shaft
and the capital, the former meaning the body of the
column,' from the base or foundation where its rests,
to that portion towards the top, where it is usual to
have mouldings or ornaments, and to which the name
of capital is applied. To these two parts it is now-
very usual to add a third, viz. the base, though some
consider it separately, and subject it also to a certain
division.

The entablature, which we may conceive as the
roof, or weight to be sustained by the column, is
divided into architrave, or epistyle, that part which
rests immediately on the capital \ frieze, or zoophoi-utSy
above the architrave, and a little receding from it ;
and, lastly, the cornice, being the upper part whick
projects beyond the frieze, answering apparently ta
the jutting ends of the roof, as the architrave does to
the lintelling beams, and the frieze to the intermedi-
ate crossing ones.

All of these parts both of the column and entabla-
ture, we ought to remark, are variously subdivided,
as may be seen in Fig. I. Plate 15. to which we re-
fer as abundantly satisfactory, without occupying
more room with verbal descriptions.

Properly speakiug, there are only three orders,
named from the places wliere they are conceived ta
have been invented, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
To these many modern authors add the Tuscan and
Composite.

All these orders have the same chief members, and
are similarly subdivided. The proportion of their
members, the ornaments attached to them, and the
destinations for which they are intended, differ ia
each, as we shall soon explain. But, first, it %vill be
advantageous to the student to give a rule for draw-
ing an order. This we shall take, with some modifi-
cation, from a small but judicious practical work, by
Mr P. Nicholson, entitled the Student's Instructor in
drawing and working the five orders of Architecture,
which we recommend to his notice.

Rule for drawing an order. — Make a scale of the
diameter of the column, as represented in the plate
last referred to ; divide it into six equal parts, or mo-
dules, as they are called, and the first of these into
ten equal parts, or minutes. Every member of the
order is to be reckoned in minutes of this scale, whe-
ther in height or projection, in the following manner.
Draw a perpendicular through the middle of the co-
lumn, on which set off all the heights. Draw ano-
ther line parallel to this one, at the distance of twen-
ty-five minutes from it, forming the diminution, oa
which set off the upper projections, as shewn in the
figure. Those of the base are to be set off from the
outer extremity of the column, which is thirty mi-
nutes from the axis. A slight examination of the
plate will be sufficient for the understanding of this
rule. The names of the mouldings, with their pro-
portions in minutes, are marked on the side of the
colunm. For an account of their varieties, and par-
ticular rules for describing them, we refer to the
work now mentioned, as more necessary for the stu-
dent than likely to interest or be valued by the gene-
ral reader. Most of the practical works treat of this
subject with a wearisome minuteness. We shall not
add to the number, or occupy any room in specify-

Of Style,

420

ARCHITECTURE.

Of Style.

ing thp differences of the Greek and Roman propor-
tions of the orders, our object being the raost ele-
mentary information.

Doric order. — This is the most ancient of the
Greek orders, and seems to have been the only one
known in Greece till the time of the Macedonian con-
quest. It bears, more than any of them, perhaps,
decisive marks of the common origin of the orders,
as may be seen by the peculiarities of its frieze and
corners, indicating the joists and rafters of the wooden
hut. This will be very plainly discovered in Fig. 2.
Originally it seems to have wanted a base, and the
columns were often fluted, as if for the convenience
of resting the spears with which the early Greeks were
in the habit of arming themselves, both circumstances
very characteristic of high antiquity. From an exami-
nation of many monuments of this order, Mr Nichol-
son, in his Dictionary, lays down the following remarks
as to the proportions of its parts : ' For public build-
ings the columns may be five diameters (the standard
being the diameter of a section of the shaft at the bot-
tom, ) or five diameters and a half in height, and for
private dwellings, six ; the diminution may be one-
fourth of the inferior diameter. The height of the
capital may be two-fifths of the lower diameter, and
may be divided into two equal parts, one of which
may be given to the abacus (see the former figure,)
the other to the echinus and annulets (that is, the
evoloand fillets of the capital,) the latter may be
subdivided into five equal parts, and four of them ta-
ken for the echinus, and the remaining one for the
annulets. The height, of the entablature may also
be divided into four equal parts, of which one may
be given to the cornice, and the other three being
subdivided into two parts, one part may be given to
the epistylium, and one to the frieze or zoophorus."
It ought to be remarked, however, that the ancients
admitted considerable license in determining the pro-
poitions. We shall now mention the most distinguish-
ing peculiarities of this order.

The capital consists of a large convex moulding,
in the form of a bow, and a square stone, apparently
intended to keep off the rain. The architrave, which
represents a wooden beam, is formed of a single
piece of stone or marble, and is furnished with a
projecting band at top. From a small fillet under
part of this band, there hang six guitce, in imita-
tion of so many drops of rain, which may be ima-
gined to have proceeded from the glyphs or channels
in the frieze immediately above. These glyphs,
wliich are three in number, in consequence of which
tliey are generally called triglyphsy correspond- to
cuts supposed to be made in the ends of the beams,
for the purpose of draining off the rain, and are
formed by two planes meeting internally in a right
angle in each of them. The spaces or pannels be-
tween these triglyphs, generally of a square shape,
are called metopes, and are often ornamented with
heads of animals and other figures. Over the tri-
glyphe are placed what correspond to the ends of the
rafters, denominated mutules, one being over each,
and one also over each metope. The cornice pro-
jects greatly, and its corona usually forms a very
well marked distinction between its upper and lower

parts. The columns in this order, which diminish
from the bottom to the top in a curve or a straight
line, arc very often fluted m a manner peculiar to
itself. The flutes are usually twenty in number,
without fillets, and terminate under the annulets of the
echinus of the capital. Many examples of Doric are
still extant, and have been described in various
works. One of the completest, though not the most
ancient, is that of the tlieatre of Marcellus at Rome,
described by Sir William Chambers, in his valuable
work on Civil Architecture. But the finest speci-
mens are to be sought for in the remains of Greek
buildings, as displayed, for instance, in Stuart's A-
theits. In the purest examples, generally speaking,
the architrave and frieze are nearly of equal height,
each being commonly equal to the upper diameter
of the column, and the mean height of the cornice is
half the diameter, so that these three parts are to each
other in the proportion of 3, 3, and 2 ; the face of the
tablet in which the triglyphs are placed and that of the
architrave are in one vertical plane, and the vertical
face of the architrave projects beyond the superior di-
ameter, but is retired within the inferior one.

JoJiic order. — The Ionic order is next in antiquity
to the Doric, and in all probability had its origin in
the desire of novelty which so certainly besets a
people among whom luxury has commenced. But
to what particular object of imitation its capital, by
which it is chiefly distinguishable, was conformed,
we are not now able to ascertain. Vitruvius, whose
authority has been pretty extensively owned, asserts
it to have been intended for a representation of the
curls in the female head-dress ; according to others
it is copied from the bark of trees dried in the sun.
The forms of certain sea-shells, of the horns of rams,
and various other bodies, are also reported to have
given the hint.

The divisions of this order are the same as in the
former, but the general appearance is lighter and
more simple. This is owing to the greater length of
the column, which may be stated at 18 modules, that
of the Doric being 16, and to tlie entablature being
less encumbered. On the whole, it may be remark-
ed, the parts of this order have not been so strictly
defined as the corresponding ones in the Doric, an
argument, by the bye, for the notion, that it was,
more the creature of fancy. The most remarkable
peculiarity in the capital is what is called the volute,
which is easily known by its shape resembling, it is
conceived, the curls of the hair as they hang on the
right and left sides of the head. The cornice, be-
sides, is characteristic of this order equally with the
capital. It represents the ends of the laths to which
the tiles were attached, and which are called den-
tiles. But some of the remains of this order, found,
at Athens, are destitute of these marks. This order
lias not the triglyphs or mutules of the Doric.

In all the specimens of Greek Ionic, the height of
the cornice, measured from the lower edge of the
corona upwards, seems to bear a constant proportion
to the entire height of the entablature, viz. nearly
as 2 to 9. The frieze is wanting in almost all the
Asiatic examples of this order. The height of the
colunm has beea somewhat increased by the mo-

Of Style,

ARCHITECTURE.

421

Of Style, derns ; and in works intended for grand effect, it is
usual to make the height of the entablature at least
one-fourth that of the column, though in general it
amounts to two diameters. See Fig. 3.

Corinthian order — It is uncertain when this order
was invented, but there can be no doubt that it is
of much later date than the others we have describ-
ed. It is remarkable for its delicacy and suscepti-
bility of ornament, characters which have obtained for
it the title of virginal order, in contradistinction to
the Ionic, which, from its greater sedateness and
simplicity, has been denominated matronal. It is in
the capital that the decorations of the order are so
conspicuous, and this, according to an ancient re-
port, is said to have been copied from an appearance
noticed by an Athenian sculptor in passing the tomb
of a young lady. A basket, covered with a tile,
had been placed upon it, and round this an Acan-
thus spread its leaves, the tops of which were bent
downwards in the form of volutes, by the resistance
of the superincumbent tile. This hint is the com-
monly reputed origin of the order, and certainly has
pretty good claims to be so considered. But it was
not in Greece that this order attained the greatest
perfection, or was most employed. The liomans
excelled in this respect, and in some periods of their
history seem to have almost confined their orna-
mental architecture to it.

According to Vitruvius, the shafts of the Corin-
tliian and Ionic columns have the same symme-
try, and the only difference between their entire
columns is in the heights of their capitals, the for-
mer being the whole diameter of the shaft, and
the latter only one-third. He makes the Ionic co-
lumn eight diameters ; the Corinthian, therefore,
would be eight diameters and two-thirds. But the
moderns have increased it to ten diamit:rs, in which
the base and capital are both included. The shaft
is usually fluted when the entablature is enridied, —
but not when it is formed of variegated marble. The
number of flutes and fillets is the same as in . the
Ionic, generally twenty-four ; and the lower parts of
the flutes are often filled up with cables to about one-
Uiird of their height. In place of cables, some fan-
tastic artists employ flowers, ribbands, &c. but this
taste deserves the epithet of vulgar ; indeed cables
themselves are not quite pure. The Ionic entabla-
ture is often applied to this order, but an appropriate
one has sometimes been attempted, and a cornice,
in particular, is specified as most suitable. It con-
sists of several members, for the due effect of which
the whole height of the entablature requires to be
increased more than two diameters, making it two-
ninths of the columns, whereas, when the Ionic cor-
nice is used, a fifth of the height of the column is
sufficient. We cannot help thinking with Mr Nich-
olson, that this latter is more in proportion to the,
slight columns of the order.

Sir William Chambers was of opinion that this or-
der was employed by the ancients in temples dedi-
cated to Venus, Flora, Proserpine, &c. " because
the flowers, foliage, and volutes, with which it is
adorned, seemed well adapted to the delicacy and
elegance of such deities." But the Komans dp not.

appear to have restricted it to such purposes, em- Of Style
ploying it occasionally in temples dedicated to .Ju-
piter, Mars, and Neptune. Indeed it is questionable
if the ancients in general were particularly careful
to suit the character of the style to the nature or
object of the building. We find, in reality, perhaps,
alf the orders indiscriminately used for all purposes,
and on all occasions. See Fig. 4.

The Tuscan and Composite orders, which, from
the circumstance of their having been introduced in
Italy, are commonl3' called Roman, may be consi-
dered as mere modifications of the three just no%v
described, and require little notice.

Tuscan order. — The Tuscan order has been called
gigantic, on account of its dimensions and general
appearance of strength. It is the simplest of all the
orders, having fewest parts and ornaments, and is
accordingly used commonly where great weights are
supposed to be sustained. No ancient specimens of
it, in an entire state, have reached our times, and,
in consequence, its proportions, especially those of
the entablature, are rather guessed at than accurate-
ly determined. Fig. 1. shews the Tuscan,

Composite order. — The Composite order may be
said to be compounded of the Tonic and Corinthian.
It is rather extensively employed by the moderns —
for no other reason that we can discover, than as,
from its ambiguous and somewhat undefined charac-
ter, it allows ample space for the love of novelty.
As connected with the orders, we may here mention
some other parts of the Greek architecture, before
leaving the subject. See Fig. 5.

Pilasters — These are subject to the same rules as
columns, from which they differ only in plan, being
square or flat in place of round. They are equally .
suitable for exemplifying the orders, and are similar-
ly distinguished by names. But it is a general opi-
nion, that they are less perfect. As they save room,
cost less in construction, and add strength to a build-
ing, they are frequently employed either alone or in ■
conjunction with columns.

Attics, — This is a name borrowed from the country
of their origin, applied to low square pillars resemb-
ling a pedestal, which are placed at the upper parts
of buildings as a crown, and generally in order to -
conceal the roof. Their proportions are not very ac-
curately determined ; but it is a pretty common max-
im, that their height ought not to exceed one-third:
of the order on which they are fixed, nor be less- .
than one-fourth.

Colo7isade signifies a series of columns, whether
separate or connected, used in the support of an en-
tablature, and has its specific name from the number ■
of columns as tetra-style, octo-style, SfC. .

Intercolurtiniation is the name given to the space
between columns. It has been divided into five spe-
cies, according to the amount of interval, as pucno-,
style, when the columns were no more than a diame-
ter and a-half from each other, reckoning by the in^
ferior diametw ; systyle, when at two diameters ; eus-
tyle, when at two and a quarter ; diastyle, when at
three diameters, and arcestyle, when at four, or most
thinly set. Other denominations have been applied
to the intervals in the Doric order, .taken from the

422

ARCHITECTURE.

OfStvte. number of the triglyphs which were placed over
v^»>^^^^ them, as monotrigtyph when only one, ditiiglyph
when two, &c. &c.

The term antce denotes a sort of square pillarc,
which the early Greek architects sometimes placed
at the ends of their walls projecting to a considerisble
distance from the front of the building, so as to form
the vestibulum at pronaos in the case of a temple.

Pediments are ornaments, in imitation, obviously,
of the rafters and tie-beam of a wooden hut ; a ho-
rizontal cornice representing the latter, and two
equally inclined pieces, or sometimes more, the for-
mer. The moderns seem to hare lost sight of tins
origin, and, accordingly, not unusually commit blun-
ders in the construction of the pediment.

Arcades. — Such is the denomination of certain
openings in walls, which, fron; being too con:ider-
able for a lintel, are arched over. They form ve>y
good ornaments, and, when will constructed, are
stronger than colonnades, for which tliey are occa-
sionally substituted.

Niche The niche is a smallsr opening, or recess

in a wall, intended for the receptioii of siatues, &c.

The Greeks testified their hatred of the Persians,
and their contempt for the inhabitants of Caria, who
at one time gave assistance to that people, in a sin-
gular manner. They put figures of both under en-
tablatures instead of columns, subjecting them, as
it were, to the office of slaves. To these figures the
names of Penians and Cari/atides have been applied.
Something similar to these are the Termini, a kind
of half human form, no way more comfortably dis-
posed of. It is not a little strange, that any of the
moderns should adopt such perverse absurdities. Ex-
travagant, however, and in the absence of national
prejudice, surely unpleasant as this practice is, it il-
lustrates in a very convincing manner what may be
held as the only just criterion of the beauty of the
orders, their accommodation to the purposes for
which they are destined. These figures are evidently
put under a burden, aud are conceived as sustaining
it. Precisely so do the columns in which the features
of the orders are displayed. Their competency to
the office is the chief recommendation they can have,
and thus Mr Alison's remarks are fully confirmed :
" In all the orders," says that writer, " the fitness of
the parts to the support of the peculiar weight, or
appearance of weight in the entablature, is apparent
to every person, and constitutes an undoubted part
of the pleasure we receive from them. In the Tus-
can, where the entablature is heavier than in the
rest, the colunm and base are proportionally stronger.
In the Corinthian, where the entablature is lightest,
the column and base are proportionably slighter. In
the Doric and Ionic, which are between these ex-
tremes, the forms of the column and base are in the
eame manner proportioned to the reciprocal weights
of their entablature, being neither so strong as the
one nor so slight as the other. If the beauty of such
proportions is altogether independent of fitness, and
derived from the immediate constitution of our na-
ture, it is difficult to account for this coincidence ;
and, as the beauty of fitness in these several cases is
universally allowed, it is altogether un^^ilosophical
to substitute other causes for the tame effect, until

the insufficiency of tliis cause is clearly pointed out."
We shall have evidence of the same truths, in some
particulars, in the style we have next to notice. The
comparative eflects of some of the Greek orders are
attempted to be displayed in Plate 16.

Sect. II. Golhic Architecture.

The word Gothic seldom fails to summon up no-
tions of stupidity, ignorance, and barbarism. It is
very unfortunately applied, therefore, to a style of
architecture exhibiting much ingenuity and skill.
But no other denomination for it has been generally
acquiesced in, and as the inaccuracy of the applica-
tion in every sense is universally known and admit-
ted, tliere would be some affectation in any attempt
to substitute another in its place.

'Hie arcliitecture so named is that wliich is to be
found in old cathedrals and many other large edi-
fices erected throughout several countries of Europe
between the I'itli and 16th centuries. It differs wide-
ly from the style already described, both in construc-
tion and apper,vance. In the (jrecian architecture, the
adjustmenft of material", depended on their strength in
large tnassejs, which need only be arranged in neat
forms, of sinipic c-ontrivarice. The Gothic, on the con-
trary, with no otiier mateili^.ls than what a Greek ar-
tist would have conceived useless, in fact the rubbish
and chippings of his work-shop, produced structures
of equiU strength and perhaps greater magnificence.
This triumph over imperfection, it is clear, was not
to be obtained without the aid of superior skill that
could be called into action in circumstances where
the possession of better means superseded the neces-
sity of invention. In appearance, again, this style
is easily distinguislied by its slender shafts and clus-
tered pillars, its circular, pointed, or angular arches
and groins, its spires and pinnacles, and the variety,
number, and minuteness of its decorations.

There have been many opinions respecting its ori-
gin, all of which have been defended by eminent
writers. Those of most note are stated and contro-
verted in a late publication by Sir James Hall. This
gentleman, several years ago, excited a great degree
of interest by a memoir on the point in dispute, in-
serted in the +th volume of the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh ; and the work now al-
luded to is to be considered as the full elucidation
and defence of his earlier speculations. His theory
claims the merit of comprehending every part of the
style whose origin it undertakes to demonstrate ;
and, moreover, demands assent, by a direct appeal to
history and experiment. We shall not occupy much
space in explaining it, as we conceive that a very ge-
neral view, in addition to some figures, will suffice
for such readers as will not be at the pains to exa-
mine it more narrowly by a perusal of the splendid
work in which it is displayed.

This theory supposes Gothic structures to have,
been executed in imitation of rustic dwellings made
somewhat in the following manner :

In the first place, Let two rows of posts be driven
fast into the ground, opposite each otlitT, at an inter-
val equal to that between the posts in the rows them-
selves, all of them being equal in height to about
three of the intervals. Then apply to each post a

Of Style;

ARCHITECTURE.

423

set of long flexible rods, thrusting them into the
ground at its base and tying them in two places, one
a little above the ground, and the other within about
a third part of the heiglit, leaving them loose from
tliis point up., ards, so thiH they may be freely moved
in any direction. The rods may be three in number
to each of the out::ide corner porfs, and five to each
of the others, all being placed so as to cover the in-
side of the postti, and give it the appearance of a
bundle of rods. Fig. 6. Plate l.>.

" It will be easy now to form the skeleton of a
thatched roof. For this purpose, let a rod from each
of two opposite pojts be bent et its loose top, 30
that they may cross each other, as in Fig. 7. v. liich
gives us the form of a pointed arch ; and the same
being done throughout the whole extent of the two
opposite rows, a horizontal rod, or ridge-bar, as it
is called, being at the same time placed a'ong the
points of crossing, we have the appe.irance of a Go-
thic arcade. See Fig. 8. Two rods from each
post in the same row are now to be treated in like
manner, so as to form similar arches in both rows,
and these are also to be connected by ridge-bars
crossing the longitudinal one. This will be easily
understood by examining Fig. 9. without farther de-
scription.

We have now employed two rods of each corner
post and three of each intermediate one, there still
remain one in the former and two in the latter,
which we di.sposc of by causing them to pass dia-
gonally from the corners of each rectangle, not cross-
ing as in the former cases, but applied, side by side,
so as to form a continued hoop, ot semicircle, as is
jhewn in Fig. 10.

In this manner all our rods are occupied, and a
frame as produced capable of supporting thatch or
other covering. " It would seem, however, that, for
the sake of strength, the number of rods has been
increased in each cluster, by the introduction, be-
tween every two of tliem, of an additional rod,
which, rising witii them to the roof, still continues
its middle position, as they spread asunder, and meets
the horizonal pole at an intermediate point. This is
shown in Fig. 1 1 . which is drawn with its covering
of thatch ; and from the imitation of a dwelling so
constructed, we may easily trace the three leading
characters of Gothic architecture, — the pointed arch,
the clustered column, and the branching roof, as ex-
hibited in Fig. 12.

The peculiarities of Gothic windows, doors, spires,
&c. are accounted for by the ingenious author on si-
milar principles ; and he has actually constructed a
small building in this way and with such materials,
possessing, in miniature, the features of the Gothic
style, and a considerable share of beauty.

The historical evidence adduced, that some such
edifices were erected in former times for sacred pur-
poses, will probably influence the judgments of most
readers in favour of the theory more than all the
acute reasoning and feasible conjectures by which it
is supported. But waving every other objection
which presents itself to oiu- minds, we shall merely
say, before leaving the subject, that this kind of
woodea structure, supposed to be the prototype of

Gothic architecture, is itself a very complicated piece Of Style,
of work, perhaps too much so for the hasty demands
and crude notions of an early people. May it not,
then, have been the refined result of attempts to
imitate some natural arrangements which aflbrded
shelter to certain primitive generations ? A remark,
made by Dr Clarke in the course of his travels, will
sufiiciently point out what we now allude to, and can
scarcely fail to yield it some recommendation to the
unprejudiced mind. " A building," says that gen-
tleman, in his 2d volume, p. 307. " of considerable,
although unknown antiquity, still exists in Rosetta,
which seems to aiford prool', that the pointed Gothic
arch ov^es its origin to the appearance presented by
contiguous palm-trees. The roof is entirely of stone,
and consists of curvatures supported by props, re-
presenting the trunks of palm-trees, placed in the
sides and corners of the structure. Their branches,
crossing each other upwards, form intersections cor-
responding in shape with the pointed arches of our
cathedrals." If this notion be correct, it might irot
be difficult to reconcile the theory with some of the
opinions intended to be supplanted by it.

The pointed arch, we ought to observe, is not es-
sential to Gothic architecture. This leads us to no-
tice two species of building to which that very im-
proper title has been applied, both of them to be
found in Great Britain, a country abounding in some
of the finest specimens of the style. These species
have been denominated, by some authors whom we
follow here, Saxon and Norman, certainly with some
degree of accuracy, if the circumstance of peculiar
and almost exclusive adoption by the people so call-
ed be allowed to warrant a national appellation.

The Saxon style, or that which prevailed in Eng-
land before the conquest, but by no means confined
to it, and which has been sppposed an adulteration
or rude imitation of the genuine Grecian or Roman
manner, is characterised by circular arches, such
undoubtedly as may be seen in the remains of an-
cient buildings in Rome, round-headed windows,
and massy pillars, also round, and having a sort of
regular capital and base. In tliis style most of the
old English churches were built, many of them ex
hibiting great art, and being productive of very fine
effect. A few examples will prove this. In Fig,
13. Plate 15. which represents the arched entrance
to the north aisle of the nave of Peterborough ca-
thedral, we have an excellent specimen of Saxon ca-
pitals, and of what has been called chevron-xuork, or
zig-zag ornaments, often found in Saxon buildings.
Fig. 14. same Plate, exhibits one of the arches in
the upper w alk in the nave of Norwich cathedral. It
has what is known by the name of billet -mouXdmg,
and one of the columns has a spiral band. The win-
dow, it will be seen, is in a diflerent style, being
pointed, and is of later date. A tower, on tlie east
side of Norwich castle, of great but unknown anti-
quity, is a beautiful illustration of this style. We
have a still nobler example in Durham catiiedral,
which is in the purest Saxon manner.

The Norman style is distinguished by the pointed
arch, and may be considered as that from which the
Saxon received its greatest degree of beauty and

4S4

ARCHITECTURE.

or Style, perfection. It is to this style, particularly, though,
as we have already shewn, improperly and inade-
quately, that the term Gothic has been assigned. It
has been divided into the absolute, the ornamental,
and the Jlortd ; but such distinctions, though no
doubt capable of beiug proved to exist, are of com-
paratively little moment in a general point of view,
and need not occupy our attention in this place. We
shall equally disregard the division into 1st, 2d, and
3d orders, which Ur Milner and others have adopted.
The author last mentioned has exhibited, in a se-
ries of drawings, mostly taken from Winchester ca-
thedral, the probable rise and progress of the point-
ed arch. The selection we have made from his work
will not prove uninteresting, and may serve instead
of verbal description. See Tig. 13. — IT.'PIate 15. To
these instructive drawings, he has added a view of
Westminster Abbey, as a good example of the point-
ed style, contrasted with Durham cathedral, as a
specimen of the circular. For particular informa-
tion on the subjects now cursorily mentioned, we
might refer to an iramensity of difi'erent publications,
by which, in various ways, and on various principles,
it has been lately attempted to render justice to the
skill and taste of our ancestors. It will be enough,
perhaps, to specify a Collection of Essays on Go-
thic Architecture by Warton, Bentham, Grose, and
Milner, the 3d edition of which was publi.-ihed at
London in 1808; and Dallaway's Observations on
English Architecture, London, 1806, in which suffi-
cient references will be found to other valuable pro-
ductions.

Gothic architecture, originally employed, almost
exclusively, in sacred edifices, has, in modern times,
been applied either alone, or with various combina-
" tions, to the construction of private dwellings. It
is questionable if the practice have any advantageous
associations to recommend it ; and it is very certain,
that kyf instances in which it has been adopted have
succeeded in yielding satisfaction as objects of taste.
Admitting that they are equally well executed with
some ancient structures, still the interest of age is
wanting to .give them similar effect. But, unfortu-
nately, this admission is not reconcileable with the real
condition of most of the modern fabrics denominat-
ed Gothic. This term, indeed, seems at last to have
obtained in them a suitable exemplar of its common
acceptation, and will therefore be continued in ge-
neral use, we have no doubt, for a century or two
longer. To this new application we can have no
objections ; but then there is the greater necessity
for finding another expression to denote the objects
which are so miserably burlesqued !

Skct. III. Of the Egyptian and Oriental Styles.

We ought not to close the subject of style without
making a few remarks on the peculiarities of archi-
tecture in some countries which have furnished oc-
casional modes for imitation to the inhabitants of
modem Europe. The whole may be classed under
two heads, Egyptian and Oriental styles, the latter
being divisible into ,Persian, Chinese, and Indian ;
to which we may add the Moorish or Saracenic.

Egyptian style. — This can only be ascertained from

an examination of ancient structures, the affairs of
Egypt having long precluded any attention to this
art beyond what is requisite for essential utility.
As far as can be discovered, the architecture of
Egypt is original, that is to say, unborrowed from
the practice of any other country. It is of the great-
est antiquitj'; and some of its monuments still con-
stitute the wonders of the world. The striking fea-
tures of the style may be said to be massiveness,
sameness, tapering walls, huge pillars, flat roofs, and
emblematical sculptures. Few and feeble attempts
have ever been made to introduce this style into
modern practice. Several of its most glaring ap-
pearances have of late imposed themselves on pub-
lic taste in the shape of furniture.

Indian ityle. — Several resemblances have been no-
ticcil betw een certain buildings in India and Egypt,
and hence an argument, in conjunction with other
ciAumstances, for the opinion maintained by very
respectable authors, that an intercourse between the
tv.o people had formerly existed. It is chiefly in
the religious edifices of Inula that we discover the
peculiarities of its architecture, superstition having
preserved a partiality for the forms and decorations
of early times, whilst political revolutions have prov-
ed unfi-iendly to the cultivation of other branches of
the art. The pagodas or temples are of five difterent
kinds : 1. Excavations ; 2. Pyramids ; 3. Courts of a
square or oblong form ; 4'. In the shape of a cross ;
5. Those that are circular.

The excavations are very numerous, and some-
times of immense extent. They are cut in moun-
tains and rocks, and are either plain or enriched
with sculptures and statues. The roofs of these sin-
gular structures are softietimes flat, and sometimes
in the form of an arch, and are occasionally support-
ed by pillars. In the size, the labour requisite for
construction, and the general effect they are capable
of producing, some of these excavations may vie
with the chief productions of art in any part of the
world. Those of Elephanta and Salsette, islands near
Bombay, and of Vellore, situate 18 miles from the
capital of the province of Balagat, are conceived to
be the most remarkable.

The pyramids are constructed of large stones, and
are rather of a rude appearance. They have narrow
entrances and are lighted with lamps.

The most considerable pagoda of the third kind is
that of Seringham near Tritchhiopoly. It is four
miles in circumference, and is composed of seven
square inclosures, one within another, the walls of
each being 25 feet high, and four feet thick. The
outward wall is ornamented with pillars, and the
gateways are covered with emblematical figures. Si-
milar edifices are common in India.

At Benares, on the banks of the Ganges, is a not-
ed temple in the form of a cross. The branches are
of equal length, and there is a cupola in the middle,
under which is an altar sacred to Hindoo mysteries.
Juggernaut is an example of a circular pagoda,
several particulars of which must be familiar to most
of our readers, from the general attention excited
about it by the publication of Dr Buchanan's Chris-
tian Researches.

ARCHITECTURE.

425

Of Style, The domestic architecture of India presents little
interest. We know of no instance in which it has
been copied in our regions.

Persian style. — The ancient architecture of Per-
sia, unlike that of Egypt and India, was directed to
civil rather than religious purposes. Accordingly,
their cities, palaces, and we may add tombs, have
been often spoken of in terms of admiration, whilst
their temples, that of Belus and a few others excep-
ted, do not seem to have gained much notice. The
Persian style has some traces of the Egyptian,-
the Indian, and the Grecian ; and in other respects,
again, is somewhat peculiar. The religious edifices
which have been erected in this kingdom in modern
times, bear strong resemblances to the usual style of
Turkish mosques, abounding in domes, minarets or
tall slender pillars, squares, &c.

Chinese style. — Very different from any of the
styles we have mentioned, is that which prevails in
China. It has every mark of originality, and in all
probability is directly deduced from the tent. Its
form, proportions, and constituent parts, all indicate
this early habitation as its prototype. The nature
of the government in that country, and the preju-
dices of the people, have opposed any innovation on
their style, and accordingly, almost every species
of buildjng exhibits the same general features. It
is in the gateways of their cities, and their triumphal
arches, which are numerous, that any thing like va-
riety is to be found. Regularity, lightness, and a
certain expression of gaiety, are its chief recommen-
dations. Of sublimity, or grandeur, or strength, it
can scarcely be said to possess any marks whatever,
even on tlie largest scale on which it is display-
ed. On the whole, many of its characteristics, with
sundry modifications no doubt, may be very judi-
ciously, and with good effect, introduced into our
own country. They are most suitable to the villa
and ornamented cottage.

The Saracenic, Arabian, or Moorish style, if such
it may be called, bears some resemblance both to
the Egyptian and the Grecian, and probably, indeed,
is the result of an attempt made to combine these
two together. The finest examples of it are met
with in Spain, as the palace of the Alhambra, and the
mosque at CorttOva, which have been so splendidly
illustrated by an ingenious and erudite author, Mr
Murphy, whose late work on these remains is per-
liaps the most magnificent addition to the library of
the arts that has been made for half a century. In
general effect, judging as we do from this gentleman's
drawings, we should imagine that some of these spe-
cimens, as the Halls of the Two Sisters, of the Am-
bassadors, of the Lions, &c. surpass every architec-
tural display that is elsewhere to be met with. This
is another, and perhaps decisive evidence, of the
truth of our preliminary observations ; for it is cer-
tain, that in these very examples great depar-
tures from what is called pure taste may be pointed
out. Those who are interested in scenic representa-
tions for the theatre could not possibly do better,
we should think, than avail theniselves of the gor-
geous and impressive beauties presented in the superb
publication just now mentioned.

VOL. I. FARX II.

Chap. II. Or the Characters op different
Kinds or Buildings.

Of Style.

Architecture, we have seen, is both a practical
science and a fine art. The former, which is of
most importance to human welfare, is the result of
observations and experiments on the properties of
bodies, and can scarcely be said, notwithstanding
the rapidity of its growth, and the perpetual n eces-
sity for its exercise, to have attained the perfe.ction
of which it is susceptible. The latter, though t has
its origin in certain affections of the mind, is and
can only be cultivated where civilization and refine-
ment of policy permit a considerable portion of a
community to be occupied in ' devising gratifications
for the superinduced desires of the rest. Like the
other arts of taste, it is liable to be influenced by
the prevalent sentiments and actual condition of so-
ciety. In some countries, accordingly, where luxury
most prevails, there is ground to fear it already has-
tens towards that state of corruption, from which
there seems scarcely a possibility of escape for any
thing of human contrivance. The progress of the
arts of taste, indeed, has been pretty uniform among
very different nations. Simplicity of appearance, and
modesty of design, are succeeded by ambitious com-
binations and conceited artifices ; grandeur of effect,
and majesty of manner, give place to ostentatious
embelli^ments and useless pageantry. If there be
the least hope that architecture shall have another
fate, or a more protracted declension, in our times,
it must be founded on the prevalence of scientific
information enabling great numbers of persons to
correct the extravagancies of taste, by frequent ap-
peals to recognised principles of utility. Very for-
tunately, there is always a sufficient excuse for such
appeals, because, as the productions of the art are
intended for something else than merely to give plea-
sure, it is necessary that certain persons should ex-
plore the intelligence of the artist, and sit in judg-
ment on his reasons for the conduct he adopts. Their
decisions, therefore, are calculated to maintain the
authority of laws which are much more respectable
than the arbitrary decrees of fashion. The labours
of one philosopher, it may be added, incidentally
directed towards the metaphysical basis of this art,
as we have already mentioned, have gone far to res-
cue it from a no less hurtful, and, perhaps, more in-
sidious influence. Much still remains to be done for
its prosperity; and its fate must ever be held as
doubtful, till the extension of science has presented
legitimate inducements for the exercise of genius,
and an enlarged acquaintance with the fundamental
principles of sound criticism shall have lessened
men's regard for the imposing, but idle maxims of
the schools.

The following remarks on the characters of some
kinds of buildings, may not be altogether unaccept-
able to the liberal-minded reader, as a small but un-
hesitating attempt to divest the subject of pedantry,
and bring it more directly under the cognizance of
common sense and feelings than has usually been
its fortune to experience. A few observations of 9.
3h

426

A K C H I T E C T U R E.

Of Style, practical nature are occasionally blended with them,
which may not at first sight seem quite well placed ;
but there is a necessity for recurring Sit times to the
primary sources whence the decisions of taste are
derived ; and we have contrived to avoid repetition,
which is less pardonable, by deferring their insertion
to this place. We cannot undertake to treat of all
the classes of buildings, and have accordingly se-
lected such examples as appeared most susceptible
of useful discussion, or more immediately concerned
the interests of our readers. We propose, therefore,
to treat, 1. Of the Cottage ; 2. Of Farm-houses ; 3.
Of the Villa ; 4. Of Grouped Houses ; 5. Of Public
Buildings. Our observations, we conceive it very
necessary to mention, are in great degree the result
ftf our careful perusal of numerous books on the va-
Hous subjects treated of, some of which we have oc-
casionally specified as more particularly calculated
to assist such persons as are interested to prosecute
the investigation farther.

Sect. I. Of the Cottage.

What is a cottage? There is some difficulty in
answering this question. According to Dr Johnson,
whose authority may be considered as decisive, it is
" a mean habitation." But the word mean is a relative
term, and, in the present application, has undoubtedly^
a reference to a higher ormoredignifiedorder of build-
ing with which the cottage is compared. The greater
house, it is evident, must be supposed to exist in tlie
neighbourhood, or, at least, to be well known by the
persons who use the phrase. To an inhabitant of
New Holland, it is probable, a moderately neat
English hut would appear a superb mansion ; and.
On the other hand, to a person who had been accus-
tomed exclusively to the elegance of a modern Eu-
ropean city, most of the plain though comfortable
houses of our farmers might seem to deserve the title
of " mean habitations." The definition, then, is a
very loose one, and can scarcely be employed with-
out ambiguity or inaccuracy. To deduce an answer
from the rank of the person that inhabits a place so
called, would be no less unfortunate. The peasant is
Bot its only occupier. Farmers, noblemen, and princes
have their cottages, as well as the hedger or ditcher.
We must restrict the term, therefore, to something
characteristic of the building, if we wish to avoid mis-
take and to be generally understood. Perfect accu-
racy in the adaptation of words can scarcely be looked
for In this case, and perhaps every reader has attach-
ed some peculiar idea to the term. Yet surely there
is a common principle regarded in the minds of all
Tvho use it. We propose to confine its acceptation
to those comfortable country habitations, wliatever
their form or n)aterials may be, which are of humble
size, and unconnected not only with other dwellings,
-but also with distant outhouses, such as stables, barns,
ftc. The propriety of this last restriction will be ap-
parent when we come to treat of farm-houses and
■villas. After all, the term will be found abundantly
comprehensive, as including not only the dwellings
«f the country labourer or farm-servant, but also
lodges for gates, hunting-boxes, hermitages, retreats,

tiC.

The cottage is evidently intended for economy,

ease, and convenience. It is remote alike from every Of Style,
idea of expense, grandeur, and danger. It has no-
thing to do with the circumstances of feudal times,
and may be considered as entirely the offspring of
improvement and peace. Every thing, therefore, in
its appearance, where choice can operate in its crea-
tion, ought to correspond with its humble but secure
character. But even the lowest examples of this class
of buildings have a powerful effect in determining the
features of a country, much more indeed, from their
number, and the very circumstance of their being
destined to accommodate the bulk of the people, than
the ambitious and repulsive castles and palaces which
are but occasionally met with in a wide sphere. Gen-
tlemen of property would do well to attend to this in-
fluence when laying out their estates. Let them ne-
ver forget, tliat the rustic beauty of the cottage is
one of the finest objects in a landscape, and that the
impressions which the mind of a spectator receives
from it, are vastly more in unison with enjoyment than
any that are obtruded by vast masses of stones, how-
ever elegantly or scieatifically adjusted. Indepen-
dent, therefore, of humanity, good taste will suggest
some solicitude in the position and structure of the
cottage. Nor are there wanting motives of policy to
enforce its dictates. The laborious inhabitant of a
neat and comfortable cottage, it is certain, will never
be without a strong inducement to promote his mas-
ter's welfare, as conducive to the preservation of his
own advantages. We shall give a few directions as
to the management of buildings of this class.

Peasant's house Every man, having it in his pow-
er, would fix on a situation for the abode of his pea-
santry which seemed to be healthy and to promise
comfort. If consistent with the improvement of the
prospect and scenery round the principal mansion,
though at a respectful distance, the situation is so far
to be preferred. A remote hill or rising ground is
pleasingly ornamented with a neat cottage or two,
especially if their colour have as much liveliness as is
compatible with modesty. So sensible are many per-
sons of this, that it is not unusual to plant grotesque
and homely fabrics in such situations, though without
intending them to be inhabited. These have undoubt-
edly a good effect, but certainly the animation of chil-
dren seen at play from a distance, or even the occa-
sional appearance of supported age, awakens an interest
of superior excellence. If a valley be chosen for the
situation of a cottage, it is adviseable to select a spot
of ground that rises somewhat above the rest, and the
floor ought to be sufficiently elevated to admit of a
drain for the water from the eaves, which is apt to
destroy the foundation, besides rendering the dwel-
ling damp, and, of course, unhealthy. It is really
painful to see the evil effects of neglecting so obvious
a principle as that of raising the floor above the
ground, which in general can be accomplished at an
expense no way proportioned to the advantages. A
cottage on the side of a road requires to be some-
what elevated for another reason ; the road itself, in
course of time, becomes more raised than it origin-
ally was, owing to 'he accunmlation of materials add-
ed to it for the purpose of repair.

The addition of a garden is a striking improve- .
ment in point of effect and coavenience. It is in ge-

ARCHITECTURE.

42r

Of Stjie. neral better placed m the rear, or to one side of the
cottage than in the front, where an inviting and un-
embarrassed aspect is expected. But an oak tree, a
thorn bush, or other umbrageous shelter, is recon-
cileable with the first and most pleasingly entertain-
ed impressions.

The materials for cottages must generally be those
■which the country most readilyafFords. In some places
we find wood abundant, in others stone is more plenti-
ful ; occasionally we must content ourselves with turf
or clay, both of which, as has been mentioned, may
be rendered subservient to every ordinary purpose.
Where brick earth can be had we readily obtain a
most useful building substance. Wood enclosures
filled in with bricks between the quarters, constitut-
ing what is denominated brick-nogging, may be found
thrifty and very convenient. If stones are used, the
expence of polishing them is highly unnecessary,
even where saving is not enjoined by economical con-
siderations, as in the rough state they correspond
best with the nature of the intended fabric. The
choice of stone, where there is a variety, must be de-
termined by the general principles elsewhere treated
of as applicable to particular cases. Bricks are com-
monly of a fiery red colour, which is offensive to the
eye. But this can be easily modified, as we shall
immediately mention. The roughest bricks are per-
haps the most serviceable in cottage building. A
very material saving in them may be made, by leav-
ing the walls hollow, which in slight fabrics of this
sort are abundantly secure. They have the impor-
tant advantage besides, contrary to what might be
imagined, of being remarkably warm, as the air in-
cluded between the shells is a bad conductor of heat.
The vacancy may be filled up witli gravel, mixed with
quick lime and water, of the consistency of white-
wash, which wiU much encrease the strength and
durability of the building. Thus a wall fourteen
inches thick, for example, may be constructed with
the breadth of two bricks, each being four inches in
width, having a cavity of six inches in the middle, to
be filled up in the way now mentioned, or to be left
unoccupied, except by the horizontal and vertical
ties requisite for the due connection and stability of
the materials. Such a structure, it is very evident,
will present a much better opportunity for the judi-
cious adjustment of doors and windows than the com-
mon plan, which, by making the walls narrow, re-
quires the frames of both to be nearly on a level with
the external surface. This has a flat dull appear-
ance, and the outside window-shutters, which are a
very usual accompaniment of it, are still farther des-
tructive of good effect. For this suggestion we are
indebted to Mr William Atkinson, whose views of
picturesque cottages, published at London in 1805,
Baay be profitably consulted by the reader.

The colour of cottages is not unimportant. Where
beauty is easily attainable, or deformity can be con-
veniently avoided, want of solicitude is at least no
virtue. There are several ways of colouring walls.
Thus a good wash may be made of lime, in which
wet gravel is mixed ; where the building is plastered
and rough cast, pebbles mixed with lime give it an
agreeable broken colour. Lamp or ivoqy black, a
preparation of charcoal, yellow ochre, and various
2

other substances, may be used with lime for the pur- Of Style,
pose of changing its hue. Lime, or whiting, and
some of these colouring substances, mixed with the
liquor of boiled lintseed, or the serum of blood, has
been recommended with similar intention. Perhaps
a light clay or stone colour, not over white, is the
fittest for the rural dwelling. Fantastic colours are
vulgar and incongruous; red is positively offensive ;
white hurts the eye, and forms too great a contrast
with the adjoining verdure.

Coverings of cottages. — The coverings for cottages
may be slates, either blue or grey ; tiles differently
coloured and shaped ; reeds, and thatch. Almost
every consideration of comfort, convenience, suita-
bleness, prejudice attaches to the last named materi-
al. The chief objection to it is its greater liability
to take fire from the sparks of the chimney. But
accidents of this kind occur so seldom as scarcely
to require a thought.

Thatch is no doubt often dearer than either tiles,
slates, or flag stones, which latter are sometimes but
owing to their weight very improperly substituted
for them. Economy, then, may demand one of these
materials. But where thatch can be had more easi-
ly, or at the same expence, we should not hesitate to
employ it. Let it be laid on in a simple manner, so
that it may be readily repaired ; its edges ought to
be cut smooth, but not too close ; and the eaves are
to be made to project and overhang a good deal, so
as to throw off the water from the foundation. In-
deed, with this intention, and as yielding both an a-
greeable shade and a picturesque appearance, the
Chinese snout, as it may be called, is much to be
commended. Perhaps nothing more disfigures a
house than the opposite of this plan, the bald timid
eave which shrinks within the walls. Reeds are a
good substitute for thatch, where they can be pro-
cured. We have no doubt that other substances
might be occasionally used with success, for exam-
ple willow wands, whins, broom, heather; &c. Grey
slate has a pleasing appearance, but is commonly too
heavy. Blue £late forms a very unhappy cottage
roof, no way' harmonizing with the character. The
tile, from association of ideas, perhaps answers bet-
ter. But the red one is very obtrusive, though fre-
quently used. When reduced, as it may be, to a sort
of grey colour, the effect is much more congenial.
For this purpose, they may be treated with quick-
lime, sand, and soot, mixed together. A brown co-
lour, which many prefer, is obtained by washing them,
before they are burnt, with a solution of the black
oxide of manganese. Glazing tiles by means of lead,
is most injurious to fine effect.

Windows of cottages, — On the subject of cottage-
windows mucii may be said, because much has been
said. People will undoubtedly please themselves
when they have the means of gratification, and tliere-
fore it seems superfluous to give advice. A word or
two may not, however, be akogetlier thrown away.
When simplicity is a constituent of the general cha-
racter, it is surely most erroneous to introduce any
thing under the plea of ornament, which, ^n any cir-
cumstances, would deserve the name of affectation,
A form, pleasing enough in itself, or rendered so by
some association of ideas, becomes really disagree-

428

AECHITECTURE.

Of Style, able when it suggests incongruity. Besides the first
impression, though, by surprising, it may give de-
light, is soon lost ill the conviction of judgment that
follows, and then the taste of the owner and planner
is disparaged for ever. Venetian, Gothic, and gro-
tesque windows, are all unsuitable for the simple
cottage, though appropriate it may be to a variety
of whimsical structures assuming that title. An an-
cient building, whatever its form or fashion may be,
produces an emotion allied to pleasure. But new
houses, with old names, expose the absurdity of
the contriver. Equally unhappy is the attempt to
engraft dignity, or splendour, or solemnity on the
thatched dwelling. Finesse and tricks of every kind
must not only be discarded but despised. It must
have a plain, honest face, vyithout pretensions and
without vanity. Rectangular openings, of one, two,
or more compartments, supplied with moderately
sized panes, or the small-diced glass, as indicative
of moderation and economy, answer every purpose
cf a window, without the possibility of being mis-
construed or giving offence.

Form of cottages. — A question has long been agi-
tated. Ought regularity or irregularity to prevail
in the form of the cottage ? On abstract principles,
perhaps, this neither can nor ought to be answer.,
cd. Regularity is certainly pleasing; irregulari-
rity, on the other hand, implies a degree of ease,
the expression of which is agreeable both to ordi-
nary feelings and the design of a cottage. Regula-
rity often becomes stiff; its opposite runs the risque
of caprice. The size and situation of the cottage
require to influence the decision between them. A
very small cottage claims the advantage of regulari-
ty to ensure respect. One of larger size may dis-
pense with it, and seek with success the approbation
of variety. Uniformity and flatness are unfriendly to
picturesque cottages. Numerous broken lines imply
stupidity and carelessness, where the subject from
its smallness, seems the product of one man and a day.

It is out of our power to give particular plans of
cottages, or to lay down rules for the allotment of
the various appendages, such as dairy, wash, or brew-
house, piggery, &c. &c. These, of course, are as
various as the whims and tastes of professional men '
and amateurs. We conceive it better to treat of the
general principles, with a view to the promotion of
comfort and neatness in this very interesting branch
of architecture.

Lodge. — The description of the lodge is introdu-
ced under this title for various reasons. The only
remarks which we deem it useful to mention with re-
spect to it, in addition to what has been already
said, are the following : The lodge having a reference
marked and well known to the mansion or villa,
seems to retjuire at least a character in alliance with
it. There can scorcely be a more glaring error than
that of making them of opposite or irreconcilcabie
architecture; for example, the house Gothic, and
the lodge in the form of a Chinese pagoda ; or the
former castellated, and the latter pure Grecian.
There is no reason whatever for such incongruities ;
•or, on the other hand, would a perfect but diminu-
tive resemblance be a recommendation. These ex-
tremes are easily avoided, and the general principles

for the construction of cottages admit of perfect Of Style-,
modification to any style of architecture which the \^^\^^^
chief building may assume. See Lugar's Architec-
tural Sketches for Cottages, &c. Lond. 1805 ; also
Gandy's Designs for Cottages, &c. published at the
same time and place ; Miller's Country Gentleman's
Architect, published in 1810, affords a still greater
variety of examples.

Cabane ornee, or ornamented cottage, a creature
of the present times, may either be treated of here
or under the head of Villa. Much of what we have
already said applies to it. Though admitting, as
the name imports, the introduction of something
more than is requisite for comfort, yet as one of the
most judicious writers on the subject, Mr Pococke,
(Archit. Designs for Rustic Cottages, &c. Loud<
1807,) remarks, the various decorations employed ia
it ought to avoid the appearance of ornament, un-
less calculated at the same time for some useful pur-
pose, or the more effectual display of natural beau-
ties. Thus the veranda yields a shade from the
south-west sun ; the trillis supports the tendrils of
the vine, &c. ; the porch covers the entrance ; a
pleasure-ground, shrubbery, water-pond, &c. contri-
bute various advantages for health, recreation, and
convenience.

We hold it quite unnecessary to say a word aboutr
hitnting-boxes, pheasantries, hermitages, or any other
of the grotesque fraternity, Thpy can scarcely be
said to be reducible to rule ; and perhaps, indeed, if
they were so, they would entirely lose their charms
in the opinions of those who admire them. It is
enough to refer to Mr William Wrighte's treatise on
the subject, where the most erratic fancy may meet
with ample materials for its operations.

Sect. H. Of Farm- Houses.

It is scarcely necessary to say that any house may
be called a farm-house which is inhabited by a far-
mer, and has the usual conveniences around it, for
the -preservation of grain, and the protection of ani-
mals. • Necessity converts cottages and common
houses of every description into farm-houses. We do
not profess to take cognizance of such cases, although
some of the following remarks may aid in the filling
up of yards with the requisite offices, where economy
is imperatively enjoined. Our concern must chiefly be
with those persons who find it practicable to consult
cpmfort, and a certain degree of taste, in the erection
of agricultural buildings. So much of human happi-
ness, on the largest scale of the ex,pression, depends'
on the prosperity of the husbandman, that an unu-
sual degree of interest attaches to his accommoda-
tion. But it is obvious that the mere construction of
his own dwelling ought to occupy us very little after
what has already been delivered on the subject of
cottages, the better kinds of which, it is certain, with
the addition of out-houses, &c. may be, adapted t»
every condition of the operative farmer. Ahigherclass,
that of the gentleman-tiirmer, seems to demand, in-
deed, some peculiar attention ; and as the ambition
of most persons engaged in the profession of agricul-
ture is to rise to that rank, we can scarcely avoid the
introduction of some advice and plans calculated to-
secure the advantages aspired alter.

ARCHITECTURE.

429'

OfStvle. Substantial importance, and an expression of com-
pactness and security, ought to characterise the farm-
house. Beauty it may have, but the affectation of
elegance is preposterous. This will be easily under-
stood, when it is considered that even cleanliness is
not unusually an excellence of difficult attainment.
There is something in reality peculiarly disgusting in
the frippery and nonsense with which many persons
in this profession, of little taste and less judgment,
attempt the imitation of their betters. But the spi-
rit that leads a farmer to equal, if not to surpass his
landlord, in the appearance of his house and grounds,
justly subjects him to a high penalty, the depreciation
of his good sense.

The situation is a matter of extreme consequence ;
regard must be had to a variety of circumstances in
fixing it, as the size and form of the lands, the na-
ture of the farm, whether arable or grazing, or both,
the position of woods and rivers, the existence of hills
or valleys, the direction of roads, &c. &c. These
require the nicest consideration, and, in difficult cases,
the employment of very intelligent and experienced
men. Tlie house, in general, ought to have an un-
embarrassed prospect, commanding as mucli as pos-
sible of the country. For the same reason, the stack-
yard requires to be placed so as not to interrupt
the view, and eminences of every kind are to be
subjected to the supreme controul. Low shrubbe-
ries are quite allowable, but plantations of trees,
lawns studded with lofty elms, &c. are at variance
with the fundamental principle ; nmch more so are
conspicuous hot-houses, elevated dove-cots, and pre-
sumptuous summer-houses. These belong to a higher,
but, in fact, less important architecture. The size
and nature of the family will point out the most es-
sential distribution and magnitude of the rooms.
Commonly, it is believed, provided the situation be a
lofty one, and the foundation be circumspectly laid,
it will be found most convenient to have all the house
on one flat. But a room or two above, for occasional
retirement and strangers, maybe in the list of desire-
able objects. Best and common parlour, lodging-
rooms, kitchen, pantry, and store-room, complete the
necessary morale of the house itself; dairy, brew-
house, &c. &c. which are no less essential, are parts
of the outward distribution. The common sitting-
room is to be considered, in some degree, in the light
of a sentry-box, having a command of all the pre-
mises. To perform this office the better, a pretty
large and rather projecting window is an advantage.
A farmer, like a prudent general in an enemy's
country, will always have his eyes in his head, as the
proverb goes, and a spy-glass is not a superfluous
companion of either ! In a single house, this room
may occupy an entire breadth ; being necessarily,
therefore, of considerable size, it admits of all the
petty conveniencies of presses, recesses, &c. essential
for common purposes. A double house must be so
laid out, in reference to the plan of the whole con-
cern, that easy inspection of what is important may
be attained. Where there are wings to a house, and
the use of them is often expedient, we accomplish
the same end, as in the first case, by devoting one of
them to the family sitting-room. In our judgment,
regularity of plan, however pleasing, is the very re-

verse of being most conducive to the object of a farm- of Style,
house ; and, besides, when we consider that it is dis-
coverable from one point only, we think vtry little is
lost by sacrificing it, even if no other arrangement
secured pleasing effect, which is very far indeed from
being the truth.

A farm-yard ought to have an easy access from
the roads, be well sheltered, plentifully supplied with
water, stand somewhat elevated, and present a suffi-
cient extent of surface for commodious outlaj'. The
ground intended for it should be levelled, and, if re-
q«isite, be supplied with chalk or clay, in order to
prevent the absorption of moisture, so necessary for
the due preparation of manure. The buildings ought
to be above the level of the bottom, so as to admit of
sufficient drains towards the receptacle of the litter.
The out-houses most connected with domestic con-
cerns are to be placed nearest the dwelling, and, in
general, the distinct branches of tlie whole economy
ought to have corresponding separations, in order to
prevent confusion.

To Middleton's Views for Farm-houses, &c. Lond_.
1795, Lugar's Country Gentleman's Architect, Lond.
1807, and other works of professional men, we must
refer our readers for a variety of specific plans. The
last publication, just now mentioned, has some judi-
cious remarks on the subjects of Dairies, Barns, Dog-
kennels, Poultry-yard, Piggeries, Malting-house,
Brew-house, &c. The first volume of the Commu-
nications to the Board of Agriculture may be ad-
vantageously consulted for observations on farm-
buildings.

Sect. III. Of the Villa.

Here we abandon ourselves entirely to fancy and '
the thousand conceits which caprice and affluence
may suggest. The villa is a gentleman's house. Let •
liim submit himself to no law but that of his ability,
profess regard to no authority but his own taste in -
its creation. To say that he ought to do this or that,
to adopt the Grecian or Roman model, entomb him-
self in a Gothic abbey, set the world at defiance by
towers and moats and castellated walls, or court a-
doration in a Mahommedan mosque, would be re-
garded as idle officiousness. The villa may be in
any style of architecture. It may emulate the splen-
dour of the palace, condescend to the lowly cottage,
or wanton m every irregularity of design and ob-
ject. It remains to be said, whether in doing one
or other it be beautiful, romaiitic, or deibrmed, and
in what degree it is so.

In the first place, then, a mansion that receiws
no embellishment from the surrounding scenery, of-
ten claims more exclusive applause than it is entitled
to. A distinction ought to be made between a country
house and a town house; but the former appellation
is quite misapplied if it present nothing but stone and
glass to notice. We wish to contemplate nature,
wild or improved, — the sloping hill and variegated
lawn, — the poetry, if not the sublimity of wood and
water.

Secondly, The style of this building ought to cor-
respond with the situation. The venerable Gothic
is ridiculed by adjoining gaiety- — a castle is sunk to
insignificance when planted in a valley, — perfect re-

430

ARCHITECTURE.

Oj Style, gularity of architecture, especially if highly orna-
mentecl, upbraids the careless freedom of nature
seen in hiir wildest forms, — in short, a degree of
suitableness between style and situation is essential
to Iiarnionious effect. Even the circumstance of
relative distance from a large town, or the peculia-
rity of the country, on the large scale, insinuates it-
self at last into our conceptions of this quality. We
■do not look for a new fortress within a mile or two
of London, nor for a Roman palace in the Highlands
of Scotland. It is vain to answer, that this is an ar-
bitrary mode of judging, founded on prejudice and
nut on reason. . Be it so. But what, we ask, has
reason to do with a tiiousand other impressions which
external objects make upon us ? The fact is, we are
so and so constituted as to be thus operated on, and
all the arguments and demonstrations of an Aristotle
would be thrown away in an attempt to alter us. A
child or an idiot, perhaps, may be wheedled into
wondering applause of any display of grandeur wher-
ever it is found, but a man of sense, although little
conversant with a number of edifices, will feel dis-
gust at such misplacement and confusion of ideas.

Thirdly, A villa is destined for the accommoda-
tion of a family in a state of comfort allied to ele-
gance. It is not a nunnery, nor a prison, nor a mi-
litary fortress, nor a menagerie, nor a church. Why
then does it claim kindred to them by very striking
resemblance ? Fashion will have it so. A house can-
not be built every day to correspond with its capri-
cious dictates. But the relations of utility, of fitness,
. expressiveness of design and object, exist for ages.
The utmost influence that fashion ought to claim is
that of regard to the character of , the times in which
we live. The days of monastic seclusion, gloomy
superstition, and feudal despotism, are gone by, — we
are not now to be bewitched with glass angels and
marble saints, or horrified with ghost-trodden turrets
and enchanted halls.

Lastly, The correspondence of all the parts of the
■villa with each other, and the general design, indi-
cate chastity of thought and simplicity of plan. This,
when the expression itself is agreeable, is an excel-
lence of high value. Not that we enjoin perfect re-
gularity or an undeviating uniformity in the structure
of a villa. Formality is here a vice ; so that the plan
which renders it necessary in order to fine eii'ect,
seems to have been intended for a street and not the
obliquities and irregularities of nature. But we con-
tend, on the other hand, for a discoverable subjec-
tion of every portion of what we know to be artificial
to the arrangement and intelligence of mind ; and we
cannot even behold that mind, either frivolous or giv-
en to freaks, without a painful suspicion of insanity.
Houses, we know, are costly things, and building oc-
cupies many years and much thought ; it is miserable
to reflect, that the product is often whimsical and
trifling. A mixture of different orders, then, we
think, implies an erroneous judgment, to say nothing
at all about the transgression of rules ; and a tena-
cious adlierence to a set form, excites a notion of a
narrow taste and a poor imagination.

On the whole, we dislike imitation, whether of the
Grecian, Roman, Oriental, castellated, or Gothic ar-
-chitecture ; and there is no difficulty in obtaining %

suitable individuality of character. A man of genius Of Style,
in his profession will never be a slave ; he will study,
indeed, the works of others, and avail himself of their
experience, profiting as well by their defects as their
excellencies ; but with an eye and a heart inspired
by truth and nature, like the genuine painter or the
poet, he will identify his conceptions with the cha-
racters of his subject, and embody them in materials
destined, like his fame, for immortality.

For views and examples of what has been done,
and may be done, we refer to " Plans and Views of
Buildings executed in England and Scotland," by
11. Lugar, Lond. 1811 ; " Designs for Villas, &c.'
by Zdmund Aikin, Lond. 1808 ; " Designs for Ele-
gant Cottages and Small Villas, &c.," by E. Gyftbrd.
Lond. 1806; " Sloane's Plans, &c. Of Buildings exe-
cuted in the counties of Norfolk," &c. &c.

The general reader, who wishes merely for infor-
mation in the way of amusement, without having any
specific object in view, may have recourse to almost
any of the works published under the titles of Tours,
Excursions, Trips, Road-books, and Directories,
&c. &c.

Sect. IV. Of Grouped Houses.

By this denomination we mean those assemblages
of buildings which constitute the streets, squares,
crescents, &c. of villages, towns, and cities. The dif-
ference between them and the solitary structures hi-
therto treated of is both considerable and important.
A new character is acquired, or at least a certain
sacrifice of freedom is called for, something like that
which a savage must make on becoming a member of
a civilized community. He submits to restrictions,
certainly not very natural, but ultimately instrumental
to his welfare, and at all events essential to the pub-
lic peace. The villa stood peerless in the field, own-
ing only the superiority of the neighbouring hill
and the canopy of heaven ; even the cottage had an
air of independence which it shared with the friendly
thicket, or which enabled it to afford protection to
the jessamine, the rose, or woodbine that grew around
it. But in the town, redundancies must be lopped
oflP, irregularities confined, order and method studied,
every thing must be regimented, schooled, and train-
ed by the precepts of law and the compliances of
courtesy. Individual taste and inclination yield to
the demands of general convenience. Certain private
decorations, or supposed elegancies, notwithstanding,
are usually allowed, and ought, indeed, as much as
possible to be so, because the prevalent vice of a
town in respect of taste is monotony, which is sel-
dom enough broken or counteracted either by this
indulgence or the occasional appearance of large
and special edifices. There is a very striking differ-
ence, in this particular, between ancient towns and
those erected since the establishment of regular po-
lice and good government. The former seem to have
been the product of accidental meetings of cottages,
and villas, and castles, and have the interest, there-
fore, of variety and chance ; the latter, on the con-
trary, are evidently the result of prectiiiceived com-
binations and adjusted designs, indicative of well-di-
rected intelligence, no doubt, and possessing supe-
rior advantages, but at the same time wearisome as

ARCHITECTURE.

451

Of Style, the method of a Dutch garden, and totally opposed
' to every romantic idea. A single city will sometimes
afford a complete illustration of this remark, and the
case of the Old and the New Town of Edinburgh,
to go no farther, is quite in point. An observer,
standing on the south-west side of the Calton Hill,
which commands both, is instantaneously impressed
with a conviction of the happy order and useful ar-
rangement of the modern streets ; but a dissatisfied
feeling follows, the natural effect of so much stiff-
ness and formality. All the portions of which they
are constituted are so extremely alike, that not one
has had ambition or pride enough to surpass its re-
publican fellows. In short, the whole is utterly des-
titute of the expression of grandeur and bold enter-
prise. On the other hand, the Old Town is at first
sight positively offensive by its appearance of confu-
sion and inextricable disorder. But the mind is soon
-hurried off from this impression, to contemplate, with
a kind of poetic ardour and delight, those endless
projections, heights, and precipices, by which the
■hand of man seems to have rivalled the sublime
works of nature in their neighbourhood. No where
else, we believe, shall we find such confronting ex-
tremes. We regi'et, we must add, that the contrast
has been pushed so far, and that a subject, of almost
unexampled capabilities, has been so tamely treated.
But some relief may be effected by the judicious out-
lay of the intermediate space; an object of no less
consequence tlian the stupendous embellishment now
executing.

Every town ought to contain all those convenion-
cies which a large society requires; its wells, mar-
kets, and places of resort for universal concerns,
&c. &c. Health and cleanliness, so difficultlj' pre-
served among great masses of mankind, ought to
be an object of legislative interference, much more,
we have no hesitation in saying, than the opinions
and creeds of the people. For tliese purposes, cer-
tain situations are to be preferred, as favoured by
climate, soil, exposure, and accidental advantages.
For the same reason, the streets ought to be wide ;
nuisances must be provided for by proper covered
drains, and every facility and encouragement given
to study neatness and elegance of aspect: A wise
and benevolent government would even go farther ;
and by the politic establishment of promenades, and
places of exercise and amusement, either free of en-
trance, or accessible by moderate means, would cul-
tivate the salutary recreation of both mind and body.
No one can witness the squalid, dejected countenan-
ces of the lower order of people in large towns, es-
pecially in manufacturing towns, without being con-
vuiced that there'is a lamentable neglect of their
highest temporal interests. A century hence, we
venture to foretel, unless some extraordinary change
take place, the population of Britain, tending, as it
does, with portentous rapidity, to eke out the misery
of large towns for the greater convenience of trade,
will be unable to raise a body of warriors fit to emu-
late the hardihood and deeds of their forefathers.
The observations of Sir James Macgregor on the
Medical History of the Peninsular War, fully war-
rant such an opinion.
Long streets are to be frequently broken for the

greater facility of intercourse. Diagonal crosses are Of Style-,
more expeditious than right angled. Squares and ^^•v^*'^
crescents not only give elegance, but also promote
free exposure. Very high houses are troublesome,
and preclude sufficient attention to cleanliness.
Streets ought to be well furnished with flagged foot-
paths, having an inclination outwards to the gutter,
to permit rain to flow off expeditiously. The parti-
cular style of building for the private houses we
hold to be a matter of complete indifference, pro-
vided they be well supplied with windows of a large
size, have a lively appearance, and admit of tasteful
decorations.

Sect. V. OfPuUk Buildings.

Public edifices, in a great degree, determine the-
character and condition of nations. The general
concerns of communities require larger places of
resort than what are used as dwellings by private
persons. Religion, education, amusement, political
establishments, and many other institutions, such as
no civilized country is altogether destitute of, are of
universal interest, and bring large masses of man-
kind together. Even those constitutions which are
most opposed to the liberty of the people, permit
arxl in fact enjoin occasional assemblies as conducive
to the ends of government. In the nature, number,
and appearance of the edifices, where they occur,
we may generally discover a good deal of their his-
tory, and of their most striking moral and political
features. The style of architecture adopted in them, .
whether original or derivative, testifies something of
their former state and the advancement they have
made in the arts of civiHzation; whilst their presents
features have invariably an influence on their eftbrts
in this art, and not unusually im{)ress very peculiar
marks on its more considerable productions. It is
certainly the studj' of nations, no less than of indi-
duals, more especially those which encourage in-
tercourse with other people, to procure and main-
tain respect by the display of what are esteemed
symptoms- of prosperity. As an indication, at least
in the case of states not tributary, this display may
more frequently exceed the reality than be below- it.
But the pride, or good policy in the one case, and
the affected humility or sincere parsimony in the o-
ther, are equally traits of character to which a well
informed observer will give due attention in forming
his estimate. The writers on political economy have
not been sufficiently studious of this department of
statistics.

But though the objects of public buildings, and
the means ifbr erecting them, be national, or con-
cern communities of mankind ,- and though generally
there is a certain style of architecture more ]ireva-
lent in a country than another ; yet, on the whole^
it is the taste of a few individuals that modifies the
existing art. There is indeed a re-action betweeH
the conduct of these individuals and some pretty
well established prejudices, so that they rarely cau
accomplish their entire inclination, and thus the pub-
lic are tolerably well secured against any consider-
able revolutions. Changes of style, in fact, are nei-
ther frequent nor speedy. We have evidences of
tliis in the similarity of many edifices which Jiave

452

ARCHITECTURE.

Of Style, been erected at very distant periods of time. Asso-
*««^v"^ ciations, it would appear, are formed in the minds of
most people, which it is unsafe, if not imi>racticable,
to dissolve. Nothing, indeed, can justify the at-
tempt but reasons of expediency so obviously or so
easily discovered, and of such a degree of urgency
as cannot fail to carry conviction to ordinary minds.
Capricious innovations are surely as much to be con-

- demned as the obstinacy that resists their establish-
ment; and if all other circumstances be alike, a
preference is due to those models which have been
sanctioned by public esteem. At all events, a differ-
ence in the circumstances ought to be as consider-
able as the amount of deviation that is hazarded.
Neglect of this precaution occasions much of the
dissatisfaction which is expressed against certain
kinds of edifices. Generally speaking, there is pru-
dence in conformity, although originality be essen-
tial to excellence. But there are a thousand stations
between a complete copy and extravagant singula-

• rity which ordinary artists may commendably fill up
with their productions.

Few errors, perhaps, would be committed, and
undoubtedly few important alterations in style would
be projected, were a metaphysical conceit got rid of
which we have already endeavoured to expose, viz,

. that some forms and proportions are naturally more
beautiful than others. Were they to abandon this
mischievous absurdity, artists would almost certainly
avoid the evils of affectation, and at the same time

r secure for their works the beneficial operation of
those principles of judgment on which the decisions
of taste are founded. It is of consequence for them
•also to remember, that no combination of the mate-
rials on which they work can ever express any of
those pasions of the mind that are the objects of
sympathy, and the source of the interest we take in
the history and actions of our fellow creatures. In
this respect, architecture is inferior to painting and
sculpture, confined as they are to indicate the signs
only of these passions, and to delineate the momen-
tarily co-existent assemblage of events to which they
give rise. But, perhaps, within its range of expres-
sion, it equals those arts in the amount though not
the quality of effect on the feelings. That mind
certainly is extremely dull, if not defective in a fa-
culty, as many are with respect to musical ear, which
is not susceptible of peculiarly strong emotions on
the contemplation of its nobler monuments, inde-
pendent altogether of regard to the ultimate ends
for which they were intended.

The emotions thus produced are not always the
same, but differ in different cases, according to
the associating principles brought into action ;
and hence they furnish us with some means for
pointing out the nature of buildings, and at the
same tinie of heightening the effect which the con-
sideration of that nature, when pointed out, is cal-
culated to produce. These principles, then, being
once established, become as powerful on the mind
as if the forms, proportions, and appearances with
which they are connected, or which tend to excite
them, were naturally and essentially expressive, as
has generally been imagined. It is this apparent
concurrence with a matter of fact, accordingly, that

has given the theoretical opinion now alluded to its
most specious claims. But there are not wanting other
instances of the partial accommodation of aa erro-
neous hypothesis to the phenomena of nature. Is
there one, indeed, among the thousand false notions
which domineer over the mass of mankind, that could
maintain its place in their esteem without some such
recommendation ? But it is not enough to entitle a
theory to the honours of a law of nature, that it af-
fords a satisfactory explanation of many facts ; the
principles on which it is built must be shewn to have
an actual existence. In the present case, there arises
a decisive objection, from the circumstance of a more
general principle than what is assumed by this theory,
one, too, of whose reality we have the highest con-
victions of experience, requiring no such aid to ac-
count for all the facts in question.

It is the business of the artist, then, to ascertain
the peculiar associations which take place in various
cases. He must have recourse to experience, dis-
trusting altogether the pretensions of rival systems ;
and the results of his own unbiassed examination
ought to be as imperative on his practice, as any de-
ductions from a theory which might even possess the
authority of a law of nature. The more extensive
his observation has been, and the more scrupulous
his caution to discriminate between associations that
are of universal occurrence, and those which are
the product of accidental and rare combinations, the
greater is the probability that he will avoid narrow
prejudices, and accomplish the higher destinies of
his art. If the advantage of travelling be denied
him, and of course the benefit of personal inspec-
tion, he must endeavour to remedy the deficiency by
the liberal study of the best descriptions of public
edifices in different countries and styles, taking care
to form his taste on the general conceptions which
arise in his mind rather than the more intimate ac-
quaintance he may possess with particular examples
of excellence. What but some paltry notions al-
lowed to spring up in the mind during the neglect of
this corrective discipline, and that inveterate propen-
sity in unpractised reasoners to draw general conclu-
sions from particular premises, could give rise to the
empirical dogmatism and ostentatious trumpery prac-
tised in this profession? It is lamentable, that the
very censure which is occasionally bestowed on the
more absurd of these vices, commonly proceeds on
a principle which recognises the sacredness of the
parent delusion. The taste of the artist, indeed, is
condemned ; but this being supposed entirely a vo-
luntary principle, his deficiencies of information and
judgment escape detection, though, in reality, the
necessary source of his errors. Taste, properly speak-
ing, is little concerned in the matter. The artists
too often employed are mere jobbers, who have not
had time, inclination, or talent to cultivate what is
deserving the name of that faculty ; and those who
employ them are often too ignorant to suspect that
what is offered to their admiration is an absurdity.
The evil, which is abundantly important to excite
solicitude, requires a double remedy. In the first
place, the public mind must be rectified as to the
objects and capabilities of architecture ; and, 2dly,
men intended for the profession ought to undergo a

ARCHITECTURE.

453

Of Stylf. regular and scientific education. Is it not desirable
for both purposes, but peculiarly for the latter, that
our universities had eiidowments for teachers of tliis
most useful art, and that attendance on their instruc-
tions for a certain time, and an acquaintance witli
several subsidiary branches of knowledge, were en-
joined on all tliose who aspired to the honours and
emoluments of its practice ?

In considering the characters*of public buildings,
three questions present themselves. 1. Is it possi-
ble, or necessary, to suggest the nature or object of
such buildings by visible signs ? 2. Does the art of
architecture afford such signs '^ 3. What are the
species or kinds of architecture peculiarly suitable
to the intended manifestations ? These three ques-
tions might all be resolved into one, viz. What are
the emotions actually excited in the mind by the pro-
ductions of this art? But it will be found most ad-
vantageous for the student to investigate the topics
separately.

The first question involves two particulars, the
practicability and the expediency of intimating de-
sign. As to the former, we may remark, that from
the earliest ages it has been imagined not only pos-
sible but even easy, to express affections of mind by
the forms and qualities of matter. The arts of the
statuary and painter, considered as distinct from the
mere imitation of things, proceed upon this supposi-
tion ; and accordingly we find, that the ancient pro-
fessors of both arts often busied themselves in figu-
rative or emblematical representations of ideal ob-
jects. In course of time these figures became as ge-
nerally significant and well known as the correct de-
lineations of individual persons. There are familiar
examples in the emblems of justice, plenty, faith, hope,
&c. &c. handed down to us, with little alteration,
from very early times. But these instances are far
from deciding the present question, though they seem
to indicate the universahty of the opinion, that ab-
stract qualities may be signified by visible forms. It
is evident, that, even admitting the correctness of such
forms considered as signs, it still remains to be deter-
mined whether or not the intention, or object, of
buildings bear a resemblance to the qualities thus in-
dicated. Here it would be requisite to enquire,
therefore, into the variety of ends contemplated, or,
in other words, to specify the kinds of edifices. A
list of these would present many diversities, allotted
to the distinct purposes of civilized societies. Then
the question would be, how far do any or all of these
correspond with such mental qualities as have been
alluded to ? Perhaps the utmost licence which could
result from the inquiry is, that each ofthese diversi-
ties having a close affinity with one or other of the
ideal beings, may, therefore, be designated by its re-
spective emblem. Thus, for example, the more in-
tention, motive, or object, which prompted to the
erection of a church, hospital, or court of law, might
be represented by figures significant of piety, health,
or justice. But, in all this process, it is evident, we
have not got beyond the arts of sculpture and engrav-
ing ; and hitherto noi a hint is suggested which could
be of the slightest utility to the architect. Though
it appears, therefore, impracticable to suggest tlie

VOL. I. PART H.

nature of a building by any sign expressive of the in- or Stylp
tention which led to it, yet there is every reason to
believe that when that nature is by any means dis-
covered, then there may immediately arise a convic-
tion of its suitableness. Accordingly, the appear-
ances which excite this conviction are not unfrequent-
ly conceived to be expressive of nature itself; and,
in reality, it will he found that the expediency, or
necessity, of signifying this nature, is resolvable into
■ the propriety, or advantage, of exciting such a con-
viction. This is the origin of the doctrine of fitness,
as it is called, to which some incautious reasoners
have referred the pleasurable emotions arising from
some of the productions of the art. There is still
another source of error, to which it is necessary to
advert before proceeding to discuss the second ques-
tion. It is the confounding together the end or object
of a building and the emotion which that end is fitted
to excite. For the former, it now appears there is
no significant expression in the art ; in other words,
the productions of the art do not directly suggest
the purposes for which they are intended. But the
latter, it is certain, maybe, and often is excited, na-
turally or conventionally, by the building itself. This
is an important distinction, and at once conducts us
to the legitimate aims of the art, by pointing out the
peculiar expression of which it is capable.

We are now furnished with a qualified answer to
the second question. Architecture does not supply
signs from which we can directly infer the ends, or
purposes, of its productions, but it is capable of ex-
citing some, at least, of the many emotions which
these purposes or ends, when accomplished, occasion
in the mind. Hence, then, from the emotions we
may judge of the purposes. It now becomes an in-
teresting inquiry, what are the emotions which it ex-
cites ? And from this again necessarily results the
determination of practice in every case of conse-
quence. The emotions are numerous, as may easily
be ascertained by experiment, or by perusing almost
any of the works which treat of architecture as a fine
art. We have given our reasons already for prefer-
ring the enumeration and arrangement which Mr
Alison has adopted, without being perfectly satisfied
that he has quite exhausted the subject, or taken in-
to account every circumstance which is likely to in-
fluence it. The attention of the artist is peculiarly
demanded here, because in no exercise of his pro-
fession is he so liable to gross error as in fixing on
the kinds and degrees of emotion which are to be ex-
cited. He must know the precise capabilities of the
art, in the first place ; beyond these he cannot take
a step without certamty of failure. The kind, again,
is pointed out by the object or purpose in view ;
and the degree is limited by the fund en which he
operates, and the peculiar circumstances of the case.
Lastly, he must be cautious not to attempt the pro-
duction of contrary, or too many emotions. Per-
haps every instance of considerable error may be re-
ferred to a neglect of one ofthese simple rules ; and,
on the contrary, a certain degree of success must be
the infallible result of attending to them.

The last question which has been stated, can on-
ly be solved properly by the results of experience.
S I

454

ARCHITECTURE.

Of Style. Of some of these it is necessary to speali. The ef-
fects of architecture are of two kinds, those which
iramediatcly spring up iu the mind on the contem-
plation of the objects, and those which take place
through tlie medium of the principle denominated
the association of ideas. One building may produce
both in the same individual ; and, in general, the ef-
fects which do occur, arc determined as much by the
peculiarities of the spectator's character, as by the
nature of the building presented to his notice. Hence
the difference between the judgments pronounced by
the vulgar and the man of cultivated taste, both equal-
ly sincere expressions, it may be, of the real effects
which are experienced. It is clear then, that, in deter-
mining this question, we must condescend on the indi-
viduals, or characters of the persons who are to decide,
else the answers would be various, and in reality con-
tradictory. How absurd, thm-efore, is dogmatism in
this case, and how endless thecontroversies which are
frequently agitated on the merits of different kinds
of buildings ! But let us not carry this observation too
far. It must be restricted to the second sort of effects,
for as to the first, it may be easily made to appear that
there can be little or no disagreement of feeling.

Every distinct qualitj', we apprehend, is productive
instantaneously of a distinct emotion in all the indi-
viduals who observe it. But it is not obviously true,
that every emotion admits of being distinctly stated
in language. The fact is, that few persons so far
discriminate between their emotions, as to be able to
present them in any creditable form to their under-
standings. Some general terms are usually employ-
ed to denote the larger differences of classes of emo-
tions, and hence we speak of agreeable and disagree-
able, certainly the most universal of such terms, — or
ef gay and melancholy, lively, dull, &c. &c. But the
minuter shades of difference escape detection, per-
haps because of the merely momentary existence
they have in the mind, or from a habit of inconsider-
tion as to what passes there, of which every person
must be sensible, when not roused by some powerful
motive. Now, were there no other principle to oper-
ate, buildings of very different characters might pro •
duce emotions so much resembling each other as
scarcely to admit of distinction, at least in common
language. This is actually the case with the generali-
ty of people, who will be found to express themselves
alike respecting very dissimilar examples. It is evi-
dent, then, that their praise would afford little satis-
faction to an artist ; and hence he is induced to seek
the approbation of persons who, besides their agree-
ment in the common emotions, are likely, by their
education and studies, or the natural susceptibility
of their minds, to experience the secondary but high-
er effects which his art can produce. This is cer-
tainly an appeal from the many to the few, and hav-
ing been often practised has at last constituted a tri-
bunal of taste, whose decisions are almost irreversi-
ble, and before which every intelligent artist is anx-
ious to bring his productions. It is fortunate for the
credit of this tribunal, that all its decrees may be per-
fectly, and now perhaps generally are, reconcileable
with tjie sentiments and conclusions of the unlearned.
There is every reason, therefore, for preferring its
rieply to the question before us ; and hence, it is ab-

solutely incumbent on the student to familiarize his
mind to all the varieties and degrees of emotions,
primary aud secondary, occasioned by the different
st3les. The former he may easily ascertain by at-
tending to his own sensations ; the latter must be
learnt from frequent and careful comparison of the
criticisms and observations on the most remarkable
specimens of the art, which abound in many well-
known publications.

Histgrjf.

History of Architecture.

Origin — It is vain to seek for tlie origin of this
art among any particular people, the necessity for
it, and the genius required in its cultivation, being as
universal and as various as the materials on which it
operates. It has been practised, we know, in every
country, and in all ages, favoured with the benefits
of civilization. The savage life itself is rarely des-
titute of some artificial defence against the violence
of the elements and the ferocity of wild beasts ; and
those contentions in which rival tribes so frequently
engage, have furnished powerful motives towards its
invention and exercise.

We have an illustration of this last remark in the
Hippahs or Heppahs of New Zealand, described by
Captain Cook. The incessant hostilities of the na-
tives of that country have converted their villages into
forts. Speaking of one of them, that navigator says,
" the best engineer in Europe could not have chos-
en a situation better adapted to enable a small num-
ber to defend themselves against a greater ;" and,
considering the imperfection of their tools, the struc-
tures themselves, according to his description, must
be allowed to display great judgment and ingenuity.
In the accounts of the voyages performed by this
very intelligent officer, we are occasionally supplied
with curious information respecting various degrees
and kinds of primitive architecture. Even the mi-
serable huts of Easter island, one of the most for-
lorn and unfortunate of the islands he visited, mani-
fest skill, though vastly inferior to that of the Ota-
heitans and other people. They are " constructed
by setting sticks upright in the ground, nt six or
eight feet distance, then bending them towards each
other, and tying them together at the top, forming
thereby a kind of Gothic arch. The longest sticks are
placed in the middle, and shorter ones each way, and
a less distance asunder, by which means the building
is highest and broadest in the middle, and lower and
narrower towards each end. To these are tied others
horizontally, and thewhole is thatched over with leaves
of sugar-cane. The door-way is in the middle of one
side, formed like a porch, and so low and narrow,
as just to admit a man to enter upon all fours." The
largest house seen here by Captain Cook was about
60 feet long, eight or nine feet high in the middle,
and three or four at each end ; its breadth at these
parts being nearly equal to its height. It is very
singular, that this island, so remarkable for some gi-
gantic figures of stone, contained also certain build-
ings of the same material. We are indebted to Mr-
George Forster, who accompanied Cook in his se-
cond voyage, for some particulars respecting theni>

ARCHITECTURE.

455

Hi-iioty. wliich the reader will find in Kerr's Collection of
Voyages, &c. vol. l*. p. 272. It is in such condi-
tions of mankind as have been discovered by modern
travellers and navigators, that we are provided with
an unanswerable objection to those claims for the
supposed honour of giving rise to this art which
have been advanced by fanciful writers in bdialf of
different nations. Architecture, they seeai to j)rove,
is the creature of circumstances that are by no means
confined to any period or region of the world.

The instances of contrivance and skill now allud-
ed to, render probable the historical relations that
have come down to our times, respecting the preva-
lence and extent of this art among the earlier gene-
rations of mankind. Admitting that these possessed
an equal share of intelligence with modern savages,
it is surely fair to imagine tiiat they were at least
equally successful in cultivating so important an art.
But there are not wanting reasons for the opinion,
that the exertions of some of them could scarcely
fail to be much more considerable. At all events,
the essential advantage of that long space of time
which they continued, must have occasioned a de-
cided superiority on the part of those people who
had earliest arrived at civilization. This probably
has originated and strengthened the notion, that some
particular nation invented the art, though complete-
ly at variance with every distinct example of unde-
riTed national style. Priority of invention and em-
ployment niay be conceded to the Egyptians and
some of the eastern people, without robbing others
of the merit of originality.

Early condition. — We are chiefly concerned with
the state of architecture in Egypt, the country from
which the Greeks, to whom the western world is in-
debted for its first acquaintance with the fine arts,
derived their instructions. This, then, may be con-
sidered, without any determination of a question
which has often agitated antiquaries, — viz. whether
Egypt or one of the eastern countries was the parent
of the art. It is sufficient for us to observe with re-
spect to this discussion, that Egypt, Phcunicia, Chal-
daea, India, and China, maj' be proved, on respecta-
ble authorities, to have made considerable advance-
ment in architecture in very early times ; but that it
is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain
which of them was soonest engaged in it.

The immediate descendents of Noah, it Is proba-
ble, retained some of the knowledge of the Antedi-
luvian generations, which might serve as the basis of
the art practised by them as long as they continued
united together, and for some time after their sepa-
ration at the plain of Shinar. We learn from the
Mosaic account, certainly the most authentic history
of this period of the world, that several cities had
been built prior to the undertaking at Babel, which
occasioned that event. Their names are given in
Genesis, x. 10. &c.; but no information is afforded
respecting their extent, or the materials of which
they were formed. Stone, we may almost positively
declare not to have been used. The cities of the
plain, we may add, whose lamentable overthrow
could not be averted by the intercession of Abraham,
consisted of combustible materials, which we know
2

were generally used in the architecture of ancient
times.

Egypt, it appears, however, never abounded in
wood; and accordingly its inhabitants had recourse
to bricks formed of a kind of mud or clay, held to-
gether by means of straw, and hardened by expo-
sure to the sun and air. There is ground to believe
also, that they very early employed stone for the
same purpose ; and the art of dressing it has, with
some propriety, been ascribed to them. Their in-
genuity and science were soon distinguished among
the neighbouring nations ; and it is mentioned to
the credit of the Jewish lawgiver, in after times,
( Acts vii. 22., ) that he " was learned in all their
wisdom." President Goguet, who has treated the
subject we are now upon with his usual discrimina-
tion and industry, is of opinion, that some of the
embellishments of the tabernacle erected by Moses
in the wilderness had been previously adopted by
them. " I believe really," says this sensible writer,
" that there must have been some relation between
the Egyptian temples and the tabernacle. It is true,
strictly speaking, this work ought not to be looked
upon as a piece of architecture ; it was only, to speak
properly, a vast tent ; this is the first idea it offers to
the mind ; but, by reflecting on it more attentively,
we shall perceive that the tabernacle had a great
relation with architecture. We ought to look upon
it as a representation of the temples and palaces of
the east. The whole construction presented the
model of an edifice, regular, and distributed with
much skill." Its columns, surmounted with chapi-
ters, give us an idea of the essential part of an ar-
chitectural order. Viewed in this light, as a monu-
ment of the existing taste, we cannot help thinking
that architecture had already got far beyond the
state in which it merely yielded shelter from the
weather, and had assumed an important rank as a
fine art.

Among the Egyptinnx — To the reign of Sesostris
is ascribed the principal part of those buildings,
whether intended for utility only or embellishment,
which rendered Egypt so conspicuous in the list of
kingdoms. But it is impossible exactly to ascertain
the time in which this remarkable personage existed,
and many of the relations concerning him appear un-
worthy of credit.

Thebes, the capital of Egypt, is immortalized in
the poems of Homer, as the richest and most popu-
lous city in the world, so early as the time of the
Trojan war. If there were not reasons for believing
that the bard judged of it by comparison with the still
inconsiderable cities of Asia Minor and Greece, and
indulged his fancy in the description he gives of it, we
might be induced to assign it the highest place among
the wonders of ancient art. The concurrent voice
of other authors seems to demand this as a right; but
there is always room to suspect the existence of a
disposition towards the uMrvellous in their represen-
tations, and that they were more anxious to improve
ou previous reports, than careful to ascertain their
accuracy. No greater evidence of this remark, per-
haps, will be asked for than the assertion of Pompo-
nius Mela, that this city contained within its walls a

HiBtory.

436

ARCHITECTURE.

History- trillion of warriors ; ■whereas Herodotus reckons only
forty-one thousand in all Egypt ! But allowing for
exaggerations, sufficient truth remains to call forth
admiration. The ruins of this famous city, which
have frequently been visited by modern travellers,
testify an extent and magnificence to which there are
, not many parallels in past or present times. But it
ought not to be forgotten, that these ruins are the
mingled product of the original city and the subse-
quent productions of Grecian and Roman power,
vhich successively triumphed in this celebrated re-
gion. A very minute and skilful examination would
be requisite to determine the respective shares of
each ; and this adjustment is the more difficult, because
it is probable that both the latter partook a good deal
of the Egyptian taste and manner. Those who wish
to be informed as to what has been done in this way,
will find enough to gratify their curiosity in the tra-
vels of Pococke, Norden, and Denon, not to mention
others spoken of in Goguet's work. The account
which Mr Hamilton has given of the ancient and
modern state of Egypt, may also be profitably con-
sulted.

Thebes deserves to be called the city of templee,
so many remains of these buildings being discoverable
in its ruins, and some of them indicating, b)' their size
and appearance, the immense consequenee that had
been attached to religion. The reflections of De-
non on this circumstance are worthy of notice, and
are well borne out by the observations of other writ-
ers : " Still temples, nothing but temples ! and not a
vestige of the hundred gates so celebrated in history,
(especially by Homer) ; no walls, quays, bridges,
baths, or theatres ; not a single edifice of public utili-
ty or convenience; notwithstanding all the pains
which I took in the research, I could find nothing
but temples, walls covered with obscure emblems
and hieroglyphics, which attested the ascendency of
the priesthood, who still seemed to reign over these
mighty ruins, and whose empire constantly haunted
my imagination."

Of Memphis, the second capital of Egypt, built
several centuries after Thebes, not a vestige remains
to mark the spot where it stood. But in the vicinity
«f the place assigned to it, not far from Cairo, on the
opposite side of the Nile, are found those stupendous
structures the pyramids. It is worthy of notice that
Homer never makes mention of these singular edifi-
ces, nor of the name of Memphis. This is most pro-
bably accounted for on the supposition, that neither
the one nor the other existed in his time. The des-
criptions of the pyramids of Egypt, of the famous
labyrinth near the lake Moeris, and of various other
remarkable structures, belong to another department.
There were many more cities in this region, of which
mention is made in different classical authors, but it
IS unnecessary to specify them in this place. Alex-
andria, foauKled by the Macedonian conqueror, and
in great measure made up from the ruins of Thebes,
cannot.be considered as belonging to this period, or
in any degree illustrating the history of Egyptian ar-
chitecture, as it' was. built by a Grecian, and in the
fireek "taste.

From all that can be collected in ancient authors,
apd in the reports of those travellers who have visited

this country, it will not be difficult to form an opinion
of the state of this art as practised by the Egyptians.
Their notion of perfection in buildings corresponded
exactlj' with tliat of a certain people we have some-
where read of, as to beauty in women. Bulk is the
main thing aimed at. In endeavouring to accomplish
this, the nature of their materials, and their ignorance
of scientific principles, forced them to adopt the simp-
lest and least hazardous forms. Immensity of dimen-
sion required enormous strength, and occasioned a
durability to which perhai^s nothing but wilful ag-
gression could set limits. Cambyses signalized his
mad invasion of Egypt by this ungenerous device.
Subsequent conquerors followed his example. But
enough remains to point out its nature and principal
features. These may produce an emotion of awe
somewliat allied to subliinitj', but are altogether des-
tructive of pleasurable ideas. In the Egyptian edi-
fices, in short, all is cumbrous, inelegant, and clum-
sy ; and the very ornaments are calculated to disgust
a mind that had ever been gratified with the insinu-
ating graces of a purer model.

The Egyptians, it is demonstrable from their works,
knew nothing of the nature of an arch, and appear
not to have used timber in their larger edifices.
These circumstances account for much of what is
objectionable in their building, particularly the con-
stant adoption of flat roofji, often of great size, and
consisting perhaps of no more than one piece of stone,
and the multiplication of huge columns, necessary in-
deed for support, but productive of an embarrassed
and heavy appearance. The hasty assertion of M,
Dutens, in a work published several years ago, (Re-
cherches sur le Terns le plus recule de l' Usage des
Voides dies les Anciens,) in which he has attempted to
carry back the discovery of the arch to a very early
period, viz. that there are examples of it to be met
with in the remains of Egyptian architecture, is easi-
ly explained by a circumstance which he appears to
Iiave neglected to consider. We mean the introduc-
tion of both Grecian and Roman science into that
country long after the times in which its inhabitants
could boast of independence. There is an excellent
critique on this work in the Edinburgh Review for
January 1806, where the fanciful opinions of the
author, and his gross errors, are exposed beyond the
possibility of defence. In so far as Egypt is con-
cerned, Goguet had successfully anticipated and re-
plied to the question. See the translation of his
admirable work on the Origin of Laws, &c. printed
at Edinburgh, 1761, vol. 3.

In the east, — Before proceeding to notice the state
of architecture in Greece, it -will be proper to make
a few observations on some of the cities of the east.

That part of Asia which is denominated, from the
peculiarity of its situation, Mesopotamia, has been
pretty generally fixed on as, the original seat of civi-
lization, and, indeed, of mankind. However this be,
certain it is that some of the most ancient and largest
cities in the world were built in or near it. Of these,
Nineveh on the Tigris, and Babylon on the Euphra-
tes, have attracted the greatest attention. We have
ample accounts of both from sacred and profane wri-
ters. These will be elsewhere considered ; we have
merely to mention at present the probability of tlieir

History.

ARCHITECTURE.

437

History.

resembling each other in size and appearance, and
that there are now no traces of their existence to be
met with, from which we could form the faintest con-
ception of their style and magnificence. The vesti-
ges in the site of the latter remaining in the fourth
century cannot be supposed more ancient than the
attempts, very feeble ones it must be allowed, made
by Alexander, and some of his successors, to restore
its former glory. After the ruin of the Assyrian
empire, the Persian monarchs generally resided in
Susan, Ecbatana, and Persepolis. The ruins of the
palace in the last named city, imagined to be the same
that was destroyed by Alexander, have been particu-
larly described by Le Brun, and are occasionally no-
ticed by later travellers. Seleucia, (the modern Bag-
dad,) Heliopolis, or Balbec, Palmyra, or Thadmor,
&c. &c. are to be ascribed to the Greeks and Romans,
and do not, therefore, properly speaking, belong to
tliis part of our subject. It is unnecessary for the
object we have in view to make mention of the cities
of India, China, &c. We turn, therefore, to the his-
tory of architecture, as descending to the western
world, through the purifying channel of Greece.

Among the Greeks. — The progress of the Greeks
from obscurity to the highest fame, is one of the most
inviting events in the history of mankind. Their poor
beginnings in a small territory, always liable to be
overwhelmed by their neighbours, could aftbrd no
promise of the dignity to whicli they afterwards attain-
ed. It is not easy to assign very satisfactory reasons
for the rapidity of their rise. Political circumstan-
ces, perpetual jealousies the almost infallible atten-
dants on minute divisions of the same region, and per-
haps, in some degree, the physical peculiarities of their
country, all come in for a share in the efl'ect ; nor
ought we to forget the advantages which they deriv-
ed from occasional intercourse with people more ad-
vanced in civilization. The greatest men in ancient
Greece accomplished themselves in useful learning
during their travels and residence in foreign coun-
tries. Architecture is one of the arts for which, be-
yond the erection of the merest hovels, they seem
to have been indebted to Egypt and Asia. But it
was their ingenuity and good taste which elevated it
to the rank it now holds, and which still predominate
in it wherever it has been liberally cultivated.

We shall pass slightly over the state of architec-
ture in the earlier ages of their history, as too ob-
.<;curely mentioned by the ancients to yield satisfac-
tion, and too insignificant to warrant much inquiry.
Their first buildings were composed of wood, with
which some parts of Greece abounded. The piety
of the people gave rise to temples, though for long of
very mean structure and appearance. The temple of
Delphos, for example, afterwards so famous, was ori-
ginally no more than a thatched building, covered
with laurel branches.

Cadmus is supposed to have introduced the use of
stone into Greece, as a substitute for wood. The ci-
ties of Argos and Eleusis are understood to have
been founded by the first sovereigns of this country.
Throughout the whole of what have been called the
heroic ages, architecture was imperfectly practised,
and had not risen to any dignity as a fine art. Great
attention was paid, indeed, to the decoration of the

inside of houses, but the rules for proportion and the Histor
principles of style were not then understood. None
of the edifices described by Homer, for instance, give
us any idea of ornamental building, nor does this
poet seem to have had the slightest conception of an
order. He mentions but does not describe the tem->
pies of Minerva and Neptune ; and his language, in
speaking of the columns of certain palaces, implies
that they were merely posts of wood. We may con-
fidently affirm, that no very great improvement took
place in this art till a considerable time after the Tro-
jan war. The colonies established in Asia Minor,
subsequent to that event, are, with much probability,
credited with the chief discoveries and embellish-
ments. The former inhabitants of that region had
been careful enough to decorate some of their edifi-
ces. This may be presumed from Homer's account
of the palaces of Priam and Paris, in which bespeaks
of porticoes and polished stone, but in so vague a
manner that it is impossible accurately to find out
his meaning. (See Cowper"s Homer's Iliad vi. line
277, iSrc. and Goguet's Remarks on the expressions
used by the poet.) The arts of preparing stone for
building and sculpture, if not painting and working
in metals, were probably derived from the Phoenici-
ans, the most enterprising people in that age of the
world. Mechanical knowledge, however, was still
very imperfect and confined among the Greeks,
from which We may infer the improbability of their
having erected any considerable buildings in this
early period.

Orders imented. — The Doric and Ionic orders
were invented by the Asiatic Greeks, but at what
period is not exactly ascertained. Vitruvius, an au-
thor much valued for his information on the subject
of this art, has placed it too early ; for it is inconceiv- ■
able that Homer and Herodotus, and other writers,
should have passed them over unnoticed, if they had
been in existence before their time. These orders
were no sooner discovered than they were universally
adopted. Almost every province in Greece testified
its approbation of the first models, and temples and
other edifices in imitation of them multiplied with
great rapidity. This people, in general, shewed ex-
treme modesty in their private dwellings, reserving
the excellencies of their architecture for public pur-
poses. An individual, whatever his riches or power
might be, would perhaps have incurred some danger
in an iittempt to surpass the common neatness and
simplicity of his countrymen. Modesty of appear-
ance, indeed, is a virtue which the members of a re-
public find it a wise policy to cultivate. The influ-
ence of this spirit might even be exerted on the style
of the public edifices themselves, which certainly se-
cured powerful efl'ect without the aid of minute de-
corations.

It is questionable if the Corinthian order, whicli
was not invented till some time sfter the others, were
not too gaudy for the sublime conceptions and sim-
ple taste of this people during the best part of their
history. Certainly it is seldom to be met with in the
rpmains of their edifices erected before the predomi-
nance of the Roman power. The fatal consequences
of the Macedonian conquest on the independence
and poUtics of Greece, Lad previously been extend-

433

ARCHITECTUBE.

Hiitory. ed also to their efforts in this art. Their finest and
'm^^rmmf most dignified productions were the offspring; of a
better spirit than that event could engender. It was
late in the progress of this art that the Greeks em-
ployed tlie ditterent orders together in the same build-
ing. The chief edifices of antiquity were all in one
order. Of the Doric, may be mentioned the temples
of Juno at Argos; Jupiter Nemeus between that city
and Corinth ; Jupiter Olympius at Olympia ; Juno
and Minerva at Eiis ; Minerva, (the Parthenon,) at
Athens : Juno in the isle of Samos ; and Apollo in
Delos. The Parthenon built in the time of Pericles,
the great promoter of the arts, is esteemed the no-
blest example. The temples of Diana at Ephesus
and Magnesia, those of /Tisculapius and Apollo at
At'iens, of Juno in Attica, and many more, were of
the Ionic order. The fine examples of the Corinthian
were reserved to signalize the conquests and luxury
of the Konians. For particulars respecting the con-
struction of the Greek dwellings and the remains of
the nobler edifices, &c., we refer the reader to the
Abbe IJarthelemi's Travels of Anacharsis ; Stuart's
Antiquities of Athens ; and the work of Vitruvius.
The critique in the Edinburgh Keview as to the use of
the arch among the ancients, formerly alluded to,
merits a careful perusal. We entirely agree with the
writer, that no unequivocal example of it, as a prin-
ciple of construction, is to be found in Greece or
any of the neighbouring states before the age of
Alexander the Great, about which time, and no
doubt greatly in consequence of the immense revo-
lutions that had taken place in their political aftairs,
most important changes in their arts and sciences
and taste were effected. But, on the other hand,
there is every reason for concluding, that the pointed
roof was much earlier employed in their temples and
other large edifices, if not for the opinion that it was
actually the invention of this ingenious people. M.
Dutens, probably, has confounded together this form,
or some mere modification of it, with that scientific
arrangement of materials on the principle of equili-
brium, to which alone the name of arch is properly
applied. The roofs constructed by the Egyptians, the
Persians, and most other eastern nations, were al-
ways flat. How the arch might have been discovered
we have elsewhere shewn.

The Romans copy ihe Greeks It is a consolatory

thought to a benevolent mind, that the empire of ge-
nius is more permanent than that of military power.
Unlike the latter, it is not merely tolerated from a
conviction of necessity, which every feeling of the
heart is disposed to terminate, and which soon or late
must vanish before the accumulated energies of hu-
man will, but is rooted in the affections and faculties
of mankind, and acquires strength from the infant
curiosity and awakening zeal of every new genera-
tion. Those tyrannies of the ancient world, which so
long rioted on liber-y and curbed the feeblest effort
towards improvement, as hostile to their continuance,
could not altogether destroy the natural inclination
for change from which that effort proceeded, nor
prevent the disclosures of time and casual observa-
tion, intended, in the order of Providence, for its en-
ceuragement. Even the lamentable conquests over
civilization and refinement which so often threatened

the extinction of society, and generally injured the
monuments of its progress and industry, were occa-
sionally avenged, and their evil counteracted or re-
medied by a spirit of admiration which seized on the
victors, and urged them to imitate, it it did not en-
able them to surpass, the vanquished in the arts of
peace. The stream that had ceased for a time from
the rubbish or sand which interrupted its course,
or that had sunk out of sight in the convulsions of its
channel, was destined to appear again in a fertilis-
ing current, made larger by delay, or become more
powerful from the very barriers which opposed it.
Such was the triumph which the genius of Greece
obtained, at the very time when her arms owned the
superiority of a rival, and for ever abandoned the
contest for independence.

The Romans, whose whole history was a series of
aggressions and conflicts, and whose whole moral and
physical efficacy as a nation was concentrated in the
sword, had never found leisure from their ambition
to cultivate those liberal arts which so much enhance
the enjoyments of life. But they had sensibility
enough to be smitten with their beauties, when pre-
sented to them in the course of their conquests, and
the candour to accept instructions from a people
that excelled in them, when no longer capable of of-
fering resistance to their lust of empire. Victory at\er
victory extended, indeed, the power of these masters
of the world, but more and more confirmed also their
intellectual devotion ; and at last, when there scarce-
ly remained a single field in which they could assert
the superiority of their arms, they found themselves
completely subdued in mind by the inhabitants of n
small part of their dominions, and tliat, too, by
the agency of objects which their original and long
boasted ferocity would have spurned as unworthy the
regard of their women and children. The character
of the warrior was now irretrievably exchanged for
that of the student ; patriotic self-denial and con-
temptuous hardihood were lost for ever in the love
of indulgence that follows success and the blandish-
ments of prosperity ; the supremacy of inteHect, in a
word, was clearly established on the ruins of the
greatest military power vrhich the world had hitherto
witnessed.

Roman taste degenerates This extraordinary revo-
lution is more to be rejoiced in as a promise of the
ultimate attainment of mind in the progress of man-
kind, than as quite satisfactory in all the circum-
stances of taste and judgment by which it was ac-
companied. In so far as architecture was concerned,
these must be allowed to have suffered loss in the
grosser conceptions, more hastily obtained acquain-
tance with the art, and over-abundant wealth which
characterised the new votaries. The Romans could
not content themselves with the dignified simplicity
of their models, but sought additional gratification
in meretricious ornaments, and an indefinite variety
unknown to their masters. Every device which fancy
could suggest or money execute, was hazarded in the
indulgence of a luxurious disposition, certainly of
much more frequent occurrence than the understand-
ing that knows how to appreciate and rest content-
ed within the limits of attainable enjoyment. Augus-
tus boasted that he had changed Rome from brick to

/Tistorjr.

ARCHITECTURE.

459

History.

marble. Some of his successors appear to have be-
lieved there remained for them no source of similar
self-complacency, but the rivalling or exceeding him
in extent, magnificence, and profusion of buildings.
If more costly materials could have been generally
obtained, there existed every disposition for their
employment. Ambition had now changed its object
among the Romans, who became as zealous in deco-
rating the world as their forefathers had been in de^
stroying it. Humanity rejoiced in this conversion,
though taste could not always join in applause. The
most distant provinces of their vast empire were vi-
sited by their grateful enthusiasm ; and those splen-
did remains of the art which still render some of
them so interesting, prove at least the boldness of
conception, and the immensity of the means, by
which this people endeavoured to secure the ho-
nours of their name and character with tlie remotest
generations of mankind. It is no doubt impossible,
in contemplating these monuments, not to be struck
with the debasement of style which had taken place
among them, especially in the decline of their glory,
or to deny the absurdity and the extravagance in
■which many private individuals had indulged to the
detriment of the art; but justice must allow, that
the liberality of their views, where the public good
was concerned, and the spirit by which they were
actuated to unite elegance with utilitj', merit the
warmest gratitude, though the result fail to excite
the highest admiration. Their mistakes, in point of
taste, were almost inseparable from the disposition
of mind and feeling with which they first devoted
themselves to the fine arts, and the circumstances in
which they continued to cultivate them. On the
whole, too, considering the very generosity which
these mistakes display, and the efi'ect it had on the
subsequent cultivation of the art, we should not
scruple going a step beyond pardon of the Roman
architecture, were it not for the strong conviction,
that it is the common and almost invincible propen-
sity of ordinary artists to copy gaudy examples, even
without the encouragement which approbation of
them bestows.

Roman style renewed. — At the distance of some
eenturies, the Roman style, a modification or rather
a corruption of the Grecian, was revived in different
countries of Europe. A veneration for classical an-
tiquity, no longer perhaps thought injurious to the
prevalent superstition, and newly wakened by the
collision of men's minds which literary and com-
mercial intercourse had occasioned, was speedily ex-
tended to those noble edifices which had been the
delight and the glory, as they now proved the eulo-
gists of departed genius. Italy, as might be expected,
was forward in the work of restoration, and long pos-
sessed the finest specimens of its power. France was
slow in following the example. Greater ardour and
more successful enterprise were shewn in England,
in which the genius and skill of Inigo Jones, Sir
Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanburgh, and many
other eminent men, raised up rivals to the splendid
productions of Brunelleschi, Palladio, Vignola, &c.
noted as the chief of the Italian architects. Their
works had certainly the happy eftect of fixing the
public taste as to some of the larger description of

buildings, on a basis that could be defended by re-
cognised principles, and will probably long retard
the progress towards the last stage of corruption,
mere sceptical licentiousness.

Contest betxneen Classical and Gothic Architecture. —
The principal obstacle which for a time resisted the
introduction of the Roman style, in some of the Eu-
ropean states, was the existence of a very dift'erent
species of architecture, which shed an almost soli-
tary ray of scientific consequence on the dark ages.
It does not appear to have received the name of Go-
thic till towards its decline, when the ardent patrons
of the revived classical taste bestowed on it that op-
probrious epithet as likely to accelerate its ruin, and
promote the establishment of their own idol. There
is even reason for supposing that this name, which
so long afterwards proved injurious to it, when there
could scarcely remain a wish on the part of any one
that it might be further operative, was at first only
accidentally applied to one of the meanest branches
of the style, or rather indeed to a species of build-
ing of too humble a nature to merit any notice, and
that it was afterwards invidiously applied to another
object, which though of so high pretensions and un-
doubted merit, had not hitherto been peculiarly de-
signated. It seems utterly impossible that any one,
however warm his affection for anotl'.er style of build.,
ing, should have ever beheld a good example of the
Gothic, and felt an inclination to vilify it. Nor, so
far as we know, is this term, as applied to the style
in question, ever used in modern times, without a
regret that it is so apt to convey an unjust idea.

The Gothic architecture, wherever it arose, or by
whomsoever invented, was, at its appearance in Eu-
rope, entirely confined to the structure of Christian
churches. Certain peculiarities in its origin perhaps,
and a wish to differ in ajipearance from the remains
of pagan idolatry, may have occasioned this restric-
tion. The national establishment, then, of Christi-
anity, had probably some connection with so wide
a departure from former style ; hut there is ground
for believing that the change had at least commenced
soiue time before the reign of Constantine, though
it did not receive the sanction of the Roman people
till about that period. Undoubtedlj', as we have al-
ready noticed, their style had varied much even
before this time, and some of their latest edifices, it
is demonstrable, exhibited features to which t'lc cha-
racteristics of the Gothic architecture, afterwards es-
tablished, might claim a degree of aflinit]'. Thus, the
arch more especially, of which this people had great-
ly availed themselves, and which had undergone
a variety of forms and duties, may be most satis-
factorily traced through the whole progress of the art
among them, till the developement of the new stvle.

The intercourse which a profession of- the same
faitli effected between the capital of the western
world, and the inhabitants of the countries of Eu-
rope, materially directed, and in fact detennined
the general taste as to ecclesiastical buildings. Va-
nity, emulation, and devotional enthusiasm, not to
mention the agency of other principles, over which
an encroaching superstition had obtained unlimited
controul, speedily gave it force, and in a sliort time
filled even the poorest kingdoms with proofs of ifs

Hislorv.

440

ARCHITECTURE.

'IlMui?. love of splendor and power. The influence of Rome,
in a word, was afjain experienced by people in very
distant lands, whose insignificance and rudeness
might have been expected to preserve them fiom
any such visitations of the mistress of the world.

Various circumstances of a local nature prevented
complete uniformity in the churches of dittbrent
countries, though the identity of the origin of the
style, and the common reference which they all had
to the same revered models, secured a well marked
resemblance. Thus, a certain form in the ground
plan, constituting what has usually been called the
Latin cross, was universally adopted in the construc-
tion of those edifices, and a peculiar arrangement
of their more important internal members was al-
most as generally maintained. Greater latitude of
I'ancy was allowed in the structure of the subsidiary
appendages, and the kind ami magnitude of the de-
corations were as numerous as the countries and pro-
vinces where the style was displayed. In general,
it has been remarked, that the churches of Italy and
the adjoining states were most modest in respect of
ornaments, which seemed on the whole to augment
with the distance from the capital. France and Bri-
tain maj' be said to have vied in profusion of spires,
pinnacles, pediments of various kinds, and all the
smaller decorations of this most prolific architecture.
For comparisons of the most remarkable specimens
in these and some other countries, and much curi-
ous information as to their histoiy, with hints for
determining their respective merits, we must refer
the reader to the learned works of Milner, Whitting-
ton, &c. before mentioned. We shall confine our
attention to a few particulars respecting the progress
of this style, and of architecture in general, in our
own island.

In Britain. — The Romans founded many cities
and constructed a great variety of edifices in Britain.
Some of the latter that were erected towards the
eod of their residence -in it, when the religion of the
empire had undergone a total change, were devoted
to the services of the Christian church. But of their
number, precise situations, magnitudes, and style, it
is scarcely possible to obtain any satisfactory in-
formation. The affairs of this province, owing to
the calamities of the Romans at home, had been
long very indifferently attended to by the govern-
ment, and probably were conceived very unimpor-
tant by those writers who engaged in the depart-
ment of history. The Britons themselves had dwin-
dled into insignificance, and had lost their patriotic
spirit during a period of mortifying slavery. Few
of them appear to have profited by the arts or
sciences of their conquerors, and still fewer were
either able or inclined to record particulars, which
tould only perpetuate the remembrance of their sub-
jugation.

These unfortunate -people, worthy of a better fate,
on the Romans withdrawing from the island, early
in the iifth century, found themselves exposed to
the continual attacks of their ancient enemies in the
north. Their chief concern was to repair and pre-
serve the artificial barriers which some of the Ro^
wan governors had formerly thrown up for their de-
tence ; and this being insufficient, with such feeble

unmilitary troops as they were able to muster, there
was no leisure or means allowed them for less im-
portant occupations. The monuments, accordingly,
of Roman art, were necessarily neglected. Such of
them as remaiiied were afterwards exposed to the
desolating zeal of the Saxons, whom they called to
their aid ; but whose barbarity, ungenerous conduct,
and peculiar hatred of the Christian religion, were
no less injurious than the open and avowed hostility
which they had been employed to avenge. Scarce-
ly an example of the ecclesiastical edifices was per-r
mitted to testify the piety or taste of the former
masters, or to remain as a model for imitation, when
the abandonment of their own savageness and su-
perstition, whicli afterwards took place, brought a
new triumph to the Christian name and the cause of
humanity. We have a striking description of the
desolating conduct of those people in the words ot
Gildas, a writer who had the misfortune to wit-
ness it. The passage is given in Dr Henry's Histo-
ry of Britain. " A fire was kindled by tlie sacrile-
gious hands of the Saxons, which spread from city
to city, and never ceased until it had burnt up the
whole surface of the island, from sea to sea, with its
flaming tongue. The walls of all the colonies were
beat down to the ground with battering rams, and
their inhabitants slain with the point of the sword.
Nothing was to be seen in the streets, O horrible to
relate ! but fragments of ruined towers, temples,
and v.-alls, fallen from their lofty seats, besprinkled
with blood, and mixed with mangled carcases."
This language is no doubt hypeibolical, but it is im-
possible to dispute the reality of the facts to which
it alludes. The island, then, once so embellished
with the arts, and noted even in some of the chief
places on the continent for the dexterity and skill
of its workmen, was fast reverting to a state of ig-
norance and rudeness, well fitting tlie character of
the people by whom it was now enslaved, and near-
ly two centuries elapsed before there appeared the
smallest reason to hope for its redemption.

Under the Saxons and Danes. — The conversion of
the Saxons, which commenced in the reign of Ethel-
bert, king of Kent, towards the close of the sixth
century, and which, in the course of fifty or sixty
years, was perfected throughout the heptarchy,
formed an era in the history of England, and was
marked by extraordinary eflbrts in the art of build-
ing. The policy of the monks, who had been instru-
mental in the change, pointed out the multiplica-
tion of churches and other religious edifices as a me-
ritorious and necessary service, nor was the enthu-
siasm of the new disciples slack in doing justice to
their instructions.

The materials principally used in these struc-
tures, at the time of which we now speak, was
wood ; but there were a few examples of churches
composed of a more durable substance. Masonry,
or the art of working in stone, appears to have been
revived in England about the close of the seventh
century. Biscop, or Biscopius, abbot of Westmin-
ster, and Wilfred, bishop of York, having frequently
visited Rome, and travelled in various parts of Italy
and France, acquired considerable taste and much
inibnnation in it and some of the kindred arts, the

KiiorfSK

ARCHITECTURE.

441

History, practice of which they were enabled to introduce
into their own country by means of workmen whom
they had brought with them. Several cathedrals,
built of stone, and much in the style then prevalent
in Rome, were the consequence, besides the instruc-
tion of the natives in useful knowledge. But the ex-
ample was not generally followed for a long period ;
and accordingly, even as late as the time of Alfred,
buildings in stone were by no means common. When
that illustrious prince undertook the improvement of
his dominions, he was under the necessity of procur-
ing his chief artificers from abroad ; and it is pretty
certain that the greater part of the -many edifices
erected by him were constructed of wood.

The frequent and harassing incursions of the
Danes, not only retarded the progress of the art,
but destroyed also many of its finest productions.
That restless people rarely spared any of the churches,
monasteries, or other buildings which they happen-
ed to meet with in their predatory attacks. As much
of Alfred's life had been spent in opposing them, or
endeavouring to recover his country from their vex-
atious power, so a great portion of his labours in ar-
chitecture was directed to secure his subjects against
their future designs. The art of defence was impe-
riously enjoined, and at first, of course, gave a pe-
culiar character to his valuable undertakings. But
the overthrow of his enemies permitting, at last, the
full developement of his genius, he manifested the
warmest regard for the interests of learning, good
government, and commerce, and the highest talents
for their effectual encouragement.

Under the Normans. — The Saxon princes who suc-
ceeded this illustrious man, appear to have been alike
destitute of ability and inclination to copy his ex-
ample ; or if any of them professed cither, it is cer-
tain that the distressed state of the country, occa-
sioned by the continual and variously successful con-
tests with the Danes, offered little or no opportunity
for its beneficial exertion. In course of time, how-
ever, and in defiance of many disadvantageous cir-
cumstances, the art of building advanced in Eng-
land. The connexion that had taken place with the
Normans, an ingenious and well-informed people,
long before the battle of Hastings raised William to
the throne so eagerly and so fatally contended for,
materially conduced to its improvement, and impress-
ed some striking ,features on the larger edifices of
this period.

The churches erected by this people were divided
into three stories, consisting of the arcade, galleries,
and windows ; and the walls and pillars were made
so strong and bulky, that no buttresses were thought
necessary for their support. The western front, the
decoration of which, it may be remarked, had long
been the chief point of rivalship among ecclesiasti-
cal architects in general, was furnished with a por-
tico or ambulatory, and the eastern front was made
semicircular. The principal door-case shewed pi-
lasters with carved capitals, and over the head of the
nound arch were placed mouldings of various kinds,
as, indented, zig-zag, small squares, beads, &c. &c.
The style was distinctly marked by want of harmony
in the parts, massive columns, semicircular arches,
usually springing from the capitals without the inter-

VOi.. 1. PAHT IX.

vention of architraves, by such kind of ornaments
as those above mentioned, and, in addition, in la-
ter times, by the practice of placing rudely carv-
ed figures in bas-relief under the arches of door-
cases.

There are few if any entire buildings now remain-
ing, which can be referred with certainty to the
Saxon era ; but the discriminating ornaments of the
style are frequently to be met with. Mr Dallaway
particularly points to the nave of the cathedral at
Oxford, parts of the cathedrals of Durham and St
Alban's, some door-cases and windows at Barfres-
ton, near Canterbury, Tutbury in Staffordshire, Rora-
sey, Hants, and Rochester. " Indeed," says he,
" there is scarcely a county in England in which
there will not be found individual churches still
exhibiting Saxon, or, at least, Anglo-Norman re-
mains. Of the Saxon, Gloucestershire boasts of two
very perfect specimens, at Elkstone and Qucnington.
Door-ways of the early Norman are not unfrequently
discoverable in monastic ruins. Those at Glaston-
bury, Malmesbury, and Castle-Acre priory, Norfolk.
are particularly fine." On the whole, the Saxon
style is to be considered as a rude imitation of the
architecture which had prevailed in Italy after the.
declension of the art, and which was denominated
by the monks, almost the only learned men of those
days, ' Opus Romanum,' to designate its origin ;
and it cannot be doubted, that the intercourse whicU
had long existed between the people of this island
and the continent, chiefly on religious concerns, oc-
casioned its adoption ; though there be some reason
also for the opinion, that certain remains of the an-
cient Roman edifices had a share in the effect.

Rapid advance after the Conquest. — The period
from the conquest to the death of Stephen, that is,
from 1066 to llSi, was richer in architectural pro-
ductions than the preceding age. William I. whose
mode of acquiring the throne, and arbitrary princi-
ples of government, exposed him to perpetual diffi-
culties with his English subjects, found it necessary
to erect many castles and forts, in order to retain
his power, and prevent the consequences of their
disposition to revolt. The Tower of London, the
castles of Nottingham, Lincoln, Huntington, Cam-
bridge, and many other places, are ascribed to his
fears, and were scarcely sufficient for their removal.
Measures of defence and oppression occupied hina
too much to allow his encouraging architecture in a
different manner. The same remark is to be applied,
■with little modification, to the conduct of his suc-
cessors through this period. The spirited opposition
which all of them made, with the exception of the
weak-minded Stephen, to the policy of the church
of Rome and the dominion of the clergy, would have
proved unfriendly to its improvement, had not the
bishops, and higher orders of ecclesiastical officers,
been rather stimulated to extend and secure their
influence over popular feeling, in another manner than
by their connexion with civil power. They devoted
themselves to building, and laid the foundation of
that splendid style which has given England so de-
cisive a claim to consequence in the history of tliis
noble art. Thus it is remarked by an author t»
whose researches we have been so materially indebt-

Histoiy.

442

ARCHITECTURE.

History, ed in this treatise, that " no less than fifteen of the
twenty-four English cathedrals still retain consider-
able parts which are undoubtedly of Norman erec-
tion." Not to mention many churches belonging to
the greater abbeys constructed in this era, few of which
unfortunately escaped the general demolition at the
reformation, Mr Dallaway, whose words are just
now quoted, gives the following enumeration of Nor-
man bishops, who were either architects themselves,
or under whose influence architecture flourished.
« GUndulf of Rochester, (1077—1107,) whose works
are seen at Rochester, Canterbury, and Peterborough.
Mauritius of London, (1086—1108,) built old St
Paul's Cathedral. Roger of Salisbury, (1 107—1 14-0,)
the cathedral at Old Sarum. Ernulf of Rochester,
(11 15 — 1125,) completed Gundulf's work there ; they
were both monks of Bee in Normandy. Alexander of
Lincoln, (1123 — n47,) rebuilt his cathedral. Henry
of Blois, bishop of Winchester, (1129—1169) a most
celebrated architect, built the conventual churches
of St Cross and Rumsey, in Hampshire ; and, lastly,
Roger, archbishop of York, (1154' — -'1181,) where
none of his work remains." Of the churches, the
magnificence of which may be merely guessed at
from the existing fragments, Mr Dallaway specifies
those of Battel in Sussex, Reading and Cirencester,
Malmesbury in Wiltshire, Dunstable in Bedfordshire,
Castle Acre in Norfolk, Wenlock in Salop, and St
Botolph's, Colchester.

A change in style appears to have taken place to-
wards the close of this period, that is, in the end of
Stephen's reign. The pillar, which had formerly
been massive and single, became more slender, and
was formed into clusters ; and the arch, in place of
being round, acquired a somewhat sharp or pointed
appearance. These variations gradually increased,
and more and more delicacy of execution, and light-
ness of proportion, obtained ; but the minuter orna-
ments were preserved with little alteration. The fine
style, to which such modifications gave rise, had ar-
rived at great perfection in Henry HI.'s time, as is
shewn in those noble specimens, Salisbury and Ely
cathedrals, and Westminster abbey, the two latter
of which have been reasonably enough suppovsed,
from their agreement in the chief proportions, to
liave been constructed on the same plan. It is im-
probable, indeed, that the width of the nave in each
should have been 72 I'eet 9 inches, but by concert in
the architects.

Discussion on the Origin of the Gothic Whence

the hint, which occasioned so bold a deviation from
the established manner, was derived, has been va-
riously conjectured. Some French antiquaries have
contended, that it appeared as early in their country
as in England. The remark of Mr Dallaway affords,
perhaps, as satisfactory a solution of both points as
the nature of the question will admit. " If the
Iloiy Land 'suggested ideas of this novel architec-
ture, the French croissaders had the same oppor-
tunities of introducing it into France as ours into
England, for they were associated in the same ex-
pedition. It has been said, tliat in the church of
the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem no pointed arch
was seen, but that in Moorish structures, equally
obvious to those adventurers, it is frequent ; for

which reason it may be more directly described as History.
Saracenic than as Gothic." A similar opinion had
been long before maintained bj' Sir Christojiher
W'rcn, who proposed also the title now suggested as
preferable to one which all modern writers had a-
greed to condcnm ; and it has been ably maintained
by Mr Whittington and others, against an hypothe-
sis of Dr Milner, which derives the whole style of
pointed architecture from the intersection of semi-
circular arches, as frequently practised in England,
for the sake of decoration, between the close oi the
]2th and the beginning of the 14th centuries. We
cannot do justice to this part of our subject, without
stating some of the arguments by which those opi-
nions have been recommended. As most naturally
connected with the brief historical view we have al-
ready given, and as having illustrated it in part by a
series of figures, we commence with the system
supported by Dr Milner.

Dr Milner's theory. — In the judgment of this writ-
er, it is needless to have recourse to any foreign
country for a discovery the gradations of which can
be distinctly traced at home, from its dawn to its
perfect completion, and that too among a pcoj)Ic
whose superiority in arts as well as arms over the
inhabitants of those other countries might entitle
them to such credit. It is his object, then, to prove
that the Normans of the 12th century, especially
such of them as enjoyed ecclesiastical distinctions
in England, were possessed of this superiority, and
that certain peculiarities in the edifices erected by
them, had a tendency to lead, and did actually lead
to the style of architecture in question.

The people with whom, in refutation of two theo-
ries opposed to his own, Dr Milner compares these
Normans, are the Saracens, who, at the period ad-
verted to, and for some time after, were in posses-
sion of the eastern countries visited by the Croissa-
ders, and the Goths or Visigoths, who, after having
conijuered Spain as early as the 5th century, and been
converted to the Christian faith, had built churches
there in imitation of certain appearances of the
groves in which they had been accustomed formerly
to perform their Pagan rites in their native country,
Scandinavia, and who employed in the work Saracen
architects, " whose exotic style suited tlieir pur-
pose." As to the Saracens, Dr Milner iippears to
think they ought to be excluded Q-om the merit of
the invention, tor two reasons, viz. because, " that
throughout all Syria, Araliia, &c. there is not a Go-
thic building to be discovered, except such as were
raised by the Latin Christians subsequent to the per-
fection of that style in Europe ;" and because they
did not arrive in Spain until the eighth century,
\> hen, " instead of building churches, they destroy-
ed them, or turned them into mosques." With re-
spect, again, to the Goths themselves, no claim set
up in their behalf, though aided by the learning and
authority of Bishop VVarburton, has had specious-
ness enough to give trouble to the supporters of al-
most any other theory. But even admitting thenj
to be more considerable, it is evident, from what has
already been said, that they derive a great part of
their validity from the supposed but disputed inge-
nuity and good offices of another people. The chief

ARCHITECTURE.

443

History. ./"^' ^7 wli'cli Bishop Warburton's notion is counte-
t_ '. nanced, for it would be idle to attend to his reason-
~ '" ~ ingg or surmises, is the circumstance of some point-
ed arches being found in tiie mosque of Cordova,
said to have been finished about the j'ear 800. But
then, it is not certain that these arches, which are
formed by the intersection of two segments of .a
circle, are really part of the original structure, and
it is known that the edifice has been more than once
altered by the Mahometans. It would be unfair,
therefore, to draw any inference from the fact, till
the precise date of its appearance in the present form
were correctly ascertained. The existence of point-
ed arches in the Moorish palace at Granada, called
the Alhamba, is still less justly adduced in defence
of the same cause, as this building was not erected
till the year 1273, when the pointed style maybe
said to have been established in Europe.

Having disposed of those rival pretensions, Dr M.
confidently brings forward his Norman prelates resi-
dent in England, as more deserving of notice, and
specifies particularly and circumstantially the steps
by which they were progressively advanced to the
honour assigned them. Among his favourites are
Roger of Sarum, Alexander of Lincoln, Mauritius of
London, Roger of York, and, above all, Henry of
Winchester. The successive improvements of each
of these, he tells us, " were of course adopted by the
rest," and they all contributed to change the Norman
into the Gothic architecture. In what manner they
did so, it is of some consequence we should be in-
formed.

The Normans, who affected height no less than
length in their churches, in order to obtain it piled
arches, and pillars on each other, so as at times to
form three stories, an example of which is to be seen
in Walkelin's work in Winchester cathedral. An
imitation of such accumulated masses was frequently
practised in the masonry of plain walls ; and it was
usual by way of ornament, and for the sake of varie-
ty, to cause the plain round arches to intersect each
other, as may be seen in the upper part of the south
transept of the same edifice, which affords probably
the first instance of this interesting ornament in the
kingdom. It was not, Dr M. thinks, till De Blois,
the architect of St Cross, near Winchester, conceiv-
ed the idea of opening the comprehended spaces for
the purpose of windows, that these people were aware
of the happy effect of such intersections. The form
of both windows and arches now underwent a change;
they became long and narrow. This again required
the pillars on which they rested to be pi-oportionally
tall and slender, and a material of firm texture to be
used for their composition. Purbeck marble, gener-
ally adopted for the purpose, being found too weak
lor the weight to be sustained, the shafts were multi-
l)lied, and hence arose the clustered column so strik-
ing in this style. As the windows, from the manner
in whicli they were formed, were in general very nar-
row, it was thought necessary at times to place two of
them close together, and that frequently under one
common arch, of which we have instances in differ-
ent parts of De Lucy's work in the same cathedral,
and in the lower range of the windows in the church
of Netley abbey. Such an arrangement, it is obvi-

ous, occasioned a blank, or dead space, between tlie
heads of the conjoined windows, which was accord-
ingly planted with a trefoil or quatrefoil, one of the
ornaments anciently employed in porches and other
places. This kind of decoration soon became proli-
fic. It was the source, in short, of those cinquefoils,
circles, squares, fans, Catherine's wheels, &c. so con-
spicuous in Gothic windows. Such ornaments were
not long confined to their original situation. The}-
were applied also to the pointed arches on the out-
side of buildings, which frequently were made to
terminate in a trefoil. The buttresses even, that
were erected externally in aid of the walls, must
have their appropriate pinnacles similarly beautified ;
and the pinnacle again, still advancing in the mighty
effort of ambitious improvement, became at last a
spire. " Thus, we see, how naturally the several
gradations of the pointed architecture arose one out
of another, and how the intersecting of two circu-
lar arches in the church of St Cross may perhaps
have produced Salisbury steeple."

Such then is the theory, in few words, which Dr
Milner has advanced in his Essay " On the rise and
progress of the pointed arch," contained in his His-
tory and Survey of Winchester," to which we must
refer for information as to the facts and reasoning
brought forward in its support. Before proceeding
to consider a very different theory, we have to no-
tice a distinction endeavoured to be established by
the same author, in the manner or appearance of
this style. According to him, the Gothic architec-
ture is as susceptible of a division into orders as the
Grecian, and these are also three in number, each
of which is essentially characterised by the degree
of inclination of the lines forming the pointed arch.

Dij^crcnt orders of Gothic. — In the Jirst order, the
arches are very acute, and the pillars for the most
part heavy and massive, such as are found in Saxou
or Norman buildings, but sometimes having a faint
resemblance to the clustered column, groins of sim-
ply intersecting ribs, and windows without mullions,
or having only a single bisecting one, and ornamented
with a single trefoil, quatre-foil, or other simple
flower. The east end of Canterbury cathedral fur-
nishes an example. We have otljer instances in the
cathedral of Lincoln (the west end), Salisbury
throughout, and in the transepts of Westminster and
York. This order is to be traced Irom about the
beginning of Stephen's reign, till near the end of
the 13th century.

In the second order are exhibited arches, forming
an equilateral triangle, clustered columns generally
formed out of one stone, and having what are called
historic capitals, windows magnificently enriched
with a variety of ornaments, decorated groins, mul-
lions reaching to the bottom of their story, shafts of
the main cluster supporting the springers of minute
arches, &c. all indicative of a grandeur and freedoiu
bordering on luxuriance, but withal extremely deli-
cate and pleasing. There are noble specimens in the
choir and nave of Yorkminster, tlie naves of West-
minster, Canterbury, Winchester, Exeter, and St Ste-
phen's Chapel, Westminster. This order prevailed from
the end of the 13th to the middle of the 15th century.

The third order is easily discriminated by its de-

Hlstorv.

444

ARCHITECTURE.

instory. pressed obtuse angled arches, pendant capitals,
greatly perforated walls, and an extravagant profu-
sion of tracery and other fanciful decorations,
much more calculated to excite surprise and a feel-
ing of perplcNity, than to gratify a refined and cor-
rect taste. This order, which has justlj' enough
been considered as marking the decline of the style,
reached from the end of tlie 15th to the middle of
the 16th century. It is to be seen in Henry VII.'s
chapel, Westminster, certainly a most extraordinary
production, King's College chapel, Cambridge, and
St George's chapel at Windsor.

The sum of Dr Milner's opinions, then, may be
given in a short compass. The pointed architecture
grew out of the simple pointed arch, betv/een the
end of the 12th and the early part of the 14rth cen-
tury. The pointed arch itself was discovered by
observing the eftect of those intersections of semicir-
cular arches which preceding artists employed to or-
nament ecclesiastical edifices. We are indebted for
both discoveries, that is, for the origin and cultiva-
tion of the pointed style, to our own ancestors, tlie
Anglo-Normans and English. Lastly, There are
three orders of this style, as plainly distinguishable
from one another as the orders of the Grecian ar-
chitecture, and having their respective members, or-
naments, and proportions.

Mr Whiitington's theory. — For a rery different
view of the whole subject we shall have recourse
to a recent publication by Mr Haggitt, rector of
Ditton, Cambridgeshire, who ably supports Mr
Whittington's sentiments. According to Mr W. the
pointed arch existed in Fr.ance before the 12th cen-
tury, and that not accidentally, or by vmy of orna-
ment merely, but as an integral part of several struc-
tures, and constituting a prominent feature in them ;
the pointed style, therefore, could not have its origin
at the period assigned by Dr Milner, or be discover-
<d in the manner and place which he has specified.
It is endeavoured, in short, to make it appear, that
the French had attained to a high degree of perfec-
tion in this style, half a century before the English
had constructed any similar work of comparative ex-
cellence, and that consequently the latter are not at
all entitled to the merit which Dr Milner awards
them as its discoverers and earliest promoters. The
evidences of this fact, cited in Mr Whittington's
work are these four examples of the pointed arch :
1st, The crijjit of the abbey church of St Denis,
which was completed by Charlemagne as early as the
close of the 8th century ; 2iUy, The eastern end
of the choir of the abbey church of St Germain des
Pres, finished at the beginning of the llth century ;
3dly, The choir of the Benedictine church of la Cha-
j it^ sur Loire, completed before the close of the same
century ; Stilly, The chapel of the Apsis, and some
part of the eastern arcade of the church itself of St
Denis, which were the work of abbot Luger in 1144'.
Thegreater part of this last edificewas rebuilt in 1231 ;
but as the pointed arch is visible in every part of what
remains of the ancientwork,it iswithpropriety brought
forward as a legitimate example. Other evidences of
a similar kind, it is believed, might have been men-
tioned ; but the caution and scrupulousness of Mx

Whittington would not suffer him to advance any in-
stance which he was unable to substantiate by a dis-
tinct record. These four may be judged sufficient,
especially when it is considered that Dr Milner him-
self appears totally at a loss to discard them. The
last of them, indeed, is the only one with which he
attempts feebly to contend. Even giving it up, then,
it seems to follow of necessity, that " the pointed
arch existed in three important edifices of France
before it was known in England."

It is to meet this decisive conclusion that Dr Mil-
ner tells us of examples of pointed arches formed by
intersection, and introduced as ornaments upon tlie
walls of English churches in the l'2th century. But
at all events these correspond as to date with the last
only of Mr Whittington's four examples ; and then
they are not instances of the pointed arch used as an
essential feature, but are mere decorationswbich may
be proved to have been " common to the Lombard
churches of that and of a still earlier period through
a great part of Europe." Whereas, on Dr Milner's
own. hypothesis, two out of the three admitted exam-
ples adduced by Mr Whittington, are full and com-
plete instances of the Doctor's_/r«i order ofthepoin^-
ed stylc', diat is to say, such instances oi' it as the
choir of Canterbury, which was not built till nearly
two centuries after the first of the churches alluded
to, and one century after the second. Before con-
cluding thispart of our statement, it is incumbent
on us to- mention another example- of the priority of
the French in the use of the pointed arch, to be add-
ed to the four already specified. It is the abbey
church of Citigny, begun m 1093, and finished in
1131, of the interior of whieh Mr Hawkins has giveo
two views in his work on the History, &c. of , Gothic
Architecture, lately published. The opinion is a very
probable one, tliat Henry de Blois, who afterwards
exhibited the pointed arc« in his hospital of St Cross,
as was formerly remarked, actually acquired his know-
ledge of it during his residence in this abbey, where
he passed his early years as a monk, at the very time
that the church belonging to it was erecting. A preT
sumption, at least, thence arises, as to the introducr
tion of this style into England, which a warm parti-
san could scarcely fail to cherish. Nor is it innna^
terial, perhaps, to notice, that the churcli, of Notre
Dame in the capital of France, entirely a Gotliic
building, was begun in 1*161, and was so far comple-
ted in 1181 as to be consecrated by the Pope's le-
gate..

Probahhj d»rvvedfrom the East, — But clearly as we
think it may be demonstrated, that this style was a-
dopted in France sooner than in England, we see no
reason to imagine that it originated in that country.
This leads us to make a few remarks on the proba-
bility of its having been received from tlie eastin the
course of the Crusades.

In the first place, then, if we except a few desul-
tory instances of pointed arch, which, it is not un-
likely, were suggested by the information of some o£
the earlier pilgrims to the Holy Land, it is very cer-
tain that none of the principal features of this style
existed in Europe anterior to the time of the first
crusade, wliich ended with the capture of Jerusalem;

IlisUrv.

ARCHITECTURE.

445

History, in 1099. In this expedition few of the English were
engaged, and but a small part returned to their na-
tive country. A similar observation is to be made
respecting the second crusade, which took place in
llic, under the guidance of the Emperor Conrad
and Louis the Seventh. It is not certain, indeed,
that any English force was associated in it. Not so,
however, in the third crusade^ which commenced in
1191; there Richard I. and many of his subjects
acted a conspicuous part.

In the second place, this style appears to have ari-
sen in different countries of Europe during the
course of these expeditions, antl that, too, very much
in the proportion and order in which they were en-
gaged in tiiem. Thus France exhibited various in-
stances of it soon after the termination of the second
crusade, but England not till after the return of
Richard from the third ; a difference which the cir-
cumstance above stated may be allowed to explain.
It is indeed a very important fact in this question,
as is noticed by Mr Haggitt, " that during the last
twenty years of the 12th, and the first thirty years
of the 13th centuries, Gothic architecture arose and
flourished in all the principal countries of Europe ;
in France, in Germany, in the Low Countries, in
Spain, in England, in Italy, and in Sicily ;" and it
certainly appears something more reasonable to
ascribe so general an adoption of it to the influence
of an agent common to the whole, than to imagine
what, on any view of the matter, is not susceptible
of proof, that one of these nations having invented
the style, became the pattern to which the others
conformed.. It is almost inconceivable, in reality,
that this latter could have been the case, and yet
that there should exist no historical evidence by
which it can be substantiated.

Thirdly, If there be reason to determine that the
principal features of the pointed style existed in the
East previous to those expeditions, it will appear
very probable, the two preceding circumstances be-
ing taken into account, that this mode of architec-
ture was one of the consequences resulting from
them. The proof of this fact, indeed, is almost de-
cisive of the controversy. Dr Milner, aware of this,
is shocked at the idea of deriving so beautiful and
ingenious an art from the " ruthless Saracens," and
attaches unlimited confidence to the negative inci-
dent of Pocockc, Norden, and Shaw neither making
mention of pointed arches, nor giving representa-
tions of them in their accounts of those eastern
countries which they had visited. Mr Plaggitt, on
the other hand, establishes the competency of this
people, from their general character in history as
the cultivators of the arts and sciences, aad the
well-known magnificence and number of their archi-
tectural productions ; and he both accounts for the
silence of the travellers just now mentioned, and op-
poses to it the direct and positive testimony of more
recent observers. In our judgment he lias com-
pletely succeeded in both j)oints ; and accordingly
we have not the shadow of a doubt, that the chief
features of the pointed architecture, as a style, are
really to be found in the East. An impartial reader
of Mr Haggitt's Second Letter cannot resist this
conclusion ; and heocc the only remaining questioB

to be determined, respects the antiquity of. the mo-
numents which display them. Here, too, it appears,
that the evidence adduced by this gentleman is en-
titled to high consideration, if not productive of en-
tire conviction. On the whole, then, we do not he-
sitate to award the full amount of his claim* in be-
half of the opinion he has espoused, or to admit the
correctness of his- concluding statement as to tlie
success of his inquiries. " I have shewn," says he,
" that there is at least no moral improbability in the
eastern origin of pointed architecture : I have en-
deavoured to account for its not appearing in this
island sooner than it did appear, and for its intro-
duction at the termination of the third crusade: I
have also shewn, that remains of pointed, or Gothic
architecture, actually exist in Syria, Palestine, and
Egypt ; and that tliere are strong reasons for assign-
ing some of those remains tio an age long antcri6r to
the crusades."

Before concluding this subject we may suggest,
that though his opinions as to the relative times of
its appearance be disproved, yet the idea of Dr
Milner respecting the mode in which the pointed
arch originated, is quite reconcileable with the fact
of its superior antiquity both in France and the East.
It is rather strange that this remark has not been •
made before by any of the combatants. But we are
far from deciding as to its correctness. Another ob-
servation occurs, perhaps no less entitled to respect; .
May not the pointed arch have resulted from the sub-
stitution of several pieces, in place of the tviO rafter*
or stones opposed to each other, in the maimer de-
scribed when speaking of the origin of the arch, after
the safety and tl)e beauty of the circular form had
attractecl so much regard as to modify the existing
taste ? This opens a field for inquiry, as far as w e
kliow not yet entered on, and might carry back the
principles of Gothic architecture to a still earlier
period than the theories now stated have assumed.
The reader will find an interesting series of compa-
risons between French and English cathedrals, &c.
in Mr Whittington's work. Mr Dallaway's Observa-
tions on English Architecture will supply him with
many curious particulars respecting the latter.

English style varies. — The equally clustered co»
lunm with a low sharp arch, prevailed in Edward
III.'s time. The chapel of Our Lady, attached ta
Ely cathedral, is a fine specimen of the style of this
period. Becket's Crown, in Canterbury cathedral,
probably suggested the idea of the Louvre of Ely
and Canterbury. To the crosses erected' by Edward I.
in honour of his consort, has been attributed the in-
troduction of the elaborate canopies and minute de-
corations of tombs and shrines. These ornamentt
soon became excessive. The earliest example of thi.'*
sort of workmanship, generally termed " filligraine,'''
is the choir of York cathedral. Additional embel-
lishments were souglvt about the middle of the 15tk
century, some of them abundantly whimsical and
capricious, as may be seen in the armorial ensign*
of honour on roofe, and the spandrils of internal ar-
cades. . They were also commonly appended to mar-
ket crosses and the gateways of abbeys. Crosses an-
swered, in these times, the double purpose of devo-
tion and commerce, and it/nas tiie fasiuon to adorn

Hfstoryi

Ai6

ARCHITECTURE.

llWory.

tlicni in tlio most Itixurlant mnnncr. Tliat pnrticular
«tylo wliicli has boon propcvly enough denoiniiiatod
tlio " Florid (iotliic,' seems to have nri-vulli'd I'roni
ihe heginninK <>' t''>' rcij^n of Henry IV. to the end
of that of lU'nry VII. ; and it is no douhl a singuhir
circumstanco, tliat avcliitucturo flourisheii so exten-
sively durini^ the tempestuous times of the wars be-
tween the houses ol' York and I^ancaster. Of the
odilices of tliis period we may mention the choir of
(iloueester, x\w sepulehnd ehapel adjoining tlu> pa-
rish church at Warwick, that at Westminster, King's
chapel at ramhridue, ihe royal chapel at Windsor,
and the a))l)ey church at Hath, which, though tinish-
cd a little later, is properly referred to this era.
'I'lic reformation, it need scarcely be told the reader,
tieslroycd more edifices than it spared. How great,
thei>) reckoning front the n\miber and kind of those
which reniaineil, nnist have been the /cal, and inlol-
ligence, and taste, which animated ai\d directed the
iiious ])ntrons of Knglish ec<desiastical architecture'.

The reign of Henry VII. in which the basis was
laid of a linn and undisputed govermncnt, was pecu-
liarly favourable to this art. It has been termed, in-
deed, the grand a;ni of handsome parochial churches,
which sulhciently sigiudi/es the an\ount and kind of
service given. 'Phe style, thongli becoming gradu-
ftUy more venturous and indulgent, was hitherto un-
mixed. In the succeeding reign, jiartieularly to-
wards it« close, a combination of (iothic and (xre-
cian manners was destructive i^f the real beauties
which either possessed separately. The proper re-
medy lor the evil was discovcreil long auer in the
revival of classical architecture, as rcconnuended by
the learning of Sir H. Woottcn, and illustratetl by
the genius of Inigo .lones and his disciples.

Proi^ifss in Scotlaml Here wo may make a re-
mark or two respecting Ihe progress ol ecclesiastical
architecture in Scotland. This country, it is proba-
ble, had not so much as one stone church at the cont-
mencement of the 8th century. Hut a wooden
church built on the island of l.indisfairn, in Nor-
thumberland, A. 1). (i,')'2, is said to be constructed
more Scotonini, from which it nuty be inferrcil that
this people were well acquainted with the use of
other materials at this period, Naitau, king of the
I'icts, applied by letter to the abbot of VVcreniouth,
A. 1). 710, for tile assistance of masons to erect a
►.tone church in his kingdom, and his request, Mede
tells us, was granted. The churches of Old Mel-
rose, Coldingiiam, and Tynninghnni, are imagined to
have been among the first buildings of the kind in
this kingdom. l"he art did not prosper much till the
reign of Oavid 1. when it was carried on to a greater
degree than the poverty of the country niight seem
to have allowed. No k'ss than twelve considerable
edifices, destined to religious purnoses, have been
ascribed to this prince, amongst which arc the four
cathedrals of Glasgow, Dunkeld, St Andrew's, and
Aberdeen. These, and the other buildings now
nlluded to. were nrobably all cr^v^ed between
ir2,') and \\5l, a striking fact in the concerns of so
•mall a state, and not paralleled, we believe, in any
Other period of its history. Of the subsequent struc-
tuvenofthis kind may lie mentioned the ablH>y of
.Vborbrothwick, founded iu 1I7?> the PlusciuUino

priory in Moray, 1230, and the collegiate churches
of Dunbar in IM'2, Dunglas, 14.03, and Roslin,
1 11(i. " Of (Jothic architecture in Scotland, (says Mr
Dallaway,) the moat benutilul pieces which remain
entirj; are Melrose abbey, (rapidly decaying, alas!)
Ihe cathedral at Glasgow, Linchulen college, near
Dumfries, the chapel at Uoslin near Edinburgh, and
that in the palace of Holyrood, (now a. ruin,) the
last mentioned of which was founded about HIO, by
king .lames H. of tliat realm. Tlieir sides are flank-
ed by flying buttresses, like those at Westminster,
but with a happier effect, because in a purer stylo."

Proo-rrss nf Cnsllr.i, c'^c. in Britain — The liistory of
castellated and domestic architecture in Britain, de-
mands some notice. The Komans built many mili-
tary structures in the various provinces which they
hail ciMupiered, and of tliesc, it is probable, the Sax-
ons, who succeeded to them, availed themselves, in
order to retain possession of the country. Long ac-
quaintance witl) the feudal nystein had accustomed
tne Normans to the notion that a castle was essential
to every large estate. This diil not abandon them on
their coining over to England, as is evident from the
numerous remains of their fortresses still to be met
with. The chief peculiarity in these buildings is the
keep, usually a square tower of great height, or a
circular one nuich lower but of considerable diame-
ter, and accessible by steep stone stairs. The walls,
which were of great thickness, admitted a winding
stair-case, galleries, and chimnies, the oven, the
well, itc. ami had an opening at top for the admission
of light and air to the dungeon at the base, in which
it was customary to confine prisoners. The ground-
floor was without light ; the s(-cond obtained it
through small loop-holes ; but the third, in which
was the state aj>artment, had the benefit of large
round-arched windows, so contrived as not to be
looked through from within, nor penetrated by mis-
sile weapons Irom without. Various contrivances ren-
dered these forts tolerably secure, even after the ad-
joining buildings were either taken or destroyed. Fa-
mine, of course, proved an invincible opponent.
Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, after the conquest,
is said to have contributed much to the strength and
beauty of the established mode of defence. His plans
were {gradually improved in subsequent times, espe-
cially in the perioit between the reigns of the second
and third Henry. Hut the chief amendment was owing
to the observations which Edwiud 1. made during his
crusading visit to the Levant and the Holy Land,
where the architecture of defence had arrived at
great perfection. The castles of Caernarvon, Con-
way, Harlech, and .\berystwilh, all in Wales, were
erected by this prince. Scarcely a vestige of the List
is discoverable, but the others still claim admiration.
Many other castles in this territory had their origin
in the resolution of Edward's chier followers to pre-
serve the divided fruits of his successful invasion.

Hitherto, and for some time after, the principal
object aimed at in these t'ortresses was impregufibdi-
ly. The reign of Ivdward HI. presented a new fea-
ture, in a degree of elegance and hahilable comfort,
to which former generations were strangers. The
example of this monarch at Windsor, nuiybe said to
Jmve excited a rivalry among his barons, many of

lIJstMy.

ARCHITECTURE.

447

HIsforjr.

whom were the abler to engage in it, in consequence
of the wcaltli ncMjiiirtd by tlie ransom of jinsonerH
taken in the buttles of I'oictiers and Cressy. The
imiirovcnii'iits now alliiilcd to were continued and
extended to liu- time of the termination of the con-
tests between tlic houM'S oi" Yori< and Lancaster, —
a period rich in casti'ilatod edifices, wiiose ruins now
form an intenst of the highest kind in many of our
choicest hmdscapes.

In the tranouiiiity that succeeded tliis long dissen-
sion, the forbidding features of llic castellated style
became less striking, greater regard was paid to eni-
bclhshnients, and those baronial nninsions which still
retained a military appearance, displayed, at the
same time, the magnihcenee and convenience of pri-
vate dwellings. Domestic and military architecture,
in short, were blended together in various degrees
throughout the reign of tlie Tudor family, the in-
creasing security of the public |)eace at last giving
preponderance to the former, which in many cases
merely acknowledged a kind of relationship with the
latter by its useless battlements, insignificant para-
pets, turrets, &c. &c.

The employment of brick in place of stones of va-
rious kinds, IS perhaps nearly coeval with the con-
version of castles into connviodious houses, and be-
came more connnon as the necessity for defence di-
minished, llut in certain parts of the country the
abundance of the latter material decided. It luis been
supposed Unit the use of brick, which was so fre-
quent will) the Itonuins who resided in Kngland, was
not reyived till the reigu of Uichard II. The walls
of the feodal castles of early times were commonly
faced only with hewn stones, the intermediate [larts
being filled up with pebbles, rubble-stones, &c.
Flints squuied in a particular way were often used for
outside wails, especially in Henry VII.'s lime. \\'lien
the condition of public aflairs permitted a regard to
internal decorations, it became usual to cover the
walls of state chambA's with wainscot, which was ei-
ther painted in fresco, or hung with arras or tapf s-
try. The large halls also, which formed an essential
part of the castles, afforded a favourite subject for
ornament. In jiaintcd glass, carvings of different
kinds, and all sorts of beautilying contrivances, some
castles are supposed to have vied with the churches
of the same period.

Jievival of Ii<imu)i .sli/Ic in lirllain. — The partial
introduction of the llonian style, about the middle
«f the Kith century, co-opeialcd witli the change of
manners attendant on long traiKiuillity, in occasion-
ing an abandonment of the peculiarities of the mili-
tary architecture. Holbein took the lead in this
transfoimation, confining himself chiefly to the por-
ticos and portals of houses. He was f'ollowetl by
John of Padua, who built Somerset- house and Long-
leat, both in a mixed style. The first house, entirely
Italian, according to Mr Daliaway, was erected by
Sir Horatio I'alaviciui, at ialtle Shelfurd, in Kssex.
Queen Elizabeth's reign pro<luccd several respect-
able architects and many magnilicent houses. Of the
iHore remarkable productions which appeared to-
wards the close of the IfJth, and the conunence-
nient of the following century, may be specified,
Burleigh-liouse, Audley-end, lioUanU-house, Camp-

den-house, and Knowle. Mr Dallnway has well de
scribed the peculiarities in the style of this period
" The vast iliniensions of the a|>artnients, the ex-
treme length of the gallerii's, and the enormous
square-windows, are tlie heading eharaeleristies of the
manner of building during the reigns of I'^li/.abeth
and .lames I. 'I'lie ornaments, both within and with-
out, were cumbrous, and e(|Uiilly void of grace and
propriety. Nothing could exceed the heaviness of
the cornices and cielings, wrought into comj)art-
inents, or the awkward intersection of the passages.
The hall retained nothing of the (iotliic description,
excepting its size and bay-window ; being very fre-
<juently merely a large room, including the whole
space of the house from the base to the roof. In-
stead of battlements and pinnacles, the paraiu't wait
broken into nuuierous pediments, not exactly coni-
cal or aniiular, but ot' a form too capricious for de-
8cripti(ai. '

Moiltrit iniiovalinns, — This heavy style of I)uilding,
which distinguished the reigns of Elizabeth and her
successor, gave way to the lighter taste and chaster
conceptions of Inigo Jones and his scholars. To
their influence on the public mind, in recommend-
ing the adoption of classical architecture, we owe
miicli of that elegance and higlily-wrouj^lit conve-
nience so conspicuous in moilern ICngiisii houses.
Their labours, it is probable, would nave proved
more immediately important, had not the distressing
calamities which afterwards iilllieted the kingdom af-
forded more imperative considerations. Many of the
edifices ascribed to Inigo Jones were finishi'd from
liis nlans, though not built uiid<'r liis own notice.
Of liis genuine works maybe mentioned Stoke-park,
in Northamptonshire, Castle- Asliby, C^harles I.'b
picture gallery at Whitehall, the (Juecn's house
in (ireenwich-park, Lindsey-liouse in Lincoln-Inii
Fields, the (i range in Hants, and the lianqueting-
liouse at Wliitehull.

'i'he restoration of Ciiarles II. seems not to have
been propitious to architectnrul p\irity. .Home very
injudicious attempts were then made to reconcile the
(iothic and classical manners. Tlie ]irincipal archi-
tects, in geiieral, possessed more science than taste.
An intimate acquaintance with the fine models of
anti(|uity was recpiired to correi:t their jodgniei:t as
to the sources of the beautiful in the art. Ihit it
was long before this remedy was any way e(li;clually
applied. The names of two nobleineii, Pembroke
and Hurlington, enli;^htened patrons of the art, me-
rit distinction for their contributions towards its ini-
l)rovcment, as well as those of VV reji and Vaiiburgh
for their oflieial services. Lord Leicester, in u
subse(|uent period, seems to have possessed e(pial
refinement and strength of conception. Indeed, for
sometime, the chief improvements in our national
architecture were owing to tlie classical studies of
persons who were alike removed from the i)rejudi-
ces of professional men, and the necessity of uccoiii-
niodating themselves to pul)lic opinion. We have
still more recent examples of tlTe same truth.

Present .itrilr.—{',riau-r intimacy with ancient mo-
dels, principally effected through the labours of Wood
and Dawkins at Palmyra and Halbeck, .Stuart, Ifevet,
and ottieri, in (jrecce, &c. has occabioncd the abati-

nislory

448

ARCHITECTURE.

ITiiiory. donment of the debased Roman manner; but the Go-
thic and mixed styles are still in repute. The recent dis-
coveries in some ofthe subsidiary sciences have mate-
rially influenced the internal arrangement of houses,
whilst a judicious regard to what may deserve the
name of salutary luxury, and perhaps a still greater
regard, not so commonly justifiable, to splendour of
appearance, together with the perfect absence of
e^-ery defensive idea, have been productive of an
amplitude of dimensions, and a boldness of aspect
tjuite unknown to former times, and, as far as we
know, to other countries. It would be easy, indeed,
in the political history of Europe for the last half
century, to point out reasons why architecture has
been more highly cultivated in Britain than in any
ether kingdom. We are not aware of any causes
likely to arrest its progress ; nor do we apprehend
its deterioration, unless from an evil agent, to which
we have more than once alluded, but against which
we are furnished with an effectual security if we
chuse to avail ourselves of it, in the perpetually re-
newed display and diligent study of those models of
harmonizing beauties, which «o many generations of
mankind have willingly agreed to admire.

Explanation of Plates.

Plate 11. Fig. 1 — 9. illustrate the strength of ma-
terials ; Fig. 10. the construction of arches ; Fig. 1 1 —
21. the constructions of roofs; Fig. 22. a Norman
roof.

Plate 12. Fig. 1. The old roof of St Paul's church,
Covent-Garden, London ;Tig.2. The new roof ; Fig.
S. The roof of Islington church, near London ; Fig.
4. A proposed improvement on the same roof; Fig. 5.
Roof of the chapel of<jreenwich hospital ; Fig. 6. Roof
of Birmingham theatre ; Tig. 7. Roof of Drury-lane
theatre ; Fig. 8. and 9. Parts of its construction ;
Fig. 10. Remarkable roof of the Riding-school, St
Petersburgh; Fig. 11. Dome of St Paul's, London;
Fig. 11, 2d. — 20. Illustration ofthe construction of
wooden bridges.

Plate 13. Fig. 1 — 8. Construction ofthe centering
of different bridges ; Fig. 9. Sunderland bridge.

Plate 14<. Plan and elevation of different bridges ;
the wooden bridge over the Don, near Aberdeen,
consists of a single arch of 109 feet span ; the three
ancient Roman bridges are in Rome or its vicinity ;
the bridge of Orleans in France, designed by M.
Hupeau, and remarkable for its simplicity and ele-
gance, consists of nine arches ; the middle arch is
nearly 107 feet span, witli a rise of 30 feet, the
arches next the abutments have 98 feet span and 26
feet of rise, and the remaining arches are in propor-
tion. The whole'breadth, including the parapets, is
49 feet. This -fine bridge was begun in 1750, and was
finished in ten years.

The bridge over the Tay at DurikeW, which is
reckoned one of the finest in Scotland, consists of
five large arches, and two on the land sides of a
smaller description. The middle arch is 90 feet span,
with a rise of 30 feet. The breadth over the para-
pets is 27 feet.

The Strand or Waterloo bridge over the Thames
at London consists of nine arches, of 120 feet span
each. The piers are 20 feet thick; the breadth lyith-

in the parapets is 42 feet ; the road-way is 28 feet
broad, and the footpaths are seven feet broad each.
A considerable part of th^ foundations of the piers
and of the arches is built with the fine sandstone
from Craigleith quarry near Edinburgh. Other
parts are constructed of Cornish granite, and the
outside or casing of the entire structure is of the
same material, but the balustrades are formed of the
beautiful grey granite from Aberdeen.

Plate 15. Fig. 1 Shews the different parts and
divisions of a column and entablature in the Tuscan
order ; Fig, 2. Illustration of the Doric order ; Fig.

3. Character and dimensions of the Ionic order ; Fig.

4. Character and proportion ofthe Corinthian order ;
Fig. 5. The Composite order.

Fig. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. lUustrationof Sir James
Hall's theory ofthe origin of Gothic architecture.

Fig. 13. Arched entrance to the north aisle of Pe-
terborough cathedral, illustrating the Saxon capital
and chevron work or zig-zag ornaments.

Fig. 14. An arch in Norwich cathedral, adorned
with billet-moaldmg, and a spiral band on one of
the columns.

Fig. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. illustrate the origin and
prepress of the pointed arch.

Plate 16. Fig. 1. St Paul's, Covent Garden, Lon-
don, which is reckoned a good example of the Tus-
can order. No ancient specimen is known.

Fig. 2. Doric portico at Athens, with four fluted
columns, supposed by some to be the remains of a
temple dedicated to Rome and Augustus, but by Mr
Wilkins to be the entrance to a market-place. This
is esteemed one of the best examples- of the ancient
Doric order applicable to private edifices.

Fig. 3. Temples of Erectheus, of Minerva Polias,
and Pandrosus, at Athens; A, the temple of Mi-
nerva, at other end of which is the temple of Erec-
theus ; B, is the portico of both temples. The tem-
ple or cell of Pandrosus is adorned with caryatides,
one of which, supporting the iSorner of the entabla-
ture, was removed by Lord Elgin, and is now in the
British Museum. This fine example of the ancient
Ionic is copied in <he portico of the county-hall,
now erecting (1816) in Edinburgh.

Fig. 4. An example of the Corinthian order, ta-
ken from the remains of the temple of Jupiter Sta-
tor at Rome, which is greatly celebrated for its rich
decorations.

Fig. 5. View of an ancient Sarcophagus.

Fig. 6. Amphitheatre at Pola in Istria, of an el-
liptical form. The length is 436| feet, the shorter
diameter is 346 feet, and. the height about lOO feet,
and is divided into three stories.

Fig. 7. The Trajan column at Rome is seen in tbe
distance.

Plate 17. Pig.l. Temple of the Winds at Athens,
is constructed of marble, and of an octagon form, on
each side of which is sculptured un emblematical re-
presentation of the wind which blows against that side,
and on the top was a conical piece of marble, and sur-
mounted by a triton, holding a wand in his right hand,
so contrived that the wand points to that side from
which the wind blows. The roof of this building is re-
markable for its elegance. Under each of the figures,
which are fine pieces of sculpture, is a sun-dial ; and

PI(ii«

ARC H I T E C TURE.

PLATE 11.

Fithio. c

l^noni i: Uniire'-i^d ih- Tlu- Eni.-yi:lt<f^t^i ZJinensu \r W.tD-l.ixart

ARCHITECTURE

PLATE 1

t«i-

— — =tF«

J26 :^i£t

JO S 0

J0 ^e

ARCHITE C TITR E.

PLATE 13.

F^2.

Engrar^ t'hr At Zit^ftifpatita SdtKfttM 4»' *^* ^'^"rf™ ■*•''"

SL'VDKItl^VS BJIIOOK.

ARCIIITE CTURE .

PLATE 14.

W^oftfn l\l\,lJ>Vi 15 o-t-f- the Don

^om.s S^rtOLtori**^

ROMAiV^ BRII>OE.S ,
Pons JifUvitu

PonM Pahridu^

^ ,

\

n

^^r^^^^.

1

\

^ J

\

r

STKAND BRIDGE LONDON

\~^

1

^^f

QiV±-^n_

I'ta

aiii.->i i Xu,tmvf,1 ftf ihf K"^f-f,-/-''it.i K.iintn^f* 1^ r^Jf-I^i.inr r.,fmr

Fnnnff»tifln<*A

^

ARC H I T E C T URE .

PL-xVTE 15.

1

^,1'

s:

||

P

ru,.j.

■ Jtn.T —

funn Jttrta

. — "^I!^ i

fHxe

tMlrt

...y't^i>f the Ct^'tnf

J

Mg.2.

Tw.3.

rr

7r

*'^

fair!

i !'

II

=y

'AAA \ <:.

(ttff^f ff Af/ir

f^B*

XTJJ-

£

rig. 4.

Mi^.ifc,<.Y/i>v ^-.tjat^j^

^LLLLL'L

P

J^-n.

ri^az.

JProm JkEri^TW^ fin'9is3iuyd^tgiia.S£naijU ^y.lbJ>Xi3xrsEdmhirph.

,V#A^!»4

Plate 17.

ruf.s.

^^^r-04^H

r

^-

AR C HIT E C TUR E .

PtATE 18.

fBttxprnTrvB vTxworrBS t'oir aT-m>vs a. fuBur orticMx.AjfB caoi. of slasgow ,

Ti.,.l.

Hr,nrH>r KnitrLimt.ririh' Uriiyrft'/tirttut Rtfinritn" hy W ^raj.i'ji4ti-f SifiJif-itr-ii .

-"•■'.?^4.

ARC HIT E C TtTRE.

NKW ElMSCOlMI. CIlArKI, YdUK rLAC'F. EnrNHliRCH, IIF.SIUNKII BV AlU'llV KI.L,IOT KSy? ARCHT

PLATE 1()

ARCHITEC TrUE.

PL^TE it

'■''' ^"vA.p.vJ^ MAtf^J^ ^

RHBIAtS Cj1THEI>.&A.L.

ARCHITECTURE.

44.9

Plates. ^ Stream of water was conducted to* a clypsedra in
the interior of the edifice to mark the time in the ab-
sence of the sun. The height is about 44.' feet and the
diameter about 2(j feet.

Fig 2. The Parthenon at Athens, one of the fin-
est specimens of ancient architecture, is pecuHarly
distinguished for its grandeur, simplicit)', and subli-
mity. The length when entire was '217 feet, the
breath 101 feet ; the number of the columns 58, the
height 31 feet, and the whole height of the order
45 feet. During the siege of Athens in 1687 by
the Venetians, the Turks converted the Parthenon
into a powder magazine ; a bomb fell into it, kindled
the powder, and blew it up. Eight columns of the
east front, and some of the side porticos yet remain.

I'ig. 3. The Choragic monument of Lysicrates,
whicli is commonly called the Lantern of Demosthe-
nes, stands near the east end of the Acropolis at
Athens, is reckoned a fine specimen of ancient art,
in the Corinthian order, and was erected about 330
years before the Christian era, and in the time of
Alexander the Great, in commemoration of a musical
entertainment exhibited by Lysicrates. It is of a cir-
cular form, about 8 feet in diameter, and 34 feet high ;
and is composed of a basement, colonnade, and cupola.

Fig. 4. Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, of which ele-
ven out of eighteen columns of a circular colonnade
remain, when it was described by Dcsgodetz. Great
part of the wall, containing the door and one of the
windows, was also entire. The columns are two feet
four inches at the base, and they are channelled with
24 flutings. This beautiful fragment of ancient art
stands opposite the cascade of the Tevcrone, and is
five or six leagues from Rome.

Fig. 5. and 6. Plan and elevation of the Pantheon,
now called the Rotunda, at Rome. The Pantheon,
which was built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Au-
gustus, has been always regarded as one of the finest
specimens of Roman architecture, and, fortunately,
it is one of the most entire of the ancient edifices.
It was dedicated, as the name imports, to all the
gods. Pope Boniface IV. dedicated the Pantheon
to God, by the name of the Blessed Virgin and the
Holy Martyrs. In 1627, Pope Urban VIII. caused
two colunms of the portico, which had been remov-
ed, to be replaced, and the capitals which were want-
ing to be restored, the front to be repaired, and the
rubbish cleared away around it, by which the two
upper steps to the portico vv^ere discovered.

Plate 18. Fig. 1. A fine modern specimen of the
Grecian Doric, in the Court-house, Public Offices,
and Gaol of Glasgow, erected in 1810, at an expence
of L.S5,000, from the design of the late Mr William
Stark, architect, whose pure, classical taste is abun-
dantly conspicuous in other public edifices in the
same place, as the Hunterian Museum and the Lu-
natic Asylum. This view is copied from an elegant
original drawing by Mr Stark himself, for which we
are indebted to the liberality of his relative Mr
George Thomson, of the Trustees' OHice, Edin-
Ijurgh. In justice to the ingenious artist, it ought
to be noticed, that the elevation of the building is
less by several feet than was originally intended by
Mr Stark ; and this depressed appearance, which di-
minishes the grandeur of effect, is farther increased

VOL. I. PART II.

by the surrounding parapet-wall and railing, behind
which the colossal steps, which form the ascent to
the portico, are concealed. But this last addition
was no part of Mr Stark's design.

Figs. 2. 3. and 4. Elevation, plan, and section of the
Church of St Genevieve, at Paris, the design of which
is taken from (he Pantheon at Rome. The columns,
which are of the Corinthian order, are 5\ feet in dia-
meter) and, including the base and capital, 58 feet
high, French measure. At the commencement of
the revolution, this edifice was destined, under the
name of the French Pantheon, to receive the ashes
of patriots and v.arriors ; its ancient name was re-
stored during the reign of Bonaparte, and the under-
ground part of the building was limited to the same
use. In the original design, Souftiot, the architect,
proposed the dome to be surmounted by a lantern,
for which a colossal statue of Fame, in bronze, is
projected, and a model in plaster, of 25 feet in height,
has been executed by Dejoux, the statuary ; but it is
feared that the dome is not fit to receive that ad-
ditional WL'ight.

Plate 19. View of the Episcopal Chapel, in York
Place, Edinburgh, an example of modern Gothic,
from a design of Mr Elliot, architect, who obliging-
ly permitted us to copy his original drawing. The
whole expence of this edifice, which accommodates
1000 persons, is estimated at L. 12,000. The area
which it occupies is 124 feet in length, and 73 feet
in breadth. The height of the nave on the south
side, to the top of the battlements, is 51i feet, and
on the east and west fronts, to the top of the cross,
62 feet, and the height of the side aisles is "3\ feet.
The octagonal towers rise to the height of 81 -J- feet.
Including the altar, the length of the nave is 106 feet,
the breadth 26 feet, and the height 35 feet. The altar
window, which is to be decorated with stained glass, is
32 feet 8 inches from the sole to the top of the arch, and
the breadth is 13 feet 6 inches. The ceiling of the nave,
which is to be a flat Gothic arch, is to be enriched
with Gothic fret-work ; and the cielings of the side-
aisles are to be decorated in a similar manner. The
pulpit and fronts of the galleries are to be richly
finished with oak in characteristic style, and the
whole is to be completed in 1817.

The Chapel of Roslin, near Edinburgh, was erect-
ed in 1446, and exhibits a singular mixture of various
styles. The view on Plate 19. shews the rich in-
ternal decorations of the edifice. Seven columns
on each side, supporting pointed arches, divide the
nave from the side aisles ; and over them, in the mid-
dle aisle, which is highest, is a rovv of windows. The
cieling, capitals, architraves, and key-stones, are co-
vered with a profusion of sculpture work, represent-
ing foliage, flowers, scenes from sacred history, texts
of scripture, intermixed with grotesque figures. The
Apprentice's, or Prince's Pillar, as it is sometimes
called, has been always admired for the richness of
its ornaments, and the exquisite neatness of its sculp-
ture. It is peculiarly distinguished by four spiral
wreaths of flower-work and foliage, all different in de-
sign, and "so finely executed as to resemble lace.
The story of Abraham offering up Isaac is represent-
ed on the capital of this pillar.
Plate 20. represents the west front of the Cathe-
3 i.

Plate?.

450

ARCHITECTURE.

pUt«s. dral at Rheiins, which has been long the boast of
>^"v""»«-' France, and in the excellence of its proportions, and
the richness and delicacy of its ornaments, is regard- •
cd as the most perfect speaimen of Gothic architec-
ture in existence. This cathedral was originally
founded in the year 818 ; it was burnt in 1210; oc-
cupied 30 years iu rebuilding, and was finished in

1241 ; hut it is supposed that the grand facade re-
presented on the plate, was not completed till to-
wards the end of the 13th century. The magnifi-
cence of the portal, and its nice proportion to the rest
of the edifice, form the chief excellence and beauty
of the west front, and fully display its characteristic
features.

Plates,

INDEX.

A

Index. Aliutraenls of an arch, - - t05

Aula, - . - i-Z'i

Arcades ... ib.

Arcb, importance of, - - t03

not improved by matlieinatics, ib.

origin of, - - ib.

Aich, of equilibration, - - ib.

Arches, construction of, - - ib.

Bature of, - - ib.

voussoirs, - - ib.

Key-stone, - - ib.

intrados, - - ib.

extrndos, - - ib.

abutments, - - ib.

spring, - - Jb.

crown, - - ib.

haunches, - - ib.

impost, - - ib.

useful and ornamental, - 401

Arehitect, qualifications of, - 4.52

Arthiteclnre, object of, - 401

anaiigcment of, - 393

importance of, - 417

becomes ornamental, - ib.

style of, - - ib.

prejudice in favour of Grecian

examined, - - 418

orders of, - - ib.

Gothic, - - 422

origin of examined, - ib.

Egyptian, character of, - 422

Indian, - - ib.

liistory of, - - 454

Progiess in Scotland, - 44G

Architrave, part of entablature, - 419

Attics, character of, - - 421

Arestylc, ... jb.

B

Buildings, dilTerent kinds, - 425

public, - - 451
exhibit the cliaracter of nations, ib.

Braces of roofs, - - 405

Bricks very durable, - - 595.

Bridge, Schaffliausen, - 414

CKsar's, - - ib.

Wittingen, - - ib.

in America, - - ib.

at Glasgow, - - ib.

near Ixrndon, - - ib.

near Aberdeen, - 415

3riUges, vvoo<leB, - - 413

in Britain, - - 414

stone, - - 415

Roman, - - ib.

modcni, - - ib.

in Italy, - - ib.

in Portugal, - - ib.

France, - - ib.

Britain, - - ib.

iron, - - - 416
C

Cabane Omee, - - 428

Castles, progress in building, - ti6

Center of St Peter's at Rome, - 411
of bridges iu I'laacc, - 411-12

Center of Blackfriars bridge, Loudon, 412

striking, - - ib.

construction of, - 409

sUength of, . - 410

diil'erent kinds of, - ib.

Colonnade, nature, - - 421

Composite order, - - ib.

Comjwsition of forces, - - 401

Compression, effects of, - 400

result of experiments, - ib.

Construction, principles o^ - 401

Constnictive materials, - - 394

Corinthian order, - . 421

styled virginal, - - ib.

Cornice described, - - 415

Cottage, character of, - - 42b'

Crown of an arch, - - 40.1

Croyland bridge the oldest in Britain, 415

Caryatides, ... 422

Diastyle, - - - 421

Dome, form of, - - 407

construction of, - - ib.

St Paul's, London, - - ib.

St Peter's, Rome, - 408

Pantlieon, Rome, - - ib.

St Sophia, Constantinople, - ib.

its history remarkable, - ib.

cathedral of Pisa, - - ib.

wooden.ofllalle du BlesatParis, 409

Doric order, - - 420

Draw-bridges, . - 417
Durham Cathedral, example of Saxon

Gothic style, - - 423

Earthy matters for building, - 395

Entablature, division of, - - 419

Epistyle jiart of entablature, - ib.

Euslyle, - - - 4'21

ExUwlos of an arch, - - 403

Farm-houses, - - 428

Forces, composition and resolution of, 405

Frieze, part of entablature, - 419

G

Glass, kinds of in windows, - 395

substitutes for, - ib.

Glyphs, - - . 420

Gothic architecture, - - 422

origin of examined, - ib.

Saxon, - - 423

Norman, - - ib.

florid, - - 424

ornamental, - . ib.

unsuitable for private habita-
tions, - - 424
Granite, use in building, - - 394
Grouped houses, ... 430
Guttac, - . . 420

H
Jlall, Sir James, theory of Gothic ar-

«lut«cture, . . 423 r$diis«ut$,

Haunches of an avth, - - 403

History of architecture, - 454

origin of, - - ib.

early condition, - . 455

among the Egyptians, . ib.

in the east, ... 43G

among the Greeks, . ib.

among the Romans, - 438

in Britsin, - . 440

under tlie Saxons and Danes, ib.

the Normans, . 441

Impost of an arch, ... 403

Intcrcoluniniation, ... 421

Intrados of an arch, - . 403

Ionic order, - - . 420

styled matronal, . . ib.

Iron bridges, - - . 416

K

Key-stone of an arch, - . 40.?

King-post of a roof, - - 405

Limestone, use in building, . 594

Lodge, character of, - - 428

M

Mansard roof, ... 40S
Marble fit for building, . - 394
Materiialt, constructive, - . ib.
miiting, ... 595
ornamental, . . 597
strength of, - . . ib.
Menai, remarkable iron bridge pro-
posed for, ... 417
Metals, use of, in bnililing, . 395
Metopes .... 420
Mortar, nature of, - - 395
defects of, - - • 39t)
directions for preparation, - ib.
improved, - - . ib.
for building in water, - 397
Mud walls, .... 595
Mutules, ... 420

N

Index.

Niche described, ... 422

Norman roof, ... 406

architecture, - - 2

examples of, - 424

Norwich castle, tower of, example of
Saxon-Gothic, ... 423

O

Order, rule for drawing,
Doric, origin of,
Ionic,
Corinthian,
Tuscan,
Composite,

Orders of architecture,
inveatioD of,

419
420

ib.
421

ib.

ib.
418
419

*8.

A R C

Ind«v, Persian architectnre,

PettiberougU cathedral, arch ui, an
example of Saxon-Gotliic,

Pilasters, nature of,

Pisa walls constmctcd,

Porphyry employed ill building,

ProBaos of a temple,

Puzzolana, -t - - -

Pycuostyle, - - - -
R

Resolution of forces,

Ridinff-school of St Pctcrsburgh, re-
markable roof, . . -

Roman style of architecture renewed,
taste degenerates,
revived in Britain,

Romans copy the Greeks,

Roof, Mansard, _ - -

Norman, . - -

of St Paul's, Covent Garden,
of BiiTuingham theaUe,

422
423

in

595
5.%

in

397
421

401

439
458
447

ib.
406

ib.

ib.

ib.

451

Roof of Dniry Lnne, - - 406
remarkable, at St Pctetburgh, 407

RooCi, nature of, ... 404
pieces, in construction 404, 405

Sandstone, use of in building, - 394

Saxon architecture, ... 425

examples of, - - ib.

Seveni, iron bridge at Buiidwas, - 417

Spring of an arch, . . - 403
Stones, objections to in building ohvi.

ated, r - - - - 394

Strength of materials, - - 597

Strains, transverse, ... 39S

Stnitting-beam, ... 405

Sunderland iron bridge, - - 417

Swivel bridges, . - - . ib.

Systyle, 421

T

Taaf bridge, remarkable arch, - 41G

ARC

Telford, Mr, his bold plan for iron Index,

bridges, - - - . ■ 417

Tension, nature of, - - - 399

Tension of beams, ... 402

rules for determining, - ib.

Termini in architectiu^, - - 422

Tie-beam of a roof, - - . 405

Triglyplu, ... - 420

Tnissbeam, .... 485

Tuscan order, ... 421

Twist ia niacliiuery, ... 400

Vestibulum,
Villa, character of,
Voussoirs,

422
429
4fl5

W

Westminster abbey, example of point-
ed arch, .... 424

Architrave

II
Archytas.

ARCHITRAVE is a term In architecture, denot-
ing the lowest member of the entablature, or that part
of it wlfl'ch rests immediately on the column.

ARCHON, from the Greek, signifying to com-
mand or order, is an appellation which was applied to
the chief magistrate of .Athens. Every person who a-
spired to the office of archon was required to prove
that his progenitors had been citizens of Athens for
three generations ; that lie believed and practised the
religion of his country ; that he had been obedient to
his parents ; and that he had served in the army. The
commissioners appointed to enquire into these points
being satisfied, an oath was administered to the ar-
ch ons, by which they bound themselves to maintain
the laws under the sanction of forfeiting a statue of
gold of the weight of their own body, which was to
be presented to the temple at Delphi.

The wliole administration of the state was entrust-
ed to the archons, who were nine in number. The
first was properly denominated Archon, because he
was the chief of the nine. All domestic matters
came under his jurisdiction, such as disputes between
married persons, parents, and children, all causes re-
lating to dowries, wills, and legacies, and provid-
ing tutors and guardians for orphans. To the second
archon, who was called king, was committed tlie
power of judging in all matters connected with reh-
gion. It was the proper office of the third archon
to provide for the children of those who had fallen
in defence of the country, to appoint games to com-
memorate the patriotism and valour of those who
were slain in battle, to offer sacrifice to Mars and
Diana, and to watch over the concerns of strangers in
Athens. The othes six archons, who were entitled
guardians of the laws, possessed functions of a more
varied and general nature. All matters of police,
which were not assigned to the three principal ar-
chons, fell under their jurisdiction.

ARCHYTAS, a Pythagorean philosopher, and the
contemporary of Plato, flourished about 400 years be-
fore the Christian era"; and by his influence with Dio-
nysius the tyrant of Sicily, it is said he saved the life
of his master Plato. His talents and conduct raised
2

him seven times to the command of the army, in op-
position to a positive law which prohibited the same
person from holding that high office oftener than
once ; and he was frequently chosen chief magistrate
of Tarentum his native city. Archytas was greatly
distinguished for his mathematical knowledge ; he
discovered the duplication of the cube by means of
the conic sections, and the method of finding two
mean proportionals between two given lines ; and to
him also is ascribed the invention of the screw, the
crane, and some hydraulic machines. Aristotle, it
is said, is indebted to this philosopher for his metho-
dical arrangement or general distribution of know-
ledge, entitled, the " Ten Categories." His skill in
astronomy and geography is finely commemorated
by Horace, who laments his fate in having perished
by shipwreck on the Apulian shore. A treatise of
.4.rchytas, " On the Universe," and some fragments
on " \Visclom," and on " the Good and Happy Man,"
are yet extant.

ARCOT, the capital of the Carnatic, inHindostan,
is a city of considerable extent, stands on the banks
of the Pahar, and is strongly defended ; and has been
frequently a disputed post between the British on the
one hand, and the native princes and the French on
the other, from the time it was taken by Colonel
Ciive in 1751, till it finally became a tributary terri-
tory of Great Britain. Arcot is 55 miles south-
west from Madras, and 65 north-west from Pondi-
cherry.

ARCTIC, from the Greek, signifying a iear, is a
geographical term synonymous with northern, as,
arctic pole, arctic circle, which is 23i,degrees from the
pole, and arctic regions, which are included within
that circle.

ARCTIUM, Burdock, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the Syngenesia class.

ARCTOPUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
Polyganiia class.

ARCTOTIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
Sygenesia class.

ARCTURUS, from the Greek, signifying the
tail of the bear, is a fixed star'of the first laagnitude.

Arcot

Arcturus.

ARD

452

ARE

Areucil >n the constellation Bootes, towards which the tail

H of the great bear approaches.

Area. ARCUEIL, a small town of France,, and about

three miles south from Paris, is celebrated for tlie
excellence of its water, which is conveyed to Paris
by a stupendous subterraneous aquieduct, 7000 toises
in length, and constructed of free stone. This splen-
did work -was executed in 1621', under the auspices
of Mary of Medicis.

Arcueil has more lately acquired notice by the
establishment of a society in 1806, wHicli meets eve-
ry fortnight at the country house of Berthollet, for
the purpose of investigating physical and chemical
subjects. Memoirs are read, experiments are repeat-
ed, and reports on journals and works connected with
the objects of their researches, are drawn up by the
members among whom this labour is distributed, and
presented to the consideration of the society. The
most distinguished philosophers of France are asso-
ciates of this institution ; and the volumes of their
memoirs, already before the public, afford a favour-
able specimen of the importance of their labours.

ARDEA, including the stork, crane, and heron,
is a genus of birds belonging to the order Gralla;.
See Oknithology.

ARDEBIL, an ancient and celebrated town
of the province of Aderbijan in Persia, stands in
a wide plain on the banks of the river Karasu,
not far from the Caspian sea, and is enclosed by
a mountainous amphitheatre. Ardebil was once
a royal residence, and a place of strength, but is
now destitute of walls; the great square is spacious,
and the caravanseray for the accommodation of mer-
chants is a large building. All kinds of European
and Asiatic manufactures are exposed to sale in the
market place ; and a constant intercourse is kept up,
by means of caravans, with Constantinople and Smyr-
na. The tomb of a scheik, a reputed saint, in one
of the churches, is regarded as an inviolable asylum,
and attracts numerous pilgrims from all parts of
Persia. Various fruits, as apples, pears, and peach-
es, are abundant in the surrounding districts, and
the more elevated grounds aft'ord excellent pas-
ture to numerous flocks of sheep. Mineral waters
abound, and the public baths of the city are supplied
from copious springs nearly at the boiling tempera-
ture.

ARDECHE, a department of France, formerly
the province of Vivarais, boimded on the north by
the department of the Rhone and Loire, is more than
60 miles long, and from 15 to 30 miles broad, is wa-
tered by the Rhone, the Loire, and the Ardeche, and
produces grain, wines, honey, and silk. The popu-
lation exceeds 267,000, and Privas is the chief town.

ARDENNES, a department of France, including
the great forest from which it derives its name, is
bounded on the north by the dejiartment of Jemappe,
and on the south by the department of the Marne,
is well watered by the rivers Meuse and Aisne ; a-
bounds in all kinds of grain ; coal, slate, and iron,
are among its mineral productions ; the extent ex-
ceeds a million of acres ; and the population exceeds
26t,000. Mezieres, which occupies an island formed
by the Meuse, is the chief town.

AREA, the superficial content of any figure.

Arte*

Thus a square surface of twelve inches on each side
contains IM square inches.

ARECA, the Cabbage-tree, a genus of plants be- Areopagus,
longing to the class of Palms. The Areca ohracue, a "> ^
native of the West Indies, and other warm climates,
grows to a great heig'.it, and aflbrds a delicate vege-
table for the table.

ARENA, the central space of the Roman amphi-
theatre, in which the combats were exhibited. It
was thus denominated because it was covered with
sand ; and hence, too, the gladiators were called ar-
ennrii.

ARENARIA, or Sandwort, a genus of plants
belonging to tiie Dccandria class.

AREOPAGUS, from the Greek, signifying the
Jiill or 7-ock of Mars, a sovereign tribunal at Athens,
the justice and impartiality of whose decrees had ac-
quired so high a character, that the gods themselves,
it is said, were submissive to its decisions. The name
and origin of this celebrated court are lost in obscu-
rity. Conjecture assigns its institution to Solon, the
great Athenian legislator ; some derive its name from
the suburbs of Athens, in which the hill or rock of
Mars stood; and others trace it to the court of jus-
tice in which the senate assembled. Some are of
opinion that the court of Areopagus existed before
the time of Solon, and ascribe to that celebrated law-
giver the merit of reforming, restoring, and extend-
ing its authority, by uniting the power of other tri-
bunals under its jurisdiction.

A law of Solon limited the privilege of being a
a member of the Areopagus to those who had faith-
fully served the office of archon ; and hence, by an
obvious mistake, it has been supposed that the origi-
nal number of the Areopagites corresponded with
that of the archons. The number of members compos-
ing the court of the Areopagus seems to have varied
at different periods of its history, from thirty-one to
fifty-one, and even to five hundred. The character
of those who were to be elected to the office was sub-
jected to the severest scrutiny ; the appointment of
the judges was for life, and the fixed salaries were
extremely moderate.

The whole affairs connected with the system of
public police, and all matters relative to religion, fell
under the jurisdiction of the court of the Areopagus.
Their assemblies were held in the night, that their
decisions might not be influenced by any other ob-
jects than by the arguments of the speakers. The
parties themselves originally pled their own cause ;
but when greater refinement was introduced, hired
pleaders were employed. To preserve impartiality,
even the order in which causes were to be heard was
regulated by lot. The decisions of the judges were
given in the manner of the modern ballot. Two urns
were employed to receive small pieces of flint, with
which each judge voted. One of the urns was cal-
led the urn of death or condemnation, and the other
was denominated the urn nf compassion or acquital.

The simple edifice which was originally appropri-
priated to the assembly of the Areopagus, was de-
corated and embellished about the time of Augustus.
Seats of solid silver for the accuser and the accused,
were introduced ; and an altar dedicated to ^linerva,
and a tomb to the memory of Oedipus, were also

ARE

453

A R G

I

Arequiba erected. But the progress of luxury tainted the in-
II stitution of the Areopagus with the corruptions and

Argeatiere vices of the times ; the severity of its regulations and
decisions relaxed ; it lost its original purity ; and had
altogether ceased to exist in the fifth century. The
apostle Paul was called before this tribunal to give
an account of his doctrine, and by his arguments and
eloquence converted Dionysius one of its members.
AREQUIBA, a city of Peru, in South America,
built by Pizarro in 15"9, occupies a delightful spot
in the valley of Quilca, and on the banks of the river
Chili, and is 20 miles from the sea and 180 miles dis-
tant from Cusco. The climate is dry, temperate,
and salubrious. The population, before an earth-
quake in 1785, exceeded 30,000 ; wine, oil, and corn
are imported from Spain ; and cotton-cloths and
cordage, with other naval stores, are brought from
Chili and Mexico. The houses, which are of stone,
are constructed with neatness and elegance ; a splen-
did bronze fountain adorns the great square ; and a
fine bridge affords a commodious communication to
both sides of the river.

ARETIN, GuiDO, a native of Arezzo in Tuscany,
flourished in the 1 1 th century, and is known chiefly
for his improvement in musical notation. He assum-
ed the monastic habit, and was appointed abbot of
a convent near his native place. The performance of
a Latin hymn, the verses of which begin with the syl-
lables, id, re, mi, fa, sol, la, and the frequent repeti-
tion of the same sounds suggested the hint of adopt-
ing them in musical notation ; the improvement was
introduced ; and the new discovery was considered of
great importance in facilitating the method of learn-
ing the practice of the art. To the same author is
.ascribed the method of writing music on lines and
spaces. Before his time a single line only was used,
and the different notes Were distinguished by the let-
ters of the alphabet. Guido employed four lines with
the intermediate spaces, after which anotlier line was
added, which completes the present system.

AREZZO, the ancient Arctium, a city of Tuscany
in Italy, occupies the declivity of a hill which rises
in the middle of a fertile plain, abounding in grain,
wine, and oil, was a place of some trade in the time
of the Romans, and was the birth place of Maecenas,
the great patron of literature in the Augustan age of
Rome, and of the celebrated poet Petrarch.

ARGEMONE, Pkickly Poppy, a genus of plants
belonging to the Polyandria class.

ARGENTAN, a town in the department of Orne
in France, stands on an eminence on the banks of the
river Orne, contains a population exceeding 5000,
and has some manufactures of lace and linen cloth,
of light stuffs, and white leather.

ARGENTIERE, an island in the Grecian Archi-
pelago, and the ancient Cimolia, from the earth so
called, which isemployed for washing, is about 1 8 miles
in circumference, presents a sterile aspect of rocks,
destitute of verdure, diversified with vallies, in whicli
some vegetation appears, and produces some wheat,
barley, and cotton. The only domestic animals that
are reared in the island are hogs and poultry. The
population is variously stated from 200 to 500 ; the
women, remarkable. for a stiff fantastic dress, are eni-

ployed in knitting cotton stockings ; and the men are Argenton
engaged as fishermen and pilots. The calcined as- |i

pect of the rocks, the abundance of puzzolana, and Argonauts,
the hot springs, are regarded by travellers as certain " '^ ''
indications of volcanic action.

ARGENTON, a fine town in the department of
Indre in France, occupies a delightful spot on the
banks of the river Creuse, which flows through a fer-
tile valley clothed with vineyards. The population
exceeds 3000, and the manufacture of flint glass has
been long successful!}' conducted.

ARGONAUTA, or Paper Nautilus, a genus of
univalve shells, of which the most remarkable is the
Argo, containing a singular animal, which has tlie
power of raising itseif to the surface of the ocean,
and, with the aid of an apparatus resembling sails and
oars, glides along the liquid element. To the move-
ments of tliis animal the noble art of navigation has ■
been fancifully traced. See Conchology.

ARGONAUTS, were illustrious Greeks, who ac-
cording to the mythological history, embarked with
Jason in the ship Argo from Colchis, to obtain pos-
session of the goMen fleece. Phryxus and Hello
the son and daughter of Athamas, king of Thebes,
to avoid the ill treatment of their stepmother, Ino,
the daughter of Cadmus, went on board a ship which
had a golden ram for an ensign, and sailed to Colchis.
Helle was drowned during the voyage, in the strait
which was called the Hellespont, or sea of Helle, now
the Dardanelles. This is the account of the ex-
pedition as it is recorded by Greek writers. But
the fabulous hi.story represents Nephele, their divor-
ced mother, bringing them a ram with a fleece of
gold, and desiring them to mount on its back and
direct their course to Colchis. With a rapid fligtit
they were carried through the air, but Helle became
giddy and fell into the Hellespont. Her brother ar-
rived in safety at Colchis, offered the ram in sacrifice
to Mars, and hung up the golden fleece in the tem-
ple of that divinity. 13ulls breathing fire, and a dra-
gon which never slept, guarded the fleece, to recover
which was the object of the famous expedition un-
dertaken by Jason and his companions.

The origin of this fable is ascribed by some to the
method of collecting gold, which was washed down
by torrents in the mountains of Colchis. Woollen
fleeces were stretched across the stream to retain the ,
particles, and the expedition was fitted, out by the
Greeks to procure that precious metal. . Accoidir.fj,
to Sir Isaac Newton, the Argonautic expedition
took place about 30 years before the fall of Troy,
and was an embassy sent by the Greeks to the na-
tions along the Euxine and Mediterranean seas, to
throw off the yoke of the sovereigns of Egypt, and
the expedition of the golden fleece was merely a
pretext to cover their real design. Dr Gillies, the
historian of Greece, regards the fonndation of this ,
celebrated expedition as a confederacy formed by the
Grecian states, under the direction of the famous
council, for the purpose of conquest and plunder ; and
supposes that the designs of the Argonauts were veiled
under the allegorical expression of carri/ing off the
golden Jlcece. Mr Bryant-rejects the history of the
Argonautic expedition as a Grecian fable, and refers

A R G

454

ARG

Ai^i^rUiim the whole to traditionary stories connected with the
II deluge, and the preservation of Noah and his family

Arsvleshirc. in the ark.

ARGOPHYLLUM, White-leaf, a genus of plants
• belonging to tlie class Pentandria.

ARGOS, now Argo, the ancient capital of Ar-
polis, a district of Peloponnesus, was celebrated for
the number and magnificence of its public edifices,
of which few traces now remain ; but it is still a
place of considerable extent. An elegant mosque,
rising from the shades of solenm cypress, presents a
striking contrast to the whitened mud-built houses.

ARGUIM, or Arguim, an island on tlie western
coast of Africa, is about 16 miles distant from Cape
Blanco, and not more than two miles in length ; but
lias been the scene of many hard struggles among
different nations for its possession. It was discovered
by the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the Eng-
lish, French, Dutch, and Portuguese became alter-
nately masters of it during a period of more than
'200 years. It seems to have been considered a con-
venient station for the gum trade ; but it was pro-
bably from national jealousy and rivalship that its
occupancy was so long and so expensively disputed.

ARGUS, according to ancient mythology, was
the son of Aristor, and had a hundred eyes, fifty of
which were always open. Argus was appointecl by
Juno to guard lo ; but Jupiter sent Mercury, who
by the powers of his flute cliarmed him to sleep, seal-
ed up his eyes, and cut off his head. In reward for
his faithful services, Juno transformed him into a
peacock, whose tail has ever since exhibited a re-
presentation of his numerous eyes. This fable is the
origin of the expression Ar^us-ei/ed, applied to those
•who are distinguished by vigilance and circumspec-
tion.

ARGYLESHIRE, an extensive county of Scot-
land, having the Atlantic ocean and the Irish sea on
the west and south, the Frith of Clyde, Dumbarton,
and Pertlishires on the east, and Inverness-shire on
the north, is about 115 miles long and about 70
miles broad, is intersected by numerous arms of the
sea, and comprehends a number of the islands which
come under the general denomination of the Hebri-
des. Exclusive of the islands, of which Islay, Jura,
and Mull are the chief, included in this county, the
main-land of Argyleshire presents great variety of
picturesque and romantic scenery. Some of the
mountains rise to an elevation of 3000 feet ; the ri-
vers, from their short course, are to be regarded only
as mountain torrents ; and Loch Awe is a beautiful
expanse of water, 30 miles in length, and two and
three in breadth. Ardnamurchan and Morven, to-
wards the nortli, are peninsular districts, formed by
arms of the sea stretciiing far inland ; and Kintyre,
the termination of which is at the Mull, or head-
iand, projecting into the Irish sea, is united at Tar-
bet by a najTow neck of land. The Linnhe loch,
which is to form part of the track of the Caledonian
canal, traverses Argyleshire from north-east to south-
west. The Crinan canal was planned and executed
for the purpose of avoiding the circuitous and some-
times dangerous navigation round the Mull of Kin-
tyre. It is about three miles long from Loch Gilp
oa the east to Loch Crinan on the west.

Mineralogy/.— ArgyhihWe presents a wide and va- Argyleiirf.
ried field for mineralogical research. Every kind of
rock, whether of the primary or secondary class,
is found within its limits. The Nuns islands, off the
west coast of Muli, are composed of a beautiful red
granite ; gneiss is the repository of the lead-mines
at Strontian ; micaceous schistus forms a large pro-
portion of the rocks in Islay and Jura ; and the ar-
gillaceous schistus of Eisdale, Ballychelish, and other
places on the western coast, furnish great quantities
of excellent roof slate. The anomalous position of
granular quartz, which occupies the place of granite
in Islay and Jura, seems to subvert the venerated au-
thority of certain modern geological systems. Syenite
is abundant in some parts of Islay ; and the beauti-
•ful porphyry of the same island is not inferior to the
celebrated green porphyry of Egypt. Potstone, or
Inveraray marble, as it is sometimes called, is dug
out of a quarry at St Catharine's, on the banks of
Loch Fine, which furnished the stone for the castel-
lated mansion of the Duke of Arg3'Ie. The strata
of limestone, both primitive and secondary, are ex-
tensive ; examples of basaltic rocks, in a columnar,
amorphous, or vertical form, are numerous, as in
Mull, Staft'a, and the neighbouring islands ; and coal
has been wrought for many years nearCampbelltown ;
Great masses of breccia, or plumb-pudding rock,
are deposited round Oban and other places ; bog-
iron ore covers tracts of considerable extent ; and
lead-ore has been long dug out in Islay and at
Strontian.

Antiquities Numerous remains of ancient castles,

the residence of powerful barons, yet exist in the
main-land and islands of Argyleshire. The moul-
dering ruins of a seat of the chief of the Macdonalds,
whose power enabled him to assume independent so-
vereignty, are yet visible in Islay ; Castle-Dowart,
on a projecting cliif in Mull, was the chief residence
of the Macleans ; and Dunstaffnage, near Oban, can
boast of having been a royal residence.

Population, Towns, <f)f. — The population of Ar-
gyleshire, which in 1801 was not less than 78,000,
had increased in 1811 to 85,585. It is divided into
49 parishes. Inveraray, Campbelltown, Oban, and
Bowmore in Islay, are the chief towns. Many of
the proprietors occupy elegant modern mansions ;
and Inveraray Castle, one of the residences of the
Duke of Argyle, is also a modern edifice.

Husbandry, S,-c The chief cultivated crops of

Argyleshire are oats, barle}^, and potatoes. Many
of the recent improvements in agriculture have been
successfully adopted by spirited individuals. The
breed of cattle has greatly improved and extended,
and is a very considerable source of revenue both
to the islands and main-land ; the dairy husbandry is
pursued in some of the arable districts, and the moun-
tainous pastures rear a numerous and hardy race of
sheep. The real rent of the county in 1811 was
about L. 192,000.

Fisheries; Mamifactures The greatextentof coast,

and the numerous bays and arms of the sea included
in this county, aflbrd great facilitits for the fisheries,
in which a large proportion of the inhabitants is pro-
fitably employed. Loch Fine has been long cele-
brated as a station for the herring fishery, which in

N

A R I

455

A R I

Aiiadoe

Arians.

tlie years l^Q-t and 1795 yielded a return of more
than L.80,000. The manufactures are almost limit-
ed to those of a domestic nature. The manufactory
of woollen established at Inveraray has not flourished,
and attempts to introduce the manufacture of cotton
have also failed. Iron is smelted at two places in
the county, and taniiing and ship-building are carried
on at Campbelltown and Oban.

ARIADNE was the daughter of Minos, king of
Crete, and, according to the mythological history, be-
came enamoured of Theseus, who was sent to destroy
the minotaur. Theseus having performed his task,
and escaped from the labyrinth by means of a clue
of thread with which she furnished him, married her,
conducted her to Naxos, along with the Athenians
whym he had relieved, and afterwards abandoned her.
The fountain of Ariadne, in the isle of Naxos, is still
an object of curiosity to the traveller.

ARIANO, a town of the farther principality of
Naples, stands on the summit of a mountain, includes
a population of 1400, has no trade or manufactures,
and is subject to frequent earthquakes, one of which,
in 1456, shook it to its foundations. It has never re-
covered from this disastrous calamity. The convent
of Dominicans, in the vicinity of the town, has been
three times thrown down, and as often rebuilt, with-
in the period of a century. The most destructive
shock which befel it happened in 1732, and spread
devastation along the \ihole eastern range of the Ap-
pennines. The vine is cultivated in the surrounding
country, and yields a pale sharp wine.

ARIANS, a religious sect, which derived its name
from Arius, a presbyter of the church of Alexandria,
■who lived in tiie early part of the fourth century, and
maintained that Jesus Christ was totally and essen-
tially distinct from the Father ; that he was the first
of those beings whom God had created, and the in-
strument by whose subordinate operation all things
were made, and therefore inferior to the Father in
nature and dignity. The doctrine of Arius ■<i'as con-
demned by the council of Nice which assembled in
325, the author himself was banished, and his books
were ordered to be burnt. Recalled at the end of five
years by the emperor, he drew up a confession of his
faith, which proved satisfactory to the government,
but Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, refused to ad-
mit him and his followers to communion. The ba-
nishment of Athanasius was the consequence of this
refusal. His successor in the church was equally
obstinate ; the peremptory order of the emperor was
interposed, but before it was complied with Arius
died, not without suspicion of having been poisoned.

For several centuries Arianism was either counte-
nanced by the government, or suppressed by the ci-
vil power, as tlie influence of its professors or their
opponents prevailed at the imperial court. Ancient
writers, according to certain modifications of the doc-
trine, describe three classes of Arians, the gemiine
Arians, the seini-Arians, and the Ennomians. This
doctrine continued to spread in different countries ;
it was sup[>osed to be nearly extinct for some hun-
dreds of years, when, as was allesied, it was restored
by Erasnms, in his Commentaries on the New Tes-
tament ; about the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury it was encouraged and supported in Geneva,

and afterwards in Poland ; and in the beginning of
fhe eighteenth century Mr Whiston, a divine of the
church of England, and professor of mathematics in
Cambridge, was deprived of the pastoral office, and of '
his professorship, for embracing Arianism. Dr Samuel
Clarke adopted somewhat similar sentiments, and a
keen and protracted controversy commenced, and was
conducted with great ability on both sides. See
Mosheim's Church History, and Collection of Pam-
phlets on the controversy concerning the Trinity,
from 1712 to 1719, London, 1720, and Lardner's
Credibility, vol. ix.

ARICA, a sea-port town of Peru, in South Ame-
rica, which has been often visited with severe earth-
quakes, is chiefly inhabited by Indians, blacks, and
mulattoes; most of the houses are constructed of reeds
or canes ; has a little trade with some of the other
towns on the coast ; and in the valley, which stretches
eastward into the country, cotton and pimento are
cultivated. Rock-salt, dug from the contiguous
mountains, is enumerated among the exports from
Arica.

ARIES, the ram. See Ovis under Mammalia.

ARIES, one of the northern constellations, and
the first of the twelve signs of the zodiac.

ARILLUS, the external covering of the seeds
of plants, which is sufficiently conspicuous in the
garden bean, the seeds of the cucumber, and still
more obvious in coffee, as it includes two seeds or
beans.

ARIMANIUS, the evil demon in the religious ■
system of the ancient Persians, The Magi believed
in the existence of two great powers in nature, the
one the author of all good, and the other the author
of all evil. Oromasdes, the name of the benevolent
superintending power, dwelt in the purest light,
formed man susceptible of virtue, and furnished him
with the means of happiness, directed the revolution
of the planets, controuled the elements, and pre-
served the order of the seasons ; and for the accom-
plishment of his benevolent purposes, he created
various subordinate deities. The abode of Arima-
nius, or the evil demon, was in the deepest darkness ;
he created a number of evil beings, to counteract,
by their malignant influence, the good designs of
Oromasdes, and to disturb the harmony both of the
natural and moral world. But certain limits are set
to his power, which in the end must yield to Oro-
masdes, when all evil shSU be banished from the
imiverse. The doctrine held by Zoroaster supposes
that both these powers aie subordinate to the first
author of all things.

ARIMATHEA, the modern Ramla, a town in
Palestine, not far distant from Lydda, presents nu-
merous remains of its former magnificence, but has
now dwindled to a small place, with scarcely 1000
inhabitants, who are employed in the manfacture of
soap and cotton.

ARION, a celebrated ancient musician and poet,
was a native of Lesbos, and flourished about 600
years before the Christian era. He resided some
time at the court of Periander king of Corinth, tra-
velled into Italy, amassed great wealth, for the sake
of which the sailors of the vessel in which he return-
ed to Greece threw him into the sea ; but :k tiolphin^

Arica

Arion.

ARI

Ariosto. which had been charmed by his melodious strains,
■ took him on its back, and conveyed him safely on
shore. Having escaped from a watery grave, he re-
paired to Corinth, and the king ordered the barba-
rity of the seamen to be punislied by death.

ARIOSTO, LuDovico, a celebrated Italian poet,
was a native of Repgio in Lombardy, where he was
born in llT't; and his family, originally from Bolog-
na, claimed alliance with tlie dukes of Ferrara ; but
could not boast of affluence equal to their illustrious
descent. Destined by his father to the profession of
the law, he spent five years ^at Padua, in the preli-
minary studies ; but the pleasures of poetry allured
liim from the less attractive pursuits of legal disqui-
sitions, and on the death of his father made him en-
tirely abandon the preparatory steps for an employ-
ment which was little suited to the strong bias of
his mind. His earliest years furnished ample proof
of poetical genius in a dramatic composition, which
he had wrought up from the beautiful story of Py-
ramus and Tliisbe, in Ovid, and which was represent-
ed by the juvenile part of his father's family. When
he relinquished the study of the law, he had acquired
great facility in the composition of Latin poetry ; he
had been extremely assiduous in improving his own
language ; had cultivated Italian poetry ; and even,
it is supposed, had made some progress in his most
celebrated production, the Orlando Furioso.

According to the fashion of the times, when
princes encouraged the residence of men of literary
distinction near their persons, that they might enjoy
the reflected honour of their talents and reputation,
Ariosto was admitted, in his 29th year, to the court
of Hippolito, cardinal of Este, which was then the
resort of some of the most learned men of the age ;
he was afterwards employed by the Duke of Ferrara
in a diplomatic character, on a mission to the Roman
pontiff; and when Leo X. his former friend, was
raised to the pontificate, he revisited the ecclesiasti-
cal metropolis, in the expectation of improviiig his
fortune, and obtaining the patronage of that distin-
guished pontiff. But the grant of a bull, securing to
him the profits of his literary works, and the smiles of
a gracious reception, were all the favours which he re-
ceived from his holiness. Disappointment hastened
his departure from the Vatican, and the festal scenes
which were then exhibiting at Florence, drew him
to that city, from wliich, after a residence of six
months, he returned to the court of the cardinal of
Este, resumed the composition of the Orlando Fu-
rioso, and, in 1515, published it at Ferrara, with a
dedication to the cardinal, in a lofty strain of fulsome
panegyric. But this flattery produced no applause
from his patron, who reproved him for a misapj)lica-
tion of his time and talents in such a composition.
Some time afterwards, Ariosto having declined an
invitation to attend the cardinal in a journey to Hun-
gary, his monthly salary was withdrawn, and he re-
tired to a small house of his own in the vicinity of
his native place. After the death of the cardinal he
was invited by the duke of Ferrara to his court, and
the liberality and beneficence of that prince enabled
him to fix liis residence in an agreeable situation
in Ferrara, where he spent the remainder of his
days, and composed great part of his works. He

436 ARI

died in June 1533, in the 59th year of his age, and Aristseoj
was interred in the church of St Benedict, without n

any memorial to mark the spot where his ashes re- Aristarchui.
posed. After the lapse of forty years, a tomb, to
which the bones of Ariosto were removed, was e-
rected. in one of the chapels of the church, by his
friend Agostino Mosti, and on the tomb his statue
was placed with a Latin inscription ; and a great
grandson of the poet, resolved not to be outdone by
strangers, raised, in another chapel, a splendid marble
monument with an alabaster statue.

Ariosto was the author of several other poetical
compositions beside the Orlando Furioso, which has
transmitted his name to posterity. The plan and
many of the incidents of this poetical romance, are
derived from the Orlando Inamorato of Boyardo, a
poem of a similar character. The Orlando' Furioso
has been charged with being defective in unity of
design ; the plot is intricate and perplexed, and the
train of events is broken and interrupted ; but it is
distinguished by remarkable fertilit}' of invention,
splendid imagery, and vigorous expression. But
these striking beauties are not considered as suffi-
cient to compensate for its faults, or to have its
claim allowed before the tribunal of criticism to be
ranked among the legitimate productions of the epic
muse. The English reader has an opportunity of
judging of its merits in Hoole's Translation.

ARISTjF^US was the son of Apollo and Cyrene,
according to ancient mythology, and is said to have
communicated to mankind some of the arts of hus-
bandry and rural affairs ; such as the cultivation of
the olive, the curdling of milk, and the management
of bees, and for these beneficial discoveries he was
placed among the stars. The classical reader will
find his name mentioned in the 4th Georgic of Vir-

gil-

ARISTARCHUS, an eminent Greek philosopher,
was a native of the island Samos, and flourished
about 280 years before the Christian era. The stu-
dies of Aristarchus were particularly directed to as-
tronomy. He revived the opinion of Pythagoras re-
lative to the motion of the earth, for which it is said
he incurred the charge of impiety. But his beauti-
ful discovery is the method of finding the distance
between the earth and sun ; a problem which had
long and unsuccessfully occupied the ingenuity of phi-
losophers. When the dark and luminous parts of the
face of the moon are equal, and separated by a straight
line, he perceived that a line, drawn from the centers of
the sun and moon, is at right angles to a line joining
the centers of the earth and moon ; and the centers
of the earth and sun being joined by another line,
a triangle is formed, the longest of whose sides
denotes the distance of the earth from the sun, and
the shortest represents the distance of the earth from
the moon. The principle of the problem is correct,
and its solution depends on accuracy of observation;
for by measuring an arch of the heavens intercepted
between the sun and moon, all the angles of the tri-
angle are determined, and, consequently, the distance
of the sun from the earth may be discovered in terms
of the distance of the earth from the moon. Pro-
ceeding in this way, Aristarchus ascertained the dis-
tance of the sun from the earth to be about 18 or 20

A R I

457

times greater than the distance of the moon from the
earth, or equal to 4-,80O,O0O miles, which falls great-
ly short of the more accurate results of succeeding
observers. But the error is properly laid to the ac-
count of the imperfection of the instruments with
which the angles of the triangle were determined, ra-
ther than to any defect in the method itself. The
invention of a sun-dial is also ascribed to Aristarchus.
His Treatise on the jMasiiitude and the Distance of the
Sun and Moon, was published at Oxford in 1687.

ARISTEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Triandria class.

ARISTIDA, Oat-Grass, a genus of plants be-
longing to the Triandria class.

ARiSTIDES, a distinguished statesman and war-
rior of Greece, flourished at Athens about 500 years
before the Christian era, and, from his noble patriot-
ism and inflexible virtue, was honoured by his coun-
trymen with the distinctive appellation of the Just.
The life of Aristides seems to have exhibited a con-
stant struggle with Themistocles, another powerful
citizen, and also a warrior and statesmen ; and as the
influence of the rival citizens prevailed, and the pub-
lic measures which they proposed were approved or
rejected, the tribute of applause, or the vote of cen-
sure or condemnation was pronounced by the Athe-
nians. The agitation excited in the state by these
rival candidates for popularity, is said to have forced
an acknowledgment from Aristides, that the aft'airs
of the Athenians would never prosper till they were
both thrown into a dungeon, or till their interference
altogether ceased.

But whatever were the private animosities of Ar-
istides, he was always foremost when the impending
dangers of his country required his talents and ser-
vices. His conduct and courage were highly con-
spicuous at the famous battle of Marathon, which
was fought 490 years before the Christian era; soon
after he was raised to the high rank of chief magis-
trate ; by the influence of Themistocles, who prefer-
red an accusation against him, he was banished from
Athens ; was recalled from exile on the threatened
invasion of Greece by the Persians under Xerxes ;
displayed his usual skill and bravery at the famous
naval engagement of Salamis ; and his sagacity and
prudence were not less remarkable in allaying the
petty feuds which the rival interests of the ilift'erent
states of Greece excited and inflamed. But the dis-
tinguished stations which he held, and the eminent
services which he performed to his country, left him
only in possession of the gratifying honours of a pa-
triot. Far advanced in age, he died about 4-67 years
before the Christian era ; the expence of his funeral
was discharged by the public ; his daughters were
portioned from the treasury, and a pension and an
estate were bestowed on his sovi.

ARISTIPPUS, an ancient philosopher, and the
founder of the Cyrenaic school, which derives its
name from Cyrene in Africa, the place of his nativi-
ty. The high rejjutation of Socrates drew him to
Athens ; but the pleasures of sense occupied a larger
share of his attention than the pursuits of philosophy,
and the wealth which he possessed furnished the
means of unrestrained indulgence in all kinds of li-
centiousness and dissipation. But even these means

VOL. I. PART II.

A R I

were exhausted ; and he was the first of the disciples Arietocmcr
of Socrates who derived any pecuniary emolument j|

for public teaching. Driven from Athens by his dis- Aristophanes
solute manners, he visited Corinth ; was shipwrecked
in a voyage on the island of Rhodes ; resided for
some time at the magnificent and luxurious court of
Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily ; and on his return to
Cyrene, died at Lipara, one of the yEolian islands.

The philosophy of Aristippus corresponded partlj'
with the doctrines of his master Socrates. He rejec-
ted the motle of instruction which was then pursued,
and held logic to be quite sufficient to teach truth
and to fix its bounds. Pleasure and pain, he main-
tained, were the motives which determined the ac-
tions of men ; the former produces the softer emo-
tions, and the latter excites the more violent passions.
True happiness, he asserted, consists in the assem-
blage of pleasure, and the enjoyment of the present
moment is the best way to attain it. Aristippus was
the author of a history of Libya ; dialogues ; books
on luxury ; and some epistles.

ARISTOCRACY, from the Greek, signifying
chief and power, is a form of government by whicli
the supreme power is intrusted to the chief persons
of a state, or the nobles.

ARISTOLOCHIA, Birth-Wort, a genus of
plants belonging to the Gynandria class.

ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated Greek comic
poet, who flourished in the time of Pericles, under
whom the Athenians attained the liighest degree of
prosperity, and enjoyed the greatest importance a-
mong the states of Greece, and was cotemporary
with Plato, Socrates, and Euripides. Of the private
life of Aristophanes, little is known ; and of the pre-
cise period of his birth or death no record is pre-
served.

Pifty dramatic productions are said to have been
the offspring of the prolific muse of Aristophanes ; but
eleven only in a perfect state have survived the wrecks
of time ; and they must be always regarded as pre-
cious relics of antiquity, exhibiting a lively picture of
the manners of the age, and a correct view of the
structure and arrangement of the early Greek come-
dy. The unrestrained licentiousness which prevailed
in dramatic writing when Aristophanes lived, exemp-
ted no character, however distinguished or respected
by rank and virtue, from the most direct personal sa-
tire. The legislature interfered to check the growing
evil, and enacted, that no individual should be exhi-
bited on the stage by name. The efliect of this regu-
lation gave birth to the middle comedy of the Greeks,
• in which characters could only be introduced under
fictitious names and marked allusions ; but the indul-
gence was still abused, and demanded another pro-
hibition, which was followed by the new comedy, ia
which the general follies of mankind are satirized by
more delicacy of wit and more refinement of humour.
Of the dramatic compositions of Aristophanes, ten
are to be ranked with the old comedy ; his Plutiis is
the only play which comes under the improved cha-
racter of the middle comedy.

Numerous translations of the comedies of Aristo-
phanes have appeared in different languages. But
the Plutus and the Clouds seem to have been rao^t
frequently the subject of translation and critical dis-
3M

A R I

458

A R I

Aiirtotelia cussion. A Frencli version was executed by the ce-
ll Ifcbruted Madame Dacier ; and, by tlie labours of Mr
Arittole. Theobald, the English reader can peruse the same
comedies in his own language ; and he will find an
excellent translation of the Clouds, in the Ohservcr,
by Mr Cumberland. In the same work an elaborate
attempt is made to vindicate the Greek poet from the
charge of having contributed to tlie condemnation of
Socrates, by exposing his character in a ludicrous
and unseemly manner on the stage.

ARISTOTELIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the Dodecandrin class.

ARISTOTLE, one of the most illustrious of the
Greek philosophers, and founder of the Peripatetic
sect, was born at Stagira, a city of Thrace, about
282 years before the Christian era. His father, Ni-
comachus, was the physician and friend of Amyntas,
king of Macedon, and derived descent, as did also
his mother, from yEsculapius, whose skill in the art
»)f healing, displayed during the Argonautic expe-
dition, had elevated him among the gods of anti-
quity.

At the age of 17, he repaired to Athens, induced
apparently by his love of learning, of which it was
the scat, and an anxiety to attend the lectures of
the eloquent but mystical Plato, at that period its
brightest ornament. His industry, acuteness, and
capacity of intellect, soon obtained tiie admiration
of tliat generous teacher, who had the good sense
and the liberality not to demand anj' sacrifice of opi-
nion from the student beyond the claims of satisfac-
tory evidence, and to whom, it is no wonder, that
the independent but grateful mind of Aristotle ever
afterwards manifested the most amiable reverence
and aftection. Of the continuance and amount of
this commendable respect, we have strong proofs,
in spite of some malicious misrepresentations, in the
verses which he wrote after the death of Plato, and
the erection of altars in honour of his memory,
tJiough the appointment of his nephew Speusippus,
as successor in the academy, a man of little talent
and less virtue, might naturally enough have excit-
ed resentment, had there been any tendency to it,
or at least have stifled the expression of regard, if
not energetically springing from the sincerest con-
viction. It is quite conceivable, that an avowed
ditt'erence of sentiment on certain abstract questions,
had already originated a nevi school, and that con-
sequently Plato could not with propriety consider
Aristotle as the most suitable, though he might be
the ablest person, to take the lead of his disciples.

Twenty years tuition, under this skilful and eru-
dite man, furnished Aristotle with all the science
and literature of his age, and qualified him for that
singularly interesting office, which he discharged
with so much glory — preceptor to the son of Philip
of Macedon. Before engaging in this important
charge, to which he was invited by a flattering let-
ter from that sagacious monarch, with whom he
preserved a hereditary friendship, Aristotle had mar-
ried Pythias, tiie niece and adopted heiress of one
of his old school-fellows, Hermias, the aspiring and
unfortunate sovereign of Assus and Atarneus. This
Wy narrowly escaped the calamitous fate of her

uncle, who fell a prey to the treacliery of the un- Amtotle.
grateful Mentor, by flying with Aristotle, to whom
she was betrothed, from Atarneus to Mitylene, in the
isle of Lesbos. Here she soon afterwards died, leaving
Aristotle a daughter of tlie same name, who reward-
ed his conjugal and paternal virtues by the most af-
fectionate tenderness and devotion.

Alexander was in his fourteenth year when our
philosopher, scarcely recovered from the affliction,
and now rather more than forty, commenced the su-
pcriniendance of his education. For about eight
years, in which this was continued, with characte-
ristic enthusiasm on one side, and the highest ex-
cellencies of maturer judgment on the other, Ari-
stotle augmented his consequence in the court of
Philip by the advantages of his political counsel,
and extended his fame among the Greeks in general,
as well by friendly and successful interference in
their behalf, as by the splendid fruits of his genius.
Nor was he less fortunate with those who were im-
mediately concerned in his peculiar responsibility.
The honourable distinctions which Philip and his
queen Olympias conferred on him, and the unequi-
vocal demonstrations of Alexander's respect, were
not more agreeable to his feelings than creditable
to their own discernment and gratitude. What man
could do, perhaps Aristotle really did — qualify but
not subdue an ardour of mind, which already sha-
dowed out the gigantic features of his future renown,
and a spirit of enterprise which even the conquest
of the world failed to exhaust. It is among the most
striking proofs of Aristotle's superiority of character,
that he was, it is believed, the only one of the he-
ro's early acquaintances whom he continued to re-
gard with undiminished attachment through all the
seducing fortunes of his eventful career. This dis-
tinction, it is certain, was not purchased by mean
compliances, or the neglect of painful, though ne-
cessary admonitions. The philosopher did not soften
down the rigour of salutary principles in courtly sub-
servience to any vicious inclinations ; though it be
equally true, tliat some of the rougher lineaments of
the pupil scarcely lost any of their prominence un-
der the corrective precepts of his authority and wis-
dom.

On the death of Philip, and the departure of Alex-
ander for Asia, in prosecution of his ambitious de-
signs, the philosopher, either averse to the expedi-
tion, or unlit, from his constitutional infirmities, for
the difficulties with which it seemed pregnant, re-
turned to Athens, where, indignant, as it has been
said, at the pretensions or success of the slow-paced
Xenocrates, the head of the academy, but more pro-
bably from zeal in the cause of learning, he com-
menced pubhc teacher. Students soon flocked to
him from all quarters. His lectures were delivered
in the Lyceum, a place allotted by Pericles for mili-
tary exercises, but the amenity and quietncES of which
peculiarly fitted it for a school of learning. The in-
structions of the philosopher were usually communi-
cated while walking in the delightful shades of this
retreat, and hence Aristotle obtained the title of Pe-
ripatetic, which descended to his disciples.

J%jng the life of Alexauder, whose coufideacehe

ARI

459

ARK

Aristotle, preserved, and who liberally assisted him with mate-
rials for the improvement of science, Aristotle found
it easy to defeat the insidious devices with which
jealousy of his doctrines, or envy of his reputation,
assailed him, under the garb of reverence for religion ;
but on the death of that prince, his enemies acquired
such influence as to become daring in their opposi-
tion, and render his life both uncomfortable and in-
secure. He prepared a defence against their illibe-
ral and unjust accusations ; considering, however,
the weakness of the best cause, when withstood by
prejudice and malignity combined, as manifest in the
fate of Socrates, he thought it more expedient to seek
safety in flight than to trust to the armour of reason,
being unwilling, as he jocosely observed, to give the
Athenians another opportunity " of sinning against
philosophy." His death, hurried, it is probable, by
sucli unmerited treatment, happened about a twelve-
month after, in the place of his retreat, Chalcis, in
Eubcea, when he was sixt3'-three years of age, and
after having taught in theLj'ceum twelve years. Her-
pylis, a second wife, Nicomachus, a son by her, and
his daughter Pj'thias, bemoaned his loss. Theophras-
tus, to whom he bequeathed a valuable collection of
books, and his own writings, which were very nume-
rous, succeeded to the Lyceum. Aristotle's bodily
appearance was a foil to his mental worth. He was
short of stature ; his limbs were out of proportion,
slender and feeble; he had a kind of impediment in
his speech, and his eyes were unusually small. It
was sometimes imputed to him by the malicious and
the ignorant, that he bestowed more care in decorat-
ing his person than it deserved, or than altogether
became a philosopher ; but the good sense of Aris-
totle justly appreciated the favourable impression of
neatness in dress, and despised the silly affectation of
indifference and carelessness.

The fate of Aristotle's works was somewhat singu-
lar. Few were published in his lifetime. The re-
mainder, which had been committed to Theophras-
tus, passed, on his death, to Neleus, who consigned
them again to his heirs, men ignorant of their value,
and though anxious, yet injudicious in their preserva-
tion, depositing thent in a vault under ground, where
they remained unregarded and impairing for some
generations. They were then sold to Apellicon of
Athens, who expended much, but inadequate jabour,
on the execution of a legible and useful copy, which
was seized on, as well as the whole library of the re-
storer, by Sylla, the conqueror of Athens, and trans-
mitted to Rome. Tyrannion having procured the
manuscript from Sylla's librarian, communicated it
to Andronicus of Rhodes, a philosopher resident at
Rome in the time of Cicero. By this man the task
of arrangement and correction was skilfully accom-
plished, and henceforth copies, of various excellence
indeed, multiplied throughout the Roman empire.
The works being of different kinds and value, were
not all equally regarded ; and in consequence, be-
sides the influence of many other causes, both com-
mon and particular, out of more than 400 treatises
which Aristotle is said to have composed, not quite
fifty survived the invention of printing. Those which
embrace a wide sphere of important subjects, obscure
as tliey were, from a sententious brevity peculiar to

this profound thinker, and rendered often much more Arithmetic
so by the mistakes and affected learning of his my- |]

riads of transcribers, translators, and commentators. Ark.
were long appealed to as the standard of truth, from
which all deviations partook of a danger little short
of religious heresy. Lord Bacon broke in upon thi.s
ill-placed veneration, and summoned Aristotle him-
self to the bar of nature. The result has been a con-
viction of immense errors, but, at the same time, the
establishment of a character for extent, variety, acute-
ness, and ingenuity of research, fertility of invention,
and a general display of well organised judgment,
which has perhaps never yet been surpassed by any
individual since the mysteries of the world awaken-
ed genius in the breast of mankind. His treatises on
Rhetoric&wAPoetry alone would immortalise his name;
hlsEtkics andPoZ/ViM abound invaluable observations;
his Logic is ingenious, refined, and subtle, well calcu-
lated to exercise the faculties, though incapable of
promoting science ; his History of Animals exhibits
most commendable diligence, and is precious as having
both invited and facilitated the study of natural his-
tory. " The whole of his remains together, (says
Dr Gillies, one of his most sensible annotators,) still
form a golden stream of Greek erudition, exceeding
four times the collective bulk of the Iliad and Odj s-
sey."

ARITHMETIC is that science which investigates
the properties of numbers ; or, in its application to
practical purposes, it is the art of calculation by
means of numbers. See Mathematics.

ARIUS, a divine of the ^th century, from whose
peculiar doctrines the sect of the Arians derived their
origin. See Arians.

ARK of Noah, a large vessel which was con-
structed by the patriarch Noali, for the preservation
of his family and the different species of living crea-
tures during the universal deluge. Great diversity
of opinion has prevailed among writers on this sub-
ject concerning the materials, form, capacity, time,
and place of the construction of the ark. According
to the Scripture account, the ark was built oi gopher
wood, and covered with pitch or some bituminous
matter. The gopher is variously supposed to mean
cedar, ci/press, or pme, which, from their resinous
nature, are less subject than other woods to rot or
decay. The Jbrm of the ark was an oblong square,
the roof sloping and the bottom flat. As its object
was to float on the waters of the deluge, no mention
is made of any apparatus fitted for the purpose of im-
pelling or guiding it. Three separate stories have
been assigned to the ark ; the lowest for the beasts,
the middle for food, and the uppermost for the fami-
ly of Noah and the feathered tribes ; the whole is di-
vided by some into 72 apartments, while others, more
fertile in conjecture, reckon not fewer than 400 sepa-
rate rooms. The capacity of the ark is described by
Moses to be 300 cubits in length, 50 in breadth, and
30 cubits in height ; but the dimensions are vaguely
conjectured, from the indeterminate length of the
cubit. Some determine the length of the ark to be
550 feet, others 450 feet, and the breadth and height
in proportion. According to the first dimensions, the
cubit is calculated at nearly 22 inches, and, accord-
ing to the last, at rather less than 18 inches. Of the

ARK

460

ARM

Arkwright time of the construction of the ark, it is most gene-
II rally sup oosed that the building commenced in 1536

Aries. and was completed in 1656 from the creation of the
world, and including a period of 120 years. Tlie
place assigned for its construction has been variously
represented by different writers, as Palestine, Mount
Caucasus on the borders of India, some part of Chi-
na, and the country of Babylon in Chaldea.

ARKWRIGHT, Sir Uichard, a celebrated ma-
nufacturer, who, by his ingenuity in the invention of
cotton-spinning machinery, raised himself from a
humble station in life to rank and opulence. About
the year 1767, after he had relinquished the trade of
a barber, which was his original employment, he
made a visit to Warrington ; and being occupied with
the long sought for discovery of the perpetual mo-
tion, he applied to Mr Kay, clock-maker of that
place, to construct a piece of machinery with this
view. From Kay, it is said, he derived the first hint
of directing his meclianical invention to the more pro-
fitable construction of a machine for spinning cotton,
and such a machine Kay described to him. By their
united efforts the machinery was completed ; Ark-
wright obtained a patent in 1769, renewed it in 1775,
hut it was set aside ten years afterwards ; and having
entered into partnership with Mr Smalley of Preston,
the business commenced. But being unsuccessful,
they removed to Nottingliam, assumed wealthy part-
ners, and erected a large cotton-mill, which was dri-
ven by horses.

The machinery was still farther improved, estab-
lisliments on a larger scale were formed, the business
spread throughout the kingdom, and 20 years had
scarcely elapsed, when it assumed a magnitude and
importance, whether the amount of capital or the
number of persons employed, or its value as a great
national concern be considered, which far exceeded
all the estimates of the most sanguine speculation.
By the spirited exertions of the late Mr Dale of Glas-
gow, the cotton-spinning trade was early introduced
into Scotland, and soon became a formidable rival to
tlie parent establishments.

A claim in favour of Mr Kay, as the original in-
ventor of this wonderful machinery , has been advan-
<:ed; but as the share which that ingenious mechanic
had in the invention and prosecution of the improve-
ment is not specified, the merit to which he is justly
t'lititled cannot now be ascertained. His name is
never associated with those who were concerned in
the progress of the discovery, although the omission
is not to be regarded as positive evidence that he had
no right to its honours and emoluments.

In the year 1786, Mr Arkwright, whose name was
now well known in every part of the kingdom, and
whose ingenuity was rewarded with the possession of
great wealth, was appointed by the high sheriff and
Hundred of Wirksworth to present an address to the
king, and on that occasion he received the honours
»f knighthood. He died in August 1792 at his works
at Crumford, in Derbyshire.

ARLES, a city in the department of the Mouths
of the Rhone, in Franee ; stands on the declivity of
a hill on the eastern bank of that river, and in the
midst of a rich and fertile country, although in some
places covered with marshes, and includes about

18,000 inhabitants. This city had risen to great ce- Armada,
lebrity'in the time of .lulius Ciesar, and it still exhi-
bits numerous splendid remains of Roman antiquities
in the ruins of two temples, a triumphal arch, and an
amphitheatre, 400 yards in circumference, and above
100 feet in height. A granite obelisk, 58 feet high
and 7 feet diameter at the base, supposed to have
been brought from Egypt by the Romans, was dug
up in a garden in 1675, was adorned with the arms
of France, and dedicated to Louis XIV. A fine
statue of Diana, discovered in 1651 among the
ruins of the amphitheatre, adorns the gallery at \ er-
sailles.

ARIMADA, an appellation used hy the Spaniards
to denote a fleet of men of war, but it is com-
monly restricted to the immense armament which
was fitted out by Philip II. for the invasion and con-
quest of England. This armada, on which the Spa-
niards, with no -small degi-ee of confident presump-
tion, bestowed the title of Invincible, was composed of
150 ships, most of which were superior in strength and
magnitude to any which had before been constructed,
navigated by 8000 sailors, and having 20,000 veteran
troops, beside 2000 volunteers, many of them from
the first families in Spain, on board. The number of
great guns amounted to 2650, beside a copious sup-
ply of military stores. The fleet was provisioned for
six months. The resources of England seemed to
offer but a feeble opposition to this immense force,
but the deficiency of means was well supplied by cau-
tion and prudence. All ranks vied with each other
in equipping ships to strengthen the naval armament
of the nation, and all capable of bearing arms flock-
ed to the shores of the channel. Queen Elizabeth
herself was seen in the camp at Tilbury, encouraging
her troops, and, by her cheerful and undaunted man-
ner, contributed much to rouse the drooping spirits
of the kingdom.

The armada was ready to sail from Lisbon, the
place of rendezvous, in May 1588; but the death
of the commander, and a storm after leaving port,
which required it to return for repairs, caused delay.
At last it appeared in the English channel. Sir
Francis Drake, the admiral of the English fleet, an-
noyed it greatly by his lighter and more manageable
ships. Two large ships of the Spaniards, one of
which took fire, and the other sprung her mast, were
outsailed by their own fleet, and fell into the hands
of the English, with very considerable treasure. The
armada anchored off Calais ; the English fitted up
eight small vessels as fire-ships, and sent them among
the enemy in the night. This destructive stratagem
produced great disorder ; the Spaniards cut their
cables, and fled in the utmost precipitation ; the Eng-
lish attacked them next morning ; and beside dis-
persing the fleet, took or destroyed twelve of their
large ships. No fiirther offensive operations could
be attempted ; the object of the Spanish connnand-
ers was now to retreat homewards ; but contrary
winds forced them to undertake the circuitous voy-
age by the north of Scotland. Many of the ships
were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland ;
and such was the disastrous issue of this remarkable
expedition, that not more than half of the ships and
men which sailed ia it ever returned.

A R M

461

A R M

Armadillo ARM ADILT,0, jVora the Spanish, signifying arm-
II cd, the appuUation of a tribe of quadrupeds which
AiTBcnia. is furnished with a testaceous covering hke a coat of
mail. See Dasi/piis, under Mammalia.

ARMAGH, a count}' of the province of Ulster in
Ireland, bounded by Lough Neagh on the north, Ty-
rone and Monaghan on the west, Louth on the south,
and Down on the east, stretching from north to south
about 32 miles, and about 20 miles in breadth, and
including an area which is estimated at more than
450 square miles. The face of this county is finely
diversified with gently rising hills, and in many places
the soil is rich and fertile ; but the mountainous dis-
trict, called the Fews, presents a rugged and barren
aspect, and is chiefly occupied as pasture land. The
farms are in general of sr.all sixe, and the improve-
ments in agriculture are gradually adopted. Qorn,
flax, and potatoes are the chief crops.

The Blackwater, which is partly navigable, and
divides the county from Tyrone, is one of the |>rin-
cipal rivers ; and Lough Neagh, which is 15 miles
long and seven miles broad, receives the waters of
seven rivers, and has only one outlet, the Ban, to
the north, and the banks of which are partly flat
and marshy, and partly rocky and precipitous, is the
principal lake connected with the county. Strata
of limestone are abundant in Armagh, and marble
of a beautiful appearance is sometimes dug out.
Some indications of lead ore and other metals have
appeared, but have not been prosecuted.

Armagh, the metropolitan see, is the largest pro-
vince of Ireland, and includes ten dioceses. The
population is estimated at 130,000. The inhabitants
of the mountainous districts are chiefly Roman ca-
tholics ; the protestants amount to one-third of the
whole population, and of this class tiie presbyterians
form the largest proportion. The linen manufacture
in its various branches affords extensive employment
to the inhabitants of Annagli, and its annual average
value has been estimated at L. 300,000.

ARMAGH, the capital of the county of the same
name in Ireland, is said to have been the scat of a
university soon after the establishment of Christia-
nity, and in the 12th century was constituted by the
Pope's legate the metropolitan see. The primacy is
reputed to be '.orth L.8000 annually. The palace
of the arclibishop is a fine edifice ; and the school-
house, which adds to the beauty of the place, is
richly endowed. Tlie linen market of Armagh is
one of the most extensive in the province ; and the
banks of the Callen, near the town, are covered
with bleaching grounds. Armagh is 62 miles from
Dublin.

ARMENIA, a country of Asia, having the Eu-
phrates as its boundary on the west, Diarbekir on
the south, Persia on the east, and Georgia on the
north, and exhibiting a varied aspect of bleak moun-
tains and fertile vallies. The elevated districts af-
ford pasture to numerous herds and flocks ; and the
fertile soil of the low lands, in a temperate climate,
yields abundance of corn, wine, and excellent fruits.
In some, places tobacco is extensively cultivated.
The mountainous regions are subject to severe cold ;
and the droughts in summer recjuire the husbandman
to have recourse to frequent irrigation. Rock salt

is dug from quarries, and, beside what is consumed Armfllaiy
in the country, is transported on the backs of buf- |{

faloes to Persia. Arminianin.

Christianity was early established in Armenia.
The church establishment is composed of patriarchs,
archbishops, doctors, secular priests, and monks.
They have seven sacraments, and at certain seasons
subject themselves to rigid abstinence and frequent
fastings. The Turkish inhabitants of Armenia pro-
fess the Miihonietan faith. The manufacture of ta-
pestry and of silk and woollen stuffs is successfully
conducted in various districts ; and the mercantile
enterprise of the Armenians is celebrated through-
out ever)' part of the civilized world. Erzerum is
the capital.

The history of Armenia refers to the conquest' of
their country by the Assyrians, the Medes, and the
Macedonians. Two prefects under Antiochus the
Great threw oft' their dependence, assumed regal
power, and divided the country into- Armenia Major
and Minor, a division which remains to the present
day. An alliance with the Romans strengthened
their authority, and secured them in their posses-
sion. The Armenians maintained a vigorous struggle
with the Romans, but were at last defeated with
great slaughter by Lucullus their famous general ;
they were afterwards governed by their own kings,
but in the character of allies or tributaries to Rome,
and in the time of Trajan were reduced to the form
of a Roman province. Restored to the appearance
of independence, Armenia could again boast of be-
ing ruled by its own sovereigns, who performed ho-
mage to Constantine the Great. But in the time of
Justinian II. it was conquered by the Saracens, and
held under their dominion till the irruption of the
Turks, who changed the name to Turcomania. Thfr
invasion of Persia by the Turks drew off" their
forces, and aftbrded the Armenians an opportunity
of resuming their independence, which they retained
till the Tartars made themselves masters of their
territory. The ancient kings seem to have been re-
stored ; for, in 1172, a sovereign of Armenia sue-,
ceeded to the crown of Persia, and annexed his na-
tive dominions as a province to that empire. But^
in 1522, Armenia was finally subdued by Selini 11.
and excepting some ))ait of the eastern territory,
v/hich is claimed by Persia, has continued to the
present day subject to the Ottoman Porte.

ARMILLARY, in its general signification, is ap-
plied to something composed of rings or circles; as the
armillary %\i\itiTe, which consists of a number of circles
representing the imaginary divisions of the world,
and so arranged as to aid the conception in studying
the motions and relative positions of the heavenly
bodies.

ARMINIANISM, the peculiar doctrines which •
were held by Arminius, a ])rotestant divine, and a
native of Holland, who was born in 1560, settled as
a minister in Amsterdam in 1588, and about the be-
ginning of the 17tli century was appomted professor
of divinity at Leyden. He was greatly distinguislied.
for the integrity of his character, and the extent of
his learning. He died in 1609. Arminius was en-
gaged by Martin Lydias, professor of divinity at
Fruheker, to refute the opinions of certain clergy'-

A R M 462

Arminianinn men at Delft, concerning predestination ; but in the
progress of the investigation he not only adopted
the doctrine which he had undertaken to oppose,
but carried it still fartlier ; and thus originated the
opinions which bear his name.

The peculiar tenets of the Arminians refer to pre-
destination, universal redemption, the corruption of
man, conversion, and perseverance. 1. On the first
point it is maintained, " That God, from all eternity,
determined to bestow salvation on those who he fore-
saw would persevere unto the end in their faith in
Jesus Christ, and to inflict everlasting punishment on
those who should continue in their unbelief, and re-
sist unto the end his divine succours ; so that election
was conditional, and reprobation in like manner the
result of foreseen infidelity and persevering wick-
edness.

1. On the subject of universal redemption, they
lield, " that Jesus Christ, by his suiTerings and death,
made an atonement for the sins of all mankind in ge-
ueral, and of every individual in particular; that,
however, none but those who believe in him can be
partakers of their divine benefit."

3. With regard to the corruption of man, the Ar-
minians taught, " that true faith cannot proceed from
the exercise of our natural faculties and powers, nor
from the force and operation of free-will, since man,
in consequence of his natural corruption, is incapable
either of thinking or doing any good thing ; and that
therefore it is necessary, in order to his 'conversion
and salvation, that he be regenerated and renewed
by the operation of the Holy Ghost, which is the gift
of God through Jesus Clu-ist."

4. The doctrine of conversion maintained by the
Arminians is, " that this divine grace, or energy of
the Holy Ghost, begins and perfects every thing that
can be called good in man, and consequently all
good works are to be attributed to God alone; that,
nevertheless, this grace is offered to all, and does not
force men to act against their inclination, but may be
resisted and rendered ineffectual by the perverse will
of the impenitent sinner."

5. On perseverance, they held the opinion, " that
God gives to the truly faithful, who are regenerated
by his grace, the means of preserving themselves in
this state." The first Arminians expressed some
doubts of this doctrine, but their followers maintain,
•' that the regenerate may lose true justifying faith,
forfeit their state of grace, and die in their sins."

Arminius promulgated his opinions when he was
professor of divinity at Leyden. The controversy
■with the Calvinists, to whose doctrines they were op-
posed, became more general and more vioknt after
his death, and at one time threatened the coun-
try with the calamities of civil war. The synod of
Dort, which was assembled by orders of the states-
general, and was composed of delegates, not only
from the United Provinces, but from the reformed
churches of Switzerland, Germany, and England, —
condemned the followers of Arminius unheard, and
declared them to be guilty of pestilential errors, and
corrupters of true religion. This decision subjected
those who were charged with Arminianism to severe
persecution ; they were stript of their employments ;
the clergy were silenced, and their congregations

A R M

were suppressed. But on the death of Prince Mau- Armoniao
rice, in 1625, who had keenly espoused the Calvin- ||

istic side of the question, they were fully restored Armstronj.

to their former privileges ; and, under the toleration
of the legislature, they erected churches, and esta-
blished a college at Amsterdam.

AUMONIAC, or sal armoniac, the old name for
sal anmioniaC, or muriate of ammonia. See Che-
mi sthy.

ARMOUR, a defensive habit, which was former-
ly employed to cover and protect the body from the
attacks of an enemy. A complete suit of armour
was composed of the casque or helmet, gorget, cui-
rass, gauntlet, tasses, brassets, cuisses, and covers
for the legs, to which the spurs were attached. This
furniture was denominated armour cap-a-pee, or from
head to foot, because the whole body was covered
with it, and it was worn by cavaliers and men-at-
arms. The head-piece, the cuirass, and tasses only,
and of a lighter construction, were worn by the in-
fantry. But defensive armour is entirely laid aside
in the modern warfare of civilized nations, with the
solitary exception of the cuirass, which was worn by
Bonaparte's Imperial Guard at the memorable battle
of Waterloo ; but it seems to have formed a feeble
defence against the powerful onsets and dauntless
intrepidity of their brave opponents, who trusted on-
ly to their offensive weapons, to which the result of
that battle, and the numerous cuirasses which have
reached this country, and have become a kind of
mercantile commodity, bear ample testimony. While
defensive armour was in use, its various parts were
constructed of different materials in different nations
and in difterent periods of society. See Grose on An-
cient Armour^

ARMS is a general appellation for all kinds of
weapons, whether of an offensive or defensive na-
ture. The various offensive weapons, which were for-
merly in use among civilized nations, have given
place to the sword and to fire-arms.

Arms or armories are marks of dignity and ho-
nour, composed of certain figures and colours, au-
thorised by the sovereign, and borne on banners,
shields, coats, and hence they are called coats-of-
arms, for the distinction of persons, families, and
states. See Heraldry.

ARMSTRONG, John, a physician, poet, and
miscellaneous writer, was born about the year 1709,
in Castleton parish in Roxburghshire, in Scotland,
where his father was clergyman ; studied at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and was admitted to a medical
degree in 1732 ; and soon after settled in London,
where it is supposed he supported himself by his li-
terary talents. In 1735, he published a humorous
essay on the empirical practice which then prevailed
in the metropolis. A medical work appeared in 1737,
which was soon after followed by the Economy of
Love, a licentious production, which, whatever be its
poetical merit, is not very creditable to the feelings
of the author ; but a corrected edition, which was
published after an interval of several years, shewed
that he was not insensible of its hurtful tendency.

In 1744, the public were gratified with the best
production of his muse, The Art (tfpreserving Health,
a poem which still enjoys a high degree of celebrity,

ARM

463

A R N

yjjTie and is regarded as equal to any other of a didactic
II character in modern times ; and although it has been

Amheim. perhaps justly charged with too frequent allusions to
^^'^y^m' classical antiquity, it is to the excellence of this poem
that Armstrong is indebted for having his name as-
sociated with the votaries of the British muse. His
poems on Benevolence, and on Taste; the Forced Alar-
riage, a tragedy ; Sketches on various Subjects, under
a fictitious name; a volume of M«//ca/ Cases, with
some miscellaneous and fugitive pieces, — make up the
list of Dr Armstrong's literary productions, but add
little to his fame.

Dr Armstrong accompanied the army in Germa-
ny as physician in 1760, and made another visit to
the continent at a later period of his life. His me-
dical practice seems to hare been extremely limit-
ed ; and his want of success is ascribed by him-
self or his friends to a deficiency in those winning
arts and prepossessing manners which are oftener
better fitted to ensure popularity than more solid
but less obtrusive talents. But the indolence of his
character, and the literary retirement which he loved,
are supposed to have been the chief causes of his fai-
lure. lie died in 1779.

ARNE, Thomas Augustine, an eminent musi-
cal composer, was born in London in 1710. During
his residence at Eton, his strong predilection for mu-
sic began to appear, and became so powerful, that,
on his return to his father's house, he concealed an
instrument in his apartment, and muffled the strings
with a handkerchief, that the sounds might not be
heard by the family. Destined by his father for the
profession of an attorney, the irresistible bent of his
inclination was ill suited to the plodding application
which it required, and he ^vas at last permitted to
pursue his favourite studies as the business of his
• life. Dr Arne was first known to the public as
leader of the band at Drury-lane Theatre ; and his
first musical composition, which was for Addison's
opera of Rosamond, was successfully performed in
1733. Beside numerous pieces of a lighter de-
scription, as ballads, duets, and trios, which were
performed at Vauxhall, the music which he compos-
ed for Fielding's burlotta of 2'oHi Thumb, the Comus
of Milton, the opera of Artaxcrxcs, translated from
the Italian of Metastasio, and Mallet's Masque of Al-
Jred, in which the popular song of Rule Britannia first
appeared, added to the celebrity, and extended the
fame of the author. As a composer of oratorios,
and in some musical entertainments, in which he fur-
nished botli tlie poetry and niiusic, he was less suc-
cessful. He received the degree of Doctor of Mu-
sic from the university of Oxford, and he died in
1778.

ARNE, a river of Switzerland which derives its
origin from the Alps, falls into the Rhone near Ge-
neva, by its greater velocity preserves its own cur-
rent for some miles distinct from the more placid
stream of the Rhone.

ARNIIEIM, the capital of Lower Guelderland,
and formerly one of the Ilanse towns, stands on the
right bank of the Rhine, near its junction with the
river Yssel, is strongly fortified with ramparts, as well
as with a deep ditch on one side and the Rhine on
the other. The walls are adorned with rows of trees ;

the streets are regular ; and many of the houses are jjmica
not deficient in elogancc. The population is stated it

at 15,000 ; and the navigation of the Rhine, and ar- Arragou,
tificial canals, aiFord numerous facilities to commer-
cial activity.

ARNICA, Leopard's Bane, a genus of plants
belonging to the Sygenesia class. Arnica montana, a
native of Germany, was once in some repute in para-
lytic and feverish disorders ; but its eft'ects were pro-
bably overrated.

A RNO, the ancient Arnus, a river of Italy, which
has its source in the Appenines, passes through Flo-,
rence and Pisa, and falls into tlie Tuscan sea eight
miles below the latter town.

ARNOLD, Samuel, an eminent musical com- .
poser, was born in 1739, was a pupil in the chapel-
royal, St Jame&'s, London ; was first known to the
public by the beautiful and admired air. If lis joy
to KGund a lover ; was appointed musical composer to
Covent-garden Theatre in 1760 ; he was preferred to
the same situation in the Hay-market Theatre in
1776; in a few years afterwards succeeded to the place
of organist and composer to the royal chapel at St
James's ; and in 1796 was chosen director of the an-
nual festival at St Paul's before the sons of the cler-
gy. The university of Oxford conferred the degree
of Doctor of Music on Mr Arnold on the installation
of a cliancellor, when he presided at the performance
of the oratorio of the Prodigal Son, which is his own
composition. Tiie death of this celebrated composer
happened in 1802.

The Cure of Saul, v/hich was set to music in 1767,
the oratorios of Abimelech, the Resurrection, and the
Prodigal Son, and the popular performances of the
Maid of the Mill, Inkle and Yarico, the Agreeable
Surprise, the Surrender <)f Calais, Peeping Tom, and
the Shunatnite IVotvan, afford ample proof of the
musical genius of Dr Arnold. He published four
volumes of cathedral music, and superintended an edi- •
tion of the works of Handel.

ARNOTTO, a dye-stuff, in the foi'm of a hard
paste, obtained from the seeds of Bi.m orellana ; for
the mode of preparing which. See Annotto.

AROMATICS are such vegetable substances as
have a fragrant penetrating odour, and a warm pun-
gent taste, as ginger, pimento or Jamaica pepper,
and caraway seeds.

AIIPINO, the ancient Arpinum, a town of the
Neapolium territory, and celebrated as the birth-place
of Caius ?>Iarius and Cicero. It is curious to remaik
that the family seats of these two renowned charac-
ters of antiquity aie both occupied by monastic estU'.
blishments.

ARRACAN, a country or province of Asia, and
also the capital of the province. See Ahacan.

ARR.ICK, or Ahack, a spiritous liquor obtained
from the fermented juice of different vegetable sub-
stances, as the tops of the cocoa-nut and other trees
of the palm kind, from rice, and the liquid whicli flows
from an incision or cut branch of the palm trees.

ARRAGON, a province of Spain, liaving the Py-
renees on the north, Catalonia and Valencia on the
east. New Castile on the south, and part of Navai-re
on the west, about 24'0 miles in length, andl60ia
breadth; and greatly diversified in its aspect with

A R R

464

A R R

AiTiizoniif lofty mountains, barren plains, and fertile vallies.
tl The climate is in general temperate, but the higher

AiTaignmcnt regions arc suliject to severe tempests. The Ebro,
~ ~ Cinca, Segra, and Arragon, are the chief rivers.

Natural History. — Arragon has been celebrated for
its mineral productions from the time of the Romans.
Copper ore is dug out in some places ; indications of
gold and silver have been observed ; cobalt was dis-
covered in the beginning of the 18th century, and
wrought for more than 50 years, and the iron of this
province is esteemed of a superior quality for sword-
blades ; marble, gypsum, jet, and rock-salt are abun-
dant ; and aluminous schistus aftbrds a rich and pure
material for the manufacture of alum. Extensive
tracts are covered with Spanish oak, the most state-
ly of the vegetable tribe in the province ; the hills are
clothed with pines, and numerous plants of humbler
growth, as juniper, cisfiis, or rock-rose, and arbu-
tus uva ursi, or trailing arbutus, adorn the heathy
moors, or conceal the sterile aspect of the bare
rock from the eye of the traveller. The bear
and the wolf have their abode still in the moun-
tainous recesses of Arragon ; the lynx and the er-
mine are natives of the more elevated regions ; and
the stag, the ibex, and different species of the goat
tribe are abundant. The slieep is the most important
of its domestic animals. In the commencement of the
18th century, the stock of sheep in Arragon was es-
timated at a nnllion and a-half. Beside nvnnerous
species of the feathered race, the vulture is common ;
and the golden eagle and the ptarmigan frequent tlie
Pyrenees. The scorpion is a native of Arragon ; and
the ravages of the locust have oftener than once been
followed by famine and pestilence.

Population, Sfc The population of Arragon, in

1Y88, exceeded 623,000, in which are included 10,000
priests and others, male and female, connected with
religious institutions, and 9000 persons of the order
of nobility. But extensive tracts of country are still
altogether destitute of human habitations. Beside
wool and silk, wheat, hemp, flax, saffron, and wine
are enumerated among the productions of the more
fertile districts. But husbandry is yet in a rude and
imperfect state. The woollen manufactures once flou-
rished, but are now less prosperous. Soap, glass,
earthen-ware, gunpowder, and leather, are still the
objects of industry to many of the inhabitants in
different places of the province. Wheat, hemp, and
wool, witl) woollen stuffs, silk, and stockings, are the
only exports from Arragon. Saragossa, the capital,
■which, on account of its memorable siege during the
invasion of the French in the beginning of the 19th
century, must hold a conspicuous place in the an-
nals of Europe, Alcarazin, Calayatud, Daroca, and
Jacca, are the chief towns.

ARRAGONITE, a singular mineral production
of Arragon, from which the name is derived, and
which, on account of its form and hardness, has oc-
cupied much of the attention of mineralogists and
chemists. See Mineralogy.

ARRAIGNMENT is a law term, which signifies
that part of a judicial process in which a person
charged with a crime is called to the bar of a com-
petent tribunal to answer an indictment. See Black-
stone's Commentaries.

ARR AN, an island on the western coast of Scot-
land, about 22 miles long and nine or ten miles
broad, presenting in the northern division a rugged
surface of lofty mountains, and towards the south
flat land of considerable extent fit for arable culture.
Goatfield, rising lo an elevation of 3000 feet above
the level of the sea, rewards the fatigue of the tra-
veller in the ascent, with a wide, varied, and ricli
prospect. Lamlash bay on the east side, and pro-
tected by an island of the same name, is one of the
safest and most commodious harbours in the king-
dom, and is capable of receiving a numerous fleet of
ships of large burden.

Mineralogy. — Arran, including within a small com-
pass, both primary and secondary rocks, presents
a fine field of investigation to the geologist. The
more elevated and central parts of the northern divi-
sion of the island are chiefly composed of grey gra-
nite, in the cavities of which crystals of smoky quartz
and crystallized feldspar are sometimes formed.
Slaty or schistose granite or gneiss, micaceous and
argillaceous schistus, appear in the lower regions. In
the southern division of the island, red sandstone is
the prevailing rock ; and sandstone, limestone, bitu-
minous shale, and a small deposition of blind coal,
are met with on the north-eastern shore. Arran ia
the most copious repository of pitchstone which has
been .yet discovered. Thick veins of this mineral
traverse the sandstone rocks. Small crjstals of pis-
tazite, a rare mineral in this country, line the fis-
sures of the argillaceous schistus. Splendid ttiasses
of schistose porphyry, or clinkstone of a columnar
form, appear in the lofty and precipitous cliffs of
Lamlash island. The small island of Pladda, near
the southern extremity, and on which a light-house
is erected, consists chiefly of a similar rock. In some
parts of Arran, other porphyritic rocks and basalt
are not uncommon. The spacious caves in the sand-
stone on the west-side of the island, are usually visit-
ed by travellers as objects of curiosity.

Population, SfC. — The greater part of Arran is the
property of the Duke of Hamilton ; two farms belong
to the Marquis of Bute ; and the family of Fullerton
has held possession of a small estate for many cen-
turies. The population of Arran is probably between
6000 and 7000. In 1798 it was estimated at 5800 ;
and the population of the whole county, which in-
cludes Bute and some smaller islands, exceeds 12,000.
The whole island is divided into two parishes. The
only village is Lamlash, on the shore of the bay of
that name. Agriculture, which is advancing in im-
provement, the fisheries, which are profitable, ar:1 the
ordinary domestic manufactures, are the chief occu-
pations of the inhabitants. Oats, barley, and pota-
toes are the principal crops ; black cattle and some
horses, with a little kelp made on the shores, are ex-
ported. The gross rent, stated a few years ago at
L.6500, has no doubt increased with the progressive
improvement of the soil and mode of husbandry.
Numerous flocks of sheep and goats are reared in the
elevated pastures. Various sjiecies of the genus te-
trao are found in Arran. The black cock frequents
the coppices ; the partridge is common in the corn
land ; grouse abound in the heathy moors ; and the

Arraa.

ARR

465

ARR

Arras

Arriege.

ptarmigan select the loftier regions of the mountains
tor their retired abode.

Antiquities — Numerous fragments of druidical re-
mains are seen in different places of Arran. Ranza
castle, now a ruin, near the north end of the island,
from its massy appearance, seems to have been a place
of considerable strength, and is said to have been
once a roj'al residence. Brodwick castle, on a pre-
cipitous cliff not far from the eastern shore, is an old
castellated structure, but of a less ancient period,
and is the occasional residence of some part of the
family of the chief proprietor.

ARRAS, the Atirelnfa of CiEsar, was formerly
the capital of Artois, and is now the chief town of
Pas-de-Calais in France ; occupies an elevated situa-
tion near the river Scarpe, and is divided into two
parts by a narrow valley, which is watered by a small
stream. Arras is strongly fortified, and is adorned
with many fine buildings. The cathedral is a grand
edifice, in the Gothic style, and surmounted by a
lofty tower. The brazen pulpit of another church,
which is in the form of a tree, supported by two bears,
is an object of singular curiosit}'. The population of
Arras is estimated at 20,000. The manufactures of
linen and woollen, which were formerly prosperous,
declined during the revolution, and a porcelain ma-
nufactoiy shared the same fate. Arras hangings, a
kind of tapestry, which, it is supposed, was first made
in this place, derived its name from the town. Ar-
ras is 130 miles north from Paris, and 27 miles north-
west from Carabray.

ARREST, is a law term, denoting the restraint of
a man's person, ibr the purpose of enforcing his obe-
dience to the law, and it is executed either in civil
or criminal cases. See Blackstonc's Commentaries.

ARRESTMENT, a term in the law of Scotland,
vihich signifies the securing of the person of a crimi-
nal, or, in a more general ?ense, denotes the diligence
by which a creditor detains the goods of a debtor in
the hands of a third party till the debt be liquidated.
See Bell's Dictionary oj the Law of Scotland.

ARRIAN, a Greek historian, who was a native of
Nicomedia, in Bithynia, and flourished at Rome un-
der Adrian and the Antonines, in the second centu-
ry. His talents and conduct raised him to high of-
ficial situations, both in a civil and military capacity,
and even, it is said, to consular dignity. Arrian was
the author of numerous historical works, all of which
liave perished among the wrecks of time, excepting
the history of the Expedition of Alexander the Great,
a production which has been always respected for the
accuracy and truth of the narrative, and which is not
less admired for the elegance of its style, the correct-
ness and purity of which are rarely surpassed in the
classical ages of Greek literature. Arrian was the
the disciple of Epictetus, and his learning and elo-
quelice obtained for him the honourable appellation
of the second Xenophon.

ARRIEGE, a department of France, in the vici-
nity of the Pyrenees, including more than a million
of square acres, and a population exceeding 191,000,
and Foix is the chief town. In some places abun-
dance of grain, wine, and excellent fruits are raised,
but the larger portion of the surface is mountainous.
Ijon ore is abundant, and furnishes materials to a

VOL. I, PART II.

number of forges. Some other metallic ores have
been found ; quarries of marble are in a state of acti-
vity, and the department is well supplied with mine-
ral springs. The river Arriege, which has its origin
in the Pyrenees, traverses the department, and mingles
its vraters with the Garonne, not far from Toulouse.

ARSACID7E, a race of kings of Parthia, which
commenced with Arsaces, who was the founder of
the monarchy, and from whom the appellative deno-
mination is derived. Artabanus, the last of the race,
was conquered by the Persians in the 299th year of
the Christian era.

ARSENIC, a metallic substance, which, in some
of its combinations, is well known for its poisonous
qualities. When a substance is suspected to be arse-
nic, or to contain any portion of that metal, a little
of it thrown upon a hot iron is an easy method of de-
tecting the arsenic. If it rise in white fumes, with
the smell of garlic, the suspicion is strongly confirm-
ed.— See Chemistry and Minehaloov.

ARSON, an English law term for wi'ful fire-rais-
ing; a crime which, from its nature, and the dreadful
consequences which may attend it, subjects its perpe-
trators to the highest punishment. — See Blackstone's
Commentaries.

ART has been defined a proper disposal of the
things of nature, by human thought and experience,
to be accommodated to the purposes of mankind.
But art is chiefly used to denote a system of rules
according to which certain actions are performed, as
the art of brewing, baking, and carpentry : and in this
sense art is opposed to science, which investigates the
principles of art, and constructs the system of rules
by which it is practised.

Arts are usually arranged under two heads, useful
or mechanical arts, and liberal, polite, or Ji>:e arts.
The first, which are also distinguished by the name
of trades, require little more in their practice than
manual dexterity ; and hence they are called mecha-
nical, and useful, because they are limited to the
wants and uses of mankind. The liberal or the fine
arts depend on mental exertion for their successful
cultivation ; such are, poetry, painting, music, sculp-
ture, and architecture. Some writers even restrict
the term Jine arts to painting and sculpture ; and
hence it is obvious, that as the definition is framed
on a wider or narrower scale, it may exclude some,
or embrace all that are usually enumerated under
this denomination. Utility is the object of the me-
chanical arts ; but the object of the liberal arts is to
excite agreeable sensations.

ARTA, a town of Albania, supposed by some to
be the ancient Ambracia, stands in a fertile plain,
which produces abundance of Indian corn, wheat,
rice, and tobacco, and is at no great distance from
a gulf of the same name. The approach to Arta is
described as remarkably beautiful. The woods and
plantations of fruit-trees in its immediate vicinity, and
the mountainous amphitheatre which closes ilie view,
form a striking and picturesque scene. Arta is the
chief emporium of the southern districts of Albania;
the population is estimated at 6000 ; and the distribu-
tion of the extraordinary number of places of worship
into twenty-fourGreek churches and six mosques, ma,,
serve to indicate the proportion of the Christian and
3 N

Ariacite

Art*.

ART

466

A It T

Artedi Mahometan inhabitants. The nature of the trade,
II which is chiefly in the hands of Greeks and Jews,

Artemisia, has been already noticed in the account of Albania.
" ' ARTEDI, Peter, an eminent naturalist, was born
in 1705, in the province of Angermanland in Sweden ;
and being destined for the church, he fixed his resi-
dence at the university of Upsal, in 1721'. But the
strong bias to the study of natural history which had
seized his mind, superseded every other pursuit; and
when Linnaeus was admitted a student in the same uni-
versity in 1728, kindred studies soon united the two
naturalists in the warmest and closest friendship.
While other departments of science and natural his-
tory were not neglected, especially chemistry and
botany, Artcdi devoted a large share of his attention
to the classification of fishes ; and, for the purpose
of prosecuting his favourite investigation, he visited
England in HS*. The state of his finances had been
always extremely circumscribed ; but on his return
to the continent the succeeding year, when he for-
tunately met with his friend Linnaeus at Leyden, he
was altogether destitute of the means of subsistence.
'J'hc avocations of LinnsEus prevented him from con-
tributing his aid to the splendid compilation of natu-
ral history, wliich was undertaken and published by
•Seba, a learned apothecary of Amsterdam. Artedi
was recommended, zealously commenced his labours
in the department of fishes, and had nearly brought
them to a close, when, returning from Seba's house
lo his lodgings, in a dark night, he fell into a canal,
and was unfortunately drowned, in September 1735.
Before their separation at Upsal, Linnaeus and
Artedi had entered into a mutual agreement to be-
queath the unpublished literary productions of each
other to the survivor. Linnaeus hastened to Amster-
dam to claim the manuscripts of his departed friend,
recovered them through the liberality of Mr Clifford,
a rich citizen, who generously discharged a debt for
which they were retained, and published at Leyden,
in 1738, the Bibliotheca Ichtkvologica and Philosophia
Ichtkyologica, with a biographical sketch of the author.
ARTEDI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
Tentandria class.

AIITEMIDORUS, an author of some celebrity
on account of his zeal and industry in collecting ma-
terials for his work on dreams. He was a native of
Ephesus, and lived in the time of Antoninus Pius.
To procure information on his favourite pursuit, no
expense was spared in purchasing all the books on
the subject within his reach, and no labour was a-
voided in travelling to foreign countries, or in keep-
ing up a correspondence with individuals in distant
regions. The Oneirocritica was published in Greek,
in 1518 ; and Artemidorus is the author of a treatise
on Ausnry and Chiromancy, or Palmistry, subjects
of a kmdred nature.

ARTEMISIA, a queen of Caria, and wife of Mau-
solus, whom'she survived, and to whose memory she
erected a most magnificent tomb, which was cele-
brated as one of the wonders of the world, and was
Called Mausoleum, from the name of the king ; and
hence the same name is applied in the present day
to splendid monuments of the same nature.

ARTEMISIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Syngenesis class, and including the well known

Southern-wood, Wormxoood, and other bitter and arc- Artety
matic plants. ||

ARTERY, is applied to the blood-vessels which Artillery,
convey the blood from the heart to the extremities ^"^^i"*^,
of the body. By the veins the blood is reconducted
from the extremities to the heart.

ARTICLE, a term of various signification, as
denoting a clause or condition of a treaty or con-
tract, the subdivision of a discourse or writing, a
point of doctrine in religion, and a particle prefixed
to nouns in different languages ; as in the English
language, the and a, the first of which is the definite
article, as the man, and the second is called the in-
definite, as a man.

ARTIFICER, a person who is employed in me-
chanical operations, or who manufactures any kind
of commodity by means of manual dexterity, as iron,
wood, flax and wool, and hence is denominated a
smith, carpenter, or weaver. Artificers have been
always regarded as an important class of citizens in
the improved periods of society, and strict laws and
regulations have been enacted for their conduct.
Without referring to the rank and consideration in
which artificers were held among the ancient Ro-
mans, it may be worth while to notice the laws of
our own country relative to that class of society. By
the law of England artificers going out of the king-
dom, into any foreign country, without licence, are
subjected to three months imprisonment, and a fine
of L.lOO ; and such as go abroad, and do not re-
turn within six months, after warning from the Bri-
tish ambassador, are treated as aliens. Those who
setluee artificers to settle abroad incur a fine of L.lOO
and three months imprisonment ; and if guilty of a
second offence they are liable to a year's imprison-
ment, and a discretionary fine. Those who contract
with artificers to settle in foreign countries are sub-
jected to a fine of L.500, and a year's imprisonment,
for each artificer contracted with. For the second of-
fence the penalty is L.IOOO, and two years imprison-
ment. Masters of ships who give facility and effect
to such contracts, are also subject to heavy penalties.
ARTILLERY, a term which, in its original sig-
nification, was applied to archery, in a general sense
denotes the offensive apparatus of war, especially of a
missile kind ; but, in a more restricted sense, it com-
prehends the heavy equipage of war, as cannon,
mortars, howitzers, balls, shells, &c. which other-
wise come under the denomination of ordnance. The
term artillery, or royal artillery, is also applied to
the persons who are employed in that service, as well
as to the art or science itself^

ARTILLERY PARK is that place, in a camp,
which is appropriated to the artillery.

ARTILLERY TRAIN, a number of pieces of
ordnance mounted on carriages, with all theii; e-
quipage, ready for service.

ARTILLERY COMPANY, an association of the
citizens of London, which was first instituted in 1585.
In a short time this body increased to three hundred ;
and in 1588, when the whole kingdom was thrown
into the utmost consternation and alarm by the inva-
sion of the Spanish armada, some of the members
held commissions from the queen. In 161 1 the com-
pany was revived and amounted to 6000. The ar-

AR U

467

ASA

At^tt tillery company is now a corps of infantry, composed
II of gentlemen of property, to wliicli a division of ar-

AramleUan. cliers is attached.

ARTIST, in its general signification, is applied
to a person who is skilled in the knowledge or prac-
tice of some art ; but, in a more restricted sense, is
limited to a proficient in some of the fine arts, as
painting, engraving, sculpture, or architecture, and
in this sense it is opposed to artificer or artizan, sig-
nifying a person who is occupied in a mechanical art.

ARTOCARPUS, the Bread Fruit Tree, a
genus of plants belonging to the Monoecia class, and
including two species of that remarkable vegetable
production. See Botany.

ARTOIS, a late province of France, and one of
the most fertile in the kingdom, is now included in the
department of the Straits of Calais, has a consider-
able trade in grain, flax, woollen and linen cloth,
and some of the chief towns are. Arras the capital,
Bethune, St Venant, and St Omer.

ARVALES FRATRES were a college of twelve
priests, among the Romans, which was instituted by
Romulus, and selected from the families of the first
rank in the state. They officiated in the sacrifices
of the AmbarvttUa, which were annually offered to
Ceres and Bacchus, for an abundant harvest.

ARUM, Wake-robin, or Cuckowpint, a genus
of plants belonging to the class Gynandria, one spe-
cies of which, viacidatum, is a native of Britain.

ARUNDEL, a market-town of Sussex, in Eng-
land, which stands on the declivity of a hill, on the
banks of the river Arun. The river is navigable for
small vessels ; the population is about 2000 ; coarse
cloth, for hop bags, is manufactured, and timber in
considerable quantities is shipped for the dock-yards.
The ancient castellated mansion, belonging to the
Duke of Norfolk, which has been lately repaired, is
a fine ornament to the town. Arundel is 55 miles
south-west from London.

ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, are ancient mo-
numents which were collected in Greece, or in the
islands of the Archipelago, at the expence of Tho-
mas Howard, Earl of Arundel, and from him the
name is derived. They were presented to the uni-
versity of Oxford by his grandson, and hence they
are called the Oxford marbles ; and the inscriptions,
according to some opinions, having been executed
in the island of Pares, they have received the name
of the Parian Chronicle. During the residence of
the Earl of Arundel in Italy, he employed Mr Wil-
liam Petty, a learned antiquary and profound classi-
cal scholar, to travel in Greece, and the contiguous
iiilands, for the purpose of purchasing and collecting
whatever remains of antiquity should fall within his
reach. The fruits of this expensive, and often ha-
zardous enterprise, was the splendid collection, com-
posed of S7 statues, 128 busts, and 250 tablets of
marble, with inscriptions, besides gems and other
fragments, and the whole reached England in 1627.
The marbles containing the inscriptions were in-
serted in the garden-wall of Arundel-house, in Lon-
don, and immediately attracted the notice of anti-
quaries, and especially of the learned Selden, who
transcribed a number of the inscriptions, and pub-
lished them upder the title of Marmora Arundeliana,
2

But these curious fragments suffered great depreda- atrial*
tions during the civil wars ; and when they were pre- |j

sented in 1667 to the university of Oxford, the A«nph
number of stones was reduced to 130. The learning, "^^
industry, and ingenuity of the antiquary, were again
occupied in decyphering and explaining the inscrip-
tions. Dean Prideaux published Marmora Oxonien-
sia in 1676 ; the work of Maittaire on the same sub-
ject appeared in 1731; and Dr Chandler brought
forward a new edition in 1763. Doubts of the au-
thenticity of the inscriptions had been occasionally
thrown out by difllgrent authors, although a contrary
opinion was most generally adopted ; but the claims
for the high antiquity of these monuments has been
more formally challenged by Mr Robertson in his
work entitled the Parian Chronicle, than by any for-
mer author, and the objections urged against their al-
leged authority are stated with much learning and
ingenuity. But for a full detail of his arguments,
the reader, interested in such curious researches, is
referred to the Essay itself, as well as to The Vindi-
cation of the Parian Chronicle, by Hewlet ; and to
Dallaway's Anecdotes of the Arts.

ARUNDO, the Reed, a genus of plants belonging
to the Triandria class.

ARUSPICES, or Haruspices, an order of priests
among the Romans, who presided at sacrifices for
the purpose of inspecting the entrails of the victims
which were offered, and from their aspect, as well as
from other incidents which attended the sacrifice, of
announcing whether the omens were favourable or
adverse. The observations of the aruspices were
derived from the appearance of the victims before
they were killed, and of the entrails after they were
cut up, from the flame which arose from the altar
during the burning, and from the flour, frankin-
cense, and wine, used in the sacrifice. The same
priests were consulted concerning portents and pro-
digies, to declare what were the omens to be learn-
ed from such pretei natural appearances. This order
was selected from the best families in Rome.

ARZILLA, a sea-port town in Morocco, which
stands at the mouth of a small river which flows in-
to the Atlantic ocean, was originally a Roman colo-
ny, was afterwards taken by the Goths, and finally
came under the dominion, of the Mahometans, who
adorned it with many splendid edifices. The inhabi-
tants, whe are chiefly Moors and Jews, amount to
about a thousand.

AS, a Roman weight and coin. The weight was
equal to 12 ounces, or the Roman pound. The coin
of the same name varied in weight and value at dif-
ferent periods of the commonwealth, and it was com-
posed of different materials, as wood, leather, shells,
and brass. The weight, originally 12 ounces, was re-
duced at dift'erent times, till at last it was diminished
to ha!f-an-ounce.

ASA-Foetida is the concrete juice, or extract, of ^
an umbelliferous plant, which is a native of different
regions of Asia. See Ferula, under Materia Me-

DICA.

A SAM, a country of Asia. See Assam.

ASAPH, St. a small town of Flintshire, in
England, with a population little exceeding 1500,
and chiefly known as being the see of a bishop. The ~

ASA

458

ASC

Atarum situation of St Asaph is in a fertile valley, at the
II confluence of two rivers, and it is 20 miles distant
Ascham. from Chester.

ASAHUM, AsARABACcA, a genus of plants be-
longing to the Dodecandria class.

ASBESTUS, or Asbestos, a mineral substance
belonging to the Magnesian genus, and of which the
ancients manufactured their celebrated incombustible
cloth. See Mineralogy.

ASC ARIS, a genus of worms belonging to the or-
der Intestina. See Helminthology.

ASCENSION, an astronomical term, which is
said to be either right or oblique. Right Ascen-
sion is an arch of the equator, intercepted between
the equinoxial point, or the first of Aries, and the
hour circle of any planet or star. Oblique ascension
is that point of the equinoxial which comes to the
horizon with any of the planets or fixed stars.

ASCENSION ISLAND, an island in the Atlan-
tic ocean, discovered by the Portuguese in the be-
ginning of the 16th century, is about 10 miles in
kngth, and 6 or 7 miles in breadth. The shores in
many places are covered with a fine sand of dazzling
whiteness, and the surface of the interior regions pre-
sents a mass of rugged rocks, piled on each other in
great disorder, with a few spots on which some scan-
ty herbage finds nourishment, but no tree or shrub
has yet reared its head to conceal its parched and
barren aspect. Limestone seems to be the prevail-
ing rock. A peculiar species of grass, Aristida As-
censionis, is the most common of the vegetable pro-
ductions, five different species of which were all that
Osbeck, who visited the island before the middle of
the 18th century, could discover. Turtles of large
size, and fish, are abundant round the shores ; land
crabs are common ; it is the frequent resort of nume-
rous sea-fowl ; and goats, the breed of which had been
left by early voyagers, have greatly multiplied. A
volcanic origin is ascribed to this island by those who
describe its appearance. S. Lat. 8" and W. Long. li".

ASCETIC, from the Greek, signifying to exercise,
an appellation applied to a person who subjects him-
self, from religious motives, to severe mortification
and penance.

ASCHAM, Roger, a learned Englishman, who
was greatly distinguished by his classical literature,
was a native of Yorkshire, and was born in 1515.
His parents were remarkable for having terminated
the long period of 67 years of a happy married life on
the same day and nearly in the same hour. Of them it
iijight be justly said, they " were pleasant in their
lives, and in their death they were not divided." A-
dopted into the family of Sir Anthony Wingfield,
and placed under the care of the tutor of his sons,
young Ascham made rapid progress in classical litera-
ture. In J5,S0, by the generosity of his patron, he
was admitted a student in Cambridge ; and the new
studies of literature, and new tenets of religion, which
had just begun to dawn on the world, gave full em-
ployment to all who were desirous of truth or ambi-
tious of fame, and failed not to awaken the energies
of his youthful mind. The Greek language was the
first oijject of his study ; and such was his zeal and
ardour to become a proficient in its knowledge, that,
even in his boyish years, he read lectures to others

who desired instruction. To this mode of improve- AscIiml
ment he was recommended by the advice of a friend,
a warm admirer of Grecian literature, who, in a let-
ter which is worthy of being recorded, assured him
that he would gain more knowledge by explaining a
fable of j^isop to a boy, than by hearing one of Ho-
mer's poems explained by another.

Soon after he was admitted to a bachelor's degree ;
in 1534", when he was in his 18th year, he was elec-
ted fellow of his college. His reputation as a Greek
scholar rose high, and his chamber was often fre-
quented by those who were eager to hear his lectures
on Grecian literature. Three )'ears afterwards he
became master of arts, and commenced tutor, and
soon after was appointed public lecturer on the Greek
language, the first establishment of the kind in the
university of Cambridge. Ascham had before this
time learned to perform on musical instruments, and
he excelled in the art of writing, particularly in the
embellishment and illumination of the pages, mecha-
nical accomplishments which were then greatly ad-
mired, and added much to his celebrity. These
qualifications, and the elegance of his Latin compo-
sition, rendered him a fit person to write the public
letters of the university. Ilis feeble constitution,
which was not invigorated by close study, required
him to take exercise in the open air. Archery was his
favourite amusement ; and in a work on the subject,
entitled Toxophilus, he delivers precepts for teachir/g
the art, and strongly recommends the practice.

The talents and reputation of Ascham obtained for
him the notice of Henry VIII., with a more solid
mark of royal approbation in a pension of L. 10 a-
year, a sum which now appears nominally small, but
is supposed to be equal to L. 100 in the present time.
He succeeded to the oflice of orator of the universi-
ty, and was at the same time employed in teaching
the sons and daughters of the nobility the learned
languages, and also in writing a fine hand. The
princess Elizabeth and Prince Edward were among
the number of his pupils. He was engaged for some
time in directing the studies of the princess ; but on
some disgust which is not explained, he suddenly re-
linquished the employment, and returned to his re-
tirement in the university. He visited Germany in
the capacity of secretary to the English ambassador,
and drew up a A Repurt and Discourse of the AJpiirs
of that country. The death of Edward disappointed
all his hopes. 'Recalled from his diplomatic situation,
he returned to his fellowship in despair ; but he re-
covered sufficient influence to be reinstated in the
office of Latin secretary under Philip and Mary, with
an annual salary of L.20 ; and a specimen of his la-
borious industry is recorded, in composing and trans-
scribing, with great elegance, 47 letters in three
days, addressed to princes and personages of the
highest rank in Europe. It is not a little singu-
lar, that a protestant held so conspicuous a situation
under' that intolerant reign. When Elizabetli' mount-
ed the throne in 1558 he was continued in his office,
and admitted to assist her in her studies, and even to
share in her diversions ; but this seeming favour add-
ed little to the improvement of his fortune. His only
literary production during her reign was the School-
master, or, a Treatise on Education, great part of

ASH

469

A S I

Atcidia which was composed under the pressure of pecuniary
II distress, occasioned either by the parsimony of the

Ashiaole. queen, or his own improvident expenditure. The bo-
dily constitution of Ascham was never robust, but in
the latter period of his life it was greatly enfeebled
by intense study ; and in his assiduous application in
the composition of a poem which was to be present-
ed to the queen on the anniversary of her accession,
he was seized with an illness which brought him to the
grave in 1568, leaving behind him the character of
one of the most learned men and most accomplished
scholars of the age. See the Life of Ascham by Dr
Johnson.

ASCIDIA, a genus of Vermes belonging to the
order Mollusca. See Helminthology.

ASCLEPIAS, SwALLOw-woRT, a genus of plants
belonging to the Pentandria class.

ASCYRUM, Peter's wort, a genus of plants
belonging to the Polyadelptya class.

ASHBURTON, a borough town of Devonshire,
and one of the Stannary towns, in the vicinity of
which the copper and tin mines are successfully
wrought. The population exceeds 3000, some of
whom are occupied in the manufacture of serges.
The distance from Exeter is 19 miles.

ASHBY DE LA ZoucH, a town of Leicestershire,
with a population of nearly 3000, and having a con-
iidcrable trade in malt, and 19 miles distant from
Leicester.

ASHMOLE, Elias, a learned and industrious
English antiquary, was born at Lichfield in the year
1617, and, after completing his education in the
countrj', entered into the profession of an attorney in
London. But when the civil war broke out he join-
ed the army, and served in the ordnance department ;
and. during his residence at Oxford in a military ca-

pacity, he enrolled himself as a member of one of the
colleges, and prosecuted the study of mathematics,
natural philosophy, and astrology. After the sur-
render of Worcester, Mr Ashmole went to London,
where kindred pursuits introduced him to Lilly,
Moore, and Booker, the celebrated astrologers of the
age. A second marriage had greatly improved his
fortune, and his house became the frequent resort of
all those who were engaged in alchemical and astro-
logical researches. He published a Treatise on Al-
chemy under a fictitious name, and made a collection
of the manuscript works of English chemists, which
appeared in 1652, with the title of Theatrum Chymi-
cum Britannicum.

The studies of Ashmole took a different turn. An-
tiquarian researches seem to have occupied his atten-
tion during the remainder of his life. His work on
The Institution, Laws, Sfc. of the Order of the Garter,
published in 1672, acquired great celebrity. The
loyalty of Ashmole was rewarded at the restoration
of Charles, by his appointment to the office of Wind-
sor herald and superintendant of the king's medals,
besides some other lucrative situations and literary
honours. He had made an extensive collection of
coins; but his cabinet, which contained nine thousand
coins, with his library and antiquities, was destrojed
by fire in his apartments in the Middle Temple. His
gold medals, and some valuable manuscripts, were
fortunately preserved. Mr Ashmole had resided in
the house of John Tradescant, the celebrated botanist,
at Lambeth, and his collection of curiosities, which
were bequeathed to him, along with his own books and
manuscripts, formed the foundation of the Ashmole-
an Museum at Oxford, which is deposited in a build-
ing designed by Sir Christopher Wren. Mr Ashmole^
died in 1692.

Ashmok.

ASIA.

Asia. Asia is one of the larger portions of our globe,
~ ' which, by its magnitude, the vast modifications of
its features, the variety of its productions, the extent
and antiquity of its population, merits very ample
description ; but as the constituent parts are to be
particularly treated in the order of the alphabet, we
shall at present confine our attention to some gene-
ral topics in its natural history, and the progress of
its discovery and civilization.

Extent, S^c Asia is connected with Europe by

the great chain of the Uralian mountains, and with
Africa by the narrow isthmus of Suez. It lies, there-
fore, to the east of these continents, stretching out
in a veiy irregular manner towards the Great Pacific
Ocean, by which it is separated from the later known
continent of America ; while its southern shores are
washed by the Indian Ocean, taken in its largest ac-
ceptation ; and its limits on the north are defined by
the ever-during ice of the arctic regions. The great-
est length, supposed to be from the strait of Babel-
niandel, in Arabia, to a point at Behring's strait, in
the north-east, exceeds 8000 British miles ; and its
breadth, reckoning from the southern cape of the
peninsula of Malacca, to a cape in the north-west of

Siberia, may be said to be 5000. The medial di-
mensions are, perhaps, 1000 miles less. This is al-
together exclusive of a multiplicity of islands scat-
tered around its coasts, particularly in the south and
east, some of which are of magnitude sufficient to
form considerable kingdoms.

The extreme irregularity of Asia will be best un-
derstood by inspecting a map. In artificial or sci-
entific geography, it is said to be situate between
the 26° and 190° of longitude east from Greenwich,
and between the 2° and 77° of north latitude. Its
most imperfect boundary is in the direction of Eu-
rope, being in a great degree arbitrary, and conse-
quently variously assigned by diffi^rent authors. It
is enough for our purpose to conceive an imaginary
line drawn from the Uralian mountains, already men-
tioned, to the smajl river Karposka, which rises near
Sarepta, and runs into the Don, and to follow the
course of this last jiver into the Black Sea, whence,
through the Dardanelles to the ftlediterranean archi-
pelago, a natural and sufficient boundary is presented.

General appearance. — To a spectator, whose eye
6ould take in the whole of this continent at onr
view, Asia would seem to consist of a vast elevatal

Asia.

A S I

4T0

A S I

Aas. plain, bounded by mountainous ridges, whose decli-
"*^''*^ vities, proceeding in all directions, and in various
lengths, formed the basis of many empires or states,
only narrowly divided from each other by series of
hills and rivers. This central elevation, which is
some thousand miles in extent, is perhaps its most
striking feature, distinguishing Asia from all the otlier
continents, besides giving rise to a peculiar distribu-
tion of rivers, and at the same time materially influ-
encing both its own temperature and seasons, and
tliose also of another large portion of the globe, Eu-
rope. The plain itself is but scantily inhabited, and
little known; few travellers having surmounted the na-
tural difficulties with which it is environed, or choos-
ing to trust themselves in the hands of the barbarians
by whom it is possessed. On the north of the plain
extends the bleak Siberia, doomed to almost perpe-
tual winter, not so much from its geographical posi-
tion as the height of its boundary, which interrupts
the current of warm air from the more favoured coun-
tries of the south. These, again, which are the vast
states generally classed under the title of India, and
a lar<;e portion of the Chinese empire, are prevented,
by the same arrangement, from experiencing the dif-
fused severity of the polar clime. Towards the east
of the plain, we find those parts of China and Chi-
nese-Tartary which border on the Pacific ocean ; and
on the west are Persia and the countries extending
from the vicinity of the Aral and Caspian seas to-
wards the frontiers of Europe. Such is the most
general distribution of the Asiatic lands ; and seve-
ral extensive tracts, not exactly included in any ar-
rangement, may be considered as appendages. The
chief of these are, that large space included be-
tween the Mediterranean, Red sea, part of the In-
dian ocean, the Persian gulf, and a line stretching
from it towards the Black sea, and which compre-
hends Arabia, Syria, and Asia Minor, along with
some smaller divisions, altogether forming the south-
west border of Asia ; the promontories of Kamt-
schatka, Sachalin, (conceived, according to Krusen-
stern, as not disunited from the continent by the
the gulf of Tartary,) and Corea, on the east, and
the still more important projection in the south, con-
stituting the countries of Cochin-China, Cambodia,
«nd Siam, with Malacca, projecting, as it were, between
two seas. To all of which must be added, as at compa-
ratively small distances, the extensive and sometimes
grouped islands of Japan, Formosa, Hainan, Suma-
tra, Ceylon, &c. not to speak of many more which
are farther off, and which, by an arrangement pretty
generally adopted among modern geographers, enter
into the formation of another large division of the
globe recognised under the appropriate enough title
of Australasia.

Mountains. — The mountains of Asia are numerous,
distributed.in vast clusters and long ranges, generally
fixedonplains greatly elevated abovethe sea, in certain
countries constantly covered with snow even in south-
ern latitudes, and of course giving rise to many rivers,
some of which are only inferior to one or two of the
mighty waters to be found in the new continent. In
respect of height, it was always imagined till lately,
that none of the mountains in Asia equalled those of
Suuth America. A different opinion is now enter-

tained ; and it is supposed that this continent pre-
sents the greatest elevations on our globe. Ac-
cording to Colonel Crawford's observations, a peak
of the Himala, or Snowy mountains, to the north
of the Ikitish dominions in India, seen from Patna,
is 20,000 feet higher than Nepaul, which is conceived
to be 5000 feet above the sea ; and still more recent-
ly, Mr Moorcroft has actually crossed these moun-
tains, " whose height has been found to extend fron»
21,000 to 24^,000 feet above the level of the plain
out of which they spring." — QuftTf. Review, 1815.

The Altaian chain, one of the most consideraijie
on the globe, running a course of nearly 5000 miles,
may be considered as the northern face, or ridge, of
the central region. The Uralian chain appears, at
least in some maps, to arise from the westernmost
branches of the Altaian, and to proceed thence al-
most due north towards the polar region, forming, as
already mentioned, part/of the western boundary of
Asia. The Taurian chain, or mountains of Taurus,
may be considered the counter-part of the Uralian,
issuing from the western point of the central plain,
and traversing the kingdom of Persia towards the
south ; but part of this chain, as we conceive it to be,
under the well-known name of Caucasus, or Caucas-
sian, in the largest sense, takes a northerly route, fil-
ling up much of the space between the Caspian and
Black seas, and also sending off branches, under va-
rious names, towards the shores of the Mediterranean.
The mountains of Thibet, which are entitled to be
held as part of the soutbem front of the central range,
appear to take a kind of circular direction, the con-
cavity of which is turned towards the south. Smaller
ridges are found traversing most of the Asiatic coun-
tries, especially in the vicinity of the sea-coast. The
more striking detached hills or mountains of this con-
tinent are, Sinai and Horeb, in Arabia ; the well-
known mounts or hills of Palestine and Syria, allud-
ed to in sacred scripture ; Olympus, Rhea, and Ida,
in Asia Minor ; and Ararat, to the east of Armenia,
but belonging to Persia.

Seas atid Lakes. — Asia presents some remarkable
collections of water detached from other seas, to
which the name of lakes might be given, if their mag-
nitude did not seem to require a more noble title.
Tiie chief of these is the Caspian sea, lying between
Independent Tartary on the east, Persia ozi the soutTi,
the Turkish dominions on the west, and those of Rus-
sia on the north. It is about 700 miles long, from
north to south, and between 100 and 200 miles broad
from east to west, and is the receptacle of many im-
portant rivers. To the east, at the distance of about
100 miles, is another, but much smaller lake, deno-
minated the sea of Aral, which by many writers, on
tolerably good evidence, is imagined to have once been
united with the Caspian. It is 200 miles long, nearly
in the same direction, and about 70 broad, and also
receives several rivers. Both of these seas consist of
salt water, a circumstance in which they differ from
the lakes or seas of Canada in North America. The
lake of Baikal, near the middle of the southern part
of Siberia, is a collection of fresh water, upwards of
300 miles in length, and not exceeding 35 in breadth.
The central plain of Asia is supposed to contain se-
veral large lakes, but of these we have little informa-

Aii».

A S I 471 A S 1

A»a. tion. Oftliose which are found elsewhere, and which It is connected with Europe and Africa in such a
are inferior to any now mentioned, it will be necessary manner as to allow a ready transition, before man-
to take notice in the accounts of individual countries, kind could be either able by their art, or prompted

Rivers The rivers of Asia are numerous, and often by their necessities, to trust themselves on any other

of great magnitude, corresponding with the height and element than the earth ; and it is impossible to doubt

extent of themountainswheretheytaketheir rise. The that this circumstance, in its structure and relations,

chief are the Kian-Ku and the Hoan-Ho, both rivers was really intended for the effect which we have

of China, and probably the largest in the world ; the every evidence for the belief was produced by it, the

Ob, or Oby, the Yenisei, and the Lena, besides other gradual extension of mankind over the rest of the

very considerable rivers, all belonging to Asiatic earth. This is well illustrated by Dr Millar, in his

Russia ; the Amur, properly speaking a river of Chi- " Philosophy of Modern History, ' to which we refer,

nese Tartary ; the Ganges, Burrampooter, and Indus, Linnaeus, and other writers, have given tables of

of India ; the Eu])hrates and Tigris. The origin of the varieties of the population exhibited in Asia,

most of these and many other rivers, as might be ex- They are necessarily imperfect, as our acquaintance

'pected, is to be found in the elevated lands which with many parts of this continent is still incomplete;

traverse the interior of this continent, from which but they have their use in the prosecution of history,

they descend in all directions, as may readily be un- as directing attention to the origin and relations of

derstood from the previous description of the central different nations. The amount of population has

regions. On the whole, this continent is plentifully probably been over-rated at 500,000,000. But af-

supplied with water, an advantage accruing from its ter making every reasonable allowance for exaggc-

peculiar conformation, and productive of some of the ration, particularly in the case of China, the num-

Hiost essential benefits of which it can boast. her must be allowed to be a striking proof of the

Climate, Sfc. — The climate and soil of Asia are ex- fertility and advantages of this continent. Without

tremely diversified. As but a small part of it is with- pretending to much accuracy, which is impracti-

in the tropics, the heat is never so great as in some cable in this case, but in order to afford some general

of the central countries of Africa. It would be dif- notions on the subject, we are induced to suppose

ficult to find a single natural production in any other the population of Asia and Australasia equal to a

quarter of the globe, which cannot be paralleled in thousand parts, of the greater part of which our cal-

sortie part of Asia ; and, on the other hand, it is to culation furnishes us with the following proportional

Asia, in a particular manner, that all the rest of the table,

world looks for some of the chief luxuries and most Namei of Ck)unlriet. No. of Parts

desii'eable excitements of animal life. This remark Chma 580

may suffice instead of any enumeration of the various Hindoostan, in the largest sense, in- 1

defightful objects in which it is so prolific. . eluding from Cabul to Assam, and V 170

Nor is it necessary to occupy any room in the "^^ island of Ceylon y

zoology of Asia, which in fact is an epitome of the Japan 60

whole globe. A few different species are found Birnian empire, including Siam, &c. ,.5S

indeed in America, and some varieties may be met Persia 30

with in the other two continents ; but these excep- Asiatic Turkey, including Syria, &c.... 26

tions are totally insignificant on the great scale to Lhmese lartary, with Corea 18

which we are now confining our attention. The Asiatic Hussia 16

same remark is equally applicable to the mineralogy Arabia 14

^f ^gj^^ , .Austraiasia B

Population, ^r Asia is undoubtedly the birth Cochin China, Tunquin, Laos, &c K

place of mankind, and appears to have been special- independent Tartary 6

ly adapted for that purpose. A more suitable spot Malacca, with Sumatra 4.

could not be selected for the support and propagation llubet 2

of our species in an early stage of tlieir existence, — — 1000

than is to be met with in some of its southern re- Though drawn up with great pains, after a due con-

gions ; and its extensive plains were no less proper sideration of many circumstances, this table cannot

for preserving many families together, till they had claim any other respect than as a mere attempt at

made such advancement in the knowledge of the ne- approximation to the truth. 1 he chief difficulty which

cessary arts as would permit their separation with it exhibits is the amazing proportion allotted to China,

safety. But the ease with which nature produces a country in reality of much less extent than what

her fruits, and the great abundance to be found in we have classified here as Hindoostan. Yet it is im-

these regions, were not so well fitted for calling forth possible, we believe, without very unwarrantable

exertion and ingenuity on the part of man when he and very invidious surmises, to reduce the estimate,

had attained a state of maturity. Some degree of Admitting its correctness, then, we must either

difficulty is essential to his highest improvement, think less favourably than some of their advocates.

The chief excellencies of human intellect, indeed, are of the manners, of the government, and the natii-

not the offspring of indulgence, though a plentiful ral advantages of the Hindoos, or we must believe

supply of the necessaries of life be required for that the Chinese have discovered certain principles of

tlieir developement. Here again, we may discover pohcy still unknown to the greater part of mankind,

an appropriate adaptation of this continent to the The case of Japan, indeed, is very similar, nay, if

State of our species beyond the period of infancy, any thing, more remaikable, as may easily be Seen

Asia.

A S 1

472

A S 1

AsU. by comparing the accounts of its extent with its al-
' leged population. But the fact is, that of both
these countries our information is so doubtful, and
so contradictory, as to give rise to strange and dis-
cordant opinions.

Governments and State of Society, ^c. — With some
few exceptions, the whole of Asia may be said to be
subjected to the despotic rule of a few individuals.
, Of a liberal government, not to speak of a republic,
there is perliaps not an example to be found in the
hnmense space between the Red sea and the Pacific
ocean. So true it is, that by much the greater por-
tion of mankind has never been redeemed from a
state of slavery ; for surely those must be called
slaves who liavc neither rights nor property inde-
pendent of the will of others, and whose lives and
happiness are continually exposed to the fatal attacks
of caprice and envy. Constitutional checks on
power are utterly unknown in practice, and the
semblance of them, in. a few countries, must rather
furnish an additional source of regret to those who
have the sjnallest conception of their value. The
only tried modes of avoiding the evils of tyranny
are'flattery and rebellion, — but flattery implies one
of the worst evils, complete degradation of mind ;
and rebelHon, again, only shifts the burden, or
changes the sufferers, besides immediately produ-
cing some great miseries, which render the transi-
tion altogether a ver}' doubtful relief. The esta-
blished religions, in general, are no less unfriendly
to the best interests of mankind, and serve still more
effectually to perpetuate the weakness and bar-
barism of intellect which prevail. Superstitions
of the most disgusting kind, and ceremonies from
which common feeling, and common sense, recoil,
supply the place of national doctrines and decent
nianners. But, in one respect, they are not un-
suitable to the constitutions of the people, as they
neither prompt to the exercise of the understand-
ing, nor impose severe restraints on the incli-
nation for sensual delights. Asia, therefore, pre-
sents few instances of highly cultivated faculties,
and fewer of virtuous self-denial. But we should
err if we imagined that intellect is altogether dor-
reant, or that debauchery has grown to rankness in
eastern countries. Some portion of mind is still
required for the study and practice of the arts and
sciences, limited as they are in kind, and scarcely
advanced by one eflbrt above the degree in which
they existed several centuries ago, while the very
nature of the clinlate retards the progress of licen-
tiousness by enfeebling its powers. Rudeness and
civility, pride and obsequiousness, simplicity and
pratt, are variously blended in the character of the
peophe, forming a mass calculated to excite pity and
contempt, rather than hatred or indignation, in the
juind of an European. A charm is sometimes lent
to it, by a vividness, or, more correctly speaking, a
gaudiness of imagination, which displays itself in
pompous expressions, and frequent allusions to the
beauties of early poetry. Strangers are taken
with this illusion; but it is soon properly referr-
ed to an early and irresistible acquaintance with
the ornamental parts of nature, and has little or
no connexion with the creative efJ'orts of genius.

Their works of taste partake of the same principle -
and rarely deserve any other praise than what is * v
bestowed on happy imitations. The commercial
transactions of the various countries are quite incon-
siderable, and far from being conducted on the sys-
tematic principles, or prosecuted with the ardour
of Europe. Very little of the sea-coast, which seems
so favourable for it, is yet recognixed in the annals
of trade, and those parts which are most noted for
advancement in thjs respect, have been indebted
to the labours and zeal of persons who have gone
in search of wealth from the western world. Alto-
gether, the condition of mankind in Asia is more to
be deplored than envied ; and the disposition, the
habits, and prejudices of the people being consi-
dered, together with the puny results of any experi-
ments which have hitherto been made for its amelio-
ration, there remains but small hope to the philanthro-
pist, that it will be speedily or generally improved.

Progress of Discovery — To the time of Ptolemy,
or about the second century of the Christian era,
the ancients appear not to have known more than
a quarter of this continent. The reasons are easily
explained ; — many parts of it were uninhabited, —
those which were most cultivated were far removed
from the theatre of European concerns, — the science
of discovery was in its infancy, or rather indeed had
not commenced, — the spirit of commerce had not
received aid from political motives, — navigation wa«
confined to mere coasting voyages, — and travelling
was dangerous, if not impracticable, beyond the li-
mits of well organised society. The chief discoveries
of tlie ancients were effected through the medium of
war, and were rather incidental than the result of
studied design and previous contemplation.

By the Egyptians. — Sesostris, one of the monarchs
of Egypt, is said, at a very early period, to have led
an army through a large portion of Asia, in which
he established colonies. But the accounts of his life
and operations are far from being entitled to implicit
credit ; nor do his alleged transactions in the east re-
ceive confirmation from the records of any of those
countries which he is reported to have visited. The
Egyptians, in general, were averse both to commerce
and to intimacy with strangers. It may be well doubt-
ed, therefore, if the conquests of Sesostris, even ad-
mitting their truth, produced any important or per-
manent advantage.

By the P'iccnicians. — The Phoenicians, a colony
from Egypt, did not inherit the prejudices of their
ancestors. They engaged extensively in commerce,
which they carried on not only with various parts of
Africa, and some of the coast countries of Europe,
at this time scarcely emerged from the chaos of na-
ture, but also with various places in the east. To
this people, then, we may ascribe much of the in-
formation respecting Asia which existed in the an-
cient world, though the particulars of their progress
are lost in the wreck of all their historical records.

By the Greeks. — The Greeks had commonly too
mucn employment at home, during the most inter-
esting periods of their history, to concern themselves
greatly with the affairs of distant regions. Their phi-
losophers, indeed, travelled abroad ior the sake of
improvement, but the result of their labours wivs fa-

AdlL

A S I

473

A S I

An!*. vourable to almost any other science more than to
geography. Herodotus the historian, who lived near-
ly five centuries before the Christian era, is with pro-
priety considered as master of all the knowledge of
It that existed in his day. He is, comparatively, co-
pious on the subject of Asia ; and, as far as can be
ascertained, there docs not appear to have been a
great deal added to his observations, nor mucii cor-
rections of his errors, up to the time of the Macedo-
nian conqueror.

Under Alexander and his successors. — To the skil-
ful and energetic undertakings of Alexander, must
be ascribed a larger share of geographical discoveries
in this continent than had been eiiectcd by all the
philosophers and travellers that preceded him. Per-
sia was laid open by his victories ; the river Indus
bore his fleet into the ocean, by which again it was
carried through the Persian gulf to the Euplirates ;
India experienced alike the invincibility of his arms
and the beneficence of his policy. His death, which
occurred either too early or too late for his fame, did
not altogether extinguish the light of discovery,
though none of his successors had the talents or the
judgment, or at least the good fortune, to profit much
by his example. Seleucus, indeed, penetrated much
beyond his progress, and sent one of his officers
to Palibothra, on the Ganges, now probably for
the first time seen by any European. But his ad-
vance farther to the east was prevented by the ne-
cessity of returning to defend his dominions, which
had been threatened with invasion by Antigonus ;
and the subsequent prosecution of commerce, prin-
cipally under the patronage of the Ptolemies, had
scarcely any other effect on the science of geogra-

Ehy than merely preserving the information that had
een previously acquired.
The Greek princes of the kingdom of Bactria, ori-
ginally subject to Seleucus, but ultimately become
an independent state, appear to have maintained a
commercial intercourse with India, and even to have
extended their conquests in that country long after
the death of Alexander. They assumed at one time
the title of Great King, which, after every allowance
for the exaggerations of vanity, argues, in some de-
gree, the magnitude of their dominions as well as the
supremacy of their power. During their continuance
in this state of prosperity, it is highly probable that
tlieir countrymen towards the west would have many
opportunities of cultivating an acquaintance with se-
veral parts of Asia, not only by their own observa-
tions in the course of their commercial pursuits, but
also through the reports of such of the natives as
were induced to form friendly and occasional alli-
ances with them. Had this kingdom been prolong-
ed, it is not to be doubted that Europeans would
have earlier and more extensively contributed to the
improvement of the geography of Asia. After an es-
tablishment of about 130 years, and nearly about the
same space of time before the Christian era, it was
completely overwhelmed by a horde of Tartars who
had been driven from their native country on the con-
fines of China, by a still more powerful body in their
rear. Thus terminated the last fragment of the Ma-
cedonian conquests, and the door was shut for ages
on European ambition and enterprise in these regions.

VOL. I. PAST JI.

By the Arabians. — Ptolemy's work, which probably
contained all the geography of his time, affords a
very imperfect and highly erroneous delineation of
Asia. But his mistakes, as well as his excellencies,
were respected and copied, with little or no variation,
for many centuries. The Arabians, indeed, under
the impulse of a new faith, pursued both conquest
and discovery in Asia, and, in several respects, ad*,
vanced geography much beyond the prevalent no-
tions. But their discoveries were ekher unknown to
Europeans, or were disregarded, from an aversion to
their religion, with the success of which they were
perhaps imagined to be connected. It is only in mo-
dern times, accordingly, that justice has been done
to the attainments of that singular people.

Bt/ the earlier moderns. — Cosmas, an Egyptian mer-
chant in the reign of Justinian, madeseveral voyages to
India, of which he gives an account in his work entit-
led Christian topography. Together with a great deal
of fanciful matter, this production contains some ad-
ditional information respecting the west coast of In-
dia, apparently the result of careful and considerate
observation. We learn from it, that in his time all the
large ports of India were frequented by traders from
Persia ; and, which is a striking proof of the inter-
course between these two countries, that in most of
the cities of any note in India there were Christian
churches established, the priests of which were or-
dained by the archbishop of Seleucia, the capital of
the Persian empire, to whose jurisdiction they still
continued subject. Alfred, king of England, m the
9th century, appears to have heard of the existence
of these churches, and to have testified his regard for
the common faith, as well as the interests of science,
by the mission of Sighelra, afterwards made bishop
of Shireburn, with presents to the shrine of St Tho-
mas and St Bartholomew, on the Cororaandel coast.

In the middle ages. — A taste for thg luxuries of
the east, which had survived the glory of the Ro-
man empire, and even gained strength, notwithstand-
ing the disasters of the times, urged the Italians, and
some other people on the shores of the Mediterra-
nean, to open a trade with Constantinople, and also
to visit occasionally the ports of Syria and Egypt.
In this latter case, the aversion of the parties to
each other, on a religious account, was suspended
or soothed by an experience of the mutual benefits
arising from commercial intercourse. Important ef-
forts might have been the consequence throughout
the world, had the same good sense continued to
operate. But the spirit of the crusades, which soon
afterwards arose, and which for two centuries embit-
tered the militant controvertists, gave a decisive
check to this friendly understanding. The conquest*
of the Christians in Syria only increased their re-
gret at the ultimate triumph of the Mahometan
arms. Some partial light was communicated to geo-
graphy during these impolitic expeditions. The en-
couragement afforded to tlie maritime states of the
Mediterranean, the intercommunity established a-
mongst the various countries of Europe, all engaged
in the same cause, and the protection afforded from
a conviction of their necessity and value to the inte-
rests of commerce, whenever they did not interfere
with tlie primary objects of the enterprise, were still
3 o

Aaia.

A S I

474

Asia, more substantial benefits. Nor ought we to omit
mentioning the conquest of Constantinople by the
Venetians and the chiefs of the fourth crusade,
which took place in the commencement of the 13th
century, as an event materially conducive to the pre-
servation of an intercouree with the eastern regions.
The great motive which led to this step, so incon-
sistent vfitli the principles of the crusaders, and
which afterwards influenced the Genoese to dispos-
sess their rivals,' was the desire of engrossing the
trade with India, destined never to be lost sight of
in the contentions and revolutions of Europe.

On the revival of letters. — The records of the 13th
century allude to some otlier events directly condu-
cive to the progress of Asiatic geography ; among
■which are chiefly to be noted the missions of Pope
Innocent IV. and St Louis IX. of France to the court
of the emperor of the Moguls, a new and victori-
ous power which Iiad arisen in the heart of Asia,
and the still more interesting travels of Marco Polo
as far as to the frontiers of China. This remarkable
person, by birth a Venetian, after having carried on
trade for some time with several of the cities in Asia
Alinor, ventured to penetrate still farther into the
east, and at last arrived at the court of the Great
Khan, by whom he was favourably received, and
employed in important services for many years. On
his return to Venice, he published the account of his
travels, which soon astonished all Europe, by a dis-
closure of mighty empires, and vast regions, far be-
yond the supposed boundary of the world. China
is mentioned by him under the name of Cathay, by
which it has been long known in the east. Having
travelled through some of the provinces, he speaks
particularly of several of its cities. Different parts of
Hindostan are specified, and even sometimes by their
present names, as Bengal and Guzzerat, both said to
be opulent kingdoms. He visited many of the islands
in the Indian ocean, besides the coast of Malabar, as
lar as the gulf of Cambay. This survey, the most ex-
tensive which had hitherto been made in these re-
gions by any European, was proportionally impor-
tant in its effects, though, in the peculiar circumstan-
ces of Europe, a considerable time was required for
its full operation. The Venetians, in the meanwhile,
enjoyed the advantages of superior commercial in-
tercourse with the east, notwithstanding the attempts
»f the Genoese and other states to obtain a share.

By the PoHuguesc. — At no period did the prospe-
rity of these republicans, as dependent on this trade,
appear to be more firmly secured against successful
rivalship tlian towards the end of the fifteenth cen-
tury, when the -discovery of a new course to India,
by the Cape of Good Hope, effected by the Portur
guese, occasioned its rapid and irrecoverable declen-
sion. 'Diis great event constituted an era in geogra-
phy and in the history of mankind. Its immediate
effect was an acquaintance with the coasts of Asia,
vastly greater than had ever before been formed.
The Portuguese speedily availed themselves of it to
reach the countries of Cambodia and China, to pos-
sess the islands of the Indian archipelago, and to es-
tablish commercial colonies througliout a space of
more than twelve thousand miles extent. The trifling
discoveries made in the preceding century, by the

A S I

travels of Oderico, a Venetian friar, Sir John Mande-
ville, an Englishman, and others, are totally unworthy
of regard in the view of this splendid achievement.

By other Europeans. — For about a century, the
Portuguese enjoyed tiie commercial sovereignty of
the east, uninterrupted by the interference of any
European. At last, the Dutch, having conquered
their freedom from the tyranny of Spain, and mak-
ing strenuous efforts for national consequence, ap-
peared as their rivals. To them succeeded the Eng-
lish, with a rapidity whicli nothing could withstand,
and with a success which still continues to enhance
the dominions and the power of Britain. Since this
period the geography of Asia has rapidly improved;
but it is still imperfect, especially as to the central
and northern regions. We cannot better indicate
the amount or nature of the modern acquisitions
than by specifying a few of the most valuable ac-
counts of modern travels in its various regions. This
we shall do much in the order of a French work, lit-
tle known in our country, but to which one of our
most popular geographers lias been more extensively
indebted than he has had the candour to acknowledge.
It is entitled " Bibliotheque Universelle des Voyages,
&c. par G. Boucher de la Richarderie." Paris, 1808,
in 6 vols. 8vo. Our notices, which are select, may
assist the studious reader in directing his attention to
some of the best sources of information ; but we are
far from purposing to give a catalogue of titles more
calculated to disgust the eye and exhaust the patience,
than to convey instruction or save labour. ^

A List of Works proper to be consulted on the
subject of Asia, arranged according to the geogra-
phical position of its various regions.

1. Asiatic Turkejyr, comprehending Syria, Pales-
tine, some of the Mediterranean islands, &c.

Few works treat of the geography or natural his-
tory of these countries ; most of them are occupied
witli antiquities, and researches into the opinions and
customs of certain religious sects.

Dandini, a Jesuit, was sent by Pope Clement VIII.
in 1586, to ascertain the creed of the Maronites, re-
sident on Mount Libanus, who had for some time
professed subjection to the Roman pontiff, but whose
sentiments were held somewhat inconsistent with the
Catholic faith. The account of his mission was pub-
lished in the Italian language, in 1656, translated into
French in 1675, and into English in 1698. La Roquc,
in a French work published in 1722, gives a much
more judicious and interesting description of the same
country and people. His remarks on the ruins of Ileli-
opolis, or Balbek, though not without value, have been
superseded by the labours of Wood and Dawkins, two
English travellers, to whom also we are indebted for
the best observations on the remains of the ancient
city of Palmyra, printed at London in 1753. Some
errors in their description are said to be pointed out
by M. Cassas, in his Voyage Pittoresgue de la Syrie,
&c. published a few years ago at Paris, with a pre-
liminary dissertation by Volney, whose own travels
through Syria and Egypt, in the years 1783, 84, and
85, of which we have an English translation, deserve
particularly to be recommended to the reader's atten-
tion. Browne, in his travels in Africa, Egypt, and
Syria, from 1792 to 1798, adds some particulars, but.

Au«<

A S I

475

A S I

Asia. not of much importance. Savary, Wittman, Olivier,
Griffiths, and Clarke, in their travels, occasionally
treat of the same countries. Pococke's Description
of the East, &c., is invaluable to the antiquary.
The accounts of Palestine are numerous, but, if we
except Hasselquist, are very defective in the depart-
ment of natural history. The " Views, &c. from the
original drawings of Luigi Mayer," published at Lon-
don in 1804, " with an historical and descriptive ac-
count of the country," are of great value. Russel's
work on the Natural History of Aleppo, and parts
adjacent, has long been esteemed for its fidelity and
minuteness of description as to manners and customs,
&c. Drummond's Travels, London I75i:, treat par-
ticularly of the Isle of Cyprus ; but we have a still
more valuable description by Mariti, written origin-
ally in Italian, but translated into English under the
title " Mariti's Travels through Cyprus, Syria, and
Palestine." Some additional information is to be
found in Sonniui's Travels in Greece and Turkey.

2. Arabia. For this country, consult Salmon's
Modern History, Lond. 1739.; Clayton's Journal
from Cairo to mount Sinai, &c. Lond. 175S; Nie-
buhr's Travels through Arabia, Lond. 1799 ; Rooke's
Travels to the coast of Arabia Felix, &c. Lond. 1783;
Lord Valentia's Travels, &c. Niebuhr edited a work
on the zoology of this country, after the death of its
author, Forskal. It was printed at Copenhagen in
Latin, under the title, " Descriptiones animalium,
avium, &c. &c. in itinere Orientali observatorum."

3. Persia, including Armenia, Mingrelia, and
Ge-orgia, provinces to the north of that kingdom, un-
der Turkish government.

The earliest work we shall notice is a Collection of
Voyages and Travels in Persia, by Chardin, Lond.
1772. This is merely an extract, and is long subse-
quent to some French edition of Sir John Chardin's
"Travels, which have long and deservedly been esteem-
ed, though the descriptions do not exactly correspond
with present appearances, as ascertained by more mo-
dern observers. It is extraordinary that the great
excellencies of this traveller have not prompted a com-
petent person to give a better form to his work in our
language than we now possess. Mr Harmer, author
of Observations on various passages of Scripture, was
favoured with the use of the MSS. of Sir John Char-
din, by Sir Philip Musgrave, one of his descendants,
to whom they were returned. But it does not appear
that any farther advantage has been taken of them
than what was requisite for Plarmer's purpose. The
works of Le Brun, Thevenot, Taveruier, and Han-
way, may be occasionally consulted. Some infor-
mation is given in Ives's Voyage from England to
India in 1754, &c. Lond. 1773 ; Franklin's Observa-
tions made on a tour from Bengal to Persia, &c.
Lond. 1790; and Forster's Joui'ney from Bengal to

England, &c. Lond. 1790 and 1798. The most re-
cent accounts of this kingdom, &c. are Olivier's Tra-
vels in the Ottoman Empire, &c. Waring's Tour to
Shiraz, Morier's Travels, Kinneir's Geographical
Memoir of Persia.

4. India in general, and some of the countries in
particular. We shall select a very few out of the im-
mense number of works allotted to this portion of
Asia, confining ourselves to recent times.

Grose's Travels to the East Indies, printed several
times in London since 1759 ; Dow's History of Hin-
dostan ; Maurice's Modern History, &c. ; Rennel's
Memoir of a Map of Hindostan, Lond. 1788, &c.
This is a work of great merit, and demands the atten-
tion of the geographer ; Forrest's Voyage from Cal-
cutta to the Bay of Bengal, &c. Lond. 1792, is of
value as to hydrography ; Hodge's Travels in India,
Lond. 1793, give some good views of remarkable
places ; Campbell's Overland Journey to India, Lond.
1795 ; and Taylor's Travels from England to India,
&c. in the year 1798, will be found instructive.

An Historical Account of the Settlement and Pos-
session of Bombay by the English East India Com-
pany, Lond. 1781 ; Historical Fragments of the Mo-
gul Empire, &c. Lond. 1782 ; Warren Hasting's Re-
view and Memoirs of the State of Bengal, &c. Lond.
1784 and 86 ; Major Symes's Account of an Embas-
sy to the Kingdom of Ava, in 1795, is extremely in-
teresting ; Barrow's Voyage to Cochin-China, &c.
Lond. 1806 ; Dr Tennant's Indian Recreations; For-
bes's Oriental Memoirs; the Asiatic Register, and
Asiatic Researches; Turner's Account of Thibet;
Kirkpatrick's Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul ;
Elphinstone's Account of the Kingdom of Cabul ;
Malcolm's Sketch of the Sikhs ; Tytler's Considera-
tions on India; Buchanan's Christian Researches;
Hamilton's East India Gazetteer ; all have strong
claims to attention in the various topics to which they
relate.

5. Indian Isles, &c. Percival's Account of Cey-
lon; Marsden's Account of Sumatra ; Stavorinus's
Voyage; Forrest's Voyage; Thunberg's Travels, Lond.
1794; Kaempfer's History of Japan, translated into
English, Lond. 1728; Oriental Navigator, Lond.
1801 ; Krusenstern's Voyage.

6. China, Corea, &c. Du Halde's General His-
tory, Lond. 1741 ; the Accounts of Lord Macartney's
Embassy, particularly Sir George Staunton's Work,
and Barrow's Travels; De Guianes's Voyages a
Peking, &c. Paris 1805, has been highly commended.

7. Siberia, Kamtschatka, &c. or Asiatic Russia.
Voyage en Siberie, &c. par M. Gmelin en 1743 ;

Pallas's Travels, translated into English; Clarke's Tra-
vels. For Kamtschatka, see last volume of Cook's
last Voyage, and the works there referred to ; also
Coxe's Account of the Russian Discoveries.

Asiit.

ASILUS, THE HouNET Fly, 3 genus of insects,
belonging to the order Diptera.

ASP, a species of serpent, arranged under the Lin-
naean genus Coluber, and which is supposed to be ex-
tremely poisonous. The indistinct characters which
are applied to the asp, and the vague details which
2

have been given of its dreadful effects, render it diffi-
cult to determine to what particular species they
ought to be referred. But it can scarcely be doubt-
ed that the whole history of the asp, from the time
of Cleopatra, who, weary of the world, exposed her-
self to the bite of this animal, to put an end to her

ASP

476

ASS

Ajpalathu! miseries and her life, to the present day, is interwo-
(I ven with the fabulous creation of credulity and igno-
A^phaltltcs. ranee ; and nothing can afford a better proof of the
advantages of precise definitions and accurate classi-
fication. The assertion that the poison of the asp pro-
duced death without pain, is too improbable to admit
of a moment's belief.

ASPALATHUS, Afkican BROo>f, a genus of
plants belonging to the Diadelphia class. Aspala-
thus Canariense is supposed to be the species well
known by the name of Lignum Rhodium, or Rose-
wood, from which the rich perfume called oil of Rho-
dium is obtained, as it is generally supposed, by dis-
tillation, although it may be doubted whether that
singular and high-priced substance be really the pro-
duct of that process.

ASPARAGUS, Sparrowgrass, or Sparagus,
a species of plants belonging to the Hexandria class,
of which the common asparagus is well known, and
much cultivated on account of its shoots, which fur-
nish the table with a rich delicacy.

ASPERIFOLIiE, or Asperifoliate Plants,
denoting such as have rough leaves, is one of the or-
ders of the natural method of classification proposed
by Linnaeus. Pulmonaria, or lungwort, and borago,
or borage, are examples of plants which come under
this order.

ASPERUGO, Small Wild Bugloss, a genus of
plants belonging to the Pentandria class.

ASPHALTITES, a lake of Palestine, which has
been distinguished by various names, and described
with much marvellous detail. The bitumen called
asphaltum, which is a production of its shores or wa-
ters, is the origin of one of its names. From its si-
tuation and relative position it is called the East sea,
the sea of the Desart, and sea of the Plain ; the sea of
Sodom, because it occupies the place of the three ci-
ties which perished for the wickedness of their inhabi-
tants, with those of Sodom and Gomorrah ; and the
Salt sea, from its saline impregnation. These names
are mentioned in Scripture. It is also denominated
the Dead sea, from the notion which long prevailed
that no animal could live in its waters, and that birds
fljing over it were suffocated by its exhalations, and
dropped down dead. The more accurate observa-
tions of later travellers, and the analysis of its waters
by the aid of modern chemistry, have furnished ma-
terials for its true history. The extent is indeed- yet
undetermined. It is variously described as 50, 60,
and 100 miles long, and from 7 miles to 25 miles
in breadth. The waters are quite transparent, and
have a bitter and saline taste. The strong impreg-
nation with earthy and alkaline salts adds greatly to
their specific gravity, and accounts for the difficulty
of immersion which those who have bathed in the
fake ex{)erienced. Chateaubriand, a late French tra-
veller, found it inhabited by numerous fishes, and
swallows skim its surface unhurt in, pursuit of insects.
Mr Gordon, a Scottish traveller, took up a quan-
tity of the water, and submitted it to the examin-
ation of Dr Marcet of London, who found its speci-
fic gravity to be 1.211 ; and 100 grains contained of
muriate of lime 3.920, muriate of magnesia 10.246,
muriate of soda 10.360, and sulphate of lime 0.054,
the whole of which is nearly equal to one-fourth of
the weight of the water in solid contents. The bi-

tuminous matter which is found floating on the sur- Asphaltnm
face of the lake probably derives its origin from the {|

decomposition of mineral matters at the bottom, or Assault,
some parts of its margin.

ASPHALTUM, or Jews pitch, an inflammable
mineral substance which is found on the waters of
the Dead sea in Palestine, and far more abundantly
in the extensive Tar lake in the island of Trinidad
in the West Indies. Se Mineralogy.

ASPHODELUS, Asphodel, or King's Spear,
a genus of plants belonging to the Hexandria class.

ASPLENIUM, Ceterach, a genus of plants be-
longing to the Cryptogamia class.

ASS, a species of Equus. See Mammalia.

ASSAM, a country of Asia, which is bounded on
the north by Thibet, on the west by Hindostan, and
on the east by part of the Birman empire. All the
vegetable productions of the warmer climates are
abundant in this region ; the soil in many places is
strongly impregnated with nitre, of which, it is said,
gunpowder is manufactured by the inhabitants ; some
gold is collected by washing the sand of the rivers ;
and some silver, lead, and iron are extracted from
their ores. The natives of Assam are re])resented as
almost entirely destitute of every moral and reli-
gious principle ; but they possess a bold, fearless,
and enterprising courage, which has enabled them
to resist the most powerful attacks, and to preserve
their independence.

ASSASSIN, a person who secretly puts another
to death. The word is derived from the Arabic,
which signifies to hill ; and in the vulgar Arabic it
denotes robbers in the night, or persons who lie in
ambush to kill.

ASSASSINS, a tribe or race of people who occu-
pied different regions in Persia and Syria, and were
subject to a chief designated the Old Man of the
Mouiitai?!, whose power was absolute. This race of
people seems to have been actuated by the mixed
influence of warlike and religious principles, com-
bined with a barbarous heroism in the performance
of deeds of the boldest enterprise. It is probable,
too, that the chief of this ferocious banditti was em-
ployed by some of the powers of Europe as a horrid
political instrument to execute vengeance on their
hostile rivals, when open attack and ordinary war-
fare were unsuccessful ; for when a victim was mark-
ed out for their revenge, a party was secretly dis-
patched to the place of his residence ; with unceas-
ing vigilance they observed all his motions ; with
unrelenting perseverance they pursued his steps, till
a certain opportunity offered of inflicting the direful
blow on his devoted head. For a period of 160
years these assassins continued to be the terror of
Europe. Their numbers at one time was estimated
at 40,000 ; and they were reduced and exterminated
by the Mamelukes in the year 1280. See Hume's
Hist, of England, and Gibbon's Rom. History.

ASSAULT is a law term which signifies an in-
jury offered to a man's person. It has been defined
an unlawful setting upon one's person, as when one
person lifts his cane or fist in a threatening man-
ner to another, or strikes at, but misses him. But
what is termed assault and battery is constituted
by an actual beating. See Blackstone's Commenta-
ries,

ASS

477

AST

Afsayiag ASSAYING is a process which is usually restrict-
II ed to the examination of alloys of gold and silver,

Association, to ascertain the quantity of precious metal in the
>^v>v><^»' compound. See Metallurgy.

ASSER, John, one of the earliest historians of
Britain, is supposed to have been a native of Wales,
assumed the monastic habit, and, on account of his
learning, was warmly patronized by Alfred the Great.
Several literary productions are ascribed, on doubt-
ful authority, to Asser ; but the Annals of the Life
of Alfred, published by Parker in 1574, of which the
latest edition was printed at Oxford in 1723, are sup-
posed to be genuine. Through the influence of the
learned Asser with the king, it is said that Alfred re-
stored the university of Oxford.

ASSESSOR, is applied to a person who sits along
with the judges in the inferior courts in Scotland,
and with his professional knowledge assists in the
decisions pronounced. Assessors are generally se-
lected from the Faculty of Advocates.

ASSETS, an English law term which denotes the
eftects sufficient to discharge the burden which falls
upon the heir or executor, in satisfying the debts
and legacies of the testator or ancestor. Assets are
cither real or personal ; to the first belong all lands
which descend to the heir ; and the personal estate
or effects which go to executors are assets personal.
See Blackstone's Commentaries.

ASSIGN, in the common law of England, sig-
nifies to make over a right to another, or appoint a
deputy ; but in a more restricted sense it signifies to
set forth or point out, as to assign error, false judge-
ment, &c.

ASSIGNATION, in the law of Scotland, de-
notes a deed of conveyance, by which the property
of any subject which is not strictly feudal is trans-
ferred from one person to another. See Bell's Dic-
tionary cf the Lmv of Scotland.

ASSISE, from the French word seated or esta-
hlished, is a term of various signification in the law
proceedings and domestic policy of this country : as
the sittings of court ; the regulations or ordinances of
a court ; a jury, because it sits till the verdict is
pronounced ; and the regulations of weights and
measures, or prices of certain things, as the assise
of bread.

ASSITHMENT, or assythment, a term in the
law of Scotland, denoting a compensation, or were-
gild, by a pecuniary fine, which is due to the heirs
of a person murdered by the person who is charged
with the crime, and who pleads a remission.

ASSOCIATION of ideas, a phrase employed by
logicians and metapnj'sicians, to denote that suc-
cession of thoughts which arise in the mind in con-
sequence of some natural relation or accidental co-
incidence by which one idea or thought is called up
by another in the mind, without any seeming exer-
tion. Thus the scenes of early youth seldom fail to
excite pleasing emotions ; tlie occurrence of any of
the incidents that accompanied a severe disaster,,
presents it to the recollection ; the resemblance of a
stranger in features, manners, or dress, recals the
image of a distant friend ; and this again by a new
association, brings with it a train of agreeable re-
flections on his kindness, disinterestedness, or gene-
tosity. See Logic and METArnysics.

ASSOCIATION, AFRICAN. SeelNSTiTUTioN. Assnmpsit

ASSUMPSIT, is a term in the law of England (|

which denotes a voluntary covenant or verbal pro- Auracan
mise, by which one person undertakes to perform or
pay something to another. An assumpsit is either
express or implied ; express, when a positive and dis-
tinct agreement has been entered into ; and implied
where it may be fairly presumed, from the nature of
the transaction, that such agreement was intended,
or, according to the principles of equity-, ought
to have been made. See Blackstone's Commenta-
ries.

ASSUMPTION, the capital of the province of
Paraguay, in South America, stands on the eastern
bank of the river Paraguay, and about 150 miles
above the junction of that river with the Parana.
It enjoys an agreeable climate, and the fertile soil of
the surrounding country produces wheat, maize, su-
gar, tobacco, and cotton. The population exceeds
7000. The town can boast of little elegance ; but
it contains a cathedral, several churches, a college,
and some convents.

ASSURANCE. See Insurance.

ASSYRIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, which,
it is supposed, comprehended the provinces of Diar-
bekir, Curdistan, and Irac. According to the older
geographers, it was bounded on the north by Arme-
nia, on the west by the Tigris, and on the east by
Media. But its geographical limits are indistinctly
known, and its civil history is involved in equal ob-
scurity. Some notices of the kingdom of Assyria
are recorded in sacred Scripture ; and for an account
of the conjectures of historians concerning it, see
RoUin's Ancient Histonj.

ASTARTE, and Astaroth, a Syiian or Phoe-
nician goddess, called in Scripture the Qiieen of Hea-
ven, and it is supposed is a divinity analogous to the
Venus of the Greeks and Romans, the Mithra of the
Persians, and the Isis of the Egyptians. Splendid
temples were erected in honour of this goddess, and
a train of three or four hundred priests was constant-
ly occupied in offering sacrifices and oblations.

ASTER, Star-wokt, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the Syngenesia class, several species of which,
are well known ornaments in the flower-garden.

ASTERIAS, Star-fish, a genus of vermes be-
loiisinK to the order Mollusca. See Melmintiio-

LOGY.

ASTI, a city of Italy, finely situated in a valley
en the banks of the Tanaro, adorned witli an elegant
cathedral, some fine cliurclius, and many splendid
j)ublic edifices, and including a population of more
than 21,000. The surrounding territory is celebrat-
ed for its excellent wines.

ASTORGA, a city of tlie kingdom of Leon in
Spain, which is surrounded with walls supposed to
have been the work of the Romans. The popula-
tion is estimated at 4000 ; and the distance from Ma-
drid is about }50 miles.

ASTRACAN, an extensive province orviceroyal-
ty of Russia, is bounded on llie north by Bulgaria,
on the south by the Caspian sea, on the west bj' the
river Volga, and by a mountainous region on the
east ; and extends from the 16th to tlie 52d degree
of north latitude. The summers are often extreme-
ly sultry, but the winters are sometimes very severe*

AST

478

AST

Attrftcas

Astr9lo«;y.

Wide tracts of this province are covered with saline
marshes ; but in many places the soil is fertile and
produces a luxuriant vegetation, and some of the
most delicious fruits. The vine thrives well ; cotton
is successfully cultivated, and the silk-worm is pro-
ductive. The rivers abound with fish ; and the fish-
eries are some of the chief sources of the wealth of
the pro\'ince. The manufactures of common salt,
nitre, and leather, are extensive. Isinglass is pre-
pared from the sounds or palates of the sturgeon and
beluga ; and caviare, which is transported to every
part of Europe, is the salted roe of the same fish.
The locusts are sometimes exceedingly destructive
in this province.

AS TUACAN, the capital of the province of the
same name in the Asiatic part of the Russian empire,
stands on the banks of the Volga, which is three
miles broad, and is the principal seat of the com-
merce of Russia in the east. A dockyard and naval
Storehouses have been established by the govern-
ment to facilitate trade. The houses were formerly
of wood, which rendered them liable to destructive
fires ; but stone and brick buildings are now more
common. The population of Astracan is stated at
20,000 ; but the great resort of strangers from all
parts of the world on commercial concerns, increases
that number threefold. The established form of re-
ligion is that of the Greek church ; but places of wor-
ship belonging to every sect and country are seen in
the city. The central situation of Astracan com-
mands a very extensive commerce, a large share of
which is in the hands of Armenians.

ASTRAGAL, the moulding which separates the
shaft of a column from the capital. See Architec-

XURE.

ASTRAGALUS, Milk-vetch, or Liquorice-vetch,
a genus of plants belonging to the Diadelphia class.

ASTRANTIA, Master-Wort, a genus of plants
belonging to the Pentandria class.

ASTROLABE, an instrument employed by the
ancients for making astronomical observations. This
instrument resembled the armillary sphere. The
same name is applied to other instruments for similar
purposes, and particularly to one which was used for
taking the altitude of the sun and stars at sea.

ASTROLOGY, a term originally and long syno-
nymous with Astronomy, is now restricted to an im-
aginary and fictitious science, by which the future
fortunes of individuals are supposed to be ascert:-in-
ed in the appearances, relations, and connexions of
the heavenly bodies. It is a kind of divination which
seems to have been practised seriously or fraudulent-
ly in the early stages of all nations ; but the increase
of knowledge, consequent on the improvement of so-
cial life, universally discloses its futility, and the re-
velation of the divine will supersedes its pretensions,
and condemns its exercise. Wherever civilization,
therefore, -has attained stability, independent of the
aid which superstition offers to the science of govern-
ment ; and wherever the Scriptures are freely allowed
to modify public opinion, this delusive system is treat-
ed with contempt, and the influence and splendour
which it may formerly have enjoyed are remembered
with feelings of mortification and regret for the stu-
pidity and weaknesa of mankind.

But unworthy and disgusting as it maybe, the his-
tory of Astrology is a proper subject for philosophi-
cal investigation. Opinions so widely spread, and
so strongly operative as those on which there ii every
reason to believe it was built must be deeply rooted in
human nature. Their progress, supremacy, and de-
cline, are intimately connected with the varying con-
dition of our species.

What could give rise to the notion, that those im-
mensely distant bodies which stud the firmament, and
the inhabitants of this lower world, are so related,
as that changes in the former are productive of,
and foretel the vicissitudes of the latter? Differ-
ent answers may be given to this curious question,
but perhaps few of them deserve implicit, certainly
none of them can demand exclusive credit. Proba-
bilit} is all that seems attainable in the discussion.

The coincidence of some remarkable event with
an observed peculiarity in the arrangement of the ce-
lestial bodies, may have suggested the notion of their
relationship. Several simultaneous occurrences of
the kind would confirm it ; for it may safely be assert-
ed, that constancy of conjunction is one of the most
imperative elements of natural logic. There are fa-
miliar examples in the universal reference of the tran-
sitions of day and night, and the returns of the sea-
sons, not to mention the various kinds of weather, to
the position of these bodies.

Again, the conviction, which is so congenial to our
nature, and is so readily excited by the untoward cir-
cumstances of life, that there exists a power superior
to human will and intelligence, may have been early
coupled with the notion, that the heavenly bodies,
especially the sun and moon, were the place of its re-
sidence, if not entitled, as was sometimes imagined,
to the highest adoration. Hence would result the
belief of the expediency and advantage of consulting
their manifestations, as the primary causes and arbi-
ters of all temporal concerns. In other words, this
system may have originated in the conceits and ab-
surdities of mythology, which again, it is probable,
may be traced to the corruption of true religion.

A more refined sentiment,' founded on the pride of
man, and perhaps deducible also from a vitiated
commentary on some divine revelation, might have
held the elements of nature and the whole constitu-
tion of the heavens to be subservient to the necessi-
ties and comforts of our race, and therefore as well
calculated to relieve anxiety for the future, as to mi-
nister to present demands. To this darling principle
the stars might seem to share with some other things
the office of pre-indicating events, and only from their
greater dignity to be deserving of most attention.
Rut this admission did not hold universally, as is evi-
dent from the preference given by some people to
the entrails of animals, the flight of birds, the various
kinds of oracles, &c.

Something similar to this last mentioned notion, is
the belief, which is easily defended on a principle of
piety, and therefore which was likely to be enter-
tained wherever religion had a semblance of ration-
ality, that the heavens and the earth being the crea-
tion of a beneficent and skilful architect, were in
harmony with each other, and mutually indicated
the revolutions wliicli they were destined to undergo.

AST

479

AST

Asti-o'cgy.

Of these, and it is believed all other solutions of
the question yet suggested, it is obviously just to
remark, that they rather point out the nature of the
tendency to this system which exists in the human
mind, than assign the grounds on which its peculiar
principles and technical rules have been built. These
it is impossible to explain, without entering more
fully on the minutiae of the pretended science than
its importance demands, or the condition of physical
and moral knowledge seems to require. Astrology
appears to have found a favourable soil in the con
stitutions of Englishmen, as is pretty well proved
by the number of treatises on the art which were
published in the language, especially during the
reign of queen Elizabeth. A complete catalogue
of these works, with adequate notices, of contents,
is a desideratum, and merits the labour of one of our
industrious antiquaries. The books themselves are
never ' to be met with now, except in the libraries
of collectors, — so much for the intelligence of our
times. Several of them are mentioned by Sir Eger-

ton Brydges, in his Censura Literaria and British Astroninm.
Bibliographer. Moore's Almanack, the only current n«^V^/
relic, it is beUeved, of a host of worthies, which used

To deal in destiny's dark counsel.
And sage opinions of the moon sell,

probably derives all its power of circulation from the
sagacious adaptation of the kalendar, and other use-
ful tables, to the stinted finances of the vulgar. The
very general condemnation, it is thought proper to
mention before concluding, of the doubtful sanction ~~

to the pretensions of the astrologer that is given in a
recent novel, may be properly adduced as an evi-
dence of modern incredulity. The sense of its ab < •
surdity must be powerful, indeed, which could rei
probate a machinery, to use the language of criti^
cisra, defensible on the ground of poetic licence, and
the source of such diversified excellencies and in-
terest.

ASTRONIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the class Dioecia.

ASTRONOMY.

Sefiaition. AsTRONOMY is that branch of natural philosophy
which treats of the heavenly bodies, and whose ob-
ject is to discover the general laws which regulate
their various changes.

The striking appearances of the heavenly bodies ;
the remarkable measures of time which they afford ;
the importance of a correct knowledge of their mo-
tions to the purposes of the arts ; the scale also of
these motions, which admits of their being estimated
and expressed in sensible quantities, as lines and
numbers, and thus allows us for the discovery of their
laws the powerful aid of mathematical research, join-

ed to the immense resources of art ; all these causes ArrangemeBi
have concurred in making Astronomy the oldest and
most perfect of the sciences.

In treating this subject, we shall, in Part I. con-
sider the phenomena as they appear to the naked
eye, and as every one can easily observe them.
Having shewn how little information, concerning the
system of the world, can be derived from this source,
we shall in Part II. shortly explain the principles up-
on which more precise observations are made, and
the results of these observations to the present
time.

PART I. PHENOMENA OF THE HEAVENS AS THEY APPEAR TO THE NAKED EYE.

Chap. I. Or the Phenomena of the Heavens
AND Eajith.

Sect. I. Of the Diurnal Motion,

Our notions of the phenomena of nature, which
at first are always vague and indefinite, gradually
improve as we continue our observations and reflec-
tions. The heavens and earth seem at first sight to
form the two grand divisions of the universe — the
earth a vast surface composed of sea and land, ex-
tending all around us ; the heavens or the sky an
immense roof or curtain, resting upon the earth at
the extremity of our prospect, and extending over
our heads.

The clouds which occasionally obscure this blue
concavity, are often observed between us and terres-
trial objects; we conclude that they cannot be far oft',
and belong rather to the earth than to the heavens :
Our attention, however, is strongly attracted by
tlie singular objects, the sun, the moon, and stars,
which seem attached to the sky at a much greater

distance, and which by considering them attentively
we discover to be continually in motion.

The SuH. — The sun, by far the most striking object>
is observed in the morning to rise out of the «cean, or
from behind the most distant mountains — to traverse
the sky at a considerable elevation, — and finally in the
evening to disappear or set in the opposite quarter from
which he rose, producing by this arrangement the vi-
cissitudes of day and night. That quarter of the hea-
vens in which he rises is called the east, the op-
posite quarter where he sets the ^c<?6/, and that line
along the sea and land which seems to bound our
prospect, and beyond which the sun seems to re-
tire during the night, is called the horizon.

The Moon. — The moon, apparently equal to the sun
in magnitude, though far inferior in splendour^ fol-
lows the same course.

The Stars. — The stars have hardly any apparent
magnitude; they shine like brilliant points in the sky,
but their singular beauty, in a fine winter's even-
ing, every one must have remarked with admiration.
One curious circumstance regarding tliem, and of

480

ASTRONOMY.

Phenomena a character quite different from the setting of the
of the sun and moon, is their gradual disappearance in the
heavcns,&c. nioming, before the approacli of the sun. To disco-
ver the cause of this, observe the heavens a little af-
ter sun-set ; the stars in the west are scarcely visible,
while those in the east are shining with all their lus-
tre. The same happens in a reverse order at the
dawn of day ; the stars in the east shine feebly, but
those in the west exhibit nearly their usual brightness.
It is natural to conclude that those luminous points are
spread over the whole surface of the sky, and are only
concealed from us during the day by the more daz-
zling light of the sun, and this conjecture has been
verified by more precise observations.

So numerous and extensive a collection of moving
objects, seems to present an ample field for such ob-
servations as may conduct us to a theory of the uni-
verse. We find, however, that, with a very few ex-
ceptions, a single motion appears to pervade the whole
system. While these objects retain invariably the same
positions relatively to each other, exhibiting constant-
ly the same figures and the same groups which have
even been recognised and designated from the remot-
est antiquity, and from whicli circumstance they have
been termed thejlxed stars, — while, in relation to each
other,, they thus exhibit every symptom of complete
repose, we find that they have all a motion, whose
direction a spectator can easily observe, if, on a clear
night he take up some conspicuous position ; and
suppose he stands with the east on his left, and the
west of course on his right, he will then have before
him the south, and behind him the noiih, he will soon
become sensible of the general motion. The stars in
the west will be observed gradually to approach the
horizon, and finally disappear, while new ones have,
in tlie mean time, appeared above the horizon in the
east ; if, about the time of sun-set, he remarks some
star in the east, near the point where the sun rose in
the morning, he will see it follow in the very same
course, rising to the same elevation in the sky, and
approaching to the same point of the horizon in the
west. The stars which rise farther before him in the
east, or farther towards the south, will be observed
to set farther before him on the west, and to mount
to a less considerable elevation, exactly as the points
of their rising and setting approach towards the south,
or to the point directly before him. In fine, he will
observe stars in the south which just graze the hori-
zon, rising and setting in a very little time, and near-
ly at the same point.

If he now turn to the north, an arrangement
somewhat analogous, but at the same time consi-
derably different, will be remarked. Those stars
which rise farther before him on the east, set al-
so, as before, farther before him on the west, but
they rise to a greater elevation in the sky. Some
stars towards the north are observed to set, and al-
most immediately to reappear nearly at the same
point of the horizon ; but the most remarkable cir-
cumstance is, that some stars, as those of the con-
stellation of the Great Bear, or the Plough, never
set at all, but are visible during the whole of the
Tiight ; and that there is a point considerably elevated
above the horizon, where the stars seem m perfect
repose, and round which the former, as they are ob-

served sometimes above, sometinnes below, sometimes Phenomen»
east, and sometimes west, but always at the same dis- of the
tance from it, round which, therefore, they seem to ^^*''*"''*"^-
describe circles larger and larger as their distance
from it increases. In short, all these appearances
are exactly what would happen, by supposing the
whole heavenly bodies attached to the surface of an
immense sphere, quite unconnected with the earth,
but of which the earth occupies the centre, and re-
volving upon two fixed points diametrically opposite
to each other, of which the one is that point consi-
derably elevated above the horizon, where the stars
are obsei-ved in repose, and the other is concealed
from lis by the horizon being equally depressed be-
low it. Thus, let P H p O, Plate 21. Fig. 1. repre-
sent a globe or sphere turning upon two points, P, p ;
or join Pp, turning upon an axis, PAp, and let
the lines, a be, a be, &c. (which are conceived to
rise above the paper, from a and c to the centre
b ) represent the circles which the points, a a, &c.
describe, by revolving always at the same distance
round the axis Pp, increasing in magnitude as they
recede from the stationary points, P, p. Let a spec-
tator now on the earth at the centre A, and whose
horizon is H A O, vfew the stars in the hemis-
phere H P O revolving in the direction E A Q, H
will be the south point of the horizon, and O the
north, P will be the point where the stars seem at
rest, and round which they seem to circulate in
larger and larger orbs, a be, 1 b 2, &c. as they are
situated farther and farther from it. At the "point
c, in the circle 1 b 2, the stars will be observed to
set, and in a very little time to reappear nearly at
the same point ; at the point H, they will just seem
to graze the horizon ; and in proportion as their
points of rising and setting, e, J] &c. are situated
farther and farther from H, they will rise to a
greater elevation H g, H r.

It is natural to conclude, from all these appear-
ances, that, could we see below the horizon, the
stars would appear to move in a manner perfectly
similar to what we remark above ; and that another
pivot would there be observed, round which their
revolutions would seem to be performed.

Horizon. — What, then, is the nature of the horizon,
which hides so many objects from our view? The
answer to this question may perhaps be obtained, by
changingoursituation on the earth, in the same manner
as We find the distance of remote objects by viewing
them from different positions. We shall thus see what
becomes of the apparent barrier of our prospect, by
continually advancing towards it. The aspect both
of the heavens and earth is accordingly observed to
change continually as we change our point of view.
On the earth we lose sight of some countries and
discover others ; by advancing towards the south, we
discover, on looking to tlie south, stars, just appear-
ing above the horizon, which had not formerly been
observed, while those that formerly grazed the hori-
zon are now observed to rise more and more above
it, as we continue to advance more and more to the
south. On looking again to tho.se stars in the north,
which had formerly never set, but which, in the in-
ferior part of their course, came very near the hori-
zon, we find that they now disappear for a short time,

ASTRONOMY.

481

\:

Plicnoincna and reappear nearly at the same point, while those
of the wliich we had formerly observed so' siiort a time be-

Iieavcns.&c. low the horizon, now continue invisible longer and
longer as we advance to the south. It is apparent,
then, that the horizon, instead of being a real limit,
is receding from us on the one hand, and thus dis-
covering to us new objects, while it is following us on
the other, and hiding from us those objects which
we had formerly observed. By advancing in this
manner, the same appearances continue, till we at last
discover a point in the southern sky where the stars
seem again in complete repose, and whose existence
our previous observations had indicated with consi-
derable probability.

Celestial sphere. — The sky and the stars, then, are no
where coincident with the earth, as we at first imagin-
ed ; in fact, to whatever part of it we go, they seem al-
ways at the same distance from us; they seem, there-
fore, evidently to be arranged upon the surface of an
immense sphere, of which we ourselves occupy the
centre. This is called the celestial sphere ; it is not a
real object, it is merely a conception of the figure
that would seem to arise from the junction of all the
stars by some material substance.

We may consider it, therefore, as an established
, fact, that the system of the stars on the celestial
sphere seems to revolve once every day round two
fixed points. This motion is called the diurnal mo-
tion of the sphere or of the stars, and the fixed
points are called the poles of the sphere ; the one
which we observe in this country is the North, the
other the South Pole ; and an imaginary line joining
the two poles, is called the axis of the spliere.

Figure of the eniih. — Let us now attend to the sin-
gular figure which these appearances should lead us
to ascribe to the earth. The figure of the surface
which in any case bounds our prospect, is always
indicated by the manner in which new objects make
their appearance as we change our situation. In a
flat country, the view is much less varied than in one
that is more irregular ; in the one the traveller ob-
serves nearly the same objects from every part of it ;
in the other, where he sometimes descends into val-
leys, and sometimes ascends to considerable eleva-
tions, he is continually losing and regaining his view
of the distant landscape. On attaining the summit of
some great mountain, the whole country on the op-
posite side often bursts upon him at once, while in
other cases it rises into view always the more gradu-
ally as the curvature of the mountain is less abrupt.

Its roundness Advancing upon the earth, then,

on a much greater scale, since we are continually
discovering new objects, its figure cannot be that of
an immense plain, as we are at first so strongly tempt-
ed to imagine, while the regularity with which the
stars in the north disappear as we advance to the
south, and those in the south become visible, evi-
dently indicates, upon the whole, notwithstanding its
apparently immense irregularities, a degree of round-
ness, or regular curvature, in the direction of north
and south, like that of a swelling eminence, on which
the spectator, as he advances, gradually discovers
the country before him, and loses sight of that which
is behind. We thus appear to be in the situation of
u person on the curved surface A B C D, Plate 21 .

vol. I. PAIlT II.

Fig. 2. viewing the stars in the hemisphere H P O p, pi,onometi«
the surface being so immense, in respect to himself, of ihc
that he can see but a very small portion of it all hea^cns^Scr.
round him at a time ; and that the line H A O, which ^•^'^^^^^^ '
touches it at the point where he stands, and there-
fore changes its direction along with him, forms near-
ly the boundary of his prospect all round, and pre-
vents him from seeing more than one portion, Hl'O,
of the sphere H p o at a time ; when he arrives, there-
fore, at B, this horizon has assumed the position
h B o, discovering to him the stars in the portion
H h, and hiding those within O o. But this con-
vexity of the earth, is far more strikingly mani-
fested by observations on the smooth surface of
the ocean. When navigators recede from the shore,
they observe the edifices and mountains gradually
sink, and finally disappear ; while the vessel pre-
sents the same phenomena to the spectators on shore,
gradually sinking, and, finally, like the setting sun,
plunging into the ocean. This cannot be owing
to the distance, which tends to make objects appear
less, as a small object becomes invisible upon a dis-
tant mountain ; for the mariner, by ascending to the
top of the mast, sees distinctly those objects which
had disappeared to him npon deck ; while the vessel
re- appears to a spectator on the shore as he mounts
to a greater elevation.

Circumnavigation. — But the most decisive proof'
of the roundness of the earth, is its actual circum-,
navigation. This bold attempt was first made by
Magellan. Setting out from one of the ports of
Portugal, he advanced in a westerly direction, and,
after a long voyage, arrived at the great con- ,

tinent of America, already discovered by preced-
ing navigators. Unable now to continue his route
towards the west, he sailed along the coast to its
southern extremity, and passing the straits known
by his name, found himself in an immense ocean, al-
ready known by the name of the South Sea. Re-
suming now his course westerly, Magellan arrived at
the Molucca islands, where he lost his life ; and his
vessel, still -proceeding westward, finally arrived at
Europe, and entered, as if from the east, the port it
had left for the west. This great experiment has
been often repeated ; and it clearly shews the earth
to be convex from east to west, as we have already
observed its roundness from north to south.

Antipodes It is curious, no doubt, to consider,

that those who inhabit different parts of the earth have
their heads turned different ways, as in Fig. 2. ; and
it might be at first imagined, that those who are oppo-
site to us would fall off the earth on account of their
own weight ; but if weight be considered what it
really is, — a tendency which all bodies have to de-
scend in straight lines directed towards the centre of
the earth, its direction must evidently vary like the
spokes of a wheel ; and the same force which attaches
us to the earth, will, acting in an opposite direction,
attach our antipodes to it in the same manner.

However strange, therefore, the conclusion is na
less irresistible, that the land and wafers of our earth
compose a mass round in every direction and insulated
in space. It has been found to exceed bOOO miles in
diameter, or to be nearly 25,000 miles in circumfe-
rence.

3 F

482

ASTRONOMY.

Phenomena It is certainly difficult to conceive, how the earth,
of the thus apparently unconnected, can support itself in
^'^Jil^"^;^' the middle of space ; for we naturally extend to the
•^^^^^ earth itself the property Of •weight, which we observe
common to all the bodies on its surface. But admit-
ting that the earth actually has a tendency to de-
scend to some portion of space, it is not impossible
ibr it to be at the same time endowed with a tenden-
cy, in another, perhaps an opposite direction, so as
to remain suspended by the combined effect of the
two forces, like a balloon, under the joint influence
of gravity on the one hand, and its own buoyancy
on the other ; or there may be various ways in which
nature might produce the same effect. As there is
nothing, therefore, in the phenomenon of weight in-
consistent with the earth's remaining suspended, in-
stead of doubting, on this account, a fact which all
our observations so remarkably confirm, astronomers
have rather inquired the more diligently into its
cause ; and its developement has disclosed the true
system of the world.

Sect. III. Dimensions of the Celestial Sphere.

Let us now endeavour to obtain some idea of the
distance of the stars, or of the sphere whose centre
we seem to occupy. This attempt, though at first
it seem difficult, if not impracticable, is effected up-
on very simple principles. But there are two kinds
of distance, which must never be confounded in as-
tronomy, and of which, as it is very simple in it-
self, we shall here explain the distinction ; the one is
linear, the other angular distance.

Linear and angular distance.— ~l^et there be a se-
ries of objects. A, B, C, D, Fig. 3. situated in
the same line A B C D ; they will mark out larg-
er and larger portions of linear extent A B, A C,
AD, &c. ; and to a person at A, his distances from
BCD, i&c. always mean the lines A B, AC, AD,
&c. But, viewed from the point a, the objects
will mark out at the same time larger and larger
angles, A a B, A a C, &-c. and the distance of the
two, A and B, relatively to a spectator at a, means
their angular distance; it is the angle which the lines
converging from the objects to the eye, or diverging
from the eye to the objects <, the angle or degree of
opening or divergence which these lines, a A, a B
form at the eye, or the direction of one of the ob-
jects relatively to the other.

The same will happen, if, instead of a series of ob-
jects, a single object be supposed to assume succes-
sively the positions BCD, &c. ; and if a continued
motion be ascribed to it in the line A B C D, it will
then mark out every possible degree of linear extent,
as it continues for ever to recede from the point A.
To a spectator at a, however, it will by no means
mark out all the degrees of angular magnitude; for at
the greatest distance, suppose n, to which it can pos-
sibly arrive in the line A B C D, the angle A an, how-
ever near it may approach, can never actually attain,
far less exceed, the magnitude of the angle Aa y ;
o y being the limiting direction to which the line
c A, n B, an, joining the object and the spectator,
is continually approaching as the object recedes from
A, but to which it can never actually arrive.

It is only when the object is supposed to change
its direction, so as to revolve round the spectator,

that it exhibits every variety of angular distance. Phenomena
The line A a will, in that case, revolve about its ex- o'tlic
tremity, a, and will go on for ever to describe new li^a^cns, &c.
portions of angular extent, reproducing, however, af- "^ ^ ~ '
ter a complete revolution, the very same series of
changes in position ; afler revolving from A a to A y,
and to A a again, it will just recommence the same
course, occupying in succession the same identical
situations c B, a C, a D, as well as all the intermediate
points.

The whole circuit, then, becomes a fixed and very
convenient standard for comparing one degree of di-
vergence with another. Its fourth part is called a
right angle. Thus, when the line a A, Fig. 4. having
made a quarter of a revolution, comes into the position
a B, the angle A a B is called a right angle ; the lines
a A, a Bare said to be perpendicular to each other;
or if they form the two sides of a solid body, A a B,
Fig. 5. it is said to be square at the point a. When
a A, Fig. 4. has described the next quarter revolution,
being now in the position a C, directly opposite to its
first position a A, and having thus described half a
revolution, or two right angles, it then begins to ap-
proach its first position, though the angles reckoned
in the same direction are still increasing. When it
arrives at a D, it has described three right angles,
or three quarters of a circuit, though it now only
wants one from its first position. Any line, a Z, si-
tuated between a A and a B, diverges less from
a A than a B, and any line, a Y, between a B and
a C, more ; A a Z is less than a right angle, it is an
acute angle, and A a Y greater, it is an obtuse angle.
See Leslie's Geometry.

Though there is, in reality, therefore, no differ-
ence in the manner in which an object changes its
position, yet, relatively, to the position of a specta-
tor, there thus arise two kinds of distance, which
are exhibited, uncombined with each other, linear
by a progressive, and angular distance by a revolving
motion. These two sorts of distance are quite inde-
pendent of each other ; for as the distances A B, A C,
AD, Fig. 3. of the progressive point would have been
the same in any other line, Abe d, — as, in estimating
its distance, it is of no consequence to a spectator at
A, whether the point goes off towards the north,
south, east, or west, — as the linear distances of ob-
jects are therefore no way affected by their direc-
tion, neither are their angular distances any way af-
fected by their remoteness. Provided two objects
be situated, the one on the line aB, Fig. 4. the other
on the line a A, though the one be 10, 100, or 1000
miles farther from the point A tha'n the other, their
angular distance is still represented by the angle
A a B ; and on the other hand an object may shift
to every point of the compass without ever changing
its distance from the centre of motion.

But progressive motion becomes much sooner insen-
sible to us as the object recedesto a distance than an-
gular. We are often at a loss for some time to deter-
mine whether a vessel, far out at sea, is advancing, sta-
tionary, or retiring ; while another, at the same dis-
tance, and having really no greater velocity, is mak-
ing a sensible progress to the right or left. It is
thus with the heavenly bodies ; their distances from
us are so great, that their progressive motions, if
they have any, are to the naked eye altogether in-

ASTRONOMY.

485

PJienomena sensible, while their angular or revolving motions are
oEthc obvious to the most careless observer; hence it is to

j^^^l^^r'^ the latter that \re look, in the first instance, for any
information as to the system of the world ; and hence
the term distance in astronomy refers much more
frequently to angular than to linear distance.

Measurement of distance. — When objects are near
us, we form, at a glance, a pretty correct estimate
of their distance ; but this rapidity of conception a-
rises from exoerience, aided by the wonderful power
of habit. It is well known, that when a person,
blind from his infancy, suddenly acquires the use of
his sight, he has no idea whatever either of the
position or the figure of surrounding objects, either
of their angular or linear distance. He has got

Eossession of a new and very powerful instrument,
ut is utterly at a loss how to manage it. His ideas
seem to be all formed upon the scale of his sense
of feeling. In the case of a young man, couched
by Cheselden, all objects, it is said, seemed to touch
his eyes as they had formerly affected him by touch-
ing his skin ; he still was unable, by his sight alone,
to distinguish a round from a square body; in short
all seemed confusion and perplexity before him, and
it was only by continually comparing the impressions
of his feeling with those of his sight, that he was
trained to the use of his new sense.

Even with those, therefore, whose vision is per-
fect, as might be expected, this faculty of distin-
guishing distance at sight declines rapidly, as we
lose the power of measuring the impressions of the one
sense by those of the other, either when the objects
become more and more remote, or when fewer of
them intervene, whose distances can be compared with
the extreme one. It is on this account that we are so
much less sensible of distance at sea, where there are
few intervening objects, than at land, where there are
houses, trees, and a variety of objects whose distan-
ces can be compared with each other, and with the
remote one. It is thus also that the heavenly bodies,
on account of their remoteness, seem to us all at
the same distance ; but we must not infer like the
blind person above mentioned, that this is really the
case ; for any thing we know to the contrary, some
of them may be immensely farther off than others ;
and analogy is rather in favour of this supposition.
Experience and observation only can give us any
idea of their real distances.

Accessible objects. — When the objects, whose dis-
tances we would discover, are accessible, we supply
the defect of our sight by measuring from the one
to the other ; by finding, for example, how often a
chain of 100 feet must be repeated, in order to ex-
tend from the one to the other; and in this we only
perform the same process of comparison experiment-
ally, which we had formerly carried on rudely in the
mind.

Inaccessible objects. — When the objects are inacces-
sible, or where the route between them is any way im-
peded by the nature of the ground, this species of
measurement is impossible ; and here, therefore, our
power of finding linear distance seems at first sight to
terminate. But this is by no means the case ; for as we
have seen that angular motion is much more sen-
sible to us than progressive motion, so our faculty
2

of distinguishuig distance is much more acute in the pbetisneu*
case of angular than of linear distance. This pro- of the
perty of the former greatly extends our power of'"^a'<:ns.S^c,
estimating the latter, and the distance ot" an inac- ^■^'"V^^
cessible object, can always be determined within cer-
tain limits, by finding its direction from different points
of view.

Every one must have observed, that, when he
changes his situation upon the earth, the surround-
ing objects change their bearings with regard to him ;
they are referred to different quarters of the sky. Let a
spectator at A, Fig. 6, observe the object O at the
distance of a mile, bearing due west ; let him now
advance a mile towards the north to B, and the ob-
ject will also appear to have advanced towards the
south, and to have come into the direction B O C,
exactly south west. It may also have been remarked,
that when the object is distant, the change in its bear-
ing corresponding to the same change in our situa-
tion is much smaller than when it is near. Suppose
the object O, bearing west, is two miles off, or that
the spectator is at A', and let him here advance a
mile towards the north to B' ; the object will now
appear in the direction B' O C, not nearly so much
southward as at first. In the same manner, had the
object been three, four, or more miles off, the spec-
tator at a a', by advancing a mile northwards, would
observe a smaller and smaller change in its position. It
is thus that we estimate the distance of remote objects;
we change ourown position, and mark the correspond-
ing change in theirs. This principle applies with pe-
culiar facility to the case of a number of objects like
the fixed stars, situated as they probably are at dif-
ferent distances from the spectator.

Thus, suppose that there is a collection of objects,
1, 2, 3, 4, &c. Fig. 7. so far from the spectator at A,
that their various distances from him become con-
founded in the common distance of a sphere C D,
on whose surface he imagines them all to be placed,
and of which he himself occupies the centre. Now
though the objects are really disposed in a manner
quite irregular, yet to the person at A they will
seem to be arranged at equal distances, by threes,
on the sphere C D. Let him view them from a diffe-
rent position, B, Fig. 8. to the right of A, and they will
now seem to have arranged themselves by twos on
the sphere C D', of which B is the centre. Again,
at the point b, they will appear without any order
on the sphere c d. Let him now assume three new
positions A B b, Fig. 9. much farther off, but equally
distant from each other, and much less difference
(hardly any indeed) will be observed in their ar-
rangement upon the spheres C D, C' D, and cd. By
observing the objects from positions still more dis-
tant, a proportionally smaller change will be remarked
in the aspects which they present ; and when at last
the change becomes altogether insensible, we may
be assured that the distance of even the nearest of
the objects is out of all proportion to that of the ex-
treme positions A B.

Distance of the iiaw.— But to whatever part of the
earth we go, the fixed stars preserve constantly their
mutual order and arrangement. We conclude, then,
with certainty, from this simple observation, that
their distance is out of all proportion ta any that

484

ASTROK OMY.

Phenomena ^'^ •'*" P° "P*"* ^^'^ earth, and that in relation to it
of the therefore the earth itself, which we at first imagined
kearcns.&c. the principal part of the universe, must be consider-
^"^•y^^ ed as a mere point.

Sect. IV. Si/sfem of the World.

From all that has been observed, it appears that
Fig. 2. is a correct representation of the universe,
where A B C D is the earth, and P II p the ce-
lestial sphere, with the sun, moon, and stars re-
volving once a-day from east to west, round the
. poles P p,' or round the imaginary axis P p, which

passes through the centre of the earth ; the sphere
being placed at an immensely greater distance in re-
lation to A B C D.

In a system of bodies revolving round a centre in
the same time, those that are more distant must ob-
viously have a greater velocity than those near the
centre. By the revolution of the celestial sphere,
then, each star must have a velocity peculiar to it-
self, greater as it is more distant from the nearest
pole, or from the axis of revolution, greater at e than
at c, and greatest at the points E Q, intermediate
between the two poles, where, as we have ibund the
distance to be so immense, so the velocity necessary
to make the stars in the circle, E Q, complete their
circuit in a day, must be equally astonishing.

The stars are apparently quite unconnected with
each other. If we admit their diurnal motion, there-
fore, it would follow as a necessary consequence,
that these objects moving, some slow, some quick,
and some with a rapidity beyond all conception,
have at the same time their velocities so nicely adjus-
ted, that each of them completes, with wonderful
regularity, a revolution every day round the earth,
whioh we have discovered to be a mere point in
the system of nature. To obviate this difficulty,
it was supposed by some astronomers, th^t the
stars were really attached to ati immense crystal-
line sphere, and that all their motions were to be
ascribed to the daily revolution of this huge body of
glass.

Motion of the earth Another hypothesis, how-
ever, of much greater simplicity and elegance, ex-
plains equally well the phenomena, though it is at
first strongly opposed by the prejudices of our senses.
This hypothesis converts the apparent motion of the
stars, into a real motion of the earth round itself^ in
a contrary direction, in such a manner that its axis
of rotation, P'p', Fig. 2. points to the celestial poles, or
coincides with the celestial axis. The appearances will
evidently be the same whether we attribute the mo-
tion to the one or tlie other, whether we suppose the
portions of the celestial sphere to be brought suc-
cessively over our heads, or ourselves to be carried
successively under them, by the effect of the earth's
rotation, in a contrary direction. Let a spectator at
A, Fig. 10. view the stars abed, and the moon M ;
• just rising above the horison H A O ; A towards
the east, and considerably elevated ; c directly over
his head, and d towards the west ; let him view them
at'ain in a short time, and he will observe that they
have all made an advance towards the west, as in
Fig. 1 1. Now, it is obviously the same to the spec-
ator whether the^e bodies have been actually car-

ried into Sheir new position, along with the sphere Phenomena
abed, as in Fig. 1 1 . or he himself has been carried, of the
by the earth's rotation, from west to east to the hcavens,&o
point A', Fig. 12. and his horizon with the point di- ^-^r^y^a^'
rectly over his head to the position H'A' O' and c ;
whether the one or the other of these events has hap-
pened, he will still see, at the second observation,
the star a and the moon at the same elevation, b di-
rectly over his head, and d in the horizon. Since
the appearances are absolutely the same then in ei-
ther case, let us see to what objections the latter is
liable from other quarters.

We have frequent examples of such a motion. A ball
tossed from the hand, while it rises into the air, turns
at the same time round itself — or round an imaginary
line passing through its centre, and termed its axis. Ob-
serve also the tops with which boys amuse themselves ;
while they advance by continued impulsions, they have
at the same time a rapid rotation round their points.

But however agreeable to nature, it still requires no
little effort to credit the existence of a motion to
which we ourselves are subject, which remained un-
known for ages, and of which we are even now alto-
gether insensible. Observe, then, what happens to
every one who is thus carried along by some external
impulse. In sailing close along the coast, and ir»
smooth water, while we remain in the cabin, and
see no external object, we are utterly ignorant
whether the vessel is going quickly or slowly, or
whether indeed it has any motion at all. But, when
we come upon deck, we instantly perceive an appa-
rent motion in all the external objects, which expe-
rience and habit have taught us belong to the ves-
sel, but which, on our first viewing the phenome-
non, we would infallibly have ascribed to the ob-
jects, as it is even yet often difficult to resist the illu-
sion. Without experience, indeed, we could have
no reason whatever to refer the motion to the one
more than to the other, except perhaps its being
simpler in one than in a variety of objects no way
connected together. So it must happen to us on the
earth ; whatever motion it may have, provided all
the objects around us participate in it, and we our-
selves participate in it, we are no more sensible
of it than if it had no existence. But when we look
beyond the earth, and observe a motion common to
all the external objects, the sun, the moon, and the
stars, we can have no reason whatever for ascribing it
to the objects rather than to the earth, while analogy
and a regard for simplicity are in favour of the
latter hypothesis. The question, however, can only
be decided by more continued observation and re-
flection. In the mean time, we shall continue to
speak of this motion as belonging to the stars.

Chap. U. Phenomena of the Sun and Moon.

Let us now consider more particularly the Sun
and Moon. These bodies seem far to surpass the
stars in magnitude and brightness, and it is easy to
observe, that tliey are equally distinguished by mo-
tions peculiar tp themselves.

Sect. I. Of their Distance, Figure, and Magnitude..

We cannot, by merely viewing these objects, fornv

ASTRONOMY.

485

Phenomena awy idea of their distance, and, therefore, the one
of the sun may be much farther off than the other ; but their
and mcon. superior magnitude and brightness, — the strii^ing ef-
' fects which they produce upon the earth, — and their
peculiar, or proper motions, as they are termed, might
all incline us to place them both nearer to us than the
stars. What are we to think of their figure and mag-
nitude ? Like our earth, they are insulated in space ;
and though they appear like thin plates, the one of
fire, .the other of pale light, we must not infer from
this that they have really no thickness. There is
hardly such a thing on earth, if it be not the produc-
tions of art, as an object without a thickness in some
degree proportioned to its length and breadth. All
spherical bodies, besides, present the same appear-
ance when sufficiently remote. As the sun and moon,
therefore, would have exactly the same appearance
though we should ascribe to them, like our own globe,
a roundness in every direction, it is natural to adopt
this supposition, which analogy points out, and to
try it by future observations.

Though the sun and moon seem so small in respect
to the objects around us, their real magnitudes may
be very great ; as the hugest man of war, on the
distant horizon, appears no bigger than a boat, or as
a person at a great elevation observes all the inferior
objects on a reduced scale. Thus, to a spectator i-t
A, Fig. 13. the object C D seems smaller and smaller
as its distance increases ; so that we have no idea, at
sight, of the real magnitudes of distant objects.

Of near objects we can no doubt form at once a
pretty correct estimate of the real size ; and we would
think it strange in a person to suppose an object any
larger, because, on being brought closer to his eye,
it occupies nearly the whole field of his view. This,
however, arises entirely from our habit of distin-
guishing distance at sight. The blind person couched
by Cheselden, when a small object, perhaps only an
inch square, was placed before his eyes, so as to
conceal from him a large house, found it impossible
to conceive at first how the house could be any larger
than the object, or the object any smaller than the
house. It is the same with us when we look at the
sun and moon. We are entirely ignorant of their
distances ; and the deception as to their real magni-
tudes is equally complete. For aught we know to
the contrary, therefore, they may equal, or even sur-
pass in bulk our own globe itself.

The sun and moon appear much fainter and larger
in the horizon than when a little elevated. The faint-
ness is principally owing to the fogs and vapours that
are generally spread through the air in tlie horizon,
and in passing through which the light of those bodies
is considerably interrupted. Their greater apparent
magnitude in the one case than in the other is ge-
nerally ascribed to our imagining them at a greater
distance in the horizon, where houses, trees, moun-
tains, and other objects intervene, all whose distances
we know and can compare with that of the sun or
moon, than in the sky, where no objects intervene,
and where we, therefore, imagine them much nearer
us than before. To be convinced that it is an illusion,
it is only necessary to observe the sun or moon through
a tube small enough to admit in its field of view only
tlje moon itself, or through a small hole in a piece of

paper, or through a glass so smoked, that, by placing phenomena
the eye close to the glass the moon only can be of ilie sun
seen ; it then appears of the same magnitude in both »"^ ""»"•
cases.

Sect. II. Of the Moon.

The motions of the moon are the most remarkable,
both for their rapidity, and for the singular changes
of her shape with which they are accompanied. She
is sometimes observed towards the east of the sun,
sometimes towards the west, and sometimes directly
opposite to the sun. Sometimes, again, she assumes
the form of a whole circle of light, sometimes a half
circle, sometimes a slender crescent, and sometimes
disappears entirely from the heavens. But as we are
continually losing sight of terrestrial objects when
other objects intervene, or when the light that is ne-
cessary to perceive them is withdrawn, as when a ves-
sel at sea disappears behind some island, and reap-
pears in a short time on the opposite side, or when
the whole sky is obscured by clouds, or when all
the objects in a room disappear upon extinguishing
the candle ; it is natural, therefore, to ascribe the
moon's disappearance to the effect of some such cir-
cumstance. A close attention to her motions may
unfold the true cause.

Her proper motion — If the moon be observed at-
tentively when a little westward of some brilliant
star, it will be perceived, in the course of the night,
that though they are both making advances towards
the west, the moon is at the same time gradually ap-
proaching the star, to which at last she arrives ; the
star disappears behind her, and in a little time emer-
ges on the opposite side, exactly as happens when-
an opaque or untransparent body coming between us
hides the distant objects. Next evening the star
will be observed considerably westward of the
moon.

Either, then, fhe moon has in reality a slower mo-
tion from east to west than the stars, or she partici-
pates equally with them in the diurnal motion, while
she has, at the same time, a contrary and a slower
motion from west to east peculiar to luiself, by vir-
tue of which she falls behind in the general motion.
The appearances are the same in either case ; for
when we observe the moon to-night at M, Fig. 14.
west of the star S, and to-morrow niglit at the same
liour at m, east of the star S, the eft'ect is evidently
the same, whether we ascribe to M a single motion
from west to east, which in the course of 24- hours
would carry her over the arc M O C H m, while the
star is carried, by the diurnal motion, all the way
round from S to S again, or that we suppose m ac-
tuated in common with the star by the diurnal mo-
tion, which would carry her in 24 hours all the way
round from m to m again ; but that she has, at the
same time, a contrary motion of her own, which in 24<
hours carries her over the arc M m from west to east.
As this last is what would certainly happen -by a-
scribing the diurnal motion to the earth, and not to
the stars, therefore, till further experience decide
the question, we shall speak of it in this way, and
suppose the moon to partake of the general motion
of all the stars from east to west, (from the leiV to
the right, when one looks to. tite south,) while she

486

ASTRONOMY.

and moon.

Phenomena has a motion of her own in a contrary direction from
of the sun west to east, called lier proper motion.

Sometimes the moon rises nearly at the same point
of the horizon where tlie sun had risen in the morn-
ing, and follows him nearly through the same arc of
the heavens to the horizon again ; sometimes she
rises much farther to the south, and sometimes much
farther to the north of this point, mounting respec-
tively to a less or more considerable elevation, and
setting also larther to the south or north. In fol-
lowing the series of her phases, we shall, for the sake
of simplicity, suppose her to remain in the same cir-
cle of the sphere abed, PL 21. Fig. 1. with the sun.

Phases The moon's changes of figure and situa-
tion are soon discovered to be suc(;essive, and closely
connected together. At the time of new moon, when
she first reappears in the sky, under the form of a
slender crescent, after having been invisible for a
few days, it is always in the evening towards the
west, but eastward of the sun, the horns of the cres-
cent also pointing to the east nearly as at a, the sun,
S, being in the horizon H O.

Each succeeding evening, when the diurnal mo-
tion has brought the sun to the horizon, the moon
appears to be farther and farther (we mean here ob-
viously her angular distance) from the horizon, and
from the sun ; to set later and later after the sun ;
and to be thus making continual advances towards
the east. Her size also is at the same time observed
to increase, the concavity of the crescent gradually
filling up, the horns becoming less and less pointed,
and the whole figure merging into a semicircle as
she approaches the position b, which she attains in a
few days, having overtaken and eclipsed in her pas-
Bage the bright star S.

It is then half f'oon, or she is said to be in her
Jirst quarter. But the same appearances continue
for another" week, till she arrives at a point d op-
posite to the sun, having successively assumed all
the intermediate angular positions from b to d, and
all the intermediate figures from the half to the whole
circle.

It is now Jtdl moon, or she is now said to be in
opposition. She now rises at sun-set, and sets at
sun-rise, and shines through the whole of the night.
But as she is now at her greatest distance from the
sun, for she evidently cannot advance farther in her
circle of revolution, abed, without approaching the
sun ; and as her shape is now also complete ; as these
changes of situation and figure have both attained
their maximum, — thty now begin to run in a contrary
direction, and all the preceding phenomena to occur
in a reverse order.

Each succeeding evening the moon rises later and
later after the sun ; or, if the observation be made
in the morning, she appears in the west at sun-rise, and
farther above the horizon every day, and still, there-
fore, advancing towards the east, but now approach-
ing the sun, as in P1.24. Fig. 2. When, in the course
of another week, she comes to the position^, Fig. 1.
or Fig. 2. her figure being now reduced to a semi-
circle, it is again half-moon, or she is said to enter
her last quarter. Her figure now decreases in ap-
proaching, as it had formerly increased in receding
from the sun ; her horns, at the same time, pointing

towards the west, as they had formerly done towards Phenomen*
the east, in both cases Jrom the sun. In the course "'' '•>« "'"
of a few days we cease to perceive her at all ; and it "^'"^ a\oaa.
can hardly be doubted that it is the sanw identical
object which in a few days more makes its appearance
in the evening to the east of the sun ; having, in the
mean time, just performed, though invisible to us,
the remaining and intermediate series of her changes
of position from g to a, and of figure from the cres-
cent to the crescent again, after a period of complete
evanescence at the position h, being then, at the same
time, neither east nor west of the sun, her angular
distance, therefore, having also become nothing. This
is the change of the moon ; and having now attain-
ed the minimum of her changes, she just recommen-
ces the same series.

The period of all these phases is about 29 days and
a half, and is called a lunar or synodical ynonth, or
simply a month. It is the interval that elapses be-
tween two successive new moons, or two successive
changes, or between two successive arrivals of the
moon, at her first or last quarters.

Whatever, then, be the nature of her changes of
figure, the moon seems evidently to describe a circle
in the heavens, in going from west to east, from the
sun to the sun again, once in a month, rising all the
timfi in the east, and setting in the west, every dav.

It very rarely happens that the moon, when she
comes into the position h, being then neither, east
nor west of the sun, is at the same time (as we
have supposed in the figure) neither north nor
south. By observing the points of her rising and
setting before and after her entire disappearance, we
find that, at the-change, she is most frequently more
or less either to the north or south of the sun, (either
a little above or below the paper in the figure.)

But though it is very seldom that these bodies are
exactly in the same direction, yet as we have found
them to be in a position, at h, neither east nor west
of each other, once every month, the one being at
that time more or less north or south of the other,
(above or below the paper ;) and as it is observed
that they are also, once every month, neither north
nor south of each other, being at that time the one
more or less east or west of the other ; as these two
conditions thus occur separately once every month,
it is certain that, in the course of ages, they will be
united at one time, and the sun and moon will OC"
cupy the same angular position.

In that case it is plain, that were the sun and
moon at the same time equally distant from the earth,
they would both occupy the same identical por-
tion of space ; this is impossible, if, as is probably
the case, they are composed of solid matter, Jike
our earth ; there would then infallibly arise a colli-
sion between them, and a consequent derangement of
the moon's motions. But as this never happens, it is
more natural to conclude, that the moon passes either
beyond or between us and the sun. In the latter case,
were the moon composed of opaque or untranspa-
rent matter, like our earth, it is certain, that, com-
ing so directly between us, she would hide the sun
from our view, as when we pass an object between
us and the candle ; she might then spread total dark-
ness over the earth, and so remarkable a phenomenon

ASTRONOMY.

487

Phenomena wouW undoubtedly be recorded either in history or

the sun tradition,
and moon. Eclipses of the sun. — But it is well known that we
have the most authentic accounts of total eclipses of
the sun, which, in ignorant ages, were regarded with
terror. In these phenomena, the western border of
the sun, which first disappears, is also the first to re-
appear, as he successively assumes the figures 1, 2, 3,
&-C. PI. 2i. Fig. 3. exactly as would happen by a round
opaque body passing between from west to east.

Partial eclipses of the sun, of various extent, are
also observed, on some part of the earth, jevery year,
in the middle of which the sun assumes all the forms,
1 , 2, 3, &c. Fig. 3. Sometimes, too, at the middle
of the eclipse, the whole opaque body is observed like
a large spot in the sun, whose exterior border pro-
jects all round like a ring, Fig. 4. This is called an
annular eclipse.

Now, it is certainly much less agreeable to any
thing hitherto observed, to suppose that the sun real-
ly loses and recovers his light by some internal ar-
rangement, of which we can give no sort of account,
than to admit the most common fact of an opaque
body shading an enlightened one. And as we can
discover no body in the system, except the moon, of
sufficient magnitude to obscure so completely the
whole, or even so great a portion of the sun's disk as
we often observe in a common eclipse ; as the eclipse
also invariably happens about the middle of that in-
terval that elapses between the moon's disappearance
in the morning, to the west of the sun, and her re-
appearance a few days after in the evening to the
east of the sun, and as the opaque body seemed to
move over the sun from west to east, the direction of
the moon's proper motion, it can hardly be doubt-
ed, from all these circumstances, that the opaque bo-
dy which thus darkens the sun is the moon.

Eclipses of the moon. — But the moon is herself sub-
ject to eclipses, both total and partial, in which her
darkened portion sometimes disappears entirely, and
sometimes is still faintly visible, though very much
obscured. But here it is the eastern portion of her
disk which first disappears, and is the first to re-ap-
pear, just as if, in her course from west to east, and
deriving nearly the whole of her light from the sun,
she had entered and passed through the shadow of a
round opaque body. Now we are quite certain that
the earth is opaque, and almost equally so that it is
round ; at the time of an eclipse, also, the moon is
always at the full, and directly opposite to the sun,
the earth being so exactly situated between them as
to cast a shadow behind itself, which might fall upon
the moon. As we can discover no other body in the
heavens, uniting so many requisites for producing
an eclipse, it amounts almost to certainty, that this
is the true cause of the appearance, and it confirms
tlie above explanation of the solar eclipses.

As the moon disappears when the light of the sun
is withdrawn by the earth's interposition, and gradu-
ally re-appears as she emerges from the earth's sha-
dow, exactly as it happens to all dark objects when
deprived of the light necessary to perceive them, as
the objects in a room disappear upon withdrawing the
candle, and re-appear when we re-admit it, we con-
clude that the moon derives her light from the sun,

and that it is only by his shining upon her that we phenomens
ever see her in the sky, in the same manner as we of the suu
often observe distant spots of ground and the objects ""'' moon,
within them become brighter and more visible than
the surrounding ones, as the sun shines upon them
through openings in the clouds.

Explanation of her phases. — The moon then seems
to resemble the earth in the properties of opaqueness
and want of internal light. If we extend the analo-
gy to the property of roundness in every direction,
which is certainly probable, we shall have a very ele-
gant explanation of the monthly variations in the ex-
tent of her. light.

For as it is clear that no more than the half of a
globe can be enlightened by a candle at a time, and
also that no more than its half can be seen by us at
a time, so it will happen with the globe of the moon :
no more than one-half of her surface,or a hemisphere,
can be enlightened by the sun at a time, while no
more than that half of her which is next us can be
seen by us at a time. The moon, then, will always
have one hemisphere wholly dark, and the other
wholly enlightened. Now, if it should happen, that
the hemisphere which is next to us should be at the
same time the one which is wholly darkened, it is
plain that we could no more perceive the moon than
if she had no existence ; and, on the other hand, if
that side of the moon which is turned towards the
sun should be, at the same time, wholly enlighten-
ed, it is equally clear that we should see her under
the form of a complete circle. But the one of tiiese
cases would obviously happen at the change of the
moon, when she is between us and the sun, as at /;, PI.
21. Fig. 15. (being then most commonly either north or
south of the sun, above or below the paperin the figure, )
for then her enlightened half, ABC, would be turned
from us, and the dark half towards us ; the other
case would happen at full moon, at d, (she being
then, as before, a little north or south of the sun,)
when the enlightened half, ABC, is towards us, and
the dark half from us ; the line A C, which separates
the light from the dark hemisphere, coinciding in both
cases with the line which separates the half that is
next us from the half that is opposite us.

Now, these appearances which we have thus anti-
cipated from theory, are exactly what we observe in
following her phases. At the change of the moon
she is always invisible, and at the full moon she seems
a whole circle of light, except in the case of eclipses,
when she is seen, on the one hand, like a dark spot
upon the sun, and, on the other, is concealed by the
shadow of the earth. It is, therefore, more and more
probable that the moon is a spherical body, and that
she appears and disappears successively, in conse-
quence of being brought, by her monthly revolution
round the earth, successively between and opposite
to the SUB, the source of her light.

Moon much nearer us than the sun. — This conclu-
sion would be farther verified, could we compare
her observed semicircular appearances in her quar-
ters with the theoretical deductions. But her appear-
ances at her quarters must depend upon the linear
distance of the sun. Let S, Fig. 1.5. be the sun, and
A a B C c D, the moon in her first quarter ; then
A a B C will be the enlightened half, and U A a B

488

ASTRONOMY.

, of t'i« iun
and moon.

the half next the earth ; in this case more than
the half of the moon will evidently be visible, nearly
in proportion as the enlightened portion, A a B, of
the half next the earth exceeds the dark portion, AD.
If our theory be correct, then the sun cannot be
in the position S, for we should then see more than the
half-moon at quarters, which we do not. Neither
can he be at s, or s, for though we should then sec less
extent of light than formerly, we should still see more
than the half-moon, in proportion as a B exceeds
a D. It is evident, therefore, that the figure which
our theory would ascribe to the moon at the quar-
ters, approaches to a half circle, as the sun is suppos-
ed to be farther atul farther from the earth, — as his
distance is supposed to bear a less and less propor-
tion to that of the moon. Now, as the moon's figure
at her quarters is actually observed so near as not
to be distinguished from a half circle, we may con-
clude from this simple observation that the sun's dis-
tance from the earth is so great as to bear a very
smnll proportion, indeed, to that of the moon.

It is to the sun's immense distance, then, which is
no way inconsistent with any of our observations,
rather than to any error in a hypothesis which ex-
plains all the phenomena by a law of go much sim-
plicity and elegance, that we are to ascribe the moon's
semicircular appearance at her quarters. And since
she thus disappears entirely at the change, and gra-
dually increases till she arrives at the full, by her en-
lightened hemisphere coming more and more into
our view, it is easy to conceive that she must go
through all the intermediate gradations, from the fine
thread of light to the crescent, from the crescent to
the half moon, and from the half to the whole circle.

And much smaller. — The moon being so much
nearer us than the sun, and still only appearing of
the same magnitude, must necessarily be smaller in
the same proportion, as the object C D, Fig. 13. in
order to have the same apparent magnitude when
transported to E, must be really enlarged to the mag-
nitude c d.

We may conclude, then, upon the whole, that the
moon, like the earth, is a round opaque mass of mat-
ter, without internal light, insulated in space, much
less distant, and therefore much smaller than the sun,
and revolving round flie earth from west to east, from
the sun to the sun again, in 29 »■ days, while slie, at
tJie same time, participates in the general motion of
all the stars from east to west, rising and setting
ttvery day.

Sect. III. Motions of the Sun.

Annual motion. — To followthe proper motions of the
«un, let a spectator, at any time of the year, remark a
brilliant star, or group of stars, setting a little after the
sun. In a few nights after, if he look again to the same
quarter of the sk)', he will no more perceive the same
stars, but a quite different group, setting after the
sun. On looking, however, in a few days more to-
wards the east, the stars which he had missed in the
west will now be observed near the horizon a little
before sun-rise, and therefore eastward of the sun.
Since the sun, then, is observed first on the west and
then on the east of the same stars, he seems evident-
ly, like the moon, to be making a progress among the

stars towards the east, which, being more gradual,
it only requires a little longer observation to perceive.

Each succeeding week the sun will be observed to
rise later and later after the group of stars; new
stars will successively disappear in the splendour of
his rays, and re-appear when it is withdrawn by his
eastward advance, and in the period of about 365 i
days, which forms /Aej/car, the same star as before
will be observed to set a little after him in the even-
ing ; he is then in the same position as before rela-
tively to the stars, after having made the complete
circuit of the heavens. The sun, then, like the moon,
seems alsoto revolve roundthe earth, though in a much
longer period, and this is called his annual motion.

Equator. — But there is one circumstance regarding
this motion, that must be particularly remarked, on ac-
count of the important consequences that arise from it.
The proper, or annual motion of the sun, is not directly
contrary to the diurnal motion; it is not due east,
and would not be accurately represented by suppos-
ing the sun attached to a sphere which should revolve
upon the same axis with the celestial sphere, but in
a contrary direction, and only-once in a year. For
example, let P Q p E, Fig. 1 . be the celestial sphere, re-
volving round the earth A, a mere point in relation to
the sphere, on the axis Pp, and in the direction E A Q,
each star, a, 1 , E, t, describing the circles a b c, 1 b 2,
&c. which must be conceived to rise in relief above
the paper towards the centres, b b, &c. ; that circle,
E A Q, which is equally distant from both the poles,
( E P being equal to E p, and Q P to Q p,) is called
the equator. Suppose, now, the sun to be at E, de-
scribing the equator, E A Q, by the effect of the di-
urnal motion, it is evident that, were his annual mo-
tion directly contrary to this, he would be always in
the equator, moving in the direction Q A E, from Q
all round to Q again, in a year ; he would always
therefore rise at the same point of the horizon, and
ascend to the same height, H Q, in the sky, making
the days always of the same length ; nor would he
ever advance any nearer to the north, or any farther
from the south pole, at one season than at another,
but would always remain equally distant from either.

The slightest observation, however, is sufficient to
shew how far he really deviates from this imaginary
course. For if, in the heat of summer, a spectator stand
with his face to the south, he will then observe the
sun rise behind him, ascend to a great elevation, and
set behind him; while in the middle of winter he can
observe, without turning himself, both his rising and
setting, the height to which he ascends being also
much less than formerly. From this period the sun
is observed to rise and set farther and fiirtlier towards
the north, and to mount higher and higher into the
sky every day, until the middle of summer, when
he returns in the same manner towards the south. '
Tropics — Ecliptic. — That point of his course where
the sun arrives in the middle of summer, when he is
nearest the north pole, and just beginning to return
to the south is called the tropic of Cancer, and that
point where he arrives in the middle of winter, when
he is nearest the south pole, is called the tropic of
Capricorn. The one is at the same angular distance
from the north that the other is from the south pole ;
so that the orbit of the sun — the annual circle of

ASTROTSIOMY.

489

Pkcnomc«» the heavens which he describes — and which is called
of tlie sun, the Ecliptic, crosses the equator, lying the one half to-
raoon, &c. wards tne north, and the other towards the south
pole, and the two circles have thus the appearance
of two hoops, Fig. 17. crossing each other at a small
obliquity. Thus, in Fig. 1. if E A Q be the equator,
R At will be the ecliptic, the one being inclined to
the other by the angle Q A R, which is nearly one-
fourth of a right angle. When the sun is in the
tropic of Cancer at the point R, he then describes,
by the effect of the diurnal motion, the circle R T,
rises at the point d, ascends to the elevation H R, and
makes the days longer than the nights, in proportion
as the arc dbK above the horizon exceeds the arc
d T below it — while his arrival at the tropic of Capri-
corn, in the middle of winter, exactly reverses tlie situ-
ation of day and night — the axcjr being now equal to
dT, andy'i to rfR, so that the day is now shorter
tlian the night in the same proportion as in summer it
was longer. The sun now rises dAj", much farther
towards the south H, and ascends only to H r; in re-
turning towards the north, the day is continually
lengthening, and the night shortening, till it again
reach its maximum at R, while, at the intermediate
point Q, when the sun describes the equator by the
diurnal motion, the day is equal to the night, Q A
being equal to E A. It is from this circumstance,
therefore, of the sun taking a direction oblique to
the equator, that arises ail the variety of the sea-
sons.

In every season the sun is in a different part of the
ecliptic ; and, to express these various positions, this
circle is conceived to be divided into 12 equal parts,
called Signs, of which the following are the names,
the characters, and the months, about the 'i2d day
»f which the sun enters them :

Aries OP Taurus s Gemini n Cancer 55

March April May June

Leo SI Virgo 115 Libra ^ Scorpio n\

July August October September

Sagittarius f Vupricornus VS Aquarius s Pisces M

November December January February.

These names are taken from certain groups of
stars lying on each side of the ecliptic, whose figures
were thought to resemble those of the above animals.
The space in which these figures are included, forms
a zone or belt all round the sphere, and the ecliptic
is in the middle of it. This zone is termed the Zodiac,
and the signs Signs of Ifie zodiac.

The proper motion of the moon is not directly
contrary to the diurnal motion any more than that
of the sun, though we supposed this to be the case
in considering her phases, in order to simplify the
appearances. In the middle of winter, when both
the rising and setting of the sun can be seen with-
out turning from the south, the moon, in disen-
gaging herself from the sun, is observed to rise and
set nearly at the same points, and ascend nearly to
the same elevation in the sky. But being observed
at the full, she is seen to rise and set behind the
spectator, looking to the south, and to mount to a
great elevation in the sky.

VOL. 1. PAKT II.

The reverse of this liappcns in the middle of sum- T)ie plnnct*.
mer. The moon then rises with the sun, at the change,
to a great elevation, and at the full seems to be in
the opposite part of the ecliptic, rising and sc'tting
nearly as much towards the south as the sun rises
and sets towards the north, and not ascending nearly
to so great an elevation.

The moon then describes, in a month, nearly the
same circle of the heavens which the sun describes
in a year. That she does not, however, describe exact-
ly the ecliptic is evident; for, let S,' PI. 22. Fig. 1. be the
sun in the ecliptic S C A, M the moon, in her orbiu
M B, if we now suppose M B to be in the same direc-
tion with A S, that is, if JM B neither rises above nor
fall below the paper at any point, but is wholly co-
incident with it, — then M will come directly between
the sun and earth E, and we should thus have a so-
lar eclipse once every month, which does not hap-
pen. The moon's orbit then is a little inclined to the
ecliptic.

Sun's motion only apparent. — The motion of the
sun round the earth may be only apparent, and ow-
ing to a real motion of the latter round the former ;
for the appearances relatively to each other would be
the same in either case. If we suppose, however,
the earth to move round the sun, it must carry the
moon along with it ; for, let the earth E, PI. 22.
Fig. 2. in moving round the sun S, come into the
position e, — if the moon M, in revolving round the
earth, were not also, carried with the earth round the
sun, she would be occasionally observed beyond the
sun, which never happens. Either, then, the sun
and moon move round the earth, in concentric circles,
as at Fig. 1. ; or, the earth, E, Fig. 2. moves round the
sun S, and carries along with it the moon M, which at
the same time revol\!es round the earth once every
month. The latter supposition seems certainly the
least simple of the two ; but it is only by comparing
it with the rest of the system that we can decide
which to adopt.

Chap. III. Of the Planets.

Five bodies, besides the sun and moon, are ob-
served to have motions peculiar to themselves, while
they all participate in the diurnal motion, rising and
setting every day. They are called Planets, or wan-
dering stars, those only in which we observe no
proper motions being called fixed stars, from which
also the planets are distinguished by having less
(hardly any indeed) of what is called the ttvinMing
of the stars. They have been known from the re-
motest ages ; and the following are their names and
the cliaracters by which they are distinguished ;

Mercury, Venus, Mars, .Tui)iter, Saturn.

Distances. — As these bodies, like the sun and moon,
seem to move among the stars without ever being
hid from us by them, or impeded in their progress^
they are also probably nearer us than the stars.

Venus. — Every one must have observed a beauti-
ful star in the west, which sometimes shines wi^

490

ASTRONOMY.

The planett. uncdmmon lustre in the evening, a little after sunBCt,
and is called the evening star. This is Venus. By ob-
serving her for successive niglits, we find that her dis-
tance trom the sun remains not always the same. After
her first appearance, she is observed on the succeed-
ing evenings to set later and later after the sun, and
thus seems gradually receding from him towards the
east, till she arrives at an angular distance, equal
to about a quarter of the hemisphere. Thfs hap-
iiens about two months from her first appearance.
She then begins to return towards the sun, to set
each night sooner and sooner after him, and at last
disappears in the splendour of his light.

But, in a few days, a brilliant star makes its ap-
pearance in the east, a little before sun-rise, called
the morning star. It is observed the succeeding morn-
ings sooner and sooner before sun-rise, and seems
therefore to be recedingfrom the sun towards the west.
This digression continues for a period of about two
inonths, when the star has at tained an angular distance
from the sun equal to about one-fourth of the hemi-
sphere ; it then seems to return towards the sun, rises
later and later every day, at last overtakes the sun,
rises along with him, and we no more perceive it. It is
a few days after that we discover again in the west,
the evening star disengaging itself from the sun's rays,
and again gradually advancing towards the east; and
the striking resemblance between the twe objects
which thus succeed each other in the sky, their ne-
ver having been observed together, their proceed-
ing in the same periods to the same angular distances
from the sun, and the observation of all these phe-
nomena for ages together, leaves no room to doubt
that it is the planet Venus which thus becomes alter-
nately the morning and evening star, as she seems
to oscillate on each side of the sun.

Mercury. — Mercury exhibits the very same ap-
pearance as Venus, on a smaller scale. Its oscilla-
tions on each side of the sun are confined within less
than one-sixth of the hemisphere; and it is on this
account less disengaged from the sun's rays and sel-
domer observed. It seems also smaller, but some-
times very brilliant.

Jiial motions. — These oscillations, however, may
be only apparent. For as it is certain, that whatever
progressive motion, relatively to the earth, these bo-
dies may have, we can no more perceive it, on ac-
count of their distance, than if it had no existence.
So if we ascribe to them a motion of revolution round
the sun, the same oscillatory appearances would still be
observed. Suppose, for example. Mercury M, PI. 22.
Fig. 3. and Venus V, to move in the circles M m, V v,
round the sun S, and to be viewed by a spectator on the
earth at so great a distance that they may successive-
ly assume the positions 1,2, 3, 4, without appearing
in the least degree to have receded or approached
him, it is .evident that they would seem to him to
move in the lines M m, V v, from V to v, and from v
back again to V ; sometimes from west to east, or
direct ; sometimes from east to west, or retrograde ;
and sometimes, near the points V, v, to remain
quite stationary ; while, to a person at the sun, they
would seem, li"ke our moon, to move always in the
same direction ; just as a horseman, running in a
circle, when viewed from a great distance, seems to

move first in one direction and then in the opposite ; Solar syi.
while, to a person within the circle, he moves always tem.
one way.

hiferior and superior planets.— Mercury and Ve-
nus are called injerior planets, because they keep
within a certain distance from the sun ; the others re-
cede to every possible angular distance, and are call-
ed stiperior. They are sometimes observed, like the
moon, in opposition to the sun, beyond the earth,
and sometimes at every intermediate angular dis-
tance, till they disappear in his rays. They keep,
however, always within certain limits of the north
and south, and never advance much farther than the
sun towards the north or south pole, so that their
paths, like the moon's, are slightly inclined to the
ecliptic. They seem also to move with great irregula-
rity, but they resume the same series of changes af-
ter certain periods. Sometimes their motion seems
direct, sometimes retrograde, and sometimes they ap-
pear to remain for considerable periods in the very
same position among the stars. As it is certain, how-
ever, that these bodies, though thus apparently sta-
tionarj', may in reality be moving with the same ve-
locity as before, while the mere circumstance of their
motions being now progressive relatively to the
earth, might conceal it entirely from our view ; so all
their irregularities, like those of Mercury and Venus,
might vanish to a spectator on the sun.

CiiAP. IV. SoLAK System.

There is, accordingly, a hj-pothesis, which confers
the greatest simplicity on these complicated appear-
ances. It supposes the superior, like the inferior
planets, to circulate round the sun at greater distan-
ces, as they are longer of completing their revolu-
tions, according to the order above enumerated. It
supposes also the sun and planets to form a distinct
group in the system of the world, separated all round
from the fixed stars by a distance almost inconceiv-
able. And by converting the apparent motion of
the sun round the earth into a real motion of the
latter, along with the moon, round the former, it
adds the earth itself to the list of the planets, while,
by ascribing to it at the same time a daily rotation
on its axis, it renders illusory the diurnal motion of
the stars.

We have here a system, at all events, of order and
consistency ; a set of bodies of various magnitudes
moving at various distances, and in various periods,
round a great centre of heat and light ; a system, al-
so, according to which the apparent confusion of the
planetary motions arises entirely from our viewing
them from a disadvantageous position.

Our position upon the earth would have this ef-
fect in two ways ; first, being out of the centre rouml
which the planets revolve, they would be nearer us
in one part of their course than in another ; and
would, on this account, appear to move quicker at
one time than at another, though their motions round
the sun were perfectl)' uniform. Tims, let E, Fig.

4. be the earth, which we shall suppose at rest, and
P one of the superior planets moving round the sun

5, in the orbit P A B C. Advancing from P, in the
direction P A B C, the planet will evidently recede

ASTRONOMY.

401

<Solar«ys- fi'om the eaith till It arriv^cs at B, and will then ap-
proach till it returns to its first position. Suppose it
now to move uniformlij round the sun, that is to say,
to describe equal portions of its orbit Pi, 1 2, 2 A,
A 3, &c. in equal times in each month for example,
it is clear, that pabc, representing the celestial
sphere, p,l,2, a, &c. will be its positions among
the stars, as seen from the earth, — the points of
the celestial sphere in which it is observed at the end
of eacli month. Though the planet then really de-
scribes equal portions of its orbit every month, yet
to a spectator on the earth, out of the centre of the
planetary motions, it will seem to describe among
the stars smaller and smaller spaces, P 1,1 2,2A, A3,
(ic. as it approaches B ; to him, therefore, it will
seem to move slower and slower as it advances to B,
and quicker and quicker as it advances from B to P.

Secondly, The motion of the earth would have a
sensible effect upon that of the planets. Every one
must have remarked how much his own motion af-
fects the apparent motion of the surrounding ob-
jects. A traveller in a coach observes the trees and
houses that border the road pass by him with great
rapidity, while the more distant objects remain long-
er in view, and seem nearly at rest. In this case,
our own motion makes us ascribe motion to bodies
at rest. It has often, however, the contrary eftect.
A spectator on shore remarks a rapid motion in a
vessel at sea, while the passengers in the cabin, if
they are sailing in smooth water, imagine themselves,
as well as the objects around them, in complete repose.

The motion of an object, indeed, is nothing else
than the continued change of its position, that is,
of its linear or aj^igular distance — its remoteness or
its direction relatively to the ohserver ; its direction
being estimated from that of one or more known ob-
jects which we suppose at rest, as that of a spire, a
signal post, or the north or south. Now, we always
remark a change in the position of the surrounding
objects, as well when we change our own position
as when they change theirs. Our distance from a
vessel at sea is continually diminishing, whether we
approach it or it approaches us. The vessel seems
also to advance towards the north or south, either
when we stand upon the shore and observe it actu-
ally sailing in these directions, or when the vessel is
at anchor, and we ourselves are travelling towards
the south or north. The apparent motion of an ob-
ject, therefore, necessarily varies with the motion of
the observer. So it will happen, according to the
above theory, with the motions of the planets. Their
real motions, relatively to the fixed stars, which an
observer at the sun would only remark, will, to a
spectator on the earth, be combined with his own
motion round the sun ; and tjiese two being some-
times in one, and sometimes in opposite directions,
their joint effect will be extremely irregular. Thus,
let E, Fig. o. be the earth, and P one of the superior
planets, setting out together from the points E and
P, and moving uniformly round the sun, the earth
in one, and the planet, suppose, in eight years ; then
will P, 1,2, 3, &c. and E, 1, 2, 3, &c. be a series of
their corresponding positions, the planet having only
advanced to 1, when the earth has gone over one-
Iburth of its orbit ; the former also being only at 4',

when the latter has completed its circuit, and so on, ^hrA fsum.
Let A B C D represent the sphere of tlie fixed stars, \,^ym^
to which we refer the position of the planets, and
let A B C D be the direction from west to east in
which they move when their motion is said to be
direct; then will p, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. be the series of
the planet's position among the stars, as seen from
the earth, corresponding to its actual positions, P 1,
2, 3, itc. in its orbit, as seen from the sun. When
the earth is moving from E to 1, the planet will seem
to be moving from p to 1 , contrary to the direction
A B C D. Though both the -earth and planet, there-
fore, are really moving direct, the latter, to an ob-
server on the former, will seem to be retrograding.
While the earth moves over the next quarter revolu-
tion, from 1 to 2, the planet will seem to move from
1 to 2; its motion, therefore, will now be direct;
while the earth advances to 3, E, the planet will seem
to advance to 3, 4 ; but when the former comes again
to 1, the latter will seem to have returned to 5. In
the next revolution of the earth, the planet will seem
to advance successively to 6, 7, 8, 9 ; but when tha
former arrives at 1, the latter will seem to have
returned to 10. The same irregularities continue
through the whole of the planet's course ; and it is
easy to conceive, that, during each transition of its
motion from direct to retrograde, and from retrograde
to direct, there must necessarily be an interval of
apparent repose. These effects are considerably mo-
dified by the amazing distance which the theory
ascribes to fixed stars ; but it will easily be per-
ceived, in general, from what has been said, how the
planetary irregularities might be accounted for in
this way.

The above system has been called the Snlar or Pla-
vclart/, and sometimes the Copernican system, from
Copernicus, a Prussian, by whom it was revived and
illustrated, after having been neglected from the aga
of Pythagoras, who is said to have first proposed it.
It could hardly have been suggested by any obser-
vations that could be made without the aid of instru-
ments ; but we have given the above outline of it,
that, in treating of the discoveries of more precise
observations, the reader may be the better enabled to
discern liow admirably they all bear upon this grand
point.

Chap. I, Of the Fixed Stars.

Numher of the stars — Viewed in a clear winter night,
when there is no moon-light, the stars appear quite
innumerable ; but, upon a closer inspection, and bv
only examining one group at a time, a spectator will
be surprised how few are visible in the whole hemis-
phere. In this manner, it is found, that a good eye
can scarcely ever distinguish more than a thousand.

ConfiteUalions — To distinguish tlie individuals of
such a number of objects, the usual mode has been
adopted of dividing them into classes, which were
termed by the ancients ConslMiititm!!, and each of
which they designated by the name of some animal
which the figure of the group was thought to resem-
ble. The stars of each constellation are then distin-
guished by the letters of the Greek alphabet, ac-
cording to their magnitudes, the largest being term-

492

ASTTIONOMY.

rixtd st«rs. ed », the next $, and so on. In this manner, every
star in the heavens has a particular name ; and tlius
the astronomtr, to whom tliey serve as so many fixed
points, with whose positions he compares that of the
planets, is at no loss to describe the particular star he
may have in bis eye.

Matniitudes. — :The stars of each constellation, how-
ever, nave in many cases particular names, besides
that which they receive from the Greek alphabet. .
Thus, the largest in the constellation of the Lion is
•called Rcgulus, as well as « of the Lion; and the whole
stars have also another arrangement, according to
their magnitudes.

Those which seem the largest and brightest are
called stars of tJie first magnitude. The smallest that
ean be seen with the naked eye are of the sijclh mag-
nitude ; and the intermediate ones, according to their
sizes, are of the second, third, &c. magnitudes.

Principal stars. — Let a spectator observe the hea-
vens in a clear winter night of the month of December
or January,and about ten o'clock hewill observe a very
remarkable group of brilliant stars towards the south,
and considerably elevated above the horizon. This is,
the constellation Orion. Of four bright stars, arran.
scd in an irregular square, the two highest form his
urms, and the two lowest his legs. In the centre of
this quadrilateral are placed in an oblique line, and
quite near each other, three other bright stars form-
in" the belt of Orion, and beneath these are three
others of inferior lustre, which are thought to design
his faulchion. The three stars of the belt, whic'i are
sometimes also termed the three kings, point on one
side to Sirius, or the Dog-star, and on the other to
the Pleiades. Sirius is that remarkable star distin-
guishable from any other by its scintillation and
lustre ; it is to be seen on the south-east side of
Orion.

The Pleiades, or the Seven Stars, He on the north-
west of Orion ; they are very easily known by being
so closely massed together. Besides, they are al-
most in a direct line from Sirius, through Orion's
belt. They are on the back of another constellation
called Taurus, or the Bull.

That very large star on a right line, half way be-
twixt the Pleiades and the star that forms the wes-
tern shoulder of Orion, is called the Bull's eye, or,
^Ideharan.

That large star which, it may be perceived, forms
a triangle of equal sides with Sirius and Orion's belt,
is called Procyon, or the Lesser Dog. It lies to tlie
north of Sirius, and to the cast of Orion.

Imagine a straight Une extending towards the
north from Procyon, or the Lesser Dog, and the first
star it meets with is Castor, or one of the constella-
tion called Twins, very near which is another bright
star called Pollux, the second of the Twins. This
iies south-east with regard to Castor.

Those four stars that lie in a right line, at equal
distances, and about half way betwixt the east shoul-
der of Orion and the Twins, are the Jour Jeet of the
Twins.

A line drawn from the bright star that forms the
west foot of Orion, through the star in his western
tboujder, leads to the next star, called tlie southern

twrn of the Bull Thia star, and the west foot of Orion, Yath stws.
are equally distant from his west shoulder.

The northern horn of the Ball is brighter than the
southern ; it lies on a straight line with the east
shoulder of Orion and the southern horn of the Bull.

The ecliptic, or the annual course which the sun
seems to take in the heavens, passes betwixt the
two horns of the IBull.

A line prolonged from the west foot of Orion,
through Procyon, or the Lesser Dog, leads to that
very bright star called Rcguhis, or the Lions heart,
which lies east by north-east from Procyon, and at
some distance from it.

A line drawn from the star in the middle of the
Twins, through Regulus, will then pass beneath a
square of bright stars near Uegulus, which form the
constellation called the Lion. The first bright star,
lying cast by north-cast from Uegulus, and almost as
large as itself, is called the Lion's tail.

A line drawn from a bright star that lies half-way
betwixt the feet of the Twins and theur heads, to-
wards a bright star that lies east, will pass through
the Crab, which lies exactly halfway betwixt the
Twins and the Lion, remarkable by one bright star
and a cloudy clump of small stars adjoining to it.
This constellation is difficult to be remarked.

Suppose a line drawn through the Twins, north--
west by north, it will touch a bright star in the helmet
of the constellation called Auriga, which is at a con-
siderable distance.

A very conspicuous star lies south-west by south
from this one. This beautiful star is called the Goat ;
and due east, opposite to it, lies another, which, with
three or four more near them, sLniate to the south,
forms the whole constellation called Auriga.

A line drawn from Procyon, by Aldebaran, west-
ward, leads to the constellation called Aries, or the
Ra?n. This is reckoned the first constellation in the
heavenly order, since the mass of stars that form its
head lie nearest that point where the sun equally di-
vides the year, making the nights equal to the days.
The first star in the Ram's horn, which is the star as-
tronomers reckon from, lies thirty-six degrees more
to the west than Aldebaran.

Imagine aline drawn from the Seven Stars, or the
Pleiades, north north-west, and the first star it meets
is the first star in the breast of Perseus; the star to
the north-west of this is his right shoulder, the star
to the west is the left, and the very brilliant star,
south by south-west of the breast of Perseus, is the
first star in the constellation called Medusa's head f
next to whioh there are three otiiers very near, that
form the whole head, something in the form of a
square.

The very bright and beautiful star, lying oast by
north-east from the Lion's tail, is Arcturiis, the lar-
gest in the constellation called Bootes, situate between
his legs.

TJie mass of stars west by north-west of Arcturus,
between it and the Lion's tail, is called Berenice's
lock.

A line drawn from Arcturus, north by north-west,
falls in with the last star of the tail of the capital con-
stellation called the Gre:ii Bear. This h>st is formed

ASTRONOMY.

495

Fixed stars, by Seven stars, in the form of a plough. It is the
most conspicuous constellation in the heavens, and,
therefore, jnay serve to point out others. Of this
constellation the four stars that lie towards the north
form an irregular square, of which the two stars that
are the most nortliern, point northward to a. bright
star, not very distant,' which is called the Pole-star,
as it lies only about two degrees from the pole of the
world.

The Swan is a very remarkable constellation, in
the form of a great cross. A line drawn from the
Twins, through the Pole-star, meets the Swan on
the north side, at nearly the same distance.

A line drawn from the northern side of the square
of the Great Bear, through the pole, passes through
the middle of the constellation of Pegasiis. This,
too, is a square formed by four bright stars, the most
northern of which forms the head of Andromeda. A
line carried from the Pleiades to tlie Ram, falls upon
Algenib, the beautiful star in the wing of Pegasus,
The most northern stars of Pegasus are called Scheat
and Markab ; Scheat lies to tlie north, and Markab
to the south.

Cassiopeia is a constellation directly opposite to
the Great Bear, through the Pole-star, in such a

manner that the line that passes through the middle Fixed stars,
of the Great Bear, by the Polar-star, passes also
through Cassiopeia on the other side of the pole. This
constellation is formed of six or seven stars, in the
shape of a chair turned upside down.

Cepheus is that constellation contained betwixt the
Polar-star, Cassiopeia, and the Swan. A line drawn
from the Pole-star to the Swan's tail, passes through
the two first great stars in the constellation of Ce-
pheus.

The Lesser Bear has almost the same shape as the
greater, and is parallel to it, but the situation is in-
verted. The Polar-star is the last in its tail. The
two largest stars in this constellation are in a line
drawn through the centre of the square of the Great
Bear, perpendicular to both its greater sides.

The Dragon's tail lies betwixt the Polar-star and
the square of the Great Bear. The four stars in its
head lie south by south-east with regard to the Les-
ser Bear, and almost form an exact square.

Such are the positions of the most conspicuous
stars which appear to us in a winter night. The others
may be known either by means of a celestial globe,
vfhich is an exact image of the great spliere of the
heavens, or by celestial maps, or catalogues of the stars.

PART II. ASTRONOMY IN ITS IMPROVED STATE.

The great object of astronomy is to discover the
nature of the power by which the heavenly bodies
are kept continually in motion. Like every other
species of knowledge, this can only be attained by
studying the effects of that power ; namely, the mo-
tions themselves, and carefully comparing them one
with another.

In Part I- we have considered the nature of these
motions as far as can be collected almost by mere
inspection ; and fhough, even in this manner, our no-
tions have become considerably more correct than
at first, — though we have thus found that the earth,
instead of being an immense plain, extending to the
heavens, is a round mass of matter, insulated in
space, and separated from the stars by a distance to
which even its own great magnitude bears no sort
of proportion — though we have found that the sun,
the moon, and the planets, the two former at diifer-
* ent distances from the earth, and all of them pro-
bably nearer us than the stars — have motions pecu-
liar to theraselvef!, while at the same time they all
participate in the diurnal motion of the stars — we
are still left completely in the dark as to any great
principle to connect these complicated phenomena
together.

Astronomy, therefore, could hardly ever have ad-
vanced beyond its infancy, with this rude instrument
of observation. To obtain a more perfect knowledge
of the phenomena, and of their causes, it was ne-
cessary to compare them together in a much more
accurate manner, and to substitute tor inspection
the more refined process of measurement. It is ac-
cordingly by this happy application of instruments to
aid the imperfection of our senses, that astronomy
has been brought to its present state of improve.
ment. To make the subject, however, in the least

degree intelligible in this view, it is absolutely ne-
cessary that we explain, and we shall do so as shortly
and as distinctly as possible, the general principles
upon which these measurements are aflected.

Chap. I. Measurement of Quaktities in.

ASTROJIOMY.

Sect. I. Quantities vohich occur in Astrmomy.

Force. — The forces, as we have already observed,
which animate the heavenly bodies are the ultimate
objects of the astronomers researches. "The nature,"
says La Place, " of that singular modification, by
virtue of which a body is transported from one place
to another, is and will always be to us unknown. It
has been termed Force ; but its eftects, and the law
of its action, is all that we can possibly determine."

Space and Time — In putting a body into motios,
force is distinguished by two distinct effects — one by
which it makes the body describe space, the other
by which it makes it describe <?we. A body in mo-
tion is not only transported through successive por-
tions of space, but also through successive portions
of time. Thus, when a stone is thrown into the air,
not only does it continually rise higher and higher,
and then descend in the same manner, but in each
part of its course, from its projection to its greatest
elevation, and thence to its fall, it marki; out and;
carries as inseparably along with it to the n^ind the
idea of successive intervals of time.

In estimating the intensities of forces acting with
various effect upon the %Sme moving body, these
two quantities, space and time, are the only elements
which enter into the calculation. A person, for ex-
ample, is in the daily habit of observing a iniiil coach

494

ASTRONOMY,

ft'ipt-^niJuysP''** by his house, and being surprised one day at
the uncommonly exhausted state of the horses, finds,
upon inquiry, that they had started at the usual hour,
but owing to an accident had been obliged to run
a part of the preceding stage, that they had there-
fore run over a greater space than usual in the same
time. Upon this his surprise immediately ceases, as
the cause seems quite adequate to the effect. On
■remarking the same circumstance another day, he
is again satisfied, on being informed, that the coach
was later than usual in setting out ; that the horses,
therefore, had run their course in much shorter time
than usual. The intcrtsity of a force then depends
neither entirely upon the space over which, nor upon
the time during which the body moves, but upon the
mutual relation of those two quantities.

Velocity. — This relation is denoted by the term
velocity ; it is the space which a body describes in a
given time ; the number of feet, for example, which
it passes over in a second, in a minute, or in an
hour. Thus, a person on horseback, is said to go
(juicker, — to have a greater velocity tiian a person on
ioot, because he moves over a greater space in the
same time. When no time is mentioned, a second is
lUways understood ; and in this view, the velocity of
a body is nothing more than the space which it de-
scribes in a second.

The problem of the forces which animate the hea-
venly bodies being thus reduced to the discovery of
their velocities, the question of their successive po-
sitions, both in point of space and in point of time,
by which their velocities are determined, becomes
in the first instance the great object of inquiry.
These are the quantities which the astronomer is
almost constantly occupied in observing ; the whole
efforts of the artist being in the mean time directed
to the invention and improvement of the instruments
by whi|^ they can be most precisely measured ; and
and the whole efforts of the mathematician to the
discovery of methods of calculation that may enable
liim to determine the conclusions to which the ob-
served velocities would lead, — the nature of the forces
which they would indicate.

Sect. II. Measurement of Space.

Space, or distance, as we have already seen, is
flf two kinds, linear and angular. Linear distance is
measured by selecting any portion of it, as a stand-
ard with which every other may be compared. But
as there is no body in nature which is always of
the same extent, tliis selection is quite arbitrary. In
this country the standard measure of distance is the
foot; by its continued repetitions, we express larger
distances, as miles — and smaller ones by its conti-
nued subdivision into inches, tenths, &c. When the
objects whose distance is required are accessible, it is
raeiisured by the actual repetitions of the standard,
but it is only by combining their angular with their
linear distance, that we can discover that of inac-
cessible objects ; and this being the case with all the
heavenly bodies, it is hence in the measurement of
angular distance that the astronomer is principally
concerned.

Meastcrement of angles, ^-The whole circuit is here,
as we have already seen, a fixed standard of com-
parison. Its parts may be measured by any line,

A E, Plate 22. Fig.6. drawn across the lines which of iiiiwtlths
contain the angles. Being cut by tlie diverging lines ~

a B, a C, a D, its sections, A B, AC, AD, would
evidently indicate the comparative magnitude of the
angles AaB, AaC, AaD, &c. as well as that of
the angles B a C, C a D, &c. by the parts B C, CD.
But as it is only (p. 482.) when an object revolves
roimd a point, tiiat it exhibits all the degrees of an-
gular extent, in the same manner it is only some line
which re-enters into itself, by whose division into
parts we can compare one angle with another. For
unless the direction of A E were changed, it would
evidently fail in the case of the right angle A a F, as
the line A F, being parallel to A E, would never cut
it. Besides this, the sections A B, B C, of the line
A E, corresponding to the equal angles AaB, B a C,
&c. have the inconvenience of being unequal.

Now, of all re-entering lines, the circumference of
the circle is the only one which, being cut by lines
diverging from the centre, has the property of making
equal angles correspond to its equal sections, and as
it thus affords peculiar facilities for minute subdivi-
sion is has become, in fine instruments, the universal
scale for the measurement of angles. Its division into
parts is quite arbitrary, though its quarter, the mea-
sure of the right angle (p. 482.) seems naturally the
first subdivision. There are only two systems of di-
vision, the sexagesinmi and the decimal divisions, that
have ever been much adopted; and of these the latter,
having been only of late introduced by the French
astronomers, is much less extensively used than the
former, though recommended by its coincidence with
the decimal scale of our arithmetic.

The radius a A (Fig. 7.) of a circle goes exactly
six times round the circumference, dividing it in this
manner into six equal parts, A B, B C, &c. aiul
hence the sexageximal division has probably arisen.
In this division each sixth part, A B, B C, is subdi-
vided into sixty smaller portions, called degrees, of
which the whole circumference, therefore, contains six
times sixty, or 360 ; each degree is again divided into
sixty equal parts called minutes, and each minute again
into sixty seconds. These subdivisions are marked by
the following characters: Degrees", minutes', se-
conds": Thus 10° 1.5' 20", denote 10 degrees, 15 mi-
nutes, and 20 seconds ; each second is less than the
millionth part of the circumference ; but to this ex-
treme degree of minuteness has the refinement of mo-
dern art succeeded in measuring angular extent.

The principle of all angular instruments is the
same. In their rudest state, they consist each of a
circle, or portion of a circle, ABC, Fig. 8. the
circumference of which is divided into degrees, mi-
nutes, cSrc. It has attached to it a piece A C, term-
ed its index, moveable round its centre O, and ex-
tending to the circumference, which being directed
first to one object P, and then to another Q, the
circle itself remaining all the while fixed, indicates
by the interval A B, between the two positions upon
the circumference, to which it successively arrives,
the angular distance of the two objects — the num-
ber of degrees, minutes, &c. contained in the angle
POQ.

The larger the circle A B C is, the greater is the
accuracy of the observations. The ancient astrono-
mers accordingly employed instruments of great size;

ASTRONOMY.

495

(ftr'ntiantaties to make the index also point more directly upon the
object, they used two sights, or two upright pieces.
A B, Fig. 9, fixed at the extremities of the index,
and pierced each with a small hole or slit, through
which the objects were observed.

In modern times methods have been invented for
subdividing the degrees without enlarging the circle.
The admirable discovery also of the magnifjing
power of lenses, by its application to read off the
divisions of our instruments, admits their being re-
duced to a still more commodious form ; while it car-
ries them, perhaps, to their utmost perfection, by
substituting, for the rude observation of sights, the
astonishing power of the telescope.

Sect. III. Measurement of Time.

Time is measured upon the same principle as space,
namely, by the repetitions of a certain portion of it
indicated by an event. In both cases the accuracy
of the process depends evidently upon the dimen-
sions of the unit remaining unvaried in all its repeti-
tions. Heat and moisture are the only circumstan-
ces which have been found to affect the extent of bo-
dies. The varying causes of the duration of events
are much more numerous and less easily estimated.
The measurement of time is, accordingly, a problem
of the highest practical difficulty.

Year, day, month The heavenly bodies seem de-
signed by nature for effecting this important purpose
to mankind. Their motions furnish a succession of
similar events, sufficiently obvious and minute for all
the purposes of uncivilised life ; and they have also
been found to surpass in uniformity the utmost re-
finements of art. Those of the sun are the most
striking and most remarkably distinguished by their
connection with the labours of man and the opera-
tions of nature. The i^ear, the period of his varia-
tions, has accordingly been universally adopted as
the standard of comparison. His successive appear-
ances above the horizon mark its subdivision into
dai/s, and the changes of the moon produce the in-
termediate period of the month.

Time-piece. — The purposes of an improved socie-
ty, however, require divisions of time still more mi-
nute, and the whole process to be brought, if pos-
sible, into tlie commodious form of an instrument,
•whose indications can easily be observed. To the
"astronomer, also, it is of the utmost importance to
obtain a measure of time, independent of the heavenly
motions ; for, being previously ignorant of the causes
of the sun's motions, he is quite uncertain whether
or not the successive events which they mark out
are pirformed under the very same circumstances ;
whetiier, therefore, the days of the year, or the years
of a century, are each of the same duration. Time,
in short, being one of the elements whose knowledge
is absolutely necessary for the discover}' of these
causes, it is equally indispensible that he possess a
method of measuring it in some degree independent
of the motions.

The principle of all time-pieces is the same. The
great object in them all is to produce an invariable
motion, so that the moving body may present, by the
successive spaces which it describes, a constant suc-
cession of similar events ; and thus indicate equal

portions of time by the graduations of the space to ofquantiUei-
which it successively arrives. This is precisely what ~

is done in our clocks and watches, whose indices or
hands are bodies of this description moving over the
divisions of the dial-plate. A motion of this kind;
by which a body describes equal spaces in equal times,
is said to be uniform ; and though any other motion
would equally answer the purpose, if its variations
were regulated by a constant law, uniform motioa
has the convenience of admitting the dial-plate to
be divided into equal portions ; revolving motion
has also the obvious advantage of describing, and
the circumference of the circle of measuring any ex-
tent of angular within the smallest compass of linear
extent, and thus allowing the instruments the most
commodious form that other things will permit. It is
on this account that the uniform motion of a body
upon the circumference of a circle has become uni-
versally the form of our time-pieces.

These instruments have only been brought to per-
fection by long-continued observation and expe-
rience. By comparing those of one construction
with those of another, and all of them with the mo-
tions of the heavenly bodies, the circumstances which
derange their uniformity have been gradually brought
to light and corrected ; and it has been found, that
the more these deranging causes are obviated, their
motions are only approaching nearer and nearer to
those of the celestial sphere, — that their hands are
only presenting a more and more perfect image of
the revolutions of a star. It is by this standard of
perfect uniformity, then, that the astronomer corrects
the unavoidable inequalities of his clocks.

Sect. IV. Positions in Space.

Let us now consider the method of determinirig
positions in space. The position of an object in spate
is that particular position of space which it occupies.
Thus one it said to be in the middle of a room when
he is equally distant from its opposite sides ; and he
is in the east or west end of it according as he ap-
proaches its eastern or western side.

It is plain thiit the position of an object, O, an tlic
floor of the room A B C D, is not completely deter-
mined by its distance O G from either of its sides A B,
or by O E. its distance from its end A D ; for there are
various other points, 1,2, 3, &c. namely, all those
in the line E O E, parallel to A B, which are at tlie
same distance O G from A B ; in the same manner as .
in a book there is a number of lines all in one page ;
and when we wish to refer to any particular sentence,
as we must then tell the line as well as the page, so,
in order to define the particular point O, we nuist
also know its distance O E from A D, the end of tlie
room. By knowing its distance from A B, the side,
we only know the line EOF in some part of which
it is situated ; but by knowing besides its distance
from A D, we get another line G O H, in whicli it is
also somewhere to be found ; as it is therefore both
in EOF" and in G O H, it must necessarily be the
point O where these lines meet, and which is the ou-
ly one that can be in both of them at once.

It is evident also, that any other two lines, eO f,
_gOA, passingthroughthepointO, would, by theirinter-
section, equally wcU determiue its position ; aii J even

496

ASTRONOMY.

orquamities though they were not straight, but circular or curv-
ed in any other manner, as e f, g h, they would still
only meet in a single point, and thus indicate its po-
sition. In general, then, when we know the surface
(the floor of the room in this example ) on which a
body is situated, its position on that surface is com-
pletely determined by the intersection of anif two
lines ; and it is therefore completely known (or given,
as it is termed) when we know the positions of these
lines.

When the position of objects is to be ascertained
by actual observation, we must take those lines to
determine it by their intersection whose position can
be most easily measured. A spectator at A, for ex-
ample, (Fig. 1 1.) wishes to know his distance from a
house, H, beyond the lake I. ; he sets up a signal at
B, measures with a chain the distance A B, suppose
1000 feet, termed t/if base line, and setting his angu-
lar instrument at A, measures with precision the
angle BAH, and thus obtains the position of the
lino A H, upon wliich H is somewhere situated.
Transporting his instrument to B, he measures in
the same manner the angle A B H, and thus obtains
the position of another line in wliich the house is al-
so situated. These observations, therefore, afford
the means of finding the point of intersection of the
,two lines, or the distance B H.

When there is a variety of objects, however, all
■whose positions are to be determined and enumerat-
ed, such as the stars, or the places upon the earth,
or as 1, % 3, &c. Fig. 12, in order to bestow uni-
formity upon the expressions of these positions, it has
been found convenient to reduce them all to a com-
mon standard ; and when their positions are once
determined by the intersection of those lines, to which
the nature of the operation necessarily limits us, as
they can then be easily expressed by that of any
other lines chosen at pleasure, it has been universal-
ly agreed to fix upon gome two lines, A B, CD, at
right angles to each other, (and analogous to the
sides of the room in our example,) and to express
the positions of all the objects by their distances
from them, 1 a, 1 a, &c. 2 a, 2 a, &c. to which a ge-
neric name, as latitude, longitude, &c. &c. is applied.

We have hitherto supposed the objects all situated
upon a plane surface ; but what has been said will al-
so apply though the surface be spherical or any how
ciu'ved, only the lines which in that case determine
the positions of the point* upon it will also have a
corresponding curvature. But the heavenly bodies
Beem all at the surface of a sphere, and the surface
.>f the earth is also spherical. Astronomers have
• accordingly agreed to use certain circles of these
<jphere3, to whose position that of the points on their
surfaces may be referred. These circles we shall now
shortly describe.

SicT. V. Positions in the Heavens. *

Circles of the tphere. — Every circle of a sphere
may be conceived to be formed from what is termed
the section of the sphere by a plane. Let any globe,
tor example, be cut in two by a plane, that is, by a
body of any length and breadth, but as thin as can
be imagined ; and let the parts be re-united ; the
mark or curve which now appears upon the surface

of the globe, all along the joining, is a circle, and is OfqsanUties

called the section of the sphere by that plane, and

its position is indicated by that of the plane, which is

termed the pkme of the circle. When the sphere is

cleft through the middle into two hemispheres, the

plane then passing througli the centre of the sphere,

the circle, which is formed on the surface by this

section is termed a great circle of the sphere. In

every other case, that is, when the plane of a circle

does not pass through the centre, it is termed a smalt

circle.

These circles, which arise from the actual section
of a spherical body, by another flat body nearly de-
prived of its thickness, must be extended in idea to
the sphere of the heavens, in order to have a correct
notion of the circles which have been imagined for
the purpose of determining positions upon its sur-
face. But it must never be forgotten, that as that
sijhere has really no existence, neither have these
curves, of which astronomers make so frequent men-
tion. They are merely the circles that mould be
formed were the sphere a material substance, and
were it intersected by actual planes, as we conceive
it to be by imaginary ones.

Zenith. — The point of the heavens most easily re-
cognised is that directly over our heads, or the ze-
7iith. It is sometimes difficult to recognise the north
and the south, but the zenith is obvious to everyone,
and in every place. It is indicated with more pre-
cision by the direction of a 2>liintb-line, and is the
point in which the latter would meet the celestial
sphere, being sufficiently prolonged above.

Vertical. — The line which joins the zenith and the
observer, is termed a vertical.

Nadir. — That point under our feet in which it
would meet the sphere by its prolongation below, is
called the nadir.

Plane of the horizon. — If a plane be conceived to
pass through the eye of the spectator, perpendicular
to the vertical, this is called the plane of the horizon,
and the circle which it forms on the sphere, by its
prolongation on all sides, — the section of the sphere
by this plane, is termed the horizon. It is the circle
which separates to a spectator his visible from his in-
visible portion of the heavens, — the boundary of our
prospect, as we have hitherto merely considered it.
It is one of those circles to which the positions of the
heavenly bodies are referred. But if it be merelya con-
ception, it is not easy perhaps to see how it can serve
as a point of reference. This will be understood, if we
shew how its position can always be determined ; it is
alwa3's indicated by looking along the surface of the
ocean, or any plane surface, as a board or a table,
set perpendicular to the plumb-line. Angular instru-
ments are accordingly fitted with a plumb-line, or,
which answers the same purpose, a spirit level, by
means of which the line of the telescope can be set
with great precision in the plane of the horizon, and
the angular deviation of the stars from this plane
measured with equal nicety, the instrument being so
constructed as to move from the right to the left, or
the contrary, all round. The horizon, in tliis view,
is nothing else than the imaginary union of that series
of points which we observe in the telescope, when it
moves in the plane of tlie horizon, — when it moves

ASTRONOMY.

497

-Of quantities round with the bubble of the spirit level, always in the
~ ' middle of the glass, or the line of the telescope, al-
ways 90° from that of the plummet.

Verticals. — Conceive now a series of planes, Z A
B N B' A', Z a b N a', Z a 4 N a', &c. Fig. 13. all pas-
sing through the vertical of a place ; or conceive a
single plane to assume those various positions by re-
volving upon the veitical as an axis: these are called
iieriJca/yj/aHM; being prolonged on all sides towards the
heavens, they cut the sphere in the circles Z H N O,
Z h N, Z A N, &c. Fig, 14. which are termed vertical
circles, or simply verticals ; they are those circles which
the eye traces in the heavens, b}' looking along a plane
board set up in the direction of the plummet. The te-
lescopes of angular instruments are made to move in
a vertical by means of the plummet, or spirit-level,
while they can be made to describe any vertical
whatever by means of the horizontal movement above
mentioned. All the vertical planes, along with their
line of common section, are perpendicular to the
plane of the horizon, and the great circles themselves
are also perpendicular to the horizon ; they form
with it what are called spherical angles, Z H h, z h h,
&c. and each of them is 90°, being always equal to
the angles of their planes.

Altilude. — The position of a star, S, will evidently
be determined when we know the vertical, Z h N, in
which it is, and its distance from the horizon, S It,—
the arc of the vertical intercepted between it and the
horizon, H O; for there can be only one point of the
same vertical at the same distance above the horizon.
The distance is called the aUitude, or elevation of
the star. It is the angle, S E H, which the line join-
ing the star and the centre of the earth, E, or the ob-
server, z, makes with the plane of the horizon, (the
line, E z, being considered as of no magnitude rela-
tively to the distance of the star,) and is measured
by the degrees, minutes, &c. in the arc of the verti-
cal, S /«, between the star and the horizon. It is ac-
tually observed by making the index of the vertical
circle of the instrument point to Zero, or 0" 0* 0",
when the line of the telescope is in the plane of the
horizon, and then elevating it till thestar appears ex-
actly in its centre, which is indicated by two cross
wires ; the index now points out the elevation.

Meridian. — It only remains then to define the ver-
tical in which the star is ; and for this purpose some
vertical must be selected, to whose position that of all
the rest may be referred, — from which their distances
may be estimated. Now, of all the verticals, that one,
Z H N O, which is called the meridian, and which
passes through the poles of the sphere, P p, is the
most remarkable. The planes of them all pass through
the zenith, Z, through the eye of the spectator, z,
and through the centre of the earth, E; but that of
one only, Z p O P, has the property of passing also
through the two celestial poles, or through the axis,
P p, of the sphere. This is the plane of the meridian.
It is distinguished from every other vertical plane by
another important circumstance. The diurnal circles,
1 m n, 1 /i 2, which the stars describe, have their planes
parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the axis
of the sphere, P p. They are in general termed pa-
rallels ; and that one, eE q, which also passes through
the centre of the earth, is termed, as we have already

VOt. I. PART II.

seen, the equator, being equally distant from both the Ofqnantjtic*
poles. The plane of the meridian, as it passes through '>^^,--"«-'
the vertical, Z N, is perpendicular to the horizon, H

0 ; and as it also passes through the celestial axis,
it is also perpendicular to the equator, e E q, and ta
all the parallels, 1 m n, 1 A 2. From this peculiar po-
sition of these circles relatively to each other, the
meridian divides into two equal parts that portion ot
each parallel which is above the horizon, as well as
that portion of each which is below it, one half only
of each of these halves being seen in the figure, 1 ra

1 h. The instant, therefore, the sun passes it abov«
the horizon it is mid-day, from which circumstance it"
derives its name — he has then attained his greatest
elevation ; and the instant he passes it below the hot
rizon it is mid-night. It is the same with the stars ;
they all come to the meridian, and to their greatest
elevation, at the middle of the interval between their
rising and setting ; and as to those stars which, from
their proximity to the pole, never reach the horizon,
but describe whole circles, S S', ss', above it, passing
the meridian both above, at S s, and below the poles,
at S's', the meridian divides these circles into two
equal parts.

Transits. — Thus, for every one of the heavenly bo-
dies, without exception, the instant of the passage, or
transit as it is called, is that of the greatest altitude ;
and for those stars which pass the meridian both above
and below the pole, it is the instant of their greatest
altitude in the one case, and the least in the other.

Meridian line. — The position of the meridian is in*
dicated by that of the sun at noon. It is more accu-
rately determined by observations of his altitude, or
that of a star, before and after passing the meridian. ^V^
Observe with an instrument the altitude of a star
some time before its passage over the meridian, and
mark the vertical in wiiich it then is. In descending,
after its transit, the star will again arrive at the same
distance from the horizon which was noted in its
ascent. Its progress must, therefore, be carefully
watched, in order to mark the vertical in which it is
situated when this happens. The direction of the me-
ridian is intermediate between that of the two verti-
cals ; and if a staff be set up in this direction it will
mark out what is termed a meridian line. The east
and west are the directions, each 90° from the former.

Azimuths. — It is fiom the meridian, tlien, the priyne
vertical, that the distances from the other verticals
are reckoned. They are termed in general azimuths.
The azimuth of a star, S, is the angle, H Z h, that the
vertical plane in which it is situated makes with the
plane of the meridian, the prime vertical ; and is mea-
sured by the arc of the horizon, H h, intercepted be-
tween the point H, in whi<;h the meridian cuts the
horizon, and the point h, in which the vertical Z S A
cuts it. The azimuth then determines the vertical
in which the star is, and its altitude, its position up-
on that vertical ; and thus its situation, S, upon the
sphere is completely ascertained.

Sometimes also the vertical Z E N, which is perpen-
dicular to the meridian, and lies due east and west, is
termed the prime vertical, and the position of a star's
vertical, indicated by its distance from it, E h, which
is termed its amplitude.

Celestial meridians — But as tlie verticals and the
3 a

498

ASTRONOMY.

Oiquantiiies horizon change their position witli that of the ob-
' " server, the position of every star, were it indicated
relatively to these circles, would have the inconve-
nience of being expressed by a diilerent quantity for
every different position upon the globe. These po-
sitions, therefore, are only useful as they are connec-
ted with, and afford the means, of determining those
of the stars relatively to another and a similar system
of circles, quite independent of our position upon the
earth. In the latter, the axis of the celestial sphere,
P p. Fig. 15. corresponds to tlie vertical, Z N, l''ig. 14.
in the former. A series of circles, Z HNOP,Pep,
Pep, Fig. 15. whose planes pabS through this axis, and
which are called in general cdesUal meridians, corres-
pond to the verticals, Z H N, &c. Fig. 14. The equa-
tor, EQ, Fig. 15. to which they are all perpendicular,
is analogous to the horizon, H O, Fig. 14. and the me-
ridian of the place is at once ii vertical and a celestial
meridian. It is that vertical, Z H N O, Fig. 14. whose
plane passes through the axis of the sphere, and
that meridian, P E p Q, Fig. 15. whose plane passes
through the vertical of the plane, Z N.

The position of a star, S, relatively to this system
of circles, is determined in the same manner, when
we know the meridian, P e p, in which it is, and its
distance, S e, from the equator, which gives the paral-
lel, S O, in which it is. These are the two lines at
whose point of intersection it is situated.

Position of the equator'- — It is, first of all, necessa-
ry then to determine the position of the plane of
the equator. This is done by finding that of the
axis of the sphere, P p, to which that plane is per-
pendicular, and which is indicated by the position of
the north pole, P. The pole being in the meridian, its
position is determined by its altitude, O P. This could
be easily measured, were there a star situated in the
stationary point, P. There is none exactly so situa-
ted ; the pole-star, however, describes a circle round
it, at the distance of 2", and the rest, S, s, at greater
distances. The pole, then, the common centre of all
these circles, must he situated half-way between the
positions, s, s', of any star when crossing the meri-
dian, the one above, and the other below the pole,
and must therefore have an altitude intermediate
between the greatest, O s, and least altitude, O s', of
the star.

Altitude of the pole We have only, tlien, to fix

upon a star which never sets, and observe its extreme
altitudes, the one when it passes the meridian above,
and the other when it passes it below the pole. The
me^in, that is half the sum of the greatest and least
altitudes, is the altitude of the pole. If the instru-
ment is not provided with a telescope for observing
the stars through the day»,tlicse observations can on-
ly be made in winter, when the night being longer
tliau the day, a star can be seen during more than
one-half of its revolution.

The position of the pole being thus determined,
the line joining it to the eye of the spectator is the axis
ef the sphere, and the plane of the equator is deter-
mined to a nearnass by setting up a plane surface or
board perpendicular to this axis. By looking along
this board the eye will be directed to the celestial e-
<)uator, the circle in which this plane, produced on
all sides, would cut the sphere ; and on the 22d of

March and September, the sun, then describing this ofquantltlet
circle by the diurnal rotation, will be seen during the — —
whole day in the direction of the board.

To obtain greater accuracy it must be observed,
that the altitude of the pole, O P, together with the
altitude of the equator, H Q, just amount to 90° (in-
asmuch as they are the two portions, O P, H Q, of
the whole semicircle (180°) of the meridian, O P Q
H, which remain after taking away the portion, P Q,
between the pole and the equator, which measures
the right angle Q e P.) Thej' are each, therefore,
what the other wants of 90°. They are the comple-
ments of each other, as this relation is termed. By
taking the altitude of the pole, then, from 90", the
remainder is that of the plane of the equator ; and the
telescope of the instrument being set in the meridian
to this altitude, will indicate the point in which the
equator cuts it. The points due east and west are
those in which it cuts the horizon, because it is perpen-
dicular to the meridian; and thus the situation of this
circle is completely ascertained by these three points.

Declination. — Ihe distance, Se, of a star from the
equator, or the distance of the parallel in which it i»,
is termed its declination. It is analogous to its alti-
tude in the former system of circles; and as the meri-
dian is common to both these systems, and thus mea-
sures both declination and altitude, the declination
of a star is hence connected by a very simple relation
with its meridian or greatest altitude. It is evidently
the difference, «Q, or «'Q, between the meridian altitude
« H, and the altitude of the equator, Q H, the com-
plement of the altitude of the pole, and is north or
south according as the star is north or south of the
equator, or according as the meridian altitudeis great-
er or less than the co-latitude of the pole. The de-
clinations of the stars, then, are determined by mea-
suring their altitudes when on the meridian.

To define, now, the meridian in which the star is,
it is necessary, as before, to fix upon some one to
form the zero of the scale, from whose positions that
of all the rest may be reckoned, as the horizon, H O,
Fig 14. is the zero of the scale of altitudes, the me-
ridian, Z H, of azimuths, and the equator, E Q, Fig.
15. of declinations.

Equinoxes. — IVtt^ht ascension Now we have seen

that the ecliptic, the circle which the sun aimually de-
scribes, crosses the equator at a certain obliquity; the
intersection of these two circles mark two positions
which can always be recognised in the heavens ; they
are called the equinoxes, because the sun being then in
the equator, makes the days equal to the niglit all over
the world. The line which joins them passes through
the centre of the earth, and is called the line of the
equinoxes. The sun is in the one, in the spring, on the
22d of March, and in the pther, in Autumn, on the
22d of September. These are the days of the equin-
oxes, the former of the vernal, the latter of the
autumnal equinoxes. It is that meridian which pas-
ses through the equinox of spring which has been
selected to reckon the distance of the rest from ;
it is termed the jxrime meridian, and is represented in.
Fig. 15. by P Q p. The planes of all the meridians
pass through the axis of the sphere, P p ; that of the
prime meridian is distinguishedbyalso passing through
the Hue of the equinoxes. The tlistauce of tlie meri-

ASTRONOMY.

499

Of quftBtidcs dian, P S e, in which a star is from the prime meridian
P Q, is termed its right ascension. It is the angle which
the plane of the star's meridian, Pep, makes with
the plane of the prime meridian, P Q p E, and is mea-
sured by the arc of the equator, Q e, comprehended
between the prime meridian and the star's meridian —
between the vernal equinox, the point in which the
prime meridian cuts the equator, and the point, e, in
which the star's meridian cuts the equator.

The situation of the prime vertical is always fixed
for the same point of the globe ; the prime meridian
is continually moving along with the rest of the me-
ridians, by the effect of the diurnal motion of the
sphere ; its position, as well as their right ascensions,
is therefore not so easily determined, and it is here
that the astronomer discovers the inestimable value
of the time-piece, as an instrument for finding posi-
tions in space. The position of bodies which are at
rest is determined bj' their distance from other bo-
dies ; but bodies in motion, as we have seen, describe
time as well as space, some in a regular, and some in
a very irregular manner. When the motion of a bo-
dy is uniform, or its velocity is the same in every part
of its course, it moves over the same number of feet
every second of time. If we once knew this velocity,
therefore, it would- be easy, by observing the elapsed
time upon the clock, to determine the distance of the
body from the point at which it set out.

It is upon this principle that the astronomer mea-
sures the right ascensions of the stars. Their mo-
tion has been discovered to be perfectly uniform,
or at any rate to excel that of the nicest instruments.
Its rate is easily recognised by observing the transits
of the stars over the meridian. These observations
are made with what is termed a transit instrument.
It is a telescope constructed to move with great pre-
cision in the plane of the meridian, and having in its
field of view one or more fine wires parallel to the
meridian, and equally distant from each other. The
instant of the transit is marked by the instant of the
stars covering tlie middle wire, or by the interval be-
tween the instants of its covering the extreme ones.
The interval between two successive transits of the
same star is termed a sidereal day ; it is the period of
the stars making a complete circuit in the heavens,
and the astronomical, or sidereal clock, as it is term-
ed, is so constructed, that the hour hand makes a
complete revolution in the same time ; so that if a
6tar passes the meridian to-night when the clock in-
dicates, for example, 0", 0", 0', it will indicate ex-
actly C, 0", 0', as the instant of the transit to-morrow
Might. The hand of the clock thus describing the
same angle with the star in the same time, forms a
reduced image of the star's diurnal motion, resemb-
ling it in every thing but the scale. Suppose, now,
that the clock indicates 0", 0™, 0', for the instant of
the transit of the star which is situated in the prime
meridian, not only will it also indicate 0', 0'", 0", for
the instant of its succeeding transit, so that bj' looking
through the telescope at that time, we expect to find
the star covering the centre wire with nearly as much
certainty as the rising of the sun, — not only is this
single position of the star indicated by the clock, but
each new position which it assumes in advancing from
the meridian towards the west, is indicated by the cor>
2

responding position of the hand as it advances from of qdantitlea
the origin of its scale, O"", 0'", 0'. The interval of
time from 0" will thus indicate the distance of the
prime meridian from the meridian of the plane, and
for every star, the instant of its transit over the meri-
dian of the place will indicate its right ascension, —
the angular distance of the star's meridian from the
prime meridian. But the angle which the star
describes in a day, namely the complete circuit, is
divided into 360", each degree into eO" &c. while
the divisions of the circuit which the hand of Uie
clock describes are fifteen times larger, the cir-
cumference being only divided into 24 hours, each
hour into 60 minutes, &c. The arcs of the right
ascension then, will be expressed in time by a quan-
tity just fifteen times less than when expressed, as
usual, by degrees of the equator. But whether
the right ascension of the star be expressed ia
time or in angular distance, it is still the same
quantity, — the angle between the planes of the prime
meridian and the star's meridian ; and it is the mere
circumstance of time and angular magnitude which
are both involved in the stars motion, being both
measured by the portions of the circumference of a
circle ; it is the mere circumstance of these two quan-
tities, apparently so heterogeneous in their nature, be-
ing still brought to a common measure, that enables
us to express the right ascension by the one or the
other indifferently.

To obtain the right ascensions of the heavenly bo-
dies, then, it is first of all necessary that the clock
move uniformly, for that is the point upon which the
accuracy of the method entirely depends. Provided
this condition be fulfilled, it is not of so much conse-
quence its going a little faster or a little slower thaH
the star, for this can easily be allowed for.

Position of the equinox. — The next thing to be
determined is, the position of the prime meridian,
that the clock may be set to 0", 0", 0*, when it
passes the meridian of the place. This could easi-
ly be observed, were there a star situated in the
vernal equinox ; there is none exactly so situat-
ed, but the sun is in this point once a year, and
would therefore answer the purpose were he at the
same instant on the meridian. 'This, however, sel-
dom happens, and it is only by an indirect process
that we obtain the object in question. When the sun
is in the equator, his meridian altitude being then the
same with that of the equator, is evidently equal to
the co-altitude of the pole or the co-latitude of the
place. By observing his meridian altitude the day
before and the day after his passing the equator, it is
easy from these data to compute the time, suppose
3" 40", that elapses between his transit on tlie first
day, and the instant of his crossing the equator, orthft
instant when his meridian altitude is exactly equal to
the co-latitude of the place; the clock having been pre-
viously set to 0\ 0"", 0', when a certain star, suppose
west of the sun, comes to the meridian — the instant,
suppose 6" 10"" of the sun's transit the first day is also
observed ; this is the difference between the right as-
cension of the sun and that of the star ; and adding it
to the computed interval of 3" 40", their sum 9*
50"°, taken Irom 24", is the right ascension of the
Star, to which the clock must be set when the star

500

ASTRONOMY.

Ofqnantitics comes to the meridian, in order that it may indicate
()", O"", 0', when the prime meridian comes to the me-
ridian. Tiiis process very well illustrates the nature
of tlic prime meridian ; it is not, as we have formerly
observed, a real object, neither is its position indica-
ted by any real object which we can at all times ob-
sen-e, — it is merely the imaginary and conventional
origin from which all right ascensions are dated; it is
only recognised in the spring by the sun's crossing
the equator, and even the instant of this event we
are frequently obliged to deduce from other obser-
vations.

Latitude and loiigilude.— There is still another set
of circles to which the position of the heavenly bo-
dies have been referred. The ecliptic, E C, Fig. 16.
is here analogous to the equator and to the horizon
in the above systems ; an imaginary line, P p, per-
pendicular to the plane of the ecliptic passing through
tlie centre of the earth, and meeting the sphere in two
opposite points, P, p, corresponds to the axis of the
sphere and to the vertical; it is the axis of the ecliptic ;
and a series of circles, P E^; C, Pep, Pep, having
tjiis axis for the line of common section of their
planes, correspond to the meridians and the verticals.
These circles have received no particular name, ex-
cept that of secondaries to the ecliptic, as the meri-
dians are sometimes termed secondaries to the equa-
tor, and the verticals to the horizon. The points Pp,
in which the axis meets the sphere, are termed in like
manner the poles of the ecliptic, as the poles of the
sphere are sometimes termed the poles of the equa-
tor, and the zenith and nadir the poles of the hori-
zon. The position of a star, S, is determined by that
of the secondary to the ecliptic Pep, in which it is,
and its distance Ee on this secondary from the eclip-
tic. Its distance from the echptic is termed its lati-
tiule; and the distance, Ec, of its secondary, from that
which passes through the vernal equinox, is termed
its longitude ; it is tlie arc of the ecliptic compre-
hended between these two secondaries. The ecliptic
has been (p. 489. ) divided into twelve signs, each equal
to 30". In reckoning longitudes this division is used,
and instead of saying a longitude of 30°, 45^, &c. we
say 1 sign ; 1 sign 15°, — or simply 1' ; 1' 15",

Tlie latitudes and longitudes of stars are not ob-
served ; they arc only computed from their right as-
censions and declinations. The latter are determin-
ed, as we have seen, by observations of their meridian
altitudes and their meridian transits. The meridian
thus becomes the circle in which all astronomical ob-
servations are made. These observations are the
source of all astronomical knowledge ; and the tran-
sit instrument and astronojnical quadrant ibr measur-
ing altitudes, which is even sometimes united with
the ibrmer, tliese, together with the clock, are the
vhief instruments of the practical astronomer, " the
capital furniture of an observatory."

Sect. VI. Positions on the Earth.

For the purpose of determining, the positions of
places upon the earth's surface, a set of circles have
been imagined quite analogous to one of those sys-
tems which we have described in the heavens. The
wis, P p, Fig. 15. of the equator, which joins the two

celestial poles, and passes through the centre of the
earth, meets its surface in two points, P, p', opposite
to each other. These are called the terrestrial poles,
or the poles of the ecrtk. The north terrestrial being
next to the north celestial pole and the south to the
south. The line P' p', which joins them, is also termed
the axis of the earth ; it is that portion of the axis of the
sphere comprehended within the earth's surface. The
phmes of the celestial n.-ridians, which all meet in
the celestial and terrestrial axis, must in like manner
meet the earth's surface, and their sections of it will
be perfect circles if the earth be a perfect sphere,
which we shall here suppose ; they are termed terres-
trial meridians ; they are the circles P' Q' p', P e' p',
P'e'p', SiC. Fig. 15. or Fig. 17. diverging from the
poles P' p', which a series of planes passing through
the earth's axis would form upon its surface, — tiie
lines according to which they would meet it. The
plane of the celestial equator E Q, in passing through
the earth's centre, forms upon its surface a circle E'Q',
termeAtheterrestrial equator, or by mariners the line.
It is the line according to which a plane passing
through the earth's centre, and perpendicular to its
axis, would meet its surface.

Parallels — Lastly, there has been imagined a se-
ries of cirdes proceeding from the equator towards
the poles, and having their planes parallel to that o»
the equator ; they are analogous to the celestial pa-
rallels.

Tropics — Four of the parallels are distinguished
above the rest, namely two, TR, T'R', Fig. 17. situated
at the distance of 23i° on each side of the equator, and
otliertwo, A C, A'C', at the same distance from either
pole ; the two first being analogous to the celestial
tropics, E T, C'T', Fig. 16. are named accordingly,
that which is in the southern hemisphere the tropic
of Capricorn, and that in the northern the tropic of
Cancer. The two circles near the poles are termed
the polar circles, the northern being also tei-med the
arctic, and the southern the antarctic circle. These
four circles divide the earth into five compartments,
or zones, ACP', A C R T, RTT'R, R'TAC,
and A' C'p', which have received names from the cli-
mates by which they are distinguished ; that between
the two tropics, in the middle of which is the equa-
tor, being the hottest, is termed the tomd zone ; those
beyond the polar circles, where it is coldest, the
Jrigid zones ; and the intermediate belts, where the
climate is equally the medium between these ex-
tremes, the temperate zones.

Latitude and longitude — The position of a place, P',
Fig. 17. on the earth's surface, is determined in the
same manner as that of a star, by two elements, the dis-
tance P' e of its parallel from the equator, and d Q',
of its meridian P' e' p' from a first meridian P' Q' p',
fixed by convention to form the origin of the scale.
The first is termed its latitude ; it is the distance of
the place from the equator, — the arc of the meridian
comprehended between it and the equator ; and the
parallel circles are termed parallels rif latitude. The
second is termed its longitude ; it is the arc of the
equator comprehended between the meridian of the
plaqe and the first meridian, — the angular distance be-
twee» the plane of the first meridian and that of tha

OfqnanUtiet

ASTRONOMY.

501

dfquantltjes f^^i'idian of the place of wliicli this arc is the mea-
sure. These terms are analogous, the one to the de-
clination, the other to the right ascension, and must
not be confounded with the latitude and longitude
of a star. No meridian has been fixed upon for a
universal first meridian. In this country the longi-
tudes are reckoned from the meridian of London ;
in France from that of Paris ; in Russia from that
of Petersburgh, and so on.

The latitude of a place A, Fig. 20. being the angle
A T e, or Z T E, contained between the vertical T A Z,
and the plane of the equator T e E, is equal to the dis-
tance of the equator from the zenith E Z, which is
also the complement of O P, the altitude of the pole.
To find the latittide of a place, then, it is only neces-
sary to measure the altitude of the pole by the me-
thod already described.

In the same manner the longitude of aplace, A, Fig.
20. being the angle A P' m', between the plane of its
terrestrial meridian P A p' and that of the first meridian
I*, m'p', or between the plane of its celestial meridian
P E p, and that of the celestial meridian of London
Pmp, maybe measured by the arc m E of the celestial
equator, contained between the two meridians, that is
to say, the difference between their right ascensions, or
the interval of time that elapses between the transit of a
star over the one meridian and its transit over the other.
If we knew, for example, to-night, the instant of a
star's transit over the meridian at London, we could
observe to-night the instant of its transit at Edin-
burgh, and the interval of time 12' 48', or 2^ 12', mul-
tiplying by 15 would be the longitude of Edinburgh,
just as a person who knows at what hour the mail-
coach leaves London, as well as its rate of travelling,
can tell, by observing at what hour it reaches Edin-
burgh, the distance between the two cities, with this
ditlcrence, that the rate of the star's travelling be-
tween the two meridians is infinitely more uniform
than that of the coach between the two places.

It is upon this principle that depend all the me-
thods which have been invented for discovering the
longitude, — a problem so interesting to the navigator.
Time is regulated all over the world by the succes-
sive arrivals of tlie sun at the meridian of the place,
as he advances in his daily course from east to west ;
and as he can only be upon one meridian at a time,
lie can onl^- arrive successively upon the meridians of
different places, as a coach arrives successively and
at difterent times at its difterent stages. The inhabi-
tants of difterent places thus have their noon at
tlilierent times, later and later than at London, as they
are farther and fartlier towards the west ; so tliat
■when it is noon at London, it is little more than
lialf-past eleven at Dublin. At Philadelphia, 75"
13' west, it is only seven o'clock in the morning; the
sun may then only be rising at that city ; and by set-
sing a watch with the clock at London, it will be-
found, on crossing the Atlantic, to be five hours in
advance of that of Philadelphia. The problem of the
longitude is thus reduced to tliat of discovering the
interval between the noon of London and the noon
of the place, or in general the difterence between the
lime reckoned at London and the time reckoned at
tiic place. It is tlie great object of artii;ts, accord-

ingly, to produce time-pieces that may go with regu- ofquaniitv
larity, notwithstanding the motions of the vessel, ~ ~

Distances of the heavenly bodies. — Such are the me-
thods both of expressing and measuring the position
of objects in the heavens and on the earth. But the
heavenly bodies, as we have seen, are not all at the
same distance from the earth ; the moon is much near-
er us than the sun ; and the latter, probably, much
nearer than the fixed stars. They are not, therefore,
all upon the surface of a sphere, as we have supposed;
and as the above methods only fix their angular pooi-
tions,leaTing their linear distance quite undetermined,
as a star may clearly have the same right ascension
and declination, whether it be at the distance of 10,
100, or any number of millions sf miles ; — this im-
portant element Is still -wanting to complete our know-
ledge of their positions in space.

This subject has interested astronomers in all ages ;
and thcv have endeavoured to- discover these distan-
ces by all the methods which the progress of the sci-
ence has successively indicated. But the principle
of them all is the same as that by which we discover
the distance of inaccessible terrestrial objects. To
give greater accuracy to the operation, astronomers
have contrived to take the semi-diameter of the earth
itself, and even the earth's distance from the sun, as
the bases of the triangles, the intersection of whose
sides determines the distances of the stars. Thus,
let E R, Fig. 18. be the earth's semi-diameter, and let
the sun be at S ; astronomers have contjJved to mea-
sure the angle E R S, which gives at once E S,Il
and the distance E S. This angle, E S R, is termed
the sun's parallax ; it is the angle which the earth's
semi-diameter subtends at the sun. If the sun be in
the horizon at the time of the observation, the angle
E S R, which is then the greatest, is termed the
sun's horizontal parallax. If S had been the mooi>,
or any other heavenly body in the horizon, the a.n*
gle E S R would then be its horizontal paralla:{, the
angular magnitude under which the earth's semi-dia-
meter would have appeared to a spectator at that
body, and it is tiie angle of which the knowledge
leads directly to that of the distance of the body.
But in the cases of the sun, the moon, and most of
the planets, which have all a sensible apparent dia-
meter, the variation of tlieir distances from tiie earth
is obtained with great facility by measuring their ap-
parent diameters, that is, the angles which their real
diameters subtend at tlie eartii, and whicli augment
and diminish in proportion as the objects approacli
to or recede, from tlie earth. Thus, at the earth, E,
Fig. 19. the angle S E U is the apparent diameter of
the sun, and must not bo confounded with its real
diameter S U, which is invariable, and of whicii the
apparent diameter is only the angular magnitude.
If the sun advances into the position S U, or s u,
his apparent diameter increases to the angle S E 17
and sEu,. which, in small angles, is proportional ta
the distance from E. By measuring this angle, then,
whicli is done with great precision by an instrument
for the purpose, termed a micrometer, Uie variation io
the distances of the heavenly bodies is ascertained.

Refraction, Sfc — After all the above observations for
determining the positions of the heavenly bodiee are .

602

ASTRONOMY.

"^hc earth, made, there still remain several corrections, which
must be applied before the <n/c places, as they are term-
ed, can be ascertained. Various causes, some optical,
and some real, such as what are termed refraction, pa-
rallax, aberration, &c, contribute to produce, in their
apparent places, a slight deviation from those which
they really occupy, tor these derangements, though
only amounting, in many cases, to a few seconds,
and though it has required the highest refinement",
of art to discover their effects, and of science to dis-
cover their causes, the astronomer is nevertheless
careful to make the necessary allowances before mak-
ing use of his observations ; and since an observed
deviation, were it but a few seconds, in any of the
heavenly bodies, trom the position either in place or
in time which his calculation would assign to it, be-
comes thus a thing to be accounted for, some idea
may be obtained of the wonderful precision to which
the knowledge of these positions has been carried.
It is so great, indeed, that if a telescope be directed
to-day to a determinate point of the heavens, we can
tell, several years in advance, the day, the hour, the
minute, and the second, in which almost any one of
the heavenly bodies will come and place itself ex-
actly in the centre of the telescope, and corer in it
a thread finer than a hair. The errors of astronomi-
cal tables are actually comprised within the breadth
of this thread.

Chap. II. Of the Earth.

Sect. I. lis Figure.

We have already seen, that the regularity with
which new stars make their appearance, shews the
convexity of the earth to be pretty regular in that
direction. A more correct knowledge of its figure
will be obtained by actually measuring, with the pre-
cision of modern observations, the exact dimensions
of the portions of the heavens which successively
make their appearance as we advance a certain dis-
tance towards the north or south.

Oblateness Upon these principles, portions of the

terrestrial meridian have been measured in various
parts of the world, some of them with astonishing
precision, and to the extent, in France, of 12°, or
one 30th of the circumference ; and the result indi-
cates incontestibly, to the figure of the earth, like
that of an orange, a degree of oblateness at the poles,
and a protuberance at the equator ; so that the axis of
the polar diameter is to the equatorial diameter as the
proportion of 319 to 320, and less by about 24' miles.

Variation of gravity o?i its surface. — The oblateness
of the earth is also manifested by the diminution of gra-
vity on the weight of bodies, as we advance from the
centre of the earth. It has been found, that as
we ascend to the tops of high mountains, the effect of
gravity suffers a sensible diminution. This result
could not be obtained by means of the most exact
balance, as the intensity of the weights themselves are
equally diminished with that of the bodies which we
would weigh. It is only by experiments on the pen-
dulum that these variations can be noticed. Its oscil-
lations become slower, as gravity, the power which
produces them, is diminished. In this manner the

pendulum, vibrating seconds at the equator and at The earth,
the level of the sea, was found, when carried to
Quito, 9000 feet high, to make somewhat fewer than
60 vibrations in a minute. Since the pole, then, is
nearer to the earth's centre than the equator, it
should be expected that the pendulum would go slow-
er at the one than at the other ; and, accordingly,
very numerous and exact experiments on the pen-
dulum, in different parts of the world, have left no
doubt of tlie certainty of this result.

Cause of its oblateness. — This oblate figure is ex-
actly that which a round mass of stiff clay would as-
sume on being turned rapidlyround an axis. The effect
will also be more easily exhibited, by fixing the point
A, PI. 23, Fig.9. of an iron or steel hoop, A B C D, to
the axis A C, the opposite point, C, being also at-
tached to the axis, but allowed to slide freely up and
down. On turning the axis, the point C will be ob-
served to descend as the velocity of rotation increases ;
and the hoop will assume the oblate figure Abed. This
effect is produced by what is termed the centrifiigal
force. It is a tendency which all revolving bodies
are found to possess, of flying from the centre of
their revolutions, from which they are only preserved
at a certain distance by the operation of some very
powerful cause ; — in ordinary cases, by the cohesion
of the materials of which they are composed. This
.is very well illustrated by a sling ; — no sooner do we
slip the string by which the stone is confined, but it
flies with all the velocity which it has been accumu-
lating from the beginning of the rotation. The ana-
logy between the figure of the hoop and that of the
earth, leads naturally to the inquiry, if the resem-
blance does not extend farther, — if their figures are
not also produced by similar causes ; and as the earth
may certainly contain within itself, like the clay,
some principle by which its particles may yield, in a
slight degree, to the tremendous impulse of the cen-
trifugal force which the incessant and rapid rotation
of such a huge mass of matter would necessarily call
into action, its oblate figure is, therefore, in this view,
no inconsiderable indication of its motion on an
axis, which we have already had some reason to
suspect.

Sbct. II. The Effects of the Stm's Light and Heat
upon the EaHh.

Length of the days and nights, and variations of the
seasons. — The sun, though some philosophers believe
it is not the only, is certainly one of the principal
causes of the heat which we enjoy ; else there would
not be so striking a connection between the inequali-
ties of the days and nights, unquestionably the effect of
the sun's position, and the vicissitudes of the seasons.
It is curious to observe how all these phenomena are
made to arise from a single circumstance. We have al-
ready seen, in general, how the obliquity of the eclip-
tic is the cause of the inequality in the days and nights.
It is equally the cause of the vicissitudes of the sea-
sons. This obliquity has been found to be nearly
23i° ; and as this circumstance of the sun's not con-
tinuing always in the plane of the equator (p. 488.)
but receding from it alternately towards the north
and south poles, is the only one cause which produ-
ces these effects, we shall tor a moment abstract en-

ASTRONOMY.

503

The earth, tirely from the Jun's motion from west to east, and
suppose (what by the %vay seems at first sight really
the case) that besides his diurnal motion from east to
west, he has also merely a reciprocrating motion from
north to south, and again from south to north. Thus,
let P E p Q, PI. 23. fig. 1. represent 'the earth, and
s S s a portion of the celestial meridian, bounded by
the two tropics, situated each at the distance of 231°
from the equator S Q E, and between which the sun
S is supposed continuallj' to oscillate from s, the tro-
pic of Capricorn in winter, to s the tropic of Cancer
in summer, and from s back again to s, having cross-
ed and re-crossed the equator S, and finislied the
year, the period of these variations.

As a candle only enlightens one half of a ball held
at some distance from it, in the same manner the
sun illuminates but one half of the earth at a time,
the opposite one remaining in darkness. Now the
boundary between light and darkness, — the linewhich
separates the enlightened from the dark hemisphere,
is termed the circle nfillumiiialion. To the whole of tl>e
inhabitants, on one side of this circle it is day, and to
ihe whole of the inhabitants on the other it is night.

This circle, always perpendicular to the direction
of the sun's rays, necessarily changes its position a-
long with the sun. When the sun is in the equator,
at S, it passes through the two poles P p ; and if we
ascribe the diurnal motion to the earth's rotation,
and not to the sun, (the appearances being the same
in either case,) it will retain nearly the same posi-
tion in the course of a da\', and the vicissitude of
day and night will be produced by the places on the
earth successively plunging below this circle into the
hemisphere of darkness, and rising above it into the
hemisphere of light. But when the sun arrives at
either of the tropics, as in Figs. 2. 3. tlie circle of
illumination also arrives into the position A C, Fig.
2. or AC, Fig. 3. touching the opposite sides of the
opposite solar circles, A C, a c. When the sun is at
the equator, therefore, the circle of illumination will
extend from pole to pole ; and as it will be perpen-
dicular to the ecjuator and to all the pai-allcls, it will
divide them all into two equal parts. 13y the effect
of the diurnal motion, then, every place will remain
just as long in the hemisphere of light, PQp, as in
the hemisphere of darkness, P E p ; and the days will
thus be equal to the nights all over the world.

The arrival of the sun at either of the tropics con-
siderably alters this state of things. The circles
of illumination. Figs. 2. and 3. will then touch the
opposite extremities of the arctic circles A C, a c ;
the enlightened hemisphere will now include the
north frigid zone, A PC, Fig. 2. and exclude the south
a p c, or include the south and exclude the north,
as in Fig. 3. according as the sun in June is north of
the equator, at the tropic of Cancer, or south of
it, at the tropic of Capricorn, in December. In the
middle of June, then, as the revolution of the earth
can never bring the inhabitants of the north frigid
zone within the hemisphere of darkness, nor the in-
habitants of the south frigid zone within the hemis-
phere of light, the one will have a continued day
and the other a continued night. At the equator,
however, intermediate between these two extremes,
this change in the sun's position will have no effect

whatever upon the length of the days and nights, Tlx cartfi.
for as the circle of illumination still divides the s^^'/^fc/
equator into two equal parts, it will still be equally
divided between light and darkness, and the days
will still be equal to the nights. Between the equa-
tor and the frigid zones, the inliabitants of the difier -
ent countries will have their days so much longer than
their nights, or their nights longer than their days, in
proportion as they recede from the equator towards
the poles — in proportion as the arcs of their parallels,.
a b, cd, are more and more unequallj^ divided be-
tween light and darkness, as their distance from the
equator increases. In the middle of December, the
situation of things is, in every particular, Llie reverse
of this.

It thus appears, that in whatever part of his cir-
cuit the sun is, the day is uniformly equal to thi
night at the equator. As the sun advances towards
the north, the circle of illumination recedes froni
the two poles, lengthening the days in the northern
hemisphere, and shortening them in the same propor-
tion in the southern, wholly including the countries
round the north pole, which thus begin to have a
continued day, and wholly excluding those round
the south, which thus begin to have a continued
night. When the sun arrives at the tropic of ('ancer,
which happens about the 22d June, it is then the
summer solstice to the countries on the north of the
equator beyond the tropics, and the winter solstice
to those of the south ; the whole of the north frigid
zone has days without nights ; the whole of the op-
posite has nights without days ; all over the north
temperate zone the day is the longest of the year,
and all over the south the shortest ; and these changes
having thus attained their maximum, begin to occur
in the reverse order, till the sun re-enters the equa-
tor on 22d September, the day of the autumnal
equinox. Advancing now to\vards the south, the sun
begins exactly to reverse the order which he had pro-
duced in advancing towards the north, till he arrives
at the tropic ol' Capricorn on the 22d December;
these changes then recommence in the opposite
direction, and continue till the equinox of spring,
when, as usual, the day is equal to the night all
over the world.

Such is the constant progress of the sun, of the
days, and of the seasons. Several causes, however,
tend to diminish the long obscurity of the polar re-
gions. T.'ie least visible ])ortion of the solar disk be-
ing sufficient to produce the day, this circumstance
adds several days to the time when the sun is visible
under the polar circles, because that, after his upper
limb reaches the horizon, it is several days before hh
whole disk is above it. IJefraction aiiguients stiR
farther this effect, particularly in the cold countries,
where the air is very dense. This was observed ii»
1597, by three Hollanders, who, having advanced to
84° (y north latitude, were stopt by the ice, and ob-
liged to pass the winter at Nova Zembla. After three
months of continual night, the cold having become
terrible, the sun appeared for a moment at mid-day
above the horizon, four days sooner than tliev had
expected it at this latitude, and he continued froiw
this time to rise by degrees.

The twilight also is much longer there tlmn wifh

504

ASTRONOMY.

Tlie earth. US ; twilight COmes almost in evei'y part of the earth,
when the sun has got 18° below the horizon. Now,
to a spectator at the pole, wlio has in reality the
equator for his horizon, the sun would never be 18"
,below his horizon till he had 18" of declination, — till
he had adranced 18' on the other side of the equa-
tor, but he never advances beyond SS^J", his greatest
declination ; the twilight, therefore, will never cease
but during the short interval in which the sun moves
from IS" of declination to the tropic, that is, to SSy"
of declination, and from the tropic back again to 18° ;
this is about 70 daj's. So that, on this account, there
will only be 70 days of total darkness at the pole,
though the sun disappears for six months ; and this
interval is much less nearer the polar circles.

Besides this, when the moon is north of the equator,
she is constantly above the polar horizon.

In fine, a great number of meteors, such as aurora
iorealis. and globes of fire, diffuse their light in those
desert regions.

Climates. — .The quantity of heat which any place
on the earth derives from the sun is greater the longer
he continues above the horizon ; it also depends up-
on his elevation. Every one knows, that in the morn-
ing, as the sun rises higher and higher in the sky, the
day becomes hotter, and as he descends in the after-
noon the heat declines in the same manner. The same
cause operates at different places throughout the year,
by the sun's rising to different elevations ; and the ef-
fect is greatest at the equator, decreases towards the
north and south, and is least of all at the poles. As the
sun's declination at the equator never exceeds 23i°, his
roeridian altitude is never less than 664°) and his rays
are therefore never very far from falling quite per-
pendicularly upon the surface of the ground, while at
the poles his altitude never exceeds 23^°) and his
rays are thus never very far from falling quite paral-
lel upon the surface. By the combined effect of these
two causes it is found, that, if the whole heat received
at the equator be 100, the whole heat received at the
pole is only 40; between these extremes it varies by
regular gradations, and in the parallel of45° amounts to
73 ; and this is one powerful cause of those remarka-
ble varieties in the climate of different countries, from
theequator towards the poles. Itis on this account that
the heat is so excessive in the torrid zone, and the
cold in the frigid zones, that while the beauties of na-
ture are scattered with the utmost profusion in the one,
the others are barren and almost uninhabif.able, and
that the countries, such as Europe, in the temperate
zone preserve a happy medium between these ex-
tremes.

Sect. III. On the Tides.

When we consider how invariably every motion
which we -are able to pro'duee on the earth ter-
minates finally in rest, we are apt to imagine that
rest is the natural state of bodies, and to enumerate
among their properties that of sluggishness, inactivi-
ty, or vis inerticE, as it is termed. The celestial bo-
dies seem to present an order of things the very re-
verse. As they are continuallychanging their position,
activity seems to belong to them in a much greater
degree than sluggishness to the bodies on the earth,
and the matter of which they are composed is thus

apparently of a different nature. Wliat are we to think or motions,
then, of the perpetual movements of the ocean, which
changes its figure every instant of the day, by regu-
lar and periodical oscillations, known by the name of
the tides. " It is a circumstance truly astonishing," says
La Place, " to behold, even in calm and serene wea-
ther, the intense agitation of this great fluid mass,
whose waves constantly break with impetuosity upon
the shore. This phenomenon gives rise to reflection,
and excites a str/)ng desire to penetrate the cause."
The following are its appearances.

Twice every day the waters rise in our harbours,
inundate our shores, and ascend our rivers to great
distances, and with great rapidity. This flux of the
tide continues with accelerated velocity for three
hours ; it then gradually diminishes, and in three
hours more ceases altogether; this is high-water, or
high-tide. The waters having now attained their
greatest elevation, the tide turns, the reflux begins,
and the whole mass of the ocean moves for six hours
more in the contrary direction ; it is then Imv water.
The waters have now attained their greatest depres-
sion ; and, after a short interval of repose, the inter-
mediate step in every motion which reverses its di-
rection, the tide again turns, runs for six hours in the
same direction as at first, and again for six hours in
the opposite.

The slightest observation is sufficient to shew, that
these variations are connected with the moon, as
they follow her motions with wonderful regularity.
The moon, as we have seen, rises later and later
every day, until the end of the month, when she a-
gain rises nearly about the same hour as at first. The
time of high-water happens also, until the end of the
month, later and later every day, and in this man-
ner performs the complete circuit, (if we may be al-
lowed the expression, ) of the 24 hours, in the same
time that the moon performs the complete circuit of
the heavens.

The sun has also a sensible connection with the
tides; for when the moon is in conjunction, the oscil-
lation of the ocean is then the greatest, the tides be-
ing then invariably highest at high-water and lowest
at low-water ; it is then spring-tide. When the moon
is in opposition, the tides are then lowest at high-
water and highest at low-water, and it is then neej)-
tide. This connection has been traced in all its de-
tails, and for almost every inequality in the motions
or in the distances of the sun and moon, a similar in-
equality has been found in the motions of the ocean
and in their intensity ; there can hardly be a case,
therefore, where we could say with more proprietj',
that the one is the cause of the other.

It thus appears, that the earth is intimately con-
nected with the bodies in the heavens, and probabl)^,
therefore, forms a part of the same system. But the
heavenly bodies are continually in motion, — Can we
believe, then, that the earth is in complete repose ?

Chap. III. Of the Motions comjion to all
THE Heavenly Bodies.

We have already discovered one motion, namely
the diurnal, to which all the heavenly bodies, without
any exception, are subject. There is another of the

ASTRONOMY.

506

Of motion, same kind, whicli, on account of its slowness, is not
so easily observed, but whose accumulated effect is
rendered quite sensible by comparing ancient with
modern observations.

Since the time of the ancient astronomers, its effect
is visible to the naked eye ; for the pole star, which is
now within 2° of the pole, was far distant from it in
the time of Hipparchus, who was the first to notice
this curious motion, and who was thence led to set down
in a catalogue the positions of the stars, that posterity
might be thus enabled to recognise any change in their
positions. The event proved the utility of this bold
project, as it is from his observations that the mean
quantity of this motion is still deduced. Thus, Hip-
parchus, 128 years before Christ, found the longitude
of the star spica xurginis, 5s. 24° C ; and in 1750 it was
6s. 20' 21 ; so that in 1878 years its longitude had in-
creased no less than 26° 21', more than ^\th of the
whole circumference. Now the longitude of a star
is its distance, reckoned upon the ecliptic, from
the vernal equinox. Either then the above star must
have advanced slowly from the vernal equinox to-
wards the east, or the equinoxial point itself, in
consequence of some change in the positions of the
equator, or ecliptic, of which circles it is the point of
intersection, must, on this account, have retrograd-
ed from the star towards the west. But this motion
is found in all the stars, without any exception ; it is na-
tural, therefore, to ascribe it rather to a regression in
the equinox itself; and accordingly it has been term-
ed the precession of the equinoxial points, or of the
equinoxes.

The next object was to discover whether this pre-
cession belonged to the ecliptic or the equator ; and
it has been found, by comparing together a variety of
observations, that while the latitudes of the stars, or
their distances from the ecliptic, remain always near-
ly the same, their increase of longitude is accompa-
nied by an increase of right ascension in all of them,
and of their declinations or distances from the equa-
tor, by a small increase in some, and decrease in
others. In short, all the appearances are represent-
ed by supposing either the celestial sphere, or the earth
itself, to have a compound motion, of which the diur-
nal is only one of the elements. In the first case, the
earth, e, (Plate 23. Fig. 4.) along with the axis of the
equator, Pp, would remain at rest, and the sphere,
P E p Q, would not only revolve once a day on the
axis, P p, of the equator, E Q, and in the direction
E e Q, from east to west, but, at the same time, would
have also a much slower motion upon the axis, Pp, of
the ecliptic E C, and in the opposite direction, jB e C,
and not completing a revolution in less than 25,000
years.

By the effect of this motion, different stars will oc-
cupy the position of the north pole in different ages ;
in i;3,000 years the pole star, which is now only two,
will be more than lO" from it ; and the sphere will thus
seem in different ages to perform its diurnal rotation
on verj'dlft'erent points.

But this motion is equally represented by ascribing
it to the earth, whose axis, Pp', Fig. 4. always corres-
ponding to the same point of its surface, and quite ex-
empt from any diurnal motion, would nevertheless,
have upon its centre, e, a slow conical motion round an

VOL. I. PAKT II.

axis,P'/)',' passing, when produced, through the poles The sbji.
of the ecliptic, Pp. By the effect of this motion, the
poles, P p', would correspond successively to difter-
ent parts of the heavens, and thus the same appear-
ances would be produced, but unquestionably in a
much simpler manner.

Chap. IV. Of the Sun.

Sect. I. Distance and Magnitude of the Sun.

Distance. — When we attempt to find the sun's dis-
tance from the earth, by observing his position at the
same instant from different places, it is found to be
so great, and his horizontal parallax so small, as not.
to be determined in this manner with any degree of
exactness. All that can be discovered from it is, that
this distance is at least 6000 diameters of the earth.
The observation of what are termed the traiisits of
Venus over the sun's disk, aftbrds the means of deter-
mining his parallax with much greater precision ; and
in this manner it has been fixed at 8" 7, and his dis-
tance at 95 millions of miles.

Magnitude. — At this distance we are certain that
the earth would appear under an angle of no more
than 17', and the mean apparent diameter of the sun
is 32' 3". Hence, as the volumes of spherical bodies
are as the cubes of their diameters, the volume of the
sun is at least 200,000 times greater than that of tha
earth.

Sect. II. Motions of the Sun.

We liave already found, by abstracting entirely
from the sun's diurnal motion, that he appears to re-
volve round the earth once a year, in a plane which is*
inclined to the equator at a certain obliquity. Buf
one body may move in a plane round another in a
variety of ways. The sun may continue always
in the same plane, while he may move in a circle, in
an ellipse or oval, or in any other re-entering curve, of
which the earth also may occupy either the centre or
any other point. The sun may also move in his path in
a regular or an irregular manner. All these things can
only be determined by measuring with greater exact-
ness his positions at different times of the year, and
comparing them with each other.

For this purpose his meridian altitude, and the inter-
val of time between his passage and that of a star over
the meridian, are observed with extreme precision every
day. From tlie one is deduced his declination, from the
otherhisright ascension. These datagive us a complete
series of his longitudes, or of his angular positions on
the ecliptic ; and one element more, namely, his dis-
tance from the earth, is only necessary to complete
our knowledge of his positions in space. To the above
observations, therefore, are joined those of his appa-
rent diameter, and we are thus enabled to delineate
the series of points which the above angular and li-
near distances determine, and to exhibit, by their
union, a reduced plan of the solar orbit. In this man-
ner may the sun's path be recognised, by observations
continued for a single year. But it was only by suc-
cessive approximations that the discovery was first
made, and this process may perhaps better illustrate
the nature of the motion.

38

506

ASTRONOM"?,

The son. I'" the sun move uniformly round the earth as a
centre, his distance from it, and his velocity, should be
alwaj-s the same ; but very sensible variations are ob-
served in his apparent diameter, the index of his dis-
tance, as well as in his daily motion in longitude, the
measure of his velocity, — the difterence between his
position to-day and his position to-morrow. On the
1st of July, for example, his diameter was found to
be 31' 31", and on the 1st of January 32' 35" .6, while
he moved from the 1st to the 2d of July 57' 13" in
longitude, and from the 1st to the 2d of January 1*
I'll". Neither his distance, therefore, nor his velo-
city, is constant, and he cannot move uniformly in a
circle of whicli the earth occupies the centre.

But by ascribing to the earth an eccentric position,
the sun might still retain his uniform circular mo-
tion, and at the same time exhibit variations botli in
distance and velocity. For at the point S, PI. 23.
Fig. 5. in the circle S A s, he would be nearer to
the earth E, than at the point S, by twice, E C, the
earth's distance from the centre C ; while, on account
of this proximity, his velocity at S, though really the
same, would appear greater than at s ; the space S 1
which he describes in a day at s, though really equal
to s 1, which he describes in a day at s, would appear
to a spectator on the earth to be magnified in the exact
proportion of the distance E s to E S, in the pro-
portion of his apparent diameter at S, to his appa-
rent diameter at s. Lot us see, then, if this pro-
portion actually holds. His apparent diameter on the
1st of July and on the 1st of January, were to each
other as 31' 31" to 32' 35" .6; that is, as 1 to 1.0339,
M'hile his corresponding velocities were to each other
as 57' 13" to 1° 1' 11", that is, as 1 to 1.0693, instead
of being as 1 to 1.0339. The same proportion is ob-
served in every other part of his orbit. The sun,
therefore, cannot move in a circle at all ; and the last
supposition, though it more nearly represents tlie ap-
pearance, is still far from the truth.

By proceeding in this manner, from one hypothesis
to another, it was at last discovered by the celebrated
Ivepler, that a single and very remarkable law con-
nects together these distances and velocities. He
found, that while the sun's distance from the earth
increases, his velocity diminishes in a ratio only half
as great, that is to say, if his distance at any point
of his course be 1, and his velocity 1, then, if his
distance at any other point were 2, his velocity would
be I , and if his distance were 3, his velocity would he^.
From this it follows, that if a line E S, Fig. 5. termed
the radius vector, be conceived to join their centres,
and to be carried round the earth by the revolution
of the sun, the areas described by the radius vector, are
always proportioned to ike times of description. Thus,
if S 1 2 3, be the positien of the sun in successive
days, then the areas SEl, 1E2, 2E3, &c. are all
equal, being described in the same time ; and the
areas S E 1, SE2, SE3, &c. are proportional to
SI, S2, §"3, c&c. the times in which they are de-
scribed. This law is termed the first law of' Kepler.

Now the curve called the ellipse is the only one
which satisfies the conditions of this law, — is the only
one in which one body can move unequally round
another, and describe by its radius vector, areas pro-

portional to the times. Hence is deduced the second
hnv of Kepler, that the solar orbit is an ellipse of which
the earth occupies one of the foci.

The ellipse is that curve which is described by fix-
ing upon two immoveable points, V f. Fig. 6. the ex-
tremities of a thread, F K' f a pencil A stretching the
thread to the position F Kf, and sliding along it,
then traces the ellipse ABED. The immoveable
points F/, are termed the foci of the ellipse. The
line E Fy'D which joins them, and being produced
both ways, terminates at the curve in the parts B D,
is called the greater axis of t!ie ellipse. It is the di-
rection in which the curve is elongated, and is evi-
dently equal to the length of the thread. The line
A C E, drawn through the centre C, perpendicular
to the greater axis, and meeting the curve in the
points A E, is the lesser axis. It is round the earth,
situated in one of the foci E, Fig. 7. that the sun
seems annually to revolve in the course P B A. The
point P, in which he is nearest the earth, — where his
apparent diameter also, and his velocity, are the
greatest, is termed the perigee. The opposite point A,
where he is farthest from the earth, and where con-
sequently his diameter and velocity are the least, is
termed the apogee. At the intermediate point, B,
his distance is a mean between his greatest and least
distances ; it is then equal to A C, the half of the
greater axis A P. The distance C E, from the centre
to the focus, is termed the eccentricity. It is evi-
dently equal to the difference between A E, and A C,
equal to the excess of his greatest above his mean
distance. Tlie smaller the eccentricity of an el-
lipse, or the smaller the distance between its foci,
the nearer does it approach to a circle, which is its
form when the eccentricity becomes nothing, — when
the two foci are united in the centre of the ellipse.

The solar ellipse, in form, differs but little from a
circle. The eccentricity amounts to little more than
one-sixteenth of the mean distance ; but neither its
form nor its position remains always the same. They
are subject to slow changes, which are only rendered
sensible by the comparison of distant observations,
and are termed secular inequalities. Since the pe-
riod of the most ancient observations, the eccentri-
city has been diminishing ; and at a rate which, if it
were to continue uniform, would change the sun's
orbit into a circle, and his unequal into a uniform
motion, in about 36,000 years. The position of the
orbit is fixed by the inclination of its plane to that of
the ecliptic, and by the inclination of the greater axis
to the line of the equinoxes ; that is, by the longitude
of the apogee or perigee. Now the orbit is found
to approach by insensible degrees to the equator,
and the longitude of the apogee to be continually in-
creasing; so that if AP, Fig. 8. be its position in one age,
A' P will be its position in another; tlie secular di-
minution, or the diminution in a century, of the obli-
quity of the ecliptic, is 12'', and the secular progres-
sion of the axis relatively to the fixed stars is 19^ 4".

The elliptic motion, however, even with all these
variations, does not exactly represent modern obser-
vation. Their extreme precision has indicated sraalh
inequalities, of which the laws have only been deve-
loped by the discovery of their cause.

Tli^i

ASTRONOMY.

507

Tite fan.

Sect. III. Measures of Time.

The events indicated by the motions of the sun
have been universally adopted for the standard mea-
sures of time. The intervals that elapse between his
successive arrivals at the same equinox, form the
years; and the intervals between his successive ar-
rivals upon the meridian, form the days.

Days. — In civil life, the day is the interval be-
tween the rising and setting of the sun, and the
night the period of his continuance below the liori-
aon. What is termed the solar, or astronomical day,
is the interval between two consecutive noons, or
midnights, — between the instantof the sun's transit to-
day, and the instant of his transit to-morrow. When
time-pieces were introduced, and came gradually to
be improved, a variation wai perceived in the length
of the solar days. The clock was found not to keep
exact pace with the sun ; and the nicer its construc-
tion, the more clearly did it indicate this inequality.

Mean time. — Since the solar day, then, is not al-
ways of the same duration, it is necessary to adopt
another which shall have this property, and with
which our clocks may correspond. For this purpose
astronomers have adopted that which is termed
the mean solar day, its length being a medium be-
tween all the solar days in the year. The time mea-
sured by these mean days, is called mean time ; that
measured by the true solar days, true, or apparent
time. Apparent time is that which is indicated by a
sun-dial ; but it is according to mean time that all
our clocks are regulated, and all our reckonings
made. As the beginning and end, however, of the
mean, is not indicated by any phenomenon, as that
of the true day is by the solar transits, the clock
can still only be regulated to mean time by observ-
ing the instant of the sun's transit, and applying to it
the difference between. the true and the mean time,
which is found by calculation.

Equation of time. — This difference is called the
equation of time. It is the number of minutes and
seconds by which the noon of a well regulated clock
ought to precede or follow that of a dial. It is set
down on a table for every day of the year ; and to
regulate a clock, it is only necessary to set it, so
that when the sun crosses the meridian, the hand of
the clock may be distant from the hour of XII,
either before or after it, by a quantity equal to the
equation of time for that day, as shown in the table.

Two causes contribute to produce this inequality
in the solar days ; the unequal motion of the sun in
his orbit, and the inclination of that orbit to the
equator.

Years. — The revolutions of the sun, from any point
to the same point again, are in genera! termed years,
of which there are several kinds, namely; 1. The
hoiax or tropical year, which is the interval between
the successive arrivals of the sun at the same tropic ;
2. The sidereal year, the interval between his ar-
rivals at the same star, which consists of 365'' 6'' 9'
11"; and, 3. The anomalistic year, the intervals be-
tween his arrivals at the apogee or perigee, which
consists 0(365' C 14'.

Kalendar. — It is the tropical year which regulates
the return of the seasons ; and as it does not contaic
2

a complete number of solar days, the mode of ad- The nm.
justing the kalendar is somewhat complex. For this
purpose, the exact length of the year, — the number
of days, hours, <Src. that elapse between two conse-
cutive arrivals of the sun at the equinox must be
known. But the year is not always of the same du-
ration any more than the day. It is subject to an
inequality, of which, as it depends upon the preces-
sion of the equinoxes, the period is 25,950 years ;
and the length of the mean solar year, by which the
kalendar is regulated, is the medium between that of
all the years of this period. By comparing ancient
with modern observations, its length has been found
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 50 seconds.

If the length of the year were reckoned exactly
365 days, it would produce no inconvenience for two
or three years'; but in four years the error would
amount nearly to a day, and we would then begin
the new year a day before the other was ended. The
error, however, would continually accumulate ; and
after a certain period, the beginning of the year
would correspond successively to every day of spring,
summer, autumn, and winter. To avoid "this incon-
venience, we make every fourth, or leap year as it is
termed, consist of 366 days ; and this addition of a
day is termed intercalation. But the error does not
ameunt exactly to a day in four years ; hence an-
other correction is necessary at the end of a centu-
ry, when the leap year consists of only 365 days ;
and to obtain still greater accuracy, a third correc-
tion is applied at the end of four centuries, when the
secular leap year is made, like the rest, 366 days. In
this manner the days of the year are made to cor-
respond with the days of the seasons for any length
of time, and with the greatest exactness.

Sect. IV. Nature of the Sun.

Spots. — At such an amazing distance, it seems vain
to hope that we shall ever discover the nature and
constitution of the sun. The indefatigable labours
of modern astronomers have nevertheless led to some
curious results regarding it. The face of the sun,
when viewed with a telescope, though of a bright
and intense light, far above that of any other object,
is often marked with dark spots, which, when exa-
mined from day to day, are found to traverse the
whole surface, from east to west, in the space nearly
of 14 days. The number, magnitude, and position
of these spots are extremely variable. Sometimes
they are so large as to be seen through a dark glass
with the naked eye. In the year 1779, Dr Herschel
perceived one about 50,000 miles in diameter, — more
than six times the size of our earth. When a spot
is first discovered on the eastern limb, it appears like
a fine line ; its breadth augments as it approaches
the-middle of the disk, from which it diminishes as
it goes over to the western limb, where, at last, it en-
tirely disappears. The same spot, after 14 days, is
sometimes discovered again on the eastern side. It is
not often, however, that this happens, as the spots
during that period disappear, leaving sometimes be-
hind them a superior brightness or luminous spot,
termed ajhcida, in the position which they had oc-
cupied. Many of the spots disappear altogether in
the course of a few days. Sometimes a number of

508

• A S T R O ^^ O M Y.

The sun. small spots unites into one large spot ; at other times
a large spot separates into a number of small ones,
which soon entirely disappear. The central portion
or dark nucleus of a spot, is usually surrounded with
a penumbra or fainter shade, and both the nucleus
and the penumbra are almost perpetually changing
their appearance. When Dr Long was examining
the sun's image, received upon a sheet of white pa-
per, he observed a large round spot divide itself m-
lo two, which receded from each other with immense
rapidity. Tlic Bev. Dr Wollaston also observed a
spot to burst in pieces, like a mass of ice thrown up-
on a frozen pond.

As might have been expected, the opinions of as-
tronomers are divided concerning these singular
appearances. According to some, the spots indicate
an abatement, previously to a general extinction of
the great conflagration which had hitherto raged
•with unabated fury upon the sun. Some suppose
them to be elevations or islands, which appear and
disappear by the flux and reflux of an ocean of li-
quid fire ; while others consider them merely as
the scum which floats uj5on the surface of this im-
mense fluid mass. La Place conceives them to in-
dicate vivid effervescences, of which our volcanoes
form but a feeble representation. But Dr Wilson,
of Glasgow, was induced, by his own observations,
tfl reject entirely the notion of the sun's being an ig-
ueous body. The observations of Dr Herschel, with
tlie most powerful telescopes that have ever been
contrived, lead him to support a similar theory, and
even to hazard the opinion of the sun's being a ha-
bitable world. The sun, he supposes, consists of
a dark, solid nucleus, surrounded by two strata of
clouds, from the exterior of which proceed that heat
and light which extend to the remotest extremities
of the system, while the interior stratum serves to
screen the inhabitants of the centre from the fury of
the element which rages around them.

This theory is certainly liable to many objections,
and others have been accordingly proposed with the
view of obviating them ; but the want of facts is a
bar to any just theory upon the subject. That great
changes are continually going on at the surface of
this pnormous mass can hardly be doubted ; but the
nature of these stupendous operations, on account
of the distance at which they take place, must pro-
bably continue for ever unknown. A connexion
has. beery supposed to exist between t]>e appearance
of the spots and the heat which the sun emits ; but
the grounds of this opinion are not considered by all
as fully satisfactory.

Rotation. — Whatever be the nature of the spots,
ihey have made us acquainted with a remarkable phe-
nomenon, the rotation of the sun upon an axis.

By observing their successive positions, it is found,
. that the patlis of different spots are always parallel
and similar to each other, but that they are all sub-
ject to change of figure, which, as they go through
all their variations, and are regularly repeated every
year, are evidently connected with the positions of
the sun. They are all completely represented, by
supposing the spots to be attached to the spherical
surface of the sun, and to revolve along with him in
itjcrtain period, and on an axis inclined at a certain

^ngle to the ecliptic ; and as no fact has-been disco- The moo«.
vered at variance with this hypothesis, it can hardly v^Fy-i^
be doubted that this is really the case. The axis of
his rotation has been calculated, from these observa-
tions, to he inclined to the plane of the ecliptic at
an angle of 7" 20', and the period of his rotation to
be '25" 5" 56"'. It is less than the interval between
tlie successive appearances of a spot : but this arises
from tlie rotatory motion of the spot being, to a spec-
tator on the earth, combined with the sun's annual
motion from west to east, which, being in the same
direction with that of the spot, has the effect of pro-
tracting the instant of its reappearance.

Chap. V. Of the Moon.

Sect. I. Distance and Magnitude of the Moon.

Diftance — The same method which was insufficient
to determine with requisite exactness the parallax
of the sun, discovers that of the moon, at a medium
57' 39", which gives the moon's mean distance at
240,000 miles.

Magnitude — At this distance, then, the earth sub-
tends an angle of 1° 51' 18" ; while the moon, at the
same distance, subtends an angle only of 31' 20".
Their diameters, therefore, are in the ratio of these
numbers, or very nearly as 3 to 1 1 ; and the volume
of the lunar globe is 49 times less than that of the
earth.

Sect. II. Motions of the Moon.

By pursuing the same method which enabled them
to recognise the motions of the sun, astronomers have
discovered those of the moon. By observing her
meridian altitude, declination, and apparent diame-
ter, every day, the positions of a series of points are
obtained, and their union forms a representation of
lier orbit. From these observations it has been found,
that her motions exactly resemble those of the sun,
but on a smaller scale. Like the sim, she approaches
and recedes from the earth — goes quicker in one part
of her course than in another. The line drawn from
her centre to the centre of the earth, describes round
it areas proportional to the times ; and, in short, she
moves in an ellipse of which the earth occupies one
of the foci. The plane of the moon's orbit is inclin-
ed to the plane of the ecliptic 5° 8' 49'' ; it cuts it,
therefore, in two opposite points, as in PI. 21. Fig. 17;
These points are termed the nodes ; and the imagi-
nary line which joins them, the line of the nodes.
The ascending node is that where the moon crosses
tlie ecliptic in ascending towards the north pole ;
the descending node is the opposite one, where she
crosses the ecliptic to descend towards the south.
The position of the nodes is indicated by the moon
having no latitude, or being in the ecliptic. Her
mean distance, or half the greater axis of her ellipse,
being one, the eccentricity is Oj05S ; but neither the
form nor the position of her orbit remains the same.
Like the orbit of the sun, it is subject to a very com-
plicated motion, which is represented by decompos-
nig it into several elements. 1st, It has an oscilla-
tory motion upon its lesser axis, by which its incli-
jiatipn to the ecliptic is continually varyhig. 2d; ft

ASTRONOMY.

509

rChe moan, has a rapid motion of rotation round its focus, the
^-^^r*^ eartli, by which the apogee is made to describe, from
west to east, a sidereal revolution in 8' 312* ll* ll""
30', and which is easily recognised by observing the
stars with which the moon is successively in contact,
when she successively arrives at her apogee, or lias
successively her least diameter. And, lastly, It has
another motion, by which the nodes perform a revo-
lution among the stars, and along the ecliptic, in a
period of 18'' 223" 7" 13'" 17'. The comparison of
ancient with modern observations shews also incon-
testibly an acceleration in its mean motion, which,
though little sensible since the most ancient record-
ed eclipse, will be developed in ^irogress of time ;
but the discovery of its cause has anticipated these
observations, and shewn, that after a certain period
it will stop, and be converted into a retardation, and
thus go on for ever.

The elliptic motion, however, is much farther
from representing the true motion of the moon than
of the sun. This motion is subject to a great many
other irregularities ; so that the ellipse, even with all
the above changes in its figure and situation, is still
only the mean orbit of the moon, to which the ap-
plication of not one but many equations is still neces-
sary to form the true motion. The knowledge of
these equations is necessary for the construction of
correct lunar tables, an object of so much import-
ance since the idea was conceived of employing her
motions for determining the longitude at sea.

The revolutions of the moon to different points, in
general termed months, are of different lengths, on
account of the motions of the lunar orbit. The sy-
jiodical month is the interval between two consecu-
tive arrivals of the moon in conjunction with, or in
opposition to the sun ; its mean length, as determin-
ed by a comparison with ancient and modern eclip-
ses, is 29" 12' W- 2'. ITie sidereal of 27" 7" 43"" 1 1',
is the interval between the moon's successive arrivals
at the same longitude with a star ; the tropical,
27" 7" 43"" 4' ; and the anomalistic, 27" 13" 18' 37"',
the interval between its successive arrivals at the
apogee or perigee.

Secj. III. Eclipies.

We have already explained the reasons for ascrib-
ing the eclipses of the moon to the circumstance of
her passing through the shadow of the earth, and
the eclipses of the sun to her casting a shadow upon
the earth, and thus depriving us for a time of his
light. A more correct knowledge of the lunar mo-
tions has left no doubt of this result, by shewing that
at the time of an eclipse the position of the moon co-
incides exactly with that of the body M,' Plate 21.
Fig. 16. which, casting behind it a shadow, rt i c (/,
darkens the sun ; and that the position of the earth's
shadow coincides exactly with efgh, which darkens
tlie moon ; so that the beginning and end of these
phenomena can be predicted to less than a minute
for a great many years in advance. For this purpose
it is only necessary to find, from the lunar and solar
tables, when the moon and the earth have such posi-
tions relatively to the sun as ultimately to deprive
each other of his light.

it is obvious that no eclipse can happen but when

the centres of the sun, the moon, and the earth are Tliemoon.
almost, if not altogether, in one straight line. Thus, \^>>v-^
if the moon, in her monthly revolution, never ap-
proached nearer than at M', Fig. 16. to the line S E,
which joins the earth and sun S, its shadow, what-
ever might be its range, would go quite beyond the
earth, and in like manner the shadow of the earth
would go quite beyond the moon at m ; but as the
centre of the moon, when she is either beyond the
earth, or between the sun and the earth, approaches
the straight line, S E, its shadow, if long enough,
will fall more and more upon the earth on the one
hand, and she would herself enter farther and farther
into the shadow of the earth on the other. To pro-
duce an eclipse, then, it is necessary that the sun and
moon be either at least very nearly in the same, or
very nearly in the opposite direction relatively to the
earth.

By calculating the positions and magnitudes of the
sun and moon it is found, upon the whole, that when
the moon in opposition is about 12^° from the node,
there can be no lunar eclipse, and when less than 9"
distant from it there must be one; and also that if;
the moon in conjunction is within 17°2l'of the node,
there may be a solar eclipse, — if it be more distant,
there can be none.

If the distances, then, of the new and full moons
from the nodes are without the ecliptic liiaits, there
will be no eclipse; and if within them, an ecHpse
will certainly happen, of which the time, duration,
&c. may be calculated according to the directions
which usually accompany the tables.

A very near approximation, however, to tlie time
of an eclipse is discovered with facility, by means of
the famous period of 18 years 10" 7'' 43"", at die end
of which period the sun and moon, recommencing
very nearly the same series of positions that they had
before, all the eclipses of the sun and moon recur
nearly at the same time. ,.

Sect. IV* Nature qf the Moon.

The phenomena of eclipses prove incontestibly that
the moon is, like the earth, an opaque mass of matter,
deriving most, if not the whole, of her light from the
sun ; and the phenomena of her phases, of which the
explanation already given is thus fully confirmed,
are equally decisive as to her roundness.. The dis-
coveries of the telescope have still farther extended
this analog}', by shewing that the irregular mottled
appearance which she presents, even to the naked .
eye, arises from the extreme diversity of her surface,
on which a careful examination discovers what is be-
lieved to be great mountains, level plains, and deep
vallies. That this is really the case, is concluded
from the appearance of darkspots behind the moun-
tains, which, as they vary with the position of the
sun, can only be the shadows which they cast behind
them on the plains. Before the full moon wc see tlleso
mountains, forming a very rag/^ed border betwcerr--
its enlightened and dark hemisphere, and project-
ing their summits beyond the line of light by a quan.
tity which, being measured, indicates their height ;
according to some astronomers, it surpasses that
of any of the mountains on the earth, amounting in
many cases to -i and even 5 lailt's, while others con-

510

ASTRONOMY.

Tlie planeti, ceive these estimates to be somewhat exaggerated.
The lunar cavities are also indicated by the darkness
of the one side, and the brightness of the otlier,
which is opposite the sun ; while this contrast va-
nishes as the moon approaches the opposition where
the sun's rays fall directly upon its surface. The
depth of these cavities has been estimated at from

■ 2 to 3 miles ; they resemble nothing en the earth
except it be the bason of »ur seas. These mountains,
cavities, and other irregularities are quite permanent,
and preserve alwa)'s nearly the same position on the
moon's surface ; its promontories and other remark-

. able points have been named by seme after the most
celebrated astronomers — and, by others, after the
mountains and countries on the earth.

Atmosphere It was long doubted, whether the

moon, like the eartli, was surrounded by an atmos-
phere. The fact seems now, however, to be establish-
ed by the observations of Schroeter. This celebrated
astronomer discovered in the moon a faint glimmer-
ing light, extending a little beyond the crescent into
the dark hemisphere. From the breadth of this line
of light, which he ascribes to the twilight produced

.'by the lunar atmosphere, he infers that the height
of the denser portions of that atmosphere which re-
flects the rays of light, and which on the earth rises
forty-five miles, cannot be more than 1500 feet ;
and where it would cease to affect the brightness of
a star, not more than 5700 feet. In the observations
accordingly, which he made on the stars, scarcely
any indistinctness could be observed in them before
their disappearing behind the moon. Such being the
extreme rarity of its atmosphere, we may conclude
that no terrestrial animal could live or respire at the
moon, and that its inhabitants, if there be any upon
it, must be of a different nature. It is well known,
that fluids are more easily dissipated into vapour in
proportion as the weight which compresses them is
withdrawn. There is reason to think, then, that
where so little atmospheric pressure prevails, all must
be solid at the surface of the moon. And though its
level plains were at one time ascribed to the smooth
surface of its seas and lakes, more exact observations
render extremely doubtful the existence of any great
body of water. The most powerful telescopes rather
present the moon to us as an arid mass upon which
some have thought they perceived the effects, and
even the explosion of volcanoes.

Moon's rotation. — From the motion of the solar spots
has been inferred the rotation of the sun on his axis.
The same conclusion is drawn, in regard to the moon,
from the apparent rest of her spots. For as we go
round and round a building when we wish to have a
view of it on every side, in the same manner would the
moon present to us, in succession, every portion of
its surface, if, without moving on its axis, it only re-
volved round the earth, the appearances being evident-
ly the same as if the earth went round and round the
moon at rest. Thus, if a spectator on the earth should
observe a remarkable spot S, PI. 23, Fig. 11. on the
centre of the full moon at M, he would evidently lose
sight of it by the time the moon, if immoveable on
her axis, arrived at her quarter at m ; and another
spot s, which he did not at first observe, would now oc-
cupy the same centre position ; and in order that the

same spot as at first should still be observed on her
centre, it woul d be absolutely necessary for her to make
a quarter rotation in a direction contrary to that of
her revolution. When the moon, therefore, in re-
volving round the earth, still presents to us a figure
whose general appearance, though extremely irre-
gular is always the same, and which must on this
account be undoubtedly the same half of her surface,
we may be assured that the moon has really a
rotation on its axis, in a direction contrary to and
keeping exact pace with her revolution round the
earth.

Continued observations, however, have discovered
some slight motions in the lunar spots ; they seem to
approach to and recede alternately from the limb ;
those that are very near the circumference appear
and disappear successively on the opposite sides ;
those on the east appearing while those on the west
are disappearing, and conversely ; so that the moon
herself seems subject to a periodical oscillation on
its axis, termed the librafioii of the moon, of which
there are three kinds, and all of them apparent and
relative to a spectator on the earth. The first is
termed the diurnal Ubraiion, — the second the libration
in longitude, — the third the libration in latitude.

Chap. VI. Of the Planets.

The motion of the planets, as we have seen, appears
to be extremely irregular, and we have also explain-
ed the hypothesis upon which all these irregularities
are made to vanish. The indefatigable labours of
modern astronomers, aided b)' the exquisite refine-
ments of science and of art, have confirmed, in a
most surprising manner, tlie truth of this hypothe-
sis, and established upon the evidence of the senses
the existence of the beautiful system which Pytha-
goras had only suspected, on account of its extreme
simplicity.

They have also discovered five other bodies, which,
as their motions are of the same kind, have been
added to the list of the planets. The following are
their names : — Juno, Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and the
Georgium Sidus, Hcrschel, or Uranus. The four
first move in orbits, which lie between those of Mars
and Jupiter ; the last is at the greatest distance of
all from the sun ; its orbit lies beyond that of Sa-
turn.

By applying the micrometer to measure the appa-
rent diameters of the planets, it is found that their
distances from the earth are subject to variations
much greater than those either of the sun or moon ;
and by comparing tliese distances with their observed
right ascensions and declinations we obtain a series of
their positions, whose union forms the figures of their
orbits. But, on setting down these positions rela-
tively to the earth every day, and joining them toge-
ther, there arises, for each of the planets a curve,
so extremely complex, that the ancient astronomers,
neglecting the system of Pythagoras, only wasted
their ingenuity in their attempts to reduce them to
greater simplicity. Each planet was supposed to move
uniformly in a circular orbit, itself in motion on the
circumference of another circle, and this again moving
round the earth. Each new inequality, however, which

The planets.

ASTRO

Tlie planets, observation gradually brought to light in the motions,
.^^V^^ required the assumption of a new circle or epicycle, as
it is termed, to represent it ; and thus the system, in-
stead of growing in strength and simplicity with the
progress of discovery was visibly approaching in
complexity that wliicli it attempted to explain. At
last the idea was again revived of setting down, not
the position of the planets relatively to the earth, —
not their geocentric, but their heliocentric positions ; —
the positions found by calculation in which they would
liave appeared to a spectator on the sun.

True orbits of the planets. — The duvelopement of
this happy idea has changed the whole aspect of the
heavenly motions, and order and consistency have
succeeded to tlie former confusion. It was now found,
and the observations of nearly 500 years have only
more and more confirmed this result, that a single
law, the same which wc have already explained for
the sun and moon, pervades the whole planetary mo-
tions. When their distances from the sun, and their
directions are set down for every day, it appears, that
while the distances increase, their velocities diminish;
so that the radii vectores continually describe areas
proportional to the times. In a word, that they all
move in ellipses, of which, however various the forms
and positions, the sun is the common focus. These
ellipses, except in a few cases, differ but httle in form
from circles ; they are all subject to the same kind
of changes, both in form and position, and the pla-
nets to the same kind of deviations from them with
those which have been described in the cases of the
sun and moon ; the planes of their orbits are all
somewhat inclined to that of the ecliptic, though this
obliquity never exceeds 7°, except in the case of
the new planets between Mars and Jupiter ; the
point which is termed the apogee in the solar orbit,
is termed the aphelion in those of the planets ; the
perigee, the perihelion ; these points are also term-
ed the apsides; and the line which joins them, name-
ly, the greater axis of the ellipse, the li?ie of the ap-
sides.

Plate 2,5. Fig. 1. represents the relative dimensions
of the orbits of the planets, with the positions of
their apheiia and perih.elia, their mean distances from
the sun in millions of miles being also set down for
each. Fig. 2. represents the inclinations of their or-
bits. PI. 24. Fig. 5, 6, 7,8, represents their relative mag-
nitudes, their diameters in English miles being also
set down along with the name of each ; and the fol-
lowing are the periods of their revolutions ; the ec-
centricities of their orbits, their mean distances be-
ing 1 ; and their mean apparent diameters as seen from
the earth :

Sidereal Revolutions. Ecc. orbits. Ap. diam.
years, daj/s, hours.
Mercury.... 0 87 23 0.205 10"

Venus 0 224. 16 0.006 58"

Mars 1 321 23 0.093 27"

Vesta 5 240 0.093 0" ,5

Juno 4 131 0.255 3"

Ceres 4 221 12 0.078 4"

Pallas 4 221 15 0.245 3"

•lupiter 11 317 14 0.048 39"

Saturn 29 174 I 0.056 18"

Uranus 8* 29 0.016 4

N O IM Y.

511

A very remarkable law, and it is the third of the Theplancti
laws of Kepler, connects together these periods with s^%'*^-'
the mean distances of the planets from the sun. It
is found, on comparing them together, that thescpiares
of the periods of the revolutions of the planets are jjro-
portionaltothe cubes of their mean distances. Thus the
period of Jupiter is 4332^, 14\ and of Mercury 87%
23'', and the squares of these numbers are nearly as
2425 to 1. Now the mean distances of tliese planets
are expressed by 5.2027 and 0.3871, that of the
earth being I, and the cubes of these numbers are to
each other nearly as 24'27 to 1 .

The new planets between Mars and Jupiter are
distinguished from all the rest by their smallness, by
the great inclination of some of their orbits to the
ecliptic, by their great eccentricity, and, above all.
by their orbits crossing each other. These, and other
circumstances, which a minute examination of their
magnitudes, orbits, &c., has brought to light, lead
some to suppose that thcj' are the i'ragments of a
larger planet which once existed between Mars and
Jupiter, but which has been burst in pieces by some
internal convulsion.

Sect. II. Nature of the Planets.

Such are the principal elements of the orbits of tlie ■
planets. Not content, however, with tlius ascertain-
ing, in the complctest manner, the laws of their posi-
tions ; not content with considering the planets mere-
ly as luminous objects, astronomers have endeavour-
ed, by means of the telescope, to extend their views
into the interior of these apparently impenetrable re- ■
gions ; and the more these researches are continued,
the more do these bodies seem to form the parts of a
great system, — the more do they resemble each other;
and, what is very remarkable, the more do they re-
semble the earth.

Injerior planets. — Mercury, the nearest of the pla-
nets to the sun, is, on that account, in a situation the
most unfavourable for observation. Venus, the other
inferior planet, is much larger, much nearer to the
earth, and umch longer visible. On the invention of
the telescope, accordingly, very interesting discove-
ries were made upon her surface. To the naked eye '
she presents always a full orb, but through the teles-
cope exhibits the same phases with the moon. When
first seen in the morning before sunrise, she appears
in the form of a slender crescent, with its horns to-
wards the east ; her apparent diameter is then also
nearly the greatest. In proportion as she advances
towards the west, and approaches her greatest elonga-
tion, her figure gradually approaches to the form of a .
semicircle, while her apparent diameter diminishes ;
she is tlien evidently receding from the earth. As
she returns towards the sun, her figure continues to
increase and her diameter to diminish, till the mo-
ment of her vanishing in his rays ; in a i'ii-w nights af-
ter she is again discovered in the evening, towards the
west, with her orb nearly full ; but in the middle of
this interval she must have been in conjunction with
the sun, when her figure, could it have been observ-
ed, would have been a complete circle, and her di-
ameter the greatest. Advancing towards the east,
her figure diminishes as it had increased, while her
increasing diameter indicates her approach toward^

512

ASTRONOMY,

■Tbe'plarets. the earth, froill which she was before receding. In
returning towards the sun, her now semicircular fi-
gure is still farthei reduced, till she again plunges into
-3ie sun's rays, under the form of a crescent, with its
horns turned to the west, and in a short time reap-
pears in the morning, in the same form and situation
as at first ; in the intermediate interval, however, she
must have been in conjunction with the sun, when she
would have been totally invisible, independent of the
Ijrightness of the solar rays ; her apparent diameter
is then also greatest. As she is then nearest the earth,
this is termed her itiferior conjunction ; the opposite
one, where she is farthest from the earth, and her
figure a complete circle, is termed her superior con-
junctiou; it is analogous to the opposition of the
moon.

Transits of Venus. — It is in the inferior conjunc-
tion, when she is between the sun and earth, that she
is sometimes observed like a black spot crossing the
disk of the sun. And on the observation of these
celebrated transits of Venus depend the most accu-
rate method we possess of measuring, by means of
the sun's horizontal parallax, his distance from the
earth, and from this base the real dimensions of the
whole solar system. These phenomena, which are
real annular eclipses of the sun by Venus, can only
iiappen, like those of the moon, when the planet is at
once in her node and in her conjunction, two condi-
:'tions which are but rarely found united. The tran-
sits accordingly, afler succeeding each other in the
interval of eight years, do not occur again for more
than a century, when they succeed each other again
during an interval of eight years ; and thus they con-
tinue. The last transit happened in 1761 ; astrono-
mers were sent to different countries to observe it,
^and it is from these observations that' the sun's hori-
zontal parallax has been found.

The phases and trap-sits of Venus prove that she is
-«n opaque globular body, like the sun and moon, de-
riving her light entirely from the sun. Dark spots,
like those of the sun and moon, appear occasionally
upon her surface, and a careful observation of them
has shewn, 1st, That, like these bodies, she has also
a motion of rotation on her axis in a period which is
estimated at 23" 21", and on an axis inclined to the
plane of the ecliptic ; and, 2dly, That immense moun-
tains, of which these spots are the shadows, rise from
her surface to the astonishing height, as has been sup-
posed, -of 15 or 20 miles. From the appearance also
of a faiflt slvade of light along her boundary of light
and darkness, similar to our twilight, Schroeter sup-
poses that she is surrounded by an atmosphere, whose
density diifers but little from that of the earth.

Notwithstanding his proximity to the sun. Mercury
has been found, by the help of powerful telescopes,
to exhibit the same phases as Venus, to have great
mountains on his surface, a motion of rotation in 24''
5" 28"", and some have even discovered around him
traces of an atmosphere,

Superior planets. — The superior planets appear per-
fettly round at their oppositions and conjunctions,
but in their intermediate positions the figure becomes
defective on the side opposite the sun, like the moon
in the wane ; we hence conclude that they all derive
• their light from the sun. From the motion of the

spots of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the fact of their 'nicplnnti'^

rotation on their axis has been clearly established : s^ '

Mars revolves in ^i" 39" 22% on an axis' inclined V51'
to the plane of his orbit, 59° 22'. ; Jupiter in 9'' GS"
37', on an axis inclined nearly 90° to the plane of his
orbit; and Saturn in 10" 16"' 2', on an axis inclined
about 60" ; and what is very singular, these planets,
from the observations of their diameters in differ-
ent directions, appear to be not perfectly spheri-
cal, but, like the earth, flattened, and that to a
much greater degree in one direction. In each of
them, also, the shortest diameter coincides exactly'
with its axis of rotation ; so that, like the earth, the
compression is at their poles, and the protuberance •
at their equators. Mars and Jupiter seem to be sur-
rounded with atmospheres of considerable densitj'.
This is indicated in both by the irregular variations
of their spots, arising apparently from the agitation
of clouds driven about by the wind, but more parti-
cularly on Mars, by the great redness of his light ;
the density of his atmosphere, according to a prin-
ciple in optics, obstructing, it is supposed, all but
the red rays of the sun. Mars is also distinguished '
by bright spots, which seem to form a luminous zone
or belt round his poles, for they augment and dimi-
nish in proportion as they are more or less obliquely
exposed to the rays of the sun. They are believed
to arise from the reflection of his light from tlie
masses of ice which are supposed to surround the
poles of the planet, like those of the earth. Besides
his variable spots, .Tupiter is surrounded with belts
or zones, as in PI. 24'. which, though very variable
in their number and magnitude, are nearly alwaj's
parallel to each other and to his equator. The cause
of these appearances is quite unknown. Similar belts
are observed on Saturn, but no traces of an atmos-
phere. Of the other planets, Uranus is too distant,
and Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, too small, to ad-
mit of any observation from which either a revolu-
tion on an axis, or the contrary, can be inferred.

Secondary planets But the most remarkable of all

the modern discoveries concerning the planets, is the
existence of certain small stars, which continually
accompany some of them in their course round the
sun, and which have been hence termed their Satel-
lites. Four of these stars are always seen along with
Jupiter, and they are easily observed to be continu-
ally in motion relatively to the planet. They remain
always nearly in a straight line, parallel almost to the
plane of the ecliptic ; but each night they are ranged
upon it in a different order. By comparing their suc-
cessive positions, it appears that these alternations oc-
cur according to a certain law. Each satellite, after
advancing a certain distance towards the west of the
planet, returns towards it, passes to the opposite
side, and after receding to the same distance as be-
fore, again returns, overtakes the planet, again ad-
vances towards the west, and thus continues to ex-
hibit a perpetual series of oscillations. That satel-
lite which recedes least from the planet is termed
the first, the next the second, and s« on in the or-
der of their greatest distances. It is natural to think,
however, that these oscillations, like those df Mer-
cury and Venus about the sun, are only apparent,
and that the satellites really circulate round their

ASTRONOMY.

51-

Of comet?, planet, as the moon circulates round the earth. This
singular result is confirmed by what happens in the
middle of their apparent oscillations. Sometimes,
when any of the satellites passes from the eastern
to the western side of the planet, it is observed
like a spot upon the disk of Jupiter. Another
dark spot is also seen accompanying it. In passing
again from the western to the eastern side of the
planet, the satellites suddenly disappear entirely
from our view, and in a short time reappear a little
farther toward the east. It was soon conjectured
that these disappearances like those of our moon, in
opposition, were real eclipses of the satellites ; as in
passing beyond the planet they entered into its sha-
dow ; and that the dark spot that was seen travers-
ing along with them the disk of the planet, ^'as no-
thing else than the shadow which the satellites pro-
jected behind them in passing between the sun and
the planet. The observations of one hundred years
have fully verified these conclusions, and led to a
complete knowledge of the motions of the satellites.
The first satellite revolves in 1" 18" 27" 33' ; the se-
cond in 3" 13" IS" 42'; the third in 7' 3" 42" 33' ;
and the fourth in 16" 16" 32"" 8' ; and the distance of
each satellite, the radius of Jupiter being one, is, 1st,
5. 70. ; 2d, 9. 06. ; 3d, 14.. 46. ; 4th, 25. 43. In their
revolutions round the planet, the satellites are found
to obey the same law which governs the planet in
its revolution round the sun. Their radii vectores
describe round the planet areas proportional to the
times. The orbit of the fourth is sensibly ellipti-
cal ; those of the three first circular ; and in all of
them the squares of the periods of their revolutions
are proportional to the cubes of their mean dis-
tances from the planet. From this striking analogy
these bodies have been termed secondary planets ;
those round which they revolve being distinguished
by the title of primary. These secondary planets
are very analogous to our moon ; like her they en-
lighten the primary planet in the absence of the sun,
and revolve round it according to the same law by
which she revolves round the earth. Like the moon,
also, they are occasionally eclipsed by the planet.
From observations on their surface, the curious fact
has also been established, that, like the moon, they
have a rotation on their axis, each in the exact pe-
riod of its revolution round the planet.

The eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, as they hap-
pen very frequently, and at the same instant all over
the earth, have therefore been employed to great ad-
vantage in finding the longitude of places. The tables
of their motions have, on this account, been brought
to great perfection. The instant, on the meridian of
Greenwich, each satellite enters or quits the shadow
of Jupiter, — the instant of its immersion or emersion,
as they are termed, is there set down ; and by
observing the instant at any other place, the difter-
ence of time gives the difference of longitude. At
sea these observations are impracticable, on account
of the unsteadiness of the vessel.

No fewer than seven satellites have been discover-
ed round Saturn, and six round Uranus ; as far as
they have been observed, they are subject to the
sam'e laws as those of Jupiter.

Saturn's ring. — Besides these appearances, which

VOL. 1. PART II.

resemble those of the other planets, Saturn presents of comets,
one, as at Plate 24. Fig. 10, which is quite unique .• he ^
is surrounded by a broad, tliin ring, concentric with
himself, and separated from him on all sides by a dis-
tance equal to his diameter, Tliis ring has the ap-
pearance of an ellipse, of which the form is con-
tinually changing. The breadth is observed gradu-
ally to diminish ; the whole ring disappears and re-
appears in a short time, when the breadth begins to
increase, and continues for a certain period, and then
diminishes as at first, Bj' comparing these variations
with the positions of Saturn and the Earth, it has been
found that the ring is circular, as at Fig. 11. but ap-
pears under the form of an ellipse, on account of be-
ing more or less obliquely exposed to our view by
the revolution of the planet. From the appearance
of one or more dark lines along the middle of thp.
ring, and concentric with it, the ring is supposed to
consist of two or more rings, quite detached fron;
each other. The following are tlie dimensions of
these rings : Miles.

Inside diameter of the interior ring, 146,000
Outside diameter of the interior ring, 184,00(»
Inside diameter of the exterior ring, 190,000
Outside diameter of the exterior ring, 205,000
The plpi'.e of the ring coincides with the plane oi'
the equator of Saturn ; and Dr Herschel has dis-
covered that it revolves in this plane on an axis per-
pendicular to it, and passing through the centre of
the ring. The period of this rotation is the same
with that of the planet, namely, a little more than
ten hours.

The nature and uses of these singular bands are
quite unknown ; but as the ring disappears when
unenlighted by the sun, and when enlightened casts
a deep shadow upon the planet, it is concluded that
both the ring and the planet are opake bodies, de-
riving all their light from the sun.

Chap. VI. On CoMETi.

All the observations that have been made unon
the fixed stars concur in placing them, as we have
already supposed, at a distance immense in relation
to the dimensions of the solar system. Their paral-
lax is totally insensible. The telescope, also, which
enlarges the disks of the sun and of the most distant
of the planets, has no magnifying effect whatever up-
on any of the fixed stars, even though we employ
the most powerful instruments that have ever been
constructed ; though we thus discover an innumer-
able multitude of new bodies, termed telescopic stars,
which are subject to the same common motion witli
the rest, and of which the number always increases
in proportion as we increase the power of the tele-
scope,— yet as the glare of light with which they are
surrounded is thus taken away, the stai-s seem rather to
suffer by this application ; and though our telescopes
magnify 200 or 300 times, — though the effect there-
fore is the same as if these bodies were brought 200
or 300 times nearer, as they still shine like brilliant
points in the sky, it is impossible, at such immense
distances, and with diameters so insensible, that tliey
could be visible to us if they were only enlightened by
the sun. It is more natural to think they are like tlie
3 T

514

ASTRONOMY.

Motion of *un, great masses of matter shining witli their own
tbeeartk. light. Another set of bodies, of a different na-
ture, and which we have not hitherto noticed,
appear occasionally in the heavens. When first obser-
ved they are very small, their light is very faint, and
they move very slowly among the stars ; by de-
grees, they increase in brightness and velocity,
and after a certain period diminish in the same man-
ner, and at last disappear. Being usually accompa-
nied with a sort of tail or coma, they have been call-
ed comet.'!. In ignorant ages they were regarded with
terror ; but their motions are now followed with in-
terest and curiosity. When observed through a te-
lescope, they seem a mass of vapours, at the centre
of which is commonly a nucleus, more or less opake ;
but some of them have appeared without any sen-
sible nucleus, the stars, it is said, having even been
observed througii them.

It was long doubted if comets were real stars ;
tliey were looked upon as simple meteors, engen-
dered in the air by the influence of certain vapours.
All the comets, however, that have been observed,
have little or no parallax, which shews that they are
far beyond the limits of our atmosphere. Besides,
their apparent motions across the stars appear sub-
ject to regular laws, by which even their return can
be sometimes predicted. It is natural to conclude,
that the comets are permanent stars, like the planets,
but subject to a different course. From the observa-
tions that have been made upon those that have suc-
cessively re-appeared, it is probable that they move in
very eccentric ellipies, approaching much nearer the
sun in one part of their course, and receding to a
much greater distance in another, than any of the pla-
nets. Hence arise those progressive variations which
we observe in their brightness, according to their dis-
tance from the sun ; the latter either inflaming or on-
ly enlightening them. As the tail increases as they
approach, and diminishes as they recede from the
sun, it is probiibly only an enormous mass of vapours,
which the intense heat of the sun raises up. Its length
and form are very various ; sometimes it is only a few
degrees, at others it is more than a quadrant. In the
great comet which appeared in 1680, the tail subtend-
ed an angle of 70%— in that of 1618 an angle of 104°.

-Chap. VII. Of the Motion of the Earth.

Having in the preceding chapters givenan account
of the discoveries which astronomers have made con-
cerning the heavenly bodies, it only remains to point
out the conclusions to which they necessarily lead.
We shall first consider the motion of the earth.

Sect. I. Of the Diurnal Motion.

We have already shewn that the phenomena of the
diurnal motion, to which ^11 the heavenly bodies are
subject, are exactly the same, whether we consider
them all carried round the earth, supposed immove-
able, or the earth itself to revolve in a contrary di-
rection ; we have also endeavoured to obviate the
objections to this latter hypothesis which naturally
arise in the mind, and to shew that it is even much
more natural to admit the motion of the earth,
and to regard that of the heavens as only apparent.

The above discoveries confirm this result in a re-
markable manner; for we arc now certain, j?«<. That
the heavenly bodies are placed at very different dis-
tances from the earth, the sun and the f^ars being
much farther from it than the moon ; that the planets
move round the sun at difl'erent distances, and in dif-
ferent periods ; and the comets also in every direc-
tion. These circumstances render certain the fact
of the insulation of these bodies in respect to each
other, and thus strengthen the argument which is
drawn from the difficulty of conceiving so many of
them, unconnected with each other, impressed at the
same time with a common motion.

2ci/i/, The earth is a globe whose radius is not
above 8000 miles; the sun, as we have seen, is incom-
parably greater ; if his centre be supposed to coin-
cide with that of the earth, his volume would include
the lunar orbit, and extend as far beyond it ; if his
magnitude were exhibited upon the same scale with
those of the planets in Plate 24. his diameter would
be two feet. Is it not infinitely more simple to sup-
pose in our little globe a motion of rotation, in which
there is nothing contrary to nature, than to imagine
the immense mass of the sun to describe every day
round us a circumfcrenee of many millions of miles,
and with a velocity of nearly 200,000 miles in a mi-
nute : What power is there in the earth which could
balance the tremendous centrifugal force, that would
be generated by so rapid a revolution of so great a
body ? what prodigious force would be necessary to
prevent its flying from its centre of motion, like the
stone from the shng ?

But this is not all ; the same difficulties arise in re-
gard to the planets. In PI. 24. Fig.6 — 9. is exhibited
their relative magnitudes, and in PI. 25. their distances
from the sun, or their mean distances from the earth.
A better idea of these distances may perhaps be
formed from the following consideration : Suppose a
cannon ball to fly with a velocity of 480 miles an
hour, — projected from the sun, it would move on-
wards for seven years without reaching the orbit of
Mercury, the nearest of the planets to the sun, — in
seven months more it would arrive at this orbit, — at
that of Venus only in fourteen years, — of the earth in
nineteen years three months, — of Mars in twenty-
nine years two montlis, — of Jupiter in 100 years,
of Saturn in 184 years, and at that of Uranus in 350
years. W^e must, upon the above hypothesis, sup-
pose the same diurnal motions in all these bodies, and
also in the comets and satellites motions exactly
proportioned to their distances. Nay, what is much
more than all this, we must extend them to that mul-
titude of stars with which the heavens are covered ;
and all these bodies, whose distance it is impossible to
conceive, would turn together every day round an
imperceptible point with perfect regularity, and with
a velocity that frightens the imagination.

3dli/, We have seen that the whole heavenly bo-
dies seem to have another common moti*fl much
slower, and in the opposite direction to that of the
diurnal, and which, if the earth be immoveable, can
only be represented by supposing the celestial sphere
in motion round the axis of the ecliptic. Thus, the
whole system, composed of so many bodies, differing
from eacli other so much in their' magnitudes, mo-

ASTRONOMY.

515

MoUou of tions, and distances, would be again subject to a ge-
thf earth, neral motion, which disappears, if we suppose the
terrestrial axis to move round the axis of the ec-
liptic.

'^thlu, These arguments are strengthened from ana-
logy, by the discovery of a rotatory motion in all the
planets whose surfaces have been sufficiently observ-
ed, and in all of them, from west to east, the direction
of that which the diurnal motion of the heavens
would indicate to the earth, — Jupiter greatly exceed-
ing the earth in magnitude, moves round its axis
in less than twelve hours. An observer on its sur-
face would see the heavens revolve round him in
that time ; yet that motion would only be appa-
rent. Is it not, therefore, reasonable to think, that
it is the same with that which we observe on the
earth ? What confirms in a very striking mannerthis
analogy is, that both the earth and Jupiter, as well as
some of the other planets whose rotations have been
observed, are flattened at the poles. Though we are
ignorant of the exact process by which this figure
has been brought about, yet it can hardly be doubt-
ed that, in the planets, it is the effect of the cen-
trifugal force. Conversely, therefore, this figure of
the earth is almost a direct proof of the operation
of a centrifugal force, produced by the earth's rota-
tion. This force should hkewise diminish the force
of gravity at the equator ; and that this diminution
does take place, is proved by experiments which
have been made on the lengths of pendulums.

Every thing, then, leads us to conclude, that the
earth has really a motion of rotation, and that the di-
urnal motion of the heavens ia merely an illusion
which is produced by it.

Sect. II. Annual Motion.

The annual motion of the earth is indicated by
proofs as strong and as numerous. In the first place,
the planets resemble the earth in almost every parti-
cular. Like the earth, they are opaque bodies, de-
riving all their light from the sun. Like the earth,
many of them have moons circulating round them ;
and, like our moon, turning also each of them
round its axis in the exact period of its revolution
round the planet. The planets also are almost all sur-
rounded with atmospheres ; their surfaces are moun-
tainous and irregular, but, upon the whole, globular ;
and in every instance where the effect is not too mi-
nute for our observation, they are, like the earth,
flattened at the poles, and bulging out at the equa-
tor. There is hardly a case, therefore, where we
vrould say with more propriety that they are all of
the same class, and thus add the earth to the list of
planets. But it is the distinguishing mark of a pla-
net to move round the sun in an elliptic orbit, differ-
ing but little from a circle, and at the same time,
in every instance where the fact can be ascertained,
to turn on its own axis. We are now certain that
this latter motion belongs to the earth ; and as we
have seen that the appearances are exactly the same
as if the earth also turned round the sun in an ellipse,
this second motion almost follows as a matter of
course. But there is still another very remarkable
circumstance in which the earth resembles the pla-
2

nets. We have seen that an invariable law connects
together their distances from the sun, and the periods
of their revolutions ; but this law extends to the
earth, if we consider it as a planet ; for if the pro-
portion be stated, — as the cube of the mean distance
of Mercury, 0.387, is to the cube of the earth's
mean distance, 1 , so is the period of Mercury to a
fourth proportional, — this fourth term will be found
equal to 365| days, the exact period of a sidereal
year, the time which the sun's motion would indicate
for the length of the earth's period, if that motion
be ascribed to the earth. The very same quantity
results as the fourth term, if the proportion be stated
with the distance and period of Venus, of Mars, or
any other of the planets ; and as it is impossible,
where so many numbers are concerned, that this sin-
gular coincidence could be the effect of chance,
taken along with the above resemblances it amounts
almost to a direct proof of the annual motion of the
earth.

'idly, If, led away by appearances, wc suppose
the sun really in motion round the earth, we must
also suppose, in order to explain their stations
and retrogradations, a similar motion in all the
planets. As the planets Jupiter and Saturn move
round the sun, and carry all their satellites along
with them, we must suppose that the sun, in his
motion round the earth, carries in the same man-
ner all the planets, as well as their satellites, along
with him. But these various notions are of the same
kind with those which the diurnal motion presents,
and which, we have seen, are quite illusory. Be-
sides, it seems to be a general law, that the smallest
bodies of the solar system turn round the greater.
The moon is 49 times smaller than the earth, round
which it revolves. The planets Jupiter and Saturn
are each of them larger than any of their satellites, or
all of them put together ; and tiie whole of the pla-
nets and satellites together are nothing equal in
magnitude to the sun, the common centre of all their
motions. How improbable is it, therefore, that tlie
order of nature should be reversed in the case of the
earth, in physical qualities so inferior to Saturn, to
Jupiter, or to Uranus. Thus, in everj- view, the a-
bove supposition is inadmissible, and we are again
brought back to the motion of the earth as the only
solution of all the difficulties. Lastly, a direct proof
of the annual motion of the earth is obtained from
the phenomenon termed the aberration qflisht, or the
aberration of the fixed stars. This is a very slight mo-
tion to which the stars are subject, and which is ex-
plained most satisfactorily, and in its minutest details,
by ascribing it to the motion of light combining itself
with the motion of a spectator on the earth, and thus
producing in the stars a sliglit deviation from their
true places, but which is quite inexplicable on any
other hypothesis.

Collecting all these evidences, then, and consider-
ing also that there is no appearance inconsistent with
it ; and that there is not in nature any other way in
which it could have been indicated, it may be reck-
oned as a fact beyond all question, that the earth has
really in space a motion of revolution round the sun, as i
ivell as of rotation on its axis.

IVTotion of
the earth.

516

A S T B O N O M Y.

Gravitation.

*^ Chap. VIII. Of the Piiinciple of Universal
Gravitation.

Thus the observations of modern times have com-
pletely verified the bcaiititul theory which we noticed
at the concUision of Part I. But wlien we consider
a system composed of so many bodies turning round
a great centre of beat and liglit, themselves also the
moveable centres of the perpetual revolutions of in-
ferior systems ; when we consider, too, that these
bodies, however various their distances from the
centre, anil the periods of their revolutions, are all
governed in their motions by the very same laws — it
is impossible not to recognise the operation of some
more general cause which actuates the whole.

Can these bodies, then, though separated by distances
so immense, still have any effect upon each other? Let
us consider what happens on our own planet. There
is no power on the earth whose operation is so con-
stant and so universal as that of gravity. It is felt
on the highest mountains and in the deepest cavi-
ties, and, whatever be its nature, its effect invariably
is, when nothing opposes it, to make all bodies de-
scend in straight lines directed towards the centre
of the earth. It is thus that the rain is precipitated
from our atmosphere, carried through all the wind-
ings of our rivers, and finally deposited in the ocean,
where it is no sooner raised up by the opposite force
of evaporation, than it is again precipitated by the
effect of this ever-working and all-powerful agent.
The most familiar fact in nature, therefore, is that
of one mass of matter acting with great intensity up-
on another at a distance ; and this force, if its influ-
ence could be supposed to extend to the moon, and
also to exist on the planets, and even on the sun, ex-
tending IVom the former to their satellites, and from
ihe latter to the remotest extremities of the system,
jieems admirably calculated for drawing these bodies
each to the centre of its motion. If a force of this
kind, however, operated alone, tlieir motions, like
the fall of a stone, would soon terminate by their ar-
1 ival at their centres of attraction ; but we often ob-
serve on the earth the power of gravity combined
with other forces, so that tiiere arise from their joint •
influence motions very varied, and, in some cases,
like those of the planets, perpetual. Thus the rain,
precipitated by the force of gravity, and carried into
the sea, is raised up by the force of evaporation ;
snd, being transported by tlie winds, it is again pre-
ripitatod iu the same place, and is thus made, by tlie
combined effect of these forces, to describe a species
of re-entering curve. Thus a balloon, instead of de-
^ccnding, remains sometimes suspended, and some-
Jiuies ascends with great rapidity. Thus, also, a
body projected from the hand, or from a cannon,
rises into the air, and then descends, describing a
eurve line,^.,wliich has been found, both by theory and
experiment, to be one of the conic sections termed
the parabola. May not then the force of gravity be
so combined with some other as to make th& planets
ilescribc another of the conic sections, namely, the
ellipse? The possibility of this combination is made
evident by a very simple experiment. Suspend a
ball by a long thread directly over, and at the same

height with a candle or other object.—If the ball be GraviiftUfta.
withdrawn to some distance from the candle, the cen-
tre of its attraction, it will, when left to itself, descend
directly towards the candle, and, if the candle were
removed, would contiime for a long time to oscillate
backwards and forwards ; but withdraw the ball to
the same distance again, and project it in a direction
at right angles to that iu whicli it would oscillate by
the combined effect of the two forces of projection
on the one hand, and gravity towards the centre, on
the other, it will then describe round the candle
circles or ellipses of various magnitudes and eccentri-
cities, according to the force of projection. As it
continues, however, to revolve, it will gradually di-
minish in velocity, approach to and finally settle in
the centre of attraction ; but as the force of gravity
never diminishes, this retardation must arise from
the resistance of the air and the friction of the ma-
terials, and if these obstacles were removed, it is
certain, from the principles of mechanics, that the
body would continue for ever to revolve round the
candle in a manner somewhat similar to the revolu-
tion of a planet round the sun.

To verify the supposition of the planets, coiwets,
and satellites being actuated by similar forces, as-
tronomers have considered them as all gravitating bo-
dies, which have been launched into space, at a cer-
tain distance from a point to which they have been
at the same time endowed with a tendency to ap-
proach. They have then decomposed their motions,
and valued separately the effects of the impulse which
makes them circulate, and that of the force which,
retains them in tl)eir orbit. From the laws of Kep-
ler, which arc established by observation, they have
concluded, by a rigorous calculation, aided by a re-
fined analysis,^r.rf. That the force which solicits the
planets is directed towards the centre of the sun ;
this is derived from the law, that the areas describei
by the radius vector of every planet are proportional
to the times : Secoiid, That the force which animates
the planets and comets is in the inverse ratio of the
squares of their distances from the sun ; this is de-
rived from the second law, that the orbits of the pla..
nets and comets are conic sections, of which the sun.
occupies one of the foci : Third, That it is the same ~
force which animates all the planets and comets ;
this is derived from the third law, which connects
the distances of the |>lanet8 and comets with the pe- .
riods of their revolutions.

In this manner the observations of Kepler lead-di-
rectly to the knowledge of the general force which
actuates the bodies of the solar system, and which
has been caUed solar attraction.

The motions of the satellites presenting similar
phenomena, and being equally subject to the laws of
Kepler, it results from them that every system of-.
satellites is attracted towards its planet by a force re-
ciprocally as the squares of their distances, and there-
fore similar to the solar attraction.

It has also been established, by the comparison of
the celestial phenomena, that all the particles of mat-
ter have a mutual attraction for each other, in the
direct ratio of tlieir masses, and the inverse ratio of
the squares of their distances. This great and sira- ,
pie law of nature, which finely harmonizes the hea-

ASTRONOMY.

51

GraTitation. vetily motions, was discovered by Newton. It is
termed the principle of nnkcrml gravitatioH.

But it will receive additional confirmation if all the
celestial pl>enomcna can be deduced from it as ne-
cessary consequences ;'and this is the case in a most
remarkable manner. In thus following out the prin-
ciple in all its details, the greatest difficulties have
been experienced. Observations, in many instances
at variance with theory', could not be reconciled with
it, though all the circumstances of each case were
weighed with the utmost attention ; doubts were
raised as to the efficacy of the principle of gravita-
tion, and the agency of other forces was introdu-
ced for the purpose of explaining the appearances ;
but at last it was discovered that the calculations
had not been rigorously exact, and finally the whole
of those discrepancies yielded to the repeated at-
tacks of a more improved analysis. " Such," says
La Place, alluding to the principle of gravitation,
" has been the fate of this brilliant discovery, that
every dilKculty that has arisen has only furnislied for
it, a new subject of triumph ; and this is the most in-
dubitable characteristic of the true system of natiu"e."

Disturbing forces Since the principle of attraction

)s universal throughout the system, the planets and
satellites, while they are attracted each to its cen-
tre of revolution, must at the same time attract each
other ; and from these dislurbing forces, as they are
termed,arises the deviation of the planets and satellites
from the true elliptic motion, as well as those secular
inequalities of which observation has only indicated
the existence, but could not have developed the laws.
Hence also is deduced one of the most important con-
clusions in Astronomy, namely, tlie stability of the
system.

When it was discovered that the orbits of the pla-
nets were subject to a perpetual change, that the
solar ellipse was gradually approaching to the form
of a circle, and its plane to the plane of the equator,
it was thought that the system contained within it-
self a principle of dissolution, and, for its perpetual
existence, would require occasional retouches from
the hand of its great author. It now appears, how-
ever, that all these changes are oscillatory, — that af-
ter proceeding for certain periods in one direction,
they return in the opposite, — and after continuing in
it for the same periods, again proceed as at f?rst.
Though the system, therefore, is subject to a perpe-
tual change, its mean state is that of a perpetual e-
quilibrium; from this it no sooner deviates to a certain
extent, than the error, by an admirable provision,
corrects itself, and the system is brought back to its
mean state ; but the impulse thus given carries it a
little farther, the error is again corrected, and the
system again returns to the point, about which it will
certainly thus continue for ever to oscillate, unless
it be disturbed by some external violence.

The precession of the equinoxes is fully accounted
for by the principle of universal gravitation ; it is
found to arise from a real conical motion of the
earth's axis, produced by the action of the sun and
moon upon the bulging mass of matter accumulat-
ed at the equator.

The singular law by which the whole of the satel-
lites turn on their axis, in the exact period of their

revolution round their planets, so as continually to Crsvitatioa.
present to them the same i'ace, is another conse-
quence of the same principle ; and on it also the phe-
nomena of,the tides in all their details are dependent.
In short, there is no appearance in the whole system
of the sun, the planets, and the satellites, which is
not completely accounted for by this great law of
nature, and deduced from it with admirable pre-
cision.

" The motion of the earth," says La Place, " wliich
had obtained the assent of astronomers, from the
simplicity with which it explained the celestial phf-
nomena, has received, from the principle of gravi-
tation, a new confirmation, which has cai-ried it to
the highest degree of evidence of w hich physical
science is susceptible." After shewing that this hy-
pothesis reduces to the least possible the number of
assumptions on which it is built, by onl}' supposing
the planets to have received a single impulse in a di-
rection not passing through their centres of gravity,
he proceeds : " This principle has, besides, the ad-
vantage of connecting this theory with all the celes-
tial phenomena. Without it, the ellipticity of the
planetary orbits, the laws which the planets and co-
mets follow in their revolutions round the sun, their
secular and periodic inequalities, the numberless in-
equalities of the moon, and of the satellites of Ju-
piter, the precession of the equinoxes, the rotation
of the terrestrial axis, and, lastly, the ebbing and
flowing of the sea, would only by insulated and un-
connected phenomena. It is really a circumstance
deserving our admiration, the manner in which all
these phenomena, at first sight so unconnected, flow
from one law which connects them v, ith the motion
of the earth ; so that this motion once admitted, wc
arc conducted by a series of geometrical reasoning
to these ])henomena. Bach of tbem fiM-nishes, there-
fore, a proof of its existence ; and if we consider
that there does not exist a single phenomenon which
cannot be referred to the law of gravity, and that
this law determines with the greatest exactness the
positions and motions of the heavenly bodies through
the whole of their course, there will be no reason to
fear that its truth will be questioned in consequence
of any phenomena hitherto unobserved. And, fmal-
ly, when we see that Uranus and its satellites, late-
ly discovered, obey and confirm the same law, it is
impossible to refuse assent to these proofs, and not
to allow that nothing in natural philosophy is more
completely demonstrated than the motion of the
earth and the principle of universal gravitation, ia
proportion to the masses, and inversely as the squares
of the distances."

Having thus ascended to the first cause of the
phenomena, astronomers have, by descending to its
effects, discovered many things which observation
alone could not have indicated. In this manner they
have deduced what seems at first so utterly beyond
the reach of human knowledge, the masses and den-
sities of the planets. If the quantity of matter in the
earth be denoted by 1, the mass of the sun is found to
be 334,000, and of the planets Mercury 0.165, Venus
0.89, the Moon 0.025, Mars 0.087, Jupiter 312.1,
Saturn 97.70, Uranus 16.80; and if the density of
water be 1, that of the sun is 1-^, McTcury 9^, Ve-

518

ASTRONOMY.

Fixed surs nu» 5^, the Earth H, the Moon 5i, Mars 3^, Ju-
piter IVj, Saturn 0\i, Uranus (Vjre-- Hence also
they have deduced the laws of those inequalities in
the motions of the planets which only recur after the
lapse of ages, and have thus been enabled to give to
astronomical tables a degree of precision almost equal
to observation, and to tell in this manner the state of
the heavens, both in the ages that are past and in
those that ai'c to come. Astronomers have thus,
in the words of Biot, " decomposed the system of
the world, reduced it to its single element, and re-
composed it again." In this view, astronomy is the
noblest monument of human genius, and the system
which it discloses, bearing evident marks of wisdom
and design, must be the work of infinite intelligence
and almighty power.

Chap. IX. ' Of the Fixed Stars.

Let us now extend our view to the region of the
fixed stars, from which every thing thus leads us to
detach the system of the sun and planets, to which
we ourselves belong.

Lnmense distance. — We have already seen, that, to
measure the distance of an inaccessible object, it is ne-
cessary to transport our instruments to different posi-
tions, and that any base that we can obtain on the earth
is too small to determine with accuracy the distance of
the sun; this method is still more imperfect in regard
to the more distant planets and the comets ; while it
fails altogether in the case of the fixed stars. As we
are now certain, however, that the earth, (PI. 23. Fig.
10.) moves round the sun, S, at a mean distance of 95
millions of miles, it is equally certain, that every six
months we are transported, along with ourinstruraents,
from E to F', over double this space ; so that were the
distances of the stars within the bounds of our con-
ception, it would certainly be indicated by this great
change in our position. But though we are thus car-
ried twice every year from the one extremity to the
other of a base of 190 millions of miles, over a space
which a cannon ball would hardly describe in 40
years, and from the one end of which its report would
only be heard at the other after an interval of more
than 25 years ; and though the precision of modern
instruments is such, that the angle E S', (which is
termed the annual parallax of the stars,) would cer-
tainly be perceived, though it amounted but to the
half-millionth part of the circumference, yet astro-
nomers have never been able to detect, from this am-
ple base, the slightest change in the position of any
of the stars ; we conclude, therefore, that their dis-
tance from the earth bears no sort of proportion even
to the diameter of the earth's orbit, or, at any rate,
that they are at least 100,000 times farther off than
the sun. Thus these bodies seem to recede the far-
ther, the nearer we approach to a knowledge of their
real situation.

Supposed to be *«««.— Since, at this enormous di-
stance, the stars, whose diameters are insensible, still
shine with such lustre, it is impossible to doubt that
they are luminous of" themselves, and that they are
60 many suns spread though the regions of space.

It is natural also to think that they do not exist
there for nothing, but rather that they are intended

to give light and heat each to a system of planets cir- j^^^ s^^
culating round them.

Subject to cAanges.— The stars must undergo great
changes, since they are sensible at so great a distance.
Many of them are subject to periodical variations in
brightness; some new stars have appeared ; and some
which were once observed have disappeared entirely
from the heavens ; some also have appeared for a short
time, and, after increasing in briglitness, have dimi-
nished in the same manner, and finally disappeared.
Such was the star that appeared in 1572 in the con-
stellation of Cassiopeia. It became suddenly so con-
spicuous as to exceed the brightness of Venus or Ju-
piter, and could be seen at mid-day in the meridian ;
by degrees it diminished,, and finally disappeared six
months after its first appearance, without changing
its place. Its colour in these intervals underwent
great variation ; it appeared at first of a bright white,
like Venus ; then reddish, like Mars, and lastly, of a
white lead colour like Saturn. These appearances seem
to indicate great conflagrations upon these bodies.

Seeni to be in viotion. — Though the stars appear to
us in repose relatively to each other, they may not
be so in reahty; for, on account of their great dis-
tance, they might move through spaces of inconceiv-
able extent, without our perceiving it, even with the
finest instruments. In fact, a slow motion has been
observed in some of them, which is represented by-
supposing the sun himself, along with all the planets,
in motion toward the constellation Hercules. It is
probable, therefore, that these systems of suns and
planets move round each other in the same manner
as the planets round their suns, and the satellites
again round their planets.

At different distances. — It is impossible to believe that
these suns or stars are all at the same distance from the
earth ; it is more natural to think that those which are
largest and brightest are the nearest, and that those
of inferior magnitudes are proportionally farther off.
What are we to think, then, of the distances of those
stars which are invisible to the naked eye, but appear
in great numbers through a telescope ; and, again, of
those which are only visible with telescopes of the
most powerful kind? Light moves with inconceiv-
able rapidity, reaching us from the sun in eight mi-
nutes ; it is not unreasonable to suppose tliat these
stars may be so far distant that light would take
many years in travelling from them to the earth, and
not impossible that there may be some of them whose
light has not yet reached us, and that the light of
others which may have long since ceased to exist still
shines on the earth.

Nebula. — Even to the naked eye the stars do not
seem uniformly scattered over the heavens, but are ar-
ranged in groups, and in many cases massed together,
so as to have the appearance of a nebula, or cloud
of light. The same thing is observed through the te-
lescope ; innumerable multitudes of stars, formerly
invisible, are now distinctly perceived ; what appear-
ed to be nebula;, now seem an innumerable collection
of distinct stars, and of other nebulae, of which the
distinct stars are again observed by more powerful in-
struments, as well as another set of ntbula: still ;
vast collections of nebulae also are discovered which
are invisible to the naked eye. These ntbulee are sup-

ASTRONOMY.

519

Fixed stars, posed by astranomers to be collections of suns, re-
volving, perliap.«, round each other in the same man-
ner as the suns of wliicii they are composed, each
carrying along with it its system of planets and sa-
tellites. That large zone of light, which stretches
across the heavens, and is termed the milky way, is
supposed to bo a nebula of this kind, to which our sun
and planets belong, and which appears to us so large
on account of our proximity to it. Its light is owing
to the immense multitude of stars of which it is com-
posed ; within a portion of it, 15° long and 2° broad,
Dr Herschel counted no less than 50,000, and sus-
pected that there were as many more, which, from
the want of light in the telescope, he only observed
now and then.

Since the number, then, of the stars in the nebula
which is nearest us is so incardulable, and their dis-
tances so great, that we are certain a cannon ball,
travelling at the rate of 400 miles an hour, would not
reach even the nearest of them in two millions of
j'cars, what can we think of the number and dis-
tances of the stars in those multitudes of nebulae
which appear, even in the finest telescopes, only as
masses of light ! Tlie imagination is lost in contem-
plating these extremes of extent ; and the more we
reflect, the more impossible is it to fix, or even to
conceive, bounds to the universe.

Whether or not the stars be suns, each enlighten-
ing its system of planets and satellites, it is sure-
ly very probable that the planets of our own system
are inhabited by animated beings ; — for as it is certain
that the sun imparts both light and heat to the
planets as well as to the earth, and as his influence
gives birth to. the animals and plants which cover
the earth, " analogy," as La Place observes, " in-
duces us to believe that it produces similar effects
on the planets ; for it is not natural to suppose that
matter, of which we see the fecundity develope it-
self in such various ways, should be sterile upon a
planet so large as Jupiter, which, like the earth, has
its days, its nights, and its years, and on which ob-
servation discovers changes that indicate very ac-
tive forces. Man, formed for the temperature which
he enjoys upon the earth, could not, according to
all appearance, live upon the other planets ; but
ought there not to be a diversity of organization
suited to tlie various temperatures of the globes of
this universe ? If the difference of elements and
climates cause such variety in the productions of
the earth, how infinitely diversified must be the pro-
ductions of the planets and their satellites. The
most active imagination cannot form any just idea of
them ; but still their existence is extremely probable.

Explanation of Plates.

Plates 21. 22. and 23. Fig. 1—11. illustrate the
appearances and motions of the Heavenly Bodies, and
are sufficiently explained in the different parts of the
treatise from which the references are made.

Plate 23. Fig, 12. is the representation of an inge-

nious Apparatus, contrived by Mr Kerr, optician in
Edinburgh, for the purpose of exhibiting a popular
view of the motions of the planetary bodies round
the sun. A is the sun ; B, mercury ; C, Venus ; D,
the earth, with the moon ; E, B/Iars ; F, Jupiter,
with his four satellites ; G, Saturn, with his satel-
lites ; and H, Uranus, or the Georgium Sidus,
with his satellites. Fig. 12. is a front view of the
apparatus. Fig. 13. is a side view, and will afford a
distinct notion of its construction. I K is a pillar
which supports the whole apparatus. Each of the
planets, wliich have the same letters of reference an
in Fig. 12. is attached by an arm to the axis L,
which is turned by the winch JI ; but the immediate
connexion is by a small arm which moves on the extre-
mity of the larger arm, projecting at a right angle.
When the axis is turned round, the planet by its
weight is always in a perpendicular position, and in
this way describes an elliptic figure, which is its true
orbit. The moon attached to the earth, and the sa-
tellites of the other planets being connected with
their centres of motion, in the same way, perform
similar revolutions in similar orbits.

Fig. 14. is an Apparatus invented on the same prin-
ciple, by the same ingenious artist, for illustrating
the change of seasons. A is the sun ; B B B B is
the earth in different positions of its orbit ; and N S
is the north and south. CD is an arm which is
turned on an axis ; and to the extremity of this axis
the earth, B, is hung by a shorter arm, so that when
the axis to which the longer arm is attached is mov-
ed round, the ball representing the earth is always
suspended in a perpendicular position ; and from tie
inspection of the different positions of the earth ex-
pressed by the dotted lines, it will appear that dif-
ferent parts of it are illuminated and heated at differ-
ent periods of its annual revolution, thus producing
the diversity of seasons. The dotted line, E F G,
marks the elliptical orbit of the earth.

Plate 24. Fig. 1. exhibits a view of the Phases of
the Moon, er her appearances in different positions
in her revolution round the earth, from new to
full moon. Fig. 2. represents the appearances of the
moon in a contrary order, or from the full to the
change. Fig. 3. represents the appearances of the
sun in eclipses. Fig. 4. is an annular eclipse, in wliich
a rim of light surrounds the dark body.

Fig. 5. is a view of the Moon in her mean libra-
tion, according to the observations of Riccioli and
other astronomers. Fig. 6. 7. 8. 9. represent the rela-
tive magnitudes of the planets, with the diameters of
each in English miles. Fig. 10. a view of Saturn, his
belts, and ring, as seen from the earth. In this ob-
lique view the ring appears elliptical ; but when seen
above the plane of his orbit, as at Fig. 11 . it is circu-
lar. Fig. 12. a Comet.

Plate 25. Fig 1 . is a representation of the relative
dimensions of the Orbits of the Planets, the positions
of their aphelia and perihelia, and their mean dis-
tances from the sun in millions of miles. Fig. 2.
exhibits the inclinations of their orbits.

Plates.

520

ASTRONOMY.

' Index.

INDEX.

Inde

Abrrralion, . . 50^15

Altitude df tenluned,

tsrr

Angular distance, . .

482

Annular eclipse,

487

Aiiti|)odes,

481

Aphelion,

511

Apsides, points so called.

ib.

line of.

ib.

Arcturus, constellation

492

Ascension, right.

498

Astronomy, definition of,

479

uuportance

ib.

improved state of

493

Azimuth described.

497

C

Cancer, tropic of.

488

Capricorn, tropic »l, ~

ib.

Ceres, new planet.

510

Climates, varieties of,

504

Comets, ...

515

Constellations,

491

•D

Declination, what.

498

Distance, an^lar and linear,

482

measurement of,

483

Disturbing forces,

517

E

Earth, fipire of,

481

roundness.

ib.

sailed round.

ib.

motion of, . .

484

diurnal.

514

anna«l,

515

positions on, .

500

< oblate,

502

camse of.

ib.

length of days in.

ib.

change of seasons.

ib-

Eclipses, nature of; . .

426

• of the sun, ...

487

annular, ...

. ib.

of the moon.

- ib.

Ecliptic, ....

489

signs of, . - .

ib.

Equator, position of.

498

Equinoxes, what, ...

ib.

precession of - -

505'

Evening star, ...

490

Force, eflccts of only determined.

493

Forces, disturbing.

517

C

Gmvitation, universal.

51 G

Great Bear, constellation of.

492

H

Heavens and earth, phenomena oi^

479

Horizon, ....

480

Intercalation, what, -

508

Juno, a planet lately discovered, 510-511

Jupiter's belts and satellites, . 512

satellites, eclipses of, . 513

K

Kalendar, how adjusted,
Kepler, laws of.

507
5G

latitude, .... 500

Longitude, - - - - 500

principle of finding, - - 501
found from Jupiter's satellites, 513

Light, astonishing velocity- o^ - 618

Linear distance, ... 482

Lunar month, ... 485

M

Mercury, motions of, . . 490

Meridian described, . . 497

line constructed, . - ib.

MDkyway, - - - . 518

Moon, motions of, . - 479-508

pn^r. - - 485

: phases, ... 486

ellipses, - . . ib.

phases explained, . 487

nearer than the smi, . ib.

distance and magnitude . 508

eclipses o{, - . 509

nature of, . . ib.

atmosphere of, . • 510

rotation, . . ib.

libratioa of, . • ib.

Morning star ... 490

Motions of the heavanly bodies, . 504

sun, . - 505

N

Kadir, - ... 496

Nebulae, or clusters of su^g, . 518

laferior planets,

Orion, constellation oi^ •

P

Pallas, planet lately discovered, .
Perihelion - - -

Plane of hoiizon ...
Planets, names and characters, -

inferior and superior,

tiTie orbits of,

table of revolutions and appa-
rent diameters

primary,

secondary,
Pleiades, constellation of,
Pole, altitude of.
Positions in space determined,

in the heavens
Precession of equinoxes,

Q

490 Quantities, roeaturemcnt of.

492

510
511

496
489
490
511

ib.
513

ib.
492
498
495
496
5o5

Saturn, ... - 513
satellites oj; - - ib.

ring, - , . ib.

form of, • - ib.

dimensions, - . ib.

Secondary planets, - . 512

Si^s of Zodiac, - • 489

Solar system, - - 490

Space measured, . . 494

Sphere, celestial, . . 4g|

dimensions of; - - 482
circles of . . . 4%
Stars, appearances o^ . 479

fi""!, - . 480-513

distance of, . . 435

number of, - . 491

of different magnitudes - 492
supjwsed tobe systemsofworlds, 518
Su», motions of; - 479-505

annual, . . 4jjs
phenomena «f, . - 434,

eclipses of, - . 457

distance and magnitude, - 305
nature, . . 507

spots of, . . 50S

atmosphere of, . - ji,.

rotation on axis, - . ib.

Superior planets, . . 490-512

Synodical month . . 48g

System of the world, . . 484

Swan, constellation of, . 924

Tides, causes of, . . . 504

•"gh, - . . ib.

spring, - - . ib.

neap, - . - ib.

Time, measured, . . 495

mean, - - .507

equation of, - . Jb.

Time-piece, perfection of, . 495

Transits of the heavenly bodies, 497

Tropics, - . - 488

Velocity explained, - . 494

Venus, the morning-star, . 490

the evening star, . ib.

transits of, . . gjg

phases oi; . . jb.

Verticals, or vertical circles, - 496

Vesta, new planet, . - 510

Years, different kinds, . . g07

sidereal, - - - ib.

tropieal, - - - ib.

anomalistic, - . ib.

Zenith, how ascertained, . 49G

Zodiac, signs of, . . 489

Zones, temperate and frigid, - 000

493

ASTRONOMY.

PLATE 21.

riq. 1.

Fiff. 2.

A fijf. 5.

ASTRONOMY.

PI-ATK 22.

IU7.J4.

B »

t,— a '•

: ....: 4

*- a : i

' ! i « H^^ O

^ -f ->

A.

Kadir

F(ff.l7.

F^ff.19.

'oLe of die Esrlh

astiio:n^omy

PLATE 2,3.

Flff. J2.

Fiff.J3.

A,

1.

I

En^maved for Ar£ntycf(^Krtiia£dm/7tsis

ASTRONOMY.

PLATE 24'

m-

Safttrn

Sntur,, <- A/.. /

ASTRONOMY.

Fig. 1.

PJLATJE 25.

.■■>w

4

AST

521

A T II

ASTRUC, John, an eminent French physician,
was born at Sauve in Languedoc, in 168i, was edu-
cated at the university of Montpellier, and having
passed through some inferior degrees, was created,
in 1703, doctor of medicine. He was first known to
the public in a controversy on the subject of diges-
tion, in which he maintained, that this process de-
pended on a peculiar fermentation, in opposition to
the doctrine of trituration, or mechanical action,
which was held by other physiologists. In 1710 he
was appointed professor of anatomy and medicine at
Thoulouse ; and in 1717 he succeeded to the medical
chair at Montpellier, and acquired great reputation
by his lectures. The fame of Astruc procured for
him an invitation from the king of Poland to become
his physician ; but after a short abode with that mo-
narch, he returned to France, fixed his final residence
at Paris, was appointed physician to the king, and
preferred to the professorship of mcdiciBe in the Roy-
al College. In this conspicuous station, his talents,
learning, and medical skill, found ample scope ; and
the celebrity of his lectures attracted crowds of stu-
dents, foreigners as well as natives, from all quarters.
Astruc was the author of numerous works, chiefly
connected witli medical subjects; his Treatise on Fe-
male Diseases still retains considerable reputation ;
and, at the venerable age of 82, lie closed, in 1766,
an active, honourable, and useful life.

ASTURIAS, two provinces of Spain, formerly
distinguished by the names of Asturia of Oviedo, and
Asturia of Santillana, but now united into a princi-
pality, from which the eldest son of the king derives
the title of Prince of Asturias. Tlie bay of Biscay
on the north, Gallicia on the west, and the kingdoms
of Leon and Castile on the south and east, form the
boundaries of the principality, which includes at least
700 square leagues of the most mountainous district
of Spain.

Calcareous rocks, as secondary limestones, full of
animal remains, some of which are excellent marbles,
chalk, marl, and gypsum, are the prevailing strata in
many regions of the Asturias. Some indications of
coal have been observed ; and ores of copper, iron,
lead, and cobalt, have been wrought, but to a limited
extent. Many districts are covered with thick and
extensive forests of valuable timber trees. The cli-
mate is moist, and heavy rains are frequent.

The population of the Asturias is estimated at
.'550,000. The ancient inhabitants presented a most
formidable opposition to the Romans ; and while the
rest of Spain was held in subjugation by the Moors,
their bravery and perseverance enabled them to pre-
serve their independence, contributed to the final
expulsion of the invaders, and procured from their
grateful countrymen the honourable appellation of
dli'Mrious moimiaineers. The present race is charac-
terized by simplicity of manners and, probity of life.
The labours of husbandry are chiefly confined to
pasturage. Large herds of cattle, and numerous
flocJis of sheep, are reared in the mountainous dis-
tricts; but in less elevated siluotions, wheat, barley,
rye, and dift'erent kinds of iVuits, are cultivated.
Oviedo, Santillana, and St Andeio, are the chief
towns, besides which, scu-port towns of interior ootc

VOL. I, I'AIIT II.

are numerous ; but the province affords few examples Asyluoi
of great commercial activity. ||

ASYLUM, from the Greek, and signifying a sane- Athanasimi.
tuary, is a place of refuge destined for the protection ^«^^V^
of criminals, slaves, and debtors. Such sanctuaries
have been sanctioned by legislative authority both in
ancient and modern times ; and to the places usually
selected for this purpose, as temples, altars, tombs of
distinguished personages, churches, and palaces, a
high degree of venerat on was attached. The temple,
the altar of burnt-oft'erings, and the six cities of re-
fuge were the chief sanctuaries among the Jews. The
famous temple of Diana at Ephesus was a place of re-
fuge for debtors ; and the tomb of Theseus afforded
a similar sanctuary to slaves. Fugitive slaves, debt-
ors, and criminals of all descriptions, found an asylum
in Rome, on a spot chosen by Romulus, between the
Capitoline and Palatine mounts. This place of re-
fuge was established and encouraged from political
considerations, and for the purpose it is said of ad-
ding to the population of the rising city.

Immunities of the same nature were granted to
Christian churches in the time of the emperors Ho-
norius and Theodosius, and were afterwards extend-
ed to monastic establishments. To a certain extent,
and in particular cases, tliey are preserved in Roman
Catholic countries. But in Britain they were entire-
ly abolished at the reformation ; and the only sane- -
tuaries protected by law are the verge of the court
in England, and _the ancient palace of Holyrood-
house in Scotland ; but the privilege is altogether li-
mited to insolvent persons.

ASYMPTOTE, a geometrical term, applied to a
line which continually approaches nearer to another
line ; but although both lines be indefinitely produ-
ced, they never meet. See Conic Sections, under
Mathematics.

ATALANTIS. See Atlantis.
ATCHIEVEMEXT, or Achievement, a term
in Heraldry, which denotes the arms of a person or
family, along with the external ornaments of the shield,
as the helmet, mantle, crest, &c.

ATE, the goddess of discord, according to ancient
mythology. The name is derived from the Greek,
and signifies to do hurt, and she was regarded as the
author of all evil. She was the daughter of Jupiter,
who was enraged at the dissensions which she excit-
ed in heaven, seized her by the hair, and swearing
that she should never return, threw her headlong on
the eartli. This fabulous story teaches that no evil
can befal man witliout the permission of providence,
which is supposed to be couched in the representa-
tion of Ate being the daugliter of Jupiter, and her
biinishment to the earth iis expressive of the awful ,
efi'ccts of divine justice among mankind.

ATHAMANTA, Spkinel, a genus of plnnts be-
longing to the Pentandria class, and to the i:.atural or-
der of umbellated plants.

ATHANASIA, Goldilocks, a genus of plants
belonging to the Syngenesia class.

ATHANASIAN CREED, a summary or confes-
sion of faith, which was long ascribed ta Athanasius,
bishop of Alex^indria, who Nourished in the 'Itli cen-
tury. But Dr Waterland supposes, that Hilary, bi-
S u

A T H

522

ATH

!l

Atbeism.

Athaaasius shop of Arlts, is the autlior of this formulary, which,
for more than two centuries, bore the name of an ix-
position of the Creed, or, simply, the Catholic Faith ;
but as it accorded with tlic doctrines maintained by
Athanasius concerning the Trinity and incarnation,
in opposition to the Arians, it received its present ap-
pellative designation. See Critical History of the
Athanasian Creed.

This creed was generally admitted in France about
the middle of the 9th century ; a hundred years later
it was received in Spain and Germany ; and satisfac-
tory testimony has been adduced that it was sung al-
ternately in the churches in Britain in the 10th cen-
tury. About the same time it was adopted in some
parts of Italy ; but it was not till the early part of
the 11th century that it was received at Rome.

ATHANASIUS, St. the zealous defender of the
faith against the Arians, was a native of Egypt, and
flourished in the 4th century. No record is preserv-
ed of his early life, of the progress of his studies,
or of the extent of his attainments. But, when he
was only a deacon of the church, be accompanied
the bishop of Alexandria as his secretary to the
council of Nice, which met in 325 ; and by the force
of his arguments, and the power of his eloquence,
-eminently distinguished himself in the rising con-
troversy with Arius and his followers. In the suc-
ceeding year he was nominated to the see of Alex-
andria, and became the intrepid defender of the ca-
tholic doctrine of tlie Trinity against the Arians;
and although he was five times driven into exile, his
zeal and ardour in the cause which he had espoused
remained unabated. By the intrigues of his adver-
saries, or the wavering caprices of absolute authori-
ty, he was banished by one emperor and restored by
another, and oftener than once his abdication and re-
storation proceeded from the mandate of the same
sovereign. During one period of his exile he spent
six tedious years in the desert of Thebais. He died
in tranquil possession of his see in the year 373. The
Historian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em-
jyire thus characterises Athanasius : " Amidst the
storms of persecution, he was patient of labour, jea-
lous of fame, and careless of safety ; and though his
mind was tainted with the contagion of fanaticism,
Athanasius displayed a superiority of character and
abilities, which would have qualified him much bet-
ter than the degenerate sons of Constantine for tlie
government of a great empire His unpremedita-
ted style, either of speaking or writing, was clear,
rbrcible, and persuasive." The works of Athanasius
were printed in 1600 and in 1627; but the most
splendid edition was published by Bernard Montfau-
con, in three volumes folio.

ATHEISM, from the Greek, and signifying mith-
«ul God, is usually defined, the disbelief of a Deity,
or of the existence of an intelligent first cause. But
the appellation of atheist is of more indefinite appli-
cation. It is not only ascribed to those who are im-
able to trace the marks of wisdom and design in the
universe, which liave led all rational inquirers to the
acknowledgment of a Supreme Being, but to those
who assert that the works of creation aiford no such
evidence — to those who admit the existence of a cre-
ative power, but deny that he is possessed of mpral.

attributes — to those who believe in an evil first prin-
ciple,— and to those who are attached to pagan ido-
latry, and to polytheism, or the worship of many ■
gods. It has been doubted whether any man, in the
full use of his intellectual powers, ever seriously
maintained the disbelief of the existence of a Su-
preme Being ; and where such sentiments have been
openly avowed, (hey have been charged to pride,
affectation, or some strange aberration of the mental
faculties : " Though a smattering of philosophy," it
has been well remarked by Lord Bacon, " may lead a
man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring
him back again to the belief of a God and providence."
See Kelioiox. The reader who wishes to be fami-
liar with the arguments which are drawn from the
works of nature for the being and attributes of God,
may consult with advantage Dcrham's Physico-TIie-
ology, Hay's Wisdom of God, Paley's Natural Theolo-
gy, and Fenelon's Demonstration of the Existence of
God, Szc.

ATHELING, a Saxon denomination signifjnng
noble, was applied by the Anglo-Saxons to the pre-
sumptive heir to the crown. Tiiis honourable appel-
lation was first conferred by Edward the Confessor
on Edgar, to whom he was great uncle, as a mark of
distinction, and an expression of his intention that he
was destined to succeed him on the throne.

ATHELSTAN, a king of England, of the Saxon
race, was the natural soa of Edward the elder, and
grandson of Alfred, assumed the sovereignty in 925,
and reigned 16 years. The liberal and enlightened
policy of this prince appears conspicuous in the dis-
tinguished privileges assigned to those who were en-
gaged in commercial affairs, and the high considera-
tion in which mercantile intercourse was held. It
was formally enacted, that any merchant who had
accomplished three voyages on his own account be-
yond the British channel, should be entitled to the
rank and dignity of a thane or gentleman.

ATHENiE A, derived from Athe7te, the Greek name
of Minerva, were public festivals celebrated by the
ancient Greeks, in honour of that goddess.

ATHEN^^A, a genus of plants, belonging to the
class Octandria.

ATHEN^UM, a public place of resort, first es-
tablished at Athens, and dedicated to Minerva. Edi-
fices of this description were constructed in the form
of an amphitheatre, and they were frequented by poets
and orators, for the purpose of declaiming and reciting
their works to the assembled people. A celebrated
structure of the same kind was erected by Adrian at
Rome ; and in modern times a similar denomination
is applied to certain literary institutions, where those
who are associated for their support are accommo-
dated with newspapers and periodical publications,
or have the advantage of books from libraries of a
miscellaneous nature, and sometimes of hearing po-
pular lectures on scientific subjecti.

ATHENjEUS, a mathematician, who flourished
about 200 years before the Christian era, and com*
posed a Treatise on Mechanics, which is yet extant^
and forms part of tlie works of ancient mathematici-
ans, printed at Paris, in folio, in 1693.

ATHENiEUS, a physician who lived about the
commencement of the Clxristianera,andwas thefoim-.

ATH

525

ATH

A'Mnxm

Athctts.

der ofthejjrieumafic sect of philosophers. He rejected
the prevailing opinion, that fire, air, water, and earth
are the true elements of matter, v/hich, he maintain-
ed, are derived from heat, cold, moisture, and dry-
ness, their qualities. But to this list he added a fifth
element, which he denominated spirit, and from this
arose the distinctive appellation of the sect. To the
agency of this spirit he ascribed the pulsation of the
arteries.

ATHENyliUS, a Greek grammarian, was a native
of Egypt, flourished in the early part of the third cen-
tury, and, from some doubtful passages in his writings,
it is supposed lived to a great age ; but no record of
his life is preserved. Numerous works have been
ascribed to the labour and industry of Athenaeus,
among which are specitied, " A History of the Kings
of Syria," and " An Account of the Illustrious Com-
manders of Armies ;" but the only authentic work
■which has survived the wrecks of time, and has reach-
ed the present day, is a singular production, entitled,
" The Deipnosophists," or " Banquet of Philoso-
phers," in which the author has contrived to exhibit
a full view of anL'ifcnt learning and opinions on all
subjects. Larensius, a l<?arned Roman citizen, dis-
tinguished by his great wealth and excellent taste, is
introduced entertaining, at a splendid feast, the cele-
brated philosophers, professional and literary charac-
ters of his time. The various dishes furnish the to-
pics of the miscellaneous conversation, which is con-
ducted in the form of dialogue. Tiniocrates, one of
the guests, makes remarks, and puts numerous ques-
tions ; and the author himself, who is represented as
being present at the entertainment, never fails in his
replies to enter into a full discussion of the subject,
and in this way displays the wonderful extent of his
learning, by descanting on the opinions, the manners,
and the domestic arts of the ancients. An edition of
this curious work, with a Latin translation, was pub-
lished in 1597, by the profound critical scholar Ca-
saubon, and as late as 1801 anew edition appeared at
Strasburg.

ATHENAGORAS, a Greek philosopher, who
flourished about the middle of the 2d century, was
greatly distinguished by his learning, and having been
converted to Christianity, became a zealous and pow-
erful defender of its doctrines. From Athens, where
he had spent the early part of his life, and had ac-
quired considerable reputation for his talents and elo-
quence, he removed to Alexandria, at that time the
most celebrated seminary of learning in the east. At
first a keen opponent of the Christian revelation, he
carefully examined the arguments and evidence by
which it is supported, and being convinced of the
truth of its divine origin, openly avowed his belief,
and displayed the same ardour and ability in the cause
which he had espoused, as in his exertions to resist
and subvert the gospel of Christ. The Remonstrance,
or, as it is sometimes entitled. Apology, which he
addressed to the Roman emperors, Marcus Aurelius,
Antoninus, and Lucius Commodus, against the suf-
ferings and oppressions to which the Christian church
was at that time subjected, affords ample testimony of
the zeal and erudition which the author employs in
its behalf.

ATHENS, the most celebrated city of antiquity,

and the capital of Attica, one of the states of Greece,
during the long period of its prosperity, shone con-
spicuous in learning, arts, and political importance,
and still exhibits, in its mouldering remains, abun-
dant proofs of its former magnificence.

Like other cities and empires of which no records
have existed, or have been preserved, the early his-
tory of Athens is involved in obscurity and fable.
Ogyges, from whom Attica derived the name of
Ogygia, and in whose reign Athens was devoted tir
Minerva, and was distinguished by her name, was
the first king. After a period of several hundred
years, Amphictyon held the sovereignty, and insti-
tuted the famous assembly of the states of Greece
called the Amphictyonic Council. The illustrious
deeds of Theseus raised him to the first rank of he-
roes, and the gratitude of his countrymen assigned
him a place among the demigods. His immediate'
successors took an active part in the famous Trojaii
war ; and Codrus, the last king, nobly devoted his
life to his country, which, by a decree of the Oracle,
could not be delivered from a threatened invasion
but by such a sacrifice.

The abolition of royalty, which took place about
one thousand years before the Christian era, and had
continued for nearly the same period, was succeed-
ed by the institution of archons, a more popular form
of government, to whom the direction of the civil
and religious affairs of the community was entrusted.
The nature, distribution, and extent of the duties of
those magistrates, have been detailed under Archon".
The election of the arclions was at first annual ; it
was gradually extended to a longerperiod, and seemed
at last destined to become perpetual in the same fa-
mily. In the struggles for power, on the one hand,
ancl for liberty, on the other, Athens, throughout a
long p^eriod of her history, was the constant scene of
tumult and faction. To repress the prevailing dis-
orders, and to resist the torrent of crimes which
threatened to overwhelm the state, the power of
framing a code of laws was committed successively to
Draco and Solon, names that occupy a prominent
place in the records of Greece, famed as they have
been, the first for the undue severity, the last for the
prudence and wisdom of his enactments. Solon flou-
rished about five hundred years before the Christian
era.

When Athens, by the wisdom of her legislators,
the patriotism of her citizens, and the bravery and
skill of her military conunanders, had risen to high
political consideration, both at home and abroad,
she maintained for many centuries a protracted war-
fare with the other states of Greece, or with the over-
whelming force of the Persians ; and, in those re-
peated contests, the glories of triumph were some-
times exchanged for the ruin and disgrace of defeat.
In the rapid strides which were made towards uni-
versal dominion by Philip, and his victorious son and
successor Alexander, she yielded with the rest ot
Greece to the sway of the Macedonian monarch.
When the Roman power extended to the east, Athens
was besieged and taken by Sylla; and under suc-
ceeding emperors, as caprice or accident dictated,
experienced the liberality and indulgence, or suffer-
ed from the oppression and neglect of her foreign-
2

Athest.

ATH

524

ATI!

ArtCBS.

rulers. During the reign of Adrisn, nnd some suc-
ceeding monarchs, she recovered a large share of
her ancient prosperity ; her institutions were restor-
ed, and some of htr splendid edifices were completed
or "repaired. But the severe destiny which awaited
Athens was reserved for the period of Alaric king of
the Gotlis. In the general destruction whicli mark-
ed his progress, the splendour of this renowned city
was obscured for ever ; her magnificent buildings
were converted into a heap of ruins, and for seven
centuries the name even was scarcely heard of.
Having frequently changed masters, Athens fell at
last, in 1455, under the dominion of IVIahomet II.
The Venetians, in whose hands it had remained fur
a short time, made two unsuccessful attempts, the
first in l-te^, and the second in 1684, to recover it
from the Turks ; but it has since continued in unin-
terrupted possession of the Ottoman Porte.

In the flourishing periods of its history, Athens
acquired unrivalled celebrity for its schools of philo-
sophy, the magnificence of its public buildings, and
the progress and perfection to which the fine arts
were carried. Even the topographical descriptions
of the modern traveller, whose details are confined
to fragments and ruins, furnish ample evidence of its
ancient splendour.

Athens is divided into an upper and lower city.
The upper city, or Acropolis, originally called the
citadel, included, in early times, the whole popula-
tion. The situation is elevated, and the sides are
precipitous. Thus formed by nature as a place of
strength, it has been destined, even down to the pre-
sent day, to the purposes of a fortress. The en-
trance to the Acropolis was anciently adorned with
the Propylea, a splendid edifice of white marble.
The Parthenon, a magnificent temple, dedicated to
Minerva, which is esteemed one of the finest speci-
mens of ancient architecture, and is remarkable for
simplicity and grandeur of style, has been always re-
garded as the chief ornament of the Acropolis.
Within the same limits is erected the Erectheum, a
double temple, with a common portico, dedicated to
Neptune and Minerva Polias, a view of which is
exhibited on Plate 16. of this work, and the ad-
mirers of Grecian art will be gratified in seeing this
beautiful example of the Ionic order imitated in the
public buildings for the county, now (1816) erecting
in the Lawnmarket of Edinburgh, from the elegant
designs of Mr Elliot. The Choragic monument of
Lysicrates, which stands at the east end of the cita-
del, is described at page 449, under Architecture,
and is figured on Plate 17. The same plate presents
a view of the Temple of the Winds, a singular struc-
ture of the lower city.. The examples now alluded.
to will enable the reader to form some notion of the
ancient magnificence of this famous citj^. The flat
country suiTounding the Acropolis is also covered
with the remains of ancient structures, among which
are enumerated tlie temple of Jupiter Olympius, the
temple of Theseus, the Pantheon, the Gymnasium of
Ptolemy, &c. The ancient harbours of Athens were,
Piraeus, distant from the city about four miles, and
eommunicating with it by long walls, part of which
is still seen, — Munychia, not far from Piraeus — and
£halerum, about the same distance from the city.

Modern Athens lies on the north-east and north
of the citadel. The population, composed of Greeks
and Turks, is estimated at eleven or twelve thou-
sand. The streets, which do not seem at any period
to have been uniform and well arranged, are quite
irregular, and the houses, in general, are mean and
straggling, while the public buildings present amote-
ly groupe of 'J'urkish mosques and baths, and Greek
convents and churches. Athens is situated in N. Lat.
38" 5', and E. Long. 24-''.

The splendid collection of Grecian remains made
by Lord Elgin, during his residence as British ambas-
sador at Constantinople, and purchased by the na-
tion at tlie expencc of I,.30,000 Sterling, and now
deposited in the British Museum for public inspec-
tion, afl'crds to the artist or admirer of ancient sculp-
ture and architecture every facility of studying and
improving his taste on these pure models. For a to-
pographical account of Athens, the reader may con-
sult Atheniensia, by Wilkins, 8vo, 1816 ; Stuart's su-
perb work on its Ruins ; and for a more general de-
tail of its eventful history, he may be referred to
Chandler's Travels in Greece, and the Histories of
Ilollin, Mitford, and Gillies.

ATHERINA, a genus of fishes belonging to the
order Abdominales. See Ichthyology.

ATHERSTONE, or Athertone, a village of
Warwickshire, in England, containing about 260O
inhabitants, who are employed in the manufacture of
hats, ribbands, and woollen stuffs ; and at a fair held
in this place, a great deal of cheese is sold.

ATHLETj^i, from a Greek word signifying com-
batants, were persons among the Greeks who were
trained to perform in the public games, and, from the
nature of the exercises in which they were engaged,
were necessarily possessed of great strength and agi-
lity. Such were the persons who exhibited their
feats in wrestling, boxing, running, &c. at the Olym-
pic, Pythian, and other celebrated games of the an-
cient Greeks.

To render the Grecian youth hardy and vigorous,
and to enable them to bear the fatigues and privar
tions of war, athletic exercises were particular ob-
jects of domestic policy. A gymnasium was esta--
blished in every town, and institutions were ap--
pointed at the public expence, for the purpose of ex-
ercising young men, and even children, in those
games and sports which were thouglit conducive to
a strong and active constitution. The games er ex-
ercises common in Greece, were, leaping, wrestling,
throwing the dart, the disc or quoit, boxing, and the
pancratium, or medley of every kind of struggle or
active exertion between two combatants.

ATHLONE, a town on the banks of the Shan-
non, in Ireland, partly in Westmeath and partly in
Roscommon counties, and having a commodious
communication by a bridge of numerous arches, on
which a monument is erected, commemorating the
defeat and public execution of some rebellious sub-
jects in the time of Queen Elisabeth. Athlonc is 55
miles west from Dublin ; and, with a favourable si-
tuation, it derives no advantages from trade or ma-
nufactures.

ATHOL, the northern district of Perthshire, ia
Scotland, is.a mountainous tract, about 10 miles long

Aticnns

II

Athol.

A T L

525

A T O

and 30 broad. Blair- Castle, the residence of the
Dulce of Athol, and its surrounding gardens and
plantations, form a singular contrast with the gene-
ral aspect of this elevated pastoral region ; and tlie
rapid streams of the Tiit, the Gary, and other moun-
tain torrents, afford a striking feature to its pictur-"
csque scenery. The pass of Killicrankie, a narrow
defile in this district, is noted in history for a battle
between the troops of King William and King James,
in the end of the 17th century.

ATHOS, a mountain of Macedonia, celebrated in
the history and poetry of antiquity, rears its lofty
summit far above the elevated promontory on which
it reposes, and which projects into the iEgean sea.
In the latitude of 4-0' north, the top of mount Athos
is often covered witli snow, a certain proof of its
great height, which, in the absence of accurate mea-
surement, has been vaguely estimated by some at
two miles, or more than 10,000 feet above the level
of the sea, and by others has been reduced to little
more than 3000 feet.

Mount Athos, now called the holy mountain, from
numerous bodies of Greek monks, who occupy 24
monasteries erected in diiferent regions, is chiefly
to be regarded as a place of religious retirement ;
and, with the churches and hermitages connected
with these institutions, and some fortifications, fur-
nished with cannon and other means of defensive
warfare, exhibits to the traveller a striking scene.
The monks of Athos were in former times distin-
guished by their learning, and were once in posses-
sion of some curious Greek manuscripts ; but they
are now more remarkable for poverty than literature,
for manual industry in the culture of a rugged soil,
than advancement in classical or theological know-
ledge.

ATLANTIS, or Atlantica, a very large island',
or rather continent, for it is said to be equal to both
Asia and Africa, which is alluded to by Plato in his
TiniBcus, and noticed by other ancient writers, and
whose situation is fixed beyond the Pillars of Hcr-
«!ules, the straits of Gades or Gibraltar. The ac-
count of such an island is regarded bj' some as alto-
gether fabulous, while others suppose that the Ca-
•lary islands, the Azores or Western islands, or even
the American continent, is referred to and distinctly
indicated in the- descriptions of ancient writers; and
Rudbeck, a Swedish author, mp.intains that Sweden
and Norway are to be considered the Atlantis of an-
tiquity. Other naturalists hold the opinion, that the
Canary Islands and the Azores are merely the re-
mains of the vast continent to which Plato assigned
the name of Atlantis ; and Mr Whitehurst alleges,
Jhat the Atlantis extended from the north of Ireland
to the continent of America, and that the Azores
islands form the only connecting link which has not
l>een swallowed up by the effects of a convulsion, in-
dications of which are strongly marked at the Giant's
Causeway, and the northern coast of Ireland.

ATLAS, a chain of mountains in the north-west-
ern regions of Africa, and extending from the shores
of the Mediterranean to Lower Suse. To the east-
ward of Morocco, the elevation is so considerable
tliat they are seen at the distance of HO miles, and
they are covered with perpetual snow. Every varic-

Atom

ty of climate, from the stern severity of a polar win- Almosplitre
ter to the powerful influence of a summer's sun in "
tropical regions, prevails in the Atlas mountains ; and
diversity of elevation exhibits dreary sterility or the
rich verdure of luxuriant vegetation. Little is known
of the mineral productions of this mountainous range.
Granite, and marble of an excellent quality, are spok-
en of, from which it appears tlvat tliey are partly at
least composed of primitive rocks ; and some of the
metallic ores have been discovered. That part of
the Atlas mountains which lies to the north of Moroc-
co is chiefly inhabited by a robust people called Uer-
ebbers, who live in tents, and speak a language pecu-
liar to themselves, and different from the Arabic.
The labours of husbandry, and especially the rearing
of bees for the honey and wax, are their principal oc-
cupations ; but that part of the range v/hich stretches
southward from Morocco, is occupied by tribes cal-
led Shelluhs, engaged in similar pursuits, but differ-
ent in language, manners, and dress from their nor-
thern neighbours, and living in towns and villages.

ATMOSPHERE, from (he Greek, and signifying.
sphere, or chxle qf'vcipour, is the invisible elastic fluid
which surrounds the earth, which is necessary for
the respiration of animals, the growth of vegetables,
and is not less essential to numerous processes oi' na-
ture and art, which are constantly in a state of acti-
vity on the surface of the globe. The constituent
parts of th€ atmosphere, which, by the most accurate
experiments, are determined to be 79 of azotic gas',
and 21 of oxygen gas ; — the aqueous vapour, in an in-
visible form, which is converted into clouds, or falls in
the state of rain, snow, or hail, — its weiglit or pres-
sure, as it is indicated by the barometer, — its temper-
aturci as it is ascertained by the thermometer, — its
height, which is known by optical observations, — and
the currents, or winds, to which it is subject, include
the chief points of its chemical and natural history..
See Meteorology.

ATOJI, the minutest particle of matter, beyond
whichj as the word, derived from the Greek, imports,
it is unsusceptible of farther division. The doctrine
of atoms, distinguished h^ the name of atomical p/n'Iii~
sbphi/, was a favourite subject of speculation with
some of the ancient philosophers. First proposed by
Moschus, a Phoenician, who lived before the period of
the Trojan war, the doctriue.%of the afomical philo-
sophy v/ere enlarged and extended by Epicurus, and
from his name were denominated the Epicurean philo-
tophy.

According to the original doctrines on this subject,
all the bodies in nature arc composed of atoms which
arc indivisible, impenetrable, and eternal : and the
diversity of constitution in natural objects arises from
the diversity of arrangement and combination of the
same minute particles. But in the Epicurean philo*
sophy the atoms are not only (he elements which en-
ter into the composition of all material bodies, but
they are endowed with a principle of motion to which
are ascribed all the operations of nature ; and thus
the agency of an intelligent First Cause is excluded
from this speculative system.

The atomical theory has been revived of late years
by chemical philosophers, in the opinion of some with
doubtful advantage, while others maintain that it must

A T R

52(5

ATT

Alooi

Atropa.

prove of the most essential benefit to the science of
chemistry. The premature adoption of the doctrine
of definite proportions, which was first hinted at by Mr
Higgins, and was pursued and extended by Mr Dal-
ton and others, may tend, as it appears to some, to
retard rather than to promote accurate investigation,
by accomodating the results of analysis to the deduc-
tions of theory. But, on the other hand, the esta-
blislmient of this doctrine fixes chemistry on a sure
basis; and it can scarcely be doubted, that a compound
exhibiting invariably the same character and proper-
ties consists of the same constituent parts, and in the
same proportions ; but whether even the refined ex-
periments of modern chemistry aftbrd the means of
determining with precision those proportions, can
perhaps only be known in the future progress of the
scier'-e.

ATOOI, or Attowa, a large island, belonging
to the cluster called Sandwich islands, in the Pacific
ocean. See Sandwich Islands.

ATHACTYLIS, Distaff Thistle, a genus of
plants belonging to the Syngenesia class.

ATR AGENE, a genus of plants belonging to the
class Polyandria.

ATllAPHAXES, a genus of plants belonging to
the Hexandria class.

ATREBATES, or AtrebAtii, a people of Gaul
mentioned by Caesar as formmg part of the Belgic
confederacy against him ; and from tiie proportion of
troops, stated at 15,000, which they furnished, it
would appear that they were distinguished by their
power and numbers. When they were forced to sub-
mit to the Roman authority, Comius, one of their
chief men, ruled over them as the deputy of Caesar.
Arras in Artois, was the seat of the capital of the
Atrebates in France.

A people of the same name, supposed to have been
a Belgic colony which had settled in Britain before
the invasion of Julius Caesar, occupied part of Berk-
shire and Oxfordshire in England.

ATREUS, a king of Mycenae in ancient Greece,
and the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, who
were very distinguished personages in the history of
the Trojan war. Atreus is supposed to have reigned
intlie 13th century before the Christian era.

ATRIENSES were household servants of the an-
cient Romans, who are occasionally alluded to by
classical writers. They were so denominated from
having the superintendance of the atrkim, or court
lielonging to the houses of great men, and in parti-
cular they were entrusted with the care of the sta-
tues and images of the ancestors of their masters,
which were arranged round the court, and which,
among that people, were objects of great veneration.
It was one part of the duty of the Atrienses to. carry
these images at funeral processions. But it would
appear that all domestic concerns came under their
charge, and sometimes they were employed as agents
or procurators.

ATRIPLEX, Orach, or Sea-Purslane, a ge-
nus of plants belonging to the class Polygamia, and
of which several species are natives of Britain ; one
species, hortensis, is a common weed in gardens, and
some are not unfrequent on sandy shores.

ATROPA, Deadly Nightshade, a genus of

planU belonging to the Pentandria class, and of which
one species, Belladonna, is a native of Britain, but
fortunately, as it is a deadly poison, is a rare plant.
The berries of a shining black colour, and about the
size of a small cherry, are half inclosed within tlie
permanent cup of the flower. The whole plant has
a lurid aspect, and, from its general habit, is arranged
under the natural order wliich derives its character
from that appearance, and is appropriately called

LiVRlDX.

ATROPHY, derived from the Greek, and signi-
fying without nourishment, is a term applied to those
diseases in which the body, from deficient nourish-
ment, slowly and gradually wastes away without any
violent symptoms. Such is the case in certain di-
seases of the digestive organs, and particularly in af-
fections of the mesenteric glands, in which the pro-
gress of the nutriment is retarded or altogether in-
terrupted.

ATROPOS, one of the Parav, or Fates, accord-
ing to ancient mythological history, whose office it
was to cut the thread of life.

ATTACHMENT, a term in English law, which
is applied to a writ or precept issued by order of a
court for the apprehension of a man's person, or for
the seizure of his goods ; and in this, arrest, which
extends only to restraint on the person, is difterent
from attachment.

Attachment also signifies a precept of the superior
courts for apprehending those who refuse to obey
their orders or decrees. See Blackstone's Commeri'
taries.

ATTAINDER, a term in law, is the immediate
consequence of the sentence of death, which being
pronounced, as it is the highest judgment known to
the laws of England, the criminal who is the object
of it is placed out of the protection of the law, is
marked with infamy, and is therefore said to be at-
tainted, that is stained or blackened. Attainder only
can take place after judgment is pronounced ; for
even after conviction some plea may be offered in
arrest of judgment, by which the effects of attainder
are obviated. Attainder becomes effectual by pro-
cess, by appearance, or by act of parliament ; by pro-
cess, when the criminal escapes and is declared an
outlaw ; by appearance, in consequence of confession
or verdict ; and by act of parliament, as in the case
of the persons who were guilty of the nmrder of
Charles I. and in others since that period.

Forfeiture of goods and corruption of blood are the
consequences of attainder. Blackstone's Commentaries.

ATTAINT, is a term in the law of England, and
signifies a writ which lies to inquire, whether the ver-
dict pronounced by a jury of twelve men be not
false, that the consequent judgment may be revers-
ed. But this mode of proceeding is superseded by a
new trial. Blackstone's Commentaries.

ATTELABUS, a genus of insects belonging to
the order Coleoptera.

ATTENTION is a steady application of the mind
to the objects of perception and reiiection, for the
purpose of obtaining precise information concerning
their properties and relations. The word, in its origi-
nal meaning, »\gti\iy'mgstrelchirig towards, is strongly
and metaphorically expressive of this effort of the

Atropiy

AUention.

ATT

b^t

ATT

Attennants niind in contemplating tlie objects of its considera-
[j tion. Attention operates in various degrees in difFe-
Atterbury. rent minds and on different occasions. One seems
V^,-»»/ capable of bendinj^ his wliole mind, for any length of
time, to a single object; while another cannot for a
moment fix his attention on the same individual ob-
jects of perception or theught ; and a remarkable oc-
currence draws forth a strong effort of attention, and
makes a deep impression on the mind, but an or-
dinary incident passes unnoticed, and is soon for-
gotten.

Various questions have been agitated concerning
attention, with regard to its nature and mode of ope-
ration ; as whether it should be considered as a distinct
power of the mind, or merely the exercise or appli-
cation of its other faculties; and whether the mind,
when occupied with the objects of perception or
thought, can direct its attention to more than one
object at the same instant. Some philosophers who
seem not to have fully appreciated the rapid and in-
sensible transitions of the mind in its operations, are
disposed to reply to the latter question iu the affir-
mative, and to adopt the opinion that more than one
object can be brought under the same mental ope-
ration and at the same instant, provided the whole
pictm-e of the object be painted on the retina : But
it is alleged by others, and with more probability,
that attention even to the minutest objects, and to
the consideration of their properties and relations,
really includes a series of operations which succeed
each other with such rapidity that they seem to be
only a single instantaneous effort.

ATTENUANTS, or Attenuating Medicines,
is a term which is now rather antiquated, and, as the
word signifies, is applied to such substances as were
supposed to have the effect of diminishing the exces-
sive consistence of tlie blood and other fluids of the
body, which had been produced by disease.

ATTERBURY, Francis, an English divine, who
by a rapid career of promotion attained to the see
of Rochester, was the son of Dr Lewis Atterbury,
rector of Milton in Buckinghamshire. His birth is
dated in 1662. At a proper age he became a scho»
lar at Westminster school, was, in 1680, elected a
student of Christ's Church college, Oxford, he was
admitted, in 16&7, to the degree of M. A., and dur-
ing his residence at college was equally conspicuous
for his mental capacity and for his literary acquire-
tnents.

The period of his entrance into holy orders has
not been recorded ; but in 1693 he made an unsuc-
cessful application to be appointed his father's succes-
sor ; and to spend his days as the rector of his native
parish, had hitherto been the ultimate object of his
ambition. Disappointed of his object, and disgusted
with the dull routine of college duties (which in one
of his letters he calls ' the nauseous circle of small
affairs,' whence he could derive neither amusement
nor instruction, ) he resolved to enter on a more ac-
tive scene of life, and forthwith went to London. He
rose rapidly to honour, and to eminence. Chaplain in
ordinary to King William and Queen Mary, preacher
at Bridewell, lecturer at St Bride's, archdeacon of Tot-
ness, doctor of divinity, chaplain in ordinary to Queen
Anne, dean of Carlisle, prolocutor of the lower house of
Convocation, and dean of Christ's Church, are among

the number of the preferments which crowded upon Attcibuvy.
him in rapid succession. And, to crown the whole, ~ '
on the recommendation of the earl of Oxford, he
was, in 1713, advanced to the see of Rochester, and
the deanery of Westminster. A man of lofty views,
he was not content witli the honour, or the influence
which this distinguished station conferred, but looked
upward with desire to the still higher dignities of the
church, and aspired, it is said, to the primateship
of all England ; and so prudently had he taken his
measures, that had a vacancy occurred during the
life of the Queen it is probable he would have been
archbishop of Canterbury.

But on the accession of George I. to the throne
of Great Britain, Atterbury's sun of prosperity be-
gan to darken. He had offered the King, on his
coronation, the chair of state and royal canopy, per-
quisites of the deanery of Westminster, which were
rejected with evident tokens of dislike to his person.
From that time the bishop of Rochester opposed all
the measures of the court. He refused to sign the
declarations of the bishops against the claims of the
house of Stuart; and so strong was the suspicion of
his having a share in a plot in favour of the Pretender,
that, in 1722, he was apprehended and committed to-
the tower. In the following year a bill was brought
into the House of Commons, which passed into a law,
by which he was doomed to perpetual exile. In June
1723 he embarked for France, where, in 1731, he died,
as it is supposed of a broken heart, occasioned partly
by his degradation and banishment, but chiefly by
the death of his daughter. His body was brought
to England, and interred in Westminster abbey.

As an author, Atterbury sustained the character
of a poet, of a polemic, and of a preacher. His
poetical talent was displayed at any early age in a
Latin translation of Dryden's Absalom and Ahito-
phel, in a translation of some of the Odes of Horace,
and in an elegant Epigram on tlie Fan of tlie Lady
whom he afterwards married.

But he soon neglected the muses to court the
stern genius of controversy. His first essay, in this
department, was in defence of the Reformation, and
in vindication of the character of Luther, its illustrious
champion. The severest contest which he sustained
was with Dr Wake, respecting the rights, powers,
and privileges of the clergy. Dr Wake, who was af-
terwards archbishop of Canterbury, had endeavoured
to prove, that the right of convening the elergy was
vested in the prince; — that they can discuss nothing
without his permission ; — that his power over their
constitution and decrees was supreme ; — and that
he alone can dissolve their synods. In opposition to
these positions, Atterbury maintained, that the cler-
gy have a right to meet and deliberate independently
of any superior power ; and treats his antagonist's
book ' as a shallow empty performance, written
without any knowledge of our constitution, or skilh
in the particular subject of debate.' In consequence
of the zeal which he displayed in this curious con-
troversy, he was viewed by the one party as a man
of a hot and acrimonious mind, and treated with a
large portion of abuse ; while, by the otlicr side, he
was regarded as an able advocate of high church
principles, and received the thanks of the lower
house of Convocation, and the degree of doctor in

ATT

528

ATT

JlUio

Atlila.

divinity from tlie University of Oxford. Besides these
disputes, some of the doctrines which he had taught
in his sermons, particularly that of passive obedience,
were called in question by Mr Hoadly, which engag-
ed him in a controversy with that divine. A view of
these disputes, with copious extracts, will be found
in the Biographia Britannica.

As his eloquent sermons, and impressive manner
«f preaching, first brought the bishop of Rochester
into notice, so his character as an author must be
estimated from his compositions of this description,
which have been long before the public, and which
are still read as specimens of genuine pulpit elo-
quence. His sermons, contained in four octavo vo-
lumes, embrace a variety of topics, which are treated
with great clearness, simplicity, and warmth of ex-
pression. He speaks both to the understanding and
tlie heart of his hearers ; and as he possessed a keen
and ardent mind, and an animated countenance, he
must have been heard with attention. Let the vio-
lence of tliis great man's temper, which the heat of
jcontrovcrsy provoked ; let the party zeal which he
displayed, and which some think is rendered excuse-
able by the turbulence of the times, be buried in
.oblivion, and let us learn diligence from his example,
and piety and virtue from his worki.

ATTICA, a peninsular region of ancient Greece,
liaving Peloponnesus for its boundary on the west, the
iEgcan sea and the Saronic gulf for its limits on
other two sides, and united by land with Bceotia ;
derived more of its celebrity from Athens, the capital,
than from the whole state ; and, indeed, the ancient
splendour of the latter seems to have sunk the former
into comparative obscurity. Eleusis, Sunium, and
Marathon are its other chief towns, some of which
are connected with the most celebrated exploits re-
corded in Grecian history. Attica is described as a
barren district. Among its vegetable productions
the olive has been famous from the earliest times to
the present day ; ond the abundance and excellence
of the honey of Mount Hymettus have been well
known in all ages. See Greece.

ATTILA, the celebrated king of the Huns, who
assumed the reigns of government in 433, was re-
markable for the deformity and strength of his body,
and the boldness and fierceness of his look, for his mi-
litary prowess, and the immense armies, amounting to
300,000, or, according to some accounts, to 700,000
barbarians, which obeyed his connnand, and the vast
extent of empire, stvctching from the borders of Chi-
na to the banks of the Danube, over wliich he sway-
ed the sceptre of uncontrouled authority. The cru-
elty and barbarity which accompanied his numerous
and extensive conquests, imposed upon him the re-
proachful designation of the Scourge ()f God. From
a peculiar habit which he had acquired of fiercely
rolling his eyes, it is supposed that he wished to in-
spire terror in those wlio were near his person. ' The
crowd of the vulgar kings, (says Gibbon,) the leaders
of so many martial tribes, who served under the stan-
dard of Attila, were ranged in the submissive order
pf guards and domestics around him. They watched
iiis nod, trembled at his frown, and at the first signal
pf his will executed, without murmur or hesitation,
bis Stern and absolute commands."

His death, which happened about the year 453, Aturney
was attended with singular circumstances. He had ||

married a new wife, a beautiful virgin ; the nuptials Attr«otto«.
were celebrated with great pomp and festivity, at his
palace beyond the Danube, and he retired late to
bed oppressed with wine. A blood-vessel in tlie
lungs hurst in the night, and produced suffocation.
In the ihorning the bride was found sitting by the
bed-side, overwhelmed with tears and lamentations
at the sudden event, and the danger which probably
awaited her. " The body of Attila was exposed in
the plain, while the Huns, singing funeral songs to
his praise, marched round it in martial order. En-
closed in three coffins of gold, silver, and iron, it
was privately interred during the night ; and to pre-
vent the violation of his remains by the discovery of
the place where he was buried, all the captive slaves
who were employed in the solemnity were barbarous-
ly massacred." Gibbon's lluwan History.

ATTORNEY, a person who transacts any busi-
ness in place of another, either in a public or private
capacity. In the latter case fie is appointed by let-
ter of aitornei/, and in the former lie manages the law
proceedings of his client by warrant or authority
from him ; and in this character he is denominated
Aitornei/- at-Laii:

Attornies-at-law must be form.ally admitted and
sworn into the particular courts in which they prac-
tise. A practitioner in the court of King's Bench
cannot appear in the court- of Common Pleas; an at-
torney in the latter cannot act in the former ; and to
practise in the court of Chancery he must be regu-
larly admitted a solicitor in that court. Attornies
are regarded as members of their own courts, are sub-
ject to the regulation and animadversion of the judg-
es, and, at the same time, enjoy many valuable pri-
vileges. Without being admitted in a superior court
of record, no person can act as an attorney at the
court of Quarter- Sessions. Blackstone's Commen-
taries. -

A'FTORNEY-GENERAL is the great law-offi-
cer of the crown in England, and is appointed to his
office by the king's letters patent. It is the duty of
the attorney-general to exhibit informations, and to
prosecute for the crown in criminal matters, and to
file bills in the Exchequer for any thing concerning
the king in inheritance or profits.

ATTRACTION, is a general term in natural phi-
losophy to denote that power by which all bodies
tend to each other. This power or property per-
vades all nature. It operates on the minutest par-
ticles, as well as on the largest masses of matter, and
under various modifications has received different
names. When it acts at sensible distances, as when
the planets of the solar system are drawn towards the
sun, or when a stone unsupported falls to the ground,
it is distinguished by the general name of the at-
traction of gravitation, ^^^^en two polished surfaces
of ghiss, mar'ole, or metal, are brought into close con-
tact by the exclusion of the air, they are strongly
drawn towards each other, and this modification of
attraction is called adhesion. When panicles of mat-
ter of the same kind are united, the power which
operates is denominated the attraction (>f aggregation,
or cohesion. But whea the minute particles of mat-

AVA

529

A CJ D

Attribute ter of different kind? enter into combination, as oil

II of vitriol, or snip!) uric acid and soda, a new com-

Arahnches. pound, totally different in its character from its con-

' stituent elements, or the familiar substance, Glauber's

salt, is obtained ; and this constitutes the true <ha-

racter of chemical attraction or affinity, where the

particles of matter act on each other at insensible

distances. See Affinity, under Chemistry, and

Universal Gravitation, under Astronomy.

ATTRIBUTE, in its general meaning, is a qua-
lity or property essential to the nature of a person
or thing. Understanding is said to be an attribute
of mind, and extension is an attribute of matter.

ATTRIBUTES of God, are those perfections
which belong to the character of the Supreme Being,
as his infinite power, wisdom, justice, and goodness.

ATVVOOD, George, an English mathematician
and natural philosopher of considerable eminence,
was born about the year 17-1-5, was educated at West-
minster school, and prosecuted his studies at Cam-
bridge with so much success that he became a fellow
of Trinity college, and afterwards one of the tutors.
He delivered lectures on experimental philosophy at
Cambridge for several years, which were numerously
attended and greatly admired ; and having given up
his residence at the university, he was much employed
in financial calculations by the late Mr Pitt, who
appointed him to a sinecure office for the purpose of
retaining his services in that department of his poli-
tical arrangements. Mr Atwood died in London
in 1807, when he had reached the 62d year of his
age.

The scientific labours of Mr Atwood were chiefly
employed on physical subjects ; and his investiga-
tions on Rectilinear Motion and Ralation of Bodicf,
on the Stability of Ships and Floating Bodies, on the
Construction of Arches, &c. with an Analysis of a
Course of Lectures, and a Description of Experi-
ments for their illustration, and a lleview of the Re-
gulations for the Assize of Bread, were published in
detached treatises, or in memoirs in the Philosophi-
cal Transactions. He was also the inventor of an
ingenious apparatus for illustrating experimentally
the doctrine of accelerated and retarded motion,
or determining the quantity of matter, the moving
force, the space described, the time of description,
and the velocity acquired by a falling body.

AVA, an extensive kingdom of Asia, in the pe-
ninsula beyond the Ganges, having Tonquin and
Cochin-China on the east, and China and Thibet on
the north, is well watered by numerous streams, and
abounds in vegetable productions. The territory of
Ava is now included in the Birman empire. See

BiRMAH.

AVA, the capital of the kingdom of Ava, was
formerly a flourishing city, but is now falling to de-
cay since the seat of government has been removed
to Ummerapoora, which is the present capital of the
Birman empire. Ava, which stands on the banks of
the river Irrawaddy, was once four miles in circum-
ference, and was defended by a wall and ditch ;
but its roofless houses, ruined temples, and deserted
streets, present a melancholy contrast with its former
prosperity.

AVALANCHES are huge mjisses of snow, which

vol.. i. PART II.

are detached from the base on which they rest in Aubaiae
Alpine regions, and chiefly in the Alps of Switzer- j|
land, partly by the melting of the snow, and the wa-, Audraa.
ter thus generated being conveyed through fissures,
producing a separation between the side of the moun-
tain and the inferior stratum of snow, and partiv, it
seems probable, by the heat of the earth dissolving
the lower stratum, and are precipitated, by their in-
cumbent weight, into the vallies below, overwhelm-
ing forests, fields, and villages. Some of thjs e masses
of frozen snow, 200 feet in diameter, have been ob-
served.

AUB AINE, or droit d'Aubaine, was a right claimed
by tlie kings of France to the inheritance of foreign-
ers who died within their territory. The Swiss, Sa-
voyards, Portuguese, and Scots, who were consider-
ed natives of France, and ambassadors from foreign
states, were exempted.

AUBE, a department of France, which is thus
denominated from a river of the same name by which
it is traversed, is bounded on the north by the de-
partment of the Marne, and on the west by that of
the Seine and Marne ; part is covered with forests,
part of it is abundantly fertile in grain and fruits,
and part is remarkable for its sterility. The popula-
tion exceeds 240,000, and Troyes is the capital.

AUBLETIA, a genus of plants which belongs to
the Polyandria class, and derives its name from M.
Aublet, a learned French naturalist, who is the au-
thor of an elaborate work on the plants of Guiana.

AUCH, the capital of the department of Gers in
France, and formerly the chief town of Gascony,
stands on a declivity near the river Gers, is about
400 miles south-west from Paris, and contains nearly
8000 inhabitants. The streets are narrow, but clean
and well paved, and some of the modern buildings
are not without elegance. The archbishop's palace
is a princely structure ; and the cathedral, which is
remarkable for the rich profusion of its internal de-
corations, is described as one of the most magnificent
edifices in France.

AUCKLAND, or Bishops Auckland, a bo-
rough town of the county of Durham in England, de-
rives its first name from the forest of oaks formerly in
its vicinity, and the additional appellation from the
palace, which is the residence of the bishops of Dur-
ham ; stands on an elevated spot near the confluence
of the Wear and Wandless, and contains nearly 2000
inhabitants, part of whom is employed in manufac-
tures, especially in the printing of calico and other
cotton stuffs.

AUDE, a department of France, having the Py-
renees on the south, and the sea on the east, and
traversed by a river of the same name, has a toler-
ably fertile soil, and some extensive forests, is fa-
mous for its honey, contains a population exceeding
226,000, and Carcassone is the capital.

AUDRAN, Claude, a French engraver, who was
born at Paris in 1592, and having attained the vene-
rable age of 85, died at Lyons in 1677, was less
distinguished as an artist than as being the first of
a long race of the same name in the same profession,
and as being the father of three sons, some of whom
rose to great emhience. The brother, or, according
to some.accounts, the cousin of Claude Audran, was

AVE

550

AVE

Awlma

bIm a respectable cn^raveir ^ anA \\k prints of
the AmtuncM/ticn from Hannibal Carracci, anti tko
Awiii»o, AfJuiMjrtum ftoTY) D<>niciiid»ino, are still rogarded as
cxcelk'iit projUiction?.

Al 1>1{.\N, (iKRARD, the*liIr<l»onof CIa\i<<e Au-
dr«n, wn* born at Lyon* in IfJK), and died nt Paris in
1703. He was by far the most celebrated artist of this
remarkable family, a«d executed some highly pisBed
engravings froiti pictures by tlie Hrst masters. But the
powers of his art sliiac coiisjiicuous in the Hatt/cs <>/'
^/rrom/cr, which arewniversaHyatkiiircd aswonderfiil
prodaetions of the graver, and in which it has l>ocn
strongly expressed, that hv» suqiassed even the ex-
pectations of the painter himself. Tlic prints alluded
to are the p'sangc of the GiftHicys; the battle of Ar-
ieia ; and Porns brnii^f^t to .{Ic.va infer, after his </c-
Jeat, — all of large size, troan pictures by Le Hrun : To
this series were added two fibers, from pictures by
the same artist ; naniely. A/eA-aiufcr r»<m»sf the tei'it
of Darius, wJiich was engraved by Gerard Edelink,
and the triuwphiil entru of Alf-xander into Bahi/toi;,
executed by Audran. It may be worth wliile that the
admirer of these splendid engravings should recol-
lect that the impn;ssions in highest estimation are
marked with the name of Goyton the printer.

AV'EBURY, or Abury, a village of \\'iltshire
fti England, is about nineteen miles, north from
Stonehenge, and is famous for its druidical temple,
the scanty remains of which still exhibit a sin-
gular monument of British antiquity. Surrounded
by a ditch and rampart, this sacred structure was
composed of several concentric circles, with a central
obelisk, and two avenues, one of which led to the
south-east and the other to the west ; the whole con-
sisting of single stones placed perpendicularly in the
ground, and rising from ten to nineteen feet above
the surface. Tiie avenues, formed oi 'JOO upright
^tones were a mile long ; and the structure, when
entire is supposed to have been composed of not
fewer titan 650 stones. See Britton's Beauties of
Wiltshire, Vol. III.

AVEIRO, or New BnAGAjraA, a sea-port town in
Ur' province of Beira in Portugal . stands in a flat marshy
eouniry, and contains nearly 5(XX) inhabitants. The
river \'ouga traverses the town, but the shallowness
■of the water admits only vessels of small size. TTie
trade is incwisiderable, but the fishery, which sup-
plies the province with sardinhos, is a copious source
•>f employment and protit to a large portion of the
population, and the manufacture of sah in tlie vici-
mty is extensive.

AVELLINO, a town of Naples, is situated on
the declivity o( a hill, and contains about 9000 in-
habitants, who are chiefly employed in the manu-
facture of woollen cloth, wooden cluurs, maccaroni,
and pastes oi different kinds, the latter of which are
in great esteem throughout the surrounding couu-
iry. The >oil of the district, which is chiefly oi a
volcanic nature, is unfavourable to tlie production
•f corn ; but fruits are abundant, and the cultivation
of the Spanish filbert is so successfully conducted,
that the amount of produce, in a good season, ex-
Meds 1 1 ,0001. Sterling. The trees ore planted hi re-
fiilar rows, and are carefully trained and dressed.

AVENA, Oats, a genus of plants belonging

to A\e class Triandrin, and irthiding the cultivated Amiche
oat with its numerous varirtit-s, ihe wild oat, and l|
some other species, which are natives of Britain. Atcjtob.

AVENCHE, an ancient town in the canton of
Berne in Sw-itzerland, stands at the southern extre-
mity of the lake Mori't, and is now chieflv remark-
able for the splendid remniius of its fornuT magHrfi.
cence, which are scattered in great profusion within
a circuit of five miles; among which are enumerated
fragments of an amphitheatre, the fltwr of a bath,
executed in mosaic work, and udorne<l with himiim
figures, cornices of white marble 8culpt«re<l wirii
urns, griflins, and sea-horses, and a stupendous co-
himn of white marble, sixty ft-et in height, all which
afford certain evidence of this place having been a
favourite resilience of the ancient Uomans. Coxe's
Travels in f>xvfl:erlantl.

AVENZOAR, an Arabian physician, and one of
the earliest writers on medicine, flourishwl about the
end of the 1 Ith century, was born in Spain, and be-
longed to a family, in which the profession seemed t»»
be hereditary. He lived, it is said, to the great age of
135; and the splendour of his talents and acquire-
ments, or the extravagance of fulsome adulation,
called forth trom his cotemporarv, and supposed
pupil, Averroes, the lofty titles of " Admirable, glo-
rious, the treasure of all knowledge, and the most i«-
preme in phi/sic."

AVERmJS, a famous lake, not far distant froni
Puzzvioli in Campania in Italy, the exhalations ot
which were supposed to have been of so pestilential
a nature that no animal could approach it with
safety ; and even birds flying across its surface were
suffocated by its vapours ami dropped down dead.
The more accurate observations of modern natu«
ralists have completely subvertetl tlie erroneous in-
formation concerning this lake and others to which
similar effects were ascribed, and which were drawTi
from the groundless details of mythology, or the fan»
cied descriptions of poetry. Lake Avernus in Italy
was supposed to be bottomless, two miles long, and
about a mile broad. The depth is ascertainetl to be
less than 200 feet ; and it presents a fine expanse of
limpid water abounding with fish. A gloomy cave
on its banks is described by Virgil as the residence
of the Cuinean Sybil.

AVERROES, an Arabian philosopher, was bom
about tlie beginning of the 12tli century at Cordova,
in Spain, then the capital of the Moorish territory in
that country, was educated in the university of Mo-
rocco, and became so eminent in mathematics, law,
medicine, and divinity, tliat he was regarded as one
of the first philosophers of the age. He was jiarti-
cularly celebrated by his elaborate annotations oh
the works of Aristotle, and was long known in the
schools by the distinctive appellation of the Com-
mentator ; and was not less notorious for his indis-
criminate rejection of every religious creed, Jewish,
Christian, and Mahometan.

AVEYRON, a department of France, watered by
a river of the same name, has tlie department of
Tarn on the south, and that of Cantal on the north.
The surface and soil are niore suited for pasture, and
the rearing of numerous herds of cattle, than for the
culture of grain. Hemp is exteneively cultivated,

AUG 531

A«git« ftttd the vine gretr* luxuriantly. Coal, alum, and
11 tlie ores of iron, lead, and copper, are enumerated
A^gtburg. among the mineral produclions. The populatiou
^<^<"*^ exceeds 320,000, and Tlbodes is the capital.

AUGITE, a crystallized mineral, belonging to the
siliceous genus, and a native of basaltic rocks. S«e
MiNERAiooy.

AUGSBURG, the Augusta Vindelicorutn of the
Romans, a city in Sv/abia in Germany, stands in a
fertile and beautiful plain near the confluence of the
rivers Lech and Werlach, and is 300 miles west
from Vienna, and 40 miles nortli-nest from Munich.
The trade of this city v.-as in former times most
prosperous, and some of its merchants were the
■wealthiest citizens in the empire ; but it has now
greatly declined. Tlie population is estimated at
more than 30,000, who are occupied in various kinds
of manufactures, as those of cotton stufis, leather,
paper, dj'eing, bleaching, gold and silver lace, clocks
and watches, and toys. Literary labour, once re-
spectable in Augsburg, is now confined to the pro-
duction of religious tracts for children and the com-
mon people, picture book-s of a similar description,
and cheap maps. Two-thirds of the inhabitants are
Koman catholics, and the rest are Protestants ; and
it is only since the commencement of the present
century that Jews were permitted to reside within
its walis.

The streets are regular and spacious ; the houses
are constructed partly of wood and partly of free-
stone ; and some of the churches, and other public
buildings, can boast of great elegance, and a pro-
fusion of ricli ornaments. The town-house is a
raagnificent edifice, adorned with a splendid marble
portico, and numerous brazen figures of animals
richly gilt ; and the public fountains are equally or-
namental and beneficial to the city. The fountain
of Augustus is a fanciful structure, composed ef
figures of brass in the form of men, women, chil-
dren, dolphius, and sphinxes, and from the centre
rises a pedestal surmounted by a statue of Augustus
of the size of life. Augustus Caesar is regarded'aa
the founder of the city, and from him it derives its
name. An aqueduct conveys the v/atcrs oi the Lech
to the city for the supply of the fountains, and for
conununicating motion to the machinery of various
manufactories.

Augsburg suffered greatly during the French re-
volutionary war, from the various fortunes of the
contending powcri,, and was at last attached to the
kingdom of Bavaria.

Aussburg Co?tfcision. — But this city holds a most
conspicuous place in hittory, in consequence of the
famous diet which met in it, and at which the Luther-
an confession of faith, hence called the Augsburg
Coitfession, was presented to the emperor Charles V.
This diet assembled in 1530; and the confederate
princes who espoused the cause of reformation, and
had protested against the decree of the imperial diet
of Spires, passed a few montlis before, first assumed
the distinctive appellation of ProUdauts. This cele-
brated confession, which was drawn up by Melanc-
dton, the coadjutor of Lutl^er, consists of 20 cliap-
turs, containing a detailed view of the religious creed
of the reformers, and the reascwa of their separatipn
2

Ailgsrj

AUG

from the church of Rome. It was read In the pub-
lic hall, in presence of the Catholic and Protestant
divines ; and although some modifications were made Augart*.
en objectionable clause!;, and the influence of the " ~
emperor was interposed, yet the conference produced
no reconciliation. Some of tin: Protestants them-
selves disapproved of parts of the confession, sepa-
rated from the Lutherans, and assumed the name
of Evangelical Reformed, by wliich denomination a
large proportion of the German Protestants is at.
tills day distinguished. See Robertson's Hiitory v/'
Charles V.

AUGURY, a kind of divination, or mode of for-
telling the nature of future events, by observing the
manner of feeding, the flight, and the chattering or
singing of birds. It was practised by the ancients,
and especially by the Romans, who rarely undertook
any iniportant affairs without previously consulting
those who studied and superintended tne system of
augury, which ignorance and superstition nod esta-
blished among that people.

Augury was practised among the Romans in the
earliest period of the state. Romulus appointed three
augurs of patrician or noble rank, wlicn the influ-
ence of the people had increased in the common-
wealth, the college of augurs was enlarged to nine,
four of whom were chosen from the Patricians, and
five from the Plebeians. Six were afterwards added
to the number ; and the institution, now composed
of fifteen members, continued to be Iseld in liigh res-
pect and dignity during the prosperous periods of
Rome. The augurs were next in dignity to the or-
der of priests ; they were clothed in splendid robes
of purple and scarlet ; they wore a cap of a conical
form ; and while they exercised their mysterious func-
tions they held the lituus, or divining rod, which was
a crooked staff, in their hand.

The Roman augurs, aware of the imperfection of
their system of divination when they trusted for the
exercise of their art to the casual and uncertain mo-
tions of wild birds, not always within their observa-
tion, improved and refined upon it by keeping a num-
ber ef chickens, to which the epithet oi sacred waa
added, and from their motions and manner of feeding
they could at all times predict the good or bad fortune
of those who consulted them on future events.

Augury, although not formally practised in the
present day, is not yet entirely eradicated from the
human mind. The lights of science and religion, and
the general diffusion of knowledge, have not been
able to dispel the gloomy forebodings which are ex-
cited by the actions of some of the feathered tribes.
The crowing of a cock at an unusual hour, is regard-
ed by many as an ominous presage ; and to the weak
and superstitious, the croaking of the raven, in cer-
tain circumstances, and the screaming of the night-
owl, ore the awful harbingers of misfortune.

AUGUST, the eighth month of the year, accord-
ing to the modern kalendar, was the sextilis, or sixth
montli of the Romans, reckoning from March, the
commencement of their year, but was changed to his
own name by Augustua Cassar, because lltat month
bad bc-en peculiarly favourable to his fortunes.

AUGUSTA, a town of Sicily, which stands on a
peumtular spot on the eastern coast, and not far dit-

AtJG

532

AVI

Angastine '^nt from the ruins of ancient Megara, was almost cn-
II tirely destroyed in 1673 by an earthquake, has been

Avicenn-. since rebuilt with low houses, to obviate, in some de-
gree, the dangers of similar accidents; contains about
1j,000 inhabitants, and in former times served as a
depot for the ships belonging to the knights of Malta
to be supplied with stores and provisions.

AUGUSTINE, St. a learned bishop of the early
Christian church, was u native of a small town in the
interior of Numidia in Africa, and was born in the
year 354, made rapid progress in his studies, and,
while yet a youth, opened a school of grammar and
rhetoric in his native place, and acquired great re-
putation by his public lectures on the same subject,
which he delivered at Carthage, Rome, and Milan.
Some doubts which he had entertained concerning
the doctrines of Christianity were removed by hear-
ing the eloquent sermons of St Ambrose, bishop of
Milan, and from him he received baptism. Return-
ing to Africa, and being ordained a presbyter, by
Valerius, bishop of Hippo, he was afterwards associ-
ated with him in his episcopal functions. But before
this period he and some friends had devoted them-
selves to retirement, fasting, and meditation, and
having all things in common, subjected themselves
to all the austerities and privations of the monastic
life. St Augustine died in 430. His early life exhi-
bited a scene of dissipation and licentiousness ; but
his niaturer age was exemplary for virtuous conduct
and the zealous discharge of all the duties of a Chris-
tian instructor. His works have been printed in ten
volumes.

The ascetic life of St Augustine is the origin of the
various orders of monastic institutions which have as-
sumed his name. Soon after their regular establish-
ment in the 13th century, the religious order of Au-
gustine, or Austin friars, was introduced into Eng-
land, and at the time of their suppression, in the 16th
century, 32 establishments of the kind existed.

AUGUSTUS, the appellation conferred by the
senate on Caisar Octavianus, the first Roman em-
peror. The obscure name of Octavianus was derived
from a family of no rank. " The illustrious name of
Caesar," Mr Gibbon observes, " he had assumed as
the adopted son of the dictator; but he had too much
good sense to hope to be confounded, or to wish to
be compared with that extraordinary man. It was
proposed in the senate to dignify their minister with
a new appellation ; and, after a very serious discus-
sion, that of Augustus was chosen among several
others, as being the most expressive of the character
ef peace and sanctity which he uniformly aftected.
Augustus was therefore a personal, Ccesar a family
distinction." The first was the sacred title reserved
for the monarch, the second was usually communi-
cated to his relations, and, from the reign of Adrian,
was appropriated to the second person in the state,
who was regarded as the presumptive heir of the
empire.

AVICENNA, pompously styled the prince of
Arabian philosophers and physicians, flourished in
the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th cen-
tury, in his earliest j'ears had made great proficiency
in grammar and the knowledge of the koran, and, as
his i:.te)lectual powers were matured, became no less

distinguished in mathematics and other branches ATicennli
of learning which were then the objects of pur- y

suit and studj'. Like the philosophers of the age, Auklaiid.
Avicenna lived a wandering and unsettled life ;
now basking in the sunshine of prosperity at the
courts of princes, now a houseless fugitive, exposed
to all the rigours of adversity ; now immersed in li-
centious pleasures, and now devoted to profound
study. He died in the year 103G. The works of
Avicenna on mathematics, metaphysics, morals, the-
ologj', natural history, and other subjects, are ex-
tremely voluminous ; but the laborious undertaking
of an Encyclopaedia, or general view of human know-
ledge, which he dignified with the quaint and ex-
pressive title of the Ulility of Utilities, and which, it
is said, was projected in his 21st year, and soon exe-
cuted in 20 volumes, is of itself a gigantic perform-
ance, and affords sufficient evidence of a vigorous
mind and indefatigable industry. While scholastic
philosophy and divinity were held in repute, the works
of Avicenna were much read and greatly admired.

AVICENNIA, or Eastern Anacahdium, a ge-
nus of plants belonging to the Didynamia class.

AVIGNON, the capital of the department of
Vaucluse in France, stands on the eastern bank of
the Rhone, is surrounded by battlements which in-
clude a circuit of three miles, and contains about
30,000 inhabitants. The streets have no claim to re-
gularity or beauty ; but the public edifices in their
decaying grandeur still display striking marks of their
former magnificence. Some of the churches are
adorned with monuments which, in elegance of de-
sign and perfection of execution, have been rarely
surpassed, and with paintings which have been always
ranked among the finest productions of the pencil.
The defaced tomb of Laura, the celebrated object of
Petrarch's hopeless passion, and of her husband, in
the church of the Cordeliers, is still visited by the
curious stranger ; and in a valley five miles from the
city is the fountain of Vaucluse, of poetical celebritj',
the retirement which Petrarch often sought to in-
dulge his grief and misplaced affection. The pointed
extremity of a projecting rock near the fountain, is
surmounted by the remains of an ancient tower,
which is still denominated the castle of Petrarch.

Avignon is conspicuous in history, as the residence
of the papal see for a period of 70 years, from the
time that Clement V. transferred it from Rome iu
1309 ; and when the head of the Catholic church re-
stored his court to the Vatican, a rival pope held a
divided sovereignty in Avignon, till Martin V. suc-
ceeded in the year 1418, when it was erected into an
archbishopric, and continued to be part of the eccle-
siastical territory till the late revolution in France,
when it was attached to the new republic.

A VILA, a city of Old Castile in Spain, stands in
a spacious plain, surrounded with mountains, and co-
vered with orchards and vineyards, is walled and for-
tified, contains about 2000 houses, many of which
are well built, an university, numerous religious
houses, and a magnificent cathedral ; and some of the
inhabitants are occupied in the cloth manufacture.

AUK, the name of a bird belonging to the order
Anseres. See Alca, under Obnithology.

AUKLAND BISHOPS. See Auckland.

AUG

553

AUR

AuIm AULUS GELLIUS, a learned Roman, who flou-

11 rislied in the time of Adrian and the Antonines. He

Aurelian. was a native of Rome, and as was the custom of the
period in which he lived, he resided some time in
Athens, for the purpose of prosecuting his studies at
that celebrated school of philosophy. Having visit-
ed some of tha other Grecian states, he returned to
his native city, and rose to eminence in the profession
of the law.

The Nodes Aiticae, " Athenian Nights," the only
production ef Gellius known at the present day,
was begun while he resided at Athens, and is a cu-
rious literary miscellany, containing various biogra-
phical, historical, and critical observations on an-
rient authors and passages of their works, and exhi-
biting an instructive picture of the manners, customs,
and opinions of antiquity. Various editions of this
work have apjieared, but the English reader has bh
opportunity of perusing it, and appreciating its merits,
in a translation by Mr Beloe, published in 1795.

AVOCADO PEAR, the trivial name of the Lau-
rus persica, a rich fruit of the West Indies, which,
from its nutritious qualities, and resemblance to mar-
row, has been called vegetable marroiv.

AUR ANCllES, or A vnANCHES, an ancient town of
lower Normandy, now the department of the Channel,
in Erance, contains about 5000 inhabitants, and is
chiefly remarkable for the extensive ruins of the castle,
and the lofty station of the cathedral, part of which oc-
cupies the extreme verge of an overhanging precipice.
The stone on which Henry H. of England knelt when
he received absolution from the Pope's nuncio for the
murder of Thomas a Rocket, in 1172, is said to be
still preserved at the cathedral, and is pointed out
to strangers as a curious rehc.

AURANTIUM, the specific name of the orange
tree in the Linnaean classification of plants.

AURELIA, the name by which insects are dis-
tinguished in one of the stages of their transforma-
tion by older naturalists, and analogous to the more
modern appellation Chrysalis. See Entomology.

AURELIAN, or Aurelianus Lucius Domiti-
us, one of the most powerful and celebrated of the
Roman emperors, rose from the humble station of the
son of a peasant in Pannonia, and from the rank of a
Common soldier, in which capacity he entered the
army, to tl»e exalted dignity of head of the empire,
not less by his personal courage than by his military
skill and prudent conduct. Having passed through
the various subordinate ranks, he obtained the chief
co-amand of the army under Ciaudian, and acquired
such reputation and influencethat, on the death of that
cmperor,the irresistible voice of the soldiers, who shar-
ed his glory and his conquests, nominated him his suc-
cessor, and in the jear 270 placed him on the throne.
Every territory, even the most distant which the Ro-
man power had reached, was a witness of his triumphs.
In his rapid and unexampled progress, the Persians
and Egyptians, the Goths and the Vandals, were dis-
comfited ; and Spain, Gaul, and Britain, yielded to
the force of his arms. But his power was not raised
on a solid foundation. The discontents and murmurs
of the higher orders of the people, excited by his
marked partiality to the Plebeian rank, which he could
not conceal, broke out into open and dangerous in-

surrection, in the suppression of which he displayed Auttngzcte
the cruelty and barbarity which, it is said, were na- ||
tural to his disposition. In the commencement of Aurora,
the year 275, while he conducted a powerful army
against Persia, one of his secretaries, who dreaded
the punishment of extortion, had the address to per-
suade the chief officers that they were all involved in
a general proscription. Watching the first favoura-
ble opportunity, they attacked him on the march
from Byzantium, and he fell covered with wounds.
The fraud was discovered when too late ; but the
traitor was exposed to the fury of wild beasts, and the
funeral obsequies of the emperor were celebrated
with great pomp and magnificence. Gibbon's Roman
Hisiori/.

AURENG-ZEBE, the great Mogul, one of the
most successful conquerors and celebrated sovereigns
of the empire of Hindostan, was the third son of
Shaw Jehan, whom he succeeded on the throne, and
was born in 1618. Actuated by strong ambition,
Aureng-zebe was one of those who

wade tI;rough slaughter to a throne.

Under the humble garb of a religious recluse, he ac-
quired a high character for sanctity among his coun-
trymen, while he was concerting measures for secur-
ing to himself the sovereignly. But before he reach-
ed the summit of his boundless wishes, three of his
brothers were doomed to be the victims of barbarous
assassination. He was proclaimed emperor in 1(>59,
during his father's lifetime ; iind when he had obtain-
ed the undivided possesi^ion of the throne of Delhi,
no rival appeared to disturb the profound tranquillity
which reigned throughout the empire lor the long
period of twenty years. But his exertions to convert
his Hindoo subjects to the Mahometan faith excited
tumults and insurrections in various parts of his do-
minions, and kept him, during the latter years of liin
life, in constant disquiet and alarm. He had suc-
ceeded in the reduction of some of the insurgent
states ; but while he had retii'ed to winter quarters at
Ahmednagur, he was seized with an illness which
proved fatal in 1707, and when he had reached tlit
90th year of his age. By his own directions, his body
was deposited in the tomb of a holy dervise, without
pomp or ornament. His memory is held in great
veneration by the Mahometans ; and his toinb is tho
frequent resort of pilgrims, for the purpose of pei-
forming their devotions. Dow's IJktori/ of Hindostan.

AURIPIGMENTUM, sigmi'ying pigment, or painl
nf gold, or orpiment, is an old name for sulphuret of
arsenic, a common ore of that metal. See Mine-
ralogy.

AURORA, the morning twilight, or the faint light
which precedes sun-rising; and, in ancient mythologj',
the goddess of the morning, who is represented by
the poets in a chariot rising from the ocean, with
rosy fingers dropping dew. In Virgil's description
of the goddess of the morning, she is drawn by four
horses m a flame-coloured chariot.

AURORA BOREALIS, Northern Lights,
or, according to the vulgar appellation. Streamers,
or Merry Dancers, a luminous meteoric appearance,
which is observed most frequently in frosty weather
in northern regions of the atmosphere, and hence tbe

AUS

534

AUS

/

Avr^tt fti'i*;''* "f it^ first name, which is beccwne less itppro-
II priato sinco the discorerj' and description of a simi-

Ainr^"iu«. isr appeafff.ncn in higli southera latitudes by Mt For-
stCT, tho nstursiist who accompanied Captain Cook
in bis »eovTO(i voyage round tho worhi. It is a cu-
rious fnct ia tiK? history of this meteor, that, with
the exception of some doiihtfu! descriptions by Aris-
toiie Knd Piiny which seem to refer to it, observa-
tions on the (ivrora horralis arc h'mited comparatively
to modern times. The first on record was observed
in JonuafrV \S60, and is mentioned under the descrip-
tive appellation of burning spears. It was again seen
in ISSi and 1574 in England, in 157.') in JSrabant,
and in 1580 and 15<S1 in some parts of Germany ; in
1621 it was observed all over France ; and in 1623
it Tva* seen throughout the greater part of Germany ;
but from that time, during a period of eighty years,
uo fecovd exists of any such appearance. It reap-
peared for a short time in Ireland in 1707, and was
seen in tlie same and the succeeding year in Den-
mark. But the aurora which was observed in 1716,
and is mhiutely described by Dr Hallcy, was remark-
able for its brillianc}' and extent. It was visible from
tiio west of Ireland to the east of Poland, and from
ti»o 50th degree of north latitude throughout all the
jiortiiem regions of Europe.

The aurora borcnlis has been variously ascribed to
^•ctricity, to magnetism, to a phosphorescent light,
to the light of the sun repeatedly rcflccled from dif-
icrent regions of the clouds, to the zodiacal light,
and to the inflammation of hydrogen gas, which, as
Mr Kirwan, who proposes the theory, thinks, is ge-
nerated in great abundance in various natural pro-
cesses in the equatorial parts of the globe, and by its
low specific gravity ascends rapidly into the atmos-
phere, and is kindled by electricity. B^t the true
explanation of this meteor is still involved in obscu-
fity. See Meteorology.

AUIIUM, Gold, one of the precious metals ; for
the natural and chemical history of which, see Che-

MISTHY and MiNEUALOOY.

AUSONIA, the ancient name of Italy, which is
sometimes employed by the poets, and is derived
from the early inhabitants, who were called Ausones.

AUSONIUS DECIMUS, or Decius Mag-
■sus, a Latin poet of the fourth century, was born
at Bourdeaux in France, was educated under the
care of a relation, professor of rhetoric at Tiioulousc ;
and having made unusual progress in his studies, he
returned to his native place, where he successfully
taught grammar and rhetoric. The fame of his lec-
tures reached the imperial court, and sewured to him
the good fortune of being appointed by Valentinian
to superintend the instruction of his son Gratian ;
iind as a requital for his service?, he was raised to
the chief offices of the state, first to that of quaestor,
and afterwards to the distinguished station of consul.
He stood high in favour with the emperor Theodo-
•i;is, who promoted him to the patrician dignity, and
urged him to publish his poetical works. He died near
the end of the fourth century. The genius and poetry
of Ausonius are allowed to be of a superior character
. to Ilia coteinporaries. The edition of his work«;, with
a Ftencli translation, published at Paris in 1769, in
fftuT small volumes, i:i.rtii:kiuie«i obc of iha beat.

AUSPEX, an appellation originally applied ta the
Roman augurs, or those -.vlio predicted future events
from observing the flight of bird? ; hut according to
some, it was lexs limited in its application, and de-
noted generally any person who icttipreted omens.

Au.spices were consulted on ail matters of import-
ance by the ancient Romans ; anci it seems probable,
that the system became a political engine which ge-
nerals and statesmen employed for the purpose of
facilitating or retarding those enterpr!.«es in whici>
they were cneaged, as best suited their views. As-
semblies of the people were not legally constituted,
without a formal consultation of the auspices. The
augur, by his report of tho omen being unfavourable,
had it in his power to delay the meeting, or, on pre-
tence of some infonnality in the necessary solemni-
ties, could dissolve the assembly in any stage of its
proceedings.

AUSTERLITZ, a small town of Moravia in Ger-
many, to which the san/iuinary conflict between ths
French and allied Russians and Austrians, on the 2d
of December 1805, has given great celebrity. On
that eventful daj-, the Russians lost 15,000 men in
killed and wounded, and 100 pieces of cannon. The
French, in whose favour the fate of war decided the
engagement, have called it the battle of the Corona-
tion, because it was fought on the anniversary of
Bonaparte's coronation ; while the presence of three
emperors on the field has suggested to others the
seemingly more appropriate designation of the battle
of ttie three Emperors.

AUSTIL, or AUSTEL, a thriving town of Corn-
wall in England, contains nearly 4000 inhabitants,
who are employed in the tin mines in the vicinity, in
the manufacture of coarse woollen stufts, and in the
pilchard fi-shery, is the seat of a stannary court ; and
the porcelain clay, which is dug out from quarries
in tiie neighbourhood, is transported to the potteries
in different parts of England.

AUSTKALASIA, or Southekn Asia, a divi-
sion of the globe first proposed by M. de Brosscs,
and adopted by succeeding geographers, compre-
hends all that space included between tiie 3d degree
of norjh latitude and the 50th degree of soutli lati-
tude, and between the 95th and the 135th degrees
of east longitude. Within the defined limits are
placed the vast island, or rather continent, of Nevr
Holland ; Van Dienien's Land; Papua, or New Gui-
nea ; New Britain, New Ireland, and other islands
in the same group ; Solomon's Islands, or the Arsa-
cides ; New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and F«ew
Zealand ; of each of which a description will be
found under its own name in the order of the al-
phabet.

AUSTRIA, a province or archduchy of Germany,
is bounded on the north by Boiiemia and Moravia,
on the east by Hungary, on the south by Styria,
and on the west by Bavaria. At its utmost length
it extends to nearly 190 British miles, and its me-
dium breadtli is about 80 ; and holds a central situa-
tion between the European capitals, Petersburgl),
Constantinople, Madrid, and London, Austria is
divided into Upper and Lower. Upper Austria oc-
cupies the west side of the Ens, and Lower Austrlit
lies on th« east side of that river*

II .

Auictria.

AUS

S35

AU3

A«trJ».

General aspect The outline of Austria f esembles

, that of an open book. The Danube occupies tlie
middle space, and rolls his waters through the whole
length of the province. The banks, on either side,
rise by a gentle ascent till the sloping surface meets
the mountains. Lakes and rivers, woods and wilds,
pastures and meadows, cultivated fields and flourish-
ing vineyards, enrich and diversify the landscajM; ;
and cities, towns, moDOsteries, villas, and farm-iwuses,
adorn the scene.

Mouniaim \s a noble river passes through this

country in tlie centre, so also mountain groups guard
its frontiers. Upper Austria may be denominated a
hilly country. The northern, and still more the
southern boundary, rises to a mountainous elevation,
of which the loftiest summits are, Priel, 65G5 feet
above the level of the sea, O^tscher 59()(), and I lass-
berg 521,5. Schneeberg, or Snoivy mountain, attracts
the attention of every stranger that visits Vienna.

Lakes. — Here, as in otiier mountainous districts,
water stagnates in the pent up vallies, which in Up-
per Austria form an assemblage of beautiful lakes.
Of these the Traun, the Wolf-gang, the Aber, and
the HalLtatter, are most considerable for extent of
surface and beauty of scenery.

Rivers The Danube (the Ister of the ancients),

is not only the noblest of Austrian, but of European
streams. It rises among the mountains of Swabia,
and, passing many stately towns, flows with a majes-
tic current through Bavaria, Austria, Hungary, and
European Turkey, when, after a course of more
than 1500 miles, it falls, by many mouths, into the
Euxiae sea, and mingles its streams with the waters oH
the world. All the other rivers of Austria tend to-
ward and join the Danube. The Ens, flowing from
the south, forms the line of separation between Up-
per and Lower Austria. The Styer, the Ips, the
Traun, and the Trasen, flow in the same direction,
and are remarkable for the greenness of their waters,
arising from the colour of the sand which they hold
in suspension.

Climate Liko otiier regions of diversified and

elevated surface, the temperature of Austria is sub-
ject to much variety. On the btuiks of the Danube
the heat, in summer, is occasionally excessive, while,
during a great part of the jear, snow capes the
mountains. The mean temperature of the springs is
from 47'' to SC" of Fahrenheit. In the upper districts
the weatiier is inconstant and variable ; transitions
from heat to cold, and from cold to heat, are sudden
andsevere; and prematurefrosts, high winds, and licavy
rains, frequently blast the hopes of the husbandman,
and induce chronic complaints among the inhabi-
tants. But the climate of Austria is, on the whole,
favourable botli for vegetation and health.

Soil and Produce. — The soil of Austria is composed
cither of deep alluvial deposites, or accumulations of
gravel from the mountains. Among the mineral pro-
ductions of Austria may be mentioned gold, which
has been found in the vicinity of Krenis, and silver
in the mountains towards btyria. The salt of Upper
Austria is a copious source of riches and revenue.
The hot springs of Baden are well known ; and with
regard to vegetable productions, this country abounds
vith all those European plaute wiiich le^uire a lofty

or a low, a cold or a warm, an CTposed or a shel-
tered situation, or whicli thrive in a nrh or a poor,
a moist or an arid soil. It is more fertile in corn and
wine than most of the oilier German provinces. It*
tobacco yields a considerable revenue ; its safti on lias
long hcen esteemed the best in the world ; and its
mountain slopes arc clothed with forest trees of great
variety, and of an excellent quality. The aniinalti
of Austria, — its horses, cattle, sheep, goats, game,
and poultry, — are numerous, and all deemed excel-
lent according to their kinds. Its rivers, too, tecili
widi numerous species of fishes.

Population I'he population of this province ex-
ceeds 1,5(X),000. Of this number moiv than 17,0(50
are foreigners, attracted to the schools and court ol
Vienna, or to the manufiictories of the country. The
nobility amount to nearly 4000, and the clergy to
upwards of 4500.

Cities — Besides a nuinerous and respectable pea-
santry, the population of this province is distributed
among a multitude of cities, towns, and villages.
Vienna, the metropolis of all Germany, and the re-
sidence of the imperial court, contains in the citjr
and suburbs 256,000 inlialiitants. Lintz, the ca|)ital
of Upper Austria, has a poj>ulation of 17,000 souls.
Tlio other considerable towns are, Krems, with TUOO
inliabitants, Wiener Neustadt 5000, Waidlioftn
4000, Kloster Neuburg 8000, Ens 4000, Fre\stadt
4000, Gmundcn SOOO, Wells SOOO, together with
many more of inferior note.

^ Agriculture.. — Considerable attention is paid to the
cultivation of this fertile region. The old system of
management prevails ; but an approximation is made
to a regular rotation of white and green crops. The
fields are secured against the irruption of rivers.
The sloping surface of the country lays the cultiva-
tor under little necessity to study the princi])les, or
to practice the art of draining. Irrigation is em-
ployed with success, and marl is used as a manure.
Wine is the principal produce of Lower Austria.
It is overspread with vineyards, i'rom the grapei of
which a wine of an acid taste, but of a wliolesome
quality, is prepared

Manufactures — ^Austiia has some claim te the ap'
pellation of a manufacturing countiy- Fabrics of
woollen, silk, and cotton, are formed in its several
towns. Vienna has many manufactories, I'or leather,
paper, porcelain, glass, iron, steel, &c. for houseliold
furniture, toys, &c. The woollen manuiiictures of
Lintz and its vicinity afford employment to more than
10,000 workmen. The preparation of salt gives scope
to the industry of the inhabitants of Gmunden au^
some of the other towns of Upper . ustria.

Religion The Roman catholic religion is esta-
blished and prevails throughout the province. Toler
ration however is, under the sanction of law, ex-
tended to every other species of religious profession.
The crown is patron of the church. The archbishop
of Vienna is head of the clergy. The maintenance of
the church is expensive. Under the influence of thiij
corrupted Christianity, ignorance is deep and gene-
ral, and the improvement of the human nund sadly
retarded.

Govertmtentt.—Thc emperor in this hereditary do-
main is almost absolute. la him the legislative ait<l

AfsskrA.

A US

536

AUS

)

Austria, the executive power resides. He is the supreme judge
^-^"y"^ and the source of honour. • • It belongs to him to im-
pose taxes, to regulate the aftairs of the church, and
even to modiiy religious worship. Maria Theresa di-
vided the executive government into four departments,
— fordomcstic, foreign, and military affairs, and for the
affairs of Hungary in particular. The whole jurispru-
dence of ths country has lately undergone a complete
revisal. The criminal code, in its amended form, was
introduced into practice in ]80i ; and that for the re-
gulation of civil matters was finally adopted in 1812.

Army. — Though Austria be a great military power,
little is known with certainty respecting the actual
i state of her army. Recruits are first levied for the
militia (landwehr), and thence the regular regiments
are formed or tilled up. A regiment consists of two
field battalions, a battalion of reserve, and about 200
I grc>nadiers, upwards hi all of 3000 men. The active
i and liardy habits of the Austrian fit him for bearing
the fatigues, the privations, and the dangers of the
camp and of the field. There are public establish-
ments for the instruction of the young ofilcer ; and
the hospital of Vienna affords an asylum to the wound-
ed and worn-out veteran. The time of service is hmit-
ed as in the British army. .

Revenue. — The resources for the exigencies of the
state arise from heavy and numerous imposts. The
imperial domains are said to yield an annual revenue
of about L. 100,000 Sterling. Taxes are levied on
land, houses, mines, minerals, salt, tobacco, wine, &c.
&€. also on places, pensions, postage, lottery-tickets,,
stamps, &c. Austria, like other European states, is
deeply involved in debt, — not less, according to the
latest information, than 150 millions Sterling.

Austria, house of. — The imperial family of Germa-
ny owes its origin to an illustrious founder. Rodolph,
the first of this line, while count of Hapsbourg, was
tjminent tor mental capacity and manly accomplish-
ments, for justice, generosity, and humanity. His
father's last advice was well fitted both to excite the
love, and to direct tlie pursuit of honourable distinc-
tion. Actuated by the enthusiasm of the times, he had
embarked in the crusades ; and, previous to his de-
parture to Palestine, he summoned his sons into his
presence, and admonished them to remember, that
the counts of Hapsbourg, their ancestors, had attain-
ed their greatness, not by violence and outrage, but
by wisdom and courage, exerted in the cause of their
country. He died in Syria; Rodolph succeeded to
his honours; and in 124'5, he married Anne of Ho-
4)enburg, who brought him some domains in Alsace.
In those days of incessant appeals to the sword, Ro-
dolph was obliged to be much in arms ; his wars were
-waged, not for aggression, but for expelling hordes of
-banditti who infested the country, for humbling the
nobles, who delighted to domineer over the industri-
ous citizens, and for checking the ambition of the
church, -which the prelates disguised under the mask
of religion.

While thus actively employed, he was astonished
with the intelligence that he was unanimously elect-
ed king of the Romans. This happened in 1273, in
the 55th year of his age. On his accession to the
throne, it soon became conspicuous, from the eleva-
tion of his mind, and from the wisdom as well as the

splendour of his actions, how well he was fitted to
sway a sceptre. His first care was to conciliate they
church ; and he had the address to attach the pon-
tiffs in succession to his interests. He adjusted in-
testine quarrels, and enacted wise laws; and then
prepared to chastise the audacity of Ottocar, who
fiaving himself expected the imperial crown, had, in
the paroxysm of his disappointment, loaded his rival
with every species of insult. This powerful antago-
nist was soon obliged to sue for peace, which he pur-
chased by renouncing his claims to Austria and the
adjacent provinces, and by doing homage for the
possessions he was permitted to retain. After this
successful v.ar, Rodolph entered Vienna in triumph,
and was received v/ith acclamation. A violation of
the conditions of peace, however, which the proud
spirit of Ottocar had acceded to with reluctance,
soon provoked a renewal of hostilities. The adverse
armies marched and met, and engaged in cruel con-
flict. In this bloody battle Ottocar was slain with
14,000 of his followers, among whom were many il-
lustrious names. From this time Rodolph incorpo-
rated Austria with his hereditary domains, and spent
the latter years of his life in peace, though not in
idleness. His demise is dated in 1291. When (to
employ the words of Mr Coxe) "we consider the
greatness of his actions, and the smallness of his
means; his extreme prudence and address; his ar-
dour for military glory, yet his propensity to peace ;
his firmness in distress, and what is far more difHcuIf,
liis moderation in prosperity ; his shining talents as
a sovereign, and his amiable quahties as a r^an, — we
must place Rodolph among the best and greatest
princes who ever filled a throne."

Tiic same policy which had opened to Rodolph an
access to the throne, operated against the succession
of his son, During the preceding century the ma-
jority of the German electors had imagined, that to
preserve their freedom entire they should never suf-
fer the imperial power to reside, or to descend in the
same family. Acting on this absurd principle they
cherished among themselves the evil genius of dis-
cord ; through whose influence Albert, the sole sur-
viving son of Rodolph was superseded by Adolphus
count of Nassau. But having at last triunr.phed over
his rival, he obtained possession of the throne, which
the hand of an assassin permitted him not to enjoy.
After this tragical event the house of Austria sunk,
and for a long series of ages continued in a private
capacity. But the stock was fresh in the earth, and
sent forth many a stately branch ; though its ramifica-
tions were too numerous to command strength to re-
pel the storms by which it was assaulted. More than
a century had elapsed from the demise of Albert I.
when his descendant, of the same name, was in HS?
chosen king of the Romans. After a short reign he
was succeeded by his cousin Frederick, who experi-
enced many vicissitudes of fortune ; who, after many
exiles and much wandering, saw btfora his death the
re-union of the hereditary dominions of his house ;
and, by means of three successive marriages, the
house of Austria, recently so low, became by the ac-
cession of Burgundy, Spain, Hungary, and Bohe-
mia, the most p«werful in Europe. To every reader
of history, the names and mighty transactions of

Anstiui.

A U T

537

A U T

Maximilian, Charles V. and their successors, are fa-
miliar.

On the death of Charles VI. in 1740, the family
of Rodolph the Great became extinct in the male
line. He left an only daughter, the far-famed Ma-
ria Theresa, espoused to Joseph, duke of Lorraine.
This young and beautiful princess was at first involv-
ed in the most trying circumstances. On her acces-
sion to the hereditary crown of Hungary, she found
an exhausted treasury, a disaffected people, ineffici-
ent councils, and powerful foes in league against her ;
yet with all the timidity, the softness, and delicacy
natural to her sex, she yielded not up herself a vic-
tim to despair, but roused the energies of her mind
to sustain the exigencies of her fortune, and saved
her country by her courage. The king of Prussia had
occupied Silesia, and threatened greater aggressions.
In this extremity, the queen of Hungary convoked
at Presberg the states of the kingdom, and presented
herself before them, invested with the antique crown
of tlie country, and the tattered robe of St Stephen.
" The existence, (she said in Latin,) of our king-
dom, of our person, of our cliildren, and of our
crown, is now at stake. Abandoned by all besides,
we place our whole resources in the fidelity and va-
lour of our long-tried Hungarians." This appeal of
beauty in distress was not made in vain. With their
hands on their swords, the deputies exclaimed, " we
will consecrate our arms, our lives, — we will die for
our sovereign Maria Theresa." A liberal supply of
men and money was voted ; Troops were collected from
all quarters : Vienna was put in a state of defence ;
and the burghers and the students vied with the
garrison to make a desperate resistance. By these
means promptly applied, and the intervention of jea-
lous feelings among her enemies, Austria was saved.
After a long and a tumultuous life, Maria Theresa
expired in 1780.

Long before this event, her son Joseph II. had
been proclaimed king of the Romans. And, on his
father Joseph of Lorraine's decease, he obtained the
title of Emperor. Joseph II. was a man of a restless
and an innovating disposition. These defects of his
character his mother observed with regret, and sought
to correct. He introduced many changes, some of
which iiad a beneficial tendency, but most of tliem
were eminently pernicious.

Leaving no child, he was, on his death in 1790,
succeeded by his brother Leopold II. who was soon
involved in the French revolutionary war. On his
decease in 1792, his son, Francis II., succeeded to
the crown, which he still wears. A better opportu-
nity than the present will occur to introduce the
details of the Bonapartian wars, in which the house
of Austria was so deeply concerned. But it may be
noticed, that Francis, ovei-whelmed by his enemy,
relinquished, in ISO*, the title of emperor of Ger-
manj', and became a vassal of France ; that in 1810
he sacrificed his eldest daughter Maria Louisa to pa-
cify his conqueror ; and that in 1815 his capital be-
came the scene of those arrangements which have
given tranquillity to Europe, and restored him to his
honours and influence.

AUTOMATON, from the Greek, and signifying
to inove itself, is a self-moving nrachine ; but the term

VOL. I. PART JI.

is usually limited to those machines which imitate the Antomatan.
actions of animals, and even of man himself. When <s«»y>^
the automaton, or self-moving machine, is in the hu-
man form, it is called Androidcs, which denotes the
resemblance of man. Mechanical ingenuity has been
industriously employed in all ages, in the construc-
tion of machines of this description. If full credit
can be given to the relations of authors, the ancients
were not deficient in this application of mechanical
skill, Daedalus constructed statues, which, it is said
by Aristotle, moved about by means of quicksilver ;
and Archytas of Tarentum, who lived iOO years be-
fore the Christian era, contrived and executed a
wooden pigeon, which could raise itself in the air ;
Friar Bacon, who lived in the 13th century, formed
a brazen figure which [imitated human speech ; Al-
bertus Magnus, who flourished about the same peri-
od, occupied 30 years of his life in the construction
of an artificial man : And John Muller of Nuremberg,
better known by the name of Regiomontanus, made
a wooden eagle, which took a flight through the air,
saluted the emperor Maximilian as he approached
Nuremberg, and having returned, waited his arrival
al the city gates. But some of these accounts are too
much veiled in fable, and others are too vague and
exaggerated to afford precise information. Of the
numerous specimens of extraordinary mechanism
which the ingenuity of modern times has furnished,
a few may be specified.

The Flute-player. — In the year 1736, M. Vaucan-
son, member of the royal academy of Sciences, ex-
hibited at Paris an Androides, which played several
airs on the German flute. The machine was com-
posed of a figure five and a half feet in height, seated
on a fragment of rock, which was supported by a
pedestal four and a half feet high by three and a hall"
feet broad. When the front of the pedestal was open-
ed, the clock-work was seen, by the operation of
which a steel axis was put in motion. To various
protuberances on this axis, were attached cords,
which being passed over pullies, terminated in the
upper boards of nine pairs of bellows, which, by the
revolution of the axis, were alternately elevated and
depressed. The valves were opened by levers, which
produced a uniform unbroken sound. The air dis-
charged by the nine pairs of bellows was'received in-
to three tubes, which conveyed it to three small re-
servoirs placed in the trunk. Here the tubes were
united into one, which was continued to the throat,
and formed the cavity of the moutli. Three pairs of
bellows were attached to each of the three pipes.
The upper boards of one set were depressed with a
weight equal to four pounds ; those of the second
set, with a weight equal to two pounds ; and those of
the third with their own weight. In this way the air
was furnished to the machine.

By means of another series of machinery, the re-
quisite movements were communicated to the lips,
the tongue, and the fingers. All this was effected
by the revolutions of a cylinder, in which brass pegs
were inserted for raising and depressing fifteen levers,
seven of which, through the intervention of steel
chains and pullies in the body and arras of the figure,
regulated the action of the fingers in opening and
shutting the holes of the flute ; three levers which
3 Y

A U T

638

AUT

Automaton, were connected with the valves of the three small reser-
voirs, were employed in regulating the current of air
for the modification of the tone; four of the levers acted
upon the mouth in the same way, and gave the proper
motions to the lips, and the last lever moved the tongue,
by which the mouth of the flute was shut and open-
ed. By means of an endless screw, which terminated
the axis of the cylinder, a new series of revolutions
was communicated to the levers, during tw-clve dif-
ferent revolutions. The screw consisted of twelve
threads, placed at the distance of a line and a
half from each other. Above the screw was fixed a
piece of copper, in which a steel pivot was inserted ;
and this pivot, working in the threads, produced a
change of position in the cylinder, during every re-
volution of the axis, and thus brought into action
different pegs on different levers. By an artificial
disposition of the pegs ondifl'ereut parts of the cylin-
der, the statue was made, by the successive eleva-
tion of the different levers, to exhibit all the requi-
site variety of motions in a flutc-])layer.

To give a single example, let it be supposed that
the lowest note of the flute,,D, is to be sounded, — this
is effected by closing all the holes of the instriunent
with the fingers, and by gently blowing into it a full
body of air. To give the mouth the proper form, a
peg is fixed in the cylinder under the lever, which is
destined to enlarge the lips ; another peg is placed
under the lever which draws back the lips ; another
under the lever for opening the valve of the reser-
voir which communicates with the unloaded pair of
bellows ; and lastly, a peg is inserted under the lever,
which regulates the motions of the tongue, for the
purpose of giving the proper articulation to the note.
If all these pegs operate on their proper levers at the
same moment, the sound required must obviously be
produced. By raising the third finger of the right
liand, and opening the sixth hole of the flute, and
continuing theformer motions, the note E, which isnext
in the scale, is sounded. Here a fifth motion is added,
which is done by inserting a peg in the cylinder under
tiie lever which acts on the third finger of the right
hand. Proceeding in this way, all the notes of the first
or lowest octave are sounded. To produce the notes
of tlie second octave a change must be made on the
mouth, and the air must be forced out with greater
velocity. This is effected by opening the reservoir,
which is supplied by the pair of bellows loaded with
two pounds ; and in the third octave another change
must take place on the mouth, and the air is conveyed
with still greater velocity from the reservoir to which
the bellows loaded with four pounds are attached.

M. Vaucanson, in the year 1741, exhibited to the
royal academy of Sciences another musical Androi-
des, in the form of a siiepheid, which performed
about twenty different tunes on the pipe and tabor.
The flageolet was held in one hand, and to produce
the highest tone of the instrument the bellows re-
fjuired to be loaded with a weight equal to 56 pounds,
while a single ounce was suiJieient for the lowest
n6te. The other hand held a stick for beating the
tabor. Sometimes the strokes were single, some-
times double, and sometimes a rolling noise was pro-
duci'd. Thlf automaton was regarded as a very ex-
traordinary elTort of mechanical skill and execution.

. Chess-player — A still more wonderful piece of me- AutoraatMb
chanism was constructed and exhifiited to the pub- v^^'"^
lie in different parts of Europe, by M. Kempclen, a
gentleman of Presburg, in Hungary, in a iigure of
the size of life, which not only played the compli-
cated game of chess, but it is s;iid usually beat even
the best players. This figure was exhibited in Bri-
tain in 1783 and HSt, and excited no small degree
of astonishment in those who had an opportunity of
witnessing its extraordinary performance. It was
dressed in a Turkish habit, and seated on a chair be-
Jiind a table with doors. The chair was coimectcd with
the table. Tiie whole apparatus was moved about
the apartment on four wheels. By inspecting the
table and the body of the Androides, nothing appear-
ed but wheels, cylinders, and levers; after this exa-
mination was finished by the spectators, the game com-
menced by the automaton taking the first move ; at
every movement the machinery was heard, which wa»
accompanied with a motion of the head, as if the
figure cast its eyes over the board to consider the
state of the game. When a false move was made it
shook its head ; in checking the queen it shook
the head twice, and three times to the king. After
every ten or twelve moves the machine was wound
up like a watch, and the inventor, or his assistant,
was always at hand, and frequently consulted a small
square box, in which it was said the whole secret
lay. The directing power of this machine was
long altogether inexplicablck But it was at last
ascribed to the operation of a well-taught boy, so
thin and small of his age that he could be concealed
in a drawer under the chess-board ; or to a dwarf, an
expert chess-player, who v/as kept out of view, by
changing his place during the examination of the ap-
paratus previously to the commencement of the game.
These allegations were made in two publications con-
cerning Kenipelen's chess-playing Androides, one of
which appeared in Germany, and the other in Paris
in 1785 ; and the movements of the adversary were
supposed to be observed through a transparent chess-
board, or were indicated by levers or some pantogra-
phical contrivance. See Automaton in Supplement
to Hutton's Malhemat. Did.

Speaking Androides — The same ingenious person
made the bolder attempt of constructing a machine
capable of imitating human speech. While ]M. Kem-
peien visited London with his chess-player, he exhi-
bited this machine in an unfinished state ; but it is
said that he could make it pronounce any word that
was mentioned by those who were present. Accord-
ing' to all accounts, the imitation was extremely ira-
peifect, both with regard to the individual sounds,
and the rapid succession necessary, even in a distant
approach to the resemblance of the wonderful variety
and extraordinary execution of the human voice. It
was assuredly far inferior to the harsh and discordant
speech of the deaf and dumb, in whom tl>e organs are
perfect, but the power of modulation is deficient. The
defects of the mechanical contrivance extend to the
construction and nice adaptation of the different parts,
as, well as to the imitative expression.

Rope-dancers, Sfc Figures v/hich imitate all the mo-
tions of rope dancers, have been constructed and ex-
hibited in tliis country, chitlly by ingenious foreign-

A U T

539

ADT

ers. An Androides of this dcEcription, as large as
' life, formed [jart of an entertainment with which M.
Philipstahl amused the inhabitants of many of the
towns of Great Britain about tlie year 1801, or 1802.
Among many examples of great mechanical ingenu-
ity exhibited about ISO* and 1805, in different parts
of this country, by M. Maillardet, a native of Swit-
zerland, one figure as a boy wrote several lines with
neatness and accuracy, and sketched three beautiful
landscapes; anotherfigure in a femalehabit performed
pieces of music on an instrument which acts as an or-
gan, but is constructed like a piano-forte, the bel-
lows being blown by some part of the machinery, and
the whole of this complicated apparatus being set in
motion by six powerful springs ; and a small fi-
gure, in the character of a conjuror or magician,
who gives appropriate answers to questions inscribed
on medallions, which are put into a drawer, and the
drawer being shut the magician solemnly rises from
his seat, consults a book which he holds in one hand,
and waves a wand in the other, when a pair of ibld-
ing doors fly open, and the answer appears.

A description is given by M.Camus of a very curious
piece of mechanism, whichhe invented and constructed
for the amusement of the celebrated Louis XIV. of
France, when a child. A small coach, in which was
seated a laAy, was drawn by two horses, and attended
by a footman and page, who stood behind it. The
coach was placed on a table, the coachman smacked
liis whip, the horses moved their legs, and when the
carriage, after proceeding along the edge of the
table, and turning at the angles, reached the place
near which the king sat, the page jumped down and
opened the door, the lady alighted, curtsied to the
iing, and presented a petition ; and having waited a
little, curtsied again, and resumed her place in the
coach, which afterwards moved oif. Ozanani's Ma-
theniat. Recreations, by Montucla.

M. Vaucanson, the inventor of the flute-player,
constructed an artificial duck, which not only imi-
tated the different motions of the animal in a very
exact and natural manner, but seemed also to have
the power of digesting the food which it swallowed;
from which it is to be understood, that by some con-
trivance, whether by mechanical mixture or chemical
action with other substances previously introduced
within its body is not known, it had changed its ap-
pearance. M. Maillardet constructed a spicier, which
ran round a table fgr two or three minutes ; and one of
the most curious productions of the same ingenious ai'-
tist, was a box about the size of an ordinary snuft'-box.
The machinery in this apparatus was put in motion by
springs; and when wound up, and the box was placed
on the table, the lid opened, a bird with the beautiful
plumage of the hunnning-bird, and not larger, sprung
up from its nest, fluttered its wings, began to war-
ble with tremulous notes, and continued to sing for
8ome time, when it darted -again into its nest, and
the lid closed after it.

AUTUMN, the third season of the year, is repre-
sented in painting under the figure of a man of full
age, bound round the middle with a starry girdle,
and having in one hand a balance, with a pair of
scales, in each of which is placed a globe, and hold-
ing in the other a bunch of grapes and varioud other

fruits. The progress of the season is indicated by
his perfect age and the collection of fruits ; and the
balance denotes the sign of the zodiac which the suu
enters at the commencement of autumn.

AUTUN, a town in the department of Saone and
Loire in France, can stiil boast of some remains of
Roman antiquity, in the ruins of temples, a theatre,
and other buildings ; contains a poju.ation ot y:v,K);
and from the surrounding country supplies Paris
with large quantities of wood for fuel and other do-
mestic purposes. Coal and iron ore are dug out in the
vicinity; and the town derives an abundant supply
of water from the springs which have their sbUrCe
in the mountains at the foot of which it is situated.

AUVEUGNE, a former province of France, is
included, according to the new division, under the
departments of Cantal and Puy de Dome.

AUXERllE, the capital of the department of
Yonne in France, stands in a commodious situation
on the dieclivity of a hill, and is surrounded with rich
and beautiful scenery. The cathedral and the epis-
copal palace have been greatly admired for their
magnificence. The population is estimated at 12,000.
The trade in wines, some of which, as the Coulange
and the Chablis, are in high repute, is considerable ;
and from this place Paris receives a large supply of
timber, wliich is transported by water carriage on
the Yonne and the Seine.

AUXONNE, a small fortified town in the depart-
ment of Cote d' Or in France, is chiefly remarkable
for its long bridge of 23 arches, and extended pave-
ment or causeway, both which are necessary to
obviate the inconveniences of inundations of the
Saone, on whose banks it is situated ; contains more
than 5000 inhabitants, and has some trade in timber
arid corn.

AXIM, a district of the Gold Coast in Africa, was
originally in possession of the French, who, in 1515,
were expelled by the Portuguese ; and the latter, in
their turn, were dispossessed by the Dutch, who af-
terwards shared the territory with the Prussians.
The soil is rich and fertile, and produces abundance
of rice, millet, yams, palm oil, and excellent fruits.
Black cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry, are success-
fully reared. Gold dust, ivory, and formerly slaves,
with the manufacture of salt, and the building of ca-
noes, are the chief objects of commercial industry,
or afford occupation to the inhabitants.

AXIOM, a truth or proposition which requires
no demonstration or train of reasoning to establish
it, but is self-evident, or obvious to every person at
first sight. ThxiH, the luhole is greater than a part, is
an axiom in geometry.

AXMINSTEK, a small town of Devonshire in
England, was a place o\' some note in the time of the
Saxons, but is now chiefly distinguished for its ma-
nufactory of carpets, tlie fabric of which is an
imitation of the celebrated Turkey carpets. Ax-
minster contains a population of more than 2000,
and it enjoys an excellent weekly market.

AXUM, or AxuMA, once a flourishing and po-
pulous city of Abyssfnia, and the capital of the king-
dom, till it was destroycil by the Turks about the he-
girming of the 16th century, is now onh' conspicuous
for its majfuilicent ruius. Several obelisks of single

Autu>

II
Axum.

AX U

540

AYR

AicTtis blocks of granite, one of which reaches to the stu-
II pendous elevation of 80 feet, and even the smallest
Ayr. are 36 feet in height, yet remain, the striking monu-
ments of its ancient splendour,

Axum is seated in a valley, of which the soil is
ricli and productive. The modCTn town contains
about 600 houses. Coarse cotton cloth, and parch-
ment made from goats skins, are the chief manu-
factures.

AXYRIS, a genus of plants belonging to the Mo-
noecia class.

A YENI A, a genus of plants belonging to the Pen-
tandria class.

AYLESBURY, a very ancient town of Bucking-
hamshire in England, is finely situated in the rich vale
flif Aylesbury, was a place ot some note even before
the time of the Saxons, and was granted to William of
Aylesbury by William the Conqueror, on the pecu-
liar conditions of finding straw for the king's bed,
and three eels for his table in winter ; and straw for
the bed, sweet herbs for the chamber, and three green
geese for the table in summer ; and this provision
was to be made three times a- year, if required.
Aylesbury is the seat of the quarter sessions of the
county and the Lent assizes ; the number of inha-
bitants exceeds 3000 ; they are chiefly occupied in
the manufacture of lace; and it is 17 miles from
Buckingham, and 40 miles north-west from London.

AYR, a maritime county of Scotland, which has
the frith of Clyde and the Irish channel as its boun-
dary on the west, for an extent of between 70 and
80 miles from its northern limit, where it joins Ren-
frewshire, to its southern extremity, where it is unit-
ed with Galloway. The counties of Lanark and
Duntfries mark its confines on the east ; and, in
somewhat of a crescent form, the greatest breadth is
estimated at 32 miles. The computed area is more
than 1000 square miles ; it is divided into- three great
districts, — Carrick, lying>to the southward of the river
Doon ; Kyle, occupying the intermediate space be-
tween the Doon and the Irvine ; and Cunningham,
which conmrehends the northern portion. The
Great and Little Cumbray, and the rock of Ailsa,
are also included in the county.

General aspect. — In its general appearance, Ayr-
shire presents considerable variety. In several places
extensive, flats stretch along the shoi-es ; in others a
gentlv undulating surface is the chief feature ; and
towards the interior, and in the southern district, it
is to be regarded rather as a hilly country than ris-
ing into a mountainous elevation. The sand-floods
have left some dreary wastes along the. shores of
Ayrshire ; and it would appear that, in certain in-
stances, the date of this calamitous visitation is not
very ancient. An old map still in existence repre-
sents the extensive tract of sand-hills between Salt-
-voats and Irvine, covered with arable land, and stud-
ded with farm-houses.

lUvers, Sfc The rivers of this county are the

Ayr and the Doon, to which the muse of Burns, their
native bard, has added classic celebrity, the Gar-
nock, the Irvine, the Girvan, flie Stinchar, and their
tributary streams. The banks of the chief rivers
present numerous beautiful and picturesque scenes ;
and they are adorned with many elegant mansicws,

the family residences of the great proprietors. Loch ^yr.
Doon, which is seven miles long, and is the source
of the river of the same name, and Kilbirnie loch,
near Beith, in the northern district, are the principal
lakes. The waters of Ayrshire abound with fish ;
and where the larger rivers discharge their watei-s
into the ocean, fisheries of salmon are successfully
conducted. The white fisheries along the shores are
also profitable sources of employment.

Natural history. — Ayrshire abounds- in some places
with coal. Extensive tracts of that valuable mineral
are deposited in the vicinity of Saltcoats, Irvine, Kil-
marnock, and Ayr, from which large quantities have
been long dug out, not only for home consumption,
but for exportation to Ireland. The vale of Girvan,
in the district of Carrick, affords also an ample supply
of coal to the surrounding country for domestic and
agricultural purposes ; and repositories of the same
mineral, of less limited extent, are numerous in tlie
interior of the county. Limestone is not less abun-
dant, although it be found economical to import it
sometimes from the north of Ireland as ballast or as
a retui'n cargo. The sandstone in Kyle and Cun-
ningham is of an excellent quaKty for building, and
it is sometimes exported to Ireland. The iron-works
of Muirkirk and Glenbuck are supplied with all the
necessary materials of their manufactory. Lead ore
is not to be considered a copious production, but
attempts have been made to work it in a few places ;
and Ayrshire can boast of the only mine of the rare
mineral plumbago, or black lead, excepting that oi'
Borrowdale, in Britain. The Water of Aur stone,
a whetstone of an argillaceous quality, much valued
by carpenters for their edge-tools, is dug out from a
single spot on the banks of th& river from which it
derives its name.

The prevailing rocks in the southern district of
Ayrshire are grey wacken of modern mineralogists,
and when the same rock assumes a schistose or slaty
structure it is applied to the purposes of roof slate;
secondary limestone, of which considerable masses
appear, and are extensively wrought for the im-
provement of the soil ; and red sandstone, which is
visible in a few places along the shore. Brown Car-
rick hill, near Ayr, is composed of porphyry, which ,
affords indications of lead ore. In the middle district,
beside the coal strata, an extensive tract of red sand-
stone traverses the interior, and runs from north to
south ; and the same rock commences near Salt-
coats, and continues along the shore beyond the- .
northern limit of the county.

Botanij. — Tlie I'lora of Ayrshire includes some
plants which may bcaccountcd rare in Scotland, or are
chiefly confined to the western districts. The lover of
botany, whose excursions shall be directed that way,
may be gratified in knowing where to find them in
their native soil. Pubnonaria maritima, sea-bugloss,
reckoned one of tlic most beautiful indigenous plants
of Great Britain, occasionally springs up, the soli-
tary ornament of the barrec shores of Kilbride, and
with its finely undulated azure leaves, contrasted
with red and blue flowers, diversifies the arid scene.
Samobts valerandi, water pimpernel, grows on the
sea-marsh betweea.Hunterston and the sea. Sison
'certkillatum {Slum xcrtkil. of Dr Smith), whorled.

A Y R

AjT.

water parsnip, In moist pastures in Kilbirnie parish.
Lysimachia Thyrsiflora, tufted loosestrife, a very rare
plant in Britain, which we were fortunate in dis-
covering, several years ago in Ashgrove loch, two
mSes north-east from the village of Stevenston. Rosa
cinnamomea, cinnamon rose, on the east bank of the
Garnock, above Kilwinning. Nymphea lutea, yellow
water lily, in Ashgrove loch. Iberis nudkaulis, rock
cresses, on sandy pastures near the old coal-pits of
Misk, on the banks of the Garnock. Sisymbrium mo-
nense, Isle of Man rocket, clothes the pastures or
downs along the whole coast of Ayrshire with its
elegant pinnated leaves and yellow flowers. Sisym-
brium amphihium, jagged water rocket, in some of
the old canals at Stevenston coal-work. Hypericum
AitdroscB^num, tutsan or parkleaves, one of the most
splendid native plants, adorns the woods of Lord
Glasgow's seat of Kelburn. Solidago lanceolata, spear-
leaved golden-rod, which we observed, in 1814, in
great profusion on an old coal-hill on the north side
of the road between Maybole and Girvan,^ and nearly
opposite to Kilkerran, the seat of Sir James Fer-
guson. Osmunda liinaria, moon-wort^ on the sandy
downs between the village of Stevenston and the
f ea. Osmunda regalis, royal flowering fern, displays
its elegant leaves, and conspicuous flowering stem,
irom the crevices of the rocks of an old quarry, close
by the house of Ardeer, near the same village ; and
Equisetum hyemale, Dutch rushes, grows on places
%vhere the water stagnates in winter, at the head of
the Newton-green, near Ayr.

PjopulatioH, iovms, &c — The population of Ayr-
shire, within the period of little more than half a
century from 1755, has nearly doubled. In 1755
the number of inhabitants was estimated at 59,268 ;
in tSOl at 81-,S06; and in 1811 at 103,95t. The
real rent of lands and houses in, 1811 amounted
to L.359,294 Sterling. The county is divided into
forty-nine parishes. The chief towns are Ayr, the
capital of the county, and Irvine, both royal bo-
roughs and 'sea ports ; Saltcoats, Ardrossan, and
Trcon, also sea ports ; Girvan and Ballantrae, which
admit small vessels into their harbours ; Kilmarnock,
which has been long famous for manufactures of
woollen stuffs, chiefly carpets, and bf leather; May-
bole, Cumnock, Mauchline, Catrine, Beith, and
Kilwinning. The new town and harbour of Ardros-
san, begun under the auspices of the Earl of Eglin-
ton, when completed, will be highly advantageous
to the trade of that coast ; its fine situation, and ex-
cellent baths, render it a commodious and delight-
ful watering place. Troon, on an intermediate spot
between Irvine and Ayr, affords a similar example of
patriotic spirit, in the splendid operations of forming
a harbour, building a town, and constructing a rail-
way ten miles in length, for the purpose of easy
communication with Kilmarnock and its populous
vicinity, which have been undertaken and executed
by the duke of Portland. A single horse used to
draw three tons ascending, but favoured by the de-
chvity towards the shore, five tons weight ; and 100
tons of coals have been shipped in a day by this
railway. The new application of the steam-en-
gine is now adopted as the moving power to the car-
riages, Catrine, which numbers 3000 inhabitants,

S41 AYR

4ates its origin and remarkable increase to the intro-
duction and estabhshment of the cotton manufactory
within the last thirty years. The power of water and
of steam is successfully employed in the spinning
and weaving of cotton.

Husbandry — Ayrshire, in general, has been sup-
posed to be less advanced in agricultural improve-
ments than some other districts of Scotland. But
examples are not wanting of successful cultivation
both among proprietors and tenants. The stiff clay
soil in the interior districts, and the moist climate,
render the crops late and precarious ; but they arc
earlier and more certain on the light loamy soils on
the plains near the shores. The hilly tracts of coun-
try afford, excellent pasture to sheep and cattle. The
management of the dairy has been long an object of
successful attention in Ayrshire, and the superiority of
Dunlop cheese is generally acknowledged. The nn-
provenient of peat-moss, whidiis one of the most im-
portant in modem agriculture, and has clothed many
barren wastes with luxuriant crops or rich pasturcv",
was first suggested by Mr Smith of Swineridgemuir
in this county.

Trade. — The commercial intercourse of Ayrshire
extends to Ireland, America, and the Baltic. Coals,
to the amount of 100,000 tons, have been exported
in one year to Ireland. Beside the coasting trade,
the imports are, Irish produce, as grain, butter, and
beef; hemp, iron, and timber from the Baltic ; and
timber from America.

Antiqitilies. — Numerous remains of ancient baro-
nial residences are seen in Ayrshire. The abbacies
of Crossraguel and Kilwinning were richly endowed;
the territory which they held constitutes a valuable
part of the possessions of the lay proprietors who had
the power or influence to come in for a share on
their suppression ; and the mouldering ruins of tlic
first still attest its former splendour. The La^ar-
house, known by the name of King case, perhaps
fromc(7M, " cottiige," or KiUcase, signifying " ihecell
of the cottage," is a peculiar institution in. the pa-
rish of Priestwick, two miles from Ayr, which was
destined for the reception and maintenance of eight
persons afflicted with leprosy. Lame and infirm per-
sons have long enjoyed the benefifs of the cliarit3 ,
M Inch consist of a portion of nwal, butter, &c. from
certain lands in Carrick, the patrimonial domain of
the royal founder. The right of presenting to this

Ayr.

charity formerly belonged to the Wallaces of Craigie.
The ruins of Alloway church, three miles from Ayr,
would scarcely merit notice among the antiquities' of
t!ie county, liad ihey not been destined to futint;
fame in one of Burns's finest productions, in which
the legendary lore of the country is artfully em-
bodied, and the versatile powers of the poet are fmelv
displayed, in the exact delineation of human charac-
ter, in sublime and terrific description, and in the
expression of comic humour, delicate satire, and pa-
thetic feeling.

AYR, town of, the capital of the county of the
same name, stands on the southern bank of the river
Ayr, and near its junction with the sea, is a place of
considerable antiquity, as appears from its charter,
granted about the end of the 12th century, and in
former times, was noted as a strong-hold. Oliver

A Z A

542

A Z O

Azdea

Aroret.

Cromwell deemed it of such importance as to erect
a regular citadel, defended by six bastions, part of
which is still entire. Within its area the old church
of St John the Baptist was included, and wiis con-
verted into an armoury by the usurper, who granted
1000 marks, or L.G66, 13s. 4d. for building another
church. The tower of the old churcli only remains,
and is a conspicuous landmark to the mariner in ap-
proaching the shore. The streets are not very re-
gular, but some are spacious and airj' ; and houses
lately erected are commodious and elegant. An
academy, at which more than 500 pupils are ably in-
structed in the knowledge of languages, and in vari-
ous practical brandies of education, was established
in 1790, and continues to flourish.

In 1801 the population was estimated at 54:92,
but in 1811 it had increased to 6291. They are
employed in tanning, soap-making, weaving, ship-
building, and in trading to Ireland, the Baltic,
and Anicrica. Shipping, to the amount of 5000 or
6000 tons, belong's to the port ; and 50,000 tons of
coal are annually exported to Ireland.

Connected with Ayr, by means of two bridges,
•which are commemorated in the poetry of Burns,
and seemingly forming part of the town, are Newton-
upon-Ayr and Wallacetown ; the first an ancient
borough of regality, held by a singular tenure, now
a distinct parish, and containing nearly 2000 inhabi-
tants, who are chiefly occupied in fishing, rope-
making, and weaving ; and the last a modern village,
included in a countiy parish.

The Chevalier Ramsay, the celebrated author of
the Travels of Cyrus, was a native of the town of
Ayr ; and few readers need be informed that Robert
Burns was born in a clay-built cottage in the annex-
ed parish of Alloway. Ayr is 34: miles distant from
Glasgow, and 76 miles from Edinburgh.

AZALEA, American upright honeysuckle,
a genus of plants belonging to the I'entandria class.

AZIMUTH, a term in astronomy, applied to an
arch of the horizon intercepted between the meri-
dian of the place and the vertical circle, passing
through a star or other body in the heavens, whose
azimuth is to be determined. See Astronomy, p. 497.

AZOF, a town of Cul)an Tartary, under the do-
minion of Russia, stands near the mouth of the Don,
and has been subject, at diiftrent periods of its his-
tory, to the Genoese, Turks, and its present masters.
The population is estimated at nearly 4000 j but the
inconvenience of the harbour, which has been gra-
dually.filling up with sand, and other causes, have
produced a decline of the trade.

AZOF, Sea of, an inland sea, forming part of
the Russian empire, has a communication, by a nar-
row strait, "with the Euxine sea, lies between the
4:5th and 47th degrees of north latitude, and between
the 34th and 39tli degrees of east longitude, and is
about 200 miles long and 50 miles broad. Exten-
sive and -successful fisheries are established on the
iiortliern shores Taganrok is the chief harbour,
and enjoys a valuable commercial intercourse with
?\'atolia and the Crimea During a severe shock of
an earthcjuake, in September 1799, an island rose
above the surface of its waters ; and its emersion
was accompanied with a loud noi^e- like the dis-

charge of artillery, and with a copious eruption oP
smoke and flame. Pallas' Travels.

AZORES, or Western Isles, a cluster of nine
islands, lying in the Atlantic ocean, between the
3(Sth and iOth degrees of north latitude, and between
the 25th and 33d degrees of west longitude, were
originally discovered by the Flemings in 1439, and
now acknowledge the authority of Portugal. The
Azores enjoy a fine climate, and produce grain, ex-
cellent fruits, and a good deal of wine ; but they are
subject to severe storms, and to the more dreadful
visitations of earthquakes and volcanoes.

St Michael, — which is the largest of the Azores,
is about 80 miles long, and from 6 to 12 miles in
breadth, and presents a varied surface of extensive
plains, covered with excellent crops of wheat, bar-
ley, and Indian corn ; conical hills, whose sides are
clothed with vineyards and orange plantations ; and
lofty mountains, adorned with luxuriant evergreens,
among which the laurel and myrtle are not the least
conspicuous. The chief towns, Punta del Gada and
Ribeira Grande, contain each about 12,000 inhabi-
tants ; and some of their churches and religious
houses are elegant structures. The whole popula-
tion is estimated at 90,000. Hot springs are nume-
rous ; and the boiling fountains and muddy crater,
in a state of constant agitation, in the valley of"
Durmas, with the copious deposition of sulphur, are
certain indications of volcanic activity. St Mary,
contiguous to St Michael, is a small island, with a
fertile soil, which produces wheat in such abundance
as to alibrd a considerable exportation.

Tercera, — is smaller than St Michael, abounds in
grain and cattle ; Angra, which is the chief town
and harbour, is the residence of the governor ; the
population is estimated at 50,000, and it exhibita
fewer marks of volcanic agency than the other islands
of the group. The wines of Tercera are considered
of an inferior quality, and the fruits raised are not
more than sufficient for the consumption of the inha-
bitants. »

Fayal, — abounds with all kinds of fresh provisions,
and on this account it is much frequented by ships
navigating the Atlantic. A'illa de Horta, the chief
town, contains numerous churches, and several mo-
nasteries. The bay is spacious and commodious, and,
excepting with south-east winds, is reckoned a safe
roadstead.

Pico, or the Peak, — is a remarkable . island, com-
posed of a huge conical mountain, which rears its
head to the immense elevation of 7000 feet, or near-
ly a Uiile and a half. The lower regions of the moun-
tain are highly cultivated, and richly clothed with
vineyards and orange plantations ; and 5000 pipes of
wine, of the nature of Madeira, are annually export-
ed ; and as it is shipped at Fayal, it is known by the
name of Fay^al wine.

St George and Graciosa, — are two small islands
between Tercera and Fayal. Graciosa is chiefly re-
markable for its fine scenery. St George is fertile in
corn and fruits, and :.>ounds in cattle ; but in JNIay
1808 it was visited with a most destructive volcanic
eruption. This awful di^^aster commenced on the 1st
of IVIay, and, with some intern)issions, continued till
the 5tb of June. The island was convulsed with

Aborts;

A Z O

543

AZU

Ar»te. earthquakes ; vapour and flames were emitted, and
enormous quantities of ashes and lava were ejected ;
overwliehning in their progress vineyards, corn-fields,
farm-houses, and cattle ; and many of tlie inhabitants,
scalded with the hot steam, expired on the spot.

Corvo and Flares, — which complete the group of
nine islands, lie at a considerable distance from the
rest of the Azores. Some of the numerous bays of
the latter island afford safe and commodious shelter
to ships. Flores has been long celebrated for the ex-
cellence of its poultry ; and its herds of a small kind
of cattle are abundant.

AZOTE, or azotic gas, from the Greek, and sig-
nifying destructive off^e, because it is unfit for the

purpose of respiration when it is in a state of purity,
is one of the constituents of the air of the atmo-
sphere, in the proportion of 79 parts to 21 of oxy-
gen gas. In the older books on chemistry, it is de-
nominated pidogislkated air ; and it is sometimes call-
ed nitrogen, because it is the base of nitrous gas and
nitrous acid. See Chemistry.

AZURE, was formerly applied to the fine powder
prepared from lapis lazuli for painting, and is now
restricted to the preparation of^ the oxide of cobalt,
combined with vitrifiable matters, in which state it it
employed to colour glass and pottcry-;riU-e. See
Chemistrv.

Atuc*.

BAA

SU

BAB

B.

Bsal

BabeL

Bis the second letter of the English alphabet and
of most otlii;rs,is arranged with the letters called
labial, because the lips are the chief organs in its pro-
nunciation, and having a close affinity with P and V,
the other labial letters, is substituted occasionally
for both in ancient languages.

Among the Greeks and Hebrews the letter B was
employed as a numeral, and denoted 2. When used
as a Roman numeral, B signified 300, and with a
line above it 3000. The letter B is frequently em-
ployed as an abbreviation, as, B. A. bachelor of arts ;
B.L. bachelor of laws; B.D. bachelor of divinity;
and B.F. prefixed to decrees of the Roman senate,
■ denotes bonumjactum.

BAAL, or BEL, or BELUS, from the Hebrew,
and signifying lord or rider, was the god or chief ob-
ject of w orship among the Chaldeans, Phoenicians,
and other eastern nations. Under this denomination
the sun was worshipped ; but it seems to have been
extended to all the heavenly bodies, or, according
to the language of sacred Scripture, all the host of
heaven ; and the temples and altars consecrated to
this idolatrous worship were erected in high places.
Perpetual fire was kept burning in them, which
seems to have been intended as an expression of the
permanency and uniformity of the heat of the sun,
one of the chief objects of adoration. 2 Kings,
chap. 23.

BABEL, a tower which was undertaken bj' the
descendants of Noah ; but their object was defeated
by the miraculous introduction of the confusion of
languages among those who were engaged in its ex-
ecution. This tower was built in the plain of Shinar,
and near the place where ancient Babylon after-
wards stood. It was constructed of burnt bricks,
cemented with slime or mud, instead of mortar,
and the period when the undertaking commenced
is variously stated at 105 years, 396 years, or 525
years after the flood. The dimensions of this famous
tower, as they have been estimated by historians, are
not less various. While some have ascribed to it the
incredible height of four and even twelve miles, others
have reduced it to about 700 feet ; and a traveller, who
examined its remains in 1779, asserts that its altitude
is not less than 160 feet, and it appears like one uni-
form mass of earth.

Much speculation has been- employed in discover-
ing the object of this stupendous undertaking. From
the scriptural expression of building a toiver, whose
top may reach to heaven, it has been inferred that the
design of mankind in uniting their ingenuity and lab-
our in this work, was literally to enable them to climb
to heaven ; but according to other opinions, it was in-
tended as a place of retreat for safety, in case of a se-
cond deluge ; or a monument or temple in honour of
the sun, to whose influence the diminution of the wa-
ters of the flood, and the drying of the earth, was as-

cribed ; or as a conspicous land-mark to direct their Babelmanda
steps to their native city, after they spread over the II
country as their numbers increased. But it is quite Babylon,
obvious that all this is vague conjecture. v-^-<^

B ABELMANDEL, or B ABELMANDEB, a cape
and straits at the entrance of the Red sea from the
Indian ocean, sometimes called t\\e Straits of Mocha.
The breadth of the straits, by the latest observations,
is not more than 15 miles. They are divided by the
low, flat island of Perim, or Babelmandel. The cape
is in N. Lat. 12" 40', and E. Long. 43° 33'.

BABOON, the trivial name of^ a species of simia.
See Mammalia.

BABYLON, a celebrated name in ancient his-
tory, and in the sacred Scriptures, is applied to a
magnificent city, a powerful empire, or an exten-
sive region. The name, signifying confusion, arose
from the events recorded in Gten. ix. 1 — 9 ; for die
city included the tower which the children of men
had projected, and had begun to build, till their en-
terprise was frustrated by the confusion of their lan-
guage.

City of Babylon. — Babylon was built in the
vast plain interposed between the Euphrates and
the Tigris. A branch of the former divided its area
into two equal parts, which together formed an ex-
act square, with sides 15 miles in length. The whole
of this vast space was fortified by a stupendous wall
87 feet thick, and 350 high, which was encompassed
by a ditch, brimful of water, of a corresponding
magnitude, and surmounted at regular intervals by
numerous turrets. Through these walls it commu-
nicated with the surrounding country by means of
100 brazen gates. The streets, in parallel lines, ex-
tended from gate to gate, and intersecting each
other at right angles, divided the whole expanse in-
to 676 squares, around which were built the houses,
exhibiting ornamented fronts, and rising three or
four stories in height. The intermediate spaces were
employed as gardens, court-yards, and other accom-
modations. "The river was lined with a noble quay,
and crossed by a magnificent bridge ; and for a de-
fence against its annual inundations, prodigious
banks, constructed with great art and infinite labour,
increased its capacity ; expansive artificial lakes
drained oft' its superabundant waters, or broad and
deep canals turned its streams into the Tigris.
On the banks of the river, close by the bridge,
stood the old and the new palaces ; and in the vici-
nity of the first the temple of Belus, — the unfinished
tower of Babel, — four furlongs in compass, and lift-
ing its head to the clouds by eight steep stories, each
exhibiting the appearance of a distinct tower. This
appearance was occasioned by a passage which wind-
ed around from the ground to the summit, where
was an excellent observatory. Edifices for the wor-
ship of Belus, and ctlier idols, were ranged around

j5,1^.Vii. '^ hasp. Tlie hanging gardens, enumerated among
v«»^,^-^^ the wonders of Babylon, were sustained by stupen-
dous arches, and rose by regular recession, in a series
of terraces, the respective areas of which were 400
■feet S(;uare. A course of large stones, a layer of reeds
and bituiTiei), and a covering of lead imposed upon the
arches, prepared these squares for a deep bed of rich
vegetable mould. In the front of the terraces, de-
lightful apartments, commanding an extensive view,
were formed; and water, raised from the river by ma-
"clunery, distributed refreshing moisture to the richest
•variety of herbs, fruits, and flowers.
• Building of Babylon, — The description of Babylon,
seems to partake of the extravagance of an eastern
tale, fitted indeed to regale the imagination, but to
have little ciaim to the sobriety of historical truth.
The erroneous estimate of ancient measures may hare
led to exaggeration ; but, after every allov.'ance, Ba-
bylon, in its ancient state, exhibits a grandeur not to
be contemplated without astonishment, lir Gillies
takes the stadium at a length which circumscribes
tlie city, and diminishes its walls; yet, even accord-
ing to him, Babylon was eight times larger than
London and its suburbs. The authority of Scrip-
ture also supports both the antiquity and the grtat-
' Jiess of this celebrated city. Thr- trespass, so fatal

to Achan, and so calamitous to Israel, originated in
his desire for a goodly Babylonish garment, Joshua
vii. 21. Its beauty, its exci'llency, its abundant trea-
sures, and its gates of brass, arc alluded to in scrip-
tural prophecy. History ascribes to Semiramis,
queen and successor of Ninus, the honour of plan-
ing and nearly completing the building of Babylon.
It is even reported, that she had two nnllions of men
employed in the accomplishment of her magnificent
enterprize. But Nebuchadnezzar, who is so often
mentioned in the Scriptures, enriched it with splen-
did embellishments. To gratify his wife, a princess
«f Media, who admired the mountainous scenery of
her native country, he caused the gardens already de-
scribed to be constructed. Intoxicated with pride,
he said, in the spirit of imperious arrogance, as he sur-
veyed his works — Is not this great Babylon, which I
have builded for the house of my kingdom, by themight
and the honour of my majesty ? and was thenceforth
■■ humbled to the lowest state of abasement, and the city

in which he boasted was also near its fall.

Babylon taken. — In the succeeding reign it was
invested by Cyrus, the conqueror of Asia. After a
blockade of two years, he obtained possession of it,
amid the revels of a general festival. Having turn-
ed the course of the river by means of its canals, he
so completely drained it of its waters, that his army
■larcbed along the channel into the heart of the city,
and easily became its masters. From this period, it
gunk into comparative insignificance. Darius demo-
lished its walls, with their gates of brass, and mas-
sacred its inhabitants in multitudes. Alexander the
Great was ambitious to restore it again to the rank
♦f an miperial city, and had commenced his repairs,
when death put an end to his magnificent designs.
Declining rapidly from this period, Babylon soon be-
came a heap of ruins.
JRurtm. — This great city, in the time of Strabo, hdU

. TOL. I. PART II.

545

BAB

become a desert. Jerome, who flourished in tlie
fourth century, tells us, that the royal hunts were in
Babylon, and v.ild beasts of evtry kind confined within
the circuit of its walls, and that the whole space was
full of desolation. A traveller, in 1574, could dis-
cern great masses of ruins, but durst not approach
them for fear of the wild creatures which they har-
boured : And Hanway tells us, in his travels, that
these ruins are now so much effaced as to have left few
vestiges to point out the place where they once rose
in regular proportion, in all the strength and beauty of
architecture. Mr Rich, as stated in his Memoir
published in 1815, proceeding upon the suggestions of
Major Rennel, examined the banks of the Euphra-
tes, northward of the village of Hellah ; and amid
many mi unds of smaller dimensions, he found one
1100 yards long, and 800 broad. Farther on he found
a mass 700 yards square, named by the natives, /lasr,
or palace. A mile beyond this he came to .m irre-
gular object, varying in length from 136 to 200 feet,
and rising to 140 in height. This is denominated the
Miijehbe, from the top of which Mr Rich surveyed
the surrounding plain, but could observe no other
large mass in this neighbourhood. But about
six miles to the southwest o- Hellah he found a heap
of ruins of an oblong form, 762 yards in circumfer-
ence, and rising in the manner of a cone to the lu^iglit
of 198 feet, called Bin Nnnrr.d. These ruins are
new used as quarries for the construction of other
cities. This circumstance exposed their interior to
the inquisitive observations of Mr Rich, which he
found to be comjiosed of burnt and unburnt bricks,
of several sizes and various degrees of fineness, ce-
mented together with mortar, bitumen, and chopped
reeds and straw. In some places he found pieces
of wall in an entire state, eight feet thick, ornament-
ed with niches, and strengthened with pilasters. No
certain conclusion can be drawn from the informa-
tion contained in the memoir of Mr Rich, but he has
promised to persevere in his investigations.

Let the candid reader now compare these details
with the predictions of Isaiah and Jeremiah respec-
ting Babylon. Let him consider that they were de-
livered when the kingdom of Judah was on the de-
cline,and the empire of Babylon increasing in glory,
in honour, and influence, and he must be astonished
at the completeness of their accomplishment. He
will observe with amazement how every purpose of
the Lord hath been performed against her ; how she
has become heaps of ruin, a dwelling place of dra-
gons. How Jehovah of Hosts hath swept her with
the besom of destruction !

Empire of Babylon — It seems probable that the
famous Tower of Babel gave rise to the name of
the oldest empire in the world. The astrononiicnl
tables sent by Alexander to Aristotle, carry back
its existence 2234 years before the birth of Christ.
But shadows, doubts, and darkness, rest upon it,
till the city of Babylon, 605 years before Christ,
became, under Nebopolassar, the capital of his king-
dom.

This potentate, otherwise named Nebuchadnoezar^
was chief priest, and hereditary satrap, during the
disgraceful reign of the efieiiiiuate Sariliujapalof,

♦ A

Baliy.'ca.

BAB

54(5

BAG

BiibjloB. Having formed an alliance with Cyaxarce, the Mede,
he obtained the sovereign power through his assis-
tance ; and as Nineveh had been destroyed by fire,
he transferred the government to Babylon.

Nebuchadnezzar oi'thc Scriptures, his son, was first
the associate, and then the successor of his father. He
had a warlike genius, gained many victories, extend-
ed the empire by conquest, and reduced refractory
provinces to obedience. From the plunder of van-
quished countries he filled his capital with disgraceful
riches, and, among the rest, with the sacred vessels of
Solomon's temple. He was succeeded by Evil-Mero-
doch, a weak voluptuous prince. After some usurpa-
tions, Nabonadius, the Belshazzar of the Scriptures,
and son to Nebuchadnezzar, succeeded to the throne.
The reins of government were at first held by No-
taris, his mother, a woman of talent and enterprize.
She was careful to finish the works which her husband
had commenced, and was anxious to support the tot-
tering throne. But its total overthrow was at hand.
While Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a
thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the
thousand, Cyrus without the walls was exerting all
his powers to obtain possession of the city, an enter-
prise which he accomplished, to the subversion of the
Babylonian empire. The king was slain, and the king-
dom was divided and given to the Medes and the
Persians.

Country of Babylon. — The appellations, Babylon,
Chaldea, and Assyria, are frequently used indiscri-
minately by historians. But Babylonia seems to have
been an early and a general designation of the region
around the celebrated tower of Babel. While the
great city described above continued to be the me-
tropolis. Babylonia comprehended all the countries
which composed the empire. But the name proper-
ly belongs to the country called in scripture Aram
beyond the River, a region which lies between the
Euphrates and the Tigris. These great rivers rise
among the mountains of Armenia, and, flowing in
the same direction, recede and approach each other
m their course, till they unite their streams, and fall
by one channel into the Persian gulph.

The country inclosed in these natural boundaries
slopes towards its rivers by so gradual a declivity
that throughout its whole length it presents the ap-
pearance of two immense hanging gardens. By
the industry of the inhabitants, canals of every size
were cut from the higher to the lower river, rendering
it a well watered garden ; so that, in respect of ferti-
lity, it even far surpassed Egypt. " In the language
of Herodotus and Strabo, quoted by Gillies, it re-
stored with increase of a hundred, and three hundred
fold, all the finest kinds of grain with whicli it was
town or planted. The leaves of wheat and barley
were four fingers broad ; the whole country was
adorned with palm trees, which presented the triple
offerings of bread, honey, and wine ; fruits in the
same season were succeeded by flowers, and the soft
warm soil, strongly impregnated with nitre, required
only a sprinkling of water to be converted iri a few
weeks from an arid waste into a green paradise."
This country abounded in excellent materials tor
building; it afforded a viscous clay, which, when form-
ed into bricks, btcauie fit for use by merely hardeu-

ing in the sun. Its bitumen, found every where, made fi«cc1iaoali%
a firm cement, and forest trees were floated down the (|

rivers from the woods of Armenia. Bachelor.

Under such favourable circumstances, it need not
be wondered at that Babylonia became the first theatre
of civilization, that its inhabitants were so numerous,
its cities so stupendous, its arts so manifold and per-
fect, its riches so immense, its commerce so great,
or that it should still retoiu a commanding influence
over the imagination.

BACCHANALIA, were festivals celebrated by
the ancient Greeks in honour of Bacchus. Those
who took an active part in the performance of these
sacred rites assumed the character of Pan, Silenus,
and the Sat)rs, appeared in appropriate dresses, were
crowned with garlands of vine leaves and ivy, imd
were accompanied with musical instruments, as drum?^
pipes, and rattles. These festive scenes were usually
exhibited in the night ; hikI the most extravagant
licentiousness and grossest debauchery prevailed.
The labours of oriental antiquaries have been much
occupied in tracing the origin of the mysteries of
Bacchus ; and later writers seem to have adduced
plausible reasons for supposing that the earliest in-
stitution of these rites took place in India.

BACCHARIS, or Ploughman's Spikenard, a
genus of plants belonging to the Syngenesia class.

BACCHUS, the god of wine, according to an-
cient mythology, was the son of Jupiter and Semele.
Always represented in the bloom of youth, he wears
a garland of ivy or vine leaves, he holds in his hand
a thyrsus, or staft" bound with ivy, and his chariot is
drawn by tigers, or lions, accompanied by his pre-
ceptor Silenus, and a band of satyrs and baccha-
nals. The superstitious gratitude of ancient nations
acknowledged Bacchus as the author of many essen-
tial benefits conferred on mankind. Agriculture,
commerce, navigation, and even the constitution of
human society, have been ascribed to this divinity.
His history has been a fertile subject of learned dis-
cussion. While some think that Bacchus is to be
considered as the same person with Moses, others
suppose that he was Nimrod or Noah ; and Sir Wil-
liam Jones contends that he was Ramah, the son of
Cush. The same accomplished oriental scholar seems
to be of opinion, that the Greeks derived their Dio-
nysus, or Bacchus, or the incidents of his history,
from India. In support of this opinion, he refers to
a comparison of the poem entitled Dionysiaca of
Nonnus, and the epic paeni on the same subject
called Ramayan, the production of one of the first
Hindoo poets. Bryant's Alythology. Asiatic Re-
searches, Vol. I.

BACHELOR, a term applied to an unmarried
man. Under some of the ancient governments, ba-
chelors were regarded as a kind of degraded citi*
zens ; they were the subjects of particular enact-
ments, and they were deprived of certain privileges.
By the laws of Lycurgus they were excluded from
all offices of the state, whether of a civil or military
nature, and they were even prohibited from being
present at the public entertainments. Among the
Romans, it was not unusual for the censors to im-
pose arbitrary fines on old bachelors ; and in the
time of Augustus a law was passed, by which tbey

BAG

547

BAG

Jachelors could not receive a legacy, or succeed to an inlieri-
II tance bequeathed to them by will, except from near

Bacon, relations. In Britain, a direct tax was imposed on
bachelors in the time of William and Mary; and, at
the present day, the servants of such persons «re
subjected to the payment of a higher duty.

BACHELORS, under the feudal institutions,
were of an inferior order to the knights ; and hence
they were distinguished by the title of knights-ha.-
chelors. Such persons as held possessions too small
to bring a sufficient number of retainers into the field
to enable them to display their own banner or such
as were under the command of knights, came under
this denomination. Their rank was inferior to that
of knights, but superior to that of esquires or gentle-
men. The French expression has chevaliers " infe-
rior knights," seems to point to a plausible origin
of the term.

BACHELORS denote such persons as have at-
tained the first step in the literary honours conferred
by universities, as bachelor of arts, bachelor of divi-
nity. Four years attendance are required to be en-
titled to the degree of bachelor of arts at Oxford ;
three years more are necessary to obtain that of mas-
ter of arts ; and seven years more to become bache-
lor of divinity.

BACKGAMMON, an amusing game which is
played by two persons with dice and a table, on
which fifteen men, assigned to each player, are ar-
ranged in a particular manner. The success of the
game, it is obvious, depends partly on chance, and
partly on the skill of the player in the management of
his men. See Games.

BACON, Roger, an English monk, who, by his
extraordinary attainments in natural philosophy, out-
stripped the age in which he lived by several cen-
turies, was born at Ilchester in Somersetshire, in
1214', studied first at Oxford, and afterwards in the
university of Paris ; and on his return to England in
1240, when he was in his twenty-sixth }'ear, he as-
sumed themonastic habit among thcFranciscan order.
Oxford became again the place of his residence ;
and while his investigations were directed to every
department of physical science, the astonishment at
his remarkable discoveries, excited by the ignorance
ef the times, brought down upon him the charge of
necromancy or magic, and exposed him to severe per-
secution. He was prohibited from instructing youth,
and then subjected to close confinement. During the
short pontificateof ClementlV. whichlasted only three
years, the severity of his enemies had either relaxed
or was suppressed by higher influence. But the ex-
altation of his successor to the papal throne was fa-
tal to the enlightened philosopher. He was seized
in France, thrown into prison, and spent ten tedious
years in a dungeon. Having once more obtained his
freedom, he returned to Oxford, and died in 1292,
when he had reached the 78th year of his age.

Beside the predominant studies of the times,|such as
grammar, logic, and theology, in which he was high-
ly conspicuous, his knowledge of various branches
of natural philosophy, and particularly of optics, as-
tronomy, and chemistry, has not failed to excite the
admiration of the present age.

Bacon has been very generally allowed to be the

inventor of gunpowder ; but from certain ambiguous Bacoa.
expressions in his works, it is alleged that he was not
the actual inventor, but only that he was acquainted
with the nature and effects of that remarkable com-
pound. A new edition of his Opus Majus, or Great
Work, which comprehends an abstract of his other
treatises, was published in 1733; and, beside some
other productions, his Epistle on the Secret Operations
of Nature and Art, and on the Futility of Magic, all
in Latin, has been often reprinted.

BACON, FRANCIS, Lord VERULA^f, and Vts-
coiTNT St Albans, the father of modern philo-
sophy, was born at London on the 22d of January
1560-1. His early genius, and the rapidity with
which his faculties were developed, promised a rich
reward for the anxiety of parental instruction, and a
splendid accession to the honours of his name, llie
discernment of Queen Elizabeth, who had frequent
opportunities of seeing him during the time that his
father was Lord Keeper of the Seals, was gratified
by his acuteness and good sense. A reply to a very
simple and common question put to him by that
princess, while he was yet a boy, is recorded as an
example of readiness of mind, which, independent
of the delicate flattery, did not fail to call forth her
commendation. Having asked him his age, he an-
swered, that " he was just two years younger than
her happy reign." This talent of negociating words
to the best advantage, according to one of his own
sagacious remarks, that they are " the counters of
wise men, and the money of fools," found adequate
reasons for exercise in the courts of Elizabeth and
her vain-glorious successor. But its pruriency, and
certain indications of a kindred vice, have cast a
baneful shade over the character of the philosopher.

After some years study at Cambridge, Bacon was
ushered into public life and the concerns of govern-
ment, by accompanying Sir Amias Powlet, the Eng-
lish ambassador, to the court of France. That mi-
nister, fully sensible of his qualifications, entrusted
him with an important commission to the queen,
which he executed in the most satisfactory manner.
He was now little more than seventeen years of age.
The death of his father, which occurred soon after,
was injurious to his advancement, and involved him
in the usual difficulties of a younger son. He betook
himself, in consequence, to the study of law, in which
he made such advancement, that he was deemed
worthy of being named, by Elizabeth, her learned
counsel extraordinar)', at the age of twenty-eight.
The path of greatness, so earnestly eyed by his am-
bition, now lay fair before him ; but he had to encoun-
ter the parsimony, and perhaps, too, the ingratitude
of his sovereign, though he did not scruple to solicit
her good graces by paying court to her favourite,
the Earl of Essex. The influence of the Secretary
Cecil, who was jealous of his talents, and disliked his
attachment to that unfortunate nobleman, limited his
success to thepromise of a reversionof a valuable office,
which did not become vacant for nearly twenty years.
Bacon's subsequent desertion, and indeed zealous pro-
secution of the favourite, when his imprudence and
high-mindedness had involved him in a fatal calami-
ty, implied a baseness of feeling still more contemp-
tible than the inveterate selfishness of soul which

BA C

548

B AC

cauld find patience for so long a servitude of adula-
' tion and desire. Elizabeth herself, whether i'rom a
sense of dignity, which she knew well how to sus-
tain, or from the remembrance of an affection suifi-
cieutly vivid to shtd a kind of sympathetic tender-
ness over her heart, was offended at the pertinacity
and bitterness of Bacon's raftledictions. She took
care not to reward these exertions, which subjected
him besides to the just indignation of the people,
who were more cordially attached to Essex than they
usually are to favourites.

On the death of Queen Elizabeth, about a year af-
ter his fate, and hastened, as lias generally been ima-
gined, by sorrow for the part which she had been
constrained to act towards him. Bacon appears to
Jiave been among the first of the English courtiers
who " hailed the rising sun." He had the prudential
policy to offer his services to James, through the me-
dium of all the Scottish noblemen and gentlemen to
whom he could possibly procure access, before that
ostentatious and conceited monarch had quitted his
own country, to take possession of the throne that
awaited him. The celerity and amount of his succes-
sive elevations repaid his assiduity, and very distinct-
ly proved, that this most prolific eulogist and admirer
Jiad found a suitable merchant for his ware. There was
almost a strife between them for some time which should
exceed; the one in fulsomeness of flattery, the other
in bountifulness of giving. The comparison, which is
somewhat striking, terminates in favour of the former.
Bacon's dedication " Of the Advancement of Learn-
ing," is, in reality, a masterpiece of panegyric. His
loyalty discovers what his religion assured him was in-
scrutable,— the virtues and faculties of the king.
Hence he expresses his wonder " at the largeness of
liis capacity, the faithfulness of his memory, the swift-
ness of his apprehension, the penetration of his judg-
ment, and the facility and order of his elocution."
These are but samples of the exuberant mass of Ba-
con's commendations, the climax of which is contain-
ed in an expression virtually, if not avowedly con-
trived, to carry the monarch's conceit into the re-
jjions of blasphemy. " I am well assured," says the
pompous sycophant, " that this which I shall say is
Fio amplification at all, but a positive and mea-
"sjred truth, which is, that there hath not been
»ince Christ's time any king or temporal monarch
Mhich hath been so learned in all literature and
erudition, divine and human !" The substantial
and showy recompenses on James's part, were, in
rotation, knighthood, the appointment to the king's
learned counsel, the office of solicitor-general, a
judgesliip in the knight-marshal's court, the office of
attorney-generalj a seat in the privy council, the
appointment of keeper of the great seal, the supreme
office of ford chancellor, and the titles of Baron Ve-
rulam and Viscovuit St Albans. These last honours
were conferred on hira in 1619. His prosperity now
began to ebb.

The parliament of 1621, most laudably intent on
the examination and redress of certain grievances,
pref'cn'ed the serious accusation against Bacon of
having taken bribes from suitors in the court of
Chancery. Investigation demonstrated his guilt,
wliicb he had the hvuuility to confess, but which he

endeavoured, in a pitiftil and very fallacious r.iannsr,
to palliate or excuse. He threw himself at last on
the mercy of his judges, the House of Peers ; but
their decision savoured more of strict justice than
any " compunctious visitations." He was sentenced
" to undergo a fine of forty thousand pounds ; to
be imprisoned in the Tower during the king's plea-
sure ; to be for ever incapable of any office, place, or
emolument in the commonwealth, and never to sit
again in parliament, or come within the verge of the
court."

The chief causes of Bacon's fall had some sem-
blance of virtue, or at least indicated a generositv
and amiableness of disposition, which serve rather
to restrain than altogether to supersede censure, and
in which, particularly at this distance of time, hu-
manity is willing, though not indeed quite able, to
conceal his delinquencies. Bacon had a liberal
mind, which naturally sought a splendour and im-
mensity of style proportioned to the magnitude of
his intellect and the dignity of his rank, without pos-
sessing the requisite attention to the economies of
life, and without exercising the no less requisite
suspicion of the common retainers on greatness. The
consequences were, an expenditure beyond his in-
come, which seduced him into dishonourable com-
pliances, and a habit of indulgence towards his de-
pendents and retinue, which even connived at rapa-
city and extortion. A single anecdote illustrates
his own conviction of the mischievous effect of this
last failing. One day, during his trial, as he passed ;
through a room where some of his servants were sit-
ting, they got up to salute him ; " Sit down, my .
masters," said the chancellor, " your rise hath been
my fall !"

Bacon was sent to the Tower, but soon regained
his liberty by the mercy of the king, who forgave
the fine, and ultimately, as far as he could, remitted
the censure passed on him, settling him besides in a
pension of L.1800 a-year. He was now at)out sixty
years of age, and in full possession of those powers
of mind by which, in spite of his errors and disgrace,
he has immortalized his name in the history of learn-
ing, and claims the admiration and gratitude of every
succeeding generation. The remainder of his life
was spent in retirement, and in all probability amid
embarrassments, sufficient, in addition to the recol-
lection of former greatness, to have broken down
and destroyed the faculties of any ordinary charac-
ter, but peculiarly calculated to give energy and in-
terest to his ardent desire for posthumous renown.
It was in this period that he either wrote or revised
the chief of those works which have so largelj' con-
tributed to the advancement of useful knowledge.
His death took place on the 9th April 1626, in the
sixty-sixth year of his age, and rather more than a
year after the decease of James. It appears to have
been immediately occtisioned by over anxiety and
exercise .in prosecuting some experiments ; but
an infirm and declining state of health, had left
little hope that his life could have been much pror
loticed.

Lord Baron was of the middle stature, of a grace-
ful and pleasing appearance, but sonicwhat delicate;
bis forehead was spacious and full, early impressed

Bacon.

B AC

'549

B AC

Bacsn. '*^'*'^ marks of age ; he had a lively penetrating ej'e,
.^^■■-^^ dark hair and eyebrows ; his features in general ex-
pressed sedateness and gravity, but he was capable
of much animation, and could assume the most agree-
able insinuating aspect and address ; he excelled in
conversation, by readiness of remark, copiousness of
illustration, and inexhaustible and familiar acquaint-
ance with the labours of former times, and a vivacity
of imagination, which displayed the force and the
originality of wit, without any of its coarseness or
trifling. In private life he was temperate, modest,
conciliating, and ready to oblige; attached to reli-
gion without being superstitious, ho seems to have
venerated the creed of his country as much from a
conviction of its truth as the opinion of its utility.
He married, when about forty, a daughter of Alder-
man Barnham, by whom he obtained a considerable
fortune, but had no children. Foreigners held him
in high repute during his lifetime, and probably, in-
deed, were more just to his merits than his country-
men. The Marquis D'Effiat, who brought over
Henrietta-Maria, wife to Charles the First, having
paid a visit to Lord Bacon, found him sick in bed,
with the curtains drawn. " You resemble the an-
gels," said the polite stranger ; " we hear those be-
ings continually talked of, we believe them superior
to mankind, aud we never have the consolation to
see them."

The writiirgs of this illustrious man are numerous,
and embrace a variety of subjects. His chief merit,
as a philosopher, consists in the complete exposure
of the errors of those systems by which the schools
had for so long obstructed the course of science, and
the substitution of a rational logic calculated to aid
man in the acquisition of a true knowledge of nature.
It is his highest praise that the rapid augmentation of
human power, as effected by such knowledge in mo-
dern times, is clearly referalile to the adoption of his
principles, and that there is no instance in which any
deviation from them has conducted to beneficial dis-
covery. Attempts have^been made of late to de-
preciate the value of his labours, and advantage has
been taken of some of his inadvertencies and mis-
takes, particularly in natural history, to prove either
the defectiveness of his laws, or his own inconsis-
tency with them. But these attempts have succeed-
ed much better in shewing an invidious affectation
and capriciousnees of mind, than in accomplishing
the object they have in view. They are, at all events,
refuted at every new step in the march of science.
It has rarely happened, we may add, that any of
those labourers whose names are associated with im-
portant discoveries, or valuable contributions to the
stock of knowledge, have closed their lives without
some tribute of veneration and gratitude to the geni.
us and philosophy of Bacon.

The most convenient, and, on the whole, the best
edition of Bacon's works, in Latin and English, was
published at London in 1803, in ten volumes 8vo.

BACON, John, an English sculptor, who attained
great celebrity as an artist, was horn in Southwark in
l~W, was placed as an apprentice to a porcelain ma-
nufactory at Laviibelh, and was at first employed in
painting ornamentai pieces of china, but, from his
skill and tcvste in modelling, he was afttrwards en-

trusted with that department of the business. It is
no less curious than instructive to perceive the dawn '
of rising genius, and to mark its progrt ss towards its
brighter day. The visits of Bacon to a nci^ihbouring
pottery to which some eminent sculptors occasionally
sent models to be burnt, afforded him an opportunity
of seeing and examining them, and from this slight in-
cident those imitative powers, which reached so high
a dejrree of improvement, were called into action-.
IILs fir.st essa}' seems to have been a small figure of
Peace, after the antique manner, which was executed
in his 18th year ; and five 3'ears afterwards, in 17()3)
he made th.e first attempt to work in marble, and at
the same time invented an ingenious instrument w hich
has since been approved and adopted by other artists,
for determining with more precision the measure-
ments and proportions. The only instructions which
Bacon ever received in sculpture or modelling were
derived from the Royal Academy, which was not insti-
tuted till J 768, when it is probable he had made con-
siderable improvement in his art; and in the succeed-'
ing year he was honoured with the gold medal, the
first premium for sculpture bestowed by that body.

Th • fame of Bacon fortunately procured for him-
royal patronage at an early ))eriod of his career. A
bust of George HI. one of his first works in sculpture,
and intended for the university of Oxford, was sO'
successfully executed, and afforded so favourable a-
specimen of his talents, that the king ordered a se-
cond to be presented to the university of Gottingen,
and the queen ordered a third. His reputation as an
artist was now established; and his future works bear
ample testimony that the judgment of the public waa
not prematurely anticipated. Among the admired
productions of his chissel may be enumerated, the
monument to Mrs Draper, in the cathedral of Bristol;
the statue of Judge Biackstone, in All Souls college,
Oxford ; the monument of Lord Rodney in Jamaica;
of Dr Johnson and Mr Howard, in St Pauls, Lon-
don ; and, above all, the exquisite monument to the
memory of Lord Chatham, in Westminster Abbey,
which has been always regarded v.s one of the finest ■-
examples of the art. '

An illness of two days duration cloied his niortal>
career in 1799 ; and it is pleasing to record, that his-
eminence as an artist was equalled by the simplicity,
integrity, and respectability of his character as a man.'
BACTRIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, suppos-
ed to be the modern Chorasan, has the river Oxus
for its boundary on the north, and Asiatic Scythia ■
on the east ; is represented as an extensive, fruitful,
and populous region; successively yielded to the-
victorioas arms of the Assyrians, Cyrus, and Alex-
ander the Great ; was afterwards overpowered by the
Huns, and finally subdued by the Scythians. In the
later periods of its history, this territory has shared
the fate of the surrounduig country, but has never
been able to recover its former independence. The
Bactrians, of whom laboured accounts have been
drawn up, to shew that they were a wise and valor-
ous people, seem to have been addicted to the most
cruel and most abominable vices ; and if it be true
that tliey trained dogs, expressively denominated se-
pulchral dogs, for the puri ose of ilevouring the aged
and infirm, who had become a burden on the com-

-Baetila.

BAD

OadajM inunity, the learning and civilization of such a peo-

I) pie need not be alluded to.

Bailcn. BADAJOS, a strongly fortified frontier town, and

capital of the province of Estremadura in Spain, is
about five miles from the confines of Portugal. The
ancient tovi'n occupied the site of the castle; and the
numerous remains of Roman, Moorish, and Gothic
structures, afford ample testimony of its former splen-
dour. The modern city stands in a fine plain on the
banks of the river Guadiana, over which a magnifi-
cent bridge of 28 arches is constructed. The streets
are narrow and irregular ; the population is estimated
at 15,000 ; and the manufacture of hats gives occu-
pation to a portion of the inhabitants. Badajos is the
residence of the chief civil and military authorities of
tlie province.

BADEN, a district of Switzerland, which is bound-
ed on the north by the Rhine, and on the west by the
river Aar and the canton of Berne ; comprehends a-
bout 110 square miles; includes three towns and se-
veral villages, and numbers about 21',000 inhabitants.
Baden abounds in corn and excellent fruits ; and the
banks of the Limat, which traverses the territory, are
adorned with flourishing vineyards.

BADEN, the capital of the canton of the same
name in Switzerland, is finely situated on the banks
of the river Limat, and is still a 'place of frequent
resort, on account of its hot springs, which retain all
tlie celebrity which they enjoyed in the time of the
Romans, by whom they were designated ThenncB
Helveticce. The waters are of a saline and sulphure-
ous quality. A pillar erected in honour of the em-
peror Trajan, to commemorate the benefits which the
country derived from the roads which he construct-
ed ; statues in alabaster; bronze coins; and medals of
tlie emperors, in gold, silver, and copper, are enu-
merated among the remains of Roman antiquity which
are yet in existence at Baden.

BADEN, a margravate in the circle of Swabia in
Germany, occupies 'the eastern bank of the Rhine,
and is bounded by the Black Forest on the cast and
by Switzerland on the south, is a populous and fruit-
ful territory, finely diversified with extensive forests,
cultivated fields, producing rich crops of corn, hemp,
and flax, orchards which afford excellent fruits, and
luxuriant vineyards. The meadows, watered by the
Rhine, supply a profusion of herbage to horses and
black cattle ; the hogs, fed on chesnuts, afford bacon
of a superior quality ; and the mountainous pastures
feed numerous herds of deer. Iron ore, marble and
agates, which latter employs the industry of a portion
of the inhabitants in cutting and polishing, are enu-
merated among the mineral productions.

The population is estimated at 200,000. Baden,
Durlach, Stolhafen, and Rastadt, are the chief towns.
Various manufactures, which are said to be greatly
encouraged, are prosperous. Ttie Lutheran form of
religion is established, but other forms are tolerated.

BADEN, the capital of the margravate of the
same name, stands at the foot of a mountain near the
Black Forest, and is chiefly celebrated for its nume-
rous hot springs and baths. The water, as it issues
from the springs, is of the boiling temperature, and
it is conveyed m pipes to almost every liouse iii the
town.

550 BAG

BADEN is also the name of another town in the
archduchy of Austria, which is greatly resorted to
by the inhabitants of Vienna and the surrounding
country, on account of its baths, which are in much
repute.

BADGER, the English name of a species of uv
sus, which is a native of Britain. See Ursus, under
Mammalia.

B^CKEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Octandria class.

BiETYLIA, were stones of a black colour, which
were regarded as objects of veneration and worship
by some of the nations of antiquity. The tradition-
ary history of some of these stones asserts, that they
fell from heaven. Such is said to have been the ori-
gin of one which was preserved in the temple of He-
iiogabalus in Syria ; and such, too, was the supposed
origin of another in Phrygia, for the conveyance of
which to the capital the Romans appointed a solema
embassy. The speculations and conjectures of mo-
dern times concerning meteoric stones, which are
known by the most decisive testimony to have fallen
from the clouds, have led to the probable supposition
that the ancient stones were of a similar nature, and
had a similar origin.

BAFFIN'S BAY, an extensive bay between Green-
land and North America, and running north-east from
cape Farewell in Greenland, from the sixth to the
eighth degree of north latitude. It derives its name
from William Baffin, a navigator who was employed
in the year 1616 in the discovery of a passage through
Davis straits.

BAGDAD, a city of Turkey in Asia, and capital
of Irac Arabia and of the Pachalik of Bagdad, stands
on the eastern bank of the Tigris, in north latitude
33" 20', and E. long. 44" 2^ ; was founded by the
caliph Almansor, in the 145th year of the Ilegira,
which corresponds with the 762d of the Christian
era, and continued for more than 500 years to be the
capital of the Saracen empire. In the year 1258 it
fell into the hands of the Tartars, and continued in
their possession till 1393, when it was taken by Ta-
merlane the Great. It was long the scene of contest
between the Turks and Persians ; but since it fell in-
to the hands of the former in 1638, it has remained in
their possession.

Bagdad is supposed to be about three miles in cir-
cuit ; the walls are of brick, and the bastions are fur-
nished with cannon ; the houses, which are generally
spacious, are built of brick, but mosques and oiher
public edifices are constructed of hewn stone. The
inhabitants, composed of Persians, Armenians, Turks,
Arabs, and Jews, were computed by Tavernier, in
1652, at 15,<X)0; but in 1779 they were estimated by
an English traveller at 100,000.

The commercial prosperity of Bagdad has been
subjected to numerous interruptions during tlie long
period of its eventful history ; but it is still to be re-
garded as the great emporium of the east, and the
central communication for the exchange of the silks
and cotton stuffs and spicerics of the Indies, for the
productions of America and the merchandize of Eu-
rope.

BAGPIPE, a popular musical instrument in Ire-
land and Scotland ; and, trom the predilection for

BadeK

BAH

551

BAH

this instrument, it has been supposed to be peculiar
to those countries! But it appears to have been fa-
miliar to- the Greeks and Romans; for it is repre-
sented on the ancient sculptures and coins of those
nations ; and indeed it seems probable that it was not
unknown among other nations at an earlier date, as it
is now in use in most countries of Europe. This might
be expected from the simplicity of its construction.

The peculiarity of the bagpipe, from which the
name is derived, consists in collecting the air into a
leathern bag, from which it is forcibly pressed into
the pipes by the arm of the performer. The chanter,
into which is inserted a reed for the production of the
sounds by the action of the air from the bag, is per-
forated with holes like the German-flute, which are
stopped with the fingers. The other parts of the in-
strument are three tubes or drones, which are also
furnished with reeds. Two of the drones are in uni-
son with D on the chanter, which corresponds with
the lowest note of the German-flute. The third drone,
which is the longest, is an octave lower. The tuning
of the bagpipe is accomplished by lengthening or
ebortening the tubes, or drones, as may be required.

The Irish pipe is the softest of the different instru-
ments of that description known in this country ; it is
always played with bellows ; tl)e chanter includes a
range of ten or twelve notes ; and an attempt has been
made to improve it with the addition of keys to one
of the drones by which intermediate chords are pro-
duced. The softness of the reeds and the length of
the tubes are the characteristic diflerences of the
Irish bagpipe.

In the Highland bagpipe the drones are shorter,
and, by the peculiar construction of the reeds, a loud-
er sound is produced. This pipe affords only eight or
nine good notes. It requires a strong blast to play on
this powerful instrument, and hence those who per-
form on it either walk or stand, that they may have
the full and free use of their lungs.

The Scotch lowland bagpipe is described as some-
what different in its construction, both with regard to
the notes and the intensity of the sounds, which is
inferior to that of the Highland pipe ; and in the small
Scotch pipe the chanter is not more than eight inches
in length.

From the nature and construction of the bagpipe,
it is obvious that it must be very limited in its powers
of execution as a musical instrument ; and perhaps
it arises less, even from the most perfect performance,
than from the effects of early associations, that it is
supposed to be peculiarly adapted to those wild irre-
gular airs which form so pleasing a part of our na-
tive musical compositions ; and may it not be in some
degree ascribed to the same impressive effects, that
Its thrilling sounds have roused and invigorated the
valour of our hardy mountaineers in the onset of
battle, and inspiring their dauntless breasts with he-
roic ardour, have led them to deeds of glory and of
▼ictory in many a hard fought field ?

BAHAMA ISLANDS, called by the Spaniards
Lucayos, include a cluster of islands belonging to
Great Britain, and extending from the 22d to the
28th degree of north latitude, and from the 70th to
the 80th degree of west longitude. The number of
this group of islands is supposed to be not less than

500, but twelve only are inhabited. New Providence, Bahar
the largest, is about 30 miles long and ten miles broad. ||

Nassau is the chief town, and the seat of government. Bahrein.
Guanahani, as it was called by the Indians, is remark-
able as being the first landing place of Columbus, after
his adventurous voyage to the New World ; it still re-
tains the name of St Salvadore, which was imposed up-
on it by the discoverer of America, but is commonly
called Cat Island, and contains more than 700 inliabi-
tants. The cross was erected, and formal possession '
taken in the name of the Spanish king, but no perma-
nent settlement was made. In the year 1629, some
English colonists arrived in New Providence, and be-
gan to cultivate the soil ; and from the favourable re-^
port of Captain Sayle, who had been driven among
them, a colony was sentout by the English government
in 1672. But the new settlement was so much disturb-
ed and harassed by the Spanish pirates, that it was at
last abandoned, when the islands became the resort
of piratical plunderers, whose depredations called
forth the interference of the British government for
their suppression in 1721 ; and New Providence was
resettled and strengthened with fortifications.

The chief produce of these islands, which is cul-
tivated lor exportation, is cotton, ofwhich 1500 bags
of two cwt. each, are stated, by Mr Edwards, to be
the annual quantity shipped about the year 1789 y^
but, in 1792, it had increased to more than a million.,
pounds. The population of the Bahama islands, inj
1773, amounted to 4293, one half of which nearly in-,
eluded the white inhabitants. But, by the official re-i
turns in 1812, it had increased to 16,718. Of this!
number. New Providence contains 6084, by a cen-
sus in 1810, distributed into 1720 whites, 3400
slaves, and the rest free blacks and foreigners.
The other islands, from the enumeration in 1812, have
10,634 inhabitants ; ofwhich 2150 are whites, near-
ly 8000 are slaves, and the rest arc free blacks and
persons of colour. The Bahamas are divided into
nine parishes, all ofwhich, excepting one, were va-
cant in 1812. Two presbyterian clergymen, one of
whom is resident in New Providence, and the other
in Turks islands, have each an annual stipend of more
than L.lOO Sterling fiom the colony ; and three me-
thodist missionaries are established in the islands,
but no public provision is allowed for their support.

BAH A 11, a province of Hindustan, which lies to
the westward of Bengal, and is about i'50 milts long
and 200 miles broad. Patna is the capital. This
province furnishes a large proportion of the saltpetre
which is imported into England, as well as a great
deal of the cotton stuffs which are brought to this
country to be printed. Wheat, rice, and pease, are
extensively cultivated ; and opium, from the demand
of the Chinese market for that drug, is one of the.
most valuable productions of the province.

BAHHREIN, or BAHllEN, a cluster of islands
on the western side of the Persian gulph, and near
the coast of Arabia, which liave been long celebrated.
These islands were at one time subject to the Por-
tuguese ; v/ere afterwards alternately in possession
of the Persians and Arabians, but now acknowledge
the authority of the scheik of Busheer, whose chief
revenue arises from the duty on the pearl fishery and
on dates. Bahhrein, which gives name to tlie whole

BAH

552

¥A^lf

BaVU gi'OwP) is the chief town, and is situated in Aval, the
II largest island. The Arabic language is spoken by
Bi\j;!7st. the inhabitants.

RAHIA, or ST SALV ADORE, a sea-port town
<>f Brazil, and the capital of a province of the sanic
name, stands on the outside of Ail Saints bay, and
is strongly defended by forts and batteries. The po-
pulation is estimated at 100,000, of which 30,000
are whites, an equal number mcludes the people of
colour, and the rest are negroes. The chief trade is
with Lis')on and Oporto ; European manufactures
and merchandize are exchanged for cotton, sugar,
and coffee, various woods, gums, and balsams. Bahia
is the residence of the governor-general, and the see
of an archbishop ; and tiie cathedral is a magnificent
structure of European marble. N. Lat. Ii2° '30. E.
Long. 39°.

BAIjE, an ancient village, between Cape Misenum
and Puteol", in Campania in Italy, which the classi-
cal scholar will rocognize as a favourite retreat of the
Romans, to which they were attracted by the mild-
ness of the climate, tlie beauty of the scenery, and the
I luxurious enjoyment of its warm baths, from the
'biistle and business of the crowded capital. Becom-
ing a place of fashionable resort, the limited spot
which it occupied was enlarged by encroachments
on the sea, and by erecting, at great labour and ex-
pence, the most formidable bulwarks to protect the
habitations from the fury of the waves. From a re-
tired village it grew into a large city, which, even
in its ruins, presents striking proofs of its former mag-
nificence. The irruption of the Gotlis into Italy was
fatal to Baiae ; from that period it declineil ; and
what the destructive hands of the barbarians spared
was finally destroyed by the resistless violence of
earthqn-ikes and inundations.

BAJAZET I. sultan of the Turks, and celebrat-
ed for his warlike achievements, was the son of ^ mu-
rath I. whom he succeeded in 1389, andholds a con-
npicuous place in historj' from the severity by which
he was treated by his conqueror Tamerlane, who, it
is said, exposed his vanquished enemy in an iron
cage. But this story is variously detailed. In a dread-
ftil conflict, in which more than 300,000 men are said
to have fallen, Bajazet was taken prisoner ; and having
been conducted to the tent of the Tartar prince, he
was thus addressed by the conqueror : " Alas," said
the emperor, " the decree of fate is now accomplish-
cid by your own fault; it is the web which you have
woven, the thorns of the treewhichyourself haveplant-
ed. I wished to spare, and even to assist the cham-
pion of the Moslems ; you braved our threats, you de-
spised our friendship ; you forced us to enter your
kingdom with our invincible armies. Behold the
event. I am not ignorant of the fate which you re-
served for myself and my troops. But I disdain to
retaliate ; your life and honour are secure, and I shall
..express my gratitude to God by my clemency to
man." But this generous declaration, connected
with what followed, is alleged to be somewhat taint-
ed with the haughtiness ctf conquest. Bajazet was
invited to the feast of victory ; the Mogul emperor
placed a crown on liis head and a sceptre in his hand,
and gave him a solemn assurance of restoring him
to the throne of his ancestors. The death of the

captive inT4^S, nbout nine months after his defcSt,
precluded his cnjo3ment of the power and honours s
which were conferred on his son, whom Tamerlane
set at liberty, with many rich pr(!s,-;nts, and put in
possession of the kingdom of Anatolia.

Thestory of the iron cage is deduced from a dif-
ferent relation of what passed between the Mogul
emperor and his royal captive. The generous inten-
tions of Tamerlane were, in some degree, frustrated
by the unseasonable arrogance of Bajazet hinis»'lf;
the complaints of his enemies, bj' no means frivolous
or groundless, made a strong impression on the mind
of the conqueror, who' betrayed a design of leading
his prisoner in triumph to Saniarcand ; an attempt
to facilitate his escape by digging a mine under hig
tent, seemed to justify a harsher restraint ; and !■
his rapid movements, an iron cage on a waggon, it i»^ ■
supposed, might be invented, not as a wa.iton nisult,'
but as a rigorous precaution. Bajazet sunk under the
tiial ; and, in a paroxysm of des]iair, it is said, dashed
out Iris brains against the bars of his prison; and thus
his premature death might, without injustice, be as-
cribed to the severity of Tamerlane. But the con-
queror warred not with the dead ; a tear and a se-
pulchre were all that he could bestow on a cap-"*
tive whom the hand of death had delivered front"
his power. The body was conveyed, with all the niag-
nificfence and pomp of royalty to Boursa, and with
great solemnity consigned to the mausoleu'ii which
he had erected in the days of his prosperity and pow-
er. Gibbon's Roman Histori/. '

BAIKAL, a lake of Sioeria, extending from the
51 St to the 5.5th degree of north latitude, about SdO
miles in length, vaiying in breadth from 15 to 50
miles, and in some places exceeding SOOOfathoiiu- in
depth, and, from some superstitious veneration at«
tached to it by the natives who inhabit. its shores, ii'
dignified with the appellation of Iioli/ lake. The sur-
rounding scenery exhibits many grand and piclu-'
resque features, from the rugged aspect and great
elevation of the mountains, many of which are rich-
ly clothed with waving woods. The waters of the
lake are «n limpid as to permit objects to be distinct-
ly seen at the depth of 50 feet; several large rivers
discharge their waters into the Baikal, but it has on-
ly one known outlet. A liquid naphtha is thrown
up on the surface in some places, and is collected for
burning in lamps ; and the shores abound with mi-
neral springs, some of which approach to the boil-
ing temperature. Lake Baikal contains numerous
islands ; one of which, near its northern shore,
is of considerable extent, and is inhabited ; and large
lierds of cattle arc reared and fattened on its excel-
lent pastures. Storms and sudden squalls are fre-
quent; and the short summer of thia severe climate
rarely passes otfwithout nightly frosts. The snow be-
gins to fall in August ; the lake is frozen over about
tf»c end of December, and the ice melts in the be-
ginning of May.

The sandy shores and contiguous forests of the
Baikal abound with some of the rarer vegetable
productions of elevated regions. Of the plants enu-
merated by Pallas as indigenous to its shores, may be
mentioned dracocephalum nulamt, lifcopsis vesicaria,
iriticunt litoralc, called by tlie natives, " wild barley,

B A I

555

BAF

Baikal

liai.

wliicJi cover* the shores like a cultivated crop ; poli/-
gunaiit xericeum, a beuutiful s[)ecic'S of knotgrass ; and
in the forests and higliev grounds, lonkera lerulca,
linncea borealis, riibus arcticiis, ledum pahiUre, and py-
rola unijiora. The waters of this lake abound with
fishes, among which are noticed a fish resembling the
lierring, which is called oimd bj' the n^itives, and is
eaugiit in such quantities that it is a source of exten-
sive employment and great prolit ; several species of
the genus salmo, carp, tench, sturgeon, and what is
singular, the seal is also a native, from which it is in-
ferred, witii some degree of probability, that the lake
had once a communication with the ocean. The hunt-
ing of these animals, of which it is said 2000 are sirmu-
ally taken, begins in April, and their skins furnish a
valuable commodity to commerce and the arts.

The fisheries on this lake are of great value and
importance ; and a considerable trade is carried on
with the northern regions of China, by navigating
it& waters in the summer, and by travelling over
the ice in winter. But the navigation is often at-
tended with great danger from sunken rocks ni the
ehallower parts of the lake, and from tremendous
hurricanes, which are equally sudden an>l severe.
The inequality of the ice, the unfrozen parts of the
waters, and the furious blasts from the mountains,
render the passage in winter not less insecure and
hazardous.

BAIKAL Mountains, a lofty ridge, which
runs nearly parallel to the lake of the same name,
gome of which rise to such an elevation as to be co-
vered with perpetual snow ; some are clothed with
extensive forests, and others present a rugged and
sterile aspect. The Baikal mountains are com]'osed
partly of primitive, and partly of secondai-y rocks.
Granite, and some of its accompanying strata, occu
py the higher regions, from some of which large
plates of mica, better known by the name of Mus-
covy glass, is dug out in considerable quantity, and
is employed as a substitute for glass in some parts of
the Russian empire. In the lower regions, coal, na-
tive sulphur, and some metallic ores are common.

BAIL, a law term derived from the French, and
signifying to deliver up, because the person bail-
ed is delivered into the nands of the person who is
surety for his appearance on being called before a
court. Bail is taken, either in court, by sheriffs or
other magistrates, and by justices of the peace. Com-
mon bail IS taken in cases of small importance, and
seems to be rather matter of form ; but special bail,
or substantial sureties, are required in actions to the
amount of L.IO and upwards. The law declares that
excessive bail, or to a greater amount than the case
demands, is not to be insisted on. In civil cases every
defendant may be bailed ; but in criminal matters no
bail is permitted on an accusation of treason, of
murder, of manslaughter, when the indictment is
found; of felony, if the person charged have broken
prison, or be taken in the fact ; of arson, or wilful
fire-raising; of being outlaws; of having abjured the
realm. But bail must be admitted, when sufficient
surety is offered, for per-sons of good fame when char-
ged under susi)ici>)n of manslaugliter, for persons
charged with petit larceny, and for persons acces-
sary to felony ; and the court of King's Bench, or

TOI.. I. PART II.

any of its judges in vacation time, may bail for every
kiod of crime. Blackstone's Cnmnientaries.

BAILIFF, in the early periods of English history,
vras an officer appointed for the administration of jus-
tice within a certain district, and seems to have pos-
sessed authority in some degree analogous to the
power of the present sheriffs ; but from the sup-
pression of some courts, and the changes in others,
the name is generally limited to officers of a very in-
ferior rank, or such as serve writs, execute summons,
&c. within their liberties and hundreds. Some-
times, even in the present day, the terra bailiff is ap-
plied to persons of respectability, as the bailiff of Do-
ver castle; and the magistrates of some towns still re-
tain the same appellation. Sheriff's bailiffs are either
bailift's of hundreds or special bailiffs. Bailifis of hun-
dreds are nominated by sheriffs to collect fines, sum-
mon juries, attend the courts of assize and quarter-
sessions, and execute writs in their several hundreds;
but in the execution of some parts of their duty spe-
cial baihffs, who are more skilful and more ))raelised,
are conjoined with them. Bailiffs of libeiiics are ap-
pointed hy the lord within his liberty.

BAILIFF, Water, is an officer in seaport towns in
England, who searches ships, collects anchorage du-
ties, and arrests persons for debt on the water.

BAILLY, Jean Svlvain, an eminent French
astronomer, was descended from a family which for
several generations had been distinguished for paint-
ing, and was born at Paris in September 1736. Des-
tim d to the same profession, he had made some pro-
gress in the art, but a passion for literature and science
predominated in his mind, and his early acquaintance
with the celebrated geometer La Caille' decided his
choice, and directed his studies to the higher depart-
ments of physical knowledge. The calculation of the
orbit of the comet which appeared in 1759 is record-
ed as the fir.-t of his labours in astronomical investi-
gations, to which so large a portion of his time and
talents was afterwards devoted. The theory of the
satellites of .Tiipitcr, and the practical use of the ob-
servations of their eclipses in the discovery of the
longitude, long engaged the attention of Bailly, and
brought him forward as a powerful competitor for
prize questions with some of the most distinguished
philosophers of his country.

The reputation of Bailly rose high on the publica-
tion of the first volume of his History of Astronomv,
which appeared in 1775 ; and became still more con-
spicuous for profound research, comprehensive views,
and indefatigable industry, when the fourth volume
of that great undertaking was presented to the pub-
lic in 17H2. Beside this work, which is peculiarly dis-
tinguislied by animated description, luminous narra-
tive, and interesting detail, he was the author of nu-
merous memoirs connected with astronomy. But his
labours were not confined to these sublime investiga-
tions. His " Letters on the Orij'in of the Sciences,
and of the People of Asia," " On the Atlantis of
Plato," and " On the Ancient History of Asia," and
the "Eloges," which he composed on Leibnitz. Charles
V. Corneille. La Caille and others, afford in^ontes-
tible proofs of great ver.^atility of talent, powerful
genius, and an aceomjilishcd seiiolar. He was elect-
ed secretary of the French academy in 17S4' ; and
4 B

Pailiflr

Buil!y.

Bailly.

B AK 5o

he was the only example, from the time of Fontenelle,
of the same person iuilding a seat in the three learn-
ed Parisian academies.

Hitherto we have contemplated this distinguished
philosopher in the shades of retirement, and deeply
engaged in the calm pursuits of science, employing
successfully the energy of a vigorous mind in the
profound researches of phyeic'il truth. Lees for-
tunate in his political career, ho encountered the
dreadful storm of the French revolution, and fell a
lamented victim to the savage fury of a relentless
and sanguinary faction. He became an early and
zealous promoter of that revolution, which, now that
the consequences have been seen and felt, holds out
an awful lesson to the leaders of the populace to re-
press rather than to encourage and excite a spirit of
tumult and disorder, which,- once roused, bursts
forth with ungovernable fury, and involves all in ge-
neral- ruin. In the share which Bailly took in that
memorable struggle, it is acknowledged, even by
opposite parties, that he acted with integrity ; hut,
at the same time, it is admitted, that he was influ-
enced by misguided zeal, and dazzled with the pro-
spect of an imaginary freedom, which the people, for
whom he laboured, were not qualified either to ap-
preciate or to enjoy.

In the assembly of the states-general, which met
in 1789, he was deputy to the tiers etat, was after-
wards chosen president, and held the same conspi-
cuous station when the national assembly was con-
stituted. He warmly supported all the measures of
the popular party, rose high in favour with the
people ; and when the office of mayor of Paris was
revived, he was appointed by acclamation, on the day
after the memorable l-lth of July 1789, when the
Bastile was stormed and taken ; but, in executing
the duties of this high office, the salutary restraints
which he was compelled to employ, in checking the
unbridled fury of a lawless mob, deprived him of his
popularity, and led to his resignation in November

1791.

Declining healtJi obliged him to withdraw from
those tumultuary scenes which were exhibited in the
capital, and to seek retirement and quiet in other
parts of France. In the peaceful retreat which he
Lad chosen, he resumed his literary labours, and was
engaged in drawing up memoirs of the astonishing
fvents which he had witnessed, and in some of which
he had acted so conspicuous a part. But the period
cf proscription approached ; he was denounced as an
enemy to the republic, arraigned before a sanguinary
tribunal, and corideraned to death on the 10th No-
vember 1793 ; and on the succeeding day he was
executed near the spot where, under his authority
as mayor, he had ordered the soldiers to fire on the
mob m July 1791. On the day of execution his
sufferings seemed to be studiously protracted. He
experienced none of that sympathy and compassion
wliich are shewn even to the lowest criminal when
he is about to expiate his offences with his life, but
■was treated by an incensed and barbarous populace
with the most ignominious indignity and cruelty.
Habited in the degrading garb of the red shirt, or
badge of conspiracy, and with his hands tied behind
bis back, he was placed in a cart, and led to the place

54

B AK

of execution in the midst of a torrent of Tain ; the
populace as he passed, spit and threw mud upon him,
and reviled him with the most opprobrious language ;
and when he was ascending the platform, a spectator '
near him insultingly exclaimed, " Bailly, you tremble."
" Yes," he replied, " but not with fear." And thus
unfortunately perished this venerable philosopher, in
the 57th year of his age, deplored and regretted by
the lovers of science and literature, which his ge-
nius and industry had so successfully illustrated amil
adorned.

BAILMENT, a law term, signifying a delivery
of goods in trust, upon a contract expressed or im-
plied, as when money or goods are delivered to a
common carrier to convey from one place to anotlie.'',
he is bound by law either to carry them to the per-
son to whom they are addressed, or to pay the amount
of the value; or if a horse or goods be delivered to
an innkeeper or his servants, he is bound to keep
them safely and to restore them to his guest ; or if a
pawn-broker receive goods as a pledge for the repay-
ment, on a fixed day, of money lent, he is under
contract to return the goods when the pledger per-
forms his part, by redeeming them in due time.
Blackstone s Commentaries.

B AIR AM, the appellation of two festivals which
are observed with great solemnity among the Maho*
metans. The word, which is Turkish, signifies a
Jbast. The Little Bairam is held at the close of the
fast Ramazan, begins with the first full moon in the
following months, and is observed for three days in
Constantinople and throughout Turkey, and in Per-
sia for five or six days. The Great Bairam is a grand
festival kept by the pilgrims at Mecca.

BAKER, Sir llicHAnn, author of various works,
but best known as the writer of the Clironicle of the
Kings of England, was born in 1568, studied at Ox-
ford, discharged the duties of high sheriff of Oxford-
shire, and, through imprudence or misfortune, was
reduced to such poverty tliat his latter days were
passed in the Fleet prison, where he died in 164'5,
and where most of his literary labours were executed ;
but, with the exception of tlie Chronicle of the Kin^s
of England, which has long obtained some degree of
popularity, they have sunk into merited oblivion.

BAKER, Henry, an ingenious naturalist, was
born in London about the beginning of the 18th cen-
tury. Little is known of his early education, but it
appears that he had for some time served as an appren-
tice to a bookseller, and having directed his atten-
tion to study the means of curing stammering, and to
the methods of teaching the deaf and dumb, these
pursuits became his professional employment in the
future part of liis life. What was his success in this
laborious and useful occupation, is not recorded, but
it seems to have been beneficial to himself in increat-
ing his fortune.

By means of the microscope, Mr Baker employed
much of his spare time in examining the habits and
changes of animalcula ; and with the assistance of the
same instrument he studied the crystallization and
configuration of sahne substances. He had courted
the muses in early life, and had made a considerable
collection of objects in natural history ; but his most
valuable works are The Microscope made easy, aud

Builmeat

Baker.

BAK

555

BAL

Sakin;

Bals.

Emphy/iienijbr the Microscope, which may be useful
to those who are engaged in microscopical puisuits.
Mr Baker died in 1774. His wife was the daughter
of the celebrated satirical and political writer, Da-
niel Defoe.

BAKING is the art of preparing bread, or of reduc-
ing meal or flour of grain, or other substances, into
bread. See Bread.

BAKOU, or BAKU, a sea-port town on that part
of the Caspian sea which is included in the territory
tjf Persia, is strongly fortified, and enjoys a consider-
able trade in rock-salt, sulphur, naphtha, cotton, and
saifron, which are produced in the surrounding coun-
try, and are exchanged for wine and silk stuffs. The
approach to the harbour is incommoded with shal-
lows, low islands, and sand-banks, which are com-
mon on the shores of the Caspian.

The everlasting fire and the naphtha springs in the
neighbourhood, have been subjects of wonder to cre-
dulous travellers, some of whom have detailed exag-
gerated accounts of these natural appearances. In
a dry and rocky soil, about ten miles from Bakou, a
sulphureous or bituminous vapour issues from the
oarth, and when set fire to continues to burn for a
long time. The votaries of superstitiori have taken
advantage of this phenomenon, and have erected
temples, in which the Indians perform certain religi-
ous ceremonies. A hollow cane is fixed in the ground
near the altar in one of these temples, and a blue
flame, which, it is said, has burned since the flood,
and will continue to the end of the world, issues from
its upper extremity. The soil is described as a mix-
ture of coarse marl and sand. The chemical reader
will be at no loss to perceive that this inflammable
gas is produced by the decomposition of certain sub-
stances under the surface, and that it is probably the
same with the carbonated hydrogen gas which is ob-
tained from coal for the purpose of lighting streets
and manufactories.

The naphtha springs in the neighbourhood of Ba-
kou, are a copious source of revenue to the khan.
The naphtha, of which the principal spring is in a
small uninhabited island, is of various degrees of con-
sistence ; sometimes it is in a liquid form, when it
boils over and runs in a continued stream, and some-
times solid and black like pitch. If accidentally
kindled, the whole course of the current, as it pro-
ceeds to a great distance in the sea, appears in a
flame. The naphtha is collected in reservoirs, and
it is drawn off from one to another, for the purpose of
purification ; it is conveyed in vessels to different parts
•f Persia, and is employed by the poorer inhabitants
both for light and heat. Springs of hot water are
found in the same vicinity, and are employed both for
bathing and drinking in the cure of various diseases.
The naphtha, taken internally, and used as an exter-
nal application, is also regarded as a sovereign remedy
in a long list of disorders, though it may be justly
doubted whether it penetrates instantaneously into
the blood, as has been asserted. — Hanway's Travels.

BALA, a small town of Merionethshire, in North
Wales, occupies a fine situation at the eastern extre-
jnity of Bala- pool, a lake about four miles long and
J4-4th mile broad, and seems to be of great antiquity,
from the traces of Roman campg observed in its

vicinity. The ial<e which abounds with common Bobnoi
trout, perch, and the gwyniad, a variety of trout ||
peculiar to certain lakes in Britain and S'.Titzer- Balance,
land, is traversed by the river Dee, whose current •^'^V^*^
glides on unmixed with its waters. The inhabitants,
estimated at nearly 15,000, are chiefly employed in
the manufactures of woollen stuffs, gloves, and stock-
ings, and have some trade in fruit, which is an ob-
ject of culture in tlie neighbourhood. The distance
from Welshpool is 26 miles, and 195 miles from
London.

BALAAM, a prophet and diviner of the city of '
Pethor, whose intercourse with Balak, king of the
Moabites, is recorded in the 22d and following chap-
ter of the book of Numbers. This passage of Scripture
has been a fertile subject of discussion among commen-
tators, as whether Balaam should be regarded as a true
prophet or a soothsayer ; whether the incidents were
real, or only an illusion ; and whether it ought to be
interpreted in a literal or allegorical sense. The words
of St Peter support the literal meaning: " The dumb
ass," says the apostle, " speaking with man's voice,
forbade the madness of the prophet. 2 Peter ii. 16.
and in this view it is to be regarded as a miraculous
interposition of heaven. Calmet's Diclionart/.

BALACLAVA, a town of the Crimea in Tartary.
See Crimea.

BALyTiNA, the whale, a genus of cetaceous fishes
See Cetology.

BALAGAT, orBALAGAUT, an extensive pro-
vince of the Mogul empire in India, stretches along
the elevated range of mountains called the Gauts ;
is bounded on the west by Guzerat, and by Visiapour
on the south ; and abounds with cotton, sugar, and
other productions of the warmer regions of the earth.

BALAGAUT Mountains, a mountainous ridge,
which runs nearly the whole length of the In-
dian peninsula, and divides Coromandel from the
Malabar country. A remarkable diversity of cli-
fflate is produced by this elevated region ; and on dif-
fsreiit sides of it, opposite seasons prevail at the same
time. One side enjoys the warm influence of sum-
mer, while the olher is exposed to the severity of win-
ter ; and the tempest rages on one side, while all is
calm and serene on the other.

BALANCE, an instrument for determining tlie
weight of bodies, by comparing them with the known
weight of another body. The construction of this
instrument depends on the principle of the lever ;
and it must be referred to tliat kind of lever in which
the distance between the fulcrum, or point of sup-
port, and the distance between the fulcrum and
weight are the same ; and therefore to bring the in-
strument to an equilibrium, or when it is exactly
balanced, the power and weight must be the same.
The balance is composed of a beam, suspended ex-
actly in the middle ; and from the extremities are
hung two scales for the reception oi' the body to be
weighed, and the weights with which it is to be com-
pared, and the equality of these is known from the
horizontal position of the beam. For the more pre-
cise determination of this position, a slender rod rises
at right angles from the beam ; and when this rod is
exactly perpendicular, the beam is horizontal, and
the weights in the scales are equal. In bidancfis

B AL

556

BAL

Balsnns

Balbcc.

of great nicety and delicacy, tho axJs of tbe beam is
a tiiic steel edge, supported by steel planes ; the beam
is a cylindrical rod; a double cone, the vertex t'orm-
iiig the points from which the scales are su.spended ;
or a frame of a rhoniboidal form ; and tlie horiz(mtal
position of the beam is ascertained by bringing the
extremities of the arms exactly in a line with the ze-
ro points of two ivory scales, fixed within the frame
which incloses balances of this kind.

For the accurate construction of a balance, it may
be observed, that the points of suspension, or tho
points from wliich the scales arc hung, and the cen-
tre of motion, ought to be in the same line ; — the
arms of the balance ought to be precisely of the
same length ; — the centre of gravity of the beam
eught to be a little below the centre of motion ; —
and the bulk of the beam ought not to be greater
than what is consistent with strength.

A balance, materially deficient in accuracy, whe-
ther by accident or design, is easily detected. If the
arms be of unequal length, as in what is properly de-
■ominated the deceitful bulance, the inecjuality may
not be so great as to be perceptible to the eye ; and
when the scales are empty, the beam may remain in
ihe horizontal position ; but the difference may be
such, that nine pounds in the scale attached to the
longer arm may counterbalance ten pounds in the op-
posite scale ; and thus the purchaser of a commodity,
weighed with such a balance, may receive only nine
iitstead often pounds. But by shifting the weights,
and the body to be weighed, the fraud is instantly
«iJbC0vered ; for then the equilibrium no longer re-
mains ; and indeed, wherever suspicion of inaccuracy
exists, this simple test ought to be resorted to. See
Mechanics.

BALANUS, a species of shell-fish, belonging to
, the genus Lepas, and to the order of multivalves.

^See CONCHOLOGY.

" BALASOKE HANDKERCHIEFS, from Ba-
lasore, a town of Hindostan, a cotton fabric in imita-
tion of the Indian manufacture, in which the borders
of the handkerchief are composed of coarser threads,
distributed in dilferent ways, to produce variety in
the pattern ; and with the sacae view coloured threads
are sometimes employed. In other respects this
manufacture is not different from that of plain mus-
lin, excepting that the workman must observe some
precautions in rolling up the cloth, in consequence
of the inequality from tlie coarser yarn of the bor-
der.

BALBEC, a celebrated ancient city of Syria,
stands at the foot of Anti-Libanus, and is said to be
included within a wall four miles in circumference.
The magnificence of the ancient edifices of this city
has been minutely described by dift'ercnt travellers,
and especially the Temple of the Sun, which, from
its scattered fragments and mouldering remains,
seems to have -lieen one of the most splendid monu-
ments of architectural skill and beauty which anti-
quity can boast of. Balbec was visited, in 1751, by
Wood and Dawkins, the former of whom published
an elegant work, consisting of drawings and descrip-
tions, under the title of Ruins of Balbec ; by Bruce
and Volney at later periods; and to those writers

. the reader, who wishes for miuute inioruiatlou, may

be referred. Tlie population, estimated at 5000 in
1751, had dwindled down to I'JOO in 1781-, occasion-
ed, it is supposed, by the desolations of war and
earthquakes. The remaining inhabitants are poor,
and meanly accommodated in miserable hovels, pre-
senting a striking contrast with the wonderful re-
mains of the ancient structures. A little cotton,
some maize, and fruits, are the only objects of their
industry. Commerce, which once flourished, and
manufactures, are now little known. .

BALEAUES INSULT'S, Baleakic Islands, the
ancient name of Majorca and Minorca, in the Medi.
terranean, are supposed to have derived this name
from the skill of the inhabitants in the use of the
sling, and were invaded and conquered by the Ro-
mans. These islands, with some others, constituted
a Roman jirovince.

BALIOL, John, King of Scotland, a name well
known in the history of that kingdom, as the sue*
cessful competitor with Robert Bruce for the throne,
to which he was preferred by the decision ol' Edward
of England, to whose arbitration the rival claims
were submitted. Acknowledging Edward as his
liege lord, Baliol was croyned in I'292, and formally
professed himself a vassal of England. But the in-
terference of the English monarch in the affairs of
Scotland, and the indignities to which the king him-
self was subjected, roused him to resistance, and
cempelled hiin to throw olf his allegiance. Etlward
invaded the kingdom with a powerful army, required
from Baliol the most abject submission, and, having
formally received his resignation of the Scottish
crown, conveyed the degraded monarch in chains to
London. Having obtained his liberty, Baliol retired
to France, lived in the character of a private gentle-
man, and, after some fruitless attempts to recover
the throne, he died in 13H, when he had reached
the fifty-titth year of his age.

BAIylSTES, a genus of fishes belonging to the
order Branchiostegi. See Ichthyology.

BALK, a province of Great Bukharia in Asia,
and also the capital of the same province, which is
supposed to have been the chief city of ancient Bac-
tria, and a place of some note both in ancient and
modern times. In 1221, when it fell into the hands of
Zenghis Khan, who cruellymassacredthe inhabitants,
it was adorned with 1200 temples; and the number of
baths appropriated to the use of strangers and foreign
merchants amounted to 200, from which some esti-
mate may be formed of its extent and population.
Most of the houses are built of brick or stone ; but
some of the public edifices are constructed of marble
from the mountains in the vicinity. Silk stuffs are
manufactured in the city ; and its central position
renders it a convenient place tor tlie trade between
Bukharia and India.

BALLI, or Little Java, one of the Sunda isles,
about 70 miles long and 40 miles broad, is near
the eastern extremity of Java ; is supposed to in-
clude more than half a million of inhabitants, and
abounds in rice, various fruits, and cotton, which is
manufactured into different stuffs, and thus becomes
a commercial commodity, wiiich is exchanged for
the porcelain of China.

BAHiISTA, from the Greek,, and signifying to

BaUol

II

B A L

557

BAM

IWlistie

BmUiV.

shmt or fhrmo, an ancient warlike machine, for dis-
charging-darts, the force of which, if the eft'ect; be
nut exaggerated, was irresistible.

3 AhlASTlC ppnc/u/nm, an ingenious machine in-
vented by Mr Robins, for determining the velocity of
military projectiles, and consequently the force of
gunpowder;

BALLOON, in its general meaning, signifies any
spherical hollow body, as a round glass vessel used
by chemists, a globe on the top of a pillar, and a
kind of bomb constructed of paper or pasteboard and
used in fire-works.

BALLOON, Air. See Aerostation.

BALLOTA, White HonEHouND, a genus of
plants belonging to the class Didynamia.

BALLYCASTLE, a sea-port town of the county
of Antrim in Ireland, is chiefly known for the coale-
ries which have been long wrought in its neighbour-
hood, and is 30 miles distant from the town of Antrim.

B.-^LLYMENA, a town of the county of Antrim
in Ireland, which contains between 2000 and 8000
inhabitants, has a great weekly market for brown li-
nens, horses, and cattle, and is 21 miles distant from
Belfast and 93 miles from Dublin.

BALSAM, a fragrant, resinous, liquid substance,
which exudes spontaneously, or flows by incision
from certain plants. See JNIateria Medica.

BALTIC, an extensive inland sea in the north of
Europe, whose waters wash the shores of Sweden,
Russia, Deninerk, Prussia, and Germany. The pas-
sage into the Baltic from the northern ocean lies be-
tween the 57th and 50th degrees of north latitude,
in a direction to the north-east, where it is called
Skagerak; then to the south, or tha Cattegat; after-
wards to the south-east, through the sound of El-
sineur ; and, last of all, it opens into a wide expanse
to the north-west, and terminates in the gulfs of
Bothnia and Finland; the first stretching eastward
and approaching lake Ladoga, and the extremity of
the last not far distant from the arctic circle. The
length of the Baltic sea, from south west to north-
east, exceeds 600 miles, and the breadth is from 70 to
80 miles. The depth is seldom more than 50 fathoms.

The Baltic is studded with numerous islands, of
which the islands of Aland, Bornholm, Zealand, Ku-
gen, Oeland, Gothland, are the principal ; and many
rivers, soine of them of considerable magnitude, as
the Dwina, the Oder, and the Vistula, discharge their
waters into this sea. A constant current is observed
flowing into the Baltic ; and to counterbalance this
accumulation of waters from the ocean, a subterran-
eous passage has been su|)posed to exist, though it is
probable it may be effected by an under current, as
IS known to be the case at the straits of Gibraltar.
The navigation of the Baltic is interrupted for several
months annually, by the freezing of its waters along
the shores, and'in bays and gulfs ; and in severe win-
ters it is frozen over in some places, and admits of
travelling in carriages.

Stretching along the shores of so many countries,
the Baltic sea aftbrds unlimited facilities to commer-
cial enterprise. The ships of all European nations,
as well as those of America, enter the ports of the
Baltic ; and in return for colonial produce and vari-
ous manufactures, carry off grain, iron, hemp, flax,

tallow, potashes, timber, and other commodities. In Baltimor*
1792, more than 9000 ships passed the sound ; in ||

1802, the numbers exceeded 12,000 ; but it seems to BarJ.^
vary from 8000 to 10,000, and of this number one-
third belongs to Britain.

BALTIMORE, a county in the state of Maryland
in North America, stretches along the bay of Ches-
apeake, which forms its boundary on the south-cast,
the river Patapsco is the southern boundary, and
Pensylvania lies on the north ; is traversed by seve-
ral rivers and arms of the sea, which render com-
mercial intercourse easy and commodious ; and a-
l)ounds with iron ore. The number of inhabitants is
incorrectly stated, in some accounts, at little more
than 25,000, when Baltimore, the most populous
town, is said to contain 30,000, and Annapolis, the
capital of the county, includes 2000.

BALTIMORE, the most populous town in the
county of the same name in the United States of
America, is regarded as the fourth town for magni-
tude in North America, and one of the most flourishing
sea-ports in the States; is commodiously situated on the
north side of the river Patapsco, not far from its influx
into the Chesapeake, possesses one ofthe most spacious
and secure harbours in America, and enjoys all the ad- '
vantages of an extensive inland navigation from rivers
and creeks, which admit vessels nearly 300 miles in-
to the interior of the country. The population in
1791 was stated at 13,000 ; but about ten years after-
wards, if the estimate be correct, it had increased to
30,000 ; a remarkable proof of the growing prospe-
rity of the place. The town stands on two sides of
a creek, over which are erected two bridges to faci-
litate the communication ; and the increase is chief-
ly at a place called Fell's Point, to which large ships-
only, on account of the depth of water, can come.
The trade is very considerable. The public build-
ings are fine structures ; and ten churches, some of"
which are elegant edifices, belong to different deno-
minations of Christians. ;

BAMBERCt, the capital of a bishoprick of the-
same name in Germany, was ceded to Bavaria in
the distribution of the German states during the
French revolution ; occupies a fine situation on the
banks ofthe Rednitz and Maine; is distinguished by
its spacious streets, the elegance of many of the pub-
lic edifices, and the magnificence of the cathedral ;
and numbers about 19,000 inhabitants, who have a
considerable trade in grain, fruits, wine, saUron, and
liquorice, the copious productions of the fertile toil
of the surrounding territory.

BAMBOROUGH. a village and castle on the coast
of Northumberland, in England. See Northum-
berland.

BAMBOUK, a kingdom of western Africa, be-
tween the Senegal and Faleme rivers, is chiefly an
arid and barren region ; but on the banks of the
river the soil is rich and productive. Iron and gold
are said to be abundant ; and rice, honey, and cotton
are enumerated among the productions of Bambouk.
The chief town, which is described as being very po-
pulous, has the same name, and the inhabitants are
negroes.

BAMFF, a town and county of Scotland. See-

BANir.

BAM 558

BiMBiyw BAMrVAN, a cify of Great Bukhftrift, in Tarta-
II ry, occupies a eentrai position in one ofthc liranc-liL's
BamU. of Mount Caucasus, h a place off^reiit antiquity, and
is held in liigli veneration by some of the eastern na-
tions, as is abundantly obvious Crom its pompous de-
sifjnation in the orijjinal, signiiyinj} " most beauti-
ful and excellent city." This remarkable city a))pears
to have been cut out of the solid rock. Twelve thou-
sand apartments or recesses formed in tliis manner,
are spoken of by travellers. Some ot' these excava-
tions are ver3' spacious, and arc supposed to have
been intended for temples ; some of them have been
enriched with paintings, and others are adorned
with sculptured work. Two figures, also cut out of
the rock, of enormous magnitude, with a third, of
emaller size, stand erect in niches, and are supposed
to represent some of the divinities which are the ob-
jects of worship in eastern regions. IJamiyan, in-
deeil, is regarded by some as the metropolis of the
sect of Buddha ; and licnce it may not be impro-
bable, that these extraordinary artihcial excavations
may have been intended for the residence of the
priests and devotees attached to that system of reli-
gion.

Two miles distant from Bami3'an the ruins of an
ancient city are yet visible, whicli, in the expressive
language of the country, is called Gulnlmlch, or cries
of woe, in consequence of the dreadful catastro])hc
which bcfel it in 1'2]5, when it was taken by Zenghis
khan, and the inhabitants of all descriptions, and even
brute animals, were put to the sword. Bamiyan is
ten days journey distant irom Balk and eight from
Gazna. Asiatic Rcscarc/ies, Vol. VI.

BAMPTON, a market town of Devonshire, is si-
tuated on a branch of the river Exe, contains about
1100 inhabitants, who aie chieily employed in the
Kfianufacture of serges, and is distant from Exoter 22
miles, and from I>ondon 1(57 miles.

BANANA TREE, a species of »»(.?« which is cul-
tivated in the West Indies on account of its fruit,
which is employed, as well as the plantain, as a sub-
stitute tor bread.

BANBURY, a town of Oxfordshire in England,
stands on the banks of the Ciicrwell, contains nearly
3000 inhabitants, many of whom are employed in the
manufacture of plush and shag-cloth, and is 22 miles
north from Oxford, and "."j north-west from London,

B.\NCA, an island in the Indian ocean, lies be-
tween Sumatra and Borneo, is separated from Suma-
tra b}' the straits of Banca, is about 100 miles long,
and 30 broad, and is chiefly remarkable for it« tin
mines. Tiie king of Banca, wlio resides in Palam-
bang, in Sumatra, was formerly in alliance with tlie
Dutch, who, in consideration of enabling him, with
the assistance of tlieir troops, to preserve his autlio-
rity and independence, enjoyed an exclusive trade
thi-oughout his territories. The tin mines were dis-
covered abo,ut the beginning of the 18th century, and
it is said that three millions of pounds have been deli-
Tcred annually to the Dutch, by whom great part of
it was sent to the Chinese market, and some of it was
occasionally imported into Holland ; and from this
trade it has been stated that they derived an annual
revenue of L.150,000 Sterling.

BAND A ISLANDS, a cluster of islands in the
Indian ocean, which are sometimes called Spice, or

BAN

Nutmfg island*, in consequence of that TaluabU ipice

being the cliiuf vegetable production See SricK

IsLANPS.

BANDANA, n term recently applied to a very
considerable branch of the cotton maiuifiicture, carri-
ed on principally iu the vicinity of Glasgow, in imita-
tion of a species ofs])Ottedsilk liandkerchiefs, original-
ly brought from Indiu under that name. The Indian
Bandanas have generally one colour for the ground,
such as red, bhie, or orange, and were ornamented
with small spots, sometimes while and sometime*
tinged with yellow, which are disposed in groups si-
milar to the specimen exhibited in I'ig. ii. i'late 26.

History. — The first attem|)t to imitate tlie Indian
Bandana handkerchiefs in this country appears to
have been by tying small pieces of thread round
those spaces of the cloth that were to be preserved
from the colouring matter during the process of dye-
ing. But tliis method being both tedious and clum-
sy, was superseded by a lotber, still in practice, upon
blue grounds, which is, by printing a preventative
))aste upon the cloth, with blocks cut out to the pat-
tern, before it is submitted tw the operation of dye-
ing. As these methods were only practicable when
the dyeing processes were few and sim])le, the former
has been chiefly confined to silk fabrics, though the
latter has been brought to very great perfection on
blue cotton goods, from the facility of dyeing this co-
lour in a cold vat.

But as neither these, nor any other expedients that
have been yet discovered, are adequate to resibl the
processes of dyeing a permanently fixed red upon
cotton grounds, this branch of the manufacture could
never have been atten>pt(!d with any prospect of suc-
cess on any other princqile than first dyeing the cloth,
and afterwards extracting those portions of tlie colour
thai were destined to form the pattern. The circum-
stances whicli led to this discovery may be briefly
stated as follows :

About the year 1 794', after the oxygenated muria-
tic acid had been successfully applied to the art of
bleaching, its property of destroying vegetable co-
lours became pretty generally known, and gave rise

H'vndnnt,

to a new brancn of the cotton manufacture, which
was then known by the name of clouding. 'I'lie pro-
cesses by which this branch were conducted, were,
first by compressing the several portions of the dyed
yarn which were to retain the colour, between two
slips of wood, by means of screws or some other ex-
pedient, and afterwards immersing the whole in the
oxy-nniriatic acid. Those parts, tlicrcfore, which
were exposed to the action of the liquor were
discharged, leaving the colours unimpaired which
were secured between the slips of wood. About
the same period, from the i)roperty of the oxy-
muriatic acid, thickening oils, a kind of paste, »as
discovered, composed chiefly of the oil of tur-
pentine, brought to a proper consistence for work-
mg with printing blocks, which ctt'eclually secur-
ed such colours as were covered with it i'roni the
action of this ncid. This paste was printed upon
cloth which was either wholly or partially fabricated
from coloured yarns, and exposed to tlie action of
the oxy-muriatic acid, by which all those parts of
the colours were exhausted that were not secured
by the paste.

BAK

Torn an ■
F,tiK Hkaof
i'yKhaiTpag of TaffccJHred

If, Aatiag the jcvs UOO awl 1801, Mr BAert

12: PhteaC
I to
beai^ «e aov ande ofcartHMM. A,F%1. Mabed
•f CMt MrtffJ, M wladi na«« t&e tmanScame aC
ca*t4raB B, aod to vliidb it ^tfffti the ondcr irfwt
fwcefie, TariBN-nddlfertoMrlloalaikatBlMi- «. C i* dMtiitf fia«e of cMt-k<w, to »-.«<* the
tpecattom^mmi»,mmitatmeaie*pawiemlMttlM» vapor fi^e c m attached. A honeoMii «kw of dv
iciad,bf ■MmortwopfamoTcappa^vitfesBaM- piiirr, with tfcr prrftrjtfiw thiwieli ■Itin li llw Jii
far of boics (baled tbceegfa tbea i wnyilhi, to duniDg liqaor i* twmwittfd, v gitee m Fig. &.
Ae pHtcn, bjr wfaidk the dEochargiBg ii|Mr WW At /ic a aaaO riei rood tie ofate, to prevot titt
' ihwwigh the doth. Tbew exjfumutts ttqoor frm tiMMg ewr iu edge*. The [iliai me

■"de ofnfftr, birt awce furniwdj of
; to —it aiiji ■aiiiri iliw aattem.

totfaepnfcti— » Bithe pltw, he fwwd thatthe -^T1r ir tn Ir r dki haip if ia igi ii atlj iiii i iht J, juj

vhde fcidrfiito haadfaycUdh. tfrnrTMr * doaai io^Mat

sthetweploteih
apper plate w acreared dom vith tfaftrae

befiHeaaMdedfap^- of Jbareriii-eaMO trtm^, ooalewr loMlem feet

to the goicnl mde wac dw- io^f^ Tbe teijitorMlha applied, ^idaO the coleMr

At iaagth, ia the year ISOe, the aaaK expaaed to iu actka ia paaMg thna^ the pblo^

t Dlnayie faaad ot a athod of taidb- icextneted. >ftrr tfir iirrhiait' " ' i—plHml. lln

AaaaoaaaitappeaDBd Oeljrto dalh ii iaMaediateSr iaaMtaed ia «a«er, to prct»c

of dme haadhtrcfaitA weee the fidnefioabeawamTOdbrthe eanwhagaaii.

of csMC^ to the lityoftheliqaar.

tmOtat iiiiiTiiB.arhe- Pmr rwaamr pMenu. — AhhoagfitheaMdeaf firfht-

III Ihi imlia^ ilallta, ii^t Ihr pii n lali wpwi 1. 1-^ ^-^r'r-g ttt irf «fcf^
aa the fpoto which made the doth two i
■ot •* prated, djred, or ataiaed.' the (
•ftfaelnr. The ■aioti of ihei
lhijiiaMiiliiidit."lhe|

psecer It M piaeen at the
aadtheaoMT nlateia

'iofL^BUOOO~
"Thejii|Biriiiiatolhe
a TdasdbfefaaadhofcaaBBeroe,
tnct

tothedatr." la
lIcarflioMeith.Back;

' ,aadha«epaida4atf afS^p
I the verjr cMaMeaeoMOK or dbe

of

pedy itictched,

be CK'j
be caaipieted.
Jwerajyhni/ to fi>g ffwaa>— It hat I

ths pcatJoree I'lMtHaji to actoae of thcw

to at' j«aaE»,bylhe.peugataMdf,t1iit the hydwtJtifcpieaa

of which «iwyxiKjiij wlapitdtBilai apir/l'iua, IhifeaMMMtia^

■at jt« beta atfed OB ia aaf ofneBaa-

fyaaaiar. Bm daaawodtaiatheMciBityafGteeow.aorwchdfeve

whidt have coatnboted ia aav other place. Fmh a wny little i

OBthedothd
a'dedd. chafgii

of thesr lautioa of the pren, iJae i
Ithedev betwcesAeedeeaof cbsplttcs atOej

paruof thecolMr
Fbte tcjadcdto bepMJUwuL.Owai llw i'

tfst wiaea, thceAatv mA ibemaat ptaoaie oa the !»•
opera- ther aad oAer aeatenals ar whidk this appaealat ii
Ae hfin«e£>c preai haa aat jct bee*
freefeaai ifiiripr to prcaerfe ti«
oT ineuaBe Cv &j fai^ af
be«
toihe
ittoao
e^wdeyearUK^ ajnaaaiiiatirw T^
■The poadpal part af the aary to five tLe wicw a pcspoMkcWtar or latter a

■BOtbei

BAN

5<50

BAN

Bandana, gagcd from the power, to prevent the machinery from
being broken in pieces, have hkewise been urged
against the apphcation of the steam-engine to the
Bandana press ; so that until all these objections can
be satisfactorily removed, tlie present mode of work-
ing these presses by manual labour appears to be the
most eligible.

ChcDiical processes. — Before the discovery of the
oxv-muriate of lime, or common bleachers salt, by
Mi-Tennant of Glasgow, the discharging liquor was
prepared from the blacic oxide of maiifianese and the
muriatic acid. Tlie oxv-muriate of lime has now
been adopted in all our Bandana manufactories. But
it must be observed tiiat the solution of this salt, in
its combined state, acts only as a bleaching liquor,
and requires to be disengaged from the lime, by means
of another acid, before it can be effectually applied
to the discharging of colours. Upon this considera-
tion another metliod of extracting the Turkey-red co-
lour from cloth has been recently invented, and a pa-
tent obtained for it by Messrs Thomson and Chip])en-
<lale, printers in Lancashire The principle on which
their process proceeds is, to print a very strong acid,
•in the consistence of a paste, upon the dyed cloth,
and afterwards exposing the whole piece to the action
-of a solution of oxy-muriate of lime, or the com-
mon bleaching liquor; and whenever the acid and so-
lution unite, the colour is extracted.

B!ue ground We have hitherto directed our at-
tention to that species of Bandanas which is manu-
factured from the Turkey or Adrianople red ; but as
the blue grounds, though now forming a branch of
calico printing, lias an equal claim to Indian extrac-
tion, it may not be improper, under this head, to take
some notice of the processes by which their manu-
facture is conducted. After the cloth has been suffi-
ciently freed from impurities, and whitened, it is put
through the calender, to give it a smooth and evenly
surface. The preventative paste, formerly noticed,
is now printed on with blocks, and when dry the piece
is stretched and folded upon a kind of tenters, fixed
•in a square frame, leaving about an inch and half be-
tween each fold, in order to expose its surface equal-
ly to the colouring matter. The frame is suspended
by a pulley, over a square blue vat, by means of which
it may be raised and lowered during the process of
dyeing. When the cloth has acquired the requisite
shade, the paste is washed oS, and the colour raised
with a little oil of vitriol, (sulphuric acid,) diluted
with water.

Preventative paste In a manufacture of this na-
ture much diversity of opinion will, no doubt, exist,
■with respect to the best composition for these pre-
ventative pastes. The following recipe may afiord
some assistance to those who are inclined to make
experiments of this kind.

Dissolve, in three quarts of water, one pound of
the sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol,) to which add
]|. oz. talltAv, which has been previously melted and
dropt into water ; boil the mixture, thicken it with
■pipe-clay, and boil again for about ten minutes ; then
add a quart of gum licjuor, made in the [)roportion of
■2 lbs. gum Senegal to the gallon of water; let the
whole boil again about ten minutes longer, and then
take it off. When the liquor is cold, add four oimccs

measured, or one quarter of a pint of aquafortis, kil-
led with copper. Some add to this a little verdi-
grease.

B ' NDITTI, derived from the Italian, and signi-
fying prfixri/jed, or outliiwed ])ersonti, is an appella-
tion originally applied to bands of robbers who infest
the highways of Italy and Sicily, but has been ex-
tended to persons of similar cliiu-acter and jiursaits
in other countries, who act in opposition to the laws
«nd regulations of civil society. In Sicily thty have
become so numerous and powerful, and have possess-
ed themselves of such secure places for sheltir and
retreat round the eastern regions of ^tna, that lo
attempts yet made by the police of the country have
succeeded in their suppression or extirpation. On
the contrary, it has been deemed prudent policy ia
the government to connive at their depredations, and
in some measure to consider them under its protec-
tion. "When any of this society are disposed to re-
tire from the mountains and forests, the Prince of
■Villa Franca admits them into his service, treats them
with kindness and confidence, and finds them scrupu-
lous and unshaken in their fidelity. As they are
feared and respected in the country, travellers usu-
ally hire some of them as attendants in going from
place to place, and in this way they are fully protec-
ted from insult and imposition in their intercourse
•with the natives.

BAXDON BRIDGE, a town of the county of
Cork, in Ireland, was begun about the beginning of the
17th century, bythehrstEarl of Cork, in a marshy spot
on the banks of the Bandon, and has risen to such
importance as to contain 12,000 inhabitants, who are
engaged in woollen, linen, and cotton manufactures.
The river Bandon is partly navigable, and discharge*
its waters in the harbour of Kinsale.

BANFF, a county in the nortli of Scotland, which
has the Moray frith for its boundary on the north,
Morayshire on the west, and Aberdeenshire on the
east and south ; is about 55 miles in length and 2.5 ia
breadth, and includes an area of more than 700 square
miles.

Gejieral aspect. — Banffshire presents great inequa-
lity of surface. The inland parts of the county rise
to a considerable elevation above the level of the sea.
Cairngorum, the wide base of which is partly iu
Banff' and partly in Morayshire, is 4050 feet liigh, and
is famous for the smoky rock crystals which are de-
signated by its name ; two other mountains exceed
2000 feet in height; and Cullen-hill, at no great dis-
tance from the sea, is 1100 feet above its surface.
While the summit of Cairngorum is covered with al-
most perpetual snow, the lower regions are clothed
with extensive tracts of pine trees ; and some of the
less elevated mountains are richly adorned with wav-
ing; woods to the very tops. Many of the vallies
spread out into beautiful fiats ; the banks of the rivers
are strikingly romantic ; the sea-coast is chielly bold
and precipitous ; and, on the whole, few places in
Scotland can boast of a larger share of picturesque
scenery.

Rivers. — The Spey, one of the noblest rivers of
Scotland, forms part of the western boundary of the
county, and some of its tributary streams have their
S9urces in the elevated districts. The Deveron on

BanUiti

II

BANDANA MA^VTUFACTURE

PLATE 26.

IVti.2.

Kg. 3.

♦♦V

#•

f^.^.

T^'2,

Jfrmrnjertlkf»uyrt^ffiiA'^A/Ai^7tn>^MknM. ■'/.'. .

jKttf//>nn/ t>y l¥,t- /i. f-tntrs Sttnit'Mi'ff/i .

BAN

561

BAN

BatiK the eastern border of the count)-, is enlarged in its
^sf^J course by the Boyne, the Isla, and other smaller ri-
vers, traverses a fertile and varied district, and ■ is-
charges its accumulated waters into the Moray frith
at the town of Banff.

Natural hidory — The climate of this county is ra-
ther moist, althougli it is not found to be unhealthy.
A light sandy soil prevails in much of the flat grounds
near the sea ; but a deep clay is more predominant
in the more elevated districts.

The mountains of Banffshire are chiefly composed
of granite and other primitive rocks. The beautiful
variety of that rock, called graphic granite, which,
by the distribution of the quartz, one of its consti-
tuent parts, exhibits the appearance of Hebrew cha-
racters, has been long met with in detached blocks,
from which the cabinets of collectors have been sup-
plied with specimens ; but the native repository has
been lately discovered. The cavities of the same
rock are no doubt the original sources of the cairn-
gorum crystals, which are usually dug out of the al-
luvial soil at the bottom and on the sides of the moun-
tains, and afford lucrative employment to many of
the inhabitants. Limestone is abundant in many
places, and marble is not a rare rock. What is called
Portsoy marble, which is the serpentine of naturalists,
ai beautiful mineral substance, much employed for or-
namental purposes, is disposed in strata nearly in a
vertical position, and alternating with marble or lime-
stone at the harbour of Portsoy, from which it de-
rives its name. Sandstone, both red and white, ap-
pears in different places along the shores. Some in-
dications of metallic ores, as those of iron and lead,
have been observed, but they have not been prose-
cuted or wrought. The chief supply of fuel is de-
rived from extensive tracts of peat in the interior dis-
tricts of the county.

Population, towns, SfC. — The population of Banff-
shire was estimated in 1801 at 35,807, and in 1811 at
S6,668. The real rent of the county was stated in
1798 at L.43,490 Sterling. Beside the usual labours
of agriculture, the inhabitants are engaged in the
manufactures of linen and woollen, in bleaching,
tanning, and distilling. The white fisheries along the
shores, and the salmon fisheries at the influx of the
larger rivers into the sea, afford active and profitable
accupation. The salmon-fishing on the Spey some-
times yields an annual revenue of L.6000, and that
of the Deveron at Banff L.2000.

Banff, the capital of the county, and Cullen, which
are royal boroughs, Portsoy, Macduff', Gardenston,
and Troup, are the principal towns and villages.
Cullen, Portsoy, and Macduff', contain each about
1000 inhabitants. Linen and damask manufactures,
with fishing, are the chief occupation of the inhabi-
tants of Cullen. The manufacture of thread and lin-
ens is carried on at Portsoy ; and the fisheries on the
coast, and the digging out and polishing of serpentine,
give employment to another portion of the population.
iSIacdutf, which is at the distance of a mile from Banff,
is also a fishing village, with a pretty good harbour,
and some trade to Leith and London.

Husbandry, Sfc. — The agriculture of Banffshire,
from the nature of the soil and surface, is not conduc-
ted on a large scale. Modern improvements have

TOI.. I. PART II.

not been neglected, and their beneficial effects appear
in the abundance and luxuriance of the cultivated
crops. But a large proportion of the county is better
fitted for the grazing system. Besides domestic con-
sumption, the hilly pastures of Banffshite afford a con-
siderable supply of sheep and cattle to the markets of
the south.

The hand of art has not been slow in improving
the beauties of nature in those places which have
been selected for the residences of some of the great
proprietors in this county. Duff-house, the elegant
mansion of the Earl of Fife, stands in a fine lawn sur-
rounded with extensive plantations, in the vicinity of
Banff; Cullen-house, a seat of the Earl of Findlater,
occupies a romantic and well wooded spot, on the
banks of the river, near the town of Cnllcn ; and the
princely residence of the Duke of Gordon, on the
banks of the Spey, although not included in the
county, is a magnificent ornament to its western
boundary.

Antiquities. — Numerous remains of castles and ba-
ronial residences are still visible in Banll'shire ; and
various places are still commemorated where the Scots
defeated and triumphed over the Danes, longa trouble-
some and active foe on the northern shores of the
kingdom ; but if it be true that the skulls built in the
walls of the old churches of Gamrie and Mortlach,
belonged to their invaders, it must be admitted that
our ancestors have chosen a barbarous and unseemly
monument as a memorial of their victorious struggle.

In the interior districts of Banffshire, the Gaelic as
well as the English language is spoken by the inha-
bitants.

BANFF, the capital of the county of the same
name in Scotland, stands on a declivity on t e wes-
tern bank of the Deveron, and near its influx into
the Moray frith, is a royal borough, and joins with
Cullen, Elgin, Inverury, and Kintorc, in the election
of a member of Parliament. Banff was erected into
a royal borough in 1372; but traditionary history car-
ries back the date of its erection to a remoter period
of antiquity.

The situation of Banff is airy and agreeable. Some
of the public buildhigs lately erected, and the bridge
over the Deveron, are elegant structures. The popu-
lation exceeds 3000. The principal manufactures are
linen, stockings, thread, soap, and candles ; and a
portion of the inhabitants are engaged in brewing,
rope and sail-making, and in the extensive salmon-
fishery at the mouth of the Deveron. The harbour
has been improved. Grain, cheese, and butter, sal-
mon, cod, and ling, are exported, and the imports
consist of all kinds of goods for the supply of the
town and neighbourhood.

An academy, established in 1786, is still ably con-
ducted by proper masters, who instruct the youth
in the knowledge of languages and in the various
practical brancht-s of education. Banff is 165 miles
I'rom Edinburgh.

BANGOR, a small city of Catrnarvonshirc in
North Wales, stands at the head of a hay of the same
name, and near the northern extremity of the straits
of Menai, and is a place of great antiquit}', as ap-
pears I'roni the see I)a\ing been erected in the sixth
century. A single street, not very regular. inclu«ies
4 c

BiiaSr

Mgor.

BAN

.562

BAN

iJangor

Bank.

the wliole population of nearly 2000 ; and from Pen-
rhyu harl)mir, in its vicinity, great quantities of roof-
slate arc exported to London and other places of the
kingdom. Bangor is 250 miles north-west from Lon-
don.

BANGOR, a sea- port town of the county of Down
iu Ireland, stands on the south side of Belfast or Car-
rickfergus lough. The situation is dry and agree-
able ; tlie streets are spacious and clean ; many of
the houses are neatly built, and the harbour admits
onlj' vessels of small size.

BANL\N TREE, the ficus religiosa, Lin. is a sin-
gular vegetable production, which is the object of'
great veneration among the natives of eastern regions,
and hence the origin of the specific name. From the
horizontal branches of this remarkable tree suckers
are sent oft', which stretch toward the earth, strike
' into the soil, and take root, and at last, from one
plant, an extensive grove is produced. In some parts
of India the banian tree may be regarded as a kind
of natural temple.

BANIANS, a religious sect in India, whose belief
in the doctrine of transmigration of souls is so strong,
that they will not destroy any living creature, even
tlic most noxious animals, on any account whatever,
aud are so extremely scrupulous in their intercourse
with persons of any other religious faith, that they
regard themselves as polluted by touching them, or
the vessels they use. The appellation. Banians, is
applied generally to all the idolatrous tribes of India
who are not of the Mahometan persuasion ; but, in a
more restricted sense, it denotes one of the four prin-
cipal Indian casts. The Banians form the class of
merchants, and, consequently, all commercial affairs
are managed by them. They are the brokers and
bankers of India, and are described asafrugal, honest,
and humane people.

BANK, an institution for facilitating commercial
transactions, by affording security for money, issuing
a convenient substitute fbr coin or bullion, and effec-
ting payments of accounts, or settlements of balance,
between parties at a distance. It is a modern inven-
tion, which has had the most important operations on
the interests of the different kingdoms and states
where it has been established, and, consequently,
merits very .particular consideration. The general
principles form a striking feature in commerce, as
now carried on throughout Europe. It is proposed
to give a summary account of some of the most re-
markable examples of the institution.

Bank of Venice. — The first regular bank appears
to have been established at Venice in the middle of
the 12th century, and has served as a model to which,
on the whole, succeeding times have pretty uniformly
adhered. It originated in the embarrassment of the
republic's finances, occasioned by long and expen-
sive wiirs, which required the aid of a Loan from
the subject. The contributors to this expedient be-
came creditors of the state, which was security for the
debt, and engaged to pay an interest of 4 per cent.
per annum. An office was appointed for the regular
discharge of this interest, and the management of
the general fund. This, under various judicious laws,
and sundry modifications of the original plan, con-
stituted the Bank of Venice, which by its good faith,

punctuality, and extensive concerns, attracted uni- Bank,
versal admiration, and conferred the most essential
benefits on Europe. Its prosperity was greatly ow-
ing to an edict of the government, which enjoined
the larger payments of merchants to be made in its
own notes, and required debtors to lodge their mo-
ney in the bank, for which a transference was made
to the amount in the name of the creditor, who wax
paid not in money but in banco, or bank notes, ex-
cept in certain peculiar cases, where coin was needed
for retail, or to be taken abroad. In this way the
wealth of the state flowed into the bank, to be used
as opportunities of profiting itself and benefiting the
community presented.

Bank of Barcelona. — At the distance of nearlj'
three centuries, the magistrates of Barcelona esta-
blished a kind of bank, under the title of " Table of
Excliange," which properly enough indicated its
nature and object. It negociated bills of exchange
as well for foreigners as for natives, and therefore
vastly promoted the interests of commerce. The
city itself was responsible for the validity of this in-
stitution.

Bank of Genoa. — The bank of Genoa commenced
in the beginning of the 15th centuiy, also under the
sanction and with the security of the government. Its
management was generally entrusted to a board of the
citizens, but frequently underwent modifications, to
suit a change of circumstances occurring within half
a century from its origin. Bills of exchange, and
other pecuniary instruments, were become prevalent
throughout the Italian states, chiefly owing to the
revived commerce with the East, and were generally-
transacted in some of the institutions now mentioned.
Bank of Amsterdam, — a remarkable establishment,
bearing a somewhat different character, opened at
Amsterdam in 1609. The extensive, and extending
trade of Holland, in which this city so largely .par-
ticipated, brought immense quantities of foreign,
debased, and injured coin into the market, so as to
perplex and impede mercantile transactions, and
give occasion to various fraudulent and injurious
practices. In order to prevent or remedy these and
other inconveniences, the magistrates, witli the au-
thority of the States, erected a bank-office for the
reception of every kind of coin at its real intrinsic
value, in the standard money of the country, for
which, after a small deduction for defraying the ex-
pence of recoinage and other necessary demands,
they gave credit in their books. They thus declared
themselves the perpetual cashiers of the inhabitants ;
and as, for the more efiectually answering the pur-
poses intended, they required all payments above a
certain sum, and bills of exchange, to be made in the
bank, merchants were necessitated to open accounts
with it, and to use its notes in their ci'.sh transactions.
These notes, or bank receipts, in fact represented
property no less effectually than money, and had the
important advantage of being far less variable in va-
lue, besides being more readily conveyed, and as
capable of transfer. Bank money, therefore, bore a
premium from the commencement, and consequently
few persons cared to ask payment in specie at the
bank, where it was generally believed to bo preserv-
ed to the full amount of current paper. An addi-

BAN

563

BAN

Bank, tional reason for declining such a step, was the cir-
cumstance of a certain proportion of the sura being
demanded as a charge for keeping the money that
had been deposited. The amount of the capital of
this bank was never correctly known. It originally
consisted of the whole coin deposited in it, and
which the bank was bound to restore on demand.
But in process of time, and from various causes of
prosperity, the capital became vastly larger. The
city was security that there should always remain as
much bullion in tlie bank as corresponded to the re-
ceipts issued by it ; and there is every reason to be-
lieve that, amid all the revolutions which occurred in
the government of Amsterdam, tliis condition was
faithfully maintained. Its management was commit-
ted to the four reigning burgomasters, who were
chosen every year. It was their duty, on coming
into office, to visit the treasure, and compare it with
the books ; they received it with oaths, and in the
same manner delivered it over to their successors.
An evidence of the caution and conscientiousness
with which its concerns were conducted, is exhibited
in the fact, of there being no example of accusation
against any of the pai'ties to whom it had been suc-
cessively entrusted, in the course of their political
ascendancy. The city of Amsterdam derived a very
considerable revenue from its bank, but was still
more indebted to it for the promotion of its mercan-
tile interests and its consequence among the com-
mercial states of Europe.

Bank of England. — In the year 1695, a charter of
incorporation was granted by William and Mary of
England, to certain individuals, under the name of
" The Governors and Company of the Bank of Eng-
land," in consideration of a loan of L. 1,200,000 to
government, at the rate of 8 per cent, interest, and
the additional allowance of L.ioOO in lieu of house
expenses.

Original comtitidion.—'The merit of projecting this
stupendous establishment is due to William Pater-
son, a native of Scotland, assisted by Michael God-
frey, a respectable gentleman of London. They ap-
pear to have taken the Bank of Genoa for their mo-
del. The charter, which was granted for twelve
years, debai-red the company from borrowing under
their common seal, without act of Parliament, and al-
so their trading, or suffering any persons to trade for
them, in any goods or mercliandize, but permitted
their dealing in bills of exchange, and trafficking in
bullion and foreign coin. By the constitution of the
company, a governor, deputy-governor, and twenty-
four directors were to be elected from the proprie-
tors annually, for the management of the common
concerns, but not more than two-thirds of the direc-
tors of the former year could be chosen. A requi-
site qualification of a governor was the possession of
L.'l'OOO stock ; and of a director, the half of tliat
quantity ; and the electors were to hold L.500 stock
in order to be entitled to vote at general courts.

Increases its capital. — By an act of Parliament in
the 8th and 9th year of William, the company en-
larged their capital stock toL.2,201,171, lis. Bank
stock was now declared a personal and not a real
estate ; and it was now enacted, that to counterfeit
»r forge the common seal of the bank, or any bank-
2

bill or note, or to alter or erase such, shall be felony
without benefit of clergy. The advantages which
this establishment conferred on tiie community, and
the support it was capable of rendering to the govern-
ment, seemed to entitle it to every encouragement
and protection which the laws could effect. The ca-
pital was doubled in the 7th of Queen Anne, when
the company advanced L.400,000 more to the go-
vernment; and in 1714 a farther advance was made
of L. 1,500,000. In the 3d year of George I. the
bank agreed to cancel L. 2,000,000 of exchequer
bills, which made the total advance to government
amount to L 5,375,027, 17s. lO^d. ; the interest oi\
the capital stock was now reduced to five per cent ;
and it was permitted to the bank to call Irom its pro-
prietors such sums of money as a general court
should think necessary, in proportion to their inte-
rests, under certain penalties on non-compliance.
The interest on the last L.2,000,000 lent to govern-
ment was afterwards reduced to four per cent.

By the year 174'6, the bank had advanced to the
government, on various occasions, L. 1 1 ,686,800,
which formed its undivided capital, while its divid-
ed capital, which had been accumulating by several
calls and subscriptions, amounted to L. 10,780,000.

Re?ieivs its charter. — Loans. — In consideration of the
renewal of its charter the bank agreed, in HG^, to pay
government L.l 10,000, and to advance L.l ,000,000 on
exchequer bills, to be returned in 1766. The charter
was accordingly extended to August 1786, and the in-
terest on the stock was raised. A farther extension of
the charter to August 1812, was afterwards obtain-
ed by an advance of L.2,000,000 on exchequer
bills, at three per cent. In order to effect this ad-
vance, a call was made on the proprietors of eight
per cent, on the capital stock, which was, there-
fore, increased to L 11 ,64'2,40O, the dividend being
at the same time raised to six per cent. Tfle total
advances to government, on the security of certain
taxes and duties, and exchequer and treasury bills,
amounted, in 1782, to L.9,991,678, which was redu-
ced in 1786 to L.6,631',872. Comparatively small,
though frequent, fluctuations took place between this
period and 1800, when, in consideration of a farther
renewal of the charter to 1 835, the bank agreed to
advance the sum of Ii.3,000,000 for the public ser-
vice, free of interest, during six years. On th' ex-
piry of this term in 1806, it was at last determined
that this loan should be prolonged during tlie war, at
an interest of 3 per cent. This was certainly an ac-
commodation to the public ; but in the following year
the chancellor of the Exchequer thought himself en-
titled to some farther compensation for the profits
made by the bank on the sums of public money
then deposited in it, and which amounted to nearly
L12,000,000. Another loan was accordingly grant-
ed of L.3,000,000, free of interest, until six months
after the conclusion of a definitive treaty of peace.
Both these loans becoming due in 1811, that of 1806
was liquidated, but the other was renewed till April
1816. A new arrangement was then made, by which
this was prolonged at 3 per cent, interest, in return
for permission to add L.2,910,G00 to the bank capital.
Government was farther accommodated at the same
time by an advuncp of L.6,O0O.0OO, at the rate of I'

Bank.

BAN 504 BAN

Baak. per cent. In this manner the debt of the public to durmg the last warf, is imagined, on good grounds'

the Bank of England has accumulated to the enor- to have yielded about 25 millions of profit in less

mous sum of L.20,686,800. than twenty years. The dividend on the shares has

Circulation. — Tlie circulation of Bank of England consequently improved, and there has been a corres-

notes has progressively increased in successive pe- ponding rise in the value of its stock. Thus, in 1797,

riods from the year 1718, but not in consecutive bank stock was averaged at about 1^,125 per cent.

years. This is proved by accounts laid before Par- virhereas at present (1817) its market price is more

liament, from wliicli some particulars may be extrac- than double that sum.

ted, illustrative of the growing prosperity of this in- Saspcnsioti of cash payments. — The alarm of the
Btitution. country in 1793, had an injurious effect on public
In 1718 the amount of notes issued, which were all credit. Specie became scarce, paper-money was de-
fer L,5 and upwards, was L.1,829,9S0. In 1754, prcciated ; the bank, unusually called on to answer its
iiicluding bank post-bills, the circulation amounted current notes, thought it necessary to refuse assist-
to L.3,975,870. In 1778 it was very nearly double ance to the mercantile community, and, on the same
this SUIT, being L.7,540,070; but it fell somewhat principle, scrupled to increase its issue of paper,
.short of this in 1783 and 1784. In 1791 it reached The consequences were, a general deficiency of mo-
L.10,689,510, and increased in the two following ney, and the prevalence of bankruptcies. Parlia-
years. Then there took place a gradual diminution ment came forward to the relief of the commercial
for four years, so that the aniount in 1797 was only public, by the offer of a loan to a large amount, in
L.9,204',.500. During the next year, in which notes the form of exchequer bills, which had the most salu-
under L.5 were issued, in addition to those for larger tary effects. Confidence was restored, money circu-
sums, as formerly used, the amount was I<.10,778,120. lated freely, and a state of comparative prosperity en-
A rapid augmentation followed till the year 1802, sued till 1795. The bank then became less liberal
when the circulation was L.16,24;4',115. The next in discounting bills, in consideration of the large ad-
year displays a falling off, the amount being only vances made to government. A similar effect t»
L.14',971,170. The fluctuating, but remarkable in- what had been before experienced was the result ;
crease for the last eleven years will be seen from the and this wasvastly'aggravated in the following year, by
fel!o^ving table : the apprehension of invasion, which induced a rapid

and large demand for specie at the bank, in place of its

Tear. Amount, notes, now considerably discredited, and justly thought

1806 L.1G,4'32,380 useless, in the event of such an apprehension bemg

1807 16,035,950 realised. The bank, in order to remedy or prevent

1808 16,919,275 the excessive drain of its coffers, diminished its cir-

1809 18,105,855 culation. This augmented the distress, and ultimate-

1810 19,452,930 ly even quickened the demand for specie. In these

1811 21,781,380 circumstances, and fearing the exhaustion of their

1812 23,881,710 coin, the directors held communication with the mi-

1813 23,686,105 nister, the result of which was an order in council,

1814..-. 25,517,550 dated on Sunday, the 26th February 1797, to suspend

1815 26,803,526 the payment in specie, which was soon afterwards

1816 26,594,360 confirmed by an act of Parliament, and has since

been renewed till 1818. The utmost surprise and a-

Prqfits. — The profits of the Bank of England arise larm followed this memorable event, which, however,

from various sources, of which the chief are : the in- after very serious discussion, received a parliamentary

terest paid by government for the loan of money ; justification. Some other steps were aflerwards re-

the allowance made for managing the public debt, quired to give full effect to this suspension; of these,

which, in 1726, was L,360^er million, increased af- the most important was an act rendering Bank of

tcrwards to L.562, 10s. but reduced, in 1786, to England notes a legal tender in payment of debts.

L.450, at which it continued till 1807, when it was The public got gradually accustomed to this new

farther reduced to L.340 per million, on the first six system, and for several years transacted business

hujidred millions of debt, and to L.300 per million on with very little aid from the precious metals.

the excess above that sum ; the allowance for re- Batiks in Scotland. — The Bank of Scotland was es-

cciving contributions to loans, and paying dividends tablished within a year after the Bank of England,

on tlie public funds, the former being L.800 per and on the suggestion of the same individual. Its

million ; an allowance on every lottery contract of original capital was L. 100,000 Sterling. The affairs

LIOOO; an allowance for advances on exchequer are managed by a governor, deputy, twelve ordinary,

bills, or accommodating government with tempo- and twelve extraordinary directors, elected annually,

rary sums on security, or in anticipation of the pro- It has many branches in the coutitry towns, end is

ceeds of taxes ; the interest of stock held by the understood to have proved a pro'pcrous concern,

company in any of the public funds ; the purchase The Royal Bank of Scotland, which was not esta-

and sale of such property as the law allows; and the blished till 1727, is conducted on similar princi-

discounts on bills of exchange, and the vast circula- pies.

lion of its notes, especially since the suspension of There are few large towns in England or Scotland

cash payments in 1797, to be immediately explained, in which banks are not establijhed, on the security

The increased operation of some of those causes, of individuals or companies. These generally dis-

Bauli.

BAN

5C5

BAN

Ojnk. count promissory notes, and in many instances issue
^V'^' notes of tlieir own, besides undertaking the more com-
mon, but liighly beneficial business, of negociating
accounts, by t!ie purchase and sale of bills, and the
reception and transmission of money.

Cash Accounts. — A peculiarity in several of the
Scotch banks has greatly contributed to succour the
industry and spirit of entcrpriEe in the people. This
is the system of cash accounts, which are powers
granted to individuals, or companies, on security of
sufficient persons, to draw out money to a certain a-
mount, at the rate of five per cent, to be afterwards
returned ov accounted for, at an agreed on time of
balancing. Such accommodation is equivalent to the
occasional loan of money, and enables those who
have no capital of their own to engage in extensive
and profitable concerns. The banks themselves are
benefited by it, by the circulation of their notes, in
addition to the interest for money advanced ; farther,
it is believed they hr.ve rarely been injured even by
the failure of the party, as according to the bearing
of the bond, whicli specifies the nature of the tran-
saction, all the persons who sign it are conjointly and
separately responsible to the full amount of the sum
drawn. These persons are generally known by the
name of cautioners, and are usually two or three in
number, the friends of the party obliged, and of ap-
proved respectability and substance.

Bank of Ireland. — The Bank of Ireland was esta-
blished in 1783, with a capital of L.600,000, which
was given to government in loan at 4 jier cent. There
was nothing peculiar in its manageanent. Its charter
was renewed in 1809, on conditions of its adding to its
capital one million of stock, to be raised by a contri-
bution from the proprietors at the rate oi'L.VlSpercent.
and disposedof to government in loan at Sjier cent, and
its engaging to manage the public debts and loans free
of charge to government. Something like this last
service has been suggested, it may be mentioned, as
due by the Bank of England, in return for the pro-
fits on the public funds committed to it, and the ba-
lances remaining with it, which are said to have been
sometimes to a great amount. The bank of the Unit-
ed States is understood to act on this principle,
and to charge nothing to government fer managing
the public debts ; and it was lately mentioned, (Fe-
bruary 1817), in the House of Commons, by Mr
Grenfell, to whom the country is much indebted for
l>is labours to bring the whole subject of the Bank of
England before the public, that the Globe Insurance
Company had, in reality, offered to ease the govern-
ment of this expence. In times of distress, like the
present. Parliament may be expected to devise some
means for accomplishing so desirable a saving. But,
to return.

The suspension of cash payment in 1797 extended
to Ireland, after which its bank circulation so large-
ly increased as to produce a rise in the price of bul-
lion, and a depression in the value of paper money.
Serious inconveniences were the result, till within
these few years, in consequence of interference on
the part of the legislature to check an exorbitant
issue of private notes for small sums, and other evils,
bank paper has been restored to its credit. The price

of Irit^li bank- stock has been on the rise for the last BanJ..
twenty years.

Some particulars, in the history of the two French
banks, deserve to be recorded.

First bank of France. — The first, which was pro-
jected by the famous JohnXaw of Lauriston, in Scot-
land, was opened at Paris in 1716. Its objects, ac-
cording to that singular man, were most beneficial ;
" to increase the quantity of circulating coin, check
the progress of usury, promote the exchange between
the metropolis and the provinces, allow foreign-
ers an opportunity of acquiring funds in the kingdom,
and enable the people to pay the heavy taxes impo-
sed on them ;" its general plan and arrangement»i
were certainly judicious and commendable. The ori-
ginal stock might amount to L.300,000 Sterling, of
which Law and his brother William were the prin-
cipal proprietors. The only recompense he requir-
ed for the benefits thus promised, was the privilege of
managing tiie bank for twenty years, and permission
to reckon by bank-crowns in all his transactions, as
always of one vreight and denomination, and conse-
quently not liable to fluctuation in value. This last
condition was asserted to be essential, in order to
acquire the confidence both of natives and foreigner?.
The project had a flattering aspect, and obtained thft
sanction of government. Its immediate effects were
most agreeable. Exchange with Holland and Eng-
land rose in favour of Paris ; at the general meetihg
of the proprietors in December 1717, a dividend wa?
ordered at 7| per cent, and bank-bills continued ttf
rise in value ; whereas the state bills and bonds which
had been given as security fer debts contracted iu
the last years of Louis XIV. were declining.

Anquetil, who writes memoirs of the reign of that
monarch, and the regency of the duke of Orleans,
relates some curious circumstances respecting the
early history of this bank, and the kind of traffic or
gambling to which it gave rise. In addition to se-
veral grievances, the consequence of imprudent po-
licy about this period, many families sustained loss
by the depreciation of the state bills. According to
him sixty-eight and a half was at one time lost on
securities, while bank-bills rose 15 per cent. The
treasurer received the former at 31 1 per cent, and
delivered in payment the latter at 115. In this man-
ner the public debts were discharged for a trifle, and
the government carried on a gainful trade in paying
them, though to the ruin of individuals, who were in
fact pillaged of two-thirds of their property.

The anxiety to get rid of the discredited state-bills
was vastly enhanced by a notion which was diligently
propagated, that they would constantly fall in value
till they were worth nolliing ; whereas on the con-
trarj', the bank, supported as it was by a paiticipation
in the Mississijjpi trade and other extraordinary ad-
vantages, was sure to succeed, and materially enrich
these who were concerned in it. A set of stock-job-
bers new arose, who availed themselves of the oc-
casional fluctuations between the tv/o securities.
When the state-bills fell low, these speculators pur-
chased them in hopes of their rising, and immediate-
ly on their doing so, to however inconsiderable an
amount, sold them for bank-bills. On the other hand,

BAN

566

BAN

Ti^lt. when tl»e latter appeared to be eitlier stationai-y or
to fall, these persons affected eagerness to possess
government security ; by which stratagem they were
enabled to buy bank-stock at an under rate, though
they were well aware that its credit would be speedi-
ly restored. Such alternations would often occur in
the course of one day, and appear to have been skilful-
ly managed. Law himself was not tlie least dexterous
operator in these times, and in a short period amass-
ed immense wealth, which naturally excited suspi-
cion and jealousy. But he had a good friend in the
regent, who protected him for some time against the
decree of Parliajnent for his arrest.

When bank-bills became at lengtli in less request,
this ingenious projector invented a new expedient
to raise their value. This was contriving to make
money fall in value, by supporting the bank-crown
at its original value. People were consequently in-
duced to carry the former to the bank, in order to re-
eeive its bills in exchange, which were subject to no
fluctuation. Government had by this time identi-
fied itself with the bank, and appears to have taken
little care to obviate the serious and fraudulent mea-
sures by which its interests were attempted to be
promoted.

All ranks of people were now seized with a kind of
madness at sight of the immense fortunes which had
been almost instantly made in the bank transactions.
An individual commencing with a state-bill, was
sometimes known, by exchanging it for silver, and
that again for other bills, to realize some millions
of livres in a few weeks. One street in Paris became
noted as the resort of these traders, and the theatre
of their operations. It was constantly thronged in
such a manner, that several persons were crushed
to death. But this calamity did not deter others,
as any one who got firm footing in it was almost
certain of making his fortune. Among the singular
instances of this kind which occurred, is mentioned
the fact of a certain deformed man, who in a short
time gained more than 50,000 livres, by offering the
hump on his back as a desk to such persons as had
writings to sign !

But these favourable revolutions were the lot of
comparatively few individuals. The general result
nas calamitous in the extreme. Trade and social in-
tercourse ceased, the attention of every one being en-
gaged to the price and variation of stocks ; the hope
of success dissolved every tie of honour, generosity,
and friendship ; the most sacred bonds of morality
were completely broken ; suicide, assassination, and
all the crimes which avarice excites, followed in a
train, and completed the catalogue of misery. An
edict of the government on the 21st May 1720, re-
ducing the bank-stock to one-half, interrupted the
dream of opulence in which the public had indulged.
This was said to have become necessary in conse-
quence of the issue of paper much beyond what the
bank could pay. It gave the death-blow to the whole
system which Law had been erecting on the cupidity
and ambition of the people. Notes fell in value, in
spite of all the suggestions of his genius, and the in-
fluence of the regent's authority. Before the con-
clusiou of the year, the bubble had entirely broken,

and Law liimself, narrowly escaping the violence of Baalmpto;.
the populace, sought safety in flight.

Second bank of Frame. — The New Bank of France
was erected in 180;^, on the consolidation of different
banks, by an act of the government, which fixed its
capital at something short of two millions Sterling,
divided into 45,000 shares. The regulations for its
management deserve every praise ; and its prosperi-
ty, notwithstanding the critical condition in which
this country has been frequently placed since its
establishment, is the best criterion of the judgment
and prudence displayed in its constitution. But it
has necessarily met with difficulties.

A run was made on it for specie in 1805 and 1806,
which at last occasioned it to suspend its cash-pay-
ments. In this last year a change took place in its
administration, and its capital was doubled. The pro-
fitable disposal oi' the new shares, enabled it to reco-
ver and .augment its operations.

The invasion of 1814 was a serious trial of ita
strength, as an immediate drain of its coin commen-
ced. In the month of January of this year, it found
it necessary to limit, though not to cease the payment
in specie ; and in the following month it was enabled
to resume the issue of cash in full on demand, thougb
the emergencies of the state, as is well known, were
mightily magnified. The invasion which again took
place in 1815, did not suspend cash-payments for •
single day. So much for the fidelity of this estab-
lishment, in circumstances not to be parallelled in the
history of any other country.

Banks of America. — The chief bank in America is
that of the United States, established, in 1791, on a
capital of ten millions of dollars. We know not any
peculiarities in its constitution or history which men*
notice. A new bank has lately been proposed atPTii-
ladelphia, in order to obviate the inconvenience ex-
perienced in that country from want of a uniform
currency. Congress has given it encouragement, and
the necessary capital has been subscribed for ; a-
pretty general conviction of its necessity, and the
commercial intelligence and ardour of the people, are
the best guarantee of its benefits.

B ANKRUPTC Y,a state of insolvency, or the state
of a trader's affairs when he is unable to discharge the
just demands that are made upon him. In the early
ages of society the laws and regulations of most state*
relative to insolvent persons, were severe and oppres-
sive. Whatever might be the cause of his insolven-
cy, whether from unavoidable misfortune, or culpable
negligence in the management of his affairs, the deb-
tor was regarded as a criminal, and the interest of
the creditor only was consulted. But in the progress
of civilization, and the extension of commercial af-
fairs, the statutes and enactments on this subject took
a wider range, and while the advantage of the credi-
tor was not overlooked, the character and feelings of
the unfortunate debtor were duly considered. The
great object of the bankrupt laws of this country is
to throw the whole property of the insolvent person
into one fund for the benefit of his creditors, and to
distribute this common fund by the most economical
and speedy process, as tar as it will go, in discharging
the debts. The satne general principles pervade tlie

BAN

567

BAG

bankrupt laws of Scotland and England, but in many
of the details and minuter parts the difference is con-
siderable.

Bankrupt lain of England. — According to the
bankrupt law of England, traders only are subject to
its operation. Persons of every other description are
liable to the common law, and their effects may be at-
tached by individual creditors. The marks of insol-
vency, or bankruptcy, are defined by the statute ; as,
when the debtor is inaccessible to his creditors, and
cannot be seen or spoken to by them. The commis-
sion of any of the acts enumerated in the statute en-
titles a creditor, to a certain extent, to apply to the
Lord Chancellor for a commission of bankruptcy.
By this deed the estate of the insolvent person is
vested in certain commissioners. As it may be grant-
ed without the bankrupt's knowledge, certain pre-
cautions must be observed to prevent improper and
malicious applications.

It is the business of the commissioners to take proof
of the bankruptcy, and of the debtor's being a trader,
and to appoint three meetings by public advertise-
ment. At these meetings the debts are proved, as-
signees are chosen, and the bankrupt must surrender
himself, and, under pain of death, conform to the
statutes. The bankrupt, and those connected with
him, are to be examined by the commissioners on the
state of his aftairs ; and if their answers appear to be
ambiguous or evasive, the commissioners have the
power of committing them to prison till they give a
satisfactory explanation.

The estate of the bankrupt is now vested in the as-
signees, and when they have recovered all they can,
they are required, after four months, and within
twelve, to give notice of a meeting for a dividend,
which the commissioners then direct to be made.
Within eighteen months from the time of issuing the
commission, a second and final dividend is ordered ;
and the surplus funds, after payment of the debts,
belong to the bankrupt.

The bankrupt having conformed in all respects to
the statutes, and the creditors, or four-fifths of them
in number and value, having signed a certificate to
that purpose, the commissioners are required to tran-
smit it to the Lord Chancellor, who, upon a declara-
tion on oath by the bankrupt that it was obtained
without fraudulent means, may either allow the
same or disallow it on cause being shewn by any of
the creditors. If it be allowed, the bankrupt is en-
titled to a certain portion of his etl'ects to assist him
in recommencing business. The amount of this al-
lowance is proportioned to the dividend on his estate,
but it must never exceed L.300. By the certificate
the bankrupt is also relieved from all claims for any
debts whicli were either proved or might have been
proved under the commission. — Cooke on the Bankrupt
Law of England.

Bankrupt Laxo of Scotland, — By the bankrupt law
of Scotland, all persons who are engaged in trade for
themselves, or as agents or factors for others, or all
persons who are capable of entering into trade, are
liable to the process of sequestration. But holders of
India stock, or stock in any chartered bank, in the
Friendly Insurance Company, the Forth and Clyde,
or other inland navigation, or in the British Fisheries,

labourers who work for hire, landholders, and hus - Bankruptcy,
bandmen, are excepted ; and a foreigner who has >^^v^^
traded to Scotland, or a Scotsman domiciled abroad,
is not subject to sequestration.

The assent, or acknowledgment of the insolvency
by the debtor himself, is admitted as a proof of bank-
ruptcy, and supersedes other evidence. But without
this concurrence certain previous processes are ne-
cessary, and the creditor, before sequestration can
be granted, must shew that such have been pursued ;
as diligence by horning and caption for debt, im-
prisonment, retiring to a sanctuarj', or absconding,
or defending his person by force ; or being out of
Scotland, and not liable to be imprisoned, by reason
of privilege or personal protection, and at the same
time under diligence by charge of horning, attended
with arrestment, or poinding any part of his move-
ables ; or decree of adjudication for any pai-t of Jiis
estate, either for payment or security of debt, at the
instance of a creditor.

A person being bankrupt, one creditor to tlie a-
mount of L.lOO, or two creditors to the amount of
L.150, or three or more to the amount of L.'iOO,
either with or without the concurrence of the bank-
rupt, may apply for a sequestration to the Court of
Session by summary petition. With the concurrence
of the bankrupt, sequestration is immediately grant-
ed ; but if this assent be refused, he is served with
the petition, and if he decline to appear, the seque-
stration is allowed. The creditors are appointed to
meet, and choose an interim factor for the manage-
ment of the estate, and at the second meeting to no-
minate a trustee. The factor takes possession of the
whole estate of the bankrupt, and the latter is bound
to grant powers of attorney to recover any effects he
may have abroad. The second meeting appointed
by the Court must take place within six weeks, and
not less than four weeks from the first deliverance on
the petition ; and at this meeting the creditors must
produce the grounds of debt, with affidavits or oaths
of verity ; and at the same meeting the trustee is to
be chosen by a majority of the creditors in number
and value ; the bankrupt must exhibit a state of his
affairs, and the interim factor must present an ac-
count of his management.

The trustee having given security to the creditors
for his faithful management, is confirmed in his ap-
pointment by the Court, and has the whole estate
vested in him for behoof of the creditors. Within
eight days of his nomination, the trustee must apply
to the sheriff to fix two days for the examination of
the bankrupt, and, if necessary, those concerned or
connected with him. After the last examination, a ge-
neral meeting of the creditors is held, at which three
commissioners are chosen to superintend the manage-
ment of the trustee.

The trustee is bound to keep regular account?,
and to lodge the money recovered in a bank ; and at
the end of twelve months a dividend shall take place
to those creditors who have established their debts ;
at the end of eighteen months a second dividend,
and at the end of every six months till the whole funds
are paid up. But at the end of eighteen months from
the sequestration, four-fifths of the creditors may
order the whole concern to be brought to a close, by

BAN

568

BAN

Siskcn^ry. the sale of the outstanding debts, and making a final
>.^'V^^ division.

With concurrence of the trustee and four-fifths of
the creditors, the bankrupt may apply to the Court,
after the second dividend, for a final discharge of all
debts contracted before the sequestration ; and if no '
valid objection be olFered, such discharge is granted.
After the second examination, the bankrupt lias it in
his power, by the statute, to offer a composition ; and
if this offer sliail be approved by nine-tenths of the
creditors, another meeting is called to consider it ;
and if nine-tenths still appr<ne, and tlie Court, to
whom the report is presented, pronounce it reason-
able, the proceedings in the sequestration are closed,
and the bankrupt is discharged, on giving satisfactory
security for the payment of the composition. — Such
were the general enactments of tlie bankrupt law of
Scotland previously to 1816, when some alterations
were introduced by an act of Parliament passed in
that 5'car, of which the following is a sketch,

1st, Trustees who fail to deposit the funds in bank,
in violation of the act, are in future to forfeit to the
estate a penalty of 20 per cent, on the amount, in-
stead of 7 J per cent, as was provided by the former
act.

2d, The funds of the estate are not to be deposit-
ed in any bank where the factor or trustee shall be
an acting partner, manager, or cashier.

3d, The commissioners are to meet periodically,
(once in three months at least,) to examine the
trustee's accounts, and to see that the funds are duly
deposited in the bank, and that none are drawn out
•f it but for the purposes of the estate.

^ith, -Previously to the meeting when the commis-
sioners are chosen, and when a composition may be
•ffered, the trustee is to make out a full state of the
bankrupt's affairs, with a valuation or appraisement
of what the estate is worth, that the creditors may
be enabled to judge of the fairness of the offer.

5th, The commissioners may at any time make out
reports to the creditors, that they may know how
the aftairs are managed by the trustee.

6tJi, Notice of the bankruptcy — of the meetings
for electing factor and trustee — of compositions —
•f the payments of dividends — and of the trustees
application for a discharge, are to be inserted both
in the Edinburgh and London Gazette.

7th, Printed notices are to be sent to every credi-
tor who has claimed, of the payment of dividends and
of the offer of a composition.

8th, Creditors who hold securities are to deduct
their value in voting, and only to vote on the balance
of their debt so far as uncovered.

9th, The trustee is not to be discharged by the
court, without first calling a general meeting of the
creditors, and having liis accounts audited.

lOlh, At the end of three years the trustee is to
make up a state of the affairs (if not wound up be-
fore), and Talso of the unclaimed dividends, and to
call a general meeting of the creditors to receive in-
structions as to the final close of the sequestration.

l\th, A printed report of the affairs is to be made
out at the close of the sequestration, and distributed
to the creditors for their satisfaction.

lith, Current Kcquestrgtions are to be proceeded m

according to this act, so far as it does not interfere Banksli
with the proceedings already had ; so that any se- ||

questration which lias been pending for above three Bantry-Bay
years may now be brought to a conclusion, and all -^^v^*^
unclaimed dividends accounted for to the creditors.

ISth, The factor, commissioners, and trustee, are
appointed by the creditors, as by the former act ;
and the duration of the law is for seven years.

BANK, SAVINGS, an institution which has been
recently established in various parts of Britain, for
the purpose of affording interest for small sums of
money, which could not be conveniently deposited in
banks according to the ordinary method of transac-
ting their business. — See Institution, Economi-
cal,

BANKSIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Tetrandria class, and intended to commemorate the
name of Sir Joseph Banks, in consideration of his
exertions in promoting natural knowledge.

BANNERETS, an order of knights, who led
their vassals to battle undor their own flag or ban-
ner, by which they were distinguished from knights
bachelors, who fought under the banner of another.
The name is derived from banner, which signifies a
square flag ; for when this honour was conferred, the
knight approached the monarch with his pennon ia
his hand, and, having reached the royal presence,
the king commanded the ends of the pennon to be
cut off, so that it was converted into a square flag or
banner. Knights-bannerets were next in dignity to
barons ; the honour was usually conferred on the
field of battle as the reward of personal bravery, but
it was not hereditary. Sir John Smith, who rescued .

the royal standard from the rebels, was invested with
this honour by Charles I. after the battle of Edgehill,
and he is said to be the last who was formally creat-
ed a knight-banneret ; but after the battle of Cam-
perdown, so glorious to the British fleet, under Lord
Duncan, his Majesty's intention of conferring that
honour on his lordship's flag-captain, and another
officer, on board their own ships, when the fleet ar-
rived in the mouth of the Thames, was frustrated by
indisposition ; but though the formal investment did
not take place, the title and honours were granted
and enjoyed by the individuals for whom they were
intended.

BANTAM, a sea-port town of the island of Java
in the East Indies, the capital of a kingdom of the
same name, and a place of considerable trade before
it was monopolized by the Dutch. Pepper was the
chief commodity of this trade, and it is said that the
annual exportation amounted to three millions of
pounds. See Java.

BANTRY bay, called also Beerhaven, a spa-
cious bay in the county of Cork, and on the south-
west coast ot Ireland, is aboit twenty-five miles long,
and varies in breadth from three to five miles, and is
capable of admitting and affording shelter and safe
anchorage to any number or magnitude of ships. Ia
1689, the French fleet which brought arms and ammu-
nition to James II. was attacked in this bay by the Bri-
tish admiral, and, in 1796, a French fleet arrived in it
with troops for the purpose of invading Ireland ; but
being either disappointed of co-operation, and thus
discouraged to mak? the attempt, or being disabled by

BAP

569

BAP

laxyaa tree *''® storms which they had experienced in the pas-

11 sage, tiie fleet soon after left the coast.
Baptistery. BANYAN TREE. Sec Banian.

BAOBAB, the trivial name of the African cala-
bash tree, a species of Adansonia in the Linnean
classification. The trunk of the tree, which rarely
exceeds 12 feet in height, acquires an immense thick-
ness ; the branches extend horizontally, or rather in
a pendent form to a great distance, and become a
close mass of foliage not less than 100 feet in dia-
meter.

BAPTISM, from the Greek, and signifying dip-
ping in water, is the rite or sacrament by which' a
person is admitted a member of the Christian church.
Various opinions have been held concerning the ori-
gin of baptism, whether it is to be sought for among
the Jewish ceremonies, or commenced with the mis-
sion of John the Baptist, — of the manner in which it
ought to be practised, whether by immersion, as is
supposed to Iiave been the case in the time of the
apostles, or by sprinkling, the mode adopted by ma-
ny churches, — of the end and design of baptism, —
of the time and place of performing this religious
rite,— and of the proper jubjects to whom it ought to
be administered, whether infants ought to be admit-
ted, or persons only who are capable of understand-
ing its meaning and objects. The ceremony of bap-
tism is regarded by some sects of Christians as form-
ing no part of the religious ordinances of the gospd.
The Quakers maintain, that it was intended for the
Jews on account of their prejudices, or, having a re-
ference to the mystical purification of the soul, that
it was only requisite to be practised at the first in-
troduction of Christianity. The forms and ceremo-
nies observed in the administration of baptism, have
been different at different periods, and in different
churches; and some diversity of opinion has prevail-
ed with regard to the persons who should celebrate
that rite, — whether the commission to baptise is li-
mited to the professed ministers of tlie gospel, or
whether, in certain cases, it has not been extended to
laymen, and even to women. Bingham Origines Ec-
clesiastica:. Mosheim Church Hist. Robinson's His-
tory of Baptism.

BAPTISTERY, a place in which water appropri-
ated to the administration of baptism is kept. The
first edifices destined to this purpose were erected,
it is supposed, about the middle of the third century ;
they were originally at a distance from the churches;
and it is said that the first example of a baptistery con-
nected with a church, was that which was erected in
496, adjoining to the cathedral of Rheims, for the
baptism of Clovis, king of France, who had been con-
verted by his queen. Some of these buildings were
elegant structures; they were usually of an octagonal
form, with a cupola supported by eight pillars ; in
the middle was a large hall for the priests and atten-
dants; and a bath, corresponding with the form of the
building, occupied the centre of the hall. The inside '
of the cupola was sometimes richly decorated with
Mosaic work and emblematical representations. Fonts
for the baptism of children were afterwards erected
in these edifices: and some of these fonts, which were
afterwards introduced into churches, remain to this

vol., I. PART JI.

day splendid ornaments of the cathedral churches of Baptints.
England and of the continent. ~ ~

BAPTISTS, a body of protestant dissenters, who
are mentioned in ecclesiastical history under vari-
ous designations, borrowed either from the names
of their respective leaders, or from their peculiar te-
nets with regard to the subject and mode of bap-
tism. But that of anabaptists, by which they
have been most generally known, both in Britain
and on the continent, they now consider as a term
of reproach, and think that, in fairness, it should no
longer be applied to thera as their appropriate ap-
pellation.

Historians are not agreed as to the period from
which the baptists date their origin; some tracing it
to the sixteenth, some to the ttvc/fih, and some even to
the Jirst century of the Christian era. It seems cer-
tain, however, that they had no existence as a sect
before they separated from the Lutherans in Ger-
many about the time of the Reformation. During
the struggles for religious liberty in that country, se-
veral of them came over to England, where they
propagated their opinions, and where, according to
Messrs Bogue and Bennet, they broke off from the
independents in 160S, and constituted themselves
a distinct congregation. From the reign of Henry
VIM. inclusive, to that of James II. who issued a pro-
clamation of indulgence to all non- conformists, they
were, with little intermission, subjected to imprison-
ment, banishment, and death. In 1620 many of them
emigrated into New England, where, notwithstand-
ing the opposition with which they had to contend
on their first settlement, they have so amazingly in-
creased, that, by a late computation, they are esti-
mated at 255,670 members in the United States a-
lone. The earliest baptist society in Scotland, it
would appear, was composed of soldiers in Crom-
well's army ; but it was not until 1765 that this de-
nomination of Christians assumed in North Britain an
organised and permanent form. Their success since
has been very considerable ; they amounted some
years ago to 15 churches, besides smaller associa-
tions, and their number has been recently augmented
by the accession of a few congregations, from what
has been called the tabernacle connexion.

The baptists maintain, that there is neither precept
nor example in the New Testament to warrant the
baptism of any but such as have previouslj' professed
their faith in Christ. And indeed they consider this
restriction as obviously implied in our Lord's com-
mission to his apostles : " Go ye into all the world,
and preach the gospel to every creature : he that be-
lieveth and is baptised shall be saved." Hence they
conclude, that as infants are incapable of exercising
the principle which is here required, they are altoge-
ther unfit for receiving the ordinance ; and this con-
clusion, they think, is corroborated by the universal
practice of the primitive church. Nor can this ordi-
nance, they contend, be duly administered, without
the immersion of the \vhole body, a tiutli which, they
allege, is clearly established by the usage of the first
Christians, and by the proper and literal meaning of
the original term which expresses the action. For-
merly they baptised their candidates in lakes, rivers,
4. D

BAP

lj.ipii!.i6 &c. but now they generally employ baptisteries for

U the purpose. The Mennonites in Pennsylvania differ

Bat «r Or- from most of the British and foreign baptists with re-

Biun gard to the mode of baptism ; for although they ad-

^•^"^^"^ niit none but adults to this privilege, they perform

the rite vi-hile the person is in a kneeling posture, by

the affusion of water on his head.

In the constitution andgovernment of their church-
es, the baptists are strictly congregational ; or, in
other words, each church is held to be. complete in
itself, and not amenable to any distinct ecclesiastical
court for the management of its concerns. From a
disagreement among them in reference to certain
points of doctrine, they have been divided into ge-
neral and particular. Some of both classes al-
low of free or mixed communion, that is, thc-y judge
it lawful to sit down at the Lord's table with those
who hive not been baptised by immersion on the pro-
fession of their faith ; and some are Sabbatarians, who
observe the seventh day of the week, or Jewish Sab-
bath, although these are few in number, and confined
- chiefly to America.

The general baptists adopt the Armenian system,
and hold the system of general redemption. They
• are distinguished into what are termed the Old and

the New Connexion : those of the former have, by
verging towards Socinianism, greatly diminished ;
whereas those of the latter, who adhere to the prin-
ciples on which they set out, are in a more flourish-
ing-condition, having about seventy churches in Eng-
land. The Particular baptisls, who again embrace
the doctrine of particular redemption, and indeed all
the articles of the Calvinistic Creed, are by far the
most numerous, both at home and abroad. In 1798,
they had, according to Dr Eippon, 44o congrega-
tions in England and Wales.

Among the Scottish Baptists, such of the
brethren as are deemed qualified are requested to
pray and exhort. But, in distinction from these,
they have a plurality of elders in each church, whose
peculiar province it is to labour in word and doctrine,
and to preside in all cases of discipline, which, how-
ever, are not decided without the consent of the
whole society. Every Lord's day they administer
the sacrament of the supper, and contribute to the
support of the poor. The inspired volume is the only
standard of faith and practice which they acknow-
ledge ; and they receive none into their communion
who does not so understand the doctrines which it
unfolds, as, in all essential points, to enter into the
views which they entertain. Considering mutual affec-
tion as a distinguishing badge of the Christian profes-
sion, they, on some occasions, express this sentiment
by love-feasts, and the kiss of charity. Some diver-
aity of opinion has arisen among the Scotch Baptists
on various points of doctrine and discipline, in conse-
euence of which, some churches are separate and in-
dependent, and hold no fellowship witii each other,
or with their parent institutions. Some begin to
think that the Lord's Supper is not exclusively a
church ordinance, and that it may be dispensed by
two or three persons in private, none of whom is
invested with the pastoral ofHcc.

BAR SUR ORNAIN, formerly Bar le Due, is the
principal town ef the department of the Meuse in

)70

BAB

France, and includes a population of SOOO. The
trade in wood, wines of an excellent quality, and
hemp, is considerable, and is greatly facilitated by
means of water-carriage to Pari?.

BAUATIEllE, Philip, an extraordinary exam-
ple of the early evolution of the intellectual powers,
was the son of the minister of the French church at
Swobach, near Nuremberg, and was born in 1725. In
his fourth year he could converse in Latin, French,
and High Dutch ; and before he had reached his sixth
year he was qualified to read the Old and New Testa-
ment in Greek, and at the same time had made some
progress in the Hebrew language. The perusal of
the Greek fathers and the Rabbinical writers occu-
pied much of hii time when he was only ten years of
age ; but between that period and his fifteenth year,
his attention was occasionally directed to physical in-
vestigations ; particularly to astronomy, and a method
of discovering the longitude, which was communicat-
ed to some learned societies. To the liberality of
the Margrave of Brandenburg- A nspach he was in-
debted for a pension and the use of his library ; and
to the university of Halle for the honorary degree of
master of arts. During the remaining part of his
short life, he was alternately engaged in metaphysi-
cal inquiries, antiquarian researches, and experi-
mental philosophy. But this intellectual prodigy wa«
connected with a feeble frame, which severe study
had in no small degree contributed to exhaust and
undermine before he had completed his twentieth
year. He died in 1740.

BARBADOES, an island of the West Indies be-
longing to Britain, and the most easterly of all the
Caribbsean islands, lies in north latitude 13° 10',
and west longitude 57^, is about 25 miles in length
and 14 miles in breadth, and includes an area of
nearly 105,000 acres. The surface of this island is
not greatly diversified with hills and vallies ; it is
watered with several small streams, and has some
springs of good water ; but the supply seems not suf-
ficient to preclude the use of reservoirs for collecting
the rain water. The temperature of Barbadoes is
pretty uniform, and the climate is found to be more
salubrious than most of the West India islands. The
soil, reposuig on calcareous strata, containing animal
remains, is various, — as black mould, reckoned the
richest and most productive, — a whitish grey mould,
in which clay predominates, — and a reddish earth,
which is considered of inferior quality.

The first discovery of Bai-badoes is ascribed to the
Portuguese ; it was then uninhabited, and they at-
tempted no settlement. It was visited by an Englisk
ship eurly in the 17th century ; but no permanent
settlement was made till 1624, when a few adven-
turers from England established themselves, and,
during the civil wars which soon after distracted the
kingdom, received a great accession to their num-
bers,— so great indeed that, in 167G, it is said that
the white population was .50,000, and that of the
slaves amounted to 100,000 ; bat this is undoubtedly
a most erroneous statement. ;

The white inhabitants, in 1786, Tvere numbered at
16,167, and the slaves at 62,953 ; but the lattrr were
e-stinjiated, in 1753, at neary 70,000. In 1811, the
whole population was stated as follows : Whites

BAR

571

BAR

BarUrowB. 15,19i ; free persons of colour 2613; and slaves
69,132, making the total amount ecpal to 87,539.
Barbadoes is divided into eleven parishes ; and
Bridgetown, Charlestown, St James's, and Speights,
«re tlie only towns of the island. Bridgetown is the
capital, and the seat of government. Tiie political
constitution of the island, with some slight deviations,
is analagous to that of the other British West India
colonies. Beside the established clergymen of the
church of England in each parish, the Methodists
and Moravians have small congregations, chiefly
composed of negroes ; and the congregation of
Jews, in 1811, amounted to about one hundred per-
tons.

The soil and climate of Barbadoes are favourable
to the growth of all the plants of tropical regions.
But sugar, rum, ginger, cotton, and aloes, may be
regatded as the staple vegetable productions, and
constitute the principal exports of the island. In
1736, the crop of sugar was estimated at 19,000 hogs-
heads; in 1789 and 1790, it was reduced to 9000
and 10,000 hogsheads ; but, in 1792, the exports
from Barbadoes were, of sugar 17,000 hogsheads, of
rum more than 5064- puncheons, of ginger 3046 bags,
and of cotton 974", 178 pounds, beside aloes. The
total value of the exports, in 1787, exceeded
L.S39,000 Sterling. The imports from Britain, the
British colonies, and the United States, consist of
corn, flour, rice, salt beef and pork, butter, live-
stock, timber, shingles, and staves.

Barbadoes has been visited with some severe cala-
mities. Bridgetown was twice nearly consumed by
destructive fires ; and it had scarcely recovered from
the effects of these terrible disasters, when a tre-
mendous hurricane, in 1780, laid waste the island,
rendered the capital a melancholy scene of desola-
tion, and destroyed more than 4000 of the inhabi-
tants, blacks and whites inclusive.

BARBAROSSA, Aruch, a celebrated corsair,
who, from the humble station of the son of a potter
in the Isle of Lesbos, rose to the sovereignty of Al-
giers, was born between 1470 and 1480 ; at the early
age of thirteen joined a body of pirates, and in a
short time so distinguished himself by his valour and
enterprise that he was entrusted with the command
•f a fleet of twelve gallies and some smaller vessels,
while his brother Hayradin was second in command.
The appellation Barbarossa was derived from the
redness of his beard. With this powerful armament
they struck terror throughout the Mediterranean,
and, in the insolence of their might, declared them-
selves the friends of the sea, and the enemies of all
tvho sailed upon it. The King of Algiers applied to
them for assistance against the Spaniards ; and Aruch,
the elder brother, having conducted 5000 men to
Algiers, was received as a deliverer ; but his ambi-
Jion was tempted with the prospect of sovereign au-
thority,— he murdered the king, and seized the
•ceptre. To this usurped dominion he soon after
added the conquest of Tremecen. But the dread
of his power, and the extent of his piracies, called
forth the interference of the Emperor Charles V.
who dispatched a body of troops to Africa, to dis-
possess him of his territory, in defence of which he
was defeated and slain.

2

The affairs of Europe at this time sufficiently ec- fiarfeary
cupied the resources of the Spaniards, and thus left v.^-y**-'
Hayradin to enter into the undisturbed possession of
his brother's throne. He assumed the same name,
extended his conquests, placed his dominions under
the protection of the Grand Signior, Solyman the
Magnificent, and obtained the command of the
Turkish fleet. By artifice, and the murder of the
young prince of Tunis, he succeeded in adding that
state to his dominions ; and after various exploits on
the coasts of the Mediterranean, he died in 1547.
Robertson's History of Charles V.

BARBARY, or Barbary States, isthemoderu
name of a large Mahometan country on the north
coast of Africa, extending from the Atlantic ocean
to the confines of Egypt, and comprehending the
independent districts or states of Morocco and Fez,
Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, together with a consi-
derable, but little known tract between them and
the great desert of Sahara. It stretches from the
10° W. to the 26" E. longitude, being about 200O
miles long, and from the 26° to the 37" N. latitude,
of very irregular breadth. The Mediterranean sea
forms its northern boundary. An almost perfect
identity of climate, the similarity of vegetable and
animal productions, and a striking correspondence
in the features, manners, and institutions of the vari-
ous inhabitants, properly constitute this one region ;
nor do the historical or political differences, by
which the respective governments may be distin-
guished, claim any peculiar attention from the gene-
ral reader.

Climate and seasons — The climate, on the whole,
is temperate, considering the geographical position ;
the vicinity of the Atlantic ocean and Mediterranean
sea contributing powerfully, it is probable, to mode-
rate the tendency to excessive heat. Rain is frequent
during the winter months ; less copious during spring; '
and rarely seen in_ summer, which is consequently
both unpleasantly hot and often productive of very
formidable diseases. Towards the end of August, in
general, the temperature of the atmosphere becomes
more moderate, and gradually falls during the suc-
ceeding autumn, which ends about November, when
the winter, or rainy season, commences. In this last
period, the mornings are usually sharp, and frost and
snow are occasionally experienced ; but these ap-
proaches towards cold are rarely either so rapid or so
long continued as to compel the inhabitants to have
recourse to artificial heat. The easterly winds, which
prevail from May to September, are commonly dry,
though the atmosphere be cloudy ; westerly and
northerly winds blow violently in March, and are
loaded with moisture, which falls in showers during
the intervals of the gales ; the south and south-west
winds of summer aggravate its evils by diffusing the
noisome product of the sun-burnt desert.

Soil and vegetation. — The soil, like that of the Afri-
can continent in general, is of a light, sandy consist
tence, so as to be very easily worked, which pecu-
liarly suits the indolent habits of the people. The
abundance of small streams which issue from the
mountains, traversing the country, secures an amaz-
ing degree of fertility. A richer mould is met with
in some of the vallies which divide the ridges of hills .

BAR

573

BAR

Biiibnn. and in them, accordingly, vegetation is still more
powerful and varied. In these happy spots are found
sonic of the most delicious fruits and flowers; the
poniejrranate, the orange, the olive, the date-palm,
the pistachia, the jasmine, the oleander, the white
musk-rose, the bay, the myrtle, &c. Like the heathy
districts of Spain, many of the rocky intervals be-
tween the vailics abound in cork-trees and oaks,
under whose j)rotcction the luxuriance of nature has
displayed itself in the production of lavender, sage,
and many other aromatics. The arborescent broom,
various species of cistus, the aloe, the sumach, the
mignonette, of a large size, and probably perennial,
several sorts of euphorbia and cactus, and many other
plants, which are capable of heat and drought, or-
nament some of the rocky tracts, and yield nourish-
ment and shelter to the wild goats which inhabit
them. The moist and low lands have their full share
of appropriate vegetation, saline succulent species,
and bulbous rooted plants, a profusion of grasses, &c.
Wheat and barley are a good deal cultivated ; oats
are less common, beans and lentils are abundant, as
are also pot-herbs of such kinds as are usual in Euro-
pean countries.

Mountains and mineralogy. — The chief mountain
range in this country has received the name of At-
las from classical times. It is nearly co-extensive
with the length of Barbary, but is most elevated to-
wards the western extremity, in part of which the
height is said to be upwards of 13,000 feet above
the level of the sea. Some of the eminences are al-
most perpetually covered with snow ; the lower
regions are either ornamented by natural vegetation,
in the form of forests and a variety of shrubs, or are
considered well worthy of cultivation from the rich-
ness of the soil. This Atlanta;an chain is nearly in-
termediate between the plain of the Barbary states
or the coast of the Mediterranean sea, and the sandy
desert. A smaller range of mountains, still nearer
the former, extends from the straits of Gibraltar to
the boundary between Algiers and Tunis. The mi-
neralogical constitution of these hills is very little
known. It is conceived, that the chief elevations
are of the primitive or first order of rocks ; and ac-
cording to Ali Bey, one of the latest travellers in this
country, the rocks towards the coast are of granite,
with superimposed sandstone. Marble and other cal-
careous strata are abundantly distributed through
certain parts of the country. The metals are not
plentiful, or, more correctly speaking, through the
carelessness of the people, have not yet been discov-
ered to any great amount. It is perfectly certain,
that both gold and silver are to be met with in some
districts'; but the absurd policy of the sovereigns,
particulary those of Morocco, has hitherto preven-
ted the necessary mining operations.

The rivers of this region are numerous rather
than large, the peculiarity of the country, and the
shortness of the distance they have to run to-
wards the ocean, rendering tlieir junctions few and
unimportant. The Malub, Malva, or Muluvia, one
of the most considerable, divides Morocco from Al-
giers, which again is watered by the Shellif. This
rises on the northern side of the Atlas, and runs in a
westerly direction to the Mediterranean. It is the

Chinala of antiquity. The chief river of Tunis is the Barbary.
Mejerda, in former times the Bagrada. Tripoli, which
lies towards the east of Tunis, in consequence appa-
rently of the diminished size of the mountains, or ra-
ther their total disappearance on the frontiers of Al-
giers and Tunis, is destitute of any river of note.
Several lakes and marshes, with some curious saline
and mineral springs, are interspersed through tlie
country. The abundance of saline siil)stances is ma-
nifested by the fact of liie banks and beds of many
of the rivers and lakes being encrusted with them du-
ring the summer months.

Animuh — Thevoology of tliis region is somewhat
interesting. Of the larger quadrupeds, we find the
panther, hya:na, wild-boar, and lion. The antelope,
so noted for swiftness, is hunted, as well for the ex-
cellence of his flesh, as for the pleasure of the chace.
Camels, horses, asses, cows, sheep, and goats, are all
domesticated. The caltle are said to be small and
slender ; and the horses have degenerated from their
long-boasted excellence. In some places the sheep
are as tall as fallow-deer, but generally they do not
attain to a great size. Among birds, the ostrich and
stork are mentioned as numerous. The feathers of the
former constitute a valuable commercial commodity.
Game of various kinds is plentiful in Morocco, where
also fowls and pigeons are abundant ; but ducks are
rare, and geese and turkeys unknown. Serpents ex-
ist of several species, and in great numbers. The
gigantic boa constrictor is far from being a rare visi-
tor of this region. It was to this species, no doubt,
that enormous creature belonged, which appalled the
whole army of Regulus on the banks of the Bagrada,
and which, according to Pliny, was an hundred and
twenty feet long. Specimens measuring thirty feet
and more are not of rare occurrence in the museums
of European naturalists. All the wild beasts toge-
ther do not occasion so much mischief as one insect,
the locust. This is properly a native of the desert,
which, however, it is impelled, for some hitherto un-
explained reason, to abandon at certain intervals,
when it seeks those parts of the neighbouring coun-
tries where its food is to be had. Vegetation of every
kind, notwithstanding the employment of all possible
modes of annoyance and defence on the part of the
inhabitants, is absolutely, and in an amazingly short
time, consumed by the myriads of these insects on
their portentous visitations. It is some consolation, in
so grievous a calamity, that the locust itself pre-
sents a very palatable nourishment.

People — The inhabitants of Barbary are of several
distinct races, of which the Moors are most numer-
ous. These appear to be a mixed race descended
from the ancient Mauri, as the name in. sorts, but
blended with the progeny of other peoph. They
generally dwell in the cities of the coast, brt are of-
ten Ibund in places far inland, where they s jbsist on
their flocks, and the produce of their wretclvd agri-
culture. The former usually carry on somi. trade,
and have attained to no very contemptible degree of
refinement in manners ; but their propensity to plea-
sure, to jealousy and revenge, their superstition, ig-
norance, indolence and family pride, with an amazing
gravity of deportment, are still more conspicuous
features. The women, as is usual in Mahometan coun-

BAR

573

BAR

Barbarv. t'"'C»j wficre tlicy are considered as merely subservient
k.^-\r>sl/ to tl'e inclinations and caprices of tlie other sex, are
caut?ously secreted from public notice in the liarams
of their lords and masters. Each man is permitted
to have four wives, and as many concubines. One
of the wives is always superior to the rest, and is en-
titled to a display of authority and consequence to
which none of the others can lay claim. Their days
are not altogether consumed in silly gossip, the toil
of decorating their persons, or administering to sen-
siual enjoyments, as has often been imagined. On
the contrary, they have various domestic duties to~
perform, and occasionally exhibit an industry and
maternal solicitude which would honour the sex in
any country.

The lirehers, Berchbers. or Barbars, from whom
this region has been named, are dispersed over the
whole country, of which, notwithstanding their mis-
fbrtunes, and the repeated, or rather unintermitting
attempts to subject them to the Moorish yoke, they
consider themselves the proper owners. They are
probably, indeed, the offspring of the original posses-
sors, and have spirit and inclination enough, though
they do not at present enjoy all the other requisite
means, for realizing their pretensions. Their lan-
guage is of high antiquity, and differs from all the
other dialects spoken in this region ; but its nature
and connexions are not well understood. They are
governed by their own chiefs, and still contrive to
maintain a sullen and somewhat ominous independ-
ence in the fastnesses and obscurities of the moun-
tains. The SheUuhs inhabiting the southern parts of
Morocco, are in many respects similar to the Bre-
bers, of whom they are, perhaps, a merely inciden-
tal branch.

Jews abound in Barbary, where, as usual in other
countries, they addict themselves almost exclusively
to the art of making money, and where, as was
formerly the case throughout the whole of Europe,
they pay dearly for their privilege and acquisitions,
by inheriting universal contempt, and being perpe-
tually liable to the most vexatious injustice and ra-
pacity. By a very natural reaction of feeling, they
become selfish, hypocritical, and cunning. Of late
years, it is said, the number of Jews has greatly di-
minished, their fortitude and love of gain very probably
giving way to such enormous oppression as they ex-
perienced.

The characteristics of the Arab are modified by
the despotic nature of the governments established
in Barbary, and probably by occasional intercourse
with other people. But the change unfortunately
is not to the better. Their almost chivalrous love of
rapine has dwindled into contemptible thievishness ;
their courage, no longer secure and even honourable
in its heroism, seeks the protection of night and of
numbers ; their sense of independence, in place of
its former dignity, assumes a brutal ferociousness of
manner ; and a hospitality of conduct, which either
obviated or redeemed their original vices, has been
nearly totally immersed in the unmercifulness of re-
ligious bigotry.

The Turks resident in Barbary arc noted for their
idleness, indolence, and general depravity. A race
of negroes, originally derived from the interior of

Africa, and augmenting, in Morocco particularly, Barbajy.
by the encouragement of the government, which v^'V'^
employs it in its armies, is rapidly rising into dis-
tinction, and promises ere long to effect some im-
portant political changes.

It is almost unnecessary to mention, that the Chris-
tians who had the misfortune to reside in this coun-
tr)', were, with very inconsiderable exceptions, doom-
ed to slavery, from which there was scarcely a pos-
sibility of being redeemed but by the renunciation
of their religion, or the payment of exorbitant ran-
soms by their relatives. This reproach, it is hoped,
under which Europe was for so many centuries de-
graded, has for ever been wiped away by the late vindi-
ctive and successful interference of our own country.

States — Morocco, including Fez, has been nomi-
nally an empire since the fourteenth century. It is
the most westerly, and the largest of the Barbary
states. Judicious policy, and a liberal intercourse
with foreign powers, are all that are wanting to se-
cure its welfare and consequence. A population a-
mounting, according to Mr Jackson, to upwards of
14' millions, and possessing the highest advantages
of position and natural resources, must be ill guided,
indeed, to have proved so ineffective in the drama of
the western world. Its commerce has greatly de-
clined through the absurd measures of the present
emperor, Muley Soliman, who is nevertheless one
of the most sensible and moderate sovereigns which
Morocco has ever enjoyed. Mogadore is now the
chief port. The principal cities are, Morocco, Fez,
INIequinez, Tangier, and Sallee.

Algiers is next in rank and situation to Morocco.
Its population, which is variously and very uncer-
tainly reported, probably exceeds five millions. The
famous Barbarossa seized this government about the
commencement of the IGth century, sheltering him-
self under the protection of the Grand Signior, who
henceforth became the nominal sovereign, but who,
in reality, for a long time has possessed neither power
nor influence in Algiers. Since that period, this state
has been almost perpetually engaged in piracy, and
has often excited the indignation of the European
countries, all of whom, at some time or other, have
suffered from a grievance which any one of them al-
most might singly have annihilated, had there exist-
ed no suspicion or conviction that the rest would
interfere. Yet it is remarkable, that the expeditions
which the superior means of the larger governments,
at the times of their political ascendancy, enabled
them to send against thqse robbers, have generally
failed in immediately inflicting adequate retribution,
and always in preventing a renewal of the atrocities
complained of. Whatever success did attend these
undertakings, was recompensed by a merely tempo-
rary exemption of the individual from the aggressions
which occasioned them. This freedom, again, has
been often purchased by vile compliances and de-
grading tribute ; nor is there, perhaps, a single ma-
ritime state in Europe, capable by any means of ob-
taining a safe-conduct, which has not witnessed its
neighbours exposed to pillage and captivity, with a
malignant and dastardly satisfaction at its own escape.
The recent conduct of Britain establishes her title
to the championship of humanity and civilization ;

BAR

574

BAR

BnrbKj

Uarber.

and the 27th of August 1816 will ever be blazoned
as the day of their triumph, through the bravery and
good conduct of her sailors. But it is neither un-
' manly nor ungenerous to doubt, whether the enter-
prize of one day, however judicious and energetic,
have broken the habits of ages, or determined a na-
tion of ruffians to imitate the virtues by v/hich they
were overcome. Algiers is divided into provinces,
in which particular it differs from Tunis, the state
next to be mentioned. The chief of the govern-
ment, which is a strict despotism, is denominated
Dey, who generally resides in the town of Algiers.
His revenue has been said to exceed L.120,000 a-
year. He can bring into the field an army of more
than L.50,000 men ; but they are badly tniined, and
unless infuriated by religious hatred, can scarcely
be said to possess any of the qualities of soldiers.

Tunis, which lies to the east of Algiers, is neither
so large nor so populous, but it is probably better
cultivated, and on the whole the inhabitants have
more refinement, and greater liberality of disposi--
tion. These two states frequently carry on hostili-
ties with each other ; but their warfare is rather of a
ludicrous nature, and seldom occasions bloodshed, a
mutual and highly operative dislike to hard blows
commonly preserving a very expedient distance be-
tween them. The troops of both, however, are a-
stonishingly expert in pillaging the undefended, and
" slaying the slain," Their dexterity in these valour-
»us arts is on the whole so equal, that no advantage
remains long with either party ; and as success is
consequently pretty regularly alternate, and of course
always merits rejoicing, it seems that their rencon-
tres are very conducive to social happiness ! The
sovereign of Tunis is called Bey, and acknowledges
the Grand Signior as his superior.

Tripoli is a still smaller state, of which less inform-
ation is possessed by Europeans than of any other in
tliis region. It has long been almost altogether un-
der Turkish government, a sufficient reason for its
inferiority and obscure condition ; but a late ba-
shaw, as its chief is styled, partly threw off the
yoke, and adopted some judicious measures, which
might have ensured prosperity had his successor pro-
fited by his example.

BARBER, from barba the beard ; a person whose
profession it is to shave the beard of others. Several
centuries elapsed before barbers were known in Rome
as a separate trade ; and when the constitution of ci-
vil society began to be settled and improved in Eu-
rope, it appears that they were united with the cor-
poration of surgeons in most countries. The prac-
tice which barbers had acquired in handling de-
licate instruments probably led to this union. The
barbers of London were incorporated with the sur-
geons in the time of Henry VIII.; and it was not
till the reign of George II. that the separation took
place. The origin and meaning of the barber's pole,
a white staff, ornamented with a coloured spiral band,
have been the subject of much discussion. The most
natural explanation seems to be, that it alludes to the
surgical department of the united profession, that
the pole is a representation of the staff grasped by the
patient in blood-letting to increase the flow of blood

by the action of the muscles, and the band denotes
the ribband.or fillet for binding up the arm.

BARBOUR, John, one of the earliest Scottish
poets, flourished in the Hth century, and died near
its close in lf!96. He seems to have been a person
of some consideration ; he was archdeacon of Aber-
deen ; was engaged in important missions to Eng-
land and France ; and had a pension from govern-
ment, either for his public services or as a reward
for his literary labours. The only production which
has transmitted his name to posterity is a historical
poem, entitled, " The Acts and Life of the most vic-
torious Conqueror Robert Bruce, king of Scotland,"
&c. ; the best edition of which was published in 1790|
in 3 vols. 8vo.

BARBUDA, one of the Caribbee islands in the
West Indies, about 20 miles long and twelve miles
broad, contains a population of nearly 1500, and sup-
plies the neighbouring islands with live-stock and
Indian corn, for the rearing and culture of which the
soil seems best suited.

BARCA, an extensive region of Africa, which
stretches along the shores of the Mediterranean from
the confines of Egypt to the territory of Tripoli, and
is bounded on the south by the Sahara or Great De-
sert. Excepting a few spots near the towns and vil-
lages, where the verdure of vegetation appears, the
whole of this immense tract is a barren, sandy
waste, without water, and without the means of cul-
tivation. These verdant spots are called oases or
islands. Of the interior of Barca little is known. The
natives of the maritime towns, in their general cha-
racter, resemble the inhabitants of Barbary. They
profess the Mahometan religion ; regard themselves
under the protection of the Porte ; but are tributary
to the bashaw of Egypt or Tripoli. The inland dis-
tricts are inhabited by wandering tribes of Arabs,
who live chiefly by plunder. Millet, maize, or In-
dian corn, and dates, are the only vegetable produc-
tions which occupy the industry of the inhabitants
on the fertile spots. Brown's Travels. Horneman'»
Travels in Africa.

BARCELONA, the capital of the province of
Catalonia in Spain, stands on a fertile plain encom-
passed on one side by hills and bounded by the Me-
diterranean on the other. Few cities can boast of
higher antiquity ; it traces its origin to the Carthagi-
nians, 250 years before the Christian era ; and hav-
ing successively acknowledged the authority of the
Romans, the Goths, and the Moors, after a tedious
and disastrous siege of seventeen months, yielded to
the French arms in the beginning of the 9th centu-
rj'. But in the year 985 it was taken by the Moors,
who destroyed the city by fire, and doomed a large
proportion of the inhabitants to slavery. After this
period of its history, Barcelona has been the scene
of many severe struggles during the political revo-
lutions of Spain and of Europe; but in 1714, when
it refused to join in the allegiance to Philip the Fifth,
declared by Catalonia and the contiguous provinces,
in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht, in the pre-
ceding year, it sustained one of the most memora-
ble sieges recorded in history.

Barcelona is strongly fortified with walls, furnish-

BAR

575

BAR

Barelsy.

ed with numerous bastions, a citadel and a fort on
an elevated spot. The ramparts form a spacious ter-
race, which commands a line view of the town and
surrounding territory. Tlie streets are generally nar-
row and irregular, yet some of them are spacious and
elegant ; many of the public buildings are fine edi-
fices, and the cathedral is a magnificent structure.
Barcelona had once a university, which has been
suppressed; and four academies, in which natural phi-
losophy, history, jurisprudence, are taught, are its
only institutions for literature and science. The har-
bour is spacious and well sheltered, and admits, some-
times, more than a thousand vessels in the course of
a year. A bar, formed by the rivers Bezos and
Llobregat, where they discharge their waters into the
sea, renders the approach to the harbour difficult,
and sometimes not altogether free from danger.

The population of Barcelona, including Barcelo-
netta, a new town in its vicinit)^ was estimated in 1806
at 160,000. Manufactures have long flourished;
and printed cottons, silks, satins, velvet, lace, gold
and silver embroideries, stained-paper, hat-making,
glass-making, and a foundcry for cannon, give ex-
tensive employment to the inhabitants. More than
10,000 persons are occupied in spinning and weav-
ing cotton, which commenced about the year 1790.
The trade of Barcelona is extensive and lucrative,
and no town in Spain enjoys more commercial inter-
course with the different states of Europe and with
the Spanish colonies in America. Its annual value
has been stated at the enormous sum of a million
and a half Sterling.

Some beautiful remains of Roman antiquity are
still visible ; among which are enumerated part of a
Mosaic pavement, composed of white and blue
Btones, representing tritons and fishes ; a magnifi-
cent arch of an aquaeduct ; a white marble basin
elegantly sculptured; six massy fluted columns with
Corinthian capitals ; and a small statue of Bacchus,
of exquisite workmanship. Laborde's Spain, Vol. I.
BARCLAY, John, a literary character of consi-
derable eminence in the beginning of the 17th cen-
tury, was born in France about the year 1582. His
father, a native of Aberdeenshire in Scotland, had
resided long in France, and was professor of civil
law in the university of Angers. It would appear
that he had been educated among the Jesuits, for he
was strongly urged to enter into that order ; but his
father resisted their solicitations, and, about the time
of the accession of James I. to the throne of Eng-
land, he brought him to that country, where he com-
posed and published a Latin poem on the king's co-
ronation. From this time, London, Paris, and Rome,
where he died in 1621, were at different times the
place of his residence. He was the author of vari-
ous v/orks ; but he is best known by the Argenis, a
kind of political romance, which is greatly distin-
guished by the elegance of its Latinity.

BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated author of
the Apology for the Quakers, was born in 1C18, and
descended from the family of Ury in Aberdeenshire,
which could trace a line of ancestry for several cen-
turies. His education was conducted partly in his
native country, and partly at the Scots college iu
Paris, in which his uncle held the place of rector,

where lie gave early proofs of tlie superiority of his Bai-tl.
intellectual powers, and especially of that acuteness ~ ^
of judgment and promptitude of replv.so requisite in
the public disputations, which formed a coneiderable
part of the prevailing system of tuition.

The dread which his mother entertained of his
conversion to the church of Rome occasioned his re-
cal to Scotland ; a short time only elapsed when he
joined the society of Quakers ; and not long after-
wards he appeared as an author in defence of the
system and society which he had adopted. Beside
other works, an exposition of the principles of the
society, under the title of A Catechism and Con-
Jbssiuii of Faith, appeared in 1673, and was soon fol-
lowed by his Theses Theologicce, or " Theological
Propositions."

About the year 1676, he accompanied the cele-
brated William Peun, the proprietor and settler of
the province of Pennsylvania in North America, in
a tour through England, Holland, and Germany ;
and in the same year the Apology for true Christian
Divinity, written in Latin, was pulilished at Amster-
dam, was soon afterwards translated into six different
languages, and obtained a very extensive circulation,
while it became the subject of much controversial
discussion. Towards the close of this year, after his
return to Scotland, he suffered five months imprison-
ment at Aberdeen, along with other members of the
society, in consequence of the severe edicts of the
times against non-conformists. The remaining part
of his life was occupied in frequent journies to Eng-
land on the concerns of the society ; he was much
in favour with Charles II. and his successor the
Duke of York, and was frequently admitted to per-
sonal, and seemingly familiar, conferences with both
monarchs. The commission which he had received,
as governor of East Jersey in America, was confirm-
ed to him by the former for life, with power to ap-
point a deputy to discharge the duties of the office.
During his last visit to London, in November 1688,
a period so fatal to the fortunes of James II. he had
a friendly interview with that misguided monarch on
the eve of his exile. Having spent two years of re-
tirement at his patrimonial residence, and after at-
tending a meeting of the society at Aberdeen, he
was seized with a fever on his return to Ury, and
died in October 1690. >

Robert Barclay possessed a vigorous and active
mind, which was highly improved by the regular dis-
cipline of a classical education. His numerous work*
bear undoubted marks of deep and careful research,
and of various and extensive learning ; and the equa-
nimity of his temper, the vivacity of his disposition,
and the benevolence of his heart, were not less
conspicuous than his powerful intellectual acquire-
ments.

.BA RD, which is said to be derived from a British
or Celtic word, and signifies a singer, was a poet and
musician by profession, in ancient times, who cele-
brated the heroic deeds of his countrymen, or pour-
ed forth the wail of lamentation when disastcr.befel
the warrior or the nation. In those periods of society
which precede tlie knowledge of letters and the art
of writing, bards are to be regarded as the tradi-
tionary historians of the age ; and hence it appear*

BAR

576

BAR

BarcfCM. that, among all nations, those who were qualified to
devote themselves to the profession were liberally
supported and warmly cherished. The requisite ta-
lents to attain excellence in 'the art, a musical voice
and ear, skill in instrumental music, and a <;enius for
poetry, are seldom united in the same individual ; so
that he who was possessed of the rare assemblage of
the powers of music and of song could not fail to
share largely in the esteem and regard of his admir-
ing countrymen.

The early historj' of all nations alludes to bards ;
they were common among the Greeks in the days of
Hesiod ; Homer refers to persons of the same pro-
fession ; and at the feasts of the ancient Romans
they were employed to celebrate the achievements
of their heroes and great men. Even among the
ruder nations of modern times, as among the natives
of Mexico and Peru, the bards sing the praises of
their chiefs and warriors. But in no nation has this
profession assumed so regular and systematic a form
as among the Gauls or Celtic tribes. The institu-
tion of druids and of bards was equally regarded as
an essential part of their manners and policy. The
first were the philosophers of the age and the priests
of religion ; and it was the business of the last to re-
cite and record the deeds of heroism and of fame, to
be transmitted in song to future times. '

A numerous band of bards was kept in the train
of kings, princes, and great men. They were divid-
ed into classes and orders. To the chief bard was
assigned a certain number of inferior character ; and
even the latter were attended by others still less dis-
tinguished than themselves. In Ireland, Wales, and
the Highlands of Scotland, the bards, from obvious
causes, flourished longer than in any other part of
the British dominions ; but as civilization advanced,
and letters were cultivated, they gradually dege-
nerated into the less respected profession of harpers
and minstrels ; and in Wales, in the time of Queen
Elizabeth, they had become so numerous and bur-
densome to the inhabitants, that the interference of
the legislature was required, and a statute was ex-
pressly enacted for their regulation and partial sup-
pression. y^^xton'sHistory of English Poetry. Blair's
Dissertation prefixed to Ossian's Poems.

BAREGES, a village in the department of the
Upper Pyrenees in France, famous for its hot springs,
which have long attracted crowds for the purpose of
drinking and bathing. The village consists of a sin-
gle street of indifferent houses ; and some years ago
no inn for the accommodation of the traveller had
been established. The surrounding mountains, which
are composed of primitive rocks are clothed with
verdure to their summits ; but no woods break the
dull uniformity of their aspect. The mountain straw-
berry is so abundant, that during the summer months,
it furnishes an essential and an agreeable part of the
dessert at the tables of the visitors.

The watets of Bareges have their origin in se-
veral sources, varying in temperature from 9i°
to 114° Fahrenheit, and commodiouSly distributed
into four separate baths ; they are quite limpid when
they are received into the bathing troughs, and arc
of a sulphureous and saline quality. Muirhead's
Travels, p. 302.

BAREITH, a city of Franconia in Germany. See Banittt
Bavreuth. II

BARFLEUR, a town of Normandy, now the de- Barometer,
partment of the Channel in France, famous as the
seaport from which William the Conqueror sailed
when he invaded England. The Cape of the same
name is 12 miles east of Cherburg.

BARI, a province of Naples, which includes a
square area of nearly 700,000 acres, and a popula-
tion exceeding 280,000, and produces corn, saffron,
fruits, and cotton. Bari, the ancient Barium, is a
sea-port town on the shores of the Adriatic. The
number of inhabitants is vaguely stated by different
travellers from COOO to 30:000, who are occupied
chiefly in the manufacture of glass, cotton, and li-
nen, and fishing. Bari is 120 miles north-east from
Naples.

BARILLA, sometimes signifying the plant from
which the soda of commerce is obtained, but more
commonly the alkali itself, is extensively cultivated
on the salt-marshes of Spain which stretch along the
shores of the Mediterranean. The preparation of the
barilla, or soda, is conducted nearly in the same way
as the kelp manufacture of this country.

BARK, the external covering of trees, which is
of very extensive use in the arts, as the bark of the
oak employed in tanning, of the alder and walnut
tree in dyeing, of the cinnamon tree in spicerv, of
the cinchona or Peruvian bark tree in medicine,
and of a species of oak for corks. Ropes, cloth, and
paper, are also manufactured from the bark of dif-
ferent trees, examples of which are well known in
the curious fabrics of the South sea islanders.

BARLEY, the English name of the genus horde-
urn, several species of which are objects of culture.
See Agriculture.

BARNES, Joshua, a learned critic and editor, was
born in London in ISS-t, educated at Cambridge,
was elected a fellow of his college, and appointed
professor of Greek in the same university. Before
he had reached his 17th year, he appeared as the au-
thor of a collection of Latin and English poems.
But he was more distinguished as an editor ; and the
works of Euripides, Anacreon, and Homer, were
successively the subjects of his learned labour and
critical skill, and are still valued by classical scho-
lars. He died in 1712.

BA RNSLEY, a town of the West Riding of York-
shire in England, with a population approacliing to
4000. Iron wire, nails, and various kinds of hard-
ware, cloths and glass, are thriving manufactures,
which the abundance of coal, iron ore, and timber in
the surrounding country, and the advantage of inland
navigation, have greatly improved and extended.

BARNSTAPLE, a sea-port town of Devonshire
in England, stands in a fine vale on the banks of the
Taw, is noted for its manufactures of baize, silk stock-
ings, and waistcoat pieces, and had formerly some
trade ; but the approach to the harbour is greatly
impeded by sand banks. Barnstaple was once de-
fended by walls and a castle. The population in
ISOl amounted to 3748.

BAROMETER, from two Greek words signifying
Keight and measure, is an instrument for measuring
the weight or pressure of the atmosphere ; and as it

B A.R

577

BAR

BaioB distinctly indicates the changes that take place ia the
i| weight of that elastic fluid, the coincident changes
Burra. of the weather being observed, tliis instrument has
been employed to denote those changes, and in this
application is well known under the name of the
tueather-glass. The barometer is also in use for ascer-
taining the height of mountains, on the principle,
that the higher in the atmosphere the instrument is
carried, the pressure is proportionally diminished, by
the action of a shorter column of air. For the prin-
ciples of its construction and application, see Mete-
orology and Pneumatics.

BARON, a title of rank applied to a person who
holds a barony, or who possesses the right, by letters
patent, of being a member of the House of Lords.
See Ranks, Distinction of, under Heraldry.

BARONET, a title or dignity next to that of a
baron, and taking precedence of all knights, except-
ing knights of the garter and knights-bannerets. The
order of knights-baronets was instituted in 1611 by
James I. and the number was then limited to 200, but
has been since indefinitely extended at the king's plea-
sure. See Ranks, Distinction of, under Heraldry.

BARONETS of Scotland, or of Nova Scotia, was
an institution proposed by James I. but not com-
pleted till 1625, in the time of his successor, for the
express purpose of encouraging the settlement and
cultivation of Acadia, or New Scotland, in North
America, which was occupied by the English. To
each adventurer a portion of land, with many privi-
leges, was granted. See Ranks, under Heraldry.

The institution of the order of baronets in Ireland,
with privileges similar to those in England, took place
in the 18th year of the reign of the same monarch.

BARRA, a district or kingdom on the banks of
the Gambia in Africa, is said to be extremely popu-
lous, and chiefly inhabited by that race of negroes
called Mandingos. Previously to the abolition of the
slave-trade, this part of Africa supplied the West
Indian colonies with great numbers of slaves. The
Mahometan faith prevails ; and a kind of monarchi-
cal form of government is established. But that a
people in a great degree still in a savage state should
be distinguished by so much prudence and modera-
tion in their civil policy as has been described by tra-
vellers, must be ascribed to ignorance or credulity.
The exaggerated statements alluded to represent the
Mandingos as a wise, happy, and contented people.

The vegetable productions of warm climates are
abundant ; but it does not appear that much atten-
tion is bestowed on their cultivation. Salt is manu-
factured ; the evaporation is conducted by the heat
of the sun ; and the produce forms a valuable com-
mercial commodity, which is exchanged with the in-
habitants of the inland parts of the country for maize,
gold-dust, ivor}', and cotton stuffs.

BARRA, or Barray, one of the Western islands
of Scotland. See Hebrides.

BARREN Island, an island in the Indian ocean,
about 50 miles to the eastward of the Great Anda-
man, is 18 miles in circumference, and extremely
conspicuous for a volcano which discharges enormous
volumes of smoke, and great quantities of ignited
jnatters, from a mountain which rises to the height of
nearly 2000 feet above the level of the sea.

VOL. I. PART II.

BARKINGTON, the Honourable Daines, a na-
turalist and antiquary, was the son of Viscount Bar-
rington. The father, who was raised to the Irish
peerage in 1720, acquired some literary reputation
as the author of Miscellanea Sacra, in which the
means employed by the first preachers of the gospel
in propagating Christianity are traced and examined,
as well as of some other works. He was a warm
friend and zealous advocate of the dissenters ; and
five of his sons were fortunate in attaining conspi-
cuous stations in different departments of the state.
Daines, the fourth son, was destined to the profes-
sion of the law ; was appointed a Welsh Judge in
1757, and afterwards Justice of Chester, which lat-
ter he resigned in 1785, and retired to his chambers
in the Inner Temple, wliere he died in 1800. His
Observations on the Statutes, chiefly the more ancient,
with a Proposal Jbr netv-modelling them, is reckoned
a valuable treatise. But his Experiments on the Sing-
ing of' Birds, and his Essai/ on the Language of Birds,
published in " Miscellanies on various Subjects," in
1785, are considered the most curious and interest-
ing of all his investigations, and are often alluded to
by succeeding inquirers.

BARROLOOS, a tribe of people in southern Af-
rica, who are said to inhabit a district ten days jour-
ney from Leetakoo, have numerous large towns, well
built houses, and have made such progress in the
arts as to extract iron and copper from their ores.

BARROW, Dr Isaac, an eminent mathematician,
and a learned divine, was born in London in 1630;
and at Charterhouse, his first school, he gave no pro-
mise of future greatness ; for an untoward temper, a
slovenly habit, and obstinate idleness, were then his
chief marks of distinction. But on his removal to
Felsted in Essex, he was actuated by a better dispo-
sition ; and the alacrity and success with which he
now applied to study gave joy to his father, who, iu
his secret thoughts, had destined him to a learned
profession ; and his progress in learning was attested
by his master, who appointed him classic tutor to
Viscount Fairfax.

In leiS, he became a student of Trinity-college,
Cambridge. Attachment to the royal cause had so
ruined his father's fortune, that at college young
Barrow found himself in a scene expensive beyond
his means, and was glad to avail himself of the libe-
rality of the celebrated Dr Hammond. In the course
of his studies he perused the works of Bacon, Des
Cartes, Galileo, and other eminent authors ; and such
was his reputation, that notwithstanding the unpopu-
larity of his political opinions, he obtained a fellow-
ship. With a view to the practice of medicine, he
engaged with ardour in the study of anatomy, botany,
and chemistry. But, through the advice of his uncle,
bishop of St Asaph, seconded by his own views of the
obligation of the oath which he had taken on becom-
ing a fellow, he withdrew his attention from these stu-
dies, and directed it to others connected with mathe-
matics. While he read Scaliger on Eusebius he saw
that chronology depended on astronomy, and astro-
nomy on geometry ; and that his knowledge might rest
on a sure foundation, he began the study -of Euclid's
elements, and persevered in the pursuit till he altaiu-
ed to etninencc.

4k

Barringtnn

BAR

578

BAR

li-TTOw. Having been disappointed in his expectation ot'suc-
— ^v-^^i.- ceeding Dr Dupart, as professor of Greek, he resolved
to vifit the continent. At Pai-is he found his father,
^yhn had followed the fortunes of the exiled Charles,
from France he went to Italy, and spent some time
in Florence, employed chiefly in the examination of
books, manuscripts, and medals. The plague pre-
vented him from visiting Rome. He spent a year in
Cirecce and the adjacent countries ; and read, while
at Constantinople, the works of Chrysostom, whom
of all the fathers he admired the most. He came home
ti'.rough Venice, Germany, and Holland, and hasten-
ed to enter into orders, expecting preferment on the
restoration, of which, however, he was disappointed.

In 1662 he was nominated lecturer of geometry in
Gresham college, London, and, not long after, de-
clined a valuable living in the church, because it was
encumbered with the education of tlie patron's son.
In the following year hi; obtained, through the
■recommendation of Dr Wilkins, the mathematical
lectureship which Mr Lucas had lately founded at
Cambridge ; and, to secure the object of the institu-
tion, he caused himself and his successors to be bound
to leave annually ten written lectures to the univer-
sity ; and still more to illustrate this chair, he resign-
ed it in favour of Sir Isaac Newton.

The study of theology and the composition of ser-
mons now employed his time and exercised his ta-
lents; and in this, as in all his other pursuits, he soon
rose into high excellence. In his 42d year he was
made master of his college, on which the king de-
clared that he had given a place to the best scholar in
England. This was a station suited to Barrow's taste,
and he sought for no higher promotion ; but he did
not on that account decline into idleness. He dis-
charged the duties of his office with assiduity, added
to the number of his sermons, and composed his trea-
tise on the pope's supremacy. On the 4th of May
1677, a fever deprived the world of this ornament of
mankind, who had taught them to explore the secrets
of science, and to understand that wisdom that hath
come from above.

As an author, Dr Barrow holds the highest rank,
both in regard to the kind and the quality of his pro-
ductions. He wrote poetry in Latin, on several sub-
jects, but never indulged in satire, — " his wit was
pure and peaceable." His principal works in mathe-
matics are Euclid's Elements and Data ; eighteen
optical lectures, still held in high estimation ; thirteen
geometrical lectures, in which he treats of curve lines ;
some lectures composed while he was Lucasian pro-
fessor. With the exception of two, his sermons are
posthumous ; but as he had transcribed them all- se-
veral times, he left them prepared for the press. His
?tyle is nervous and bold ; and his illustrations are
often e:-:uberant, combining his stores of erudition,
his knowledge of scripture, and his experience of
life. His language is sometimes older than his age,
but it glows with the spirit of genius and piety. His
admirable discourses, tliough long, are read without
languor. He enlarges the understanding by the ac-
curacy of his reasoning ; he captivates the ima-
gination by the splendour of his descriptions ; he
charms the heart by his display of the beauty of ho-
liness. He was no less amiable as a man than great
as an author, A culpable negligence of his person

hurt him with those who only judge from outward Barrow*,
appearance; but those who knew him best have borne •-.•~-^/'^%.
ample testimony to his virtues ; they pronounce him
to be a man of strict integrity, warm benevolence,
and pure piety, of great meekness of temper and
gentleness of manners, an honour to his college, his
country, and to human kind.

BARROWS, are artificial mounds of earth or
stones, generally of a conical form, which seem to
have been destined as repositories of the dead, or to
commemorate some public event. They are common
in many parts of the world. Such structures were
well known to tl^e ancient Greeks ; and they are dis-
tinctly alluded to by Homer, as monuments reared
as a tribute of regard and affection to the memory of
their departed heroes. The barrow of Alyattes, fa-
ther of Crcesus king of Lydia, is described by He-
rodotus as a vast mound of earth raised on a lofty
basement of massy stones. This grand monument,
which was three quarters of a mile in circumference,
and 200 feet in height, was constructed by the unit-
ed labour of the citizens. Similar structures of less
magnitude, intended, it is conjectured, as the sepul-
chres of the younger branches of the royal family,
are erected in its vicinity. The Grecian barrows
were usually surmounted with the figures of animals,
or with pillars containing inscriptions.

Monuments of this kind are not unfrequent in Bri-
tain. The urns, utensils, and warlike instruments
found deposited in some of them, point out a Roman
origin. But others are supposed to be the works of
the Britons or Danes ; and as they are more nume-
rous in particular places, may it rot be conjectured
that such spots were regarded as the consecrated se-
pulchres of the dead, or the scene of some memo-
rable battle. The barrows or cairns of Scotland in-
clude urns, containing burnt bones and ashes, or
stone chests with the bones entire, or bones seemingly
thrown together in a promiscuous manner.

Mounds of earth, or of loose stones, destined to a
similar purpose, have been discovered in America,
in some of which Mr Jefferson, who examined a num-
ber of them, found immense collections of human
bones, which seem to have been deposited at differ-
ent periods. Of the origin of the transatlantic bar-
vows some diversity of opinion prevails. While they
are supposed by some to have been the general se-
pulchres of great towns which once existed near the
spot, others think that they are the tombs of the
dead who fell in battle ; and others have conjectured,
that they are to be ascribed to the custom, which is
said to be observed among the Indian tribes, of col-
lecting, at certain periods, the bones of the dead into
one great repository.

Mr Stackhouse, who has examined the ancient mo-
numents of this description in the southern districts of
Britain, advances another opinion of their origin and
use; and supposes that they were intended for the pur-
pose of direct and speedy communication of intelli-
gence of the approach and movements of hostile in-
vaders. In support of this opinion, he has traced
these barrows through a considerable extent of coun-
try, and finds that they are so arranged and accommo-
dated to the nature of the ground, and of such mag-
nitude and height as the particular situation requir-
ed, as admirablv to afford the best means of uninter-

BAR

37©

BAR

JBsrrj-. ruptcd communication. Gougli's Sepulchral Monu-
ments of (heat Brilain. Stackhouse's Ilhistration oj'
Ancicnl Barroivs. Jetterson's Notes on Virginia.

BAllllY, James, an eminent historical paint-
er, and autlior, was born in Cork in 174^1. His fa-
ther a coasting trader, hail destined him to his own
perilous proi'ession, and, with this view, he made se-
veral voyages across the British channel ; but his
aversion to a sailor's life was invincible ; and instead
of handling the ropes, and managing the sails, lie
was employed in sketching the coast, or drawing the
figures which accident presented, or fancy chanced
to suggest. Reluctantly allowed to follow the bent
of his own inclination, he devoted himself entirely to
the perusal of books, and the practice of drawing ;
and for these pursuits he abandoned all boyish a-
musements, neglected his sleep, and grew careless of
his person. He read whatever books he could pro-
cure, took large extracts from some, and made com-
plete copies of others : but he had most delight in
drawing, in which he always aimed at a representa-
tion of action, attitude, and passion, choosing for this
end historical subjects, such as Abraham's sacrifice,
Daniel in the Lion's den, Susanna and the Elders,
&c. At this youthful period of his life he is also
said to have furnished a bookseller with drawings to
decorate a volume of fables, published at Cork.

But he was soon to enter on an ampler scene. In
the twenty-second year of his age he visited Dublin
on the eve of an exhibition of paintings; into which
he had the satisfaction to obtain admission for his
picture of St Patrick baptizing the converted King
of Cashel. The admiration inspired by this piece
brought Barry into notice; and his own merit con-
curring with a letter of introduction from Dr Sleigh
of Cork, procured him Mr Edmund Burke's valuable
acquaintance, which a singular circumstance is said
to have quickly matured into warm friendship and
steady patronage. As they disputed concerning the
arts, Barry strenuously defended the principles of a
late anonymous publication ; this book Burke at first
treated as destitute of authority, and unworthy of
attention ; but seeing his antagonist's zeal rising into
rage, he instantly appeased his passion by avowing
himself its author. Barry now, in a transport of joy,
inclosed Burke in his embrace, triumphantly dis-
playing at the same time a copy of the essay on the
sublime and beautiful, which, moved by admiration,
he had entirely transcribed.

After a residence of some months in Dublin he
accompanied Mr Burke's family to London, was in-
troduced by his patron to the most eminent artists
of that city ; and was employed in copying, in oils,
the splendid views of Athens by Stuart. Under the
tame auspices which brought him to London, he
v/ent, in 1765, to the continent, where he spent five
years, mostly at Rome, devoted to the study of the
numerous and excellent models of sculpture and
painting treasured up in the Vatican, and the other
collections of Italy. During this period, the intem-
perate language with which he maintained his very
peculiar opinions involved him in unpleasant quarrels,
and nourished in his ill-regulated mind a gloomy
f uspicion that liauated and tormented him to the day
•f his death.

He returned to England iu 1771 ; and as, in one
of his letters, Mr Burke had suggested, " that no \
man can draw ptrll-ctly who cannot draw beauty,"
he endeavoured to gratify his patron by a dcliiication
of Venus, in which it is said he has succeeded in ex-
hibiting grace and beauty in their highest ideal form.
He applied to the practice of the art of historical
painting with persevering diligence ; and the produc-
tions of his pencil were numerous, and often excel-
lent, at least in design. His pictures of Adam and
Eve, to represent the ideal perfection of the human
character — of Jupiter and Juno, to exhibit the su-
blime— of Mercury inventing the lyre, and Narcis-
sus admiring his own shadow, to suggest the eft'ects
of industry and idleness — and of Job reproved by hi^
friends, to disclose patience in affliction — are speci-
mens of his skill which must be mentioned to his
praise. But his obstinacy in refusing, on frivolous
pretences, to listen to the solicitations of Mr Burke,
reiterated for more than two years, urging him to
paint his portrait for the use of their common friend
Dr Brockleshy, alienated the affections of a man who
had given him numerous and substantial proofs of
his friendship. This involved him in the guilt of in-
gratitude ; and although the portrait was at last fi-
nished, confidence and intimacy were for ever at an
end.

In 1777, he began his great work at the Adelphi.
The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu-
factures, and Commerce, had accepted of his offer
to paint their great room, had agreed to supply him
with materials, and had allowed him the choice of
his subject, which was a series of poetical and histo-
rical designs. The first is the story of Orpheus ; the
second a Grecian Harvest Home ; the third the Vic-
tors at Olympia ; the fourth the Triumphs of Navi-
gation ; the fifth the Distribution of the Society's
Prizes ; and the last is Elysium, or Final Retribu-
tion. He commenced this magnificent undertaking
with only sixteen shillings in his pocket ; and, dur-
ing the seven years in which lie was engaged with
it, he procured a scanty subsistence by sketching
designs, in the evening, for the printsellers. When
he had completed his purpose, the Society expressed
their approbation of this grand production of genius,
patience, and self-denial, by allowing its author two
exhibitions, which brought him about 'L.SOO, by
voting him their gold medal and L.50 in money, and
by granting him an additional L.200 afterwards.

Soon after his return from Rome, Barry had been
elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in
17r'2 he v.-as appointed their pvofe.-sor of painting,
with an annual salary of L.yo. The manner in -which
he discharged the duties of this h.onourable office
m!;] he learned I'rom a perusal of the lectures which
he dciivtred to tiie associates and academicians.
They are six in number, — on the histoi y, — the de^'
sign, — the composition, — ^the light and shade, — and
the colouring of painting. Of tlieic discourses, that
of colouring is allowed to be the most perfect. Du-
ring the period of his ^Tofessorship, violent quarrel>i
arose between him i»nd his constituents. Induttd bV
these dissensions, he published liis letter to tiie Dilet-
tanti society, in which he displays great enthusiasih
for the arts, and great contenq)t of tho roval acgdp.

Bavrr,

BAR

580

BAR

Bartbflemy. micians. On this letter, and on certain parts of his
lectures they founded charges against him, accusing
liim of encouraging a disorderly spirit among the as-
sociates and students of the academy; in consequence
of which he was, in April 1799, degraded from the
professorship, and expelled from the academy.

These misfortunes came upon him in a train of
other calamities : Old age was approaching ; he was
robbed of the money which would have alleviated its
infirmities ; his violent and suspicious temper depriv-
ed him of the confidence and the solace of friendship.
In this forlorn condition he was indeed an object of
compassion, and, through the benevolent exertions
of several noblemen and gentlemen, L.IOOO was rais-
ed by subscription, with which an annuity was bought
from Sir Robert Peele. But Barry did not live to
enjoy the benefit of this charity. He died of a pleu-
retic fever in February 1806. His body was laid in
state in the great room at the Adelphi, surrounded
by his own works ; and, through the generosity of Sir
Robert Peele, who contributed L. 200, his funeral
was splendid.

All Barry's writings, — his correspondence, — his in-
quiry into the causes which have obstructed the pro-
gress of the arts in England, — his lectures, — his ob-
servations on the principal paintings in Italy, &c. &c.
bear the marks of a vigorous mind and an original
thinker. In his whole career he acted under the in-
fluence of a powerful enthusiasm, which made hhn at-
tach an importance to his art that seems altogether
extravagant. Having his mind thus, bent to one ob-
ject, he disregarded the regulations of civilized life,
and retained, amid the most polished society, the ha-
bits of a savage. His temper was violent, and his
language was rude. His house presented the picture
of ruin, — destitute of comfort, cold, damp, and dirty.
In religion he was a Roman catholic ; and although
for a while his mind hovered on the verge of infide-
lity, a perusal of Butler's Analogy established his
faith, and henceforth he held it without wavering.
His stature was below the middle size, — his figure
broad and strong, — his features harsh, though abun-
dantly expressive of intelligence. There was thus in
his character much to praise, and much to blame,
much that excites admiration, and much that fills us
with disgust.

BARTHELEMY, John James, a celebrated
French author, was a native of Cassis, a small sea-
port town of Provence, and was born in 1716. His
early education commenced in the college of the
Oratory of Marseilles ; but as he was destined for
the church, it became necessary to prosecute the
study of philosophy and theology under the Jesuits ;
and by his ardeut zeal and indefatigable industry,
his progress in the knowledge of the Greek and Ori-
ental languages was rapid and brilliant. But intense
application greatly injured his health, and he had
scarcely recovered, when he was admitted into the
seminary where he received the tonsure. The read-
ing of sermons in Arabic to an assembly of Maro-
nites, Armenians, and other catholic Arabians, and
his ability in conducting a learned dialogue with a
Jewish Rabbin, who had embraced Christianity, are
adduced as satisfactory proofs of his skill and profi-
ciency in oriental learning.

Attached by inclination to literature, the young Bani-.tlcjEv
Abb6, with tlie view of confining his pursuits to a ^•^•'v^w
particular department of it as a profession, repaired
to Paris in 171-4' ; ho had the good fortune to be re-
commended to the keeper of the royal cabinet of me-
dals ; and was no less fortunate in obtaining his friend-
ship, in being appointed his associate, and finally in
17j3 his successor. With all the ardour and indus-
try which appeared so conspicuous in his former pur-
suit*, he entered on this new <lepartment of study ;
and with the same assiduity he continued his labours
through life in arranging this splendid collection, and
in enriching it with many fine specimens furnished
by an extensive correspondence in all parts of Eu-
rope. At the urgent request of the lady of M. dc Stain-
villc, better known afterwards as the Duke of Choi-
scul, the Abbe visited Rome while his patron was
ambassador at the court of the Vatican. This visit
afforded him a fine opportunity of gratifj ir)g his ar-
dent cariosity in the study of classical antiquity.
Proceeding to Naples, he contemplated with deep
interest the rich treasures collected from the ruins
of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and displayed in the
museum of the palace of Portici; but he beheld with
regret and surprise that the manuscripts lay in the
same state in which they had been discovered ; and
no solicitations on his part, although urged with all
the warmth of enthusiasm which such objects natu-
rally excite in a profound classical scholar, made any
im])ression on their possessors, either in directing
their own ingenuity and industry in unrolling and
reading these precious relics, or in permitting the
labours of others to be bestowed on them. The
keepers of the musuem were strictly enjoined neither
to part with any of the manuscripts, nor to allow
copies of any parts of them to be taken. Disappoint-
ed in his expectation of presenting his learned coun-
trymen with a specimen of ancient Greek writing by
direct application, the Abbe had recourse to what
may be regarded as a pardonable artifice in the ac-
complishment of his object. He was permitted to ex-
amine, for a few minutes, a manuscript of 28 lines, and
from recollection he made a.fac simile of the whole,
compared it with the oj:iginal, corrected the errors,
and transmitted it to the academy of Belles Let-
tres.

The advancement of the Duke of Choiseul to the
head of the public administration was an event high-
ly auspicious to the fortunes of Barthelemy. By the
favour and influence of his patron, he was placed in
various oflicial situations which afforded him a liberal
income, and a large portion of leisure for literary
pursuits. In 1788 his greatest work, The Travels of
Anacfiarsis in Greece, appeared, and had been the
subject of occasional labour for 30 years of his life.
Anacharsis, the hero of this narrative, a young Scy-
thian descended from the famous philosopher of the
same name, travels in Greece about the middle of
the fourth century before the Christian era, and
gives an account of the arts, institutions, and man-
ners of the Greeks. This production, the fruit of
extensive erudition, profound research, and unwea-
ried industry, gave great celebrity to the author, ac-
quired unusual popularity, and was translated into
all the languages of Europe. lu the succeeding year

BAR 581

admitted into the French

Butholine the learned author was
II academy.

Bas.\U. The affluence and literary repose which Barthele-

^>»>^/^»^ my had enjoyed during great part of a long life, were
disturbed in the evening of his days by the storms of
the French Revolution. The suppression of pen-
sions and offices left him little more than the scanty
means of subsistence ; and the suspicion of aristo-
cracy excited against him during the reign of ter-
ror, in 1793, endangered his life. He died in 1795,
when he had nearly reached the venerable age of
eighty.

BARTIIOLINE, Thomas, a learned physician
and anatomist, was born at Copenhagen in 1616, and
having finished his elementary education in his na-
tive city, acquired his anatomical and medical know-
ledge in France, Italy, and Germany. Returning
to Copenhagen, he was first appointed mathematical
professor, and afterwards advanced to the anatomical
chair ; and was fortunate in the discovery of the
lymphatic vessels while he was employed in the dis-
section of a live dog, and nearly about the same
time with Olaus Rudbeck. He was the author of
various works connected with the studies in which
he was so assiduously engaged ; and he was the edi-
tor of a treatise on anatomy by his father, who had
been originally a medical practitioner and an anato-
mist, and professor of medicine in (he university of
Copenhagen, but having entered into the church,
he was chosen professor of divinity in the same semi-
nary. 'Hiomas Bartholine died in 1680.

BARTHOLOMEW, one of the twelve apostles,
is supposed to be the same with Nathaniel, one of
the first disciples of Jesus Christ ; according to Eu-
sebius, he preached the gospel in India, returned to
the more northern and western parts of Asia, and at
last came to Armenia, where he suffered martyr-
dom.

BARTHOLOMEW, St., one of the Caribbee isl-
ands, in the West Indies, is about 24 miles in circum-
ference, and is surrounded by a rocky coast, which
renders access to it difficult. Cotton, lignum vita;,
drugs, and provisions, are the principal vegetable pro-
ductions ; but tlie soil is chiefly fitted for pasturi^
land. The supply of fresh water is scanty, and most-
ly derived from the rain collected into reservoirs.
St Bartholomew was originally settled by the French
from St Kitts, in which neighbourhood it lies; and,
after being in different hands, was ceded to the
Swedes in 1785, and taken by the British in 1801.

BARTSIA, Painted Cup, a genus of plants be-
longing to the Didynamia class.

BARYTES, a peculiar earth, so called from its
great specific gravity, and the discovery of which is
to be ascribed to modern chemistry. It constitutes
the base of heavi/ spar, a mineral which abounds in
metallic veins. See Chemistry and Mineralogy.
BASALT, a mineral substance, which is very a-
bundant in some parts of the globe, and is distri-
buted in horizontal, inclined, or vertical strata, or
exhibits a regular columnar form, of which the south-
west side of Arthur's Seat, near Edinburgh, gome
of the western islands of Scotland, and especially
Staffa, the north coast of Ireland, more particularly
the magnificent colonnade at the Giants Causeway,
the Faroe islands, Iceland, the Lipari islands, and

B A S

furnish excellent examples.

the shores of Sicily,
See Mineralogy.

BASE, or Basis, a term of extensive application,
signifying the lowest part of a thing, as, in Geometry,
the base of a triangle is the lowest side ; in Architec-
ture, the base of a column is the pedestal, or lowest
part of it ; and, in Ckemistri/, it denotes the alkaline,
earthy, or metallic constituent of a saline body ; as
when soda, lime, or lead is combined with sulphuric
acid, forming Glauber's salt, or sulphate of soda,
plaster of Paris, or sulphate of lime, and sulphate
of lead.

BASELLA, Climbing Nightshade, a genus
of plants belonging to the class Pentandria,

BASHAW, or Pasha, or Pacha, is the viceroy or
governor of a city, district, or province, in the Turk-
ish dominions. Two orders of bashaws are esta-
blished. The highest order is designated bashaws
with three tails, because they have three tails in
their military standard. The authority of this order
within their government is nearly equal to that of the
Grand Siguier himself. The executive and military
power is united in their persons, and they exercise
nearly uncontrolled authority over the property and
lives of all those within their proper department.
The power of bashaws with two tails is more limit-
ed. Life and death are not entirely at their absolute
disposal ; and when they are called into the field,
they are under the command of the higher order of
bashaws. Bashaw, without any specific appellation,
is sometimes applied to the grand vizier, and by
way of courtesy to those who hold conspicuous sta-
tions at the Ottoman court.

BASHEE, or Bashi islands, a group of islands
between Formosa and the Philippine isles, in the
Chinese sea, present a varied surface of rugged
mountains and fertile vallies, and produce the fruits
of tropical regions, with sugar canes and cotton.

BASHKIRS, a tribe of people subject to Russia^
and inhabiting the banks of the Ural and Volga, are
descended from the Nogay Tartars, resemble them
in manners, and lead a pastoral life. They rear
cattle, horses, and camels, cultivate a little barley
and oats, and are successful in the management of
bees. The Bashkir troops, of which they are re-
quired to furnish 3000 cavalry to the Russian army,
are expert horsemen, and dexterous marksmen with
the bow and arrow.

BASIL, Saint, who obtained the sui-name of the
Great, was one of the most learned bishops of the
early Christian church, was a native of Ca;sarea in
Ca])padocia, studied at Constantinople and Athens,
aud having travelled in Syria, Egypt, and Lybia,
devoted himself to a monastic life. He was ailnjitted
into the order of priesthood by the learned Eusebius,
bishop of Caesarea, and on the death of that patriarch
he was recalled from religious retirement to be hi*-
successor. The controversy which then prevailed
concerning Arianism, which he refused to embrace
at the entreaty of the emperor Valcns, had nearly
involved him in persecution ; and all his influence
was fruitlessly exerted in composing the dissensions
which distracted the eastern and western churches.
He died in 379, and in the fifty-third year of his age.
St Basil is regarded as one of the brightest orna-
ments of the early church. His powerful genius, hig

Base

Basil.

B A S

682

B A S

B«nli»k

Baile.

gkill in controversy, and an exuberant flow oF tlo-
quence, placed him in the first rank in th.e age in
wliJcIi he lived. The Paris edition of his works,
Greek and Latin, and inthiee vols, folio, is consider-
ed the best.

BASILISK, an imaginnry animn! of the reptile
kind, to which very extraordinary potvers were as-
signed in the descriptions of the older nrtturalists,
among which, it was said, that its Incath was so pes-
tilential that no other animal could live near it, and
even its look was fatal to those ou whom it cast its
eyes. But these idle stories, improbable in them-
selves, and fitted only to excite wondtr, or to amuse
credulity, are disproved by accurate observation, and
sink into obocurity before the light of true know-
ledge.

B.^SINGSTOKE, a town of Hampshire in Eng-
land, occupies a fine situation in a fertile open coun-
try, contains a population of 2.589, and has some wool-
len manufactures, particuhirlyshalloons and druggets.
Its market for corn and malt is considerable, and is
greatly facilitated by inland navigation. It is 46
miles west from London.

BASLE, Basil, or Bale, a canton of Switzer-
land, stretching along the banks of the Rhine, about
20 miles in length, and at its greatest breadth about
16 miles, including an area of 160 square miles, and
a population stated at iOjOOO, enjoys a fine climate,
and from the diversified aspect of lofty mountains
and fertile well cultivated vallies, presents some beau-
tiful and picturesque scenery. The vallies afford a-
bundant crops of grain, the hills are clothed with
rich vineyards, the more elevated regions are adorn-
ed with waving forests, and the chain of Jura, rear-
ing its lofty summits in the clouds, seems to form an
insuperable barrier to the M'hcle district. The woods
abound with game, and the waters of the Rhine, as
it rolls its noble current through the canton, are well
stored with excellent fish.

The labours of agriculture are prosperous and pro-
ductive. Silk stufts, printed cottons, gloves, paper-
making, bleaching, and dyeing, are the chief manu-
factures.

Tlie administration of the affairs of the canton is
entrusted to the great and little council. The great
council is composed of 216 members; the little coun-
cil consists of 60 members ; and the four chiefs of the
canton being added, make up the supreme council of
280 persons, in whom are vested the chief direction
of affairs, legislative authority, and the disposal of
the principal offices. But with all the boasted free-
dom and liappiness which the civil polity of this can-
ton was supposed to bestow, and with all the benefits
attending popular elections, undue influence and in-
trigue crept in, and prevailed to such a degree as to
induce the citizens of Basle to have recourse to the
singular mode of choosing their magistrates, filling
up vacancies in offices, and even supplying the va-
cant chairs in the university by lot. Basle was the
first canton which separated from the ancient confe-
deracy, and joined tfie French in their revolutionary
career, and, according to the constitution established
in 1801, formed a department.

BASLE, or Basil, the capital of the canton of
the same name, occupies a fine situation on the banks

of the Rhine, which, with its broad, deep, and rapid Baiii
stream, sc|)arates the city into the large and small ||

town, united by a magnificent bridge of H' arches, J2«»._
and 600 feet in length, and is surroiinded with wails
and a ditch. The houses are remarkable for iioatntss
and elegance ; the streets and squares are spacious ;
and the public fountains, which are numerous, and
copiously supplied with water from the neighbouring
streams, are equally ornamental and salubrious. The
cathedral, a grand Gothic edifice, which includes
within its walls the tomb of Erasmus, the brilliant or-
nament of literature in the fifteenth cciitury, cannot
fail to be venerated by the classical scholar. The
hanger, seal, some ma^iuscript letters, and the last
will of the same learned man, are still preserved with
pious care in the public library, which is also enrich-
ed with other vrJuable manuscripts, and particularly
with the letters of the early reformers ; and in apart-
ments connected with the same institution are depo-
sited many original paintings of the celebrated Hol-
bein, a native of the place. The university founded
in 1460 has enjoyed great reputation, and has been
adorned by some of the most illustrious names in
science and literature.

Basle was at one time regarded as the most popu-
lous town in Switzerland. The population, it is stat-
ed, has been reduced to 14,000, owing, it is ailed-
ged, to emigration, a practice common throughout
the Swiss cantons. The manufactures enumerated in
the account of the canton, are chiefly confined to the
towns. The invention of the manufacture of paper
in 1417, and the discovery of the art of printing in
the succeeding year, are claimed by the inhabitants.
Basle is 120 miles north-cast from Geneva, and 60
miles south from Strasburg.

BASLE, or Basil, a bishopric and province in
the circle of the Upper Rhine in Germany, lies part-
ly in Germany and partly in Switzerland, and is re-
mai-kable for its picturesque scenery. The bishop
was a prince of the German empire before the an-
nexation of the province to the French territory du-
ring the revolution, and has now probablj' been rein-
stated in his authority. The population is stated at
50,000, of whom 15,000 are protestants, who chiefly
reside in the valley of Munster.

BASS, an island in the mouth of the frith of Forth
in Scotland, is about three miles distant from the
southern shore, scarcely exceeds half a mile in cir-
cumference, and, excepting on the south-west side,
where landing is not without difficulty, rises precipi-
tously from the ocean not less than 400 feet above its
surface. The rocks are chiefly of a basaltic nature;
they are adorned with the sea tree mallow, lavatera
arborea, one of the most splendid native plants, which
grows to the height of six feet ; some scanty herbage
aftbrds pasture to a few sheep ; and the Bass has been
long famous as the summer resort of the solan goose,
one thousand oi' tlie young of which are annually
caught for the Edinburgh market. These birds usual-
ly appear about March and April, and migrate in
September.

The Bass, which is now part of the North-Berwick
estate, was once public property ; and during the
distracted reigns of Charles II. and his successor,
served the purpose of a >>tate-prison. At the revc-

BAS

Bo^s-StRiits Uition it was held by some of the adherents of James,
II and is said to have been the last place which yield-
Bassora. ed to the new government. The fortifications were
'^"''^■'^' then di'imantled.

BASS-STRAITS, the channel which separates
New Holland from Van Diemen's land, derives its
name from Mr Bass, a surgeon of the British navy,
the enterprising discoverer, who explored it in an
open boat through its whole extent. The voyages
of future navigators have confirmed his discovery,
and have contributed additional information to ren-
der its geographical details more complete and satis-
factory. The channel is reckoned to be about 50
leagues from east to west, and the breadth in many
places from north to south is not less. The passage
through this channel, although somewhat dangerous
from numerous rocks and islands, abridges the voy-
age from Europe to India, and the seal-fishesy on
the shores and islands promises to become a lucrative
branch of commerce ; but the number of adventur-
ers, among whom the Americans were active and in-
dustrious, soon greatly exceeded the prolific supply
of the animals, the fishery declined, and the Bri-
tish settlenieQt at Fort Plsilip, on the northern sliore,
has been abandoned. Collins's Account ofBoiany Bay.

BASSANO, a town on the river Brenia, in the
Trevisano in Italy, contains a population exceeding
11,000, with 30 churches and two monasteries. The
manufactories of silk and woollen are considerable,
and the business of printing is extensively conduct-
ed. A severe action between the French and Aus-
trians was fought near Bassano, in the early period
of the French revolution. Bassano is 12 miles north
from Vicenza.

BASSET, a game which is played with cards,
and is of so hazardous a nature, that it is said the
inventor, a noble Venetian, was banished ; and very
severe edicts were made against it by Louis XIV.
after its introduction into France.

BASSET, orBASSETiNG, terms employed in coal-
mining operations in some districts, and are analo-
gous to the crop and cropping out of the coal stra-
tum, or that part of the inclined stratum which comes
nearest to the surface of the earth.

BASSO RELIEVO, or Low Relief, is that
kind of sculpture in which figures are so represented
that no part is detached from the back ground, and
is distinguished from alto relievo, high or bold relief,
in which parts of the figures rise above the surface.

BASSOllA, or Bcssora, a commercial city of,
Arabia Irak, occupies a central position between the
junction of the Tigris and Euphrates and the Per-
sian gulf, dates its origin from the caliph Omar,
about the 16th year of the Hegira, who planned and
built it for the purpose of facilitating the trade be-
tween the eastern empire and India, and coiitinucd
under the Saracens till the Turks became its mas-
ters, about the middle of the 17th century. It af-
terwards fell into the hands of the Persiar.s, but af-
ter a short possession was evacuated, and has since
been subject to the dominion of the Ottoman Porte.
In modern times, Bassorah has sustained numerous
iTKuccessfui attacks from the jiew sect of the \'/a-
chaljees. ' ;

The population of Eassorab', composed of Chrls-
I'ans, Jews, Persians, Indians, and Arabiar??, is stated

583 BAS

at 40,000, probably from its languishing commerce, Basti*
a much smaller number than it could boast of in the ||

days of its prosperity. But it is still a considerable Bastilf^.
emporium for exchanging the merchandize and ma-
nufactures of the west for the rich productions of
eastern regions. The annual amount of the trade of
Bassorah, was some years ago, according to Abbe
Raynal, equal to L.52j,000 Sterhng. It is now
chiefly in the hands of the English and Arabians.

B ASTIA, a sea-port town, and capital of the island
of Corsica in the Mediterranean, contains 6000 in-
habitants, and has been often the object of attack
and defence during the political struggles which
have disturbed the repose of Europe. It fell into
the hands of the British in 1794, but has been, since
the general pacification, restored with the island to
its former masters. The harbour is sufficiently com-
modious for small vessels, but the trade is not consi-
derable.

BASTILE, the v/ell known and once dreaded
state prison of France, stood near the gate of Paris,
on the road which leads to St Anthony, and was
erected in 1370, in the reign of Charles V. by D'Au-
briot, mayor of Paris, who it is said became its first
inhabitant. The word signifies a building, and si-
milar structures, destined to similar purposes, were
established in different parts of the French do-
minions. The original building consisted only of
two towers, on opposite sides of the street, and con-
nected by a wall, in the centre of which was the
opening for the city gate. This gate was closed up
when a new approach to that quarter of the city
was made ; other towers were raised, and with con-
necting walls formed two complete courts ; and the
whole was surrounded b}' a ditch secured by a coun-
terscarp. The walls of these courts were of im-
mense thickness, and the height from the pavement
in the inside was not less than 80 feet. Succeeding
monarchs extended and strengthened the various
parts of this immense fabric, as jealousy or despo-
tism required. The towers, the usual places of con-
finement for those who were unfortunately immured
in the Br^tile, consisted of a sunk story, or dungeon,
and four upper stories. The dungeon was paved
and arched with stone ; a little light was sometimes
admitted, and sometimes it was entirely excluded,;
but no stove or fire place was ever allowed. The
dungeons of the towers, it is said, were assigned to
those who had attempted to escape. The four sto-
ries of the towers formed each a single apartment of
18 feet diameter, and of the same height. The walls
of the upper stories were 12 feet thick, and those of
the lower apartments were still thicker. A single
Vvindow admitted light to each apartment ; the win-
dows and chimney were secured by strong double
gratings of iron, iuid the double doors were of oak-
p'anJj, and each three inches thick. A bed, a table,
a chair, and a few necessary utensils, constituted
the whole furniture. The whole internal manasre-
mont of the Bastiie v;as entrusted to a governor and
h's inferior officers. Physicians, chaplains, and a
company of invalids composing the garrison, were
also attcched to the establishment.

Tl'.ose who became the objects of royal or minis-
terial resentment, were committed to the Basti'.e by
secrtjt orders, called lettres de cachet, in which no spe-

B AS

584

B A S

Butilc cific charge was brought against them, no period
fixed for bringing them to trial ; and tlius all hope
of regaining their liberty vanished. They wure pre-
cluded from all connexion with their frionds or tlie
world. Insidious questions ware proposed to them
during their examination, and the hesitating answers
were recollected and recorded, and thus they were
often brought to involve themselves in imaginary
guilt. It is said that torture was at one time employ-
ed to extort information, and that poison had been se-
cretly administered to remove those whose presence
had become too obnoxious even within the walls of
these dreary mansions. But the uncertain state of
mind, under which some of the inhabitants of the
Bastile passed the tedious days of their imprison-
ment, was the bitterest cup of their misery. Often
altogether ignorant of the cause of their confinement
they saw no prospect of its termination. The history
of the Bastile, accordingly, furnishes some examples
of periods of imprisonment which seem almost incre-
dible. When Louis XVI. ascended the throne, he
ordered the registers of the Bastile to be examined,
and some of the prisoners to be released from con-
finement. Among the number was an old man, who
had been secluded from the world for the long space
of 47 years. When his liberty was announced to
him, he seemed scarcely to understand its meaning,
and received the news with none of those feelings of
lively joy which the prospect of so great a boon
usually inspires. Leaving his dungeon, and being
conducted to the street where he had once lived, he
could not discover the least trace of his former a-
bode ; a public building was erected on the spot where
it had stood. His family and relatives were all dead
or dispersed. None of those, even the most advan-
ced in life, whom he addressed, remembered him, or
recollected any of the events to which he alluded.
A whole generation had passed away ; a new race
liad sprung up ; and in his native city he was an ut-
ter stranger. From an old domestic, whom he acci-
dentally discovered, he learned that his wife, worn
out with anxious expectation and unavailing sorrow,
had sunk to the grave 30 years before ; and that his
children had gone abroad to distant climes. At this
tale of woe, the aged man, seeing himself left alone
in the world, groaned deeply, and, it is said, actual-
ly applied to the minister to be restored to his prison,
adding, " Is it possible in the same moment to hear
of this universal destruction and not wish for death ?
How can I survive the loss of relations, of friends, of
a whole generatioi\. There seems nothing terrible in
dying ; but it is indeed a dreadful thing to be the
last." The minister had compassion on the unfor-
tunate old man, caused the ancient domestic to at-
tend him, for he only could converse about his fami-
ly ; and this was the single consolation which he en-
joyed in the new scene of his existence, which the
chagrin and mortification of being the last of his race
soon closed.

The Bastile became an object of the fury of the
populace at an early period of the French revolution.
On the Hth of July 1789, it was attacked and taken
by the Parisian mob, and afterwards razed to the
ground. Seven prisoners only were discovered with-
in its walls, and none of them appeared to have been

the victims of tyranny or wanton oppression. Six Baitmad*
of that number were Frenchmen, one of whom was ||

deranged ; four were imprisoned for forgery ; and Bainllia.
the fifth, who was of the rank of nobility, had been v^^y'^fc/
arrested and confined at his father's request. The
seventh prisoner was an Englishman, also in a state
of mental derangement.

BASTINADO, or Bastinade, a mode of pu-
nishing offenders which was practised among the na-
tions of antiquity, and is common in eastern coun-
tries at this day. The name is derived from the
French baston, signifying a stick or staff, the instru-
ment of punishment. Fustigation, or beating with
sticks, was well known to the Romans ; and the
bastinado of modern times is a summary mode of
punishment among the Turks and Chinese. The
offender is laid prostrate on the ground, his legs
are raised and secured by the ancles in a wooden
apparatus, and two men,' each with a rod about the
thickness of a small walking staff, beat alternately
on the soles of his feet till the number of strokes, from
a few dozens to 300 or iOO, according to the sen-
tence, be completed. A fine, the amount of which
is regulated by the number of strokes inflicted, also
accompanies this punishment among the Turks.

It is not a little singular that this mode of punish-
ment should not be regarded with ignominy among
theirChinese, — a remarkable feature in the character,
when contrasted with the manners and feelings of
Europeans. The emperor himself orders this chas-
tisement to be inflicted on his courtiers, who are not
disgraced, but consider it as a mark of paternal
care, receive it with gratitude, are again admitted in-
to favour, and treated with peculiar respect. E-
very mandarin has the power of ordering a similar
punishment to be inflicted on petty offenders. In the
hall of judgment a bag filled with small sticks is pla-
ced on a table before him. The signal of punishment
is to take one of the sticks from the bag, and to throw
it on the floor towards the offender, who is immediately
seized by the attendant officers, thrown prostrate on
the ground, and receives five smart blows from one
of the officers, and the same number from another ;
and if the mandarin take another stick from the bag,
the same process is repeated, if not, the punishment
is completed, when the culprit falls on his knees be-
fore his judge, and with three inclinations of the bo-
dy, thanks l-.im for the paternal concern which he haa
thus expressed for his morals.,

BASTION, a term in fortification, signifying a
mass of earth faced with sods, brick, or stone, and
projecting from a rampart. Bastions are said to be
solid when the interior is entirely filled up, — void,
or fioltow, when the inside is empty. A Jiat bastion
is built in the middle of the curtain, when it is too
long to be defended by the bastion at its extreme parts.
A cut bastion has the point cut oft", and instead of it
a re-entering angle, with two points outwards. A
demi bastion is composed of one face, and has but
one flank. A double bastion is raided on the plane
of another bastion.

BAT, a genus of animals belonging to the class
Mammalia. See Vespertilio, under Mammalia.

BATALHA, a small village about 60 miles north
from Lisbon in Portugal, which is remarkable f»r

BAT

Bafeivia owe oi' the most magnificent specimens of Gothic
II arcliitecture in Europe. This splendid structure is
Bath. indebted for -its origin to Don John, the first of the
name as king of Portugal, who being invaded by the
king of Castile with a powerful army, invoked the
protection of the Virgin, and having defeated Ins
enemy, raised this noble structure as a lasting memo-
rial of his gratitude. The monastery of Batalha was
founded in 1385, and the architect who designed and
constructed this grand edifice was, it is said, a native
of Ireland. The whole building, but especially the
mausoleum of the founder himself, is richly decorat-
ed with an immense profusion of all kinds of orna-
ments, some of which are of a hieroglyphical descrip-
tion, and are scarcely intelligible. The monastery of
Batalha is the burying-place of the royal family of
Portugal. The earthquake of tlie first of Novem-
ber 1755, which laid Lisbon in ruins, and was felt
throughout Europe, did considerable injury to the
buildings; and the spire of the mausoleum was thrown
down. The curiosity of those who wish to be ac-
quainted with this magnificent Gothic structure,
^vill be amply rewarded by consulting the splendid
■work of Mr iVIurphy, exhibitingy)/a«.9, elevations, sec-
tions and views qftlie Church nf Batalha.

B ATA VI A, one of the principal towns of the
island of Java, and formerly the capital of the Dutch
settlements in the East Indies. See Java.

BATCHISARAI, or BAKTCinsARAr, a town
of the Crimea, which is famous as the ancient resi-
dence of the Tartar klians, or governors of the coun-
try, and occupies the sides of two mountains and
the intermediate valley which is traversed by a river.
The streets are long and narrow, and are filled
■with shops. But the towers of numerous mosques,
the tall poplars, the terraces, fountains, and hanging-
gardens, render the whole scene extremely pictur-
esque, when it is seen from a distance. The population,
composed of Tartars, Jews, Greeks, and Armenians,
is nearly 6000 ; and cutlery, morocco leather, wool-
len stuffs, and rope-making, are the chief manufac-
tures.

BATH, a city of Somersetshire in England, is fine-
ly situated on the side of a narrow valley on the
banks of the Avon, is well sheltered by a range of
hills on all sides, excepting to the north-west, where
the vale expands into rich meadows, and derives its
modern, as well as its ancient names, from the qua-
lity or uses of its copious mineral springs. The "hot
waters" of Ptolemy ; the Anvsx. Sons, " waters of
the sun," of the Romans ; " the city of baths" of the
Britons, and the " city of valetudinarians" of the
Saxons, have each its obvious allusion.

Ancient city. — The local position of Bath, and the
enjoyment of warm-bathing, so congenial to the ha-
bits of the luxurious Romans, rendered it a favour-
ite residence, and one of their chief towns during their
stay in Britain. Two spacious streets, crossing each
other at right angles, and terminating in four gates,
which looked to the four cardinal points, divided the
town into four parts, and gave it a regular form. The
general outline was somewhat of ^ five-sided figure,
the sides of which were nearly equal ; and a wall
composed of stone and brick, 20 feet in height, and
flanked with round towers at each angle, included an

VOL. I. PART II.

585

BAT

area of 1000 square yards. The temples, baths, and
other public edifices which they erected, were of
the most magnificent description. In 1755, the re-
mains of an elegant structure, destined to the pur-
pose of a sudatory, was discovered 20 feet below the
surface, in digging the foundation of a modern build-
ing. The floor of the ancient fabric, which was still
entire, was supported by pillars, and surrounded by
tubulated bricks, to permit the passage of the heat
and vapour. This bath was supplied from a liot
spring ; and the sewer for the conveyance of the
waste water was still in a perfect state. But the re-
possession of Bath by the Britons after the departure
of the Romans, or the succeeding invasion of the
kingdom by the Saxons, was fatal to the splendour of
this fine city. A period of 200 years had scarcely
elapsed, when the Roman city had totally changed
its aspect ; and Roman magnificence could only be
traced in the fragments of columns, sculptures, and o-
ther architectural decorations inserted into the walls
which the invaders had erected for their own de-
fence. Amidst the revolutions of the kingdom, and
the various changes of its own fortunes, Bath seems
to have been always a place of importance and con-
sideration. The population was respectable at the
time of the Norman conquest ; in the time of Henry
VIII. the manufacture of woollen stuffs was prosj>e-
rous ; and for the improvement of its municipal in-
stitutions, Queen Elizabeth renewed and enlarged its
charters and privileges.

Modern city — Bath, in its present state, is pro-
nounced the pride of England and the admiration of
foreigners ; and its elegant streets, spacious squares,
and magnificent buildings, seem to entitle it to this
distinguished appellation. The Royal Crescent, a
noble assemblage of thirty houses, distributed in an
elliptical form, and adorned with Ionic columns, sup-
porting the superior cornice, commands a picturesque
view of great part of the city ; the Circus, in which
the buildings, decorated with three ranges of pillars
of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, are dis-
posed circularly, and constructed according to the
same uniform design, has, in the centre, a fine re-
servoir of water, collected from springs in the higher
grounds, and destined to supply the neighbouring
streets ; and the Old Assembly Rooms, 90 feet in
length, .S6 feet in breadth, and 34 feet in height, af-
ford a charming prospect of the river and the sur-
rounding hills ; but the New Assembly Rooms, com-
pleted in 1771, are still more spacious and elegant;
of which the ball-room is 106 feet long, 42 feet wide,
and the same dimensions in height ; and of two card-
rooms, one is of an octagonal form, and 48 feet in
diameter, and the other, of a rectangular form, is
70 feet long and 27 feet broad. The public hospi-
tals, for the relief of the sick and poor, are nume-
rous and well-regulated, and some of the edifices are
elegant structures. The Abbey-churcli, with its no-
ble tower, rich west window, and arched door-waj-,
and the splendid monuments with which the inside
is decorated, is an admired specimen of architec-
ture.

Waters, haihs, — The Bath water is impregnated
with a small portion of iron, a little calcareous and si-
liceous earth, and a small proportion of azotic and

Bath.

BAT

586

B A T

Bath

Batnir.

carbonic acid gases. Beside a nun ber of private baths,
four on a large scale, destined to the use of the pub-
lic, have been constructed. The King's bath, 68
feet long and 40 broad, is supplied from a spring in
the centre, which is inclosed by a brass rail, and
is surrounded by an elegant Doric colonnade ; the
Queen's bath, supplied from the former, is a bason
2;) feet square ; the Cross-bath, at the end of Bath
street, is of a triangular form ; and the hot-bath, in
which the water rises to the temperature of 1 17° Fah-
renheit, is erected at the distance of 120 feet from
the King's bath.

PovMation, S^c. — Tlie number of inhabitants esti-
mated at 27,686 in the year 1801, had increased in
18 11 to 81,496. Bath may be regarded as a place in
which, from the great resort of fashionable company,
the wealth and taste of the kingdom are displayed,
rather than the seat of trade and manufactures. The
amusements are regulated and conducted according
to the most polished forms of etiquette ; the rides
and walks in the vicinity are delightful ; and accom-
modations of all kinds for those who seek health
or pursue pleasure, are abundantly provided.

Batli has been long distinguished by a respectable
institution, the Bath and West of England Society
for the Encouragement of Agriculture, Manufactures,
tiC. and the intelligence and activity of its members
are sufficiently conspicuous in the volumes of its
Transactions before the public. The Philosophical
Society, for the purpose of promoting literature and
science, was instituted in 1799. Bath and Wells form
one bishopric, and the diocese includes the whole of
Somersetshire, excepting a few churches in the city
of Bristol. Warner's history of Bath.

BATH, Knights of, a military order in Eng-
land, which is supposed to derive its name from the
ancient practice of bathing, which was one of the so-
lemn nVw observed previously to installation, and an
emblematical expression of the obligation to pre-
serve integrity and purity of mind. It is supposed
that this order was introduced into England by the
Saxons ; William the Conqueror conferred it both
on his Norman and English subjects ; but it seems
not to have been fully instituted till the time of
Henry IV. who, on the day of his coronation, no-
minated forty-six companions. It continued after-
wards, at the celebration of the royal nuptials, or
other solemn occasions, to be the practice of his suc-
cessors to create Knights of the Bath ; and at the
coronation of Charles II. a splendid installation of
sixty-eight knights took place. It fell into disuse
till the year 172.5, when it was revived by George I.
erected into a military order, to be composed of a
grand master and thirty-six knights- companions, and
regulated by a system of statutes drawn up for its
government. See Heraldry.

BATHING is the immersion of part or the whole
of the body in water or some other fluid. Cold and
hot water, salt and fresh water, mineral waters, and
steam or vapour, are employed with different inten-
tions for the purpose of bathing. See Materia
Medica.

BATNIR, the capital of a district in the north-
east quarter of Hindostan, some parts of the district
of which are near the banks of the rivers, and have

the advantage of annual inundations,- are distinguish- Satracho-
ed by the fertility of the soil, and produce abundant inyomacliia.
crops of rice, wheat, and barley ; but the more ele- ||
vated regions, which are subject to severe droughts, Battel,
are no less remarkable for their sterility.

The inhabitants of this country, who profess Ma-
hometanism, are described as a cruel and ferocious
people, addicted to plunder from tlieir earliest years,
and even, it is said, wantonly putting to death the
unfortunate victims who fall into their hands.

BATRACHOMYOMACHIA, from the Greek,
signifying the Battle of the Frogs and Mice, is the
title of a burlesque Greek poem, which has been ge-
nerally ascribed to Homer. The subject of the work
is the death of a mouse, who being mounted on the
back of a frog, on a voyage to her palace, to which
he had been invited, was seized with fear in the mid-
dle of the water, fell off, and was drowned. The
mice, suspecting that their friend had not been fairly
treated, demanded satisfaction, and declared war
against the frogs.

BATTALION, a body of infantry composed of
an indeterminate number of men, varying from 500
to 1000. In the British army, some regiments con-
sist of a single battalion, but others have two or more.
BATTEL, or Battle, a town of Sussex in Eng-
land, which is famous in history on account of the
abbey called Battel abbey, which was erected by
William the Conqueror to commemorate his victory
over Harold king of England on the 14th October
1066. The magnificent remains of this edifice, which
are yet visible, aftbrd ample proof of its ancient splen-
dour. Battle has been long celebrated for the manu-
facture of gunpowder of an excellent quality ; the
number of inhabitants in 1801 exceeded 2000, and
the distance from Hastings is six miles, and from
London 57 miles.

BATTEL, or Battle, or Trial by Wager of
Battle, is a mode of deciding differences which was
resorted to in the less civilized periods of society
in Europe, and no doubt derived its origin from the
military spirit of the times, and the pious but super-
stitious confidence in the interposition of heaven in
favour of the injured party. "The regular Ibrms of
judiciary combats are supposed to have been first in-
troduced among the Burgundi, a tribe of Germans
who settled in Gaul. But a wider range of obser- -
vation may trace the spirit of the practice, if not the
formal solemnities, to every ancient warlike nation.
Under the immediate influence of their tutelary di-
vinities, the heroes of Homer often engaged their
enemies in single combat ; aided by the God of
battles, David, on the part of Israel, slew Goliah,
the champion of the Philistines ; and of a similar cha-
racter, although three warriors fought on each side,
was the desperate conflict between the Horatii and
Curiatii, which holds so conspicuous a place in Ro-
man history.

But the judiciary combat assumed its most pro-
minent feature in the feudal ages, and became a part
of the civil polity of those countries where feudal
institutions were established. This mode of trial was
introduced into England by William the Conqueror,
aad it was employed in military, criminal, and civil
cases ; the first in the court martial, or the court of

B A V

587

B A V

Battering chivalry and honour, the second in appeal:! of felony,
II and the third upon issue joined in a writ of right, the

Bavan'a. last and most solemn decision of real property. The
last trial of this kind, waged in the Court of Com-
mon Pleas at Westminster, was in 1571, in the time
of Queen Ehzabeth, and was held in Tothil-fields.
In 1631, a trial fay battle took place in the court of
chivalry ; and a similar case occurred in 1638, in the
county palatine of Durham. Of the equity of such
decisions, no remark is necessary to rational readers ;
and yet the duel of modern times, which is still re-
sorted to as the test of honour, and practised in open
violation of the laws of God and man, may justly be
regarded as a barbarous remnant of the false notions
in which the whole system originated.

BATTERING, in modern warfare, is the attack
of a strong place with heavy artillery.

BATTERING-RAM, an ancient military engine,
which was employed in beating down the walls of
besieged places, which is said to have been invented
in the fifth century before the Christian era. This
machine was composed of a beam, sometimes 80 and
100 feet in length, headed with iron resembling a
ram's head, from whence the name, and suspended by
ropes from a strong frame, which moved on wheels.
The iron head of the beam was propelled against the
wall intended to be battered, by the labour of men ;
and sometimes not fewer than a hundred were em-
ployed in the operation.

BATTERY. See Fortification under Wak.

BATTERY, Electrical and Galvanic. See Elec-
tricity

BATTLE, an engagement between two hostile
armies. See War.

BAVARIA, a circle or kingdom of Germany, si-
tuated between ■t?" and 48° of north latitude, and
10° and 13° of longitude east from Greenwich ; is
bounded by Franconia and Bohemia on the north,
by Austria and Styria on the east, by Carinthia and
Tyrol on the south, and by Swabia on the west, and
contains the archbishopric of Salzburg, indenting it-
self between Austria and the Tyrol, the duchy of
Bavaria occupying the south-western division, and
the palatinate reaching from the Danube to the
confines of Franconia and Bohemia. This region
from south to north extends 200 British miles in
length ; and from east to west it is about 130 in
breadth.

Physical state The external appearance of Ba-
varia is greatly diversified by high mountains and
deep vallies ; by numerous lakes, and copious streams;
by large cities, and smaller towns ; by stately mis-
sions, and scattered hamlets. Many of its mountains,
especially toward Tyrol, rise to the clouds in bold,
precipitous, rocky masses ; many of them are thickly
clothed with deep, and even impenetrable forests ;
and many of them are verdant with rich and luxuriant
pastures. They are composed of granite, gneis, mi-
caceous, and argillaceous schistus; and in many places
abound with metallic ores. A multitude of lakes, to
the number of 176, as travellers report, of various
sizes, and at frequent intervals, is scattered over
the whole of the southern side of the country ; and
these lakes, which derive their waters from the melt-
ed snow of the mountains, feed the rivers which tra-
2

verse, beautify, and enrich the region. Of these ri-
vers the majestic Danube, in its course from Swabia
towards Austria, divides Bavaria into two great de-
partments, and is augmented by numerous tributary
streams. Except the Altmuhl and the Nab, the ri-
vers of the division north of the Danube are not con-
siderable ; but that of the south, which is the region
of the lakes, is intersected in every direction by ma-
ny large streams. On the east, the Inn, which ri-
ses in Switzerland, and flows towards the Danube,
through the archbishopric of Salzburg, forms the line
of separation between Austria and Bavaria ; and the
Lech, which has its source in Tyrol, divides it from
Swabia; and the Iser, as it winds its way in the same
direction through the heart of the country, receives
many tributary streams.

Productions. — Bavaria is rich in minerals ; in her
rocks are mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, and
lead ; also quarries of marble, with an endless store
of architectural materials. Pearls have been found
in some of her rivers ; and her alum and salt excite
the industry of the people, and afford a revenue to
the state. Her mountainous soil, indeed, is less a-
dapted for the culture of corn than for the rearing
of cattle ; but on the banks of the rivers, and in the
retired vallies, are many fertile tracts; and most of that
part of the country which stretches from Munich to
the Danube, is well fitted for all the purposes of
agriculture. But this art, which tends so much
to promote the beauty of a country, and to secure
the independencef and mark the improvement of
a people, has hitherto, in Bavaria, continued in the
most wretched condition. Under a proper system of
management she might easily support a far denser
population, well supplied with the richest gifts of the
teeming earth ; her warm vallies would nourish the
vine, and bring to maturity some of the choicest
fruits, — would crown her year with abundance, fill
her barns with plenty, and the houses and the hearts
of her inhabitants with gladness. And j'et, through
neglect, induced by ignorance and impolicy, this
country, so highly favoured by nature, continues al-
most destitute, not only of orchards and vineyards,
but even of the common culinary vegetables, and
knows no other system of culture but that which has
descended from remote and barbarous antiquit}'.

Social and politicabstate. — The population of Ba-
varia has lately been ascertained with all the inqui-
sitorial scrutiny which marked the reign of Napoleon
Bonaparte. By his ordonnance, issued in the year
1808, it was divided into the following 15 circles:
Mein, Pegniz, Nab, Retzal, Altmuhl, Upper Da-
nube, Lech, Regen, Lower Danube, Iser, Salzbach,
Iller, Inn, Eisak, and Adigc, extending over a sur-
face of 1636 square miles, and containing 3,231,538
inhabitants.

Cities Bavaria is thickly studded with cities,

towns, and villages, of which the principal are Mu-
nich, the capital of the country, built on the Iser, a-
dorned with an elegant palace, and many other public
buildings, and enriched also by an academy of sciences
founded in 1759, and inhabited by more than 50,000
human beings : Ingolstadt, 45 miles north of Mu-
nich, (he seat of a university ; this town contains
7000 inhabitants, is regularly built on the Danube,

Banna.

B A V

588

B A V

BaTaiia. it IS fortified by a wall and environed by a marsh, so
^-^"^.-"^ that it is one of the strongest towns in Germany :
Fricdberg, a little town, but famous for clocks and
watches : Salzburg, the capital of the archbishopric
of that name, situated amid wooded rocks and culti-
vated hills, having a university, a cathedral, a pa-
lace, and 15,000 inhabitants: Aniberg, the capital of
the palatinate, a fortified town, with a palace, a ca-
thedral, &c. and about 5000 inhabitants : Passau,
built on a hill at t!ie conflux of the Inn and the Da-
nube, a trading town, with 9000 inhabitants, famous
for the treaty between Charles V. and the Elector of
Saxony, concluded in 1552; and Ratisbon, an impe-
rial city, -at the conflux of the Regen and the Da-
nube, fortified in the form of a crescent, and con-
taining nearly 30,000 inhabitants.

Maintfactiires, Sfc. — Those arts which minister to
the luxury of the opulent, are more practised in Ba-
varia than such as tend to excite the industry and
enterprise of the people ; to open the sources of in-
dividual emolument and of national wealth, and to
promote the solid enjoyment and the respectability
of life. She has in her capital more goldsmiths and
engravers, hairdressers and gingerbread-bakers, than
manufacturers of leather, or woollen, or cotton-cloth.
Tobacco and salt are ths staple commodities which
are prepared for the market, as well as produced in
the country. But she exports great quantities of
timber, iron, rough hides, raw wool, &c.

Government The assembly of the states of Bava-
ria is made up of three orders, — the prelates, the no-
bility, and the people. The half of the votes belong
to the nobility, and the other half is divided equally
between the other two orders. The duchy is divided
into four governments, — Munich, Strauliing, Land-
shut, and Burghausen, each of which is represented
by two peers, a prelate, and a deputy for the towns,
in the assembly of the states. The hereditary offi-
ces of the elector, now the king, are the governor of
the royal domains, the steward, marshal, cup-bearer,
and huntsman. In respect of rights and dignities,
the king, except the circumstance of his new title, is
nearly on the same footing with the electors before
him. He is arch-seneschal of the empire.

Revenue — A tax is levied on all the land of the
electorate without exception. The 25th part of the
produce constitutes the tax, for which the farmer has
a draw-back for feu-duty and the expense of culture.
This impost on the land is denominated the general
revenue of the country. The electoral revenues a-
rise from fines, quit-rents, escheats, and other baro-
nial rights, from duties on breweries, on the commo-
dities consumed in the towns, on salt-works, coinage,
the produce of the forests, and on imports; the an-
nual amount of the whole of these imposts is estima-
ted at 12,(X)0,()00 of florins. Bavaria maintains a
military force of about 12,000 men. They are said
to be impatient of discipline and order, much dispo-
sed to ravage a hostile country, but witlial exhibiting
occasionally surprising fe;its of bravery.

Religious and mdral st.'tii: — The Roman catholic re-
ligion IS established in this part of Gennany. The
archiepiscopal see ef Salzburg was founded by Ru-
pert, an Englishman, in 716. The archbishop is pri-
, mate of all Germany, and as, of the 24' persons of
high rank which compose his chapter, 20 are Aus-

trians, the whole court, in political matter?, is un-
der the influence of Auslriii. 'I'lie whole country
abounds with religious house.!, churc!ies, chapels,
and convents ; and swarms v ith ecclesiastical per-
sons of difterent orders, full of nnitunl hatred towards
each other, but maintaining an unlimittd influence
over the people of every rank. Half of the inlia-
bitants were once protestants, but, owing to the per-
secutions by whiih they were harassed, most of
them have abandoned their native soil ibr the wood*
of America. Iiuliilgences are sold at a moderate
price for the most enormous ci-iiiies. After this it
will be unnecessary to add, that superstition and bi-
gotry are the prominent qualities of a IJavarian's
religious character. It is easj- to infer the moral
influence of such a corrupted creed; and in this
the most uncharitable reasoner will not exceed the
truth. The representations which travellers have
given us of the disgu^^ting gropsness of the Bavarian
manners, seems indeed almost incredible. The pea-
sants are coarse, slovenly, and, ferocious, living in
hovels full of smoke, filth, and vermin. The court
of Munich maintains no less than four thousand men,
who, from ignorance, have no relish for rational em-
ployment, but spend their whole time in gaming and
debauchery. Their example is imitated, and" the
contagion spreads throughout the country, till, ac-
cording to the remark of a Gascon officer, Bavaria
has become the largest brothel in the world,

Charadcrlslic incident. — A scene, of which Ba-
ron Reisbach was an eye witness, will illustrate
Bavarian superstition and brutality. " I happen-
ed, says the Baron, to stroll into a dark black .
country beer-house, filled with clouds of tobacco,'
and on entering I was almost stunned with the noise
of the drinkers. By degrees, however, my eyes pene-
trated through the thick vapours, when 1 discovered
the priest of the place among fifteen or twenty drunken
fellows. His black coat was as bad as the frocks of
his flock, and, like the rest of them, he had cards in
his left hand, which he struck so forcibly on the dirty
table, thafthe whole chamber trembled. At first I was
shocked at the violent abuse they gave each other,
and thought they had been quarrelling, but soon
found that the appellations which shocked me were
only modes of friendly salutation among them.
Every one had drunk his six or eight pots of beer,
and they desired the landlord to give them a dram
of brandy, by way thej' said of locking the stomach.
But now their good humour departed, and prepara-
tions were made for a fray, which at length broke
out. At first the priest took pains to suppress it ;
he swore, he roared as much as the rest. Now one
seized a pot and threw it at his adversary's head ;
another clenched his fist ; a third pulled the legs from
a stool to knock his enemy on the head ; every thing
seemed to threaten blood and death, when, on the
ringing of a bell for evening prayer, Ave Maria ye !
cries the priest, and down dropped their arms, they
pulled off their bonnets, folded their hands, and re-
peated their Ave Marias. As soon, however, as their
prayers were over, their former fury returned with
renewed violence ; pots and glasses began to fly. I
observed the priest creep under the table for seciu-ity,
and I withdrew into the landlord's bed-chamber."
After this, we are not surprised to learn Irom the

Bnt«ri».

B A V

589

B AX

same author, that in external appearance a Bavarian
k«^ is a most grotesque figure, ratlier a caricature than
a man. His head is round, and his cliin peaked ;
his l)elly is prominent, and his legs short and unshape-
ly, his eyes sunk, and his CJmplexion pale ; tlie
whole exhibiting the most ungainly awkwardness, and
betraying inbred depravity. But how is tiiis descrip-
tion to be reconciled with that of the women, with
s which it is completely contrasted ? They are repre-
sented as being exquisitely beautiful. Their form is
perfect symmetrj', — the pure whiteness of the lily,
softly tinged with warm purple, as if by the hands of
the graces, gives a clear transparency to their com-
plexions ; their manners are lively, graceful, and ele-
gant ; in short, from head to foot, in body and mind,
they arc said to be altogether lovely.

Hisiorij. — Kavriria derives its name from the Boii,
an ancient Celtic tribe of Gaul. During the decline
of the Roman empire, and the kingdoms which rose
on its ruins, she was subject to many masters, and
was severed and separated into many fractional parts,
according as the sons and servants of her conquerors
were in want of inheritances. In the ninth century
tlie I'rancic family assumed the title of kings of Ba-
varia.' In the thirteenth century the house of Bava-
ria acquired the palatinate by marriage. Frederick
V. elector palatine, married tlie daughter of Jumes I.
of England, and aspired unsuccessfully to the crown
of Bohemia. But, by the treaty of VVestphalia, his
son regained the dominions which had formerly be-
longed to his family, and was created eight elector
of the empire. Maximilian II. was put under the
ban of the empire, but afterwards recovered his pos-
sessions ; and his son, Charles Albert, in 1742, was
raised to the imperial throne. On the death of his
son, Maximilian Joseph, the house of Bavaria became
extinct, and the electorate was suopressed. On this
event Austria wished to annex Bavaria to her domi-
nions, but her pretensions were opposed by Frederick
of Prussia.

Bavaria was early and deeply involved in the Frencli
revolutionary wars. In 1799, Moreau found means to
conclude a treaty for a cessation of hostilities, at a mo-
ment when Austria was threatened with invasion. The
peace of Campo Formio increased the influence which
France had sometime before begun to exert over her.
After t'le victory of Ilohenlinden, and the succeed-
ing peace of Luneville, her subjection to France was
complete ; and as the reward of her alliance, she was,
in 1806, elevated to the title of a kingdom, and ex-
tended by the accession of Tyrol, and several other
provinces. In the same j'ear, Bonaparte's stepson,
Eugene Beauharnois, married Augusta Amelia, a
princess of the reigning family of Bavaria. But the
connection between these two countries, now strength-
ened by so many ties, was soon to be unbound by
the operation of an unforeseen cause. The loss
of her army in the horrible retreat from Moscow,
in 1813, and the hatred inspired by the tyranny of
Bonaparte, paved the way for this event. Soon
after it she united and acted in concert with Aus-
tria. During the alliance against the lawless am-
bition of France, Bavaria, with an army of 60,00()
men, powerfully joined the allies with a cordial
co-operation : And on the success which crowned

their exertions, and the negociafions by which thoy
were followed, Bavaria has recovered her rank and
lier independence among the states of Europe. She
is to receive her share of the contribution money paid
by France ; the title of kingdom is confirmed, and
the king is to ])0ssess the grand duchy of Wurt/.burg,
as it was held bj the archduke Ferdinand of Austria,
and the principalit}' of Aschaifenburg, as it made
part of the duchy of Franconia.

BAUFIIN, John and Gaspard, two eminent bo-
tanists of the 16th century. John, the elder brother,
was born at Lyons in France, in 1,545, removed to
Basil with his father's family, was appointed profes-
sor of rhetoric in that university, and for the last
forty years of his life, which terminated in 1613, he
was physician to the Duke of Wirtemberg at Mont-
belliard. The great botanical work, Hitfoiia Plan-
tantr.i, ivc. in 3 volumes iblio, which was the labour
of great part of his life, was not published till 1651'.

Gaspard Bauhin, who wasboi'n in 1560, and died a-
bout the same time with his brother, practised as a phy-
sician at Basle; was at first professor of Greek, and af-
terwards of anatomy and botany, and was the author
of Pinax Thcalri Botanici, &c. or an index of the
plants referred to or described by the ancient bota-
nists. The names of John and Gaspard Bauhin, are still
venerated by the lovers of botany, and hold a con-
spicuous place among those who contributed to re-
vive and promote botanical knowledge.

BAUIIINIA, Mountain Ebony, a genus of
plants so denominated to comnu-'morate the illustri-
ous botanists, the brothers Bauhin, and belonging to
the Decandria class.

BAXTER, Richard, an eminent English divine,
was a native of Shropshire, and was born in 1615 ;
and was not more distinguished by the extent and
popularity of his writings, than remarkable for the
scanty opportunities which he enjoyed of acquiring
the elements of literature and science. Unaided by
the instructions and discipline of any public se-
minary, he is indebted for his reputation to the
force of his own genius, and the unerasing ex-
ertions of patient and laborious industry. His e-
lementary studies were "directed by his father, and
other private individuals, in the progress of which
early indications appeared of a contenij>lative mind,
and a strong bias to literary pursuits. In his eigh-
teenth year he visited London, with a recommen-
dation to the master of the revels, for the purpose of
obtaining some employment at court; but the bustle
and pageantry of the scenes which he witnessed were
ill-suited to his temper and thoughtful habits, and
after a month's absence he returned w ith a double re-
lish to his former studies. Admitted to ordination
five years afterwards, he was first an assistant at
Bridgenorth, and in 1640, he was appointed vicar,
or stated preacher at Kidderminster, where he exer-
cised his ministerial functions with the most exem-
plary diligence and remarkable success.

The civil dissensions which soon after distracted
the kingdom, and involved it in scenes of bloodshed,
drove him from his residence, and forced him to seek
an asylum in various quarters of England. IF join-
ed the parliament, b;carae chaplain of a re;:;iu;ent,
and was always zealous and active in tlie suppression-

B3nhi«

Ba\ter.

BAY

590

BAY

Btu-cT "'" turbulence; he seems to have been greatly respect-
H ed by tliose in power, was employed to preach before

Bayeux. the highest authorities ; disapproved of revolutionary
principles, and, after the restoration, he was appointed
chaplain to Cliarles II. But although he was in
much favour with that monarch, was consulted on
the plans for settling the affairs of church govern-
ment in Scotland, and was offered his choice of pre-
ferments in that part of the kingdom, and even, it is
said a bishopric in England, — as he stood forward a-
mong the non-conformists, he suffered severely from
the o])pressive measures of the times, and was sub-
jected to tines and imprisonment. He died in 1695,
when he had reached his 76th year.

" Richard Baxter," says his biographer, " was a
man famous for weakness of body and strength of
mind ; for having the strongest sense of religion him-
self, and exciting a sense of it in the thoughtless and
profligate ; for preaching more sermons, writing more
books, and engaging in more controversies than any
other non-conformist of his age. He spoke, disputed,
and wrote with ease ; and discovered the same intre-
pidity when he reproved Cromwell and expostulated
with Charles H. as when he preached to a congrega-
tion of mechanics." His works were collected in
four volumes, and have been abridged and published
in a more con)[)endious form. The Sainls Everlasting
Best ; Call to the Unconverted, of which 20,000 copies
were disposed of in a single year, and which was trans-
lated into all the European languages, and even into
the Indian tongue ; Poor Man's Family/ Booh; Dying
Thoughts, and Narrative of his own Life and Times,
are still popular ; and the commendation of Baxter's
works by Dr Johnson, is worthy of notice : " Read
any of them," says the great moralist, " they are all
good."

BAXTER, Andrew, a metaphysical writer, was
born at Aberdeen about the year 1687, educated at
the university of his native city, and seems to have
been chiefly employed as a travelling tutor. As an
author he is best known bj' his Inquiry into the Na-
ture of the Soul, a work whicli attracted the notice of
the learned. The later years of his life were spent
in studious retirement at the sequestered village of
Wliittinghamin East Lothian, in Scotland. He died
in 1750.

BAYEN, Peteh, a French chemist of some cele-
brity, was born at Chalons in 1725, studied pharma-
cy under an apothecary at Paris, and during the seven
years war in Germany held the place of .apothecary
to the army. He was afterwards engaged at the
public expence, to analyse the mineral w-aters of
France ; but although he was disappointed in the
prosecution of this agreeable undertaking, he conti-
nued his chemical researches, and directed them to
other objects ; and he was fortunate in the discovery
of tlie important fact, that the excess of weight gain-
ed by a metallic substance during calcination, and
its cliangeinto the state of oxide, is owing to the ab-
sorption of air, and thus led the way to the final over-
throw of the celebrated phlogistic theory. He died
in 1798.

BAYEUX, a town of the department of Calvados
in France, contains a population of about 10,000, and
ha$«orac trade in leather. It is celebrated for a mag-

nificent cathedral, and not less so for a famous piece
of tapestry, executed by Matilda, the wife of William
the Conqueror, and representing the history of tne
conquest of England. This precious relic, which is
nearly 150 yards in length, and about two feet in
breadth, was removed to Paris during the revolution,
and engravings of it have been published in Duca-
rel's Anglo-Norman Antiquities.

BAYLE, Peter, the celebrated author of a his-
torical and critical dictionary, was born 164-7, at Car-
la in France, where his father was minister of a pro-
testant congregation. The questions which, even in
childhood, he proposed to his parents for solution,
displayed a mind of superior capacity, and inspired
the hope of future distinction. His father superin-
tended his education till he was 19 years of age, and
then sent him to the academy of Puylaurens, where,
such was his love of learning, that he devoted even
his hours of amusement to study. This over exer-
tion induced a disease which threatened his life, and
for some months interrupted his pursuits.

In 1669, he entered the university of Toulouse, was
admitted a student of philosophy in the Jesuits' col-
lege, and to the inconsolable grief of his family be-
came a convert to the Catholic creed. After a short
stay he left Toulouse, and returned to his former
faith ; and his friends, perhaps dreading a relapse,
sent him instantly to Geneva. Here his genius and
his learning soon procured for him distinction and
patronage. Mr Basnage, in particular, was zealous
and active and persevering in promoting his interest.
Through his recommendation he was tutor in three dif-
ferent families, which a discontented temper made him
in quick succession unnecessarily exchange, complain-
ing first of tlie seclusion of the country, and then of
tlic unhonoured condition of a preceptor. When the
philosophy chair of the Protestant academy of Sedan
became vacant, Mr Basnage induced him to be a can-
didate, and, in a comparative trial, he took the place
from all his competitors. He was elected to this of-
fice on the 2d November, took the oaths on the 4th,
and began his lectures on the 1 1th of the same month,
1675. In this situation Bayle was associated with Ju-
rieu, who was professor of divinity.

His lectures were much admired, and he was still
rising in reputation, when, in 1681, the academy of
Sedan, along with all the other protestant institutions
in France were suppressed by the government. A
few months after this event, a school similar to that
of Sedan was instituted at Rotterdam, both for him
and his colleague.

The great comet of 1 680 gave rise to Bayle's first
publication. Its appearance and eccentric motion
had been viewed with alarm, as the harbinger of some
signal calamity, and Bayle wrote a book to assure the
world that comets afford no indication of divine dis-
pleasure. In defence of the Reformation, he next
composed a criticism of Maimbourg's History of Cal-
vinism. Jurieu wrote on the same subject, but was
little noticed by the public, — a circumstance which
is said to have excited in his mind a dislike to his ri-
val which rankled into hatred.

In 1684 he commenced a literary and critical jour-
nal, entitled News from the If epiiblic of Letters. This
was deservedly a popular work ; and in its second

Br.vle.

BAY

591

B£A

Bavonet. v^^'") when he first inscribed it with his name, he was
,^'V^fc' honoured with letters of approbation from most of
the learned societies of Europe. Through the insti-
gation of Jurieu, and the removal of his friends from
power, Bayle was, in 1693, deprived of his profes-
sorship, with all its emoluments. But his own forti«
tude, and the esteem of the public, which was now
eagerly testified in his favour, enabled him easily to
sustain this calamity. 'J he first volume of his Histor
rical and Critical Dictionary, the scheme of which
lie had advertised some years before, was now in the
press, and he was delighted with the leisure he en-
joyed to superintend its printing. Tiie moment this
work appeared it was instantly bought up, and loud-
ly praised. A new edition in four volumes was pub-
lished in 1701. And soon after he sent a less elabo-
rate work into the world, entitled, Ansrcers to the
Questions of a Country Gentleman, containing much
of the lighter matter of the Dictionary.

From his first appearance as an autiior, Bayle was
deeply involved in controversy, and the publication
of his Dictionary served to increase the number of
his antagonists, and to multiply the topics of debate.
Jurieu, actuated by a malignant spirit, was always
ready to decry whatever he advanced ; Le Clerc and
others disputed with him concerning the nature of
things and the origin of evil ; and the consistory of
the Walloon church of Rotterdam cautioned him to
be on his guard in future respecting the doctrines
which he ventured to publish. He was busily employ-
ed in the composition of explanations, defences, and
rejoinders, when he was seized with a decay of the
lungs, of which he died on the 28th December 1707.
He left some property to his relatives, and bequeath-
ed some legacies to his friends.

Bayle was a man of frugal habits, and entirely de-
voted to study ; he possessed a faithful memory, well
furnished wiUi all kinds of knowledge ; but he seems
to have had little skill in the management of his ma-
terials. His Dictionary, which is his greatest work,
is thus characterised by himself: — " It is nothing
else," says he, " but a confused compilation of pas-
sages tacked together, — a medley of proofs and dis-
cussions,— a criticism of many errors, — and a long
train of philosophical reflections." Voltaire, who has
given him a place among the illustrious authors that
adorned the age of Louis XIV. says " he was a great
logician rather than a profound philosopher." The
universal adoption of the inductive method of philo-
sophizing has now entirely exploded many theories
on which Bayle expended a large portion of time and
ingenuity ; and it is hoped, that however men may
speculate of providence, foreknowledge, will, and fate,
they shall not, for the sake of opinions, the truth or
falsehood of which mere reason can never determine,
again involve the world in a war of words.

BAYONET, a short dagger, which is fitted to the
end of the musket, so that the whole instrument may
be used either for attack or defence, is supposed to
derive its name from Bayonne, where, it is said, it
was first manufactured, and was introduced into the
French armies about the end of the 17th century.
The use of the bayonet was revived and improved by
the great Frederick of Prussia, and its powerful ef-

Beaton.

fects in the British and French armies during the late Bayonne
v/ars are well known. ||

BAYONNE, the largest town of the department
of the Lower Pyrenees in France, is finely situated
on the banks of tlie Nive and A dour at the place
where they unite their streams, and about three miles
from the sea. The town is defended by fortifications
and a citadel. The population is about 13,000; the
trade with Spain is considerable; woollen cloths, silks,
cottons, and hardware, are exchanged for wool, wine,
and oil ; and masts and spars are conveyed down the
rivers from the Pyrenees, to be exported to different
parts of France. The Basque or old Biscayan lan-
guage, and part of the dress, are still in use among
the common people of Bayonne.

BAYREUTH, or Bareitii, is the chief town of
the margravate of the same name in the circle of
Franconia, is commodiously situated on the banks of
three rivers, contains about 10,000 inhabitants, and
was formery the seat of thriving manufactures.

BAZAR, a term of frequent occurrence in the
narratives of oriental travellers, signifying the mar-
ket places of eastern countries, and derived, it is said,
from the Arabic word denoting sale, or exchange of
goods. Separate edifices are appropriated to this pur-
pose ; and in the Persian and Turkish dominions some
of the bazars or market places are spacious and mag-
nificent structures.

BEAR. See JJrsus under Mammalia.

BEARD, the hair which grows on the chin and
contiguous parts of the face of adults. Among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, at least in the earlier
periods of their history, it was the practice to wear
the beard, and it seems to have been an object of
great veneration. The Greeks began to shave the
beard about the time of Alexander the Great ; and
the Romans, in the 454;th year of the city, when bar-
bers were brought from Sicily for the purpose. It is
curious to observe the diversity of caprice and fashion
in cutting off the beard, or in permitting it to grow.
Ecclesiastics have been sometimes enjoined to wear
the beard as a mark of gravity, while at other times
it has been forbidden ; and in different churches op-
posite practices have prevailed. The Persian Maho-
metans shave the upper lip ; but the Arabs, who are
attached to the same faith, preserve their beards with
the most scrupulous care. The Roman slaves wore
the beard and hair long, and were only shaved when
they obtained their freedom ; but the Turkish slaves
in the Seraglio are shaved as a mark of servitude.
The Greeks shaved the beard, and cut off the hair as
a token of mourning ; but the Roman expression of
sorrow and affliction was to permit the hair and beard
to grow.

BEARN. See Berxe.

BEATON, David, archbishop of St Andrew's
and primate of Scotland, during the reign of James V.
and the minority of Mary, was born in Fife in 14'94',
studied, under the direction of his uncle archbishop
of St Andrew's, first at that university, and then at
Paris, and entered into orders as soon as he had at-
tained the canonical age. The Duke of Albany, re-
gent of Scotland, appointed him resident at the court
of France, and his uncle made him rector of Camp-

B E A

59i

B E A

BMion. sie and abbot of Aberbrothick. On his j-eturn from
France lie was invested with the privy seal of Scot-
land, and employed, along with Sir Thomas Erskine,
in the ncgociation of a marriage between King James
and the daughter of the king of France. Their nup-
tials were solemnized at Paris, January 1537, and
the royal bride was conducted by Beaton to the
court of Seotland in the succeeding May. But as
this princess did not long survive her marriage, Bea-
ton was again despatched to France to obtain for the
king, Mary, the daughter of the duke of Guise;
a mission which he executed with success.

While he lived at the French court, he had the
addrtss to insinuate himself into the good graces of
Francis, and to become master of the whole of his
political system; a circumstance which enabled him
afterward to rule his sovereign, and to raise himself;
and by his entire devotion to the interests of the
church, he obtained her dignities in great number,
and in quick succession. He was consecrated bishop
of Mirepoix, raised to the dignhy of cardinal with
the title of St Stephen, and soon after installed arch-
bishop of St Andrew's and primate of Scotland.

On this elevation, the dark, designing, and liloody
spirit of bigotry with which his mind was actuated
began to disclose itself in the cruelty of his conduct.
He summoned his clergy together, denounced the
reformers as heretics, and proscribed many of the
nobility. But the intervention of the king's death
saved them from suft'ering, and diminished for a while
the archbishop's power. After this event, he exhi-
bited a document bearing the late king's signature,
nominating himself, the Earls of Argyle, Huntly,
and Arran, joint regents of the kingdom during the
long minority of Mary. Historians, assert that this
paper was a forgery. But it did not serve his ambi-
tious purposes ; for Arran was chosen regent, and
the archbishop was imprisoned in the castle of Black-
ness. But he soon obtained his liberty, was re-ad-
mitted into the council, promoted to the office of
chancellor of the kingdom, and appointed the pope's
legate in Scotland. With this accession of power
he recommenced his persecution of the reformers.
George Wishart, a celebrated preacher among the pro-
testants, soon became his victim ; through his means
he was condemned to the flames ; and the cruel car-
dinal, with a barbarous joy, beheld his martyrdom
Irom the windows of his own castle.

But he had now incurred a general detestation,
ami the hand of the assassin was at hand to termi-
nate his wicked career Norman Lesley, son of the
Earl of Rothes, with about sixteen associates, seized
on his castle in the morning of the 29th May 1516,
and having rushed into his chamber thty dispatched
him with their swords, and suspended him over the
very window whence he had lately witnessed with
such savage satisfaction the calm and resigned death
of Wishart.

Cardinal Beaton was a man of great talents, which
were well fitted for public business ; but he had little
learning, and still less virtue. His pride was overbear-
ing, his ambition was unbounded, his manners were
polluted, a id his bigotry was bloody. While he lived
he commanded great influence, amassed great wealth,
and loft a numerous illegitimate offspring.

BEATTIE, James, a distinguished author, both Betittie.
in poetry and prose, was born at Laurencekirk in the ^.•v^
county of Kincardine in Scotland, in October I'J'AS.
Death deprived him of his father in early childhood,
a loss which the/ fraternal affection of his brother
David, then in his ISthyear, greatly •alleviated. The
parochial school of Laurencekirk, which had acquir-
ed a high degree of celebrity from i\Ir Ruddiman, of
philological celel)rity, formerly its master, wiisat tiiat
time taught by a Mr Milne, a man of classical informa-
tion. Under him young Beattie commenced his edu-
cation, and was initiated in the knowledge of Greek
and Roman literature. In IT'tO he offered himself a
candidate for one of the bursaries, or small annual
stipends, in Marischal college, Aberdeen ; which, af-
ter a com])arative trial with the rest of the competi-
tirs, was bestowed on him as the reward of superior
merit.

Having pursued his studies for four sessions, and
completed the course prescribed by his college, he
was admitted to the degree of master of arts ; and, in
consequence of the reputation for learning which he
had already acquired, he was soon after elected pa-
rochial schoolmaster of the parish of Fordoun, ad-
jacent to that of his nativity ; a situation humble and
secluded; yet most favourable for confirming his stu-
dious habits, and for maturing his poetical genius.
Here he spent five years, procuring the grateful con-
fidence of his employers by a diligent and able dis-
charge of his duty ; commanding the respect of the
neighbourhood, by the number and the nature of his
attainments ; and gaining the love of all his asso-
ciates by the purity and gentleness of his manners.

In 1757 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the
office of usher in the grammar-school of Aberdeen ;
but on a second vacancy in the following year he
was invited to accept of it, with the assurance of be-
ing preferred to the rectorship when that situation,
then held by an old man, should become vacant. He
now returned to Aberdeen, the seat of his Alma Ma-
ter, with which every man of genius has so many
pleasing associations ; and as he had himself profit-
ed under her fostering influence, he was, to his own
amazement, elevated to the rank of sustaining her
character for learning and science, by being appoint-
ed, through the interest of his friends, to the profes-
sorship of moral philosophy and logic in the year
1760, and tiie 2jth of his own age.

At an early period he had begun to publish little
pieces of poetry through the medium of the Scots
Magazine, and the applause which had been bestow-
ed on those juvenile productions encouraged him to
collect them into a volume ; he also publisiied, about
the same time his Essay on Poetry and Music ; a
work which forms an excellent introduction to the
study of criticism, and which, previous to its publi-
cation, had been read and approved of in a literary
society, of which Drs Reid, Campbell, Gerard, and
other learned men connected with the university,
were members, and iMr Beattie's constant compa-
nions. In 1767 he married Miss Dun, the only daugh-
ter of the rector of the grammar-school of Aberdeen.
His union with this beautiful and accomi)lished young
lady, which was formed under the auspices of ardent
and mutual affection, and which opened a fair pros-

B E A

595

B E A

Beatu'c. pt'ct of great and long felicity, proved, in conse-
^V^*' qiicnce of calamities as unforeseen as they were se-
vere, a source of bitter and heart-rending anguish.

The course of Mr Bcattie's academical lectures
led him to investigate the principles of human
thought and action, and to discuss the questions
which a subject so interesting had suggested ; and,
alarmed at the pernicious progress of infidelity, lie
tbrmed the resolution of endeavouring to demolish
the towermg system of scepticism, which Hume and
Berkely had built on the ideas of Aristotle, by shew-
ing that it rested on no better foundation than a
mere assumption, destitute of evidence. With this
design, he published in 1770, Ins Essau on i/ie Immit-
tabilitj/ of Trulh ; a work which quickly brought him
a great accession of celebrity. In England, espe-
cially, it was hailed by the friends of revealed reli-
gion, and of the certainty of human knowledge, as
well as of human obligation, as an opportune and
ett'ectual refutation of error. It was loudly applaud-
ed for the elegance of its composition, the perspi-
cuity of its arrangement, and still more for the
utility of its tendency. The friends and admirers of
Mr Hume, indeed, then living in Edinburgh, regard-
ed the whole as a personal attack on that elegant
author, dictated by malignity ; Dr Priestley also, and
some others in England, found fault with its princi-
ples ; but the hoarse murmurs of censure and dissent
were little heard or regarded, amid the clear and
continued peals of applause with which it was re-
ceived ; and so rapid was its sale, that a new edition
was quickly put to the press. In the same year he
published the first canto of the Minstrel, the de-
sign of which, as explained by himself, " was to
trace a poetical genius, born in a rude age, from the
first dawning of fanc)', till that period at which he
may be supposed capable of appearing in the world
as a minstrel, or itinerant musician ; — a character,
which, according to the notions of our forefathers,
was not only respectable but sacred."

On his first visit to London, ]Mr Beattie was un-
known, and of course unnoticed ; but when, in the
autumn of 1771, he spent some time in that city, the
reputation of his great talents and elegant taste, ex-
erted in the cause of truth and virtue, opened to him
a ready access into the most select circles of litera-
ry and scientific society. At the house of the cele-
brated Mrs Montague he met the most distinguished
characters of the age. And during a subsequent vi-
sit, so general was the interest which his works had
excited, that he was enabled to enrol among the num-
ber of his acquaintances and friends most of the learn-
ed men of London, many of the dignitaries of the
church, some of the peers of the realm, and even the
king and queen of the country. The university of
Oxford conferred on him the degree of doctor of
laws; Sir Joshua Reynold's painted his portrait;
and government bestowed on him an annual pension
of L.200.

But the beneficence of his friends in England had
not yet exhausted itself. He had often been solici-
ted to take orders in the church, with the assurance
of preferment ; and, to tempt his compliance, a liv-
ing worth L.SOOa year was offered him in 1774'. But
this flattering otter, as well as a professorship in the

VOL. I. PART II.

university of Edinburgh, he declined, lest it should
be said he had written underthe influenceof mercenary
motives, and he should farther provoke the spirit of
opposition, which had already displaj'ed itself^ — cir-
cumstances which tend greatly to enhance his cha-
racter. From this time Dr Beattie was employed in
the discharge of his academical duties, and in raising
a reputation already proudly pre-eminent, hy addi-
tional publications. But his days of delight were now
drawing to a close ; — the irritability of Mrs Beattie's
nerves, and the caprices of her temper, arising from
a mental malady inherited from her mother, and
which at last subsided into settled insanity, had for
many years greatly interrupted his domestic tranquil-
lit}'. His eldest son, an amiable and an accomplished
youth, who had been associatedwithhimashis assistant
and successor in the college, was seized by a con-
sumption, which, after a lingering illness, brought liim
to the grave just as he had attained the verge of
manhood. His afflicted father, inconsolable, indulged
his grief by drawing up an account of his too short
life, by inscribing an epitaph on his tomb, and by
dreaming of the grave which lay beneath. The death
of his youngest son, in 1796, left him childless; and
a stroke of the palsy, which nearly deprived him of
speech and motion, crowned his calamities. After
a long period of helpless imbecility, death, on the
8th of August 1803, put a period to his sufferings.
He died in the 6fcith year of his age, departing in
peace, in the hope of immortality and happiness.

In personal appearance, Dr Beattie was of the
middle size, strongly made, and inclining to corpu-
lency. The complexion of his mind will be found
in his works, which disclose the poet and the philo-
sopher, thegood man, and the true Christian. His
Minstrel is a poem remarkable for simplicity and
sweetness of language, for purity and pathos of sen-
timent, and for richness and truth of description.
And a most interesting piece of information is, that
in the character of Edwin he has delineated himself
as he was in his younger days. " I have made him
(he says, in one of his letters) take pleasure in the-
scenes in which I took pleasure, and entertain the
sentiments similar to those of which, even in my
early youth, I had repeated experience." His prose
writings are voluminous. Of these, his Essay on
Truth, — on Poetry and Music, — on Laughter and
Ludicrous Composition, — on Classical Learning, — on
Memory and Imagination, — on Dreaming, — on the
Theory of Language, — on Fable and Romance, — on
the Attachments of Kindred, — and his Evidences of
Christianity, and Elements of Moral Science, dis-
play many instances of a vigorous understanding, of
a discriminating judgment, of extensive information,
of sound criticism, and of sincere and unaffected
piety, set off' with an elegant and animated stile ; so
that his works are, perhaps, as well fitted as any in
the language for initiating the young student in
the various branches of mental philoso[)hy. In his
Essay on Truth he has been charged with railing ra-
ther than reasoning, and with having interlarded his
language too profusely with the pungency of acri-
mony for the uninterrupted coolness becoming a phi-
losophical discussion. But in this (whether defen-
siblv or not is a different question) he acted from

4' G

Bratfi*.

B E A

S94

B £ A

principle, not from past>ion. Ho viewed his antago-
nists ill the light that we view the thief or the robber,
who endeavours to deprive us of our property ; and
conceiving that they had intcutioniilly attempted the
most irreparable of injuries, he was of opinion that
their attacks ought to be repelled with a warm ear-
nestness of manner. But whoever will read his let-
ters on this subject, contained in Sir William For-
bes's Memoir of his Life, will soon be satisfied that
he was incapable of cherishing a hostile disposition
in his heart,

BEAVER, a remarkable animal, on account of its
singujar habits, and the value of its fur in the manu-
facture of hats. See Castor, under Mammalia.

BEAUMARIS, the chief town of the isle of Ang-
Icsea in South Wales, stands at the north entrance of
the strait of Menai, consists of two spacious streets,
includes a population exceeding 1500, and is 25i
miles north-west from London. The liarbour affords
safe and commodious anchorage to ships in six or
seven fathoms water ; but the trade is less consider-
able tiian in former times. The castle was built in
1295 by Edward I. to overawe the inhabitants ; and
from that time the town dates its origin as a place of
importance.

BEAUMONT and FLETCHER, two celebrated
English dramatic writers, whose names are always
associated as the joint authors of a great number of
plays which long kept possession of the stage, flou-
rished in the early part of the 17th century. More
than 50 separate pieces were the fruits of their unit-
ed labours in this singular literary copartnery. A fo-
lio edition of their plays was published in 1679, ano
tlier in 171 1, in seven volumes 8vo., a third in 1751.
Francis Beaumont was descended from an ancient
ftimily in Leicestershire, and was born about the year
1586. His father and grandfather held high official
situations in the legal establishment of the country.
The latter was master of the rolls, and the former was
one of the judges in the court of common pleas.
Young Beaumont had the benefit of an university
education at Cambridge, and was admitted a student
in the Inner Temple ; but it would appear that he
had early abandoned the pursuits of law for the more
attractive charms of the dramatic muse ; for he died
in 1615, before he had completed the 30th year of
liis age.

John Fletcher, the friend and poetical coadjutor
of Beaumont, was the son of the bishop of London,
was born in 1576, and was also educated at Cam-
bridge, where lie was distinguished by great profi-
ciency in his studies, and was reputed an accom-
plished scholar. When he had reached the 49th year
of his age, he fell a victim to the plague which ra-
vaged the metrojwlis in 1625.

BEAUSOBRE, Isaac de, an eminent French
protestant divine, was born at Niort in Switzerland
in 1659, and was descended from a family which had
fled from France about the time of the dreadful mas-
sacre of St Bartholomew in 1572. He was educated
at the college of Saumur, and at the early age of 22
was appointed minister of a protestant congregation
in France. About three years after his admission, se-
vere measures were adopted against the protestants,
and his church was shut up by an order of govern-

ment ; but an excess of zeal led him to break off the
royal se^l, and, to avoid the consequent punishment,
he Hed first into Holland, and itinally, in 1694, he
found a safe asylum in Berlin, which became the fix-
ed residence of his future life. His talents and ac-
quirements as a man of learning and a preacher, soon
raised him to merited distinction. He was appointed
royal chaplain, inspector of the Frendi college, and
superintendant of the French churches of the dio-
cese. He died in 1738, at the venerable age of 80.
His principal works arc, a Hislory of the Rrjurma-
tion, which occupied 40 years of his life, and was
published at Berlin in 17<S4 and 1TS5; the Critical
Hiilonj of Manichccus and Maniclieiam, an elaborate
and profound disquisition. His sermons were peca-
liarl)' distinguished for original thinking, elegant dic-
tion, and appjopriate and forcible illustration.

BEAUTY, is that quality or condition of objects
by which they are fitted to excite agreeable emo-
tions or pleasing ideas in the mind. The term ap-
pears to have been originally applied to colours, but
was gradually extended to other plij'sical qualities,
and in modern times embraces almost every thing,
whether material, intellectual, or moral, which oc-
casions a certain feeling of complacency and tender-
ness, when contemplated by the understanding. Thus
we speak with equal freedom of the beauty of a car-
nation, a fine woman, a spaniel, or a lap-dog, a piece
of music, a mathematical tlieorem, a philosophical
discussion, the self-denial of Scipio, or the philanthro-
py of Howard. What is there common to all these
cases, and a thousand more, which can vindicate the
employment of the expression, and the application
of its kindred epithet, beautiful ? or, on the suppo-
sition that there is really nothing common to them,
what is that peculiar alfection of mind which is ex
cited on so many very different occasions ? These
are among the most intricate questions in metaphy-
sical science, or, to use a more appropriate phrase,
respecting the knowledge of human nature, and liave
received almost as many answers as there are diver-
sities of character in mankind, — a clear evidence, it
is conceived, of gross and very general misunder-
standing of our constitution, and of the substitution
of mere reasoning, conjecture, hypothesis, and par-
tial observation, in the room of deliberate and cir-
cumstantial inquiry. A very superficial view of the
ingenious theories and splendid speculations on this
subject, or, at once to characterise them, beautiful
absurdities which have successively jostled one ano-
ther out of the schools, would be sufficient to appal
any man of common sense, who had notn-ithstanding
a little anxiety to be informed by the learned why he
is pleased with some things and not with others, and
to ascertain the reason of his neighbour and himself
so frequently disagreeing about the shape of their
hats or the colotr of their waistcoats, tliough they
are perfectly of the same mind in politics, and ex-
press equal admiration of their parish church. But
an enumeration of errors is not unimportant, if any
way calculated to shew the vanity of dogmatism, and
to deter genius from the misapplication of labour.

Theories The first notion of beauty, or theory of

the beaut ful, we shall notice, is that which conceives
this quality to consist in utility or fitness, tliat is, the

Beautf.

BEA

595

BEA

BffiDtv. suitabk'Tiess or adaptation of objects to the purposes
ii^v^^ for which they are designed. This is a very ancient
opinion, and may easily be accounted for. The sa-
vage who had been ingenious enough to erect a
Iiut wliicii defended him from the inclemencies of
the weather, or to hollow out the trunk of a tree, so
as to unable him to cross the river which limited
his range, or even to sliarpen and point the frajr-
nient of a rock, by which he was emboldened to assail
the tusk-armed inhabitant of the ibrest, would natu-
rally contemplate the product of his skill with feel-
ings of delight and pleasure. His conception of the
beautiful, it is highly probable, would be almost co-
existent with his success, and the very colour and
form of his dwelling, his vehicle, or his instrument,
would ever after be identified in his mind witli the
pleasurable consciousness of something excellent. It
may be freely granted, therefore, that the perception
of fitness and utility is reconcileable with the notion
of beauty. But that this does not exclusively con-
stitute beauty is certain, from the simple fact, not to
enter on any process of reasoning, that many things
are thought beautiful, that is to say, occasion the
emotion of beauty, which are totally unfit for any one
valuable purpose whatever. Besides, it is no less
true, and no less destructive of this theory, that in
civilized life there is an immense number of objects,
which, though abundantly useful, are far enough from
exciting any agreeable ideas.

Unilif ojparls ^'ery nearly allied to this opinion,

and liable to modifications of the same objections, is
the theory which resolves beauty into the expression
of unity, that is, concord, or harmoniousness of parts,
implying design and determination. Perhaps the no-
tion maintained by some of the followers of Leibnitz,
that beauty consists in perfection, is not very dissimilar.
Father Buffier is the chief advocate of this last sys-
tem, which professes to determine a very intricate
question, long debated in the schools, what is the
standard of beauty ? The ostensible reply is, that
which is most common to ail the individuals or mem-
bers of a species. But it is miserably defective, — many
things being reckoned beaufiful which are neither
common nor yet perfect ; and, on the other hand, the
things or qualities of things which are most common
to individuals, to species and genera, being in reality
least productive of the emotions of beauty.

Arrangement. — Anotlier theory asserts beauty to
consist in the symmetrical arrangement and relation of
parts. This is sti'ikingly exemplified in some of the
works of nature, and many of the productions of art,
but obviously excludes an immense variety of objects
which most men have agreed to be beautiful. Thedoc-
trine of certain proportions constituting beauty, with-
out respect to any ultimate design or purpose, is abranch
of this system which has long been popularly admit-
ted in architecture. But its influence has rapidly de-
clined of late years, and is now almost entirely con-
fined to the more vulgar practitioners of that noble
art.

Of fnc element.',. — A combination of some of the
preceding theories, with slight additions, has been
attempted by some foreign writers, who determine
beauty to be made up of iive elements, variety, unity,
regularity, order, and proportion.

Jliitcliefon's theory. — Dr Hutchcson of Glasgow
broached the idea that beauty was nothing else than the
union of variety and uniformity, as perceived by a pe-
culiar internal sense. This, too, had its day, totally
suppositious as it was, and in reality opposed to the result
of the most familiar observations. But incur judgment,
it is the appeal to facts as to (he objects themselves
which are generally considered beautiful, that decides
against his system, and not the mere circumstance
of his proposing the introduction of an additional fa-
culty in Older to ex[)lain the phenomena. Dr 11.
has the merit, not immaterial, we apprehend, of ven-
turing beyond the precincts of scholastic philosophy,
and anticipating in principle, though by no means in
object, one of the peculiarities of an extensive sys-
tem, which has threatened, since his time, to bring
about a total revolution in metaphysical science. We
allude to thelabours oi'Gall and Spurzheira, of which
we shall elsewhere have occasion to speak more par-
ticularly.

Hogarth's. — Hogarth, the painter, considered va-
riety as the most material constituent of beauty. But
he admitted the influence of fitness, uniformity, sim-
plicity, intricacy, and quantity. This ingenious but
whimsical man, is remarkable for having pitched on a
certain curve, which he has chosen to denominate the
line of beauty. An approximation to it is unquestion-
ably found in many objects capable of giving agreeable
emotions. But the pleasure derived from them as
objects of taste, is, in all probability, resolvable into
the notions of ease, tenderness, and delicacy, which
they occasion. Now these are utterly unsuitable to
the character of other objects, which are neverthe-
less thought beautilul. This branch of the theory,
therefore, is erroneous, and indeed the whole of it is
partial, incomplete, and unsatisfactory.

Burke s No less a man than Edmund Burke blun-
dered egregiously in fabricating a theory of beauty,
though certainly very successful in demolishing some
of the opinions which he meant to supplant by his own
invention. Beauty, according to him, is a certain qua-
lity, or a combination of qualities, in bodies, by which
the mind is operated on through the medium of the
senses, and a kipd of languor, or relaxation of fibres
is produced. Smoothness of surface, delicacy of tex-
ture, gradual variation of outline, and snialhiess of
size, as might naturally be expected, are some of the
physical properties or conditions of bodies connec-
ted with the quality assumed in this theory. It is
almost needless to say, that this is a very imperfect,
enumeration of the sources of the beautiful. But
even tho'j;^h it were complete, it would as 'much fail
to explain v«hat beauty is, as an enumeration of the
occasions on which gout or an ague take place would
be insufficient to point out the nature of those dis-
eases. Moreover, the supposition of a relaxation of
fibres is confirmed in only a very few of the cases
in which the emotions of beauty are experienced.

Diderot's It is, if possible, the still more erroneous

and fantastic opinion of Diderot, that the beauty of
objects consists in the power of exciting in tiie mind
the idea oi' relation ; or, in other words, that our con-
ccptionofthe beautiful is identical with theactof com-
paring the relations between different objects, and is of
variable strength in proportion to the number and dis-

Beaoty;

B E A

596

B E A

Bt»uty. tinctnoss of the relations discovered. Among the
»/ objections to this theory, it is perhaps enough to
mention, that the discovery of relations is not always
even a source of pleasure, so far from being itself
the very essence of beauty ; and that there are many
objects which instantaneously excite the agreeable
emotions of taste, in certain minds, or on persons
of certain character, although there do not take place
in them the slightest eftbrt or wish to form any com-
parisons whatever ; farther, if this theory were true,
It follows, that many ugly or positively disagreeable
objects should necessarily become sources of plea-
sure, inasmuch as they are equally prolific of rela-
tions with those which bear a very different character.
Mr ^4/mo«'5.— Thecautious examination of these and
other theories, and attentive consideration of his own
experience, have conducted Mr Alison to a very dif-
ferent view of the nature and sources of beauty. Ac-
cording to this eloquent writer, beauty is not the re-
sult of any of the qualities of bodies, simply contem-
plated as such, but of these qualities as invested
with new and totally disimilar powers, by association
with our own affections, emotions, and ideas. The
mind, in fact, appears to be considered in this sys-
tem as forming a connexion with material qualities,
in the progress of its intercourse with the external
world, and to be occasionally engaged in operating
on itself, when these qualities are either directly pre-
sented to the senses, or are brought before the ima-
gination by a process of memory. Such, in few
words, is the essence of a theory, which, of late years,
has obtained the greatest currency in the literary
world. It is stated, exemplified, and defended in a
very elegant and pleasing manner, in the " Essays on
the Nature and Principles of Taste," to which we
must necessarily refer the reader. Mr Payne Knight,
Mr Dugald Stewart, and the editor of the Edinburgh
Review, have lent their support to its most peculiar
features, but with sundry modifications, some of
which indeed appear not a little at variance with the
fundamental proposition. This is particularly the case
with the first-mentioned author, who contends for the
existence of some portion ofbeautyat least, altogether
independent of the associating principle. Against
this supposition, the reviewer has inveighed as quite
heretical ; though he himself, of course, admits the
power of pleasing our senses to exist in certain qua-
lities of bodies, as, for example, colour and sound.

Objections — To a theory, supported as this has been
on sudi high authority, and rendered captivating as it
is by a felicity and splendour of decoration beyond all
precedent in metaphysical compositions, we shall not
scruple to object. The grounds of our demurring
shall be stated in the form of distinct propositions,
which we leave for the reader's consideration, rather
than assume the moredignified but lessmodest appear-
ance of an essay professing to decide the question.

In the first place, this theory seems to us too much
confined to -material objects, and to exclude the con-
sideration of two very important and scarcely less ex-
tensive classes of objects, those of an intellectual and
moral n.iture, which are notwithstanding perfectly
well known to be highly productive of beauty.

%Uy, A principle is assumed in this theory, which,
though admitted m certain metaphysical writings to be

apart of our constitution, is, in our judgmest, nothing
else than a form of expression to denote a series of
facts, and cannot be proved to have any existence in
the mind as a separate or distinct faculty. We mean
the association of ideas, — which, according to this
theory, the mind not only has the power of exercis-
ing within itself, if the phrase be allowed, but also of
extending, in some incomprehensible manner, to ex-
ternal objects. The language of one of the advo-
cates of this theory, when alluding to this power,
even granting something in the way of poetic licence,
is singularly incautious : " The beauty which we
impute to outward objects, is nothing more than the
reflexion of our inward emotions, and is made up en-
tirel-j of certain little portions of love, pity, and affec-
tion, xvhich have been connected with these objects, and
still adhere as it were to them, and move us anew
whenever they are presented to our observation."
With equal propriety might a physiologist assert,
that the nutritive quality of certain bodies used as
food, is nothing more than the reflexion of our own
internal functions, and is made up entirely of certain
little portions of cartilage, membrane, and muscle,
which have been connected with these aliments, and
still adhere as it were to them, when they are taken
into the stomach !

Mly, The theory appears inconsistent with itself.
The fundamental proposition with which it sets out,
that there is no beauty in the external objects
themselves, but merely as they are operated on or
new-modelled by association, we imagine excludes
beauty altogether, except in so far as our own
emotions, affections, and ideas are concerned. In
this respect it strongly resembles the hypothesis of
Bishop Berkely, by accurately reasoning on which
one comes to the comfortable conclusion, that
there is no external world at all, and that we have
no satisfactory evidence of the existence of any thing
but our own minds and the ideas which pass through
them. To defer the emotions of beauty till certain
associations be produced, and to affirm or imply that
these associations are formed because of the antece-
dent or concomitant experience of something agree-
able or pleasing, seems no less contradictory in it-
self as a logical jwoposition, than irreconcileable with
daily observation.

4-^///y, We are in manj^ cases totally unconscious
of any association of ideas having a share in the pro-
duction of the agreeable emotions felt when certain
objects are presented to us. In other words, the
theory does not alwa3's apply, even admitting that so
far as it goes it is well founded. Here we may re-
mark, it is freely granted that the consciousness 'of
certain ideas, or trains of ideas, passing through the
mind, is one source, and that a fruitful and power-
ful one, of pleasure. But, on the other hand, it is
contended, that we are sometimes instantaneously
impressed with emotions of beauty, consequently be-
fore such associations have had time to present them-
selves ; and in otiier cases, it may be added, the
simple emotions of beauty may be experienced in
spite of associations, which, if given way to, would
be totally subversive of them, and destructive of
pleasure. The theory, therefore, though in part
true, is inadequate to explain all the phenomena.

Beauty.

B E A

597

B E A

Bfauty.

and cannot, agreeably to the precepts of sound phi-
losophy, be held as the proper solution of the ques-
tion. In our judgment, a single exception, fairly
sustained, is conclusive against its claims to the ho-
nour of a law of nature.

Other objections of minor, but not inconsiderable
force, are purposely omitted for the present. We
shall conclude with barely stating the outline of an-
other theory, derived from a system formerly alluded
to, though, as far as we know, not contemplated by
its authors. It involves some subjects of an intricate
and curious, but highly important nature, to which
there will be opportunities of afterwards calling the
reader's attention. The merest suggestion is all that
can now be hazarded.

More plausible theori/.--The human mind consists of
various powers, faculties, propensities, and sentiments,
each of which is dependent on a certain condition and
exercise of an appropriate organ seated in the brain.
The different organs are connected together in such a
manner, that they may be operated on, or may ope-
rate, either separately, that is, each by itself, or con-
jointly, in any variety of combination. They are not
of the same dimensions, intensity, or power in different
individuals, nor are they any way proportioned to
one another in the same individual. Hence the im-
mense diversities of character among mankind, and
the variable and varying conduct and experience of
the same persons, in different circumstances, or in
the same or like circumstances in different periods of
life. It is a law of our constitution that these or-
gans are affected, and consequently their respective
powers, &c. iSrc. excited by impressions from with-
out, and also by various processes carried on in the
system, during the course of organic and animal
life. It is equally a law of our constitution, for
which we can assign no reason but the will of Him
who made it, that of these impressions and impulses,
if we may so speak, some are agreeable, others dis-
agreeable, and that their corresponding results are,
therefore, relished by us or disliked. The five senses
afford us familiar, but equally inexplicable examples.
Certain tastes, smells, sounds, visiblex, ikc. are pleas-
ing and displeasing, sometimes in spite of our own
■wills, and, except in a few cases, without our being
able to give any reason why they are either one or
other. Our internal senses, so to speak, are quite in
the same predicament. There are certain adapta-
tions of external objects to them, taking this phrjise
to comprehend every thing that may be subjected to
our minds, which are productive of agreeable emo-
tions, and these are either confined to one organ, or
embrace several organs, according to circumstances
and the character of the individuals. It is the di-
versity of character, dependent on what has already
been mentioned, that gives rise to the various asso-
ciations of ideas, so much insisted on in the preced-
ing tlieory ; and on the same principles may readily
be explained both the concord and disagreement of
mankind as to the objects of taste. The theory now
suggested, it is proper to remark, does not admit
the existence of anj' general powers or faculties
known under the names of judgment, memory, and
imagination, according to the systems of the schools.
In place of these, it is conceived, that each of the

special faculties or higher powers of the mind has il« Eccrnrtu,
own judgment, memory, and imagination ; and that '»>>^/"^»r'
these are dependent, in some hitherto inscrutable
manner, on the degree, and, perhaps, kind of acti-
vity, of the respective organ. The theory would re-
strict the term beauty, and, of course, several other
terras which are often used when speaking of the
objects and nature of taste, to those faculties and
powers which are so endowed. These are as nume-
rous as the peculiar qualities of bodies, and the mo-
ral and intellectual powers of the mind. Each finds
pleasure and the beautiful in its appropriate object,
and may excite some other power or powers of the
mind. Farther, there is a system of supremacy and
subordination among these powers, intended, and
plainly pointed out by the hand that made us ; and
it is only in reference to this, and deducible from it,
that we can decide on a standard of taste. Finally,
this theory, while it not only leads to mutual forbear-
ance in things indifferent, as a polite and convenient
expedient, but absolutely enjoins it as a law of na-
ture, nevertheless accurately and hnperiously speci-
fies its limits ; nor is it its slightest reconmiendation,
that it confirms the connexion of mankind with one
another and with the world in which they are placed,
and irresistibly demonstrates their entire dependence
on Him who created all things, and " in whom they
live, and move, and have their being."

BECCARIA, GiAMBAif iSTA, a celebrated elec-
trician, was born at Mondovi, in Italy, in 1716, and
having completed the elementary parts of his educa-
tion, he repaired to Rome at the early age of sixteen,
for the purpose of assuming the monastic habit ; and
being admitted to a religious order, he commenced
a regular course of study to improve and extend his
knowledge. The bent of his genius drew him off
from scholastic subtleties, and led him to pursue the
more useful path of physical science. When he had
finished his studies he was appointed to teach belles
lettres in the college of Urbino, and executed the
charge with ability and diligence. But although he
was an ardent admirer of classical literature, and pro-
duced some elegant specimens of Latin poetry, he
soon after relinquished the seductive charms of the
muses, and devoted his labours to mathematics and
natural philosophy. On these subjects he delivered
lectures, first in the Royal college of Palermo and
afterwards at Rome; and in 1748 he was appointed
to the chair of natural philosophy in the university
of Turin.

Beside other curious disquisitions in various de-
partments of physical science, Beccaria entered deep-
ly into the investigation of electrical appearances,
and in 1753 published his Treatise on Artificial and
Natural Electricity, which was translated into English
in 1776. In the year 1774' he published the result of
a laborious undertaking which he had completed ten
years before. This was the measurement of a degree
of the meridian in which he was charged by the ce-
lebrated astronomer Cassini with inaccuracy. On
this subject, and on his Theory of Electricity, a con-
troversy commenced ; and in the latter period of his
life he was a good deal occupied in defending his
opinions.

The arduous labour and incessant fatigue to which

EEC

Uercaria lie Iiad been subjected in the measurement of the de-
ll gree of the meridian induced a severe disorder, which
Bcchcr. in the year 1776 assumed an alarming appearance,
and after repeated attacks, along witli the accession
of an intermittent fever, completely exhausted his
strength under their accunmlatcd pressure, and ter-
minated his mortal existence about the close of the
year 1781.

With all his talents and reputation, Beccaria enjoy-
ed no great share of popularity among his country-
mer. The coarseness of his manners was disgusting,
and his excessive ambition of fame often excited jea-
lousy. His seclusion from the world, which left him
in ignorance of the ordinary modes of courtesy and
forbearance, may perhaps in some degree account
for his peculiarities. But the solid learning which
lie possessed, and the laborious researches in which
lie was engaged, raised him to a high rank among
men of science, and procured for Iiim the honour of
being enrolled among the members of the Royal So-
ciety of London and of other learned bodies. Beside
his favourite subject of Electricity to wliich a large
gliare of his attention was devoted, he made improve-
ments on the solar microscope, and on tlie pendulum,
for the purpose of correcting the errors produced on
the latter bj' its contraction and expansion from heat
and cold, invented an ingenious formula for discover-
ing the foci of lenses, made some curious remarks on
the double refraction of Iceland crystal, and left be-
hind him various treatises on astronomy and natural
history.

BECCARIA, CiESAn Bonesana, Marquis of,
the celebrated author of a work on Crimes and Pn-
■nishmenis, wiis born at Milan in 1735, ivas initiated
in the elements of literature and science at the Je-
suits college in Parma, and afterwards devoted him-
self to mathematics, and particularly to the study of
jurisprudence. His first i>ublication was on the de-
based state of the current coin of the Milanese
states ; and at no very distant period it was followed
by his Treatise on Crimes, and Ptmishmnih. the most
cialjornte and most popular of all his literary produc-
tions. The Marquis Beccaria was also the author of
various other works, chiefly connected with political
economy, and he held various official situations in
the state. He died in 1793.

BECHER, John Joachim, one of the earliest
systi'matic writers on chemistry, was a native of
Spires in Germany, and was born in 1625, was for-
tunate in being promoted to high official situations,
as physician to the elector of Mentz and the elector
of Bavaria, and counsellor to the emperor ; and it is
said that he was furnished by those distinguished per-
sonages with the means of carrying on his experi-
ments in natural philosophy and chemistry. But he
seems to have been of a restless disposition. His re-
sidence was often changed while he remained on the
■tontinent, and at last he repaired to London, where
he died in 1682. His learning was various and ex-
tensive ; and he was the first who applied chemistry
in explaining the composition and relations of bodies.
He was the author of numerous works on chemical
subjects, the chief of which are his Phydca Subier-
ranca, and Institutes of Chemistry, all written in La-
tin. See Boerhaave's Chemistry, tranilated by Shaw.

598

EEC

BECCLES, a town of Suifolk in England, stands uecclcs
on the banks of the Wavenay', includes nearly 3000 ||

inhabitants, who are only occupied in domestic ma- Bfcket.
nufactures, is composed of several streets diverging
from a spacious central area, and, from the conspi-
cuous station of the church, an elegant Gothic struc-
ture, exhibits a fine view of the windings of the ri-
ver and the surrounding country. Bcccles is 15 miles
south-west from Yarmoutli, and 108 miles north-east
from London.

BECKET, Tjiomas A, archbishop of Canterbury,
whose struggles for the supremacy of the church, .
and tragica! ;leath, form a striking feature in the his- •
tory of the times, was the son of Gilbert Becket,
sheriiT of London, and was born in 1119. The story
of his parents, if true, has an air of romance. The
father, while on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, was ta- -
ken prisoner by the Saracens, and sold as a slave. ,
Tlic daughter of the master whom he served, con-
ceived an affection for him; when he escaped from
bondage she accompanied hiin to London, was con-
verted to Christianity, and became his wile. Tlioman
a Becket was the oiispring of this marriage. With
powerful talents and great industry, he completed
the requisite studies for the clerical prof(;ssion, to
which he was destined, at Oxford, Paris, and Bo-
logna ; and, on his return to England, his superior
acquirements and [ircpossessing a))pearance attracted
and secured the notice and friendship of the archbi-
shop of Canterbury, from whom he obtained lucra-
tive and distinguished preferment. The successful
termination of a mission to Rome on the aifairs of
the church, proved his abilities in the management
of public affairs ; and a recommendation from the
archbishop to Henry II. procured for him the fa-
vour of that monarch, by whom he was elevated to
the high dignity of lord chancellor, loaded with ci-
vil and ecclesiastical offices, and entrusted with tiie
education of the heir-apparent of the crown. His
immense revenues enabled him to live in the most
princely stile, to keep a numerous band of retainers,
and to display a more magnificent expenditure than
any subject in the kingdom. Ambitious of fame in
military aftiairs and martial exercises, with a train of
knights he accompanied the king in an expedition to
France, and gave proofs of liis skill and bravery in
active warfare ; and hunting and horsemanship were
his favourite amusements. But with this accumulation
of riches, honours, and distinction, his attachment to
his sovereign, devotion to his interests, and gratitude
for such unexampled favours, continued unabated.

The growing power of the church and its rapid en-
croachments on civil authority had greatly harassed
the reign of Henry. In the vacant see of Canterbury
he contemplated an opportunity of imposing a res-
traint on the increasing evil, by filling it with a sub-
missive dependent of his own, and Becket probably
at the same time saw a new scene of ambition opened
before him. But on liis elevation to the primacy, in
1162, he was no longer the servile flatterer and pli-
ant courtier. Withdrawing from tJie world, he re-
linquished the chancellership, subjected himself to
the severest mortifications, and by his boundless
charities commanded the highest res])ect and admi-
ration ; but he was no less jealous of the prerogatives

EEC

509

EEC

Beeket. of tlie church than his predecessors, and would suffer
V^»^>-«^ no interference of the civil power in the punishment
of the clerg}-, even when they were guilty of the
greatest enormities. Beeket, with the other digni-
taries of the church, had assented to the Constitutions
of Clarendon, regulations drawn up for defining the
powers of the clergy, and had solemnly sworn to
maintain and observe them ; but the pope's refusal
to ratify this deed was accompanied with a dispensa-
tion to relieve him from the obligations of his oath.
His renunciation was followed by an open rupture
with liis sovereign. He was compelled to leave the
kingdom, and after a residence of six years on the
continent, he was restored, through the mediation of
the pope and the king of France, to his dignity and
power. Reinstated in the archiepiscopal chair, he
was not more accommodating than before his exile ;
and the king, indignant at his proceedings, is report-
ed to have said, that " he was an inihappy prince,
who maintained a great number of lazy insignificant
persons about him, none of whom had gratitude or
spirit enough to revenge him on a single insolent pre-
late, who gave him so much disturbance." Four ba-
rons impressed with these words, and determined to
force the archbishop into submission, hastened to
Canterbury, and found him at vespers in the church.
Refusing to listen to their remonstrances, and defying
their vengeance, he was slain as lie knelt at the altar.
His death happened on the 29th of December 1170,
and in the 52d year of his age.

Few events liave made a deeper impression on the
public than the murder of Beeket. Henry seem-
ed to express the utmost regret at the barbarous
deed, and dispatched a solemn embassy to Rome to
wipe off the imputation from himself, and to conci-
liate the papal court. The church of Canterbury
was regarded as polluted with the crime, and divine
service had ceased to be performed in it for nearly a
whole year, till it was reconsecrated by the com-
mand of the pope. Two years afterwards Beeket
was canonised ; and in the succeeding year, when
Henry returned to England, he submitted to pe-
nance, as a testimony of his sorrow and regret for
the murder of the prelate. When he approached
the church, he alighted from his horse, and in the
habit of a pilgrim walked barefooted to the tomb of
Beeket. Having prostrated himself, and continued
for a considerable time in prayer, ho submitted to
be scourged by the monk* ; and kneeling upon the
bare stone he spent the whole day and night with-
out refreshment. After the lapse of 50 years from
the time of the murder, the body was taken up in
the presence of Henry III. and a great concourse
of the nobility, and deposited in a magnificent
shrine erected by Langton, archbishop of Canter-
bury. The reputation of the miracles performed at
his tomb, attracted pilgrims from all quarters", by
whom it was enriched with the most precious gifts
and costly offerings. Even foreign potentates were
found among the devotees. Louis VII. of France
performed a pilgrimage to this far-famed tomb, and
bestowed on the shrine the most valuable jewel in
Christendom. The body was annually raised by the
monks, and the day on which this ceremony was ob-
served, designated the day of his imnslaiion, was

kepi as a general holiday. Every 50th year a grand i;ecVm<imi.
jubilee, which lasted fifteen days, was celebrated to
his honour ; to all who visited his tomb at that time
plenary indulgences were granted ; and it is said that
100,000 pilgrims have been entered on the register
at a time in Canterbury. A curious record is pre-
served, which sliews the estimation in which St Tho-
mas a Beeket was held, by the disproportionate
amount of the ol&rings made at the altars of Can-
terbury. In one year, at the altar of God, the sum
offeredwasL.3,2s.6d.atthatoftheVirginL.63,53.6d.
and at St Thomas's L.832, 12s. ad. ; and in the fol-
lowing year no offering whatever was made at the
altar of God, the sum presented at that of the Vir-
gin amounted to L.4-, Is. Sd. but at St Thomas's it
was L.964, 6s. Sd. Henry VIII. pillaged this cele-
brated shrine of its rich treasures, cited the Saint to
appear in court, and to be tried and condemned as a
traitor, commanded his name to be expunged from
the kalendar, and ordered his bones to be burned, and
the ashes to be dispersed in the air.

BECKMANN, John, the ingenious author of a
curious treatise on the origin and progress of econo-
mical and mechanical arts, was a native of the elec-
torate of Hanover, and was born in 1739. By Jiis
father's death, when young Beckmann was only seven
years old, the care of his education devolved on his
mother ; and having completed the elementary bran-
ches of literature, he was sent to Gottingen to finish
his studies for the clerical profession, to which he
was destined. But he was more devoted by inclina-
tion to physical science than to theological learning ;
and in 1762, on the recommendation of the celebrat-
ed geographer Busching, who then presided in the
Lutheran academy at St Petersburgh, he was ap-
pointed professor of natural philosophy in that semi-
nary. The harmony of the institution was soon after
disturbed by dissensions, which induced Beckmann
to relinquish his situation. Returning to his own
country througli Sweden, he made himself acquaint-
ed with the mode of working its valuable mines, and
on his visit to Upsal he experienced much of the hos-
pitality and friendship of the illustrious Linna:us.

The appointment to the professorship in the uni-
versity of Gottingen, which he retained through life,
took place in 1766. Beckmann seems to have pos-
sessed a peculiar facility of talent in the develope-
ment and appHcation of science to the arts of life. It
was the professed object of the institution which he
now superintended, to arrange and illustrate the va-
rious departments of political and domestic economy.
The novelty and interest of his lectures attracted
crowded audiences ; his instructions were not merely
general descriptive details ; but in the visits of his pu-
pils, whom he accompanied to the work-shops of th»
artisan and manufacturer, he explained and elucidat-
ed the minutest processes.

In compliance with a laudable practice, which had
been long established in the University of Gottingen,
that every public teacher nmst be acquainted with
what has been done throughout Europe in his own
department, Beckmann entered on the arduous task
of collecting information on the nmltifarious subjects
of his lectures ; — a task, the extent of which is only
limited by the bounds of human knowledge, and from

BED

600

BED

Tvhkh an orJinary mind would have sliruuk in des-
pair ; — a task which his singular talents for research,
his peculiar powers of elucidation, and unwearied in-
dustry, have enabled him to accomplish in the most
successful manner, and the fruits of which have ap-
peared in 'rhe History of Invenlioftf: and Discove-
ries, one of the most curious productions ever pre-
sented to the world. In this elaborate collection,
the origin of the arts of life is marked as dis-
tinctly iis can be ascertained by historical evidence,
and their progress is traced through ancient and mo-
dern times to their present most improved state. No
reader can be disappointed in the perusal of this
work, of which an English translation has been pub-
lished. Beside various Memoirs in the Commenta-
ries of the Royal Society of Gottingen, Beckmann
was engaged in the latter years of his life in the His-
tory of' the Earliest Voyages in Modern Times ; and
that part contributed by him bears the marks of his
usual industry and research. He died in 1811 ; and,
to the praise of his distinguished literary attainments,
must be added the excellence of his moral character,
in which great candour and modesty, warmth of
friendship, and the utmost condescension and aii'abili-
ty to his pupils, were the prominent qualities.

BEDDOES, Thomas, a learned English physi-
cian and medical writer, was a native of Shropshire,
and was born in 1760. His early education was con-
ducted at private seminaries, and at the Free Gram-
mar School of Bridgenorth, where he was greatly
distinguished by a retentive memory, close applica-
tion to study, and rapid progress in classical litera-
ture. An accident which befel his grandfather, and
which terminated in his death, led young Beddoes,
who was then only nine years old, to watch the pro-
gress of the affection, and to consider the means of
cure employed, and is said to have fixed his choice
of his future profession, while the interest and acute-
ness which he displayed as a feeling and sagacious
observer, attracted the notice and procured for him
the lasting friendship of the attendant medical prac-
titioner. In his sixteenth year he was admitted a
student at Oxford, and in his literary exercises he
toon acquired the reputation of an elegant classical
scholar. About this time he began the French lan-
guage ; and when he entered on this study with no
other help than a grammar and a dictionary, his re-
ply to a friend who expressed his surprise at the
boldness of the attempt, that in two months he would
acquire a competent knowledge of it, and in which
he actually succeeded, shews with what eagerness,
facility, and perseverance he acquired languages ; for
with the same independent exertion he became mas-
ter of Italian, German, and Spanish. But while he
proceeded with ai dour in the prosecution of general
literature, he was not inattentive to the progress of
physical science, and particularly to the brilliant dis-
coveries in chemistrj', which had just begun to dawn
en the world. Natural history, especially botany
and minerahoey, occupied bis leisure hours during his
college vacations.

Thus qualified, he repaired to London in his 21st
year, to pursue the requisite studies for the medical
profession ; and while he was engaged in acquiring
the knowledge of anatomy and physiology, he trans-

lated Spallanzani's Dissertations on Natural Hislory,
from the original Italian. In 178-t he fixed his resi-
dence in Edinburgh, and continued for three succes-
sive sessions to attend all the lectures in that cele-
brated seminary connected with his future destination
in life ; and within this period he translated and pub-
lished Bergman's Essays on Elective Attractions, and
superintended an edition of Scheele's Cliemical Es-
says. Having been previously admitted bachelor and
master of arts, he obtained, in 1786, the degree of
doctor of medicine at Oxford ; and having spent the
succeeding summer in France, where he was fortu-
nate in enjoying the acquaintance and conversation of
the illustrious chemical philosophers, Lavoisier and
Morveau, he was appointed, soon after his return, to
the lectureship on chemistry in the university of Ox-
ford. His lectures were instructive and popular, and
drew together crowded audiences. Connected witli
his immediate pursuits, he published an Account of
the Experiments of Mayow at Oxford in the 17th
century, and to his curious researches has traced
those discoveries which are the foundation of the
science of modern chemistry.

But the residence of Dr Beddoes in this venerable
seat of learning was of short duration. The daz-
zling scenes which the French revolution seemed at
its commencement to hold out for the improvement
and happiness of the world, could not pass unnoticed
by an ardent and speculative mind. Beddoes was
transported with the alluring prospect, and indulging
in the political reveries of the day, took no pains to
conceal opinions which ill accorded with the esta-
blished modes of thinking of those with whom he
associated. To this jarring of sentiment probably is
to be ascribed his seemingly imprudent resignation
of his lectureship. But the activity of his mind did
not leave him unemployed ; for about this time he
published a treatise on mathematical evidence, and
another on the cure of Calcnhis, Consumption, &c.
with Cojijectures on other Objects of Physiology and
Pathology ; and about the same time appeared his
History of Isaac Jenkins, one of his most popular
productions, in which he exhibits, under a fictitious
narrative, the reformation of a habitual drunkard,
and his return to sobriety and industrj'. The sale of
40,000 copies of this work in a short time, is a suffi-
cient proof of the interest which it excited.

The establishment of a pneumatic institution for
the purpose of patients inhaling certain kinds of air,
with the view of curing diseases according to specu-
lative principles suggested by modern chemistry, was
long a favourite object with Dr Beddoes ; and hav-
ing surmounted many difficulties, he succeeded in
his plan, and the institution was opened near Bristol
in 1798. Its professed objects were not attained;
but in the history of chemical science it will ever
hold a distinguished place ; for here, as the superin*
tendant of the experiments, Sir Humphrey Davy
commenced his brilliant career in the discovery " of
the wonderful eft'ects of Nitrous Oxide, or Gas of
Paradise, o)i the system when respired." From the
remarkable properties of this peculiar elastic fluid,
the highest expectations were indulged of the bene-
fits to be derived from this mode of conducting the
cure of diseases ; but it soon appeared that these

BcddiX ;.

BED

601

BED

Beie

Bcdfoid.

hope* were visionary, and in the course of a few
years tlie scheme was abandoned.

Beside the works already mentioned, Dr Beddoes
was the autiior of a numerous Hst of treatises on me-
dical subjects, and to most of them be has attempted
to give a popular character to render them inte-
resting and useful to the general reader, as well as
to contribute to the improvement of medical educa-
tion and rational practice. He was also the autlior
of various political productions, a list of which will
be found in Memoirs of his Life by DrStock. Dr
Beddoes died in December 1808.

BEDE, or Beda, usually designated the venerable
Bede, one of the oldest English historians, was born
at Wearmouth, in the county of Durham, in the year
672, was educated in the monastery of St Peter,
and at the proper age was admitted to the. priesthood.
The greater part of his life was spent in a monastery
near the moutli of the river Tyne, where he devoted
himself to the exercises of religion and the pursuits of
literature. In this retirement he composed his ec-
clesiastical history, a work which acquired him great
reputation while he lived, and is still regarded of
estimable authority. He composed a great number
of other treatises on various subjects ; lie translated
some parts of the Bible into the Saxon language ;
and his homilies were appointed to be read in the
churches. He died in 73.5, and was buried in the
church of his own convent, but his ashes were after-
wards removed to Durham, and deposited in the
same coffin with the mortal remains of St Cuthbert.
The first collection of his works appeared at Paris in
154'4', in three volumes folio, and the latest edition
was published at Cambridge in 172'2.

BEDFORD, an inland county of England, which
has Buckinghamshire for its boundary on the south-
west and west, Northamptonshire on the north-west
and north, Huntingdonshire on the north and north-
east, and Cambridgeshire and Hertfordsliirc on the
east and south. The greatest length is estimated at
36 miles, and the breadth at 22 miles ; the area in
square miles exceeds 300, and includes about 300,000
square acres.

Bedfordshire presents a diversified surface of
gently rising hills and low vallics. None of the
higher grounds rises to any great elevation. The
Chiltern hills, vi'hich skirt the southern extremity of
the county, and traverse part of it, form the highest
range, and are composed of chalk strata. The lower
ridges consist of alluvial clay and sand, and branch
oiF in various directioos. Iii the uppermost stratum
of chalk numerous layers of flints are regularly dis-
tributed. To this stratum, proceeding downwards,
another body of chalk, harder and of a more solid
consistence, and destitute of nodules of flint, suc-
ceeds. The thickness of the united chalk beds is not
less than 400 feet, and below them are strata of chalk,
marl, and a durable sand-stone. The alluvial clay
is also of great thickness ; and the beds of ferrugi-
nous sand, in some places of considerable extent,
are from 150 to 180 feet thick. At the bottom of
this stratum of sand are disposed the beds of fuller's
earth, seven or eight feet in thickness, which have
been long wrought in this and the neighbouring
counties, for manufacturing purposes. In some parts

VOL. I. PART II.

of a clay stratum near the town of Bedford, thin
beds of argillaceous schistus are met with, which
are so strongly impregnated with bitumen as to
burn like coal ; and in the vicinity of the county
town, beds of grey compact limestone appear, on
which it is supposed the whole strata of the county
repose. The inclination of the strata of Bedibrd-
shire is to the south-east. A very large proportion
of the soil of this county is alluvial, and composed
chiefly of yellowish dark coloured clays. Peat soil
is predominant in the bottoms of some of the val-
lies, and in this peat earth the proportion of sulphu-
ric or vitriolic acid is considerable.

The Ouse, the Ivel, and the Ouzel, are the chief
rivers. The Ouse, which is navigable from Bedford,
and is subject to inundations, abounds with fish, and
is remarkable for the size and superior quality of its
eels. The Ivel is partly navigable, produces abun-
dance of fish, and is famous for its gudgeon. The
grand junction canal stretches for about three miles
along the borders of th.e county.

Ths population of Bedfordshire, which was esti-
mated in 1801 at 63,393, had increased in 1811 to
70,213. The annual value of the land at rack-rent
is stated at L.280.000. Sterling. Bedford, the capi-
tal of the county, Ampthill, Biggleswade, Dunstable,
arc the prhicipal market towns. The manufactures
;ue chiefly thread-lace making, which, it is said, has
declined, and given place to straw-plaiting. A whit-
ing manufactory is established at Dunstable.

The Duke of Bedford, the Marquis of Bute, Earls
Spencer and Upper Ossory, and Lord St John, pos-
sess large estates in the count}'. Wheat and barley
are the principal corn crops, of which a good deal is
exported. The management of the dairy is an object
of attention, and affords a considerable supply to the
London market. Woad is raised in some places for
the use of dyers ; and in the sheltered vales the cul-
ture of culinary vegetables for the neighbouring towns
is extensive. The splendid experiments in various
departments of rural economj', and particularly in
the improvement of live-stock, which have been long
carried on under the auspices of the Dukes of Bed-
ford at Woburn abbey, if they are not on too grand
and too expensive a scale for general imitation, could
not fail to rouse attention and to stimulate exertion
in similar undertakings.

BEDFORD, the capital of the county of the same
name in England, stands on the banks of the river
Ouse, which is navigable for small vessels to the
German ocean, is 50 miles north from London, and
includes a population which, according to the esti-
mate in 1811, was equal to 4605. Bedford is de-
scribed as a neat, clean town ; the public buildings,
some of which have been lately erected, are commo-
dious and elegant ; and the great inn raised on the
spot formerly occupied by the castle is a magnificent
structure. The manufacture of thread-lace is con-
fined to females ; wool- combing is a small branch of
industry ; some coarse woollen stuifs are made ; lime
is burnt in the neighbourhood ; coak is prepared for
drying malt; and roof-tiles for the supply of the con-
tiguous villages.

Bedford has numerous charitable establishments,
some of which are of great antiquity. The endow-
4 H

SeilarA.

BED

602

BEE

Brdouins. TOCnt of Sir William Harper, a native of Bedford,
and afterwards, in 1 561 , lord mayor of London, is not
the least remarkable for the increase of t)ie fund and
the mode of its application. He purchased 13^ acres
of land for L.180, in the parish of St Andrew, Hol-
born, and bequeathed it to the corporation of Bedford
for the support of the grammar-school, and for fur-
nishing dowries on their marriage to young women
belonging to the town. The original rent was L.IO.
In 1668, it rose to L.99, on a lease for 41 years ; and
afterwards, on a building lease for 51 years, at the
annual rent of L.150. Bedford Row and the adjoin-
ing streets were raised on this property ; and when
the leases were renewed, the net rent was L.-iOOO per
annum, and expected on second renewals to rise
still higher. But the application of one part of this
fund has not been attended with beneficial effects.
The prospect of L.20 as a dowry, has been the source
of rash and unfortunate marriages, and has increased
the demands on the poors rates, or added to the in-
habitants of the work-house.

Bedford in the early periods of English history was
the scene of many severe struggles between contend-
ing factions. The strength of the castle pointed it
out as a place of great importance.

BEDOUINS, tribes of wandering Arabs, wlio in-
habit the desert regions of Arabia, and other parts of
Asia and Africa. The name is derived from an Ara-
bic word, which signifies desert, and inhabitaut oflhe
desert. The Bedouins are regarded as the purest
race of the Arabians, because they have no intercourse

with other nations. They have lived from the remot-
est ages in tents, have never associated in towns or
villages, and migrate from place to place in the desert,
as safety, pasturage, and water for their flocks, camels,
or horses, may require. The Bedouins live under the
authority of a chief or ic/ie/A- ; the different tribes are
independent, and sometimes in a state of warfare with
each other ; but the whole, descended from the same
original stock, having the same manners, and profes-
sing the same religion, are considered as the same
nation ; and besides, one of the scheiks is acknow-
ledged as the supreme ruler, with the title of C7H?r,
or prince.

The manners and customs of the Bedouins, whe-
ther they are found in Arabia or Africa, are nearly
the same, and exhibit altogether the native simplici-
ty of the j-istoral age of society. From their wan-
dering mode of life, they are subject to numerous
privations, and have thus become robbers by profes-
sion. IMany of the tribes who are in the vicinity of
the route of travellers and caravans that traverse the
desert, live by plunder. But with all this rapacity,
the vn'rtue of hospitality to strangers is highly res-
pected, and rigidly practised. It would be regarded
a^ the most unpardonable offence among the Bedou-
ins, to violate in the slightest degree the rights of
hospitality, even when an opportunity is offered of
avenging an injury on an enemy. See Volney's Tra-
vels hi Syria, &c. Sonini's Trax^els in Egypt.

BEE, Apis of Linna:us, a numerous genus of in-
sects. See Entomoiogy.

n«c

BEE.

fclroductioii.

The object of the present treatise is to give such
a description of the habits and manners of the com-
mon Jtoney-bee, as will afford to the readers the latest
and most accurate information respecting these in-
teresting and useful insects ; to investigate the na-
ture and explain the uses of the products which they
furnish, and to notice the most approved and advan-
tageous methods of managing them. These subjects
have always been deemed important, and have at-
tracted the attention of naturalists and writers on ru-
ral economy, from the daj's of Columella and Vir-
gil to those of Huber and Huish. It is only within
these few years, liowever, and chiefly in consequence
of the researches and experiments of the latter wri-
ters, that any considerable accuracy in the natviral
history of bees has been attained, and there are still
a few disputed points which the most able investiga-
tors of modern times have hitherto failed in their at-
tempts to determine.

Many causes have contributed to retard the pro-
gress of scientific knowledge and practical improve-
ment in this interesting department of rural econo-
my. The investigations necessary to cle.ir up dispu-
ted points arc extremely difficult ; and experiments
require to be frequently and carefully repeated, that
hasty and erroneous conclusions may not be formed.
It \» remarkable, that the ablest investigators into
the Bconomy of bees, especially Huber and iluish.

are completely at variance in many of the most im-
portant points ; which is right, we presume not to
judge, but shall, in the course of our remarks, state
the opinions of both, leaving it to time and future
experience to decide between them. The practical
improvement of managing bees has been much im-
peded by prejudice and superstition. The favourite
doctrine, that " old ways are always best," prevents
many persons from adopting what both reason and
experience have proved to be easy and judicious; and
the popular superstitious notion, that " bought bees
never thrive," and that they must be either begged
or stolen, has, in this country, rendered the culture
much less general than it would otherwise have been.
In the first part of this treatise, we shall exhibit a
succinct view of the economy of bees ; and in the se-
cond shall describe the most approved methods of
manaaiti'r them.

Part I. Economy op Bees.

Description and varieties. — Tlie general appearance
of the honey-bee is (aniiliar to every one, but there
are some parts of its structure which require to be
described in order to understand the particular func-
tions which these parts perform.

In every hive, or separate colony, there are three
kind£ of bees, differing from each other in size, pro-

BEE.

603

EaoMmy. portions, and peculiar organs. By far the greatest
number, comprehending from 20,(X)0 to 4-0 000, or
more, are of a comparatively small size, being about
six lines long, are furnished with a sting, and with
imperfect ovaries or internal female generative or-
gans. These are the working bees; they collect ho-
ney and wax, construct the combs, feed the young,
and protect the hive from the incursions of other in-
sects. From their internal structure, it is ascertained
that they are essentially female, though but few in-
stances occur of their laying eggs. The next in point
of number, to the amount of 1500 or 2000, are larger
and thicker than the former, being about seven lines
long, have a duller flight, are devoid of sting, and
are evidently of the male sex. These are called
drones, — they take no part in the labours of the hive,
and seem to serve no other purpose tlian impregnat-
ing the female. Over this numerous assemblage of
workers and drones presides a single female bee, of
more majestic port than the rest, longer than the
drones by about a line, and, though of a more slender
form, very strong and active. She is justly st)'led
the queen, and is the only individual that uniformly
lays eggs and produces young, so that she may be
called the mother of the colony. Like the workers
she is provided with a sting.

The structure of the working bees particularly de-
mands our attention, as it illustrates the operations
which they perform. They are furnished with a
mouth and jaws, capable of biting and tearing sub-
stances of considerable solidity, and with a pro-
boscis, or trunk, fitted for taking up liquid matters,
and conveying them by the mouth into a capacious
double stomach. It is still disputed whether the pro-
boscis be tubular or solid, but the latter opinion seems
at present to prevail, and it is supposed to be em-
ployed rather as a tongue than a sucker. The hairs
that cover the bodies of these insects are so formed
as readily to collect powdery substances ; and their
feet are constructed like brushes, so that these mat-
ters are easily swept off the body, and lodged in cups
bordered with hair, that are hollowed in the third
pair of legs. The sting, whose wound proves so pain-
ful even to man, and is speedily fatal to insects, is a
very complicated weapon. It consists chiefly of two
opposite rows of barbs, terminating in a point at the
outer extremity, and so united as to form a tapering
tubular canal that communicates with a bag placed
within the belly, and filled with a very acrid poison-
ous fluid. This sting is rather an offensive than a de-
fensive weapon, and is used almost solely for the pur-
pose of destroying those enemies that presume to en-
ter the hive, or of exterminating the drones when
their services are no longer needed.

Queen. — The queen is in many respects the most
important personage in the hive, as on her depends
the continuance of the colony, and she conducts
those numerous hordes that annually quit the pa-
rent dwelling in search of new habitations. She is
therefore regarded with peculiar care and affection,
and is never suffered to quit the hive except to head
a corps of emigrants, or to fit herself for becoming
the mother of a future race. But before we detail
the interesting particulars that respect the functions
and manners of the queen, we must attend the la-
2

bouring bees, and describe the opeiatious which they Economy,
perform.

Operations As soon as a colony of bees is es-
tablished in a hive, they ronmicnce their labours ; and
from the rapidity with which those proceed from the
first, it is supposed that the swarm carry with them
a quantity of materials to lay the foundation of their
future works. As it is of the utmost consequence
that they should be defended against the injuries of
the weather, and as few hives are sufficiently close
in tjieir junctures for this purpose, the first object of
the bees is to procure a natural cement, capable of
filling up the chinks and crannies of their dwelling,
and of resisting moisture.

Propolis With this view they collect from cer-
tain vegetables large quantities of a resinous matter,
which, though soft and ductile when first obtaintd,
has the property of becoming hard on exposure to
the air. This has been called propolis. It is collected
chiefly from the buds of certain trees, especially those
of the pine tribe and the poplar, is of a reddish orown
colour, of an agreeable aromatic odour, and so gluti-
nous, that it is with some difficulty that the bees
detach it from their legs. Besides lining the junc-
tures of the hive, this substance is emp!o\ ed by the
bees to envelope the bodies of snails and the larger
insects which they have killed, but cannot remove
from the hive, as this coat of resin has tlie effect
of preventing the putrefaction of these dead ani-
mals.

Construction of combs. — Leaving a sufficient num-
ber of their comrades to protect the queen and hive,
and carry on the internal operations of the colony,
the workers set out in search of provisions and ma-
terials for building. They visit flower after flower,
and cull from each those substances that arc to sup-
ply both their present and future wants.

Their first object after obtaining a sufficient defence
against the injuries of the weather, is to construct
combs in which to lay up their provisions, deposit
the eggs of the queen, and rear the young brood.
Without at present enquiring into the nature and
origin of the wax of which the combs are formed,
we shall describe their general appearance, the par-
ticular form of the cells of which they are composed,
and the method employed by the bees in their con-
struction.

The combs are suspended in a perpendicular direc-
tion from the top of the hive, and are arranged paral-
lel to each other, with an interval of only a few lines
between them. Each comb is composed of two sets
of cells, opening at opposite surfaces of the comb.
The general figure of the perfect cells is that of a
hexagonal prism, opening at the surface by its base,
and separated from the opposite cells by a pyramidal
cavity called its bottom. The opposite cells are so
arranged, that the planes which form the terminating
pyramid of one celU concur to form the bottoms of
three others of the opposite cells, so that they are
not placed point to point. The cells which form the
highest series of the comb have a different form from
those that make up the body of the comb, for as two
of the sides of the hexagon are cut off by the plane
to which the comb is attached, the openings of these
upper cells are irregularly five-sided. The edges of

604

BEE.

Economy, the comb are composed of small irregular cells, but
to those there are generallj- attached distinct oblong
structures, composed of large cells, for the reception
of those eggs that are destined to produce queens,
and are therefore called royal cells.

In forming the cells, the working bges detach with
their hinder feet the plates of wax, which are prepar-
ed in a manner to be presently explained, from the
rings of their belly, and carry them to their mouth,
where the wax is worked till it become soft and duc-
tile. Thus prepared, it is applied to the part from
■which the comb is to be suspended, or that to which
an addition is to be made, where it is formed into a
block of a lenticular shape, thickest at the top. The
interior of each cell is formed by the bees scooping
out the wax from this solid block, till its sides are
sufficiently thin, an operation which requires the suc-
cessive labours of many bees to accomplish. The
pyramidal part of each cell is first formed, and then
the sides are constructed of the wax that had been
scooped out, or by the addition of fresh plates.

Several attempts have been made to explain the
peculiarities of figure just described in the cells of
the honey-comb, but none of them is altogether satis-
factory. BufFon attributed the hexagonal form to the
necessary and equal pressure of a number of bees
occupied at the same time in contiguous cells, which
he supposes at first to have been cylindrical, and to
have assumed the shape of hexagonal prisms in con-
sequence of this equal pressure. This hypothesis ap-
pears ingenious, but by no means accounts for the
inequality in the size of the cells, for the pyramidal
form of their central extremities, and for the nicety
with which these extremities are adjusted on opposite
sides of the comb. It is found, that though the na-
tural direction in which the bees work is downwards,
they can be made to build from below upwards, and
in either way it appears that from the first completion
of each cell it is of a prismatic form.

The cells of a comb when first constructed are
soft and white, and their edges thin and sharp. By
degrees they become harder, assume a yellow tinge
and a glossy surface, and their outer edges be-
come thicker and stronger. This is found to be ow •
ing to a coating of resinous varnish, similar to the
propolis already mentioned.

Collection of hunci). — The combs being thus pre-
pared, the working bees proceed to deposit in them
the provisions collected ibr the use of the colony, and
the queen, when impregnated, begins to lay her eggs.
'I'he provisions of bees consist partly of honey and
partly of pollen or farina. The honey they collect
from the nectaries of flowers, licking it up with their
proboscis, and conveying it by the mouth into the
stomach. In its general properties, honey, when first
collected, resembles a solution of sugar in water, with
the addition of a little mucilage, but modified in taste,
smell, and colour, by the nature of the plant from
which it is collected. It evidently undergoes some
change in the stomach of the bee, though in what
this change consists is not distinctly ascertained.
When the bees return to the hive, they deposit in
cells the honey they have collected, by an action re-
sembling vomiting, or deliver it over to the internal
workers, who deposit it in the cells intended for its

reception, and when these arc full they are sealed up Eeooomv.
with a plate of wax.

It appears that the bees are not very nice in the
quality of the saccharine juice which they collect.
Their chief object seems to be abundance ; and they
are known to lay up a store of honey which, though
probably affording an innocent nutriment to them,
proves deleterious when taken into the human sto-
mach.

Origin of wax. — It was long disputed what was the
nature and origin of the wax that forms such an a-
bundant product of a bee-hive. Most naturalists
supposed it to be derived from the pollen, which was
conceived by some to be taken into the stomach of
the bee, and there fitted by digestion for the forma-
tion of wax. M. Duchet, previous to 1778, hazard-
ed the opinion, that it was formed from honey ; and
Wildman actually saw plates of wax at the bottom of
a hive, appearing as if moulded by the bodies of the
bees. These scales were observed by John Hunter
in actual contact with the bodies of these insects;
but it was reserved for Huber to put this matter be-
yond a doubt, by his observations and experiments.

He has, we think, nearly proved that wax is a se-
cretion formed within peculiar cavities, of a pentago-
nal shape, that are situated on each side of the mid-
dle process of the abdominal scales in the belly of
the working bees, and that it may be seen exuding
in a fluid state on puncturing these cavities. It is
secreted chiefly by a distinct set of bees, who are
provided with a more capacious stomach than the
other workers, and consume a greater quantity of
honey. It is this honey that constitutes the source
from which the wax is produced ; and it appears that
the saccharine principle of the honey is the essential
part, as even a greater quantity of honey is formed
by those bees who are fed on sugar and water, than
by such as live on honey. These facts were experi-
mentally ascertained by Huber, and have been veri-
fied by frequent observation. We are aware that Mr
Huish ridicules this opinion of Huber and his follow-
ers, and asserts, that, according to the old notion,
honey is formed from pollen taken into their se-
cond stoniach, and there elaborated with water or
honey ; but it is long since we have been convinced
that ridicule is not the test of truth ; and we think
that, in more instances than one, Mr Huish has sub-
stituted this seducing talent in the place of sound ar-
gument or logical induction.

Pollen. — A third substance collected by bees is
pollen, or the Jariiia, contained in the anthers of
flowers. This is a powdery resinous matter, com-
posed of minute globular particles, capable of coa-
lescing into a coherent mass. The bees collect it by
means of the brushes attached to their feet, and the
hairs that cover their body, combining a number of
particles into a pellet, which they deposit in the basket-
shaped cavity in the middle of the hinder legs. ThiS
pollen is laid up in appropriate cells, and being des-
tined for feeding the young brood, has vefy proper-
ly been termed bce-breacL A surprising quantity is
collected for this purpose, a pound having been
known to be carried into a hive in one day. It it
curious that the cells are never filled with pollen, but
this matter is covered up with honey.

BEE.

605

Economy. '1 lie labours of bees in collecting these materials
v>^v'^fc/ depends much on the state of the weather. Wiien tlie
sky is calm and serene they vvoi'k with activity and
dispatch, but in wet weatlier they confine their la-
bours chiefly to the in'tcrnal operations of the hive.
It has been remarked that they are peculiarly dili-
; . gent in a thunderous state of the atmosphere, proba-

bly foreseeing that such a state will terminate in rain.
Impregnation, Sfc. of the queen. — When a sufficient
number of cells have been constructed, and provision
made for the future brood, the queen begins to pre-
pare herself for the exercise of the important func-
tion of increasing the population of the hive. With
this view, as wc are informed by Huber, she seizes
the opportunity of a fme day to sally from the hive,
and seek, during her aerial excursion, the embraces
of tlie male, and among the numerous drones that fly
about at these times she soon gains her object, and
returns in a state of impregnation. This opinion of
Huber, which is said to have been verified by other
naturalists, is combated with mucii pleasantry by Mr
Huish, though we think he has not successi'ully dis-
proved it, and has certainly given nomore satisfactory
hypathesis of his own. He roundly asserts, that the
queen remains a virgin though she la3S prolific eggs,
an anomaly in nature which we deem at least equal
to some of those opinions which he treats with so
much ridicule. He contends, indeed, that the eggs
are fecundated by the drones after being deposited in
cells by the queen ; but how this is effected he does
not inform us. Within a few days after having be-
come a perfect insect, the queen is capable of be-
coming a mother : and it is even nects sary, for the
proper exercise of this function, that her impregna-
tion should take place within twenty days after she
has left the royal cell.

Within about forty hours after impregnation the
queen begins to lay her eggs in those combs that are
in the middle of the hive, and continues this process
for many months, laying sometimes 200 eggs daily.
She first lays those of workers and afterwards those
of males. She appears conscious what kind of eggs
she is about to lay, and carefully examines the dia-
meter of the cells in which she is to deposit them,
taking care that she does not introduce them into ca-
vities too small for their perfect devclojiement.

The eggs destined to produce future royal issue
are among the last deposited by the queen in royal
cells, provided for that purpose. A curious and hi-
therto unaccountable circumstance has been ascer-
tained respecting this function of the queen. If her
impregnation has by any means been retarded for
above twenty days, slie lays eggs from which oiily
drones are produced. It is found that the laying of
hfer eggs is obstructed by cold, and she generally
gives over laying in tlie autumn, but begins again in
the spring.

Devc/ovement. — The eggs laid by the queen bee
are of an oblong oval form, and a bluish white co-
lour. In the course of three days from their depo-
sition, the larva or worm is hatched. It is curi-
ous that the eggs of all the three varieties are hatch-
ed in the same period, but the progress of the larva
is different in each. The worm of the working bees
continues in that btate for five days, then occupies

about thirty-six hours in spinning its cocoon, in Economy,
which in three days it becomes a nymph, and in ..^'v^-'
twenty days from the deposition of the egg comes
forth a perfect bee. Drones attain the perfect state
in twenty-four days, but the queen-bee escapes per-
fect from the cocoon in sixteen days. During this
time the larva; are carefully supplied with food form-
ed of pollen, made into a jelly, probably by being
mixed with honey, for about six day's, when they
cease to eat, and are shut up within their cells, though
still carefully watclied by the working bees. When
the perfect insect is set tree, the cell in which it had
been confined is cleaned out and converted to other
uses.

Mminers of tlie y»(?e«i.— Particular care is bestowed
by the workers on the larvic of future queens. They
are fed with a richer and more stimulating jelly, and
supplied with it in greater quantity than the ordinary
worms. Thus the developement of the royal larva;
is accelerated. It conmionly happens that two or
more queens are hatched about the same time, in
which case they become rivals, and the weaker fall
victims to the one which is most powerful. Huber.
has minutely described the combats of these rival
queens, which exhibit an extraordinary combination
of ferocity and caution. They rush together with
great fury, and take such a position witli their bellies
opposite each other that they nn'ght easily be mutu-
ally wounded by their stings : but as in this case both,
would fall, it seems provided by nature that when,
the}' feel themselves in this position they should se-
parate. The surrounding workers, however, stimu- •
late the rivals to a new combat, and the stronger seiz-
ing a favourable opportunity, suddenly darts her sting
into the belly of her adversary, and inflicts a-mortal
wound, — thus displaying in this Lilliputian monarchy
the same jealousy that is observed in some despotic
eastern empires, admitting no sister near the throne.

The old queen entertains a similar jealousy towards-
the future royal race, though her own oitspring.
About the time when the young queens have nearly
acquired their perfect state she frequently visits the
royal cells, and would inevitably destroy the young
queens there secluded, were she not prevented by
the workers. In the early part of the season, before
a colony has left the hive, the bees, aware of the ne-
cessity of preserving a sovereign for the future exi-
gencies of the state, are particularly careful to guard
the approaching young queens from the attacks of
their elder rival, and accordingly surround th.e en-
trance to the rojal cells with a strong intrenchment
of wax, and keep constant watch to prevent the hos-
tile attacks of the reigning queen. But when the
season of swarming is past, and any farther produc-
tion of queens may tend ordy to disturb the peace of
the hive, they seem rather to encourage and assist tlie
reigning queen in the work of exterminating her ri-
vals.

The presence of a queen is essentially necessary to
the welfare and tranquillity of the hive. W^herever
slie goes she is accompanied by a numerous retinue
of her subjects, who throng around her and attend
her with anxious solicitude. Taking advantage of
this attachment of the bees for their queen, several
persons have displayed feats in thy management of

606

BEE.

Ec^omr.

these insects which have been beheld with astonish-
ment. The celebrated Wildman once presented liira-
self before the Uoyal Society with several swarms of
bees ui>on iiis person. One hung pendulous from his
chin like a large and bushy beard, another envelo]>ed
each arm, and a fourth surrounded his body. He
had acquired so much dexterity in handling the
queens, that it was easy for him to seize and confine
them wherever he pleased, and the bees attached to
each queen following their leader formed these re-
markable groups.

If the presence of the queen be productive of these
exhilarating effects on the community, it is not sur-
prising that her loss should produce effects of a very
opposite nature. When by any accident the bees
find themselves without a sovereign, a loss which it
appears they do not innncdialely perceive, the hive
for a time becomes a scene of disorder and despair.
Abandoning the care of the young brood, the bees
run about in the greatest agitation, examining every
part of the combs, and rushing impetuously out
of the hive in search of their lost queen. This
•state of agitation continues only for a few hours;
for when they find the queen irrecoverable, tliey, by
a wonderful instinct, contrive a method of repairing
the loss by transplanting select larva; of working bees
<o newly constructed royal cells, where they feed
them with the same kind of stimulating jelly with
which the legitimate royal brood is usually nourished,
till by this care and diligence they, in fact, convert
into real queens those worms which, under ordinary
circumstances, would have produced only workers.

Hence is derived an important conclusion in the
natural history of the bee, that both queens and
workers originate from eggs of the same kind, and
become either the one or the other, according to the
care bestowed on them, and the food by which they
are nourished.

Sxcarmin^. — Pretty early in the season, generally
in May or June, when the old queen has deposited
a sufficient number of eggs to supply the parent hive
with future inhabitants, she prepares, with a numer-
ous train of followers, to quit the settlement in search
.of a new habitation. This emigration constitutes
what is called sivamiing, and the colony is termed a
stuarm. Satisfactory reasons have not been assigned
for this occurrence ; for though it generally takes
place when the hive is crowded with inhabitants, or
is likely to be overstocked by the future progeny, it
not unfrequently happens when there is abundant
room. Swarming seems to depend chiefly on the
queen ; and it is found that just before leading out
the swarm she is in a state of great agitation. The
usual signs of a swarm being about to leave the hive
are the following : For several days many of the bees
cluster round the mouth of the hive, and, especially
in the evening, hang in groups from the front of the
board on which it is placed ; an unusual and agree-
able humming noise is perceived in the evening
before the swarm issues forth ; and, on the day
of swarming, fewer bees are seen to issue from the
hive, or enter with their usual load. To these
signs may be added the appearance of a great number
of drones, and an uncommon stillness suddenly suc-
ceeding very great agitation within the hive. When

every thing is prepared the bees crowd to the en- F.conomy.
trance, and the queen first escaping, is speedily fol-
lowed by her atfcndjnts, consisting of both drones
and workers in the usual proportion. The swarm
ti.-st takes but a short flight, and then rests on
some bush or tree in the neighbourheod of the parent
settlement, the queen alighting first nr.d the other
bees clustering round her. If not no\. a. rested they
soon prepare for a longer and more disfmt excur-
sion, till thty find a situation suited to their purpose
of establishing a new colony, which in their natural
state is generally the hollow of a tree, or within the
roof of some secluded building.

It appears from the observations of Mr Knight,
that scouts are sometimes detached from a hive se-
veral days before swarming, in order to seek for a
situation adapted to the reception of the new colon)',
though in these cases no works are constructed by
these purveyors. Generally more than one swarm
issues from the same hive during the season, and if
the summer has been very favourable three swarias
have been known to proceed from one hive. In this
last case, however, the parent settlement is so much
weakened that its inhabitants seldom survive the win-
ter. The first swarm is always led forth by the old
queen, and the succeeding swarms by the eldest of
the young queens in succession.

Extermination of drones. — A few drones accom-
pany each swarm, probably for the purpose of im-
pregnating the queens ; but when all the swarms have
left the hive, and the remaining workers in the old
settlement have nearly finished the labours of the
summer, and are looking forward to their winter re-
tirement, they prepare to rid themselves of this un-
necessary, and now unwelcome part of their popula-
tion. About the commencement of autumn, some-
times as early as the end of July or beginning of Au-
gust, they begin their work of extermination. Great
bustle and much agitation prevail throughout the
hive. The unfortunate males, driven from the combs
on which they generally hang in careless indolence,
are pursued with implacable resentment to the bot-
tom of the hive, where they fall in one general mas-
sacre, transfixed by the stings of tlieir former asso-
ciates, and their dead bodies are thrown out upon the
ground. So complete is this extermination, that if
there remain any larvae or nymphs of drones within
the cells, they are dragged from their asylum and
involved in the common destruction. Only in one
instance are the drones suffered to remain in a hive
through the winter, namely, when the settlement has
lost its queen, and there appears no probability of a
new one being produced before the ensuing spring.

Mr Huish contends, that the drones are not killed
by the sting of the workers, as is generally supposed,
but rather by their mouths biting them near the root
of their wings. His great objection to the com-
monly received notion is, that when a bee stings a
person it leaves its sting behind it and dies. Now,
it by no means follows that this is the case in other
instances ; and indeed, were it so, of what use is the
sting to these insects if the employment of it were
universally to prove fatal ? He also objects, that the
venom of a bee is not likely to prove mortal to ano-
ther bee; Why not? Does not the venom of a rattle-

BEE.

607

Economy.

»n;ikc. or n Cobra de capello, prove mortal to tlie
r animal itself, when made to wound itself?

Preparations for viinter. — When the scarcity of
flowers warns the bees that they must expect no
further supply of honey, they adopt the greatest
economy to spare their winter store. Besides the
honey which they still occasionally procure for per-
sent subsistence, they collect the sweet cxcrcmen-
titious juice deposited by the insects called Aphides,
on the leaves of certain plants, or exuding from their
upper surface, and known by the name of honey-
4.evo. They also frequently commit depredations
on neighbouring hives, and on these occasions such
formidable conflicts sometimes take place as ma-
terially to weaken both the invaders, and those
who stand on the defensive. As winter approaches
the bees consume but little of their provisions,
but pass much of the cold weather in a torpid
state, roused however occasionally by the penetrat-
ing influence of a mid-day sun. During the cold-
est weather they appear to sink entirely into torpiditj'.

VentitatioH. — Several particulars in the economy
of bees, are more properly connected with the
physiology of insects. But here it ought to be
remarked, that, like all other animals, bees require
continual supplies of fresh atmospheric air to pre-
serve their healthy existence. As the hive is gene-
rally very close, admitting air only by a single open-
ing, the bees fall on a contrivance to promote the
circulation of air through their habitation. To ef-
fect this purpose several of them place themselves
near the entrance, and, by a constant and rapid mo-
tion of their wings, agitate the air, and this agita-
tion is propagated by other individuals, placed at
proper distances within the hive. Thus, a free ven-
tilation is produced, and the temperature of the
liive is preserved equal and moderate. During their
winter torpidity, the necessity for such a constant
supply of air is diminished, and they appear not to
suffer by the stagnant atmosphere of the hive.

Enemies and diseases. — Bees are exposed to the
attacks and depredations of numerous enemies ; but
we shall notice only those which are found in this
country. Among quadrupeds the badger sometimes
overturns the hives, and robs them of their contents,
unawed by their stings, which are not able to pierce
his thick and shaggy hide ; and field mice occasion-
ally force an entrance, especially while the bues ai'e
in a torpid slate. Among birds, the bee-eater, the
shrike, the swallow, the sparrow, the tit-mouse, the
cuckoo, and most poultry, greedily devour them,
and the wood-pecker is said sometimes to succeed in
breaking through the hive, and thus attacking its in-
habitants. Of reptiles, lizards and toads watch for
and seize them when they alight near their retreats ;
but their most formidable enemies are among the in-
sect tribes, especially the wasp, the hornet, the ant,
the larger species of spiders, and the moths. This
last is the most insidious, but not the least destruc-
tive of their enemies, as it insinuates itself into the
hive, and deposits its eggs among the combs, where
the larva; when developed make terrible havoc, and
frequently compel the bets to quit their hive. A
very large species, the sphinx atropos, or death's-
head moth, is, ill some countries, piuticularly de-

structive, and is supposed to prevent the bees from
exerting themselves in their own defence, by a pecu-
liar shrill sound which it emits, and which is said to
resemble that sometimes uttered by the queen bee.
We believe this moth is not common in Britain ; but
on the continent it sometimes deprives the farmers
of their whole stock of bees. To protect themselves
against these intruders, the bees contrive, towards
winter, to straiten the entrance into the hive, by
raising a narrow passage of wax and propolis capable
of admitting only one or two of their number at a
time.

Bees are subject to three principal diseases,
namely, di/sentery, distinguished by the black colour
and offensive odour of their excrement, and sup-
posed to be contagious ; a nervous affection, called
by some writers vertigo, supposed to be produced
by the honey of some narcotic plant ; and a kind of
dcbilit)!, shewing itself by a degree of langour, and
a swelling and yellow colour of the head and tips
of the antennne. The two former of these diseases
are supposed to be incurable ; but the last is said to
be removed by giving the bees Spanish wine.

Duration of life. — Bees so seldom die a natural
death, that it is not easy to determine the period of
their existence. Most writers however agree, that
it seldom exceeds two years among the workers,
though the term of life assigned to the queen is some-
what longer.

Part II. Management of Bees.

The cultivation of bees is extremely profitable,
and merits much more attention than it generally
receives. It is still capable of much improvement,
though the labours of modern observers and cultiva-
tors have afforded many valuable hints. There are
two great objects which the proprietor should keep
in view — to enable his bees to collect as much wax
and honey as possible, and to encourage their pro-
pagation and increase. To attain these objects he
must attend to the situation of the apiary ; — the strjtc-
iure of the hives ; — the management of sxvarms ; — the
the mode of removing the combs ; — and the protection
of the bees during winter.

Apiary.— The best situation for bee-hives is a gar-
den, well stocked with flowers and flowering shrubs,
or low standard fruit trees, and in the neighbour-
hood of pastures bordered with heath, furze (whin,)
or broom. The contiguity of high trees should be
avoided ; but it is very desirable that a small rivulet
or stream of water should lie near, as bees are fond
of sipping water, even though it be muddy. . The
hives should be arranged along a border, a few feet
from a v/all not too high; that has a moderately
warm exposure, somewhat between south and east ;
and they should be {)laced separately, each on a
stout wooden table, with a narrow projecting part
in front, supported on a strong wooden post, about
two feet from the ground. Thus placed, the hives
are sheltered from inclement blasts, while they are
not too much exposed to the heat of the sun re-
flected from the wall, and being thus elevated on a
single support, are not so liuble to thii incursions
of large crawling or climbing enemies. The table

eo8

BEE.

Wtnuge- should be rather larger than the bottom of the hive,
iiicnt. and should be a little raised in the miiUUe to allow
the rain to run off. There must be a suificient space
between the hives, to prevent disputes among the
neighbouring settlements ; and for this purpose an
interval of at least three or four foot is requisite. No
tall plants or rank weeds should be suffered to grow
round the hives, as the}' encourage and harbour in-
sects ; but the ground below the tables should be
spread with gravel, or sprinkled with coal ashes.
The table on which the hives are placed should be
swept clean three or four times a-3'ear, especially in
the beginning of spring and conclusion of the honey
season.

It is of some consequence to select for the garden
such flowers as are most productive of wholesome
honey, and to keep up a succession of these from
spring to autumn. Among the most profitable sum-
mer plants mignionette holds a high rank, and many
of the pot herbs, as thyme and marjoram, are much
frequented by the bees.

Transporting bees In some countries, particu-
larly Egypt and Asia Minor, the proprietors of bees
transport their hives from one place to another, for
the sake of providing them a more abundant supply
of flowers. The practice has been followed to a
certain extent in France, and even in Britain ; but
it is not probable that in this country it will ever
become general or sufSciently advantageous to com-
pensate the trouble and expense attending it. In
conveying the hives from one situation to another, it
is proper to tie each separately in a cloth or sheet,
and arrange them on hand-barrows, or in a well
Tiung spring-cart, or what is still better, where wa-
ter-carriage is admissible, in a boat ; travelling by
night, and resting by day, to let the bees feed, till
they reach their place of destination. Great care
should be taken not to agitate the hives, for fear of
loosening and separating the combs.

Structure of hives. — The hives in which bees are
kept, may be made either of straw or wood. The
•former are warmer, the latter more convenient, e-
specially for the purpose of observation. The coni-
tnon bee-hive, or scape as it is sometimes called, is
nearly of a spherical figure, with a segment cut off
■below, or sometimes like a bell ; and though well
suited to retain the combs, is very ill adapted to the
economical purpose of abstractmg them without
destroying the bees. A much better form is that
of a cylinder, about nine inches deep, and twelve in
diameter, open at both ends, but having a circular
frame, with as many cross bars of wood as there
are intended to be combs in the head, to close it
in at tlie top. These hives are so constructed as
to fit over each other, so as to increase the inter-
nal cavity, and the uppermost is covered with a he-
mispherical Hd nicely adjusted, fastened with pack-
thread, and the junctions secured with putty or mor-
tar. Two of these cylinders adapted to each other,
and the entrance hole of the upper closed, form a
very proper habitation for a new swarm, dnd the
lower cylinder, when full, may be exchanged for
an empty one, in the m.ode to be presently describ-
ed.

We have seen eight-sided wooden boxes, having

several silts at top capable of being closed by a slid-
ing board, and a pane of glass, with a sliding shutter
in one side, for the purpose of observing the bees at
work, employed as hives ; and if not made too large
tlicy answer very well.

But of all the wooden hives of which we have seen
any account, we prefer that contrived by M. Huber,
and described by him in his " New Observations ow
Bees." This is called the leaf or hook-hive., from its
being composed of thin compartments fitted laterally
to each otiier, and opening in the manner of the
leaves of a book. The component leaves of this hive
form each a frame of wood twelve inches long by ten
broad, and about one inch thick by fifteen lines from
side to side. Those intended to form the interior of
the hive are open at the sides, but the two that ara
to form the outer lateral parts are closed by a stout
board. They must all be nicely adapted to each
other, and fastened together by hinges screwed to
the edge, so as easily to bo removed or replaced.
Each compartment is intended for holding one comb,
and Huber recommends ))lacing a small piece of
comb at the upper bar to direct the operation of the
bees. Each has a moderate-sized hole in the front
edge near the bottom, for the passage of the bees in
and out. It is convenient to have them so adapted
that the whole may open in the middle for the pur-
pose of introducing a swarm, or examining the inte-
rior of the settlement. By the addition or removal
of such divisions, the size of the hive may be regula-
ted according to circumstances. The combined panes
are covered at the top with a sloping wooden roof to
throw off the rain ; and they are kept firmly together
by outside bars secured by pins.

The description here given of Ruber's hive differs
in some respects from that given by Mr Huish ; and
it appears that there are at least two modifications of
it, though the general principle of construction is the
same.

These hives are attended with many advantages.
In particular they admit of inspection into every
part, for the purpose either of curious observation,
or of ascertaining the state of the colony, or the si-
tuation of the queen ; they tend to increase the quan-
tity of wax and honey produced, and they allow the
greatest facility in removing any part of the combs
without destroying, or materially disturbing the bees.
The only inconvenience to which they seem liable,
is, that they are apt to expose the combs and bees
to injuries from the weather ; an objection which
may be obviated by making them of well-seasoned
wood, and taking care that the junctures ai-e ex-
tremely close.

The hive recommended by Huish, which is nearly
the same with the Greek hives described by tra-
vellers to mount Hymettus, of which it is not easy
to conceive that the author was ignorant, is of straw,
shaped like a flower-pot, and made open at both ends.
The smaller end forms its bottom ; and upon the
other are laid, at equal distances, eight or nine
long pieces of wood, about three inches broad and
half an inch thick, and secured on the edge so as to
be easily lifted, but not to slide backwards and for-
wards. Over these cross bars is laid a piece of net-
work ; over this a circular boafd, having six holes

Manage-
meat

BEE

609

Manage- above the insterstices of the bars, fitted with perfo-
inent. rated tin-plates, to let out the heated steam of the
hive ; and the whole is covered with a convex straw
top, hanging a httle over the edge, and firmly ce-
mented to the body of the hive. The combs being
attached to the cross bars, are, from the shape of the
hive, easily lifted out, and fresh bars placed for tin-
bees to construct new combs ; so that this hive has
the advantage both of simphcity of construction and
facility of management.

Sometimes several hives are placed above each
other like the stories of a house, constituting what
is called the story fying system. This system is by
some supposed to have many advantages ; as that the
bees have most room, and have therefore not so much
inducement to swarm ; and that being mora numer-
ous, they preserve a higher temperature in the hive
and breed earlier ; while, from the quantity of combs,
they are not exposed to famine. We consider some
of these advantages as imaginary, and advise this sys-
tem not to be carried too far.

Management of swarms. — When it is expected that
a hive will swarm, strict atttntion must be paid to
watch the exit of (he bees and prevent their escape.
Swarming takes place in the early part of the day,
and in fair weather, so that the trouble of watching
is comparatively small. When the swarm has fairly
collected, and alighted for its first rest, preparations
should immediately be made for securing the bees
before they take their second flight. For this pur-
pose, a clean hive is to be provided ; and if it be
made of straw, two cross pieces of wood should be
])laccd within it, about the middle, so as to assist
in supporting the combs. It is usual in this country
to wash the inside of the hive with sugar and water,
and rub it well with green leaves, or a brush to rub
off the loose ends of straw that project from the sides.
Taking the hive, thus prepared, in one hand, and be-
ing defended by coarse worsted gloves, gaiters on
his legs, and a linen dress, with a mask of wire-cloth
over the hat and fiice, and tied round the body, the
person who is to hive the stvarni, as it is called, holds
the hive immediately below the assembled group of
bees, and giving the bough or bush on which they
have settled, a smart shake generally succeeds iu lodg-
ing most of them within the hive. He then cautious-
ly turns down the hive upon a board or table, cover-
ed with a cloth, and leaves it in the same spot till to-
wards the evening, when it is carried to the place
where it is to stand. It is sometimes necessary to
detach the bees, by means of a goose's wing, which
forms the best brush on these occasions; and in all
cases where the queen can be found, and secured
within the hive, the bees are easily lodged in their
proper habitation.

There are certain precautions to be observed by
those who undertake the hiving of bees, or indeed
any operation in which the bees are likely to be irri-
tated. He should be dressed in light-coloured clothes,
should avoid breathing on the bees, and should
there arise great agitation, and the bees appear much
irritated, it will be proper to keep them off by the smoke
of burnt linen, paper, or dry cow-dung, thrown on live
coals in a small chaffer or pan, with a perforated

VOL. I. PART II.

cover and a short handle, which the operator is to
carry about with him.

It is of some consequence, especially io the later
swarms, to ascertain the size of the swarm, that it
may not prove too weak for surviving the winter.
The usual method of doing this is by weighingtiiehivc.
If the weight of the bees, exclusive of that of the hive,
do not amount to 41bs. avoirdupois, it is considered as
a weak swarm ; and in this case it is recommended to
put two swarms together. To do this, so as to secure
the tranquillity of the bees, it is necessary to take
away the queen belonging to one of the swarms.

Aiiijicial smarms. — It is not a difficult matter, and
may sometimes be desirable, to separate the bees in
a hive into distinct colonies, without waiting for their
swarming. This is called producing artificial swarms ;
and is easily effected by means of Huber's leaf-hive,
in the following manner. The usual compound hive,
formed of ten or twelve compartments, is cautiously
divided in the middle, and two leaves, each closed
on one side, are gently slid between the two halves,
so that their open parts shall be next the interior of
each half. Search must now be made to find which
half contains the queen, and should she be found in
that which has most eggs or worms, it will be neces-
sary to transfer her to the other half, in order to give
tlie bees in the former divisfon the best chance of
rearing a new queen from the brood there lodged.
Then the two half hives are to be brought together,
and united, by tying a small cord firmly round them,
taking care to place them in the same position as
the whole hive had formerly occupied. The former
opening in front of the hive is to be closed, and an-
other opened in each of the divisions, as far as possi-
ble from each other, only that it would be better to
keep the division that is without a queen so far closed
as not to allow the bees to pass while it admits a
supply of fresh air. The bees soon repair the loss
of their queen, and in about ten or fifteen days the
hive may be finally separated.

We liave heard of an ingenious way of compelling
bees to sv-arm, when they appear rather tardy in do-
ing so. This consists in removing the hive, which
has shewn the usual indications of swarming to an-
other part of the garden; and we are assuied that
in a short time the swarm has issued forth, and
alighted on the table that suppoited the old hive, so
that it was easily collected in a fresh hive and trans-
ferred to a separate stand, while the parent settle-
ment was brought back to its original seat.

Abstraction of combs It is well known that the

usual method of taking possession of the spoils col-
lected by the bees, is to place the hive over a hole
dug in the earth, introducing below it lighted brim-
stone, and closing the mouth of the hive so as to
suffocate the unfortunate insects. This is not only
cruel, but it is very impolitic and extravagant, and
it tends to injure the flavour of the honey. With
the common spherical hives it is indeed not easy to
remove the combs in any other way, but it may be
done with the cylindrical straw-hives already de-
scribed, and still more easily by employing the leaf-
hives of Huber. The best time for taking the combs
is when the hives have attained their greatest weight ;
4 I

Manage-
ment.

610

B E E.

t6 ascertain which, they should in autumn be fre-
quently inspected, and raised so as to be weighed by
hand. The heaviest hives, and those containing tiie
fVeshcSit combs, are to be selected; and when the
Straw-cylinders arc employed, the bees are to be dri-
ven towards the upper division, by tapping gently
for sometime upon the lower, after loosening any ce-
ment by which the junction had been secured. Then
a long and pretty shaip knife, or what is better, a
clean wire, with two handles, is to be passed be-
tween the lower division and that immediately above
it. The former i=i then to be removed to a distance ;
and if the season be not too far advanced, or if the
bees appear to require room, an empty hive is placed
below and the juncture secured as before. If the
upper compartment be of small size, it will be pro-
per to place an rfk. or shallow cylinder, below ; as,
when the combs are cut close to the bottom, and
consequently rest upon the table, if no addition be
ijiado, the circulation of air through the hive is ma-
terially obstructed, and the bees often perish before
tliey can open proper communications between the
combs. It is necessarj', therefore, when no eck is
added, to cut out a portion from the lower part of
each comb to ensure communication and ventilation.
With the hive of lluberalt that is necessary is to se-
lect those divisions which contain the richest combs,
and cautiously separate them from the rest, substitu-
ting empty ones in their room ; and this may be done
at any part of the season. If the combs abstracted
contain many cells filled with )'Oung bees, these por-
tions may be cut out and fastened within the emp-
ty divisions.

In taking away the honey and wax without de-
stroying the bees, it is proper to leave at least what
may be necessary to support them through the win-
ter, unless it be so early m the season that they have
time to collect a fresh stock. The quantity of ho-
ney and wax that a hive of bees can collect during
one season varies considerably, according to their
numbers and the abundance of flowers near them.
An ordinary hive will yield from 50 to 80 pounds of
honey, and two or three of wax ; but when the bees
are allowed sufficient space, and the season produc-
tive, more than double these quantities has been pro-
duced.

Separation of the honey. — More nicety is required
in the separation of the honey, and management of
the wax, than is commonly supposed. The combs
should first be carefully examined ; the young brood,
bee-bread, and any decayed or much discoloured
parts cut away, and the comb containing honey
sorted according to its quality. Tlien, with a sharp
knife, the coat of wax that closes the cells is to be
pared off, the comb cut in pieces, and laid on coarse
haircloth sieves to drain. The honey procured in
this way, without heat or pressure, is the purest, and
is called Virgin honiey, and should be kept by itself.
Gentle pressure, assisted, if necessary, by moderate
heat, procures other honey, which is generally mix-
ed with a little wax. From this and other impurities
it may be freed, by melting it in a vessel placed in a
pan of boiling water, scumming off what rises to the
surface, and pouring off the clear melted honey from
the sediment.

When all the honey has been separated, the w«k
is to be melted with water, and strained through a
cloth guificiently coarse to admit the wax to pass
through without the impurities with which it is con-
taminated. It is then left to cool on the surface of
the water, again melted by itself with a gentle heat,
and poured into proper dishes to cool into those
thick round cakes in which it is usually bought.

Uses of' honey and ixax. — Besides being very ge-
nerally employed as an article of diet, honey is much
used in medicine, in making those acid syrups called
oxymels, and as a grateful and laxative emollient;
though, from its often exciting griping pains in the
stomach and bowels, its use has of late been much
superseded by that of sugar. It is a common exter-
nal application among country people, in cases of
burns and inflammation of the eyes, in which it has
the valuable property of doing no harm. From this
substance, too, is prepared that fermented liquor
called mead or metheglin.

Wax is a still more valuable article than honey,
but is produced in much less abundance. So little
equal is the produce of wax in this country to its
consumption, that it is asserted by Iluish that nearly
L.80,000 is annually paid by Britain for wax import-
ed from abroad. Most of this large quantity comes
from Germany, and is collected and shipped chiefly
at the port of Dantzic. Much wax is used in the
practice of surgery, as it forms a principal ingredient
in most ointments, cerates, and plasters ; but the
greatest consumption of this product is in the ma-
nufacture of candles, for which purpose it is pre-
viously bleached. Wax is now very commonly em-
ployed, melted and mixed with oil of turpentine, for
giving a polish to mahogany furniture. The best
wax is of a light yellow colour, a fragrant Smell, and
rather brittle than soft. When melted it should be
transparent, and deposit very little sediment.

Presei-vation of bees. — The preservation of bees
through the winter, and the protection of them from
the various enemies and casualties to which they are
exposed, form an important part of their manage-
ment. When the state of the hives has been pro-
perly exanuned at the end of autumn, and such por-
tions of the honey and wax have been taken away
as it is thought the bees can spare, the space between
the lower edge of the hive and the table on which it
stands should be filled up with fine mortar, and the
mouth of the hive should be contracted so as to ad-
mit only one bee at a time to pass. It is also proper
to furnish the hives with a covering capable of de-
fending them from rain and snow. The usual co-
vering employed for this purpose is a conical head of
straw, in which the straws are arranged longitudi-
nally in the way of a thatch, and not too tightly
bound together. This throws off the wet extremely
well, but it is apt to encourage the attacks of mice
and reptiles, who nestle in the straw. It would, per-
haps, be better to make the covering of wood, well
painted or pitched.

It is no uncommon error to suppose that bees can-
not be kept too warm in winter, and many persons
cover them up very closelj'. This, by preventing
the natural torpidity of the bees, tends to waste their
provisions ; and it is now well ascertained, tliat bees

B E E.

611

MMMige- Blu^'ve the winter in the woods of Siberia, and evea
ineiit. when placed in an ice-house.

Feeding of bees. — It is sometimes necessary, when
the honey season has been bad, or when too much
of the combs has been abstracted from the hive, to
feed the bees during a considerable part of winter.
They may be fed upon syrup, formed by dissolving;
a pound of honey, or throe-fourtlis of a pound of
sugar, in a quart bottle of good ale, boiling it to a
proper consistence. The best method of introducing
this into the hives, is by means of joints of what is
called sheeps-parsley, or keckses, formed into troughs
by cutting away a part of one side between the joints.
One of these tilled with syrup will generally suffice
the bees of a hive for one day. These trouglis should
be introduced full in the evening, and removed next
morning.

The feeding of bees sliould be begun sometimes
befoi-e an absolute scarcity takes place in those hives
wliich are known to be too weak to stand the. winter ;
and it is often necessary to have recourse to this ex-
pedient in the early part of spring, when the weather
is cold and moist.

Preventing depreciations.— ~The preventing of the
depredations committed by the various enemies of
bees, and counteracting their attacks, require dif-
ferent precautions for almost each species of enemy.
We shall here adopt Mr Huish's arrangement, ni
considering man as their principal enemy, and notice
the method he proposes for preserving hives from
being stolen. This consists in perforating the post
on which the table is placed with a hole sufficiently
large to admit a pretty stout chain that passes from
an iron hoop passed round the body of the hive, and
joined to an iron arch that goes over the top, and
securing the chain below by a good padlock. The
attacks of field-mice are best prevented by setting
traps at some distance from the hive to catch and
kill these animals. Huish's trap is simple and inge-
nious. A thread is passed through a pea soaked in
water, and fastened at each extremity to a stick fix-
ed firmly in the ground, and a brick is made to rest
in an inclining position on that part of the thread
that holds the pea. The mouse coming to devour
the pea, bites tlie thread in two, and is crushed by
the falling brick. Perhaps the only method of pre-
venting the attack of bird*, is to watch them, and
shoot a few, as examples to the rest ; or feathers at-
tached to a cord, and fastened to posts, may be pla-
ced near the hives, as practised by gardeners, to
frighten away the birds from their crops of seed.
Lizards and toads should be destroyed wherever
seen, and may be prevented from entering the hive
by contracting its mouth. It is not easy to pre-
vent the depredations of wasps and ants ; and, per-
haps, the only certain way is to search for and de-
stroy their nests. The practice of hanging bottles
of sweetened water near the hives is absurd, as it at-
tracts insects, and, when near the hive, they will ra-
ther enter it, as they prefer honey to sugar. To
prevent spiders from constructing their webs within

the hive, it is necessary to examine the hive pretty
frequently before the depth of winter, and clear away
any cobwebs that may have made their appearance.
No certain remedy, as far as we know, has been pro-
posed for preventing the ravages of moths that have
once entered a hive. These insects always attack
the weakest hives ; and all that can be done is to
transfer the bees into another liive provided with
healthy combs.

By way of concluding this part of our subject,
we shall give an abstract of what Mr Huish calls the
" Apiarians Monthly Manual," noticing, in a general
way, the circumstances to be attended to under each
month, beginning witli

October. — Examine and we^h the hives ; and after
cleaning the stools, fasten tliem down for the winter.
See tliat the coverings are clean and weatherproof;
and for the last time remove what combs can be
spared.

November — TnsjJect the liives, and clean the stools,
contract the entrance, and see that the coverings are
clean, and the hives so secured as not to be blown
oft' by the wind.

December. — In very cold or snowy weather close
the mouths of tlie liives as much as possible, and
clear away any snow that falls upon the table.

January — Towards the latter end, give the bees
more air.

February. — Enlarge the entrance of the hive, aud
in mild weather inspect tlie hive and clean the stools.
This is a good time for purchasing hives.

March. — Remove all encumbrances from the mouth
of the hive, and make every part thoroughly clean.
Supply the bees with fresh water. Make an addition
to such hives as are strong and heavy, and extract
such combs as are old and discoloui'ed. Feed weak
hives.

April. — Destroy moths and butterflies. Watch
for the signs of swarming ; and towards the lattca:
end make artificial swarms, where desireable. De-
stroy wasps, especially the queens.

May. — Frequently inspect the hives, and clean
away every thing oft'ensive. Make preparations for
hiving swarms, and keep a good look-out in fine
weather.

June. — Feed new swarms in rainy weatTier, anil
enlarge such hives as are numerous and active.

July. — Remove part of the produce of the bees.
Destroy wasps nests, and inspect the hives for vermin.

August. — Examine and weigh the hives, and take
combs from such as exceed SOlbs.

September. — Transport hives to more abundant pas-
tures. Assist in killing drones. Furnish new cover-
ings where necessary. Inspect the hives, cleaH the
stools, and destroy vermin.

It will be readily conceived that these directions
do not equally apply to every part of Britain ; and
in general we may remark, that as the climate in the
northern parts is about a month later than that in the
southern, allowance must be made accordingly.

Alanagf.-
meut.

BEH

612

BE J

BM-eatec

Behcm.

BEE-EATER, a bird. See Merops, under Or-
nithology.

BEE-FLOWER, a species of Ophrys, a genus of
plants belonging to the Gynandria class.

BEE-GLUE, the propolis of the ancients, a glu-
tinous matter with which bees cement the comb to
the liive, and close up their cells. See Bee.

BEER, a fermented liquor obtained from an infu-
sion of malted grai«. See Brewing.

BEEKING, or BEHRING'S ISLAND, an island
in the North Pacific ocean, in the 55th degree of N.
latitude, and forming one of the group called Aleu-
tian islands, derives its name from the discoverer,
commodore Behring, who was driven upon it in
1777; and, after experiencing the severest hardships,
fell a victim, along with many of his crew, to the ri-
gours of the climate. See Aleutian Islands.

BEERING.or BEHRING'S STRAITS, the chan-
nel wliich separates the continents of Asia and Ame-
rica, in the 65th degree of north latitude, and is
about 40 miles in breadth ; was discovered by com-
modore Behring in 1728, whose name it bears. In
1778 tliis strait was explored by captain Cook, and
in the succeeding year by captain Clerk ; several
geographical positions were settled by these cele-
brated navigators ; the depth of the water in the
channel did not exceed 20 or 30 fathoms ; and a re-
markable similarity in the low naked shores with
elevated land in the interior of the country, was ob-
served on both sides of the straits. Three small
islands occupy the middle of the channel. In 1790
Behring's straits were visited by some ships sent out
by the Russians ; but in all attempts to reach high-
er latitudes, immense fields of ice have always pre-
sented an insurmountable barrier. Cook's Voyages.
'Coxe's Riissia?i Discoveries.

BEGUINS, a religious order of nuns, which was
first established at X.iege about the beginning of the
13th century, and spread over Flanders, the Low
Countries, and Germany. The most flourishing so-
cieties of this order were in Antwerp, Malines, and
Amsterdam.

BEHEMOTH, the scriptural name of a large and
strong animal, supposed by naturalists to be the river-
liorse or hippopotamus, which see under Mamma-
lia.

BEHEM, or BEHEIM, Martin, a navigator
of the 15th century, for whom the honour of the dis-
covery of America has been claimed. He was a na-
tive of Nuremberg in Germany, and was early attach-
ed to the study of astronomy and navigation, in which
it is probable he was encouraged by his instructor,
the celebrated Regiomontanus, or John Muller.
Endowed with an enterprising spirit, he made an of-
fer of his services to Isabella of Portugal to under-
take a voyage of discovery; being provided with
a vessel, he sailed westward in the Atlantic ocean ;
and in HfiO discovered Fayal and the other islands
of the Azores. He obtained a grant of Fayal, es-
tablished-a colony, and resided on it for about twenty
years. In 1484 he was furnished with ships by John
II. king of Portugal for another expedition, in the
course of which he discovered Brazil and the straits
of Magellan. As a reward for these remarkable dis-

coveries, he was loaded with the most distinguished seii*
honours by the king of Portugal. ii

In 1492, the remarkable year of the discovery of Bejapoor.
America by Columbus, Behem visited his native ^.mm^y'mmf
city ; and during his residence there, it is said he
constructed a terrestrial globe, which is still preser-
ved at Nuremberg. On this globe are traced the
course of his own voyage, and the western regions,
supposed to be the coast of Brazil, which he disco-
vered.

The claims advanced for Behem are of a doubtful
character. It seems to be quite unaccountable how
so remarkable a discovery should be kept in pro-
found silence for the period of eight years ; and even
long after the fame of the brilliant enterprise of Colum-
bus, no notice was taken of any previous claim. The
construction of the globe in the very year in which
Columbus made his discovery, if the evidence of that
fact be indisputable, presents a singular coincidence,
and excites some suspicion that the dates may not
be precisely stated. Behem died at Lisbon in 1506.
Those who wish to see the claims of this navigator
more fully considered, may consult a Memoir in the
2d volume of the American Philosophical Transac-
tions

BEIRA, a province of Portugal, which is bound-
ed by the river Douro on the north, by the Tagus
and part of Estremadura on the south, by the ocean
and part of Estremadura on the west, and by the
Spanish territory on the east ; is about 30 leagues
square, and presents a diversified surface of steep
mountains and fertile valleys.

The rocks of which the mountains are composed
belong chiefly to the primitive class. Granite, mica-
ceous, and argillaceous schistus predominate in the
lofty ridges, and are succeeded at a lower elevation
by grey limestone alternating with coarse-grained
sandstone ; some indications of coal have been ob-
served on the coast, but not of sufficient extent to
encourage active operations. The Mondego, which
is the principal river, traverses the greater part of
the province, and in its course towards the ocean
passes through many rich and beautiful valleys. The
mountains are clothed with forest-trees, and the
plantations of olive-trees are extensive.

The population of Beira is stated at 560,000.
The chief towns are Coimbra, Lamego, Guarda,
Aveiro, Almeida, &-c. Some parts of the province
are under good culture ; and wheat, barley, and rye
are raised. Indian corn is cultivated in consider-
able quantities, and crops of rice are obtained from
the marshes along the banks of the Mondego. The
fruits of Beira are abundant and excellent ; and the
oranges, which are of a superior quality, are enumer-
ated among the exports, to which also may bo added
the produce of the vine. The more elevated districts
afford good pasture to sheep and cattle.

BEJAPOOR, a province of the Deccan in India,
is about 350 miles long, and about 200 miles broad ;
is traversed by a mountainous ridge, which is a
branch of the western Ghauts, for more than 60 miles
from the sea, is watered by numerous rivers, and in-
cludes a population of 7,000,000, of which the fol-
lowers of Brahwii form the larger proportion, and

BEL

613

BEL

the rest profess the Mahometan creed. Bejapoor
and Poonah are the principal towns ; but there are
others of considerable magnitude, in which exten-
sive manufactures of silk and cotton are successful-
ly conducted, and their commercial intercourse with
the northern regions of India is prosperous and lu-
crative. This province, once an independent king-
dom, has been torn with dissensions among rival or
rebellious chiefs ; but, by the prudent interference
of the British government, in 1804, some degree of
tranquillity was restored, and probably the same
powerful influence may be requisite in future to keep
tiiem in subordination.

BEL, or BELUS, the supreme god of the ancient
Chaldeans, is supposed to be the Nimrod of Scrip-
ture, and the Pha-nician Baal, and the founder of the
Babylonian empire. Tlie statue of this god was set
up and dedicated by Nebuchadnezzar in the plain of
Dura, after his return from the Jewish war. Daniel,
chap. iii.

BELEM, a town of the province of Estremadura
in Portugal, stands on the north bank of the Tagus ;
is the burial place of the Portuguese roj'al famil)',
and is remarkable for a monastery of singular and
fanciful architecture. One of the churches is a fine
Gothic structure. Belem could once boast of a royal
palace. It is still the residence of wealthy trades-
men, and is adorned with a botanic garden and the
royal gardens, which still remain. A tower and se-
veral batteries, with a small fort for the defence of
the harbour of Lisbon, have been erected at no great
distance. Belem is three miles west from Lisbon.

BELEMNITES, known by the name ofthunder-
slones, or thunder-bolts, are organised substances in a
petrified state, which are found detached in beds of
gravel or clay, or are embedded in limestone, and are
generally supposed to be animal remains. They are
of a conical form, internally of a radiated structure,
and are from one inch to five or six inches in length.
According to the opinion of Klein, the belemnites
are the spines of a large species of sea hedge-hog.

BELFAST, the most populous town in the north
ef Ireland, stands on the north side of the river
Lagan, in the county of Antrim, and at its influx in-
to Belfast lough, or Carrickfergus bay, and is about
80 miles north from Dublin. Although Belfast can
lay claim to some antiquity, yet it was only a small
plate in the beginning of the 18th century ; but by
the enterprising s])irit and commercial activity of its
inhabitants, it has become one of the most flourish-
ing towns in the kingdom. In the modern part of
Belfast, the streets are spacious and regular ; the
houses, which arc chiefly of brick, are well built ;
and the public buildings, as the exchange, the linen
hall, some of the churches, and the college, are plain,
but elegant and commodious structures. A bridge
of twenty-one arches forms the communication be-
tween Belfast and the suburbs in the county of Down.
It was built about the time of the revolution, at the
expence of L.l 2,000, contributed by the two coun-
ties. Commodious docks, and yards for building and
repairing ships, have been constructed at Belfast.
Vessels of moderate size unload at the quays, but
ships of large burden discharge their cargoes three

miles below tJie town. By late improvements, the BelgMt"
depth of water has been considerably increased. || ■*

The population, stated at 13,000 in 1782, was e». BdgraiJe.
timated at 30,000 in 1810, but it is supposed that this
number is underrated. The chief manufactures are
linen and cotton, earthen ware, glass, and sugar ; and
along with ship-building, some cast iron founderies
and chemical works are prosperously conducted. Be-
side the coasting trade, and the exchange of com-
modities with England and Scotland, the commercial
intercourse of Belfast with America and the West In-
dies is very considei-able. In 1809, the exports of lin-
en, butter, salted provisions, and oatmeal, amounted
nearly to L.l, 91 1,000 Sterling.

The charitable institutions of Belfast are numerous
and liberally supported ; the various literary socie-
ties, and public libraries which have been established,
afford ample evidence of the intelligence and taste
of the inhabitants ; private academies have been long
successfully conducted ; and the Academical Insti-
tution, the building of which commenced in 1810,
and was completed at an expence of more than
L. 16,000, raised by subscription, will form a remark-
able era in the history of Belfast. This institution
embraces a wider field for the education of youth,
and is intended to include all those branches of lite-
rature and science which are usually prosecuted by
the general scholar. Teachers have been appointed
in several departments; their labours have begun,
and promise to be of incalculable benefit to the nor-
thern division of the kingdom.

BELGiE, a people of ancient Gaul, who occu-
pied that district of country which lies between the
Rhine and Loire, and are particularly described by
Caesar in his Commentaries.

BELGIUM was a part of ancient Gaul. The name
was revived by the French in their revolutionary pro-
gress in 1795, and applied to the Netherlands, which,
with the bishopric of Liege, was annexed to France,
and divided into nine departments. The whole is now
included under the new kingdom of the Netherlands.

BELGRADE, the capital of the province of Ser-
via in European Turkey, stands on the declivity of a
hill at the confluence of the Save and the Danube ;
was formerly a strongly fortified and populous place,
and is still distinguished for its commercial transac-
tions. The caravanseray or public inn, the college,
the exchange, and the bazars, or market-places, are
the principal public buildings. The streets are co-
vered with wood, as a shelter to those who are en-
gaged in mercantile affairs. Not far distant from
Belgrade, some magnificent aquaeducts were con-
structed by the eastern emperors, and were repaired
and extended by their successors.

The population of Belgrade is estimated at 25,000;
the situation is peculiarly favourable for commerce,
having the cothmodious communication of the Da-
nube with Germany and the rest of Europe on the one
hand, and with the Black sea and the regions of the
East on the other ; and hence it is the constant re-
sort of merchants from all these countries. The dis-
tance from Constantinople is stated at 440 miles
north-west.

Regarded as the key to Hungary, Belgrade has

BEL

614

BEL

BdM&rios. been often the scene of severe struggles for its pos-
' session between the Turks and Austrians. It was
Utken by Solyman the Magnificent in 1521 ; reco-
vered by tlie Austrians in 1(588 ; and again, in 1690,
after a cruel massacre, fell into the hands of the
Turks, to whom nine years afterwards it was con-
firmed by treaty. But the most sanguinary contest
veiuGii Belgrade had yet witnessed, was exhibited in
1717, when prince Eugene with 90,000 men laid
siege to the place, on the 16th of August of that
year attacked a Turkish army of 200,000 men which
had come to its relief, and, after a terrible slaugiiter,
obtained a complete victory and possession of the
town. After another fiiiitless attempt, and the de-
molition of tlie fortifications, the Turks became its
masters by treaty in 17^9. It yielded again to the
Austrians" in 1789, and was restored by the peace of
1791, since which time it has continued in posses-
sion of the Turks.

BELISARIUS, a celebrated general under the
emperor Justinian, is supposed to have been a native
af Thrace, and rose from the humble rank of one of
the private guard to the distinguished station of com-
mander of the imperial armies. Having performed
the most splendid exploits, and in the progress of
his victorious career in the east and the west, in
Italy and Africa, having added innumerable laurels
to the Roman arms, and acquired the highest mili-
tary reputation, he was falsely accused of a conspi-
raey against the emperor. The real conspirators
were detected and seized with arras concealed under
their gartnents. One of them fell by his own hand,
and another, torn from the sanctuary to which he
had fled, being tempted by the hopes of safety,
charged two officers of the household of Belisarius,
who being subjected to torture, declared that their
patron was implicated in the crime. " Posterity
will not hastily believe that a hero who, in the vi-
gour of life, had disdained the fairest ofiers of am-
bition and revenge, should stoop to the murder of
his prince, whom he could not long expect to sur-
vive. His followers were impatient to fly ; but flight
Hiust have been supported by rebellion, and he had
lived long enough for nature aixl for glory. Belisa-
rius appeared before the council with le*8 fear than
indignation. After forty years service, the emperw
had prejudged his guilt, and injustice was sanctified
hy die presence and authority of the patriarch.
The life of Belisarius was graciously spared ; but his
fortunes were sequestrated ; and from December to
July he was guarded as a prisoner in his own palace.
At length his innoceace was acknowledged ; his
freedom and honours were restored ; and death,
which might be hastened by resentment and grief,
renaoved him from the world about eight months af-
ter his deliverance. That he was deprived of his
eyes, and reduced by envy to beg his bread, " Give
a penny to Belisarius the general," is a fiction o£
later times, which has obtained credit, or rather fa-
vour, as' a strange example of the vicissitudes of
fortune." The source of this idle fable is traced to
a miscellaneous work of the 12tli century, the Chi-
liads of John Tzetzes, a monk, who relates the
iblindness and beggary of Belisarius in ten vulgar or
political verses. This moral or romantic tale v/as

imported into Italy with the language and manuscripts
of Greece, and repeated before the end of the 15th
century by several authors.

Belisarius died in the year 565, leaving behind him
the character of a consunniiate general, — humane and
liberal to his soldiers, whom he kept at the same time
under the most rigid discipline, — not less humane
and tender to those whom victory had put into his
power, — and remarkable for his humility in prospe-
ritj', for his temperate habits, and his forbearance and
self-denial in the midst of all his good fortune. Gib-
bon's Roman History.

BELL, a machine which produces sound, for the
purpose of communicating different kinds of signals,
and which is sometimes employed as a musical in-
strument. The form, size, and uses of bells are ex-
tremely different. An alloy of copper and tin is usu-
ally employed in casting bells ; and hence it is known
by the name of bell-metal. In most bells that have
been examined the proportions are nearly the same.
The component parts of bell-metal have been found
to be 75 of copper and 25 of tin, or three of copper
and one of tin. In fragments of bells that have
been subjected to analysis, a small proportion of other
metals has been detected, such as zinc, antimony,
bismuth, and silver. But these metals are not sup-
posed to be essential to the alloy, although it is pro-
bable the sonorous property may be somewhat modi-
fied by the addition.

The form of bells varies in different countries, ap-
proaching in gome cases more nearly to that of the
cylinder, and in others to that of the cone. But, ac-
cording to Reaumur, the best shape of a bell v^ould
be that of the segment of a sphere, for even lead,
which is the least elastic of the metals, when cast
into this form, is very sonorous. In large bells a cer-
tain proportion is sometimes observed between the
thickness and the size; the thickness of the edge is
one-fifteenth of the diameter, and the height is twelve
times the thickness.

Uses of bells — Whatever may have been the ori-
gin of bells, their use, which has been very various,
may be traced to the remotest antiquity. The sacred
vestments of the Jewish high-priest were decorated
with golden bells, for the purpose, it is supposed, of
announcing his presence, of communicating to the
people the moment that he entered the sanctuary.
The garments of the ancient kings of Persia were
furnished with bells in a similar manner, and, it has
been conjectured, for the purpose of giving warning
of their approach, that those who should be admit-
ted to their presence might be prepared to express
the proper degree of respect and veneration. Bells
were in use among the Greeks to call the people to-
gether to religious exercises, as a signal for the sale
of provisions, and as a warning to the sentinels on
duty in a camp. The Romans announced to the
people the preparation of tlie baths by the ringing of
bells ; and as bells were suspended from the gates of
their temples, it appears that they w^cro employed in
the same way, or in some part of the religious service.

The practice of haiiging befls from the necks of
animals, which is alluded to by ancient uritei's, has
been continued ia modern times, and is intended to
prevent the depredations of rapacious wild animals

BeU.

BEL

61S

B £ L

Bfll,-. nniong herds and flocks, or, according to some, to
answer Pome guperstjious end. To a similar use are
assigned the bells worn by the lending horses or
mules emploj'ed in carrying loads on their backs, as
was formerly the case in Britain before the improve-
ment of the roads and the introduction of carriajfes,
and is the case at the present day in many parts of
the continent.

Bells were used in the churches of Italy, it is sup-
posed, about the commencement of the 5th century,
and before the end of the 7th they were introduced
into England. In the beginning of the 1 1 th century
hells seem to have been part of the regular establish-
ment of religious houses ; for a portion of the reve-
nue was appropriated to their purchase and repair.
The Greek Christians, it is said, were unacquainted
with bells till the ninth century, but they were after-
wards prohibited by the Turks from using them.
Such a prohibition might be expected from the fol-
lowers of Mahomet, who, perhaps from policy, has
excluded bells, to mark more strongly, even in trivial
matters, the distinction between his system and Chris-
tianity.

Bells appropriated to churches and religious houses
were formally consecrated and named about the
tenth century. The episcopal benediction was pro-
nounced, and the honour of the name was usually
assigned to some saint. In the dark ages of super-
stition, the ringing of bells was practised for vari-
ous purposes, — to warn all Christians to pray for the
departing sohl, — to drive away the evil spirits that
hover in the air, — and to allay the fury of the storm
and the tempest. The passing-bell of the present
day no doubt refers to the same supposed influence,
and the use of bells in modern times is well known.
Beside the ordinary purpose of warning to the pub-
lic exercises of religion, the ringing of bells is a sig-
nal of rejoicing on the occurrence of prosperous
events, or anniversary festivals ; and tolling is an ex-
pression of mourning during a funeral procession.

Ringing bells in change, or in regular peals, is said
to be a practice peculiar to England, and hence this
country has been designated by foreigners the ringing
island. The bells employed in ringing peals have
different tones, and by the skill and ingenuity of the
performer a variety of musical sounds, and some de-
gree of harmony, are produced. For the practice of
this favourite art societies have been established ; it
is conducted according to certain principles, and
peals which bear the names of the authors have been
composed, and are much admired. But the perfec-
tion of the art in England seems to consist in the
number and variety of the changes, and challenges
between rival performers are not uncommon.

In some of the towns of Britain, as well as on
the coiitinent, regular tunes are played with bells,
which are hence denominated music bells. The
performance is conducted by means of keys like
those of the piano-forte. It is supposed that music
bells were introduced previously to the 14th century.
The great tower of the cathedral in Antwerp is fur-
nished with a splendid set of music bells. The num-
ber of bells is thirty-three, and the largest is eight
feet in height, and seven feet in diameter. The fine
tone of this bell is greatly admired.

Large bells. — In the history of bells, in diffier«nt BcU-i«k.
places of the world, their magnitude is not the least s,^v*Ki/
remarkable circumstance. Of three bells presented
by Edward 111. to St Stephen's chapel in Westmin-
ster, the largest was 33,000 pounds weight, which
appeared from an inscription cast in the metal. The
bell in the steeple in the great church at Rouen in
Normandy, in France, according to its inscription
was equal to 40,000 pounds weight. China is cele-
brated for large bells ; the great weight of the bells
in a tower at Nankin brought the building to the
ground. The dimensions of one of the bells, which
is of a cylindrical form, are 12 feet in height, and 7^
feet in diameter. But of seven bells in Pckin each
is said to weigh 120,000 pounds.

The bells now mentioned are far exceeded by the
huge bell at Erfurth in Germany; it was cast in 1497;
the clapper was 12 feet long, and weight'd 1100
pounds ; the whole weight is equal to 252,(HX} pounds,
and the sound, in the direction of the wind, was heard
at the distance of nine leagues. The bell in the tow-
er of St Ivan, at Moscow, which is 1 14,000 pounds
weight is 13' feet in diameter, and 164- inches t'-'ck.
These are still exceeded by a bell at Moscow, which
was made in 1653, but it was never removed from
the pit in which it was cast. The scaffolding over
it accidently took fire, and the- water emploj'ed in
the extinction of the flames, coming in contact with
the heated metal, produced a fracture on one side,
which rendered it useless. The rira is buried in the
the earth, but the diameter, two feet above the
ground, is 22 feet 5 inches, the perpendicular height
is more than 21 feet, the thickness 23 inches, and
the whole weight equal to 443,772 pounds. This
bell, it is said, contains a large proportion of silver
in its composition, for the nobles and people contri-
buted a great deal of money and plate, which they
threw in as votive gifts while the metal was in fu-
sion. This bell, it is added, is held in superstitious
veneration by the Russians, and is visited by pea-
sants on festival days ; but it seems more probable
that it is regarded as an object of curiosity on ac-
count of its extraordinary magnitude.

BELL-ROCK LIGHT-HOUSE, on the eastern
coast of Scotland, is 1 1 miles south-west from Red-
head in Forfarshire, 12 miles from Arbroath, 17 miles
north-east from the May light-house, and 30 miles
north by east from St Abb's head. Its geographi-
cal position is in 56° 29' of north latitude, and 2° 22'
of west longitude. The rock is composed of red sand-
stone, similar to the strata of the contiguous promon-
tory of Forfarshire and of the shores of Berwickshire.
During low water of neap tides, a very small part of
the rock is seen at low-water ; but during the lowest
ebbs in spring-tides, a space equal to 427 feet in
length, and 230 in breadth, appears about 4 feet
above the surfiice of the water ; and from the float-
ing sea- weed, the ridge can be traced 1000 feet
i'arther in a south-westerly direction, when the tides
are very low. Such a mass of rock concealed from
view during grc;it part of every title, was an object
of great danger to the numerous vessels which na-
vigate that coast. The means of obviating these
dangers were long under the consideration of those
to whom tliis department of maritime affairs is en-

BEL

616

BEL

Bcll-rock. tnist?d ;• and indeed, at a very early period, if the
traditionary story be true, an attempt was made by
the abbots of Arbroath to erect a bell, which was
rung by machinery, acted upon by tlie motion of the
tides, to warn the mariner of his danger ; and hence
it is said the name of Bell-rock is derived.

By a legislative enactment which was passed in the
year 1806, the commissioners of northern light-houses
were empowered to levy a duty from all vessels fre-
quenting the ports between Peterhead and Berwick;
and after various plans for a light-house were suggest-
ed", a structure similar to the Eddystone was adopted.
Considering the near resemblance of the two situa-
tions, it is somewhat remarkable that any other plan
for a light-house on the Bell-rock should have been
for a moment contemplated than that of the Eddy-
stone, which has so long resisted the tremendous fury
of the billows rolling into the channel from the At-
lantic ocean, and is one of the noblest monuments of
the genius and perseverance of Smeaton, who planned
and conducted the work.

Construction ofthelight-hoiise — Early in 1807, the
pre;»aration of the materials for building the light-
liouse commenced. The stones were obtained from
the granite quarries in Aberdeenshire, or from sand-
stone quarries in the vicinity of Dundee and Edin-
burgh, and they were either prepared on the spot
from which they were dug, or in the yard established
at Arbroath for the use of the undertaking. The
cement was a mixture of puzzolana earth, lime, and
sand, in equal proportions. When the operations
commenced at the rock in August, the first object
was the erection of a wooden beacon-house, for the
safety of the workmen, in case any accident should
happen to the boats which were in attendance to
carry them to the vessel witli the floating light, which
was moored at the distance of a mile and a half. This
temporary edifice, supported by large beams of fir
timber, was raised 50 feet above the surface of the
rock. The upper part of it was afterwards fitted up
as a smith's forge, a kitchen, and lodgings for the en-
gineers and workmen. The beams were set up by
the end of October, and the different apartments
were prepared in the early part of the ensuing sum-
mer. The foundation stone was laid on the 10th of
July 1808, and in the close of the season four courses,
which raised tlie height of the building five feet six
inches above the foundation, were finished.

When the operations were resumed in the spring
of the year 1809, it appeared that the works of the
preceding season had not sustained the least injury
from the severity of the winter storms ; and during
this summer the building was raised to the height of
'50 feet. This completed the solid part of the edifice.
All the materials for finishing it being collected and
prepared, the operations commenced as early as the
weather permitted in 1810; and by the activity and ex-
perience of both seamen and artificers, the whole was
completed in the month of December, and the new
light was exhibited on the first of February 1811.

Description of the building The Bell-rock light-
house is a solid mass of building from the foundation
to the height of 30 feet. The two lower courses of
the masonry are imbedded in the rock. The outside
caging is of Aberdeen granite ; the internal parts of
the solid mass are sandstope. The stones employed

were from two tons to half a ton each in weight, and
the stones of each course are n<jt only connected to-
gether, but the different courses are firmly united to
each other. The foundation of the building is forty-
two feet in diameter, and it diminishes gradually to the
top, where the diameter is only thirteen feet. The
lower part of the walls is seven feet thick, and they
also diminish to one foot in thickness at the parapet
wall of the light room. The masonry is 100 feet in
height, and tlie height of the whole edifice, includ-
ing the light room, is 115 feet.

Beside the light-room, the Bell-rock light house
contains five apartments for the accommodation of
the light keepers, and for the reception of provi-
sions and necessary stores. The light-room is of an
octagonal form, 12 feet in diameter and 15 feet in
height, formed of cast iron sashes, filled with plate
glass nearly 2} feet square, and l-4th of an inch thick,
and it is covered with a copper dome. The light is
obtained from oil burnt in Argand's lamps, placed
in the focus of silver-plated reflectors. By means of
machinery, the whole lights move round on a per-
pendicular axis every six minutes ; and during each
revolution, a bright white light, a red light produ-
ced by the interposition of red glass, and alternate
intervals of darkness, distinguish the Bell-rock light
from every other. In hazy weather two large bells
are tolled day and night by the same machinery.

Four light keepers are appointed to the Bell-rock,
at salaries of 60, 55, and 50 guineas yearly, beside
a stated allowance of provisions, and other perqui-
sites, when on duty, and apartments for their fami-
lies at Arbroath. Three of them always attend at
the light-house for six weeks, while one is permitted
to be on shore far a fortnight, during which time he
takes charge of the signal tower at Arbroath, from
which a correspondence is kept up with the light-
house by signals.

The whole expence of this remarkable edifice is
stated at L.60,000 ; and the skill and perseverance
of the engineer Mr Stevenson, in the speedy and
successful completion of so arduous a work, have
been only equalled by his great predecessor Mr
Smeaton, in a similar undertaking.

BELLARMIN, Robert, an Italian Jesuit, and
one of the ablest controversial writers of his age,
was a native of Tuscany, and was born in J 542 ; in
his 18th year he entered the society of Jesuits, and
when he was admitted to the priesthood, from being a
near relation of the reigning pope, saw the path of
ecclesiastical preferment open before him. Appoint-
ed professor of divinity at Louvain, he delivered lec-
tures for seven years, which were characterised by
ingenuity and acuteness ; and repeating them at
Kome, when he returned to his own country, he
acquired a high degree of reputation. Being engaged
in various public missions by Uiyee successive popes,
he was at last raised to the dignity of cardinal, which
it is said he reluctantly accepted ; was afterwards
elected archbishop of Capua, and was excluded from
the chair of St Peter only because he belonged to
the order of Jesuits. His powerful talents rendered
his services of great importance to the church ; and
during the latter years of his life he resided constant-
ly at the court of the Vatican. His growing infir-
mities required him to withdraw from public affairs

BEL

6ir

BEL

Bclleisle '■* 1621, and ho died in the same year, at the advan-
II ced age of 79. Bellarmin was a voluminous and ela-
Bcllci-ophon. borate writer. His principal w^ork, A Body of Con-
troversy, in four volumes folio, which has been otlen
quoted by his opponents, is distinguished by fairness
and candour, clear arrangement, ingenious reasoning,
and plain, nervous language Gen. Bingrapliy.

BELLEISLE, an island in the bay of Biscaj', in-
cluded in the department of Morbihan in France, and
about fifteen miles from the coast ; is about twelve
leagues in circumference ; the shores are rugged and
precipitous, and the surface is partly rocky and bar-
ren, and partly covered with good soil, which produ-
ces some grain. The inhabitants, the number of
which is variously stated from three to 5000, are
chiefly employed in the pilchard fishery, which is
abundant and lucrative, and is the principal source
of their commercial intercourse with other parts of
France and some parts of Spain. Besides Palais, the
chief town, numerous villages are scattered over the
island. An unsuccessful attempt on this island was
made by the British in 1761, and in the repulse 500
men were slain. In a second attack possession was
obtained ; but it was restored by treaty in 1763.

BELLENDEN, John, a Scottish poet, who flou-
rished in tlie 16tli century; but the records of his life
are so scanty that little is known of the time of his
■fcirth, or of the place of his education. He was arch-
deacon of Moray, and it is supposed that he died at
Rome in 1550. He was in great favour with James
V. of Scotland, at whose suggestion he undertook the
History and Croiiilclis of Scotland, which is a free
translation of the first seventeen books of Hector
Boyce's history. Two poems, the Proheme of the
Cosmographe, the chief incidents of which are deriv-
ed from the ancient allegory of the choice of Hercu-
les, and the Proheme of the History, appear in the
same publication, which is concluded with a prose
epistle addressed to the king. The noble enthusiasm
which pervades the poetry of Bellenden has placed
liim in the first ranks of the poets of his country ; and,
with a fine fancy and cultivated taste, his learning
was extensive and profound.

BELLEROPHON, a celebrated character in an-
cient mythology, was the son of a king of Epirus; and
having accidentally killed his brother, fled to the king
of Argos for protection. His queen, disappointed in
her attempt to seduce the stranger, brought a false
•harge against him, but the king, doubtful of its
truth, or unwilling to inflict punishment, sent him
to his father-in-law, the king of Lysia, by whom
he was employed in several hazardous enterprises.
Bellerophon not only escaped the danger to which he
was exposed, but returned victorious. One of his
exploits was the destruction of the Chimsera, in which
he was greatly aided by the horse Pegasus, furnished
by Minerva or Neptune.

His royal host, convinced of his innocence and in-
tegrity, and delighted with his heroism, gave him his
daughter in marriage. But prosperity made him vain
and ambitious. With his-divine animal he attempted
to scale the celestial regions. Jupiter, to check his
presumption, struck him blind, and threw him down
to the earth, on which he wandered a miserable spec-
tacle of divine wrath till his death ; but, by the per-

V,OL. I. TART II.

mission of Jupiter, Pegasus ascended to heaven, and Bcllfs I*j-
was placed among the constellations, tres

BELLES LETTRES, a French expression, lite- H
rally signifying fite letters, is a term of common oc- Hellonia.
currence, and may be considered as naturalised in
the English language, but with no very definite mean-
ing, is nearly equivalent to the phrase polite litera-
ture, of equally general import, and is usually under-
stood to refer to knowledge of grammar, criticism,
and what may be considered the ornamental branches
of learning.

BELLIS, the Daisy, a genus of plants belonging
to the Syngenesia class, of which the well-known com-
mon daisy, bellis peremiis, is a species.

BELOOCHISTAN, or Balooch 1ST AN, an exten-
sive region of Asia, on the north-west coast of the In-
dian peninsula, has the Indian ocean for its boundary
on the south, AfFghanistan on the north, the Persian
territories on the west, and Sindc on the east; extends
from the 25th to the 30th degree of N. Lat. and from
the o8th to the 68th degree of E. Long, and in-
cludes an area of more than 150,000 square miles.
This district is traversed in variousdirections by moun-
tainous ridges, some of which rise to a great eleva-
tion. The rivers are to be regarded as mountain tor-
rents, which flow down with irresistible rapidity du-
ring the rainy season, and, when the drought pre-
vails leave a dry channel.

The mountains afford metallic ores, such as those
of iron and copper, which are smelted and manufac-
tured, and even some of the more precious metals.
The climate and soil are various. Some districts are
fertile, and produce corn and fruits in abundance. In
the desert and less frequented tracts, wild animals of
the fiercer kinds are not uncommon. Kelat, which is
walled and fortified, is the principal town and capital
of the country, and, including the suburbs, contains
about 4000 houses constructed of wood or half-burnt
bricks. The houses are lofty, the streets are narrow,
and the projecting upper stories cast a gloomy shade
on the vacant space below.

Many of the native tribes of this district lead a
pastoral life, live in tents, and, like other wandering
tribes, are not scrupulous of engaging in plundering
warfare. They are all believers in the Koran. Each
tribe is said to elect its own chief, but this choice, it
is probable, most frequently falls on the strong and
powerful. The khan, or prince to whose authority
all the chiefs submit when he possesses the means
of enforcing it, resides at Kelat. But, like other rude
states, the government of Beloochistan has been sub-
ject to many vicissitudes.

BELLONA, the goddess of war of ancient my-
thology, is variously described as the sister, wife, or
daughter of Mars, for whom she prepared the cha-
riot, and is commonly represented in a state of fury
and distraction, her garments stained with blood, and
her snaky hair clotted with gore; and with a trumpet,
a lighted brand, or a bloody whip in her hand, she
drives the chariot of the god of war. Temples were
erected to the worship of Bellona at Rome and in the
provinces, among which it is recorded that one was
dedicated to the same goddess in York in England,
in the time of Severus.

BELLONI A, a genus of plants belonging to the

4>K

B £ M

CIS

B E N

Bellom Pentandria class, of which the only species is a na-
II live of the warmer parts of America, and is named
Bcnai^ to commemorate Peter Belou, a French naturalist of
the 16th century.

BELLOWS, a machine for blowing air with vio-
lence, for the purpose of increasing the heat of com-
mon fires, furnaces, and forges, or for producing
sound in organs and other musical instruments. Whin
bellows are employed on a large scale, and when the
pressure of water is brought into action to produce a
uniform and uninterrupted current of air, the appa-
ratus thus constructed is called a, Moiviiig machine, for
an account of which see Fuknace.

BELLUNESE, a mountainous district of Italj',
included in the Venetian territory, par-t of which is
clothed with extensive forests, from which large
quantities of timber are floated down the river to A'e-
nice ; part affords excellent pasture to numerous
herds of cattle, and part yields abundant crops of
corn and fruits. Metallic ores abound in some of the
mountains. The population exceeds 47,000. A
dreadful disaster happened in this district in the year
lY?*. A mountain, thrown down by an earthquake,
filled up the bed of a river, buried under its ruins
seven villages, with all their inhabitants, and formed
a permanent lake two miles in length, and half a mile
in breadth.

BELLUNO, the capital of the Bellunese in Italy,
stands on the banks of the river Piava, contains more
than 7000 inhabitants, and, by means of the navi-
gable river, has a considerable trade. Belluno is
adorned with many fine buildings, some splendid
marble monuments, and numerous churches, monas-
teries, and hospitals.

BELON, Peter, a French naturalist, who flou-
rished about the middle of the 16th century, and
published various works on birds, fishes, serpents,
&c. which are occasionally quoted by later natu-
ralists, and an account of his travels in Greece,
Egypt, Arabia, and other eastern countries. He lost
his life by the hand of an assassin, near Paris, in
1564.

BEMBA, or BEMBEA, a province of Angola,
which stretches partly along the coast, is said to be
extremely populous, and abounds with cattle. The
iriver which traverses this province swarms with cro-
codiles and river horses. Numerous serpents infest
the less frequented parts of the country ; but serpents
devouring fish must either be admitted as a fact un-
known to naturalists, or must be regarded as an ex-
aggerated tale imposed on the credulity of some tra-
veller ; and perhaps the story of the inhabitants cloth-
ing themselves with the skins of cattle may be traced
to the game source. The natives of warm climates
Beither require nor make use of such a dress.

BEMINSTER, a town of Dorsetshire, in Eng-
land, is finely situated in the midst of gardens and
orchards, in a fertile valley, on the banks of the river
Bist. The population exceeds 2000, and manufac-
tures of Woollen stuffs and sail-cloth, of iron and cop-
per wares, are established. Beminster is 12 miles
from Dorchester, and 138 miles west from London.

BENARES, a province of Hindostan, in the East
Indies, which is bouuded ou the east by Buhar, and

on the west by Allahabad, and extends about 70
miles in length, and 25 miles in breadth, is very po-
pulous, and possesses a rich and fertilesoil. Thiscoun-
try was ceded to the British in l77.>, and, it is said,
affords a ciear annual revenue of L.400,000 sterling.

BENARES, the capital of the district of the same
name in the East Indies, is celebrated as the ancient
seat of Brahminical learning, stands on the northern
bank of the Ganges, about 460 miles north-west from
Calcutta. The streets are in general narrow, and
ajiproach so near in some places that they are united
by galleries. The houses are built with stone, and
some of tliem are raised six siorics high, each of
which is inhabited by a different family. The win-
dows are extremely small, for the purpose, it is sup-
posed, of precluding opposite neighbours from see-
ing into the apartments, or for preserving coolness
during the prevalence of hot winds. A large pro-
portion of tlie houses of Benares is constructed of
mud ; but the more opulent inhabitants possess de-
tached houses, which have open courts, and are
inclosed by walls. The banks of the river are
embellished with numerous Hindoo temples, and
many of the public and private edifices are magni-
ficent structures. In the centre of the city a large
mosque, with its towering minarets, was raised by
the emperor Aurengzebe, on the same spot whicn
was occupied by a splendid Hindoo temple, and is
regarded by the natives as an insult and profanation
of their worship.

In the vicissitudes of its fortunes, Benares has
greatly declined ; but many monuments of its ancient
splendour yet remain. The celebrated Observatory,
which is furnished with numerous astronomical in-
struments, formed of stone, and constructed with
great accuracy, is still preserved, and Benares is yet
resorted to by students from all quarters, to be in-
structed in the literature and science of the east.

The population of Benares has been variously esti-
mated at 150,000, from three to four hundred thou*
sand, and, according to some calculations, the num-
ber of inhabitants exceeds half a million. During
certain festivals, an immense concourse of pilgrims
resorts to Benares from all parts for the purpose of
performing their devotions ; and the pictures of hun-
ger, wretchedness, and disease which present them-
selves among the multitudes assembled on these oc-
casions, as they are described by travellers, seem to
exceed belief.

BENCOOLEN, a sea-port town on the south-west
coast of Sumatra, stands on raorassy ground, and is
above two miles in circumference. Ihe houses are
raised on bamboo pillars, the inhabitants are occu-
pied in fishing, and in the culture of rice and pep-
per, which is the chief commercial commodity. The
surrounding country is mountainous, and clothed
with wood; and a spacious and commodious bay
stretches for several leagues in front of the town.

BENDER, a fortified town, and capital of Bess»
arabia in Turkey in Europe, stands on the banks of
the Dniester ; and before the memorable and disas-
trous siege in 1770, when it was invested and storm-
ed by the Russians, the population amounted to
30,000, but by faraine and war was reduced to leas

BEN

619

BEN

tines

II

Bengal.

than half the number. The fortress, erected in
consequence of the dying command of Bajazet II.
to liis successor, is remarkable for a spacious ditch,
is well furnished with cannon, and fully supplied
with ammunition of all kinds. The mosques, some
of which are fine edifices, gates of the town, and
inns, are numerous ; but the streets are narrow,
gloomy, and dirty. Manufactures of leather and
paper have been established ; and part of the inha-
bitants is occupied in watch-making, and in the con-
struction of implements and utensils of iron. Ben-
der is memorable in history as the place to which
the famous Charles XII. of Sweden retired after the
battle of Pultowa, when he sought an asylum from
the Turks ; and the ruins of the house in which he
resided, and some remains of the entrenchments which
he constructed are yet visible.

BENEDICTINES, an order of monks which was
instituted in the year 529 by St Benedict, from whom
the name is derived. The corruptions which had
crept into the other monastic institutions brought
them into disrepute ; and the regular system of dis-
cipline which prevailed in the rule of St Benedict
Boon gave it a high degree of celebrity. About the
9th century the Benedictines had taken place of al-
most every other order in France, Italy, Germany,
and England. The decline of the order is dated
from the middle of the 10th century ; and in the at-
tempts to reform and restrain the irregularities which
marked their conduct, they were at last in a great
degree superseded by the order of Clugny, which
became no less celebrated throughout Europe.

BENEDICTION, a form of prayer or thanksgiv-
ing pronounced sometimes on more ordinary and
sometimes on more solemn occasions. Among Chris-
tians the short prayer before meals, and the expres-
sion of thanks after a repast, come under the deno-
mination of benediction. The patriarchs, in the
prospect of death, left their blessing with their fami-
Kes ; certain forms of benediction were established
among the Jews ; and similar practices prevail both
Among Christians and Mahometans. Among the
latter, indeed, it is often little ditterent from the
firiendly forms of salutation in conjmon life. Bene-
diction may be regarded as part of the ceremony of
consecration in the Christian church, when a person,
or even an inanimate object, is set apart for the ser-
vice of religion.

BENEVENTO, a city of Naples, which ischiefiy
remarkable for numerous remains of Roman antiqui-
ty. The porta aurea, or golden gate, one of the en-
to-ances to the city, is a splendid monument of white
marble, erected by Trajan, about the beginning of the
decond century, to commemorate the wars in which
he had been engaged with the Dacians; and fragments
•f tombs, altars, and ornamental pieces of architec-
ture are seen in the walls of every modern house in
•ne part of the town. The population of Benevento
is stated at 10,000, and the distance from Naples is
80 miles.

BENGAL, a province of Hindostan, which has
the bay of the same name for its boundary on the
south, Orissa and Bahar on the west, Assam and
Bootan on the north, and on the east a mountainou*
range which forms a natural limit between it and Arra-
2

can and the Birman territory. Bengal extends from
the 21st nearly to the 27th degree of north latitude,
and from the 86th to the 93d of east longitude ; and
the greatest length from east to west is about 700
miles, and the greatest breadth from north to south is
about 300 miles.

Climate — The climate of Bengal is subject to great
extremes of heat and cold. During the hot season,
which commences with March, and continues three
months, the thermometer often rises to 100 ; in the
cool season, between November and February, the
north winds chiefly prevail, and the sky is serene and
UMlouded ; but from June to October, in the inter-
nussion of the heavy rains, thick fogs are common,
and the weather is sultry and oppressive.

Aspect and soil. — In the south-west corner of the
province, and on the north of the Ganges, the coun-
try rises to a considerable elevation ; but Bengal, in
general, is to be regarded as a flat region, traver-
sed by numerous rivers. The majestic streams of the
Ganges and Burrampooter flow through the richest
districts of Bengal, and in their annual inundations
communicate a high degree of fertility to the conti-
guous lands. The Ganges discharges its waters into
the ocean by several branches, which intersect the
lower district, or Delta, in various directions. The
whole region which extends from the river Hooghly
to Chittagong, is distinguished by the Indian name of
Sunderbunds, or woods, and is altogether an uninha-
bited waste, the dreaded abode of the tiger, and o-
ther ferocious wild animals. The soil of Bengal is a
blackish mould, chiefly composed of clay and sand,
abounding with vegetable and animal substances, and
often impregnated with saline matters

Inundations. — The inundations which form so strik-
ing a feature in the natural history of Bengal, and are
so essential to the produce of the soil, arise from the
torrents of rain which fall in the lower districts of the
province, and from the melting of the snows near the
distant sources of the great rivers. About the end
of April the waters begin to rise, and by the end of
July all the low parts of the country in the vicinity
of the Ganges and Burrampooter are overflowed,
when nothing is to be seen above the liquid sur-
face but villages and trees, for an extent of more
than a hundred miles. The inundation is stationary
for some days previously to the middle of August,
after which it begins to subside, and in October the
land, highly fertilized, is ready for culture.

Agriculture. — Rice, which forms the principal food
of a large proportion of the natives, is very extensive-
ly cultivated ; but wheat and barley grow in some
districts ; and Indian corn, millet, and a great variety
of pulse, are also raised. The sugar cane, poppies
for the extraction of opium, mulberry trees for
rearing the silk worm, tobacco, cotton, and indigo,
are also objects of culture. But the culture is ex-
tremely imperfect ; little skill or attention appears
in the preparation of the land ; the implements of
agriculture are rude, and the operations are slow and
awkward.

Natural prodtwtions. — All the rich fi-uits of tropi-
cal regions are abundant in Bengal ; various kinds of
excellent timber are produced, and applied to do-
mestic purposes or the arts ; Had some of the more

Bei^ral.

BEN

620

BEN

Bfiigtd. valuable medicinal druj^s form inipoi'tant commercial
commodities. The nature of the climate, and the
secure retreats which the country affords, are hi(;h!y
favourable to the niultiplicatioQ of every description
of animals.

Inhabitants. — Of the population of Bengal, no cer-
tain estimate has been formed ; but, according to a
statement, to which little accuracy can be altm^hed,
it contains nearly 15,000,000 inhabitants, or about
one half of the population subject to the British go-
vernment in India. Tiiey are distributed in forty or
fifty large towns, and a great number of populous
villages. Calcutta, comparatively a modern town, is
the capital of the British settlements in the East, and
the residence of the governor-general. The native
Hindoos compose four-fifths of this vast population.
The rest are Moguls, of Tartar origin, who conquered
the country in the fifteenth century. The Mogul in-
habitants have an olive complexion, and resemble
Europeans in the general cast of their features. They
profess the Mahometan faith, are fierce enemies of
the Hindoo idolatry, and, in spite of the restrain-
ing influence and power of the East India Company,
express their abhorrence by persecution and blood-
shed. The native tribes are the followers of Brahma.
They are slender and handsome in their persons, their
complexion is dark-brown or yellowish, and the hair
is black, long, and straight. The practice of shaving
the head is common ; a piece of linen or cotton
thrown round the middle is all the clothing of the
lower classes ; but the higher ranks wear turbans, and
a dress of white cotton, which covers the whole
body.

Mamifactures. — Like other Asiatics, the natives of
Bengal are distinguished for their manual dexterity
in mechanical arts. With the simplest apparatus
they produce the most beautiful fabrics of all kinds
of cotton and silk goods ; and the same delicacy of
hand is not less conspicuous in the nicer and minuter
operations of working in metals, and fabricating uten-
sils and trinkets for domestic use or ornamental pur-
poses.

Commerce. — The navigable rivers of Bengal afford
great facilities for commercial intercourse with the
interior regions of India. A great trade in silks, cot-
ton goods, sugar, indigo, and medicinal drugs, is car-
ried on with Agra, Delhi, and Thibet. Of the extent
of this trade some conjecture may be formed, when it
is stated, that 30,000 boatmen are employed in in-
land navigation. The boats, or budacroes, are va-
riously constructed, according to the nature of tlie
stream which they navigate. They draw from four
to five feet of water ; and they are sometimes fitted
up with spacious cabins for the accommodation of
passengers. At difl'erent periods of the year, and
in different states of the river, the progress of the
boats varies from 17 to 20 miles, when dragged
against the stream, and proceeding with the current
at the rate of W and 70 miles a day.

The maritime trade of Bengal is also considerable,
and, in the hands of natives or Europeans, extends ei-
ther directly or more circuitously to almost all the
islands and countries in the eastern quarter of the
globe. The Armenians, who have been long cele-

brated ibr their sagacity and success in mcrCantilt
alfairs, enjoy no small portion of this trade.

European settlcmenls. — In the beginning of the
17th century the English establl>hed their fir?t set-
tlement in Bengal, at the town of Ilooghly ; but in
](i89 it was renmved to Calcutta, 2G miles down the
river ; and after numerous conflicts in the field with
the Mahiatta states and the native princes, they ob-
tained in 17(j.i the supreme government, — an era
which has been justly regarded as highly favourable
to the great mass of population, which is now un-
der the equal protection of British authority. The
French, Dutch, and Danes, had formerly settlements
in the samepiovince.

BENIN, a district or kingdom of Guinea in Afri-
ca, has, for its boiuulary on the west, part of the
gidf ciiUed b}' mariners the Bite oj Benin, and the
.Slave Coast and Congo on the south, extends about
GOO miles from east to west ; is in general a low, flat
country, covered with woods, part of which is inter-
sected by rivers and lakes, and part is entirely des-
titute of water ; and yields in great profusion most
of the vegetable productions of tropical regions, as
well as the various birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, and
insects, which abound in warm countries. Indian

corn,
chief

j-ams, and bananas, are cultivated as the
food of the inhabitants. The climate is ex-
tremely insalubrious ; thick fogs are very prevalent ;
and tremendous storms of thunder and lightning arc
not rare.

The principal labours of the field, as well as do-
mestic concerns, and even it is said, in some erro-
neous accounts, the handicraft arts, are assigned to
the women. The character which has been drawn,
of the inhabitants seems to be altogether inconsist-
ent with itself. They are represented as friendly,
hospitable, and generous ; their institutions, it is
asserted, breathe the purest spirit of humanity ; the
aged and infirm are gratuitously supported ; no one
is allowed to pine in want, and beggary is altoge-
ther unknown ; but, on the other hand, they are de-
scribed as indolent in the extreme, and, unless they are
compelled by poverty, never submit to any kind of ma-
nual labour. From all this it appears that they are a
lazy barbarous people, and their reputed virtues only
exist in the partial narratives of credulous travellers.
The Portuguese had formerly settlements in this coun-
trj', and the slave trade was at one time considerable.

Benin is also the name of the capital of the coun-
try, and the residence of the king. The mud houses
are covered with reeds or leaves ; the streets are spa-
cious, the market is well furnished with the produc-
tions of the country, and with European merchan-
dise, for which they are to be exchanged ; and the
compass of the whole town is stated at four miles.

BENTLEY, RiciiAnD, a learned English critic,
was a native of Yorkshire, and was born in 1662;
was initiated in classical literature at the free school
of Wakefield, and in his fifteenth jear was admit-
ted a student in St John's college, Cambridge. In
the prosecution of his studies he was remarkable for
assiduity and industry, of which a singular instance
is recorded in the laborious undertaking which he
executed of arranging alphabetically every word ef

licnia

IScmlcjF.

BER

"621

B E R

BcBcoin '■••^ n-jbicrt b.b!c, and uiartiug iu five separate co-
ll lumns, the various interpretations of the same words
"-.'.ar. in the Chaldee, Syriac, Vulgate, Septuagint, and
'V^' Latin bibles. The production of a thick quarto vo-
lume was the result of tliis mighty task ; and ano-
ther volume of equal magnitude was occupied with
the emendations and various readings of the Hebrew
text, collated from ancient manuscripts. After four
years residence at the university, he was employed
for some time in teaching a public school, and after-
wards as a private tutor ; and having been ordained to
the priesthood, he was the first preachei' appointed
to deliver the lecture established by Mr Boyle in
support of the doctrines of natural and revealed re-
ligion. His discourses on this occasion were pu-
blished.

The appointment of Dr Bentley, in 1693, to be
keeper of the royal library at St James's, in which
his zeal and industry soon became conspicuous, was
the prelude to more lucrative offices and higher
distinctions ; for, in 1 700, he was raised to the mas-
tership of Trinity college, Cambridge ; soon after
preferred to be archdeacon of Ely ; and, in 1716,
was nominated Regius professor of divinity in Cam-
bridge.

From two events in his life, which obtained consi-
derable notoriety, it may be presumed that Dr
Bentley was not possessed of the most conciliating or
courteous manners. Some severe remarks, delivered
in a contemptuous tone, which escaped from the
learned, and perhaps somewhat arrogant critic, on
an edition of Phalaris published by the honourable
Charles Boyle, produced a violent literary squabble,
in the course of which it is generally admitted that
Bentley proved the epistles ascribed to Phalaris to be
spurious. The other incident alluded. to, which was
more serious in its consequences, was a dispute with
his college, on some points of reformation, \vhich
provoked hostility from those who were immediately
interested, and afterwards on a demand for additional
perquisites, which was also resisted, and terminat-
ed in deprivation from all his privileges, honours,
and degrees in the university. But an appeal to the
king, and a reference to the coimcil and the court
of King's Bench, procured his re-instatement in all
his offices and privileges, of which he enjoyed the
undisturbed possession to the end of his life, which
closed in the year 174'2, when he had reached the
venerable age of 81.

Two comedies of Aristophanes, Fragments of Me-
nander and Philemon, editions of Terence, Phaedrus,
and Milton, and an edition of Horace, published in
1711, which acquired for him great celebrity, are the
fruits of Dr Bentley's critical skill. He had circulat-
ed proposals for an edition of the Greek Testament ;
but the remarks of his literary antagonist, Dr Middle-
ton, determined him to relinquish the undertakiog,
and return 1^.2000 of subscription money.

BENZOIN, a gum resin obtaiiied frorn a species of
styrax. See Chemistry.

BERAR, a large and centrical province of the
Deccan, in India, which extends from the 19th to the
22d degree of north latitude, is about 230 miles in
length, and 120 miles in breadth, and has Allahabad
tor its boundary on the north,, and Aurungabad and

the Godavcry on the south. The surface is in gene- Bertcris
ral elevated and hilly, and abounds in strong holds ; jj
it is well watered by numerous streams, of which the Beibice.
' Godavery, Tuptee, and Poornah are the chief; is
but thinly inhabited and sparingly cultivated, al-
though in some places the soil and climate are ex-
tremely favourable for the production of wheat, bar-
ley, rice, sugar, cotton, opium, and silk, and the bul-
locks are reckoned the best in the Deccan.

The'population is supposed not to exceed 2,000,000,
of which one-tenth are Mahometans, and the rest are'
the followers of Brahma. Three-fourths ofthsprn-
vince belong to the territories of the Nizam, and the
remainder is tributary to the Mahrattas. Among-
the lowest tribes of Berar a singular kind of suicide
prevails. In return for benefits solicited from idols,
a solemn vow of self-destruction is made, and the
supposed successful votary in the fulfilment of it
throws himself from a precipice in the mountains be-
tween the rivers Tuptee and Nerbuddah. In the time
of an annual fair near this spot, eight or ten enthusiasts
fall victims to this superstition.

BERBERIS, the Barberry, a genus of plants
belonging to the Hcxandria class, one species of
which, vulgaris, is a native of most parts of Britain.

BERBICE, a British colony in Guiana in South
America, which derives its name from the river along
whose banks it extends for 300 miles. The breadth is
from 40 to 45 miles. The shores are low and swampy;
the country continues flat far inland, and is covered-
with thick forests, in which trees of enormous mag-
nitude shoot up. Like other intra-tropical climates,
the seasons in this district observe a pretty regular
succession of wet and dry weather.

Berbice is the pi-incipal river ; it flows from soutir
to north, and discharges itself into the Atlantic
ocean ; it is a mile broad at its influx into the sea
in the 6th degree of N. latitude ; but the entrance is
partly closed by Crab island, so designated from the
profusion of land-crabs which it produces. The Ber-
bice is navigable for ships of considerable burden 200
miles into the interior ; but a bank of sand opposes
their approach, so that onlj' small vessels can enter,
and ships from Europe load and unload at Demerary.
The Canje, which falls into the river Berbice, about
a mile liom the sea, admits the navigation of small
vessels ibr a course of 30 miles. In some parts of
the colonj- canals have been cut to facilitate the con-
veyance of produce by water- ctnriagc.

The population of Berbice, in ISIl, ig stated at
550 whites, 240 persons of colour, and 25,169 ne-
groe flaves. Sugar, coffi3e, cocoa, cotton, anotta,
and indigo nre the principal productions. The only
towns are Old and New Amsterdam; the former is
about 50 miles up the river Berbice ; the latter has
risen chiefly since.the colony became subject to Bri-
tain, and occupies the banks of the Berbice near the
confluence of the Canje ; it is the seat of the colo-
nial government ; and except the public buildings,
which are of brick, the houses are usually construct-
ed of wood.

Berbice was settled by the Dutch in 1626 : it fell
under the dominion of Britain in 1796 ; was restored
to the Dutch at the peace of Amiens; but in 1803,
it was again rcducwd by Britisli troops, and lias Buiee

BER

622

BEK

acknowledged Britisli autliority. But, by a legisla-
tive enactment in 181(>, the Dutch colonists, who are
suhjects of the kingoftiic Netherlands, have certain
privileges of supplying their estates with necessaries
auly, and not for the purposes of trade, fi-ora ;he pa-
rent country, and of exporting their produce to the
Netherlands ; but this limited trade is to be conduct-
ed in Dutch ships.

BERCHTOLSGADEN, a principality which,
along with Salzburg, forms a province of the Aus-
trian empire, includes an area of nearly 200 square
miles, and above 200,000 inhabitants. It is chiefly
a mountainous district, and afibrds a considerable
revenue from the salt-mines.

Berchtolsgaden is one oi' the chief towns, and con-
tains about 3000 inhabitants, who are chiefly em-
ployed in the manufacture of wooden, bone, and ivo-
ry toys.

BERG, a duchy in the circle of Westphalia in
Germany, is a mountainous district, which covers
more than 1200 square miles of surface, and includes
a population equal to 610,000. That part of the
duchy which stretches along the Rhine has a fertile
soil, which produces abundance of corn ; the more
elevated vallies afford excellent pasture ; the vine
thrives on tlie hills, and the mountains are clothed
with thick forests. Mines of lead, iron, and coal are
wrought ; and swords, knives, and other instruments
«f iron and steel, ribbons, and various kinds of cloth,
are the principal manufactures. Dusseldorf is the
chief town. Berg, with Cleves, was constituted in
1806 a grand duchy by Bonaparte, and Murat was
nominated grand duke.

BERGAMO, the capital of the district of Berga-
nasco in Italy, stands on several hills, and is strongly
fortified, contains numerous churches and convents,
and about 30,000 inhabitants, who enjoy a consider-
able trade in silk and woollen stufts, and have been
long celebrated for the excellence and beauty of their
serges and tapestry. A fair held at the feast of St
Bartholomew draws together merchants fromdiftereut
parts of Italy, Germany, and Switzerland.

BERGEN, a sea-port town, and capital of the
province of Bergnhuys in Norway, ia arranged in the
form of a crescent round the head of the bay, is
defended on the land side by lofty mountains, and
by forts and batteries towards the sea, and contains
about 16,000 inhabitants. The harbour of Bergen
is reckoned one of the finest in Europe. Timber,
fish, hides, and tallow are exported, and corn and
foreign merchandize are the principal imports. The
public buildings are constructed of stone, but the
greater part of the town is built of wood, from which
it has been subjected to dreadful calamities by fire.
Three terrible conflagrations almost reduced it to
ashes in the course of the eighteenth century.

BERGEN, the capital of the island of Rugen,
belonging to Swedish Poraerania, stands in the centre
of the island ; the population exceeds 15,000; and
at severd fairs, which are held annually, the trade
in linen and cattle is considerable.

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,abeautiful town and strong
lortress, stands on a rising ground on the banks of
the river Zoom, near its junction with the Scheldt,
in the middle of a flat, marshy country, and was ibr-

merly one of the frontier towns of Dutch Brabant. Bergerao
Founded in 1287, by John I. duke of Brabant, when y

he divided the barony of Breda, it was erected m Bcixmaa.
1535 into a marquisato by the emperor Charles V.
In 16?>9 it was regularly fortified by the celebrated
Cohorn, and has ever since been considered one of
the strongest fortresses in Europe. Regarded as a
place of great importance, Bergen-op-zoom has been
always a point of attack amid the wars and revolu-
tions" which have so often distracted that part of the
continent. Sieges and battles furnish the chief in-
cidents in its eventful history. In the Dutch revolu-
tionary war, it was the scene of many bloody con-
flicts ; and in 1747 it fell into the hands of the l-rench,
owing, it has been alleged, to sudden surprise or se-
cret treachery, rather than to the military skill of
the commanders, or signal valour of the troops. But
one of the most memorable assaults which Bergen-
op-zoom had yet witnessed, took place on the 8th
of March 1814, by the British troops under the
command of Lord Lynedock. The attack was made
at ten o'clock at night ; a party of the troops made
their way into the centre of the town ; but being
unsupported by the divisions, which had been re-
tarded in their approach by unforeseen difficulties,
they were compelled to lay down their arms, and
surrender prisoners of war. The result of so bold
and hazardous an exploit, even if it had been suc-
cessful, could not fail to be disastrous to the assail-
ants. Several officers of rank, and a considerable
number of jnen, fell in the conflict. But it is ad-
mitted that the plan of attack was judiciously ar-
ranged, and the bravery of the troops in its execu-
tion was never surpassed. Bergen-op-zoom is 18
miles north-west from Antwerp.

BERGERAC, a town of the department of Dor-
dogne in France, occupies a fine situation in a plain
on the banks of the river Dordogne, by which it ia
traversed, and contains more than 8000 inhabitants,
who are employed in forges, founderies of cannon,
and the manufacture of paper in its vicinity. The
revocation of the edict of Nantes drove 40,000 pro-
testants in this town and the surrounding territory to
seek an asylum in foreign countries, and to enrich
other nations by their arts and industry.

BERGMAN, Sir Torbern, an eminent chemi-
cal philosopher, was born at Catharineberg, in West
Gothland in Sweden, in 1735. In his boyish years
he was remarkable, it is said, for a froward, petu-
lant, and mischievous disposition, amusing himself
with the destruction of whatever came in his way by
committing it to the flames, and delighted with the
malicious gratification of seeing the vexation and
disappointment of his relations and friends ; and nei-
ther admonition nor punishiuent had any influence
in restraining this singular pro}>ensity. But as he
advanced to maturer years, this pernicious habit gave
way to serious study and mental improvement. Hav-
ing completed the elementary part of his education,
he entered the university of Upsal in his 17th year,
and soon discovered the most devoted attachment to
mathematical and physical science. Destined pro-
bably by his friends for some department of the ac-
tive business of life, he was prohibited by the com-
mand of a relation with whom he resided to read

fi E R

62:

BEH

Jjergmmi. books of an abstract and profound character, such as
~ Euclid's Elements, and Newton's Principia. But they
were his favourite authors ; and secminglj' yiekh"ng to
the injunction, he concealed them from his guardian,
devoted the hours of repose to such severe study that
his health was injured, and was compelled to re-
linquish for a time his academical pursuits, and retire
to the country.

The restoration of his health in ITSi, permitted
him to resume his studies at Upsal, on which tlie
splendid reputation of Linnaeus at that time threw so
bright a lustre. With the example of that great man
before them, all those who were ambitious of learned
fame, pursued his path, and devoted themselves to
some department of natural history. Attracted by
these alluring studies, Bergman directed his research-
es chiefly to insects, and to tlie progressive changes
of their varied existence ; and the curious discoveries
which rewarded his industry, excited the admiration,
and secured to him the esteem and friendship of the
illustrious naturalist.

In 1761 he was nominated joint professor of ma-
thematics and natural philosophy. Previously to his
appointment he had published memoirs on the Rain-
borv, on the Origin of Meteors, and on the Txvilieht ;
and during the period of five years which he held
that chair, he was much occupied in disquisitions on
the aurora horealis, and other electrical appearances.
Astronomy also obtained some share of his attention,
for he observed the transit of Venus in the year 1761.
The resignation of Wallerius, the celebrated professor
of chemistry and mineralogy at Upsal, opened a new
path to the ambition of Bergman, and gave a new di-
rection to his pursuits. He appeared as a competi-
tor ; but his opponents and their friends started a for-
midable objection, that he was not qualified by his
previous studies to undertake the office. Conscious
that the objection was not altogether groundless,
with a noble ardour he determined to adopt the best
means of removing it ; and for this purpose he exa-
mined the properties of alum, and drew up a memoir
on the subject of its preparation, and the most eco-
homical method of procuring that salt. All parties
were astonished ; his friends hailed it as a triumph
and earnest of success, and hi? adversaries laboured
to undervalue its merit. After a severe contest, in
tvhich the interference of the prince royal of Sweden,
chancellor of the university, was required, Bergman,
now in his .SSd jear, was, with his approbation, ap-
pointed to the vacant chair.

Entering with enthusiasm on the duties of his new
office, he improved and enlarged the laboratory in the
Bniversity ; disposed in a commodious manner all
parts of his chemical apparatus, and the different in-
struments employed m the arts ; re-ai-ranged his
own cabinet of minerals along with those of his pre-
decessors ; and added the most approved works on
chemistry, and the kindred arts, to his collection.
The method which Bergman adopted in conducting
his researches was peculiarly favourable to the ad-
vancement of that science which he was now dcs-
fined to cultivate and adorn. Dismissing every pre-
conceived theory, he established all his conclusions
dfl accurate observations, and precise results of es-

periments, judiciously instituted and carefully execut-
ed. In all his investigations he was guided by the
true principles of inductive philosophy.

The add propeity of fixed air was among the
first discoveries in the brilliant career of Bergman.
To the list of acids he added the oxalic or acid of
sugar, which is obtained by the distillation of sugar
with nitric acid, the phosphoric, and the molybdic and
tungstic, two metallic acids. The earth of barytes, and
the characters of some of the other earths were mote
distinctly discriminated ; and in a memoir on crys-
tallization, he derives all the variety of crystals frotn
a simple primitive form. Among the chemical la-
bours of Bergman may be enumerated his excellent
analysis of mineral waters, of volcanic products, 6f
precious stones, and of various metallic substances—
his ingenious researches into the nature of malleable
iron, cast iron, and steel, — and his valuable tables of
elective attractions.

The fame of Bergman, which had reached the
king of Prussia, the great patron of learning and
of learned men, procured for him, in 1776, a press-
ing invitation from that monarch to fix his residence
at Berlin, and to join the celebrated band of lite-
rar}' and scientific characters which adorned his ca-
pital. He declined the flattering offer from a grate-
ful feeling of the honours and distinctions which he
enjoyed hi his own country, although a warmer cli-
mate promised to be beneficial to his enfeebled con-
stitution. He had long been afflicted with sevettj -
headache and palpitation of the heart. The aggra-
vation of these complaints forced him to relinquish
his studies, and in the hope of relief he undertook
a journey to Medwi, to have the benefit of the mi-
neral waters ; but his strength was exhausted, and
he died soon after his arrival in 1784, when he had
reached the 50th year of his age. Bergman was not
only a member of the academies of his native coun-
try, but was admitted into almost all the learned bo-
dies of Europe. To honour his memory the acade-
my of Stockholm ordered a medal to be struck afe
an expression of regret for the loss which science
had sustained by his death; and during his life hfe
had been raised by his sovereign to the dignity tff

knighthood. The principal works of Bergman,

his Chemical Essni/s — his Physical dcscriplion oj the
Earth, — Essay on theVtility of CJtcmiitry, — Thoughts
on a Natural System <)f Minerals, — Oh the Elements (if

Chemistry, — and On tlie Progress of Chemistry,

have been translated into French or English, or intb
both languages.

BERING'S STRAITS. See Beering.

BERKELEY,^ George, a celebrated metaphysi-
cal writer, and bishop oi' Cloyne in Ireland, was
born at Thomastown in the county of Kilkenny iii
that kingdom, about the year KiSl', and was de-
scended from the noble family of Berkeley. The ele-
mentary part of his education was conducted at the
school of Kilkenny, the same seminorv ia which
Swift, a few years before had been initiated ; and ini .
his loth year he was adraitted a student in Trinit^
college, Dublin, in which he obtained a fijiiowship
in 1707. Berkeley appeared as an author in early
life. He had scarcely passed his '20th year, yrh4n h^

Berkeley.

BER

624

BER

Ucrkeier- publidied an ingentous essay on Arithmetic ; and, in
17()9, he presented to the world a more celebrated
production, under the title of a Nrxu Theory of Vi-
rion, from the consideration of whicli he concludes
that magnitude as it is perceived by the touch, is es-
sentially different from magnitude as it is discovered
l>y the eye. The diversity of result between the no-
tions derived from the senses of toucl) and sight, it
is supposed may have led the ingenious author to a-
dopt the opinion, that the objects of human percep-
tion are mere ideas of the mind, altogether independ-
ent of material substances. This doctrine was fully
.developed in his Principles of Hnman Knoxvlcdge, in
which he denies the existence of every kind of mat-
ter, and asserts, that ' all those bodies which com-
pose the mighty frame of the world have not any sub-
sistence without a mind.'

In the year IIVI, some of the political sentiments
in three sermons which he published, and which had
been delivered in the chapel of his college, in sup-
port of the doctrine of passive obedience, brought
against him a charge of Jacobitism, and for a time
. retarded his preferment. But he had the good for-
tune afterwards to obtain the patronage of the prince
and princess of Wales, who succeeded to the throne
as Qeorge II. and queen Caroline. About the same
-time he produced another work, Three Dialogues,
tec. in defence- of his doctrine of Immaterialism, and
through the good offices of his countrymen, Dr Swift
and Sir Richard Steele, he became the associate of
Addison, Arbuthnot, and Pope, and formed one
of that bright constellation of men'of genius which
then adorned English literature. He was a contri-
butor to the Spectator and Guardian.

In 1713, Dr Berkeley accompanied the Earl of Pe-
terborough, in the capacity of chaplain and private
secretary, on an embassy to Sicily and Italy ; and on
his return to England in the succeeding year he un-
dertook a more extensive tour through Europe. Af-
ter various disappointments he was nominated to the
deanery ofDerry in ITS^; and about tlie same time
the death of Mrs Vanhomrigh, the celebrated and un-
fortunate Vanessa of Swift, left him in possession of
the unexpected bequest of one half of her property,
amounting to L.4O00, for which he seems to have
been indebted to his agreeable manners and distin-
guished character, for it is said that he had been on-
ly once in her company.

The benevolent scheme of converting the Ameri-
can Indians to Christianity, by erecting a college in
Bermudas for supplying the churches in the planta-
tions with proper teachers, had for some time occu-
pied the mind of Dean Berkeley ; and in 1725 he pub-
lished his plan in London, and offered to resign his
rich benefice, and to accept of the moderate annual
salary of L. 100. Three junior fellows of Trinity
college, Dublin, eager to second his noble and disin-
terested efforts, declared their willingness to resign
their livings and to accept of L.40 a-jear. The plan
of the institution was at last approved of; a charter
was granted for erecting a seminary, to be called St
Paul's college, in Bermudas, and to be composed of a
president and nine fellows, who were bound to main-
tain and educate Indian children at L.lOa-year; and

for the estahlisbment and support of the institution
L.20,000 were voted, and one-half of the sum was
immediately advanced. The dean and his associates,
who were permitted to retain their livings in Ireland
till the whole sum was paid, crossed the Atlantic and
arrived at Newport in lliiode Island, contracted for
the purchase of lands on the contiguous continent,
and, after many tedious delays and much fruitless ex-
pectation, the i-emaining L.! 0,000 was never paid;
and, after seven years of his life spent in promoting
the establishment, with a considerable diminution of
his private fortune, he was compelled to return to
Europe mortified and disappointed at his failure.

In 1732 the Minute Phitosoplter, one of his most
popular and most admired productions appeared.
The object of this work, which is drawn up in the
form of dialogue, is to refute the tenets of a free-
thinker, who is represented in the various characters
of atheist, libertine, enthusiast, sceptic, Ac. At the
recommendation of queen Caroline, whose favour he
still retained, he was preferred to the see of Cloyne,
and was consecrated bishop in 1734-, on which occa-
sion he declared that he would never accept a trans-
lation, and to this resolution he firmly adhered, even
when the offer of a more valuable benefice was in his
power. He resided constantly in his diocese, where
he was distinguished by pastoral vigilance and hospi-
tality ; and by promoting at once the temporal and
spiritual welfare of all ranks, greaily endeared him-
self to his flock. While his health permitted he
preached regularly, and his sermons were always ex-
temporaneous.

Besides some philosophical disquisitions connected
with his former inquiries, bishop Berkeley published
some works on municipal and prevailing political sub-
jects of the day ; and it is not a little to his praise,
that in consequence of a letter addressed, in H^O, to
the Romavi Catholic clergy of Ireland, he received
the thanks of that body, by whom he was charac-
terised as " the good man, the polite gentleman,
and the true patriot.' His Siris, a treatise on the
virtues of tar-water, became a popular work, and was
the means of introducing that substance as a kind of
universal remedy.

In 1752 he determined to retire with his family t«
Oxford, to superintend the education of his son ; but
as he was strongly impressed with the obligation of
residence in his diocese, he endeavoured to exchange
his bishopric for some benefice in Oxford. Failing in
this plan, he applied to the secretary of state for
permission to resign his bishopric ; but the king de-
clared, when the petition was presented, that he would
not accept the resignation, and that the bishop had
full liberty to choose his own residence. Before his
departure from Ireland, he directed an income of
L.200 a-year from some part of his lands to be distri-
buted among the poor. His residence at Oxford was
of short duration. On Sunday evening the 14th Ja-
nuary 1753, while one of his family was reading a
sermon of Dr Sherlock's, he expired in a moment
without a groan or convulsive pang. The fine eulo-
gium of bishop Atterbury, after the first conversa-
tion with this excellent prelate, " so much under-
standings so much knowledge, so much innocence,

Biikelej.

B E n 625

aild such humility, I did not think had been the por-
tion of any but angels, till I saw this gentleman"— and
tho high encomium of Pope, who ascribes

" To Berkeley every virtue under heaven,"

shew in what estimation his character was held by hist
cotemporaries; and the details of his life, with the per-
usal of his works, vfill enable posterity to judge of the
talents of the philosopher and the virtues of the man.
BERKSHIRE, an inland county of England, has
the Thames and Oxfordshire for its boundary on the
north, Buckinghamshire on the east, Surrey and
Hampshire on the south, and Wiltshire on the west,
and includes an area of nearly 780 square miles, or
more than 476,000 acres. Berkshire admits of four
natural divisions, 1. The White-horse Vale, which
is bounded on one side by the Thames and on the
other by the White-horse hills, a ridge of elevated
land, which is a continuation of the Chiltern range,
2. The Chalk-hills, which traverse the lower part of
the county : 3. The vale of Kennet ; and, 4. The
Forest division, which stretches across the country
iiom the east of the river Loddon to Old Windsor.

The solid strata of Berkshire are composed of
chalk, which abounds with animal remains; extensive
beds of sand and gravel are common in many places ;
a coarse kind of fuller's earth is sometimes met with,
and pipe and potters' clay is dug out for the manu-
facturer. The peat-earth of Berkshire, in which gyp-
sum predominates, has been celebrated as an active
manure when converted into ashes. The prevailing
soil is a calcareous loam ; in some places it is gravel-
ly, but is generally fertile and productive. In the
southern parts of the county the gravel and clay soil
is remarkable for its sterility.

The Thames, which is a natural boundary to Berk-
shire for more than 100 miles, the Kennet, the Lod-
don, the Ocke, the Lambourn, and the Auborn, are
the principal rivers, and some of them abound with
excellent fish. Berkshire has the advantage of in-
land navigation from the Wiltshire and Berkshire ca-
nal, and the Kennet and Avon canal, which latter is
carried from Newbury to Bath, a distance of 60 miles.
The population of Berkshire was estimated, in 1700,
at 75,000; in 1801 at 109,215; and in 1811 at
118,277. The chief towns are Abingdon, Reading,
which are both considered as county towns, Far-
ringdon, Hungerford, Ilsley, Lambourn, Maidenhead,
Newbury, Oakingham, VVallingford, Wantage, and
Windsor. Wheat and barley are the chief corn crops
of this county. A great deal of malt is manufactured
for the supply of the London and Bristol market.
Some extensive farms are laid out for the production
of the dairy. Cheeses in the form of the pine-Spple
are highly celebrated for their fine flavour, and bring
a superior price in the market. Numerous flocks of
sheep are reared on the hilly pastures, and the excel-
lence of its breed of hogs is well known. A consider-
able extent of the surface of this county is covered
with woods ; but the banks of the Thames, the vale of
Kennet, and Windsor forest, are chiefly remarkable
for forest timber.

The manufacture of cloth, which flourished in some
of the towns of Berkshire in the 17th century, is
now unknown. Beside two paper-mills, one of which
is on a large scale, the manufacture of serge at

VOL. I. PARX H.

B E R

Newbury and of coarse sacking at Abingdon on- Berlin,
ly merits notice. Tiie rolling and hammering of cop- \\

per for bolts and sheathing for s^hips, as well as for fo- Btmmdas.
reign trade and domestic purposes, at the Temple-
mills, form an extensive concern, inwhich 1000 tonsof
copper have been sometimes manufactured annually.

BERLIN, the capital of Brandenburgh, and of the
Prussian dominions, is one of the finest towns of Ger-
many, stands on the banks of the Spree, which falls
into the Havel, a tributary stream of the Elbe, and
is more than four miles long and three miles broad.
The streets are generally regular and broad ; scvend
of them exceed a mile, and Frederick Street is more
than two miles in length, and the houses are con-
structed with freestone or brick, and are usually two
stories in height. The squares are spacious, and ma-
ny of the public buildings are n^agnificent edifices ;
among which are enumerated the royal palace, which
is four stories high, has some of the apartments a-
dorned with the richest tapestry, and many pieces of
furniture of solid silver, and includes a library of
100,000 volumes, of which number 500 bibles, and a-
mong them, it is said, is the bible which Charles I. of
England used when he was brought to the scailbid ;
the arsenal, which is one of the grandest structures
of the kind in Europe, is adorned with a statue of
Frederick I. which is greatly admired ; and the royal
stables, whith are equally spacious and magnificent,
luive two courtswith a covered menage between them.

Berlin is also adorned with other splendid edifices,
such as the opera-house, the hall of the academy of
sciences; the hospital of invalids, in which 1000 offi-
cers and soldiers are lodged and maintained; various
palaces and numerous churches. Some of the bridges
over the Spree, and some of the large squares are
adorned with splendid statues of bronze or marble.
The neighbourhood of the city is finely diversified
with canals, vineyards, and beautiful villas ; and the
parks, which are agreeable places of resort, arennich
frequented on Sundays and holidays. The institu-
tions for the cultivation of literature and science, or*
destined to charitable purposes, are numerous.

The population of Berlin, including the garrison,
which amounts to about IJO.OOO, is estimated at
140,000. The manufacture of silk, woollen, cotton,
and linen cloth is extensive; in 1799, 7014 looms
were employed, and the whole number of artisans ex-
ceeded 14,000.

BERMUDAS, or Somer Ist.ands, a group of
islands in the Atlantic ocean, in north latitude 32'^
35', and between two and three hundred leagues from
the continent of America. The whole number of
these islands is about 400, extending over a space
of 45, miles from northeast to south-west ; but most
of them arc bare rocks, and very few are inha-
bited. Their discovery was accidentally made in
1527, by John Bermudas, a Spanish navigator, from
whom one of the names is derived ; but he neither
landed, nor was any settlement made by his country-
men. Soon after, Henry May, an Englishman,
was unfortunately shipwrecked on one o-f the larger
islands ; and having constructed a vessel of ccdar-
ivood, an abundant production of tl>ese islands,
he returned to Europe, and published an account of
them, the first which had appeared. In 1609, Sir
George Somers and some others, in a voyage to Vir-
• 4 L

BER

626

BER

Bent gii^j "8 (leputy-goyernors, had also the misfortune
to be shipwrecked on the Bermudas. They reached
Americii in vessels built of the native cecfar-wood ;
and Sir George having returned to the islands in
search of provisions for the colony in Virginia, died
soon after his arrival, and from him they were deno-
minated, Somers, or Summer's islands. His surviv-
ing companions returned to England; made a favour-
able report of their beauty and fwtility ; and induced
the Virginia company, who claimed the property, to
divide tlie whole into 120 shares, and to assign the
right to the purchasers, who obtained a charter from
James I, An expedition was fitted out in 1612;
and 60 planters proceeded as adventurers, under a
regular form of government, to form a settlement.
In the course of a few years the Bermudas were
crowded with inhabitants from England ; some at-
tracted by the exaggerated accounts of the fine cli-
mate, ana some driven from their native country by
the distractions and dangers which prevailed during
the civil wars.

The principal islands are, Bermuda, Saint George,
Saint David, and Somerset. Bermuda exceeds aO
miles in length, and is about two in breadth. The
country is generally rugged and mountainous, but in
many places the plains are covered with a fertile and
productive soil. The Bermudas are divided into nine
parishes, which include more than 12,000 acres. The
white inhabitants in 1810 were estimated at 4755 ;
the free persons of colour at 4^51, and the slaves at
4794', making the total population equal to 10,000 ;
but it is supposed that the number of black and co-
loured inhabitants is under-rated. The government
is similar to that of the West India colonies. The
established form of religion is that of the church of
England ; but there is a presbyterian congregation,
and another belonging to the methodists, which are
supported by voluntary contributions.

Indian corn, tobacco, and a little cotton, arc the
chief vegetable productions which are objects of
eulture ; and most of the West India fruits grow to
perfection. Turtle is abundant on the coast, and
IS a valuable source of trade ; and ambergris, of
which large masses were collected by the early set-
tlers, who entertained sanguine hopes that it would
be a permanent acquisition, is occasionally met with
in small quantities. Beside agricultural occupations,
the inhabitants are employed in ship-building of
native cedar-wood, in fishing, and in carrying salt
from Turks island to America.

BERN, one of the largest cantons of Switzerland,
is bounded on the east by the cantons of IJri, Under-
■walden, and Lucern ; on the south by the lake of
Geneva and the duchy of Savoy ; on the west by
Soleure and part of France ; and on the north by
Basle and the Austrian forest-towns. The length is
estimated at 180 miles, and the breadth about 90
miles. The canton of Bern presents an extremely
diversified surface ; it is encompassed with lofty
mountainous groups ; and its extensive forests and
spacious lakes exhibit altogether a great variety of
picturesque scenery.

The population of the canton is variously estima-
ted at 340,000 and 400,000, distributed in a num-
ber of considerable towns and many small villages.

The plaihs are fertile and well cultivated, and the Beri
elevated regions afford excellent pasture to nume- |l

ous herds of cattle. The manufactures of linen, wool- Bemoulll.
len, silk, and cotton-gtuifs, and coloured stockings are '>— •->^^^
considerable ; and, with cheese, butter, and horses,
afford a valuable trade with the neighbouring dis-
tricts.

BERN, the capital of the canton of the same
name in Switzerland, stands on the banks of the Aar,
and is nearly encompassed by that river. The
streets are spacious and clean, the houses are nearly
of the same height and uniformly built, and the town
is adorned and refreshed by lountains, which are
supi)liod with water frons a branch of the Aar. The
cathedral is a fine Gothic structure, which has been
much admired. The population of Bern is estima-
ted at 15,000, who are chiefly occupied in the ma-
nufactures already noticed in the description of the
canton. Bern can boast of a number of literary and
scientific institutions. It is 45 miles south from Basle,
and 78 miles north-east from Geneva.

BERNERA, a small island belonging to the west-
ern islands of Scotland. See Hebrides.

BERNOULLI, James, acelefaratedmathematician,
was the son of Nicholas Berno'.illi, an active and re-
spectable citizenof Basle, who held importantofficesin
his nati\'e city, and was born at Basle in 1654. Nicho-
las Bernoidli left a family of eleven children ; two of
whom, James and John, distinguished themselves
by the most profound geometrical investigations, and
rose to the highest rank among the mathematicians
of the eighteenth century.

James Bernoulli was destined for the clerical pro-
fession ; but his strong inclination for mathematical
studies withdrew his attention from every other pur-
suit, and he gave very early proofs of talents for
those profound investigations by which he was after-
wards so distinguished. Having visited different
countries of Europe, he was elected professor of ma-
thematics at Heidelberg ; and at the end of three
years was appointed to the same chair in the univer-
sity of his native city. He died in 1705, when he
had reached the 51st year of his age.

BERNOULLI, Joiik, a distinguished mathema-
tician, was the tenth son of Nicholas Bernoulli, and
was born at Basle in 1667. The early part of his
education was conducted, first, with a view to com-
mercial pursuits, and afterwards to qualify him for
the practice of medicine. But with the example,
and under the tuition of his brother James, his stu-
dies were directed to raatliematical science, in which
he acquired the highest reputation. He was first ap-
pointed professor of experimental philosophy in the
university of Groningen ; and, on the death of his
brother succeeded to the professorship of mathema-
tics at Basle. He died in 1748, in the 81st year of
his age. Of a family of nine children, three were
professors ; and Daniel, in mathematical genius, was
not surpassed by his father and uncle.

BERNOULLI, DanieLs, a very eminent mathe-
matician and natural philosopher, was the son of John
Bernoulli, and was born at Groningen in the year
1700. He began early the study of mathematics,
and gave unequivocal proofs of powerful talents in
geometrical investigations. He prosecuted the study

B E R

^7

B £ S

Berwick. ?^ medicine, first in his own country, and afterwards
<^__^ in Italy ; but still mathematical pursuits occupied a
large share of his attention. Being invited bv the
academy of St Petersburgh, he repaired to that'city;
and, greatly honoured and distinguished, he spent se-
veral years of his life in the imperial capital, till his
declining health required hira to seek for its restora-
tion in a milder climate. In 1733 he returned to
Basle, which was then his fatlier's residence, and was
elected professor of medicine and afterwards of phy-
sics. He died in 1782, in the 83d year of his age.

The sublime genius for mathematics which per-
vaded tliis remarkable family, presents a prominent
feature in the history of the science. A minute de-
tail of the profound researches and sublime investi-
gations with which they were occupied, could not be
interesting to the general reader. But the jealousy
aiul rivalship which existed between the two brothers,
and between the father and son, exhibit another fea-
ture in their lives less amiable but not less singular.
Ambition for fame diminished the warmth of affec-
tion which had subsisted between the two brothers
before they had acquired such distinguislied reputa-
tion ; and a difference of opinion, about the solution
of a mathematical problem, burst asunder the bands
of friendship, and produced the most decided enmi-
ty. John Bernoulli entertained the same jealousy a-
gainst his son Daniel. The first efforts of his youth-
ful genius in the brilliant career which he was des-
tined to run, were rudely repressed , and when he di-
vided the prize with his father, for the best explana-
tion of the variation in the inclination of the plane-
tary orbits, the mortification of the latter was ex-
treme, and terminated in bitter resentment and per-
manent hostility.

BERWICK, COUNTY, or Berwickshire, forms
the south-eastern portion of Scotland ; has the river
Tweed for its boundarj' on the south, the German
ocean on the east, East-Lothian on the north, and on
the west Mid-Lothian and Roxburghshire, and is
about 30 miles long, and about 19 miles at its great-
est breadth. Berwickshire is traversed at its north-
ern extremity by a lofty ridge, the Lannnermoor
mountains, which, stretching westward from the pro-
montory of St Abb's head on the east coast, pre-
serves an elevation of nearly 1000 feet, and in one
place rises 1500 feet above the level of the sea. The
prevailing rocks are, the grey wacken of mineralo-
gists ; and of the schistose variety, which is also met
with, some is dug out for the purpose of roof-slate.
Extensive beds of red sandstone skirt the eastern
coast of the county ; and a large mass of breccia, or
plumb-pudding rock, constitutes the northern pro-
montory of Eyemouth-bay. The Tweed winds its
majestic stream along the margin of Berwickshire
for a course of forty miles ; but within its borders, the
Whitadder and Blackadder, which mix their united
waters with the Tweed near Berwick, and the Lead-
er and the Eden, of inferior magnitude, are the prin-
cipal rivers.

The population of Berwickshire, which in 1755
was estimated at nearly 25,000, amounted in 1801
• to 30,621, and in Iflll to 30,779. Greenlaw the
county town, and Dunse, with a population exceed-
ing 3000, Coldjtre^m, Lauder, and Eyemouth, are
2

Berwick

the chief towns. The manufacture of paper, the sal-
mon fishery on the Tweed, the white fisheries on the j|
cast coast for the supply of the Edinburgh market, Bensancon.
and the export trade from Eyemouth, with the im-
portation of coal, lime, and other commodities for
domestic consumption, beside the labours of agri-
culture, afford the principal employment to the in-
liabitants. The modern agricultural improvements
in Scotland were first introduced into Berwickshire,
which still takes the lead in the most approved sys-
tem of alternate husbandry. The elevated districts
of the Lammermoor hills afford excellent pasture to
numerous flocks of sheep.

BERWICK-UPON-TWEED,stands on the north-
ern bank of that river, about a mile from its influx
into the German ocean ; from its peculiar position was
often a disputed post between the rival nations of
England and Scotland, but is now annexed to Eng-
land, with a small territory of four or 5000 acres,
and is governed by English laws. Berwick was for-
tified by the English early in the sixteenth century ;
and the remains of fortifications of a still older date,
erected by the Scotch, are still visible. Few of the
streets are spacious ; some of them are steep and
narrow ; and the bridge of sixteen arches, which
crosses the Tweed, and can lay claim to some anti-
quity, is also narrow and incommodious.

The population, which in 1801 was estimated at
7187, had increased, in 1811, to 7746. The muni-
cipal establishment is assimilated to that of English
boroughs. The Tweed is navigable to the town;
but a bar at its mouth excludes vessels of large bur-
den. Timber, iron, and flax are imported from the
Baltic ; grain, in considerable quantities, from the
neighbouring districts, and wool, and eggs, and sal-
mon preserved in ice, for the London market, are
exported. It is said that L.20,000 worth of eggs
have been shipped off in a single year. The rent of
the salmon fishery exceeds L.l 0,000 annually. Ber-
wick is 54 miles from Edinburgh, and 335 from Lon-
don.

BERWICK, NORTH, a royal borough and sea-
port town of the county of Haddington, or East-Lo-
thian, in Scotland. The harbour admits small ves-
sels, and some grain is exported. The population
is about 1600. The ruins of the castle of Tantallon,
the ancient residence of the powerful family of Dou-
glas, form a striking object, on a precipitous rock,
washed by the sea, two miles from the town ; and
North Berwick-law, in its immediate vicinity, is a con-
spicuous land-mark, and rises in a coniciil form to
the height of 800 feet.

BERYL, a mineral substance ranked among pre-
cious stones, and belonging to the siliceous genus.

See MlNEBALOGY.

BESANCON, the capital of the department of
Doubs in France, stands on the banks of the river
which gives name to the department, and traverses
the city. The town is walled, fortified, and well de-
fended by a strong citadel. The houses are well-
built of stone, the streets are long and spacious, and
the churches and public buildings are fine structures.
Numerous ren)ains of Roman antiquity are still vi-
sible in the ruins of a triumphal arch and some other
buildings, Encompassed with mountains, the vici-

B E'T

628

'B EL

Bethaitda "'*y "f Bcsan(;;on exhibits many pictures(|Tie scenes,
)i »iia the warm baths near the town offer a kixurious

Bethune. enjoyment to the inhabitants. The population is be-
tween 20,000 and 30,000 ; and fire-arms, sh ords, and
clocks are the principal manufactures.

BESSARABIA, a province of the Ottoman em-
pire, which is bounded on the east by the Black sea
I and part of the Russian territory, on the south by the
, Dinub*, and on the north and west by Moldavia ; in
some places is extremely fertile, producing grain,
hemp, and flax, and is celebrated for the excellence
of its fruits and the superior quality of its wines.
The salt obtained by spontaneous evaporation of the
waters of some lakes in this province, furnislies a va-
luable commercial commodity, and affords u consi-
derable revenue to the government.

BETA, the Beet, a genus of plants belonging to
the Pentandria class.

BETEL, the Piper belle of Linnaeus, is a native
of India, and is extensively employed in eastern coun-
tries <ns a luxury.

BETHESDA,a pond orpublicbathnearthe sheep
market in Jerusalem, which was famous for the cure
i>f the diseases of those who bathed in its waters.
According to the Scriptural account, an " angel
went down at a certain season into the pool and trou-
bled the water : whosoever then first after the troub-
ling of the water stepped in, was made whole of
whatsoever disease he had." On the subject of this
pool much disquisition has been employed by divines
and commentators ; but it seems to be generally ad-
mitted, that the cures which were performed by it
in the time of Jesus Christ, are to be ascribed to mi-
raculous influence.

BETHLEHEM, a city of Palestine, which is fa-
mous as the birth-place of Jesus Christ; and because
it was also the birth-place of David, king of Israel,
it was called the city of David. The place is now re-
duced to the state of a village, but it has been a-
dorned with religious houses and magnificent chur-
ches, and has long been the annual resort of numer-
ous bands of pilgrims, who come from distant quar-
ters to perform their devotions. The village of Beth-
lehem is seated on an eminence in a mountainous dis-
trict, and is two leagues south-east from Jerusalem.
Fruits, olives, and vines thrive well, and, from the
latter a white wine, which has obtained some celeb-
rity, is obtained.

BETHUNE, Maximilian, de, Duke of Sully,
a celebrated French general and politician, was born
in 1560; entered in early life into the service of the
king of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France,
and rose to the highest and most important offices in
the state. In war, in finance, and in negotiation, Sully
was always distinguished by prudence, vigour, and
fidelity ; for his eminent services he received the
most substantiiil benefits, and was honoured with the
most Eplendid distinctions ; and it is not a little re-
markable, that he enjoyed all this influence and pow-
er while he'profLSsed through life the reformed re-
ligion, although, from motives of conciliating cim-
tending factions, he recommended to his master, who
Jiad been also a Protestant, to embrace the Catholic
ftiith. But his zeal and integrity in the management
cf public affairs were not eqiially appreciated by the

successor of Henry ; for on the assassination of that
prince, in 1610, he withdrew from court into the re-
tirement of private life, and died in \6i\, when he
had reached the S2d year of his age. The Memoirs
of Sully is a well known popular work, of which an
English translation has been long before the public,
and contains a highly interesting narrative of French
history for a period of 40 years, from 1570 to the
death of Henry IV.

BETONICA, Betosy, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the Didynamia class.

BETULA, the birch-tree, a genus of plants be-
longing to the Monrccia class.

BEVERLEY, a town in Yorkshire in England,
which contains more than 5000 inhabitants, has a
considerable trade in malt and manufacture of lea-
ther, and is remarkable for its spacious market-place,
which is adorned with a fine cross. The minster is
an elegant edifice, decorated with monuments in
commemoration of the noble family of Percy.

BEVIEUX, a village of Switzerland, which is fa-
mous for the salt springs in its vicinity. The rocks of
which the mountains are composed, and from which
the springs have their source, are a h hitish gypsum,
mixed with blue clay, impregnated with salt. The
operations are conducted by shafts, galleries, and
machinery for raising the brine to reservoirs on the
surface. It is said that these salt-works yield an an-
nual profit of L.3000. Bevieux is three miles dis-
tant from Aigle.

BEWDLY, a town of Worcestershire in England,
derives its name from the French Bcaiilieu, signify-
ing beauliful place, it is conjectured, from its charm-
ing situation on a declivity on the banks of the Se-
vern ; contains nearly 4-000 inhabitants, who are enga-
ged in the manufacture of malt and leather, and par-
ticularly for caps known by the name of Monmouth
caps, and enjoys a considerable trade by means of the
Severn.

BEY, or BEGH, the appellation of a Turkish go-
vernor of a province or city. Some of these officers,
as the bey of Tunis, have, by power or usage, acquir-
ed sovereign authority, and their dependence on the
Ottoman Porte is little more than nominal.

BEZIERS, a city of the department of Herault,
in France, occupies a fine situation near the junction
of the river Orbe with the great south canal; con-
tains more than 14,000 inhabitants, who are engaged
in the manufacture of cloth, silk stuffs, and brandy,
and is celebrated for the remains of a Roman amphi-
theatre. The university of this place was establish-
ed in the end of the 16th century.

BEZOAR, a peculiar concretion which is formed
in the stomachs of animals of the antelope and goat
kind, and was once famous as a remedy in many dis-
eases. The name is derived from a Persian word,
signifying antidote against poison, because it was also
employed for that purpose. Bezoar stones were at
one time in such high repute as to find a place in the
list of medicines recomuit nded by the colleges. But
the nature of the substance, which modern chemistry
furnishes the means of examining, shews that the ef-
fects were exaggerated, so that they are now ne-
glected. The formation of the Bezoar in the sto-
mach of the animal depends ou a nucleus of Btra?',

%\t

(529

:bix^

ihadiioath l^^'""' the pod of a fruit, or some indigestible sub-
"' |( "■ stance, round which concentric layers of secreted
Bienne. matter are deposited.

BHADllINATH, a small town and celebrated
temple in tlieprovince ofScrinagur, in thenortiiern re-
gions of Hindostan, which stands in a valley in north
latitude 30* 13'. The town includes only twenty or
thirty huts for the accommodation of the brahmins
during their visit in the time of the annual pilgrimage.
The sacred temple, to which a supernatural origin is
ascri')ed, rises in the form of a cone, with a small cu-
pola, surmounted by a co])per roof, a golden, or gilt
ball, and spire, to the height of forty or fifty feet ;
the idol, three feet high, cut in black stone or marble,
is ricldy dressed in gold and silver brocade ; and in
such veneration is this establishment held that it can
number 700 villages among its possessions. But the
olferings of pilgrims constitute a copious source of its
revenue. A hot spring issues from the adjoining
mountain, and supplies a warm bath ; to numerous
cold springs in the vicinity appropriate names and
peculiar virtues are assigned, and from them, as his
needs require, the pious visitant derives purification
and comfort. The pilgrims are estimated annually at
,50,000, and the greater proportion is composed oi'/a-
kirs, or devotees, from the remotest corners of India.
They assemble at the great fair of Ilurdwar, and at its
conclusion depart to the far-famed shrine. In the
end of May 1808, masses of snow, 70 feet thick, were
observed on the road to Bhadrinath, and the summits
of the higher mountains are covered with perennial
snow ; a striking proof of the great elevation of a re-
gion in the 30lh degree of latitude.

BI AFAR A, a district of Africa, which is bounded
on the south by the Rio Grande, and is included be-
tween the ) 1th and I'ith degrees of north latitude.
The inhabitants of this countrj' are described as a
peaceable inoffensive race, and from their chiefs, cap-
tain Beaver, who made an attempt a few years ago to
establish a settlement on Bulama, obtained a grant of
that island, of which some account may be seen in his
African Meyrroramla.

BIBLE, from the Greek, and signifving book, is ap-
plied as a distinctive appellation to the scriptures of
the Old and New Testament. See Scriptures, under
Religion.

BIDEFORD, a seaport town of Devonshire in
England, is a neat clean town, has a gool harbour,
which admits large vessels to the quay in its centre,
a population of 3000, has a considerable concern in
the Newfoundland fisheries, not fewer than 100 ves-
sels of various sizes in the carrying trade, and exports
oak timber and oak bark to Scotland and Ireland.
The manufacture of earthen-ware, which is transport-
ed to Wales, is extensive.

BIDENS, Water-hemp Agrimony, a genus of
plants belonging to the Syngenesia class.

BIENNE, formerly the capital of a district of the
same name in Switzerland, and included at the French
revolution in the department of the Upper Rhine,
stands at the foot of mount Jura on the banks of the
lake Bienne ; has some manufactures of leather and
printed cloths, and is remarkable for its abundant
supply of water from numerous public fountains.
The fake of Bienne is nine miles in length and two

Bilston.

miles in breadth; the shores are adorned with castles, Big^lewaile
villages, and picturesque scenery ; the island of Saint
I'cter, clothed with stately oaks, beeches, ^nd ches-
nuts, is famous for a two months residence of the ce-
lebrated Rousseau, and is still the resort of stran-
gers, partictilarly in the vintage season. ' '

BIGGLESWADE, a town of Bedfordshire in
England, occupies a fine situation in a valley on the
hanks of the Ivel, which is navigable at this place, is
famous for its market for grain and pease, and has a
population exceeding 1600, with a small manufacto-
ry of thread- lace.

BIGNONIA, TnuMrET-FLOwER, or Scaiu.et
Jasmine, a genus of plants belonging to the Didj--
namia class.

BIJUGA, orBISSAGOS ISLANDS, a group of
islands, of which thirteen are said to be inhabited, on
the south-western coast of Africa, and separated
from the continent by a deep channel, which stretch-
es towards the island of Bulama, a course of more
than 100 miles, and many of them are fertile and
well wooded. Rice and fruits are produced in abun^
dance. The natives are not more civilized than their
continental neighbours ; they are represented as
treacherous and cruel ; fond of war, no doubt for the
sake of plunder; and bold and intrepid in enterprize.
Beaver's African ISIcmoraxda.

BILBOA, the capital of Biscay in Spain, is si- "
tuated on the bay of Biscay ; the houses are lofty
and well built ; the streets are paved and clean ; it
is accommodated with docks for shipbuilding; and
the promenade on the banks of the river, shaded
with oaks and lime-trees, and bordered with ware-
houses and gardens, is highly celebrated. The po-
pulation is about 15,000; and the trade with the mer-
cantile countries of Europe is considerable.

BILE, a j'ellowish, bitter liquid, which is secret-
ed in the liver, and seems destined to promote the di-
gestion or assimilation of the food in the animal eco-
nomy. See Anatomy.

BILEDULGERID, //te Coimtrij of Dales, or, by
some, the Dry Country, a region in the northern
quarter of Africa, which is included between the
states of Barbary and Sahara, or the Desert. The
interpretation of the name is characteristic of the
climate, or of the productions of the country. The
natives are Arabs, who profess Mahometanism ; they
are occasionally employed as mercenary troops by
the neighbouring states ; but they are oltener enga-
ged in plundering excursions, or in hunting the os-
trich, the flesh of which serves for food, and the fea-
thers are a valuable commercial comniddity. The
fruit of the date, with a little dried fish, and camels
milk and goat's flesh, constitute their ordinary fare.

BILL, a term of very general application ; as, vf\
commercial affairs, a bill oi lading or of esciiatige ; in
law, a declaration in writing of some complaint or
grievance ; and in parliament, certain propositions
which are offered for consideration, and, if approved,
to be passed into a law.

BILLIARDS, from a French word signifying iai7,
a game which was invented by the French, and is
played with ivory balls. See Games.

BILSTON, a town of Staftbrdsliire in England,
which is celebrated for its manufactures of japaaaeJ

BIO

630

BIO

fiiografihy,

and enajneUcd wares, and the numerous gmelting
furnaces, Ibrges, and mills, for the reduction of the
ores of iron, and for its conversion into various ini-
; jJements and utensils. The population is about 7000 ;
and by means of inland navigation the communica-
tion with most parts of England is greatly facili-
tated.

BIOGRAPHY, is a species of literary composi-
tion which relates the actions and fortunes, and de-
scribes the characters of remarkable individuals. The
term is derived from two Greek words, signifying
to write, and life, and is properly used in contradis-
tinction to history, the object of which is to record
the origin, progress, revolutions, decline, and fall of
states and countries.

As a nation is merely an aggregate of mankind
'On a larger scale than a family, and is no less liable
•to be influenced by the personal qualities and beha-
viour of its members, biographical sketches are ne-
cessarily blended in the narrative of events, and even
with the discussion as to their causes, in which it is
'the duty of tlie historian to engage. Thus, it can-
not be doubted, that the ambition of a Ca;sar, or a
Bonaparte, the patriotism of it Brutus, or the mo-
deration of a Washington, tiie licentiousness of our
Henry VIII. the hypocrisy of Cromwell, and t!ie
bigotry of the second James, materially affected the
fortunes of their countries, and are consequently en-
titled to duly proportioned notice in the memoirs of
their times. Biography, then, is, in this respect,
obviously subservient to his-tory, and indeed very
often forms its chief interest and utility. Much
there is, undoubtedly, to demand attention and exer-
cise thought, in the progress of large masses of our
species, from the savageness of the desert to the re-
finement and policy of civilized life, and through all
the eventful periods of their prosperity, decay, and
ruin. The miseries of their early condition, — the
Struggle between necessity and intelligence, by which
our nature has been so much exalted, — the gradual
accumulation of arts and devices, which enriched
every present generation beyond the narrow concep-
tions of the preceding, — those new trials and per-
plexities, in which success itself so often involved
the rising community, and which, by calling forth
the evil principles of human nature, almost certainly
prepared the means of its dissolution, — above all
things, those repeated appeals to brutal force, and
malignant or cruel inventions, by which the imper-
fections of all worldly policy are so dreadfully dis-
closed,—these events it is utterly impossible to con-
template with indifference, because, in addition to
their magnitude and duration, by which they are
calculated to occupy the imagination, they involve
consequences, and suggest analogies, of importance
to our own circunietauces and conditions. But this
reasoning and calculating spirit, on the whole, is
little operative on the feelings. A reader finds some
eolace in the disproportion which he bears to the
numbers concerned, and still more in the absence
of all claim' on personal sympathy. The prosperity
and the sufferings of a large nation, more especially
one which has long ceased to act its part on the the-
atre of the world, are to him merely abstract ideas,
which have neither prototype nor foundation iu his

affections, and wliich he can readily, and almost at
will, combine with any arrangement of causes which
the information and skill of tlie historian authorise.
As far as mere feeling is concerned, accordingly, he
admits with equal lacility the loss of twenty and
of thirty thousand men in any celebrated battle, and
cares not whether such a catastrophe occurred on
the banks of the Euphrates or in the plains of
Thessaly. In reality, he possesses no internal crite-
rion of probability by which such extensive opera-
tions can be measured, and cannot experience a
thousandth part of the emotions, sentiments, and
prejudices which occasioned them, or operated dur-
ing their 'continuance.

This puny effect of such relations, even in the
hands of the greatest masters in historical composi-
tion, gives the lie to that universal philanthropy
which it has sometimes been so much the fashion to
admire, and demonstrates the actual selfishness and
confined solicitudes of the human heart ; and suffici-
ent reasons are not wanting to palliate, if not to jus-
tify, this comparative apathy. What profitable dic-
tate, what salutary result, it may be asked, can ac-
crue to a private individual, at least, from the most
authentic records of national affairs, beyond the
gratification of rational curiosity, or the conviction
which he can easily obtain elsewhere, or realize in
his own experience, that uncertainty, vicissitude,
and sorrow are by much the most considerable por-
tion of human life, and that the gleams of comfort
and happiness by which they are so sparingly chec-
quered, give them but the greater power of aihict-
ing ? The knowledge thus acquired may enhance
his consequence as a man of learning, and furnish
topics on which the powers of description and the
stores of memory may be displayed with enviable
eloquence ; but it is almost totall}' unproductive of
any prudential rules by which he shall be enabled to
avoid the calamities of the world, or any valuable
remedy by which he can overcome them. To the
politician, indeed, the study of history holds out some
isdipensable advantages. It is there he can safely
learn the fallaciousness of prosperous appearances^
the vanity of narrow expedients and temporising
compliances, the hazard of despising, neglecting,
and thwarting popular prejudices, and the certainty
of mischief as the consequence of goading the pas-
sions beyond tlie well ascertained limits of practi-
cable endurance. He nuiy perceive by it the impe-
rious necessity and the benefits of husbanding the
national resources, and securing popular opinion, a-
gainst a time when both shall be required in defence
of the vital interests of the state ; it may furnish him
with the habit of discriminating between the impe-
rishable laws of society, and the accidental and trir
vial institutions by which communities are often for
a short time united ; it may yield him, in short, or,
more properly speaking, it may aid and foster the
capability of managing public affairs, by furnishing
precedents and inductive conclusions, though, after
all, it be questionable, whether the process be likely
to augment respect for his species, or to render him
more indulgent and sympathising to its weaknesses
and misfortunes.

The labours of the prcfessed biographer, and even

BIO

■631

BIO

Utegrajph}'. the occasionol portraits which the historian is so of-
v^V^b^ ten induced to delineate, are more level to ordinary
conceptions and interests, and may be more easily
appreciated by personal observation. The life of an
individual, however exalted above our own station,
and however different the circumstances in which he
was jjlaced, is nevertheless in many respects a tran-
script of one's self. He had the insignificance and the
fretfulness of infancy, and the waywardness and im-
patience of youth, — he projected schemes of felicity,
and was disappointed, — he trusted appearances, and
was deceived, — resolved to be wiser in future, but
surrendered his invincible judgment to the next gay
vision which flitted across liis fancy, — the necessity
for exertion, either to procure a livelihood, or to gra-
tify his ambition, was accompanied by feverish anxi-
ety, and followed by desponding indolence, — per-
haps he gave ' hostages to fortune,' married and had
children, so multiplit:d the ))oints on which ids little
comfort might be assailed, for the uncertain chance
of an additional share of happiness, — he had his em-
barrassments and gloomy days, or if sunshine beam-
ed on his toils and flattered his hopes, it gendered also
the caterpillar and viper that envied and marred his
prosperity, — the cup of joy which he had been anxi-
ously endeavouring to fill, by years of self-denial
and industry, never reaches his lips, or falls from
them at the very moment of Uisting, — pain, and
sickness, and languor, render liim burdensome to
himself, and are hut preludes to that closing event,
which is only one of the many aflecting scenes in
which it shall certainly be our lot to resemble
him. Such may be the general causes of that high
interest wliich most persons take in biography. There
are many additional reasons for it, though of rather
more partial application. Soine of these point out
the sort of utility of which it may be instrumental.
The person whose life is recorded must have been
somewhat remarkable for talents, for actions, for
character, attainments, or fortunes. Millions of man-
kind pass through the world without attracting a
single eye beyond the narrow circle of their fand-
lies. They breathe, and sigh, and struggle, re-
joice and lament, in their primitive obscurity, un-
heeded and unknown, quietly and usefully it may
be, filling up the vacuities of society, and mini-
stering to the conmion wants of tlieir fellow crea-
tures. These are not the proper subjects for bio-
graphy. Even the zeal of ardent friendship, and
the affection of kindred, have rarely brought forward
an individual to the public gaze who had not been
previously signalized by endowment, or qualification,
or conduct. Jt is only the eminent poet, the painter
or musician, the philosopher, the soldier, or states
man, the man of genius who has created a world a-
round him, or whose productions and deeds have
blazoned the time and place in which he lived, that
can justify the distinctions of literature, or furnish
materials for its labour. Of such persons, it is e-
<]ually important and curious to know much more
than can ordinarily be learned from their works. A
man of this kind is less a private individual than ' a
child of the state,' and is necessarily exposed to pu-
blic scrutiny, and even the inquiries of posterity, to

whom he ans'vcrs the purpose of a land-mark, and
evidence of a former world.

Great reputations are rare — the excellence which
can compel them is still rarer. How have they been
obtained ? What was the concurrence of circum-
stances, or whence the power whose agency has
perpetuated the names of illustrious men beyond the
vulgar notoriety of tlieir age and country? In what
manner was that hand trained which so exquisitely
spread existence, and intelligence, and feeling, oil
the unmeaning canvass ? Where was the eye enriched,
beyond the ordinary blessings of vision, whence ema-
nated those interesting groups which people the land-
scape,— yon peaceful hamlet, with its during bower.*,
and greensward enclosure, and busied animation, —
yon sloped and softened bank, where the moulder-
ed turret projects its rugged shadow on the sun-
beam's glare, defying the farther ravages of time, —
j'on azure expanse, so gently fringed with woolly
clouds, and indented with the beech tree's straggling
branches? What elementary harmonies suggested to
Handel the ideas of his seraphic commentaries ?
What calamities urged, and were soothed by the
thrilling melodies of a Mozart ? Wliat amplitude of
soul broke forth in the symphonies of a Haydn ? Did
the fervour of Milton's muse diffuse warmth through
his youthful poetry, or suddenly irradiate the effu-
sions of his riper genius ? In what magic creation
was the spirit of Shakespeare so naturalised that he
culled at will the choicest flowers of fancy, and
breathed, as his proper element, the atmosphere of
inspiration? How and where reposed the eloquence
of Cicero or Burke, till the necessities of the state,
or the hardihood of villainy, bade their thunder roar^
and shake the strongest battlements of corruption ?
Wliat supported the magnanimity of a Chatham a-
gainst royal prejudices, and the clamours of popular
enthusiasm ? Were there any peculiarities in the mo-
desty of his temper, or the occupations of his retire-
ment, which carried Newton above the philosophy of
his cotemporaries, and brought him into acquaint-
ce with the presiding powers of tlie universe ? These
are some of the many questions which every intelli-
gent mind naturally demands in the view of what-
ever is excellent or praise-worthy of its kind, and
to which it is the duty of the biographer to afford
suitable replies. He professes to connect together
the insulated events and works which have obtained
publicity and fame, — to assign the real internal causes
of their celebrity — to till up the chasm between-
non-entitj and the productions or qualities which :
have sanctioned admiration or drawn forth grati-
tude,— in a word, to renovate and render perma-
nently accessible a worthiness which has ceased to
exist. This task is evidently a trying one, and re-
quires for its accomplishment a peculiar assemblage
of properties and materials, wliicli comparatively
few who have undertaken it appear to have eu-
joyed.

The causes of the deficiency, generally speaking,
are more to be deplored than condemned, and may
therefore be glanced at without invidious disparage-
ment. They may be arranged under three heads :—
1. Imperfection or inadequacy of information ;— 2.

Bifgraph^

BIO

632

BIO

Biography tJnsuUablcness, or want of talent ; — 3. Disqualifying
~ temper of mind, or personal bias.

The first of these causes is perhaps the most pro-
lific of failure. This is easily explained. The bio-
grapher cannot be expected to have more copious
materials than the individual whom he means to
pourtray. But how few persons are there who have
had that amount, and kind of foresight, to say no-
thing of the industry and intelligence requisite to
give it efficiency, winch could prompt to the preser-
vation of a(lei[uate memorials of their studies, their
experiences, and projects ? What memory can re-
trace the first suggestions of genius, which, animating
and buoyant, and productive as they might be, were
speedily dissipated in the engagements of life, or in-
distinguishabiy incorporated with their own succes-
. give offspring ? What space could be reasonably
spared, or at least is ordinarily given to reflection,
from the aspiring capabilities of youth, its devotion
to novelty, its splendid purposes, and exorbitant an-
ticipations ? It is even questionable if the every-
day-memorandum disposition, were it a practicable
endowment, be consistent with the luxuriance and
freedom, and facility of mind, from which excellence
lias its impulse. Certain at least it is, that an over
solicitude for punctuality and method is injurious to
mental power, and betokens any thing rather than
the enthusiasm of genius. Some casual recollections
of his pursuits, accordingly, — a treasured feeling of
affection towards a favourite author, — a conscious
propensity to intermit duty and abandon interest
when certain ideas shoot across his mind,— perhaps
an ill-judged fondness for some relic of his youthful
toil, — or the prevalence of an ungainly habit over
the dictates of understanding and the claims of po-
liteness,— are the only beacons which cast a gleam
on the darkened regions of his past existence. But
even these are for the most part retained in secret,
as if too valuable to be exposed to the regard of
mankind, and are not unusually extinguished for
ever in the dissolution of the individual possessor.
What hope that the sagacity of any other person
shall penetrate the obscure, or collect the scanty
embers by which alone it can be explored ! Even
the most intimate relatives are often miserably ill-
informed as to the interesting and really important
features and transactions of their eminent associate.
They are satisfied vrith his present fame, and delight
in the kindness and complacency, and familiarity and
ease, with which he shares his advantages and suc-
cess among them, and feel no solicitude about the
means by which the one was realised, or practically
«ntertain any apprehension, till it be too late, of the
period when the other shall be for ever withdrawn
i'com them. Distance of time, and remoteness of
situation, are other difficulties, under this head, which
impede the performance of biography. How little
is now known of the private manners, and even the
pid)lic transactions of the ancient world ? It is a
chaos, amid the disorder and darkness of whose im-
mensity, it is scarcely possible to obtain satisfactory
information of anj- one character by which it had
teen either benefited or abused.

When unsuitableness, or want of talent, is men-

tioned as a source of imperfection, it is not meant to Riograph*.
be implied tliat any peculiarity of faculty is requisite ^.^'V^fc'
for the office of biographer. The allueion is made
to unfavourable habits, to natural debility, or pof^ilire
want of the common intellectual pow\ is and moral
sentiments. It is undeniable that scarcely any man,
however great his intelligence, or vigorous liis indus-
try, is equally fit for every undertaking. The very
peculiarities of his constiti)ti(>n and timpcrament by
wliich he is discriminated from the rest of his species,
lead him with greater facility and hope of excellence
to one pursuit rather than to another ; and it is equally
certain, that the habits which his propensities may
have occasioned, operate as a kind of restriction on
his mental powers. There are numerous examples
to illustrate this position, to which it is perfectly
sufficient barely to advert, without entering on ge-
neral reasoning, or the discussion of metaphysi-
cal principles. The mere mathematician would en-
gage with little chance of success in the life of
Otway, or Cowper, or Burns. He who had spent
the bulk of his time in conning over lexicons, and
scanning the measures of the ancient tragedians,
would make but a sorry figure as the delineator of
Raphael, of Reynolds, or of Barry. The character of
Galileo, or Newton, or D'Alernbert, would receive
but little elucidation at the hands of a humourist like
Foote, or even from the erudition and critical sagacity
of a Toup or a Porson. It is needless to enumerate
instances, — every one must perceive that the biogra-
pher ought to possess something in common with his
subject; to have some resemblance in taste, and habi-
tudes, and understanding, to be familiar with the stu-
dies in which his original was occupied, and to have
trodden with some celerity, and for some time, the
path which conducted him to reputation. The seem-
ing exception to this law, in the case where merely
moral character is to be displayed, requires but a
moment's consideration to be disposed of. A corres-
ponding equivalent is demanded on such an occasion,
which perhaps is of still less frequent occurrence than
due acquaintance with any one art or science, —
a knowledge of human nature, and quick discern-
ment of the invisible motives, and apparently inert
objects by which it is actuated. Scantiness of this
knowledge, or, which comes to the same thing, the
substitution of hypothesis and system in its place,
accounts for the worse vice than inutility of many
compositions in this department of literature.

To the third head may be referred the whole Iwst
of attachments, prejudices, antipathies, and delu-
sions, whether political, religious, literary, or perso-
nal. To any one of these idols strongly inherent in
the mind, it is a thousand chances to one that truth
will be sacrificed, and that too, perhaps, without the
slightest consciousness on the part of the worshipper.
A writer, under such possession, may furnish facts,
it is allowed, though these will probably be garbled,
partial, and incomjdefe, but is as utterly incapaci-
tated for furnishing a li/'e, as the mould which is con-
structed for an Apollo, a Trajan, or an Antonine,
to yield the bust of Vulcan, Caligula, or Domitian.
Even the sturdy morality of a Johnson contends un-
happily at times with his prepossessions, and in one

BIO

633

B I R

BJo»rapliy. instance at least, proved insufficient to guard his re-
putation for honesty against a very painful and hu-
miliating aspersion.

Various methods have been adopted in the execu-
tion of biography, each of which has its advantages
and inconveniencies. The simple narrative style,
proceeding in chronological order, has been prefer-
red by many writers for the sake of its correspon-
dence with the continuous course of real life. It is
entitled to the commendation of apparent exactness,
but is apt to be defective in proper keeping, to use
the language of painters, by givmg disproportioned
space and colouring to events, from the circumstance
of the length of time which they occupied, and al-
lows comparatively little importance to those mo-
mentary glances of intellect, and sudden transitions
of sentiment, by which, however, though without
being immediately productive of external indications,
the whole character is remodelled. This plan, more-
over, seems to imply the absence of design and ap-
propriate discrimination, and is in consequence ra-
ther discreditable to the author, even admitting his
success as to the main object he has in view. A mo-
dification of this method separates the life into vari-
ous portions designated by some striking event, and
treats of each in natural succession from the birth to
the decease of the individual.

Other biographers have seized on some of the pro-
minent features, or what may be denominated the
exterior parts of their constituents, on which they
bestow the chief labour of their composition, leaving
the subsidiary and merely personal circumstances to
serve as a sort of appendix to the performance.
There are not wanting examples, even of an exclu-
sively technical biography, if the phrase be allow-
able, which direct the attention altogether to the
public relations and bearings of the character. This
seems proper enough as an auxiliary to history, but
is necessarily confined to the few personages whose
lives have borne decisive influence on their age and
country. The chief objection to this plan is its
tendency to disjoin the individual from his actions
and productions, or to create a sort of intermediate
being, in whose anomalous existence, as it is almost
impossible to believe, it is equally so to be interest-
ed. It would be utterly intolerable if correctly ad-
hered to ; but the absurdity of writing merely the
medical histor\ of a physician, the political life of a
statesman, or the literary memoirs of a scholar, is
too glaring a violation of common sense to be fre-
quently committed by any who are at all competent
to the demands of biography.

The superior chance of verisimilitude and authen-
ticity which a man's writing his own life appears to
possess over the reports and conjectures of any other
person, has suggested the idea of occasionally intro-
ducing him as a narrator, by publishing his letters,
or extracts from them, as obtained from his corres-
pondents. Of the value of this substitute it is im-
possible to doubt. Yet there adheres to the prac-
tice, unless very guardedly and tenderly displayed,
an appearance of unfairness and irreverent exposure
towards the departed individual, which cannot fail
to excite painful emotions in the delicate or suscep-
tible reader. A presumption, besides, is very apt to

VOi. I. PAET II.

arise in his mind, not to the advantage of the bio-
grapher's industry and skill. It would be better in
general, it is apprehended, to insert the letters in the
appendix as an authority, on the supposition that it
Kjunt and expedient to publish them at all, and to
employ their contents, like any other materials, in
the construction of the memoir.

The mode, it is reasonable to imagine, ought to
be varied according to the nature of the case and
the object intended. Perhaps the philosophical idea
of the purpose of biography will generally lead to
the precise means of accomplishing it. It is the re-
presentation of an individual, in the totality of his
character, as contemplated in the gradations, inci-
dents, and operations of his being, in conjunction
with the physical and moral peculiarities of his con-
stitution, and as arrayed in the natural or superin-
duced garb, manner, and behaviour which discrimi-
nated him from the rest of mankind while living.

A late publicatioa by Mr Stanfield, on the sub-
ject of biography considered as a literary artj pro-
fesses to specify its numerous difficulties and the
means by which they are to be encountered and
overcome.

BIRCH, Thomas, a voluminous English writer,
descended from a family of quakers, was born in
London in 1705, and, more incUned to literary pur-
suits than the mechanical employment in which his
father was engaged, and to which he was destined,
he devoted his labours to study and the acquisition
of knowledge ; officiated as usher in several public
seminaries ; and, without the advantage of a univer-
sity education, was admitted to orders in the church
of England. He obtained various preferments, and
was elected one of the secretaries of the Royal So-
ciety, of the origin and progress of which he pub-
lished a history, in four volumes ^to. Dr Birch was
unfortunately killed by a fall from his horse in 1766,
and in the 61 st year of his age. With the assistance
of several associates, he completed the elaborate
undertaking of The General Dictionary, Historical
and Critical, in 10 volumes, folio ; and he published
editions of various works of some of the older Eng-
lish writers, with biographical sketches, and different
memoirs and historical tracts.

BIRD, for an account of the structure, see Ana-
tomy ; and for the classificatioD and natural history,
see Ornithology.

BIRD ISLAND, a huge rock in the southern Pa-
cific ocean, three miles in circuit, and rising to a
great height ; precipitous on all sides, excepting to
the westward, where it declines into a sandy beach,
and exhibiting some marks of vegetation. As the name
indicates, it is the abode of immense flocks of birds,
and is more than 100 miles distant from the Sand-
wicri isl^nfls

BIRMAH, or BIRMAN EMPIRE. The coun-
tries of Ava, Arracan, and Pegu, recently indepen-
dent kingdoms in the eastern pcnin-sula of India, are
now united under the sway of one sovereign, and dLs-
tinguished by the name of the Birraan Empire. The
territories of this formidable power are situated be-
tween the 9" and the 26° of north latitude, and the
92" and 107° of longitude east from Greenwich,
spreading over a surface of 200,000 square miles.
4 M

Bird)'

II
Birmak

B I R

634

B I R

BumiA. 7hc western boundary of this empire is washed to a
v^-V^,' great extent by the bay of Bengal ; towards the nortli
the river Nauf, and a ranj^e ot mountiiins, separate
it on the same side from the possessions of the Bri-
tish East India Company. In no other direction have
its limits been iiitherto uccurately ascertained ; it is
only known generally to reach to Assam and Tibet
on the nortli, to China and Laos on the east, and
to Siam and Malacca on the south. But the fron-
tiers of a country, inhabited by people of a war-
like disposition, encircled by neighbours equally prone
to hostilities, must of course accompany the progress
of conquest, whether it advances or recedes.

General aspect. — The external character of this ex-
tensive country, is, as we have reason to expect,
greatly diversified, both in point of soil and surface.
Its sea coast, which stretches upwards of fifteen geo-
_graphical degrees in length, is fringed throughout by
numerous islands, is indented at frequent intervals by
jutting capes and retiring creeks, and is broken at
various places by the mouths of many a stream ; here
it spfeads out into a flat and sandy beach, exposed
to the alternate influenc*; of the flowing tide and the
scorching sun ; there it rises, with a precipitous ab-
ruptness, into proud mid craggy cliffs, which sullenly
repel the rage of the boisterous billows. Independ-
ent chains of lofty mountains, and branches of tlie
stupendous ranges of Tibet, clothed with forests, or
green with pastures, traverse the country. From these
mountains innumerable torrents roll their streams,
mingle together in the vallies, and having swollen into
magnificent rivers, wind their way to the ocean through
boundless plains, teeming with the richest variety of
tropical vegetation. " From a temple, (says Captain
Symes, ) that stands on a commanding cliff close to
the river Irrawaddy, the eye is gratified by a dclight-
iul combination of natural beauties : a fine sheet of
water three miles in breadth, broken by an island
about a mile long and half a mile wide, covered with
trees of luxuriant foliage ; eminences from, the oppo-
site shore, that rise from gently swelling grounds,
clothed with wood, to brown and rugged mountains,
which, receding in an oblique direction, leave to the
view a level plain." And this, though the descrip-
tion of a particular landscape, is characteristic of
many others equally beautiful and picturesque.

Moutrtaius ami rivers — Many mountainous ridges
from the towering heights of Tibet extend across the
northern provinces oi the Birman empire, and give
it on that side the character of a hilly country. An
■>. extensive independent chain, called the great western

mountains, runs along the coast, penetrates in a direc-
tion bending toward Bengal, far into the interior,
and forms the boundary between the countries of
Arracan and Ava. AnoUier independent chain, de-
nominated the Galladzet hills, traverses the territory
of tJie ancient kingdom of Pegu, about one hundred
miles above the city of tliat name. The principal
rivers of this, region are the Irrawaddy, the Setang, the
Thalanyn, the Maygue, and the Maykaung, concern-
ing which, and some of the less considerable streams,
Dr Buchanan, who accompanied tlie embassy to the
court of Ava in 1795, has communicated the follow-
ing important information : It a])pears, (he obserires
as the result of bis inquiries,) that the Arracan river

is not so considerable as what has been supposed, but Birmaii.
takes its rise in hills at no great distance to the north ;
That the river coming from Tibet, which is supposed
to be that of Arracan, is, in fact, the Keenduem, the
great western branch of the Ava river : That what
is supposed to be the western branch of the Irrawad-
dy, is, in fact, the eastern one which passes by Ava,
and runs to the north, keeping west from the pro-
vince of Yunan, and leaving between it and that part
of China a country subject to the Birmans : That the
Lokiang, which is supposed to be the great branch
of the Irrawaddy, has no communication with that
river ; but on entering the Birman dominions assumes
the name of the Tlmluang, and falls into the sea at
Martaban : That the river Pegu, which is supposed
to come from China, rises among the hills about a
hundred miles from the sea, and which forms the
boundary between the Birman and the Pegu king-
doms : That between the Pegu and Martaban rivers
there is a lake from which two rivers proceed, the
one runs north to Old Ava, where it joins Myoung-
nya, or Little River of Ava, which comes from moun-
tains on the frontiers of China ; the other river runs
south from the lake to the sea, and is the Setang ri-
ver in the map : That the rivers of China, which are
supposed to be the heads of the Pegu river, are those
of the Siam : That the rivers of Siam and Cambodia
communicate by a very considerable branch called
the Annan. These rivers, on entering the level land,
formed chiefly by their depositions, cross and divide
it in every direction by the branches into which they
are separated, and fall at last by many mouths int»
the waters of tlie ocean.

Climate. — A country situated chiefly between the
tropics must necessarily experience a high degree of
temperature; but the health and vigour and longevity
of the inhabitants atlbrd an incontestible proof of its
salubrity. The seasons are regular, and it is not sub-
ject to the extremes of heat and cold ; for the intense
heat which precedes the rainy season is of too short
continuance to cause much inconvenience. Here, as
in other tropical countries, the year is divided into
the dry and rainy monsoons.

Productiojis. — In the richness and variety of its
mineral productions the Birman empire is unrivalled.
Mines of gold and silver are open in several places,
and ores of iron, tin, lead, and arsenic are found in
great abundance ; rubies, sapphires, amethysts, gar-
nets, chrysolites, jaspers, and other precious stones,
all of the finest water, also abound in it ; there are
quarries of excellent marble in many •f its moun-
tains, and no other country yields amber, antimony,
sulphur, or petroleum in Itirger quantity, or of finer
quality. Thw soil of the southern provinces of this
region is remarkably fertile, and yields as luxuriant
crops of rice as are produced in the finest parts of
Bengal ; wheat and other grain, with a great variety
of esculent herbs, grow to perfection, and in great
profusion, in the vallies of its more northern and
higher districts ; sugar-canes, tobacco, indigo, brown
and white cotton, and all the variety of tropical fruits,
are among the indigenous productions of this highly
favoured land ; its mountain declivities als« are cloth-
ed with immense forests, in which the teak abounds,
a tree almost peculiar t» this country, possessing qua-

B IB

655

Bift

Iftmitb.

litics suiteil for »hip-building superior even to the
oak, and therefore, in relation to her East India pos-
sessions, of incalculable importance to Great Britain.

The same animals prevail here as in hither India,
such as the elephant, the horse, the antelope, the
deer, the bull, the buffaioe, the tj'ger, &c. ducks in
great variety, junglc-fosvl, peacocks, storks, &c. also
serpents and lizards, with other reptiles, in greater
abundance than is always pleasant or safe.

Inhabitants. — Dr Duclianan is of opinion that the
Birmans are a Tartar tribe. He tells us, t'lat, like
those of this race, they are distinguished by a short,
squat, robust, fleshy stature ; that their face assumes
the shape of a lozenge, being broad at the cheek-
bones, and narrow at the forehead and chin ; that
their hair is harsh, lank, and black ; and tliat their
complexion neither darkens into the deep black of the
Hindoo, nor l)eams out in the clear bloom of the Eu-
ropean. The lower orders observe the savage cus-
tom of tattooing their arms and thighs, with the view
of charming off the weapons of their enemies. A
more peculiar custom is practised by their women :
Girls at an early age are taught to turn the joint of
the elbow round to the side, a circumstance which
gives to their arms a distorted appearance. Their
articulation seems to a stranger extremely indistinct,
■which may be occasioned by their excessive use of be-
tel, &c. No man of rank speaks without his mouth
being full of betel, tobacco, quicklime, and spices ;
hence indistinct articulation has become fashionable.
With the variety of dialect, the same language is spo-
ken throughout the empire, and also in some of the
neighbouring states.

Poprdation. — Few of the Birmans live in solitary
habitations, but in cities, towns, and villages, of
wliich the kingdoms of Ava and Pegu are said to
contain 8000 ; and allowing to each of these, on an
average, 300 houses, and to every house six inhabi-
tants, the aggregate of the whole will be 14,400,000 ;
and estimatmg the kingdom of Arracan ki a similar
manner, the number will increase to between seven-
teen and 20,000,000. This, indeed, is an uncertain
method of calculation ; it is, however, the only at-
tempt that has hitherto been made to ascertain the
population of this interesting part of the world.

Cities. — The habitations of this people are univer-
sally raised from the ground on posts of bamboo, or
pillars of strong timber, in proportion to their weight
and size. The areas of their cities are of a quadran-
gular form, fortified by a wall and a ditch ; the streets
are straight and spacious ; they frequently intersect
at right angles, and many of them are paved with
brick. They are adorned with magnificent temples,
profusely gilt ; and even the private houses, though
constructed chiefly of wood, have a splendid appear-
ance. Ummerapoora, the capital of the empire,
though founded so late as the year 1785, has already
become one of the most flourishing cities of Asia.
It stands more than 400 miles up the Irrawaddy,
washed on the west by that river, and on the east by
the waters of a lake. The fort is an exact square,
within which are magazines of grain, militarj' stores,
&c. The royal palace occupies the centre, a<ljacent
to which is the. hall of council, supported on eleven
rows of pillars. At each corner stands a temple,

richly gilded, Wid a hundred feel in height ; and marty
others far more magnificent are ditpersed through the
city. Four miles down the river are the ruins of
Ava, the former metropolis. Its walls, once deemed
invulnerable, now mantled with ivy, and mouldering
into heaps ; its temples, recently so splendid and so
perfect, now the dwelling-place of noisome bats, and
swiftly dilapidating under the impressions of the hand
of time ; and its streets, lately so crowded with busy
multitudes, now covered with rank jungle grass and
the fast growing bamboo, are fitted to inspire a me-
lancholy sentiment, and to suggest the transient na-
ture of all human grandeur. Cliagaing, fronting the
capital on the opposite bank of the river, was once
the royal residence, and is still a populous and a mer-
cantile cif}'. Pegu also, once the metropolis of the
kingdom of that name, was taken and sacked in 17.57,
and left in ruins. A new town, however, has been
built within the area of the old, and it may soon re-
gain its former magnificence. Arracan is the capital
of the country which bears that name. Rangoon,
situated on the eastmost branch of the river Irra-
waddy, is a great sea-port, with an excellent harbour.
It has long been an as3'lura for insolvent debtors.
Prome is renowned in Birman history for having been
the scene of many long sieges. Martaban and Mergni
stand on the bay of Bengal, and possess excellent
harbours. Besides these, there are many other ci-
ties, towns, and villages, built chiefly on the banks
of the rivers. The wooden fabrics of vrhich these
cities, Jtc. are composed, make them extremely ob-
noxious to fire ; and several 'precautions are tiifcen
against its effects by the inhabitants. Pots filled with
water are ranged along tlie roofs; each house is pro-
vided with two bamboo poles, one with a hook at-
tached to it to pull down the thatch, another fur-
nished with an iron grating to suppress the flames by
pressure.

Agriculture. — This country is too highly favoured
by nature, and the wants of the people are too easily
satisfied, for the art of agriculture to be skilfully prac-
tised ; and till it was united under the auspices of
one sovereign, it was too frequently exposed to the
ravages of internal war to aftbrd encouragement to
the labours of the husbandman. The capacity of
the soil, however, is extremely great, and might easi-
ly be made to yield more than a hundred fold. The
plough here is a very rude and imperfect implement,
and is drawn by oxen, as are also their carts. The
fields in some places are inclosed with hedges, and the
rice plantations are surrounded with embankments.

Manufactures The Birmans do not yet manufac-
ture for a foreign market, but they work up a great
many articles for their own use. The architecture
and gilding of their temples imply skilful and dex-
terous artificers. They also excel in 'Inp-building.
Of their fine marble they form innumerable statues
of their god Gaudma. They manufacture fabrics
of silk and cotton not inferior to those of Bengal.
Common salt, saltpetre, and gunpowder, are made bj'
them in great quantities. They mi\ke great variety
of lackered and earthenware. In 1 795, the monart h
was anxious to avail himself of the presence of the
gentlemen of the English- deputation to improve his
people in glass-making; but none of themselves ha^-

Tliraiit.li.

BIR

636

BIR

Binnah. ing ever been initiated, they were unable to reveal
the mysteries of the glass-house ; they, however, fur-
nished his majesty's subjects with all the information
the Encyclopaedia Britannica contained on the sub-
ject. This anecdote shews that this people are not
above instruction, and therefore open to improvement.

Ranks. — The odious and degrading distinction of
cast is entirely unknown in this country; nor are
the women immured within the walls of a haram, or
guarded by eunuchs, as in most other eastern na-
tions ; they have here, indeed, as much liberty as in
Europe. The privileges of the nobility, however,
are very scrupulously protected. The badge of the
order is a chain composed of several strings, from
two to twelve, according to the rank of the wearer.
The king alone is decorated with a chain of twenty-
four strings. But the order of nobility is distinguish-
ed by every thing belonging to them. From the
houses in which they dwell, to the box which holds
their betel, marks of their rank, which it is felony for
a plebeian to assume, are conspicuously displayed.

Government. — Elevation of rank, however, affords
to the possessor no title to engross, or even to share
the offices of the state. The government of this em-
pire recognises no hereditary dignities or employ-
ments. They all proceed from, and revert to the
sovereign, who, though he administers the affairs of
the empire through the medium of a numerous coun-
cil, may be regarded as in full possession of absolute
power. The court is splendid and ceremonious. The
king is invisible, except on great occasions »f state.
The provinces are governed by a deputy, called May-
woon, an office which is sometimes held by the
princes of the blood.

Revenue. — The sacred law allows the tenth part of
the produce for the use of the state. A tenth on
most imported goods is taken in kind, and distributed
to the dependants of the court in place of salaries.
The princes of the blood receive grants of provinces,
cities, &c. to support their dignity. The Birman
government exhibits almost a faitliful picture of Eu-
rope during the dark ages, when the principles of
feudal dependence were established by the barbarians
of the north.

Army. — The regular army of this power is not
large, but every man in the empire is liable to be
called upon for his military service ; and war is deem-
ed an honourable occupation. When an army is to
be raised, a mandate is issued from the golden pa-
lace to all the viceroys of provinces, requiring a cer-
tain number of men to assemble at a general rendez-
vous on an appointed day. The levy is supplied with
arms, ammunition, and a certain dail)" allowance of
grain, but is entitled to no pay. The friends at home
are accountable for the good behaviour and fidelity
ef their relatives in arms, — a barbarous custom, some-
times productive of the greatest cruelty. The infan-
try wear no uniform, which gives them a grotesque
and mobbish appearance. The cavalry arc all natives
of Cassay, and are accounted excellent horsemen.
But war-boats constitute the most formidable part of
the Birman military force. Every town of any mag-
nitude is obliged to furnish these, with their entire
equipment, in proportion to its size and resources.

At a very short notice, the king can command more
than five hundred of these vessels;

Religion. — The Birmans are votaries of Buddha, or,
according to the more common appellation, of Gaud-
ma, who is allowed by the Hindoos to be the ninth
Avatar, or incarnation of the Deity in the capacity
of preserver. Sublime and holy attributes are thought
to characterise this personage, whicli, however, com-
port extremely ill with his representations, which are
rude statues of the human form, larger than the life,
generally of marble, placed cross-legged upon a pe-
destal, with one arm pendant, and the other brought
across the body. These images are very common
throughout the country, and are objects of the most
profound veneration. Numerous and magnificent
temples are reared at a vast expence in all the cities,
and in many other places, for the worship of their
divinity. They are commonly built in a pyramidi-
cal form ; and many of them rise to the height of
five hundred feet. The most stupendous of these
piles is the temple at Pegu, denominated Shoenia-
doo, or Golden Supreme. This extraordinary struc-
ture is erected on a double terrace, one raised above
another, ascended by flights of stone steps ; on every
side are the dwellings of the priests, raised on tim-
bers five or six feet from the ground. The temple is
built solid of brick, without any aperture ; it is oc-
tagonal at the base, and spiral at the top ; each side
of the base measures a hundred and sixty-two feet ;
a breadth which quickly diminishes as it ascends.
The spire is surmounted by the tee, or umbrella of
open iron work ; from which rises a rod, with a gild-
ed pennon. The priests of Gaudma are called Ra-
haans, and resemble monks in their mode of life. Ce-
libacy is strictly enjoined ; they live in convents,
wear a yellow garment, and go barefooted ; their
manners are simple, and their lives decent ; they re-
ceive contributions of food from the laity. For this
purpose they perambulate the streets with a quick
pace, carrying a basket, and take what is voluntarily
offered to them. They profess to spend the chief part
of their time in the contemplation of the divine es-
sence. There were once many nunneries in the
country, but they have been suppressed as unfriend-
ly to population. A most favourable feature of the
Birman religion is the universal toleration which it
allows. This people never trouble themselves with
the religious opinions of those who visit or who dwell
among them, provided they disturb not them in the
exercise of their worship. Mahometans, Jews, and
Christians, are summoned to prayers, in their respec-
tive manners, often in the same street. Processions
meet and pass, without giving or taking the smallest
offence. Persons who sustain the character of preach-
ers of religion, no matter what be the species or the
sect, enjoy greater privileges, by the order of go-
vernment, than those who act in any other capacity.

Lmvs. — The Birman laws are closely interwoven
with their religion. They are deemed of divine au-
thority, promulgated by Menu from inspiration. And
it must be confessed that the code is replete with
good sense and sound morality. It provides specifi-
cally for almost every species of crime that can be
(committed ; and adds a copious chapter of preca--

BIR

637

BIR

Sirmah, dents and decisions to guide the inexperienced in
cases of doubt and difficulty. It tells the prince and
the magistrate their duty in language, austere, man-
ly, and energetic. But the chapter on women is of-
fensively indecent, and it sanctions the absurdity of
trial by ordeal.

Literature. — Tlie accomplishments of reading and
writing are very generally diffused among this people.
They are common even among the peasantry. They
write from left to right, like Europeans, and their
character is very elegant. In the king's library are
books in history, medicine, law, and poetry. These
books are kept in chests, curiously ornamented with
gilding and japan, in which the volumes are arran-
ged under distinct heads.

Customs and character. — With regard to their food,
though their religion forbids the taking away of ani-
mal life, it does not prohibit the eating of flesh ;\and
therefore game of all kinds is regularly sought and
sold in the markets : For they interpret the prohi-
bition of religion to apply merely to domesticated
animals. Rice, fruit, and vegetables, constitute their
principal aliment ; though even serpents and lizards
are not rejected by the lower orders. Their dress va-
ries according to their rank. The lowest class of fe-
males wear sometimes only a single garment, in the
form of a sheet, which, wrapped round the body, and
tucked in under the arm, crosses their breasts, which
it scarcely conceals, and descends to their ancles ;
thus, when they walk, the bottom of the cloth,
where it overlaps, is necessarily opened by the pro-
trusion of the leg, and displays a side view as high
as the middle of the thigh. But a more decent
dress is in general use. A short shift, drawn tight
by strings, supports the breasts, over which is worn
a loose jacket, with long sleeves. Round their
waist they roll a long piece of silk or cloth, which
reaching to their feet, and sometimes trailing on the
ground, encircles them twice, and is then tucked in.
The men wear large ear-rings of various forms ; fre-
quently they are tubes of gold, about the thickness
of a quill at the one end, and expanded at the other
like the mouth of a speaking trumpet. The court dress
is very becoming ; it consists of a long robe, either of
satin or velvet, reaching to the ancles, with air open
collar and loose sleeves ; over this there is a scarf or
flowing mantle. On their heads they wear embroi-
dered caps, ornamented according to the rank of the
wearers. The law prohibits polygamy ; but a man
may keep as many concubines as he pleases or can
maintain. They burn or embalm their dead, which
is always a religious service. Begging is unknown
in, this country. Their mode of welcoming in the
year is singular : In order to wash away all past im-
purities, women have the privilege of throwing water
on every man they meet ; and receive a wetting in
their turn with perfect good humour. On the last
dav of the year the young women arm themselves
with flaggonsand long syringes, and prepare to give
the men a wet reception ; yet notwithstanding this
licence, no indecency is committed, nor do evil con-
sequences ensue. In this singular amusement the
men are never the aggressors. Chess is a favourite
game among the Birmans, and many of them are
skilful players. They are fond of fire-works, boxing

matches, puppet shews, theatrical entertainments, Bintiah.
singing and dancing.

It is obvious from the whole of these details, that this
nation has made considerable advances in civilization,
perhaps as great as our own ancestors a very few cen-
turies ago. As may be expected in such a state, the
character which these people display is of a mixed and
even a seemingly inconsistent kind. They are humane
or cruel, indolent or active, refined or gross, faithful,
treacherous, sullen or cheerful, according as their un-
formed manners, and ill regulated minds happen to be
under the influence of the spirit of the civilized or Uie
savage state. There seems however to exist no insur-
mountable barrier in the way of their improvement,
like that which opposes the progress of their Hindoo
neighbours ; and we are thereby led to believe with
Captain Symes, that they are destined to rise rapidly
in the scale of civilization. With respect to the im-
portance of the Birman empire, in a commercial
point of view, there can be no dispute. It possesses
the advantage of water-carriage, not only from the
great extent of coast, but by means of its navigable
rivers openingcommunications with the principal parts
of the country. Its climate is most salubrious ; its^
productions are various, as they are valuable; its
situation is commodious for intercourse with India,
with China, with the South-sea islands, and even
with Europe. Its people are fond of our manufac-
tured commodities, and the recent abridgement of
monopoly encourages a free trade with all the rich
regions of the east.

History — In the time of the earliest of our Euro-
pean concerns with this part of India, the Birman so-
vereign held the kingdom of Pegu in a kind of sub-
jection, and exacted a tribute irom its prince. In
ITW, the Peguvians, imagining that they had power
to throw off the yoke of the Birmans, not only re-
nounced their obedience, but having tried their
strength they pushed their enterprize still farther.
They entered the Birman territory, and in 1752
took possession of Ava its capital, made its monarch
a captive, and totally reduced the kingdom. An in-
strument, aiiparently feeble, was the author of the
next revolution, the period of which was not long
delayed. Alompra, a Birman of low extraction, the
head of a petty village, was provoked to oppose the
insolence of his Peguvian masters, and to drive thein
from his village. He was quickly joined by a band
of supporters ; they enabled him to defeat a small
body of the enemy sent to chastise him. The ardour
of the Birman was roused, and the man, notwith-
standing the meanness of his birth and education, had
talents to improve his advantages. He became the
leader of his countrymen against their invaders. To-
wards the conclusion of the year 1753 he obtained
possession of Ava the capital, and gained a victory
over the king of Pegu, who marched in person to
oppose him. Having now cleared of its enemies the
greater part of his native country, he was recognized
as the founder of a new dynasty, and had no incli-
nation to stop in his victorious career. He not only
recovered from the Peguvians whatever part of the
Birman dominions they had usurped, but proceeded
to attack them in their own territories. They were
by no means able to withstand his arms ; and, in 1 757,

BIR

638

BIR

BinmngUin ''^ l>ad 80 fUr puslied his conquests as to be able to
~ invest their capital, which, after a short resistnnce,
submitted, and the kingdom was delivered into his
hands. He was now one of the njost powerful so*
vercigns of the east. While he led his army against
the Siamese he was seized witli a distemper which
quickly put a period to his life and the war in which
he was engaged, in the year 1760. His son reigned
in his stead ; and on his demise, in ITGi, his bro-
ther Shemuan, to the prejudice of his infant nephew,
succeeded to the throne. He repelled a Chinese in-
Vctsion, the government of which liad become jealous
of the Birman power. In 1783, he conquered the
liingdom of Arracan, and united it to the empire.
About the year 1793, some of the Birman troops
made an incui>;ion into the British possessions, in
searcli of some robbers who had taken refuge there.
A negotiation took place ; the rol)bers were found
guilty, and delivered up to their countrymen. This
accidental event led to the embassy which has brought
us acquainted with this interesting country. See
Symes's Account of the Embassy to Ava.

BIRMINGHAM, atownofWarwickshirein Eng-
land, which is celebrated for its numerous and exten-
sive manufactures of hard ware goods, is finely
situated on a declivity, is about two miles long, and
somewhat of a crescent form. The climate of Bir-
mingham, although the air is continually loaded with
smoke and noxious vapours, from a crowded popu-
lation and so many manufactures, is remarkable for
its salubrity.

The lower part of the town is chiefly inhabited by
roanufacturers, and is occupied with their warehouses
and workshops ; but in the higher part the streets are
regular and spacious, with many elegant buildings.
The parish church of St Martin, which dates its ori-
gin in 1300, has a lofty spire ; and St Philip's, or the
new church, is an elegant edifice, adorned with a
square tower and cupola, which is furnished with a
peal of bells and a clock with musical chimes ; and,
beside these churches, the chapels and meeting-houses
for different sects are numerous. Birmingham has
the advantage of institutions for the education of the
poor, for the support of the infirm, and for the relief
of the diseased ; public libraries, some of which are
well furnished with books ; a museum, in which are
exhibited various objects of natural history ; hot and
cold baths on a large scale ; a theatre, and a Vaux-
hall for music and otlier entertainments.

Birmingham is not incorporated ; the municipal
officers, composed of a high and low bailiif, two con-
stables, and a head borough, are elected annually ;
and a court of recjuests, established by act of Parlia-
ment in 1752, meets every Friday for the dispatch of
legal business.

Birmingham is justly regarded as one of the first
manufacturing towns in the world. The tanning of
leather was the chief occupation of the inhabitants in
the earlier periods of its history ; but after the com-
mencement of the nineteenth century, this branch of
trade declined, and is now nearly abandoned. Coarse
iron wares were the only manufactures of that des-
cription before the revolution, at which time it had
been usual to be supjilied with fire-arms from abroad.
The member of parliament from Warwickshire under-

took to obtain a sufficient supi)ly from Birmingham ; Blrauui^wa
the order was punctually executed ; and it has since
continued to furnish the largest proportion of mus-
kets, swords, and other small arms. Various other
branches of hardware manufactures were afterwards
introduced : and whether they are useful, curious, or
ornamental productions, they display in a remarkable
niiuiner the enterprise and ingenuity of the proprie-
tors and managers, and the industry and delicacy of
hand of the workmen and artizans. Of the progress
and extent of the manufactures of Birmingham, a sin-
gular instance is recorded of Mr Taylor, who intro-
duced gilt buttons, japanned and gilt snulf boxes,
with various articles of manufacture in enamel, and
who died in 1775, at the age of G^, after amassing a
fortune of L.200,000. The weekly produce of Mr
Taylor's manufacture of buttons amounted to L.800 ;
and in painting snuff boxes, at one farthing each, a
man could gain L.3, 10s. per week.

The population of Birmingham has increased ra-
pidly with its thriving manufactures, since the com-
mencement of the eighteenth century. The number
of streets which at that time was not more than 30,
now exceeds 250. The inhabitants, who, in 1801,
were estimated at 73,670, of which number more than
62,000 were employed in trade and manufactures,
had increased, in 1811, to 80,753.

Suho. — Soho, which, from the similarity of its ma-
nufactures, may be considered as connected with Bir-
mingham, exhibits a remarkable exan'.ple of enter-
prise, ingenuity, and industry. This remarkable spot,
which is about two miles distant from Birmingham,
and which, within the last 50 years, was a solitary
waste, is now covered with plenty and j>opulation.
The manufacture of metallic toys by the late Mr Boul-
ton, in conjunction with his partner Mr Fothergill,
was the commencement of these extensive works.
Plated ware, or Sheffield plate, including various use-
ful and ornamental articles, was next introduced.
These were succeeded by a happy imitation of the
French or moulu ornaments, composed of vases, tri-
pods, and other works, and by elegant and massive
services of silver plate. The establishment of a ma-
nufactory of steam engines, when Mr W'att, whose
valuable improvements of that machine form a remark-
able era in its history, became a partner in the con-
cern, extended the celebrity as well as the profits of
the works at Soho. In all the productions of this
manufactory, whether in the form of large and pow-
erful apparatus, or in that of trinkets and ornaments,
novelty, taste, and ingenuity have been always con-
spicuous.

The coining apparatus, invented and constructed
at Soho, is a singular example of mechanical ingenui-
ty. The first coining mill was erected at this place-
in the year 1783, and after various improvements,
eight machines, going at the same time, are driven by
one steam engine. Eacli machine strikes from 70 to
80 pieces, of the size of a guinea, in a minute, so that
between "0 and 40,000 coins are worked off by the
whole eight machines in an hour. All the processes
are conducted by.machinery, as in copper coin, — rol-
ling the masses of copper into sheets. — rolling them
through cylindrical steel rollers, — clipping the pieces
of copper for the dye, — shaking the coin in bags,-—

B IS

639

BIS

Biecay

Bi«erta.

Striking bot!i sides of the coin, — and then milling it.
But one of the most curious contrivances of tliis in-
genious machinery is, that a precise account of every
piece coined is regularly kept, so that even the pos-
sibility of fraud is precluded.

15irniinghiim, is 116 miles from London, and in its
immediate vicinity two ricli coal mines, and the exten-
sive inland navigation by wliich the produce of its ma-
nufactures are conveyed to the principal t^owns of the
interior of England, as well as to the chief sea-ports of
the ea«t and west coasts of the kingdom, for expor-
tation, afford great facilities for enterprise and trade.
BISCAY, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north by the baj' of Biscay, oa tl.e east by Navarre,
on the south and west by Old Castile'and the Astu-
rias. This province is about 40 miles in length, and
about Si in breadth, and is altogether a mountainous
region, some parts of which rise to a considerable
elevation. The valleys are devoted to agriculture ;
on some of the hills the hand of industry has succeed-
ed in their cultivation to the very summit ; and the
higlicr districts afford pasture to herds of cattle.
Fruits, particularly chesnuts, are abundant ; the vine
is extensively cultivated in some places, and the sides
of the mountains are clothed with forest trees, or va-
rious shrubs of indigenous growth.

The mountains of Biscay afford abundance of ex-
cellent iron ore, and numerous works have been e-
rected for the purpose of smelting the ore and manu-
facturing the iron. The rocks are limestene, sand-
stone, and various kinds of marble, and in some pla-
ces argillaceous rocks predominate. Copper is enu-
merated among the minerals of Biscay ; from salt
springs common salt is obtained by boiling ; and mi-
neral waters, both hot and cold, are met with in seve-
ral places.

The population of this province is estimated at
300,000, but it is said that it has decreased of late
years. The chief towns are, Bilboa, with a popula-
tion of 15,000, and some foreign trade; Vittoria,
which numbers about 7000 inhabitants ; and St Se-
bastians, a sea-port town, and strongly fortified, in-
cludes a population of 13,000. The abundance of
iron affords materials for the manufacture of anchors,
cannon, and other kinds of fire-arms, in difterent
places ; sheathing copper, and large boilers of the
same metal, are fabricated at Toledo; and works for
cordage and rigging arc established in some of the
other towns. It is said that the province of Biscay
furnishes the best soldiers and sailors in Spain.

BISCUTELLA, Bastard Mithhidate Mus-
tard, ageiius of plants belonging to the Tetradyiia-
mia class.

BISERRULA, Base Hatchet Vetch, a genus
of plants belonging to the Diadelphia class.

BISERTA, a maritime town ofl tlie kingdom of
Tunis in Africa, stands at the bottom of a fine gulf,
and on the banks of a canal which forms a communi-
CAtion between the sea and a lake in the vicinity.
The town is fortJfied, and defended by castles. The
population, which was once more considerable, is
estimated at 5000 The inhabitants are chiefly oc-
cupied in the fisheries on the lake, the millets of
which are of a superior quality, and from their dried
roes, botargo, which is exported to the Letant as a

luxury, is made ; and the surrounding territory pro-
duces corn, cotton, and various fruits.

BISHOP, a prelate who holds a barony of the
king, and superintends the ecclesiastical government
of his diocese. The word is derived from the Greek,
signifying inspector or overseer. A similar deno-
mination was given to certain officers among the
(Jreeks and Romans. Of the origin of bishops, in
the early ages of the Christian church, and of the
nature of the authority with which they were invest-
ed, as the question involves the foundation of church
government, no small diversity of opinion has pre-
viiiled. Those who are the advocates for the Epis-
copal establishment contend, that the name and au-
thority of bishops were known in the earliest period
of the church; and they consider the apestles them-
selves as bishops, from whom the jurisdiction of their
successors is derived, — that the angels of the churchea
spoken of in the book of Revelation were the bishops
of those churches, — and that some of the early fathers
of the church actually received episcopal ordination
from the apostles by imposition of hands. But, on
the other hand, those who maintain the presbyterian
form of church government, contend, that no superi-
or jurisdiction was held either by the apostles or
their immediate successors, — that the terms pres-
byter and bishop were applied to the same person, —
and that the bishops or presbyters, in the time of the
apostles, were the pastors of one congregation only ;
and indeed it is affirmed, that no examples are re-
corded of two or more churches being under the ju-
risdiction of one bishop. But, for a view of these
arguments, reference may be made to Prettyman's
Elemeiits of Christian Theology, and Campbell's £c-
desiastical History.

The hierarchy of England is composed of two-
archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusive of
the bishop of Sodor and Man, who has no seat in
the House of Peers. The bishops of England are
barons, and, as such, sit and vote in the House of
Lords. A bishop has the title of My Lord, and
is addressed Right Reverend Father in God. The
bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester, take
precedence of all the other bishops, who rank ac-
cording to seniority of consecration. All bishops in
the church of England are nominated by the king.
When a vacancy happens, a conge d' elire, or per-
mission to elect, is issued to the dean and chapter,
with a recommendation of some person to the bene-
fice, and the election must take place within twelve
daj's. Consecration is then performed by the arch-
bishop, or, in certain cases, by three bishops specially
commissioned for that purpose.

BISHOPS AUCKLAND. See Aucki.amd.
BISKLTT, or Biscuit, a kind of bread prepared
in various ways. See Bread.

BISMILLAH, a solemn form of expression used'
by the Mahometans at the beginning of their writ-
ings and books, and signifying, in the name of the
most merciful God.

BISMUTH, or tin glass, a metallic substance of
a reddish or yellowish white colour. See Chemis-
try and Miner ALotiy.
BISSAGOS. See Bijuga.
BISSAO, au islaud on the north eide of the Bi^u-

Bishop

Bisao.

BIS

640

BIS

Biswpoor ga channel, on the west coast of Africa, about 40
II miles long, and possessing a rich soil producing grain

Black. and fruits. The Portuguese had formerly a settle-
ment on it for carrying on trade in wax, ivory, and
slaves. The natives, like many of the African tribes,
are greatly influenced by superstitious charms, of
which some remarkable examples are recorded by
Captain Beaver in his African Memoranda.

BISSUNPOOR, a district or zemindary in the
province of Bengal, which includes about 1250 square
miles, and is one of the most ancient estates in the
province, for it appears that it has been in possession
of the present proprietor's family for the long period
of nearly 1 100 years ; and during this time tliey were
almost independent, paying only a small tribute to
the sovereign, until 1715, when the country was com-
pletely reduced. In this district the laws, the man-
ners, and virtues of the Hindoos, are described as
existing in the utmost purity and simplicity But
these accounts, it is probable, are not altogether di-
vested of exaggeration.

BISSEXTILE, a term in chronology, denoting a
year consisting of 366 days, and analogous to leap
year.

BISTORT, the English name of the Polygonum
bistoiia of Linnaeus, ■ which at one time held a place
in the list of medicines recommended by the colleges
on account of its virtues as a tonic.

BITH YNI A, an ancient kingdom of Asia, having
the Euxine sea on the north, and the Thracian Bos-
phorus on the west, was long governed by its own
sovereigns, one of whom, Prusias II. gave an asylum
to the celebrated Carthaginian general Hannibal,
when he was driven from his own country, and at
last betrayed him to the Romans; in the victorious
career of that people, was subdued by their arms,
and, on the decline of the eastern empire, fell under
the dominion of the Turks, and still acknowledges
Uie authority of the Ottoman Porte.

BIXA, Roucou, or Anotto Tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the Polyandria class, and con-
taining only one species, orellana, from the seeds of
%vhich the well-known dye-stuff is obtained. For the
mode of preparation, see Anotto.

BLACK, Dr Joseph, an eminent chemical phi-
losopher, was born on the banks of the Garonne
in France in the year 1728. His father, a native of
Belfast in Ireland, but descended from a Scotch fa-
mily, had resided long in France, and chiefly at
Bourdeaux, as a merchant. The son, in his 12th
year, was sent to Belfast for his education. From
this place he removed to the university of Glasgow
in 1746 ; and having directed his studies with a view
to the medical profession, he was fortunate in be-
coming the pupil and friend of Dr Cullen, who lec-
tured on chemistry ; and with the aid of his powerful
and penetrating genius, threw some rays on the feeble
twilight which now preceded the bright day of the
science which his young pupil was destined to illus-
trate and adorn. Mr Black removed to Edinburgh
in 1750, where he completed his medical education.
Wien he was admitted to the degree of doctor of
medicine, he chose for the subject of his inaugural
dissertation the investigation of the nature and pro-
perties of magnesia, in which he had been long en-

gaged, and distinctly demonstrated the cause of BlacU.
causticity, or the difference between the earths and
alkalies in their mild and caustic state.

When Dr Cullen was called to the university of
Edinburgh, Dr Black was ajjpointed professor of
anatomy and lecturer on chemistry in 1756 ; but dis-
liking the anatomical department of his labours he
was permitted to exchange with the professor of medi-
cine ; and his lectures on the institutes of that sci-
ence received a large share of his attention and study,
while chemistry was only a secondary consideration.
It seems indeed singular that the alluring path, which
he had so successfully entered, was so soon abandon-
ed. No record of his chemical researches, for seve-
ral years after his appointment at Glasgow, is pre-
served; but, in 1761, he completed a series of ex-
periments from which he deduced his doctrine of
heat, which must ever be regarded as one of the
most brilliant discoveries in the science, and one of
the most important in its application to the arts of
life. The detail of his experiments and conclusions,
in which caution, simplicity, and precision are emi-
nently conspicuous, was laid before the literary so-
ciety in the university in 1762 ; formed a part of his
annual course of lectures; but what seems altogether
unaccountable, no published statement appeared from
himself at any period of his life.

When the chemical chair in the university of Edin-
burgh became vacant in 1766, by the appointment
of Dr Cullen to the professorship of medicine, Dr
Blacji was again chosen his successor. Placed in a
more conspicuous station, and attended by a greater
number of pupils, which the high celebrity of the
medical school of Edinburgh brought to his lectures,
he was anxious to discharge the duties of a useful
teacher ; and his great object was to render his in-
structions intelligible to the least informed of his
hearers. In the attainment of this object, no public
teacher of any science ever succeeded better than
Dr Black ; his hearers were not only instructed, but
delighted ; and, by his agreeable manner, the study
of chemistry became fashionable, and the knowledge
of the science was rapidly extended. It has been re-
marked by his biographer, and with great truth, that in
one point of view the effect of this was unfortunate for
the progress of the science, the improvement of which
he seems to have altogether laid aside, for what may
be deemed by some the less important, but not less
useful task of elucidating its elementary principles.
Those who have had the giod fortune to be the pu-
pils of Dr Black, and who are able to appreciate his me-
rits, will not hesitate in pronouncing him to have been
one of the most perfect models of a public teachei'.
With a comely and interesting countenance, a fine and
distinct voice, and a slow and graceful elocution, he
exhibited in his lectures a degree of simplicity and
elegance which has been seldom equalled and never
surpassed ; and, without any parade of apparatus, or
ostentatious display of experiments, he confined him-
self to what was essentially useful for the illustration
of the doctrines which he delivered

In the long period of 33 years, during which he
held the chemical chair in the university of Edin-
burgh, although he scarcely added any thing by his
own labours to the science, yet his reputation as a che-

B L A

641

BLA

IMack. mical philosopher never decliired. This seeming in-
' difference in promoting a science which he was so
well qualified to cultivate and adorn, is ascribed part-
ly to indolence, and partly to an enfeebled constitu-
tion, which precluded much exertion ; but whatever
were the cause, the fine specimens of philosophical
investigation which he has left behind, must ever ex-
cite regret that his labours were not more varied and
more extensive, in the wide field which waS then oc-
cupied by a numerous band of successful inquirers,
among whom it cannot be doubted that Dr Black's
perseverance in his brilliant career would have still
placed him in the first rank.

Dr Black's health had been in a declining state
from the year 1793 ; a successor was appointed to
assist him in his labours in 1796 ; in the following
year he delivered only part of the course of lectures ;
and this was the last time tliat he appeared as a pub-
lic teacher. On the 26th of November 1799, when
he had reached the 71st year of his age, he died,
without any convulsion or stupor to announce or re-
tard the approach of death. " Being at table, with
his usual fare, some bread, a few prunes, and a mea-
sured quantity of milk, diluted with water, and hav-
ing the cup in his hand, when the last stroke of the
pulse was to be given, he set it down on his knees,
which were joined together, and kept it steady with
his hand, in the manner of a person perfectly at ease,
and in this attitude expired without spilling a drop,
and without a writhe in his countenance, as if an ex-
periment had been required to shew to his friends the
facility with which he departed. His servant opened
the door to tell him that some one had left his name;
but getting no answer, stepped about half-way to-
wards him, and seeing him sitting in that easy pos-
ture, supporting his bason of milk with one hand, he
thought that he had dropped asleep, which sometimes
happened after hia meals. He went back and shut
the door; but before he went down stairs, some anxi-
ety, which he could not account for, made him re-
turn and look at his master. Even then he was sa-
tisfied, after coming pretty near him, and turned
to go away ; but returrung again, and coming close
up to him, he found him without life."

The only publications of Dr Black which appear-
ed in his lifetime were, Experiments on Magnesia,
Quick-lime, and Alkaline Substances ; Observations
on the Freezing of Water that has been boiled, — in
the London Philosophical Transactions for 1774 ; —
and the Analysis of the Waters of the Hot Springs
of Iceland, in the Edinburgh Philosophical "Trans-
actions, Vol.n. Dr Black's Lectures, in two volumes
quarto, a posthumous publication, for which the world
is indebted to the care and diligence of his learned
friend and associate, the late Dr Robison of the same
university, cannot fail to be perused with pleasure
and advantage by every student of chemistry who
can be gratified with siraplicily and elegance in the
exposition of the science, and with peculiar aptitude
and felicity of illustration drawn from the phenome-
na of nature or the processes of art.

The chatt^of plagiarism has been loosely and un-
guardedly bmght by Dr Black's biographer, against
several philosophers, in appropriating to themselves
his beautiful discoveries concerning heat ; aud it is

VOt. 1. PABT II.

curious to observe with what earnestnew this com- Blackbome.
plaint has been propagated, even at the present day,
especially against foreigners, among whom de Luc i^
accused of having arrogated to himself Dr Black's
discovery of latent heat. In vindication of the cha-
racter of that venerable naturalist, we were furnish-
ed with the means of stating the very reverse, and
in the following extracts he expresses the most ex-
plicit acknowledgment of Dr Black's title to the ori-
ginal discovery : " Ne connoissant point le feu latent,
dans la vapeur a toute temperature, dont la premiere
decouverte est due ait Dr Black." p. 102. — " Ce qui
developpoit I'idSe de chaleur latente par laquelle Ic
Dr Black avoit designe ce phenoinene." p. 232. — " Le
Dr Black ayant decouvert qu'une certaine quantite
de chaleur disparoit, quand la vapeur de I'eau bouil-
lante se forme, nomma ce phenomene chaleur latente
dans la vapeur." p. 385 — Introduction a la Physique
Terrestre.

BLACK JACK, an ore of zinc, which is also deno-
minated blende and false galena. See Mineralogy.

BLACK LEAD, a mineral substance composed of
carbone and iron, with a portion of earthy matter, is
well known as the substance of which black-lesd
pencils are made, and is otherwise called plumbago
and graphite. See Mineralogy.

BLACK WAD is a term which is sometimes em-
ployed to designate black-lead or plumbago, and is
sometimes applied to an ore of manganese. See Mi-
neralogy.

BLACK SEA, denominated also the Euxine, is an
extensive inland sea which communicates with the
Mediterranean by the straits of Constantinople, and
is included partly within the limits of Europe and
partly within the boundaries of Asia. It is conjectur-
ed by naturalists, with some degree of probability,
that the Black sea formed at one time, by the accu-
mulation of the waters of numerous rivers, an im-
mense lake; and that the Aral and the Caspian,
from the similarity of the fish which inhabit their
waters, were parts of it. The only outlet which the
increasing collection of this body of waters could
force to itself, was the passage into the Mediterra-
nean, by the Thracian Bosphorus. Extensive fishe-
ries are established at the influx of the rivers into the
Black sea ; and a valuable trade has long existed be-
tween the mercantile adventurers of Europe and the
east, in exchanging the productions and manufactures
of different countries. The Black sea is often subject
to tremendous storms, and in Some parts of it the na-
vigation is dangerous, from shoals and sand-banks.

BLACKBURN, a town of Lancashire in England,
stands on the banks of the river Derwent, in a val-
ley encompassed with hills, and, it is said, derives its
name from the blackness of the water of the river.
The population exceeds 15,000, and thriving manu-
factures of cotton, calicoes, and muslins have been es-
tablished. The coal in the vicinity, and the advan-
tage of extensive inland navigation, afford great fa»
cilities to the manufactures and trade of this place.

BLACKBURNE, Francis, a learned English
clergyman and theological writer, was born at Rich-
mond in Yorkshire in 1 705, and having finished his
grammatical education was admitted, in 1722, a pen-
sioner of Catltarine-hall, Cambridge ; and, after rcr
N '

B C<A.

C)42

B L A

«iiclt1ock;' ccivin"; clerical orderg, was intjuctcd to the rectory of
his native town; and at a later period, 17.50, was pre-
ferred to the archdeaconry of Cleveland, and to tho
prebend of Bilton. In the course of a long life, arch-
deacon Blackburne was not only assiduous in the dis-
charge of his pastoral duties, but was the author of
numerous works either with regard to the doctrines
or forms of Christianitj' ; and .nil his writings discover
tlie marks of an intelligent mind, strongly attached
to civil and religious freedom. Even his controver-
sial treatises, divested of the asj)erity which often
accompanies such productions, arc distinguished by
their decency and moderation, and aftbrd both en-
tertainment and instruction to the general reader.
General Bioprnpliy.

BLACKLOCK, Dr Thomas, a poet and clergy-
man of the church of Scotland, was born at Annan
in Dvimfries-shire in the year IV'Sl, and was scarcely
six months old when he was deprived of his eye-sight
by small-pox. His love of literature appeared early ;
and his father, an intelligent mechanic, and other
friends who wore most frequently near him, fostered
the inclination, by reading to him such books as were
suitable to his age. The gentleness of his disposi-
tion, not less than compassion for his misfortune, en-
couraged them in these kind offices, and made them
assiduous in their endeavours to promote his instruc-
tion and amusement. With their assistance he ac-
i^HJred some knowledge of the Latin language. He
was delighted with poetry ; and at the age Of twelve
composed a poem which appeared in the collection
published after his death.

The marriage of young Blacklock's sister with Mr
M'Murdo, an eminent brewer in Dumfries, and an
accomplished man, was a fortunate connection for
the young poet ; it introduced him into better
society, — afforded him at last the advantages of
a liberal education, — and was some alleviation for
the loss which he sustained by the sudden death of
his father, who, in attempting to extinguish a fire
which had broken out in his son-in-law's brewery,
perished in the llames. This afflicting incident is pa-
thetically lamented in the soliloquy which was com-
posed soon after. The fame of Blacklock's genius
and attainments had now spread beyond the narrow
circle of his own friends and acquaintances ; and the
accidental visit of Dr Stevenson, an eminent physi-
cian in Edinburgh, at Dumfries, afforded that gentle-
man an opportunity of becoming acquainted with his
talents, and of exciting an interest in his future des-
tination. Under his patronage, Blacklock, then in
liis twentieth year, commenced his studies at the
grammar school of EtUnburgh ; and continued to pro-
secute them, with his usual diligence and assiduity,
till the flames of civil war burst out in 174-5. Dur-
ing • hie residence in the metropolis he added the
knowledge of the French language to his literary ac-
quirements ; and at this early period of his life ap-
peared as an author, by the publication of a small col-
lection of poems.

While the rebellion raged in the kingdom, Mr

Blacklock retired to Dumfries, where he found an

hospitable asylum in tlie house of his brother-in-law,

and enjoyed the agreeable society of several intelli-

, gent men, whose acquaintance and flieiulship he had

obtained. The return of public tranquillity per- Blaoktotk.
n)itted him to resume his studies in Edinburgh.
Having completed the usual course of academical
education, and the prescribed term for the study of
theology, he ^-as licensed to preach the gospel in the
year 17.59; and, as a preacher, the w<irmth of his
piety, and the elegance of his compositions, soon
procured him a high degree of celebrity among the
}nore enlightened classes of society. Previously to
this time a second edition of his poems appeared in
17.51 ; and two years afterwards a quarto edition, en-
couraged by subscription, in which his celebrated
countryman David Hume, and Mr Spencer, pro-
fessor of poeti-j' at Oxford, who prefixed an account
of Blacklock's life and writings, took a deep interest,
•was published in London. Of Blacklock's assiduity
and activity of mind, a striking example is recorded,
in the plan which he projected of preparing a course
of lectures on oratory for the instruction of public
speakers, and particularly for those who were destin-
ed to the bar or the pulpit. Mr Hume, with whom
he had contracted a close intimacy, was consulted,
i)nd, being doubtful of success, dissuadetl him from
the attempt ; and then it is said the resolution was
I'ormed of devoting himself to the clerical profes-
sion.

A trying period of Blacklock's life now approaches.
In the year 17G2, through the interest of the Earl of
Selkirk, he was presented to the church of Kirkcud-
bright. But, either from political animosities be-
tween his noble patron and the inhabitants of the
borough, or the violent prejudices which then exist-
ed against church-patronage, or from the afflicting
privation under which he laboured, and which his
destined parishioners might suppose disqualified him,
in some degree, for the discharge of his pastoral du-
ties, or from the polished style or elegant composi-
tion of his discourses, which were not exactly adapt-
ed to common minds, or from the combined effect of
all these causes, it soon appeared that a marked op-
position was to be Made to his reception in the pa-
rish. On the day of his ordination, he entered the
town amidst the hisses and hootings of tho populace ;
and with some difficulty he and his friends reached
the church where the ceremony was to be perform-
ed. This cruel hostility inflicted a deep wound on
his delicate feelings ; and threw a dark gloom on the
pleasing prospect which reason and fancy had pic-
tured to his imagination, of happiness to himself and
usefulness to others in his future labours. A pro-
tracted litigation of two years terminated in a com-
promise, by which he resigned the living, and ac-
cepted of a moderate annuity.

A short time before he was ordained, Mr Black-
lock married Miss Johnston, the daughter of an emi-
nent surgeon in Dumfries ; a connection which prov-
ed the great solace and blessing of his future life, and
afforded him, with all the tenderness of a wife, all the
zealous care of a guardian and friend. With tlie slen-
der provision which he received from the living
which he had resigned, he removed to ICdinburgh in
1764' ; and, for the period of twenty-three years, con-
tinued to receive into his house as boarders a num-
ber of young gentlemen, whose studies he assisted
by his £ui>eriutcudence and advice. Soon after this

BLA

BlaokmAic. jreriod, the degree of doctor of divinity was confer-
red upon him by the university of Aberdeen,' at the
recommendation of Dr Beattie, then rising into poe-
tical fame, and an admirer of liis genius. Dr Black-
lock's advanced years, and declining health, requir-
ed him, in 1787, to relinquish his laliours in supeiin-
tending the tuition of young men, and to indulge in
that repose which was not to be found in a crowded
family. Fits of despondency, to which he had been
subject even in his earlier youth, recurred more fre-
quently; and neither the kind attention of his friends,
nor the unceasing care of a most affectionate wife,
was able at times to counteract their effects on his
spirits. After a week's illness, death removed him
from all worldly cares in 1791.

Subject to the same privation, individuals with ex-
traordinary powers and acquirements have appeared.
Among these rare occurrences in the history of man-
kind, Dr Blacklock's genius shines conspicuous. The
accuracy and beauty of description of visible objects,
which adorn his writings, are not the least remark-
able features in the works of Blacklock, who, it will be
recollected, was deprived of his sight in early infan-
cy. " Blacklock, (says a learned foreign critic,) to
posterity will seem a fable ; as to the present age he is
a prodigy. It will be thought a fiction that a man,
blind from his infancy, besides having acquired a sur-
prising knowledge of Greek, Latin, Italian, and
French, should at the same time be a great poet, and
without having ever seen the light should, notwith-
standing, be singularly happy in his descriptions."
The poetry of Dr Blacklock is justly characterised by
his biographer as breathing the purest spirit of piety,
virtue, and benevolence; and his prose works are dis-
tinguished by just philosophical reflections and ele-
gant composition.

BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, an English phy-
sician and poet, was a native of Wiltshire, and was
born about the year 1650. Educated for some time
in a country school, he was sent to Westminster in
his thirteenth year, became a student at Oxford in
1668, and, after a long residence of twelve oi; thirteen
years, is supposed to have left it without adding
much to his stock of literature, at least this is inferred
from the careless or inaccurate manner in which the
ancient names of places or nations are introduced in
his poems. Having travelled for some time on the
continent, and having been admitted to the degree
of doctor of medicine at Padua, he returned to
England, and obtained high eminence and exten-
sive practice as a physician in London. His resi-
dence was in Cheapside, and his friends were chiefly
in the city. In the early part of Blackmore's time,
as Dr Johnson remarks, a citizen was a term of re-
proach, so that the place of the physician's abode was
a topic to which his adversaries had recourse in the
penury of scandal ; nor did they forget to publish, as
another ground of reproach, that he had been com-
pelled by indigence in some part of his life to under-
take the humble, but surely not dishonourable, task
of teaching a school, — the only reproach, it is observ-
ed by Johnson, in liis strong but peculiar manner,
which all the perspicacity of malice, animated by wit,
has ever fixed on his private life.

It is not a little .singular that the first production

643 .BLA

of Blackmore which was presented to the world was Blp-ckmore.
a heroic poem, Prince Arthur, published in 1695, in
ten books, and written, as he relates, " by such
catches and starts, and in such occasional uncertain
hours as his profession afforded, and for the greatest
part in coffee-houses, or in passing up and down the
streets." In two years more, such was the activity
of his fertile muse, King Arthur, another heroic poem,
in twelve books, appeared. About this time he was
appointed one of King William's physicians, and was
raised to the honour of knighthood, with the present
of a gold chain and medal. The malignity of the
wits, by whom he was assailed from all quarters, as-
cribed these marks of royal favour to his new poem;
but his good fortune is more justly to be attributed t«
his attachment to the principles of the revolution.
On the accession of Queen Anne he was also ap-
pointed one of her Majesty's physicians. Black*
more continued to write to the end, of his days, but
the extensive practice which lie enjoyed during part
of his life forsook him towards its close, when he em-
ployed his unwelcome leisure in writing books on me-
dical subjects, and endeavoured to teach others to
cure those whom he could himself cure no longer.
Exhibiting in his last hours unequivocal marks of
the most fervent piety, he died in 1729.

Four heroic poems were the offspring of the pro-
lific muse of Blackmore. Beside those already men-
tioned, Eliza and Alfred, the first in ten, and tl»e
second in twelve books, were the titles of the other
two ; and of these epic poems, it is observed, the first
had such reputation and popularity as enraged the
critics ; the second was at least known enough to be
ridiculed; the two last had neither friends nor enemies.
A paraphrase on the Book of Job, a Version of the
Psalms, Creation, the Redeemer, a Satire upon Wit, are
enumerated among the poetical productions of Black-
more ; beside which, he wrote the Lau Monastery, a pe-
riodical work, in the manner of the Spectator, various
tracts on medical subjects, and even verrtured into
the difficult path of theological controversy, by writ-
ing two books against the Arians. The name of
Blackmore, by the unceasing enmity of cotemporary
wits, whose judgment has been hastily confirmed by
the undiscriminating censure of succeeding critics,
is proverbial tor dullness. But some critics, both of
his own age and among posterity, have been disposed
to do him justice. His poem of Creation was com-
mended by Addison ; and Johnson pronounces, that
" it wants neither harmony of numbers, accuracy of
thought, nor elegance of diction ; it has either been
written with great care, or, what cannot be ima-
gined of so long a work, with such felicity as made
care less necessary. Its two constituent parts are
ratiocination and description. To reason in verse
is allowed to be difficult ; but Blackmore not only
reasons in verse, but very often reasons poetically,
and finds the art of uniting ornament with strengtl),
and ease with closeness. This is a s'kill which Pope
nn'ght have condescended to learn from him, whcH
he needed it so much in his moral essays. In liis
descriptions both of life and nature, the poet and the
philosopher happily co-operate ; truth is recommend-
ed by elegance, and elegance suiitaiiied by truth."
Johnson's Lives of the Poets.

BLA

644

BLA

Blackooss BLACKNESS is that quality of a body, or pecu-

II liar texture of its surface, in which the larger propor-

Blackstone. tion of the rays of light is absorbed ; and in this sense

it is opposed to ivhifeness, or that condition of a body

which reflects the greater part of the rays of light

which fall upon it.

BLACKSTONE, Sin William, a celebrated
English lawyer, was born at London in 1723, was
educated at the Chai-ter-house school, and in his fif-
teenth year was entered at Pembroke college, Oxford.
Poetry and the fine arts seem to have occupied a con-
siderdjle share of attention in his early years ; for, at
the age of twenty, he composed a treatise on archi-
tecture ; and when he commenced the study of the
law, which was now his destined profession, he ex-
pressed his regrets at leaving the flowery paths of clas-
sical literature for the less inviting details of legal re-
search, inan elegantpoem, entitled, TheLaivyer'sFare-
xueU to his Muse, which afterwards appeared in Dods-
ley's collection. In IT^l he was entered in the Mid-
dle Temple, was elected a fellow of All Souls college
in n-iS, and was called to the bar in ITiS. But as
he was deficient in those popular talents which more
certainly insure the success of a public pleader than
less splendid but more substantial acquirements, he
made so little progress in procuring employment tliat,
after seven years attendance at the courts of West-
minster, he determined to abandon this part of his
professional practice, and to retire to his fellowship.

To supply a striking defect in the system of edu-
cation in the English universities, Mr Blackstone
prepared a series of lectures on the laws of England,
and delivered the first course at Oxford in 1753;
and he continued it for several years with much re-
putation. In 1758 he was elected the first Vinerian
professor at Oxford, in consequence of an institution
having the same view, which was liberally endowed
by Mr Viner, for promoting the study of the muni-
cipal law in that university. His lectures acquired
him great reputation, and encouraged him to resume
his professional practice at Westminster hall ; and, in
this second attempt, it appears that he was suffi-
ciently successful. In 1761 he obtained a se^t in
parliament, and two years afterwards was appointed
solicitor-general to the queen. His marriage in 1761
required him to vacate his fellowship, on which he
was nominated principal of New-inn hall ; but he
resigned this office, along with the Vinerian profes-
sorship, in 1766. In 1770, declining the office of
solicitor-general, he was appointed a judge of the
court of common pleas, which station he held till his
death in 1780.

Beside some pieces of a local and temporary na-
ture, he was the author of Law Tracts, a collec-
tion of treatises, some of which had previously ap-
peared in a separate form, which was published at
Oxford in 1762, in two volumes, the first of which
contains an essay on Collateral Consanguinity, Con-
siderations on Copyholders, and a treatise on the Law
of Descents ; and the second includes the Great
Charter, and Charter of the Forest, &c. with an in-
troductory discourse on the history of the charters.
But the great work which has given celebrity to the
name of Blackstone is, his Commentaries on the
Laws of England, in four volumes, the first of whieb

was published at Oxford in 1765. Tliis valuable
work Comprehends the substance of his lectures,
and is justly regarded as the most popular book on
the municipal laws of England which has yet ap-
peared. The industry and research, the accuracy
and judgment which it displays, and the elegance
and interest with which the subjects are treated,
render it not only useful as an excellent elucidation
of the laws of England to the professed student,
but highly instructive to the general reader.

BLAIH, lloBEnT, n poet and clergyman of the
church of Scotland, was the eldest son of the Rev.^
David Blair, one of the ministers of Edinburgh ; wiis
born about the beginning of the 18th century; and
having completed his academical studies in the uni-
Tersity of his native city, and sjjent some time on the
continent, he was, after his return, admitted, in 1731,
minister of Athelstaneford, a country pari9l> in the
county of Haddington. In this retired situation,
which afforded few incidents for biographical notice,
he passed the remainder of his life. But, to his
praise, it is recorded, that he was a serious and ani-
mated preacher, an accomplished scholar, with a fine
taste and polished manners, and was greatly respected
by all classes in his neighbourhood. He was much
devoted to the study of som« departments of natural
history ; and it would appear from the correspon-
dence which he held with Mr Baker, the author
of several works on the microscope, that he em-
ployed some part of his leisure in microscopical re-
searches.

As a poet, nothing is known of the progress of Mr
Blair in his devotion to the muses. His first poeti-
cal eft'usion which was presented to the public, was
a poem to the memory of Mr Law, professor of Mo-
ral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, who
was his relation, and whose daughter he afterwards
married. This poem, although it is to be regarded as
a juvenile production, displays much pathos and ener-
gy, expressed in simple and beautiful language. But
the Grave alone, which has been long one of the
most popular poems in the English language, is suf-
ficient to confer a high degree of celebrity on the au-
thor. With the exception of the poetry of Milton, it
has been pronounced one of the best pieces of blank
verse in the language ; and if a fine glow of sympa-
thetic feeling, antniated description, and striking
imagery, be essential to poetical composition, and by
tl^ir combined effects produce that magic charm
which touches every bo.>om, the Grave of Blair is
entitled to this high commendation.

This excellent poem was not published till after
the author's death. Through the mediation of the
celebrated Dr Watts, whose approbation it obtained,
it was ofl'crcd, in H^l, for publication to the Lon-
don booksellers ; but they declined it as a hazard-
ous speculation ; thus aflording at once a decided
proof of want of taste and literary enterprise. But
surprise may cease, when it is recollected, that the
sublime effort of the epic muse, the Paradise Lost of
Milton, brought the author only fifteen pounds, and
found few readers, till the criticisms of Addison exr
aminedjts merits, and displayed its beauties. It is
not a little remarkable, that the Grave was read ancj
admired for oearly half a century before any tiling

Blair.

B L A

645

B L A

Blair.

was communicated to the public of the author. This
seeming neglect is more to be wondered at, when it
is known, that some of his relatives rose to the high-
est literary eminence ; and, among others, the pro-
fessional labours of his cousin, Dr Hugh Blair, might
have led him, witli an amiable and pardonable par-
tiality, if partiality it might be called, to commemo-
rate his virtues aiiid illustrate his works. The first
sketch of iiis life was drawn up by Dr Anderson, and
is inserted among his Lives of the Poets. Mr IJlair
died in 174G, and was succeeded by another poet,
Mr Home, the well-known author of the tragedy of
Douglas. Of a numerous family, one of his sons,
llobert, was eminent as a profound lawyer, and rose
to the high rank of Lord President of the Supreme
Civil Court in Scotland. His sudden' and premature
death, while he held that conspicuous station, excit-
ed the deepest regret for the loss which the country
sustained of an upright and accomplislied judge.

BLAHl, Dr Hu(;ii, a distinguished clergyman of
the church of Scotland, and celebrated author of ser-
mons, and writer on belles lettres, was born at Edin-
burgh in 1718. His great-grandfatlier, descended
i'rom the ancient family of the same name in Ayr-
shire, was minister of St Andrews, and cJiaplain to
Charles I. and was one of the most accomplished
scholars of the age in which he lived. The father
and grandfather were respectable merchants in Edin-
burgh ; but the former being concerned in some of
the ruinous speculations of the times, saw himself
reduced in his pecuniary affairs, and was forced to
retire from mercantile business, and to accept of an
office with a limited income in the excise. Deprived
of all prospect of paternal inheritance, young Blair
found it necessary to trust to his own personal exer-
tions, and for this purpose very early directed his
views to the church as his future profession.

Having passed through a grammatical course of
education, he was admitted in his twelfth year a stu-
dent in the university of Edinburgh ; and at this se-
niinarj' he continued for the long period of 11 years,
assiduously and successfully occupied in acquiring
that knowledge which the duties of his destined pro-
fession required. An essay on t/ic beautiful, which
he composed as an exercise while he was a student in
the logic class, was hig'.ily approved by the professor,
was read in public at the end of the session, and was
regarded as an excellent specimen of his talents for
composition, and a favourable earnest of his future
fame. About this time, it is said, Dr Blair adopted
a plan of study which greatly contributed to the ac-
curacy and extent of his knowledge, and which he
continued to practise occasionally through life ; — in
making abstracts of the most important works which
he read, and in digesting and arranging them under
appropriate heads according to the train of his own
thoughts, the facts thus collected were retained and
fixed in his mind. In this manner he studied history ;
and in conjunction with some youthful associates he
constructed a comprehensive scheme of chronologi-
cal tables. At this time the university of Edinburgh
numbered among her pupils, Dr Robertson, Dr Smith,
Mr Hume, and others, who became afterwards con-
spicuous in the civil, the ecclesiastical, and literary

liistory of their country. With sucli friends and as- Blair;
soclates Dr Blair lived in habits of close intimacy ; ^'■^^/"^^
and, from their example and conversation, lie could
not fail to extend his knowledge and improve his taster

Having finished his academical course, he was
licensed to preach the gospel in IT'tl ; his first ap-
pearances in the pulpit secured to him the reputation
of an eloquent preacher ; in the succeeding year he
was presented to the parish of Colessie in Fife ; and
another year had not elapsed when he was appoint-
ed to the second charge of the Canongate of Edin-
burgh. In this situation he spent eleven years, dis^"
charging the various duties of the pastoral office,
and rising in reputation by the excellent composi-
tions which he delivered from the pulpit. In 175*
he was removed to Lady Tester's, one of the chur-
ches of the city ; and four years afterwards he was
appointed to the High Church of Edinburgh, which
his biographer has strangely characterised as tliO
most important ecclesiastical charge in the kingdom,
—-a singular assertion of any station in the churcH
of Scotland, where no distinction of rank exists, and
no difterence of influence or authority is permitted^
except what arises from respectability of character
or superior intellectual attainments. -

Dr Blair had hitherto confined his literary labour!!
chiefly to the composition of sermons, which had
acquired for him so much merited celebrity among
these who heard him from the pulpit, and extended
his reputation when they were aftenvards presented
to the workl. Two sermons preached on particular
occasions, some translations in verse of passages of
scripture for the psalmody of the church, and a few
contributions to the Edinburgh Review, a publica-
tion begun in 1755 and conducted for a short timn,
it is said, by some of the ablest men in the kingdom,
were the only productions of Dr Blair whicli had yet
appeared. Having now some leisure on his hands, and
unwilling to permit his talents and industry to be un-
employed, he projected a scheme of lectures on com-
position ; and he delivered the first course in the
college during the session of 1759. His lectures were
well attended and highly approved by those wIki
heard them ; and the applause with which they were
crowned, and the influence of a reconmiendation
to government, led to the endowment of a pro-
fessorship of rhetoric and belles lettres in the univer-
sity of Edinburgh, and to- the appointment of Dr
Blair to fill that office. When declining health re-
qxiired him to re«tgH the active duties of the pro*
(essorship in 1783, these lectures were published ;
and, as they exhibit the most decided marks of acute
judgment, fine taste, and critical skill, have added
much to the celebrity of the author.

About this time, some fragments of ancient poe»
try, ascribed to Ossian, appeared among the literary
circles of Edinburgh, and attra<;ted the notice of
some of the first charaetera ef the Scottish metro-
polie. At the solicitation of Dr Hlair and Mr Home»
the celebrated author of the tragedy of Douglas,
Mr Macpherson was induced to publish them ; and
they took a warm interest in promoting the subscrip-
tion, which enabled him to make a tour through
the Highlands of Scotluiid, for the purpose ot cvH-

BL A

m6

BLA

BUae. lecting tTie materiais of Fingnl, and of other po-
^^y^^ ems which bear the name of Oiisian. Whatever
opinion may be formed of these extraordinary poems,
or of the extraordinary manner in wliich they were
ushered into the world, the dissertation of Dr IMair,
which was published in 1763, spread the author's re-
putation throughout Europe, and for beauty of lan-
guage, delicacy of taste, and acuteness of critical in-
vestigation, stands anrivalled.

The first volume of his sermons was published in
1777 ; three other volumes appeared at different in-
tervals, and all of them received the undivided ap-
probation of the public ; tliey circulated rapidly
■wherever the English tongue extends, and were soon
translated into almost all the languages of Europe ;
and in 1780, a more substantial reward than empty
fame awaited the author, by the grant of a pension
from government'of L.200 a-ycar, which was conti-
nued to liis death.

Dr Blair married in 174'8 his cousin Catharine
Bannatyne, daughter of the llcv. James Bannatyiie,
one of the ministers of Edinburgh. A son, who tiled
in infancy, and a daughter, who lived to her 21st
year, the pride of her parents, and adorned with all
the accomplishments that became lier age and sex,
were the offspring of this marriage. His wife, who
fiad shared his fortunes and his happiness for nearly
half a century, died in the j^ear 179.5. Tliese do-
mestic afflictions could not fail to make a deep im-
pression on his mind ; but he bore them with the for-
titude of a man, and the resignation of a Christian.
His increasing infirmities had, for some years before
his death, rendered him unequal to the labour of the
public discharge of his official duties. But his habits
of industry did not permit him to waste even the
close of life in idleness. His last summer was
devoted to the preparation of his fifth volume of
sermons ; and it is not unworthy of record, that the
sermon on a life of dissipation and pleasure, was
the last which he composed. Towards the end of
December 1800, he was seized with his last illness;
and after three days suffering, and retaining to the
last moment the full possession of his mental facul-
ties, he expired on the 27th, when he had reached
the 83d year of his age.

Of the private character of Dr Blair, it is scarce-
ly necessary to say that it was highly respectable.
His conduct through life was marked by prudence,
purity, and dignified propriety ; and of his sermons,
which are so universally read and admired, it is
needless to add, that they will long remain durable
monuments of the piety, the genius, and sound
judgment of their author.

BLAKE A, WiLD-nosE, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the class Dodecandria, of which the first dis-
covered species is a native of moist shady places in
Jamaica.

BLANC, MONT, a stupendous mountain of Sa-
voy, the highest of the whole group of the Alp.s,
and the most elevated land in Europe, has been dis-
tinguished by the appropriate appellation of \.Mle
mountain, from the snowy mantle which constantly
veils its lofty summit, and clothes its sides for many
thousand feet from the top. The mountain termi-
nates in a ridge, in a horizontal position, stretching

from east to west, and sloping on the different sitle*
with variou.s degrees of rapidity ; and the ridge,
especially towards tlie west end, is so narrow, that
not more than two persons can walk abreast. The
surface of the snow is scalj', and in many places
covered with a crust of ice, under which the snow is
dusty and has little coherence ; and the covering of
snow is so thick that no rock i.s seen within 1.50 yards
of the top. The prevailing strata of Mont Blanc are
composed of granite ; but in some places beds or
masses of steatitic and schorlaccous rocks are ob-
served. The height has been variously estimated by
different naturalists at 15,30i feet, 15,662 feet, and
15,680 feet, or nearly three miles above the surface
of the sea.

Clothed in a perennial wintry robe, and elevat-
ed among the bleak regions of the unceasing storm,
the summit of Mont Blanc seems to bid defiance to
the approach of the adventurous traveller. To scale
its stupendous height was long regarded as a hope-
less and impracticable task. The first attempt to reach
the top was made by M. Couteran and some atten-
dants in 1776. On the 13th of July of that year, he
departed from the priory of Chamouni at 1 1 o'clock
at night; having ascended to the height of 13,000
feet, he was compelled to abandon the arduous en-
terprise ; and, after a most fatiguing and dangerous
journey of 22 hours, returned to Chamouni. M.
Bourrit, on the 11th of September 1784, reached a
very considerable elevation ; but the intensity of the
cold obliged him also to relinquish the undertaking.
An attempt by the same traveller, accompanied by
M. de Saussure, in the succeeding year, likewise
failed, Dr Paccard, a physician of Chamouni, along-
with some of the guides of the place, was the first
who surmounted the difficulties of the ascent, and,
after a journey of 15 hours, reached the summit of
Mont Blanc ; remained half an hour on this elevated
spot, and experienced great uneasiness from the in-
tense severity of the cold. In August 1787, M. de
Saussure was also successful in this daring attempt.
The fatigue of the ascent, and the rarity of the air,
rendered respiration extremely difficult and labo-
rious, even with the slightest exertion. A few lichens
were the only indications of vegetation observed on
the higher parts of the mountuin ; the beautiful moss
campion, silene acaulis, Lin. disappeared beyond the
height of 12,000 feet ; and no animal whatever seems
to have its permanent abode in these inhospitable re-
gions. Two butterflies on the wing were seen near
the summit, but it was supposed that they had been
carried up by the violence of the wind.

BLANC MONT, a department of France, includ-
ing the former Savoy, lying on the west side of the
Alps mountains, and having the department of Le-
man on the north, and the department of Upper Alps
on the south. The Arc and the Isere are the princi-
pal rivers ; some metallic ores, as iron, copper, and
lead, are abundant; and the population exceeds
282,000. Chambciry is the chief town. The opera-
tion of smelting iron is extensively conducted.

BLAST-rURNACE. Sec Furnace.

BLASTING OF ROCKS is an operation winch
is usually perl'ormed by the explosive force of gun-
powder, for the purpose of separating a mass of rock

B L A

647

B L A

■Instiiiff. from tlio solid strata, or of reducing a detached mass
to smaller pieces, tor the convenience of removal, or
to be applied to certain uses. In the usual mode of
conducting this process, a circular hole is made in
the rock, by means of a chissel, to the deptli of 12
t>r 14' inches. The hole is filled to the height of a
iuw inches from the bottom with gunpowder ; the
upper part is closely rammed with clay or small
fragments of stones ; a sharp pointed iron rod is
thrust dowji to- the gunpowder ; and when it is with-
drawn, the vacant space is either filled with gun-
powder, to act as a train to what is deposited in the
bottom of the hole, or a straw filled with gunpowder
is inserted. By means of this train the gunpowdei"
j* kindled ; and a slow burning match is so placed,
that it shall commu.iicate to the train after the work-
man has sufficient time to secure himself from tlic
projected fragments of the stone. But by driving
in the rammer forcibly, premature explosions have
sometimes occasioned terrible accidents. Such
dangers are completely obviated by introducing the
straw along with the gunpowder, and filling up the
hole with dry loose sand ; and by this simple ma-
nagement the explosion is equally efficient. Quick-
lime has been proposed as a kind of substitute for
blasting rocks. The lime is introduced into the hole
when newly calcined, and when suddenly slaked
with water, it is supposed that the expansive force pro-
duced by the increase of bulk would rend the stone
in pieces.

Methods of blasting rocks without gunpowder siati*.
have been practised. The method adopted in ^\ilt- '
shire, is to undermine the rock for a yard in length
and half a yard in depth, and having introduced
straw or brushwood into the cavity, to set it on fire,
the heat of which expands the air within the stone,
and its elastic force bursts it into pieces. A simpler
method is to kindle a coal fire on the top of the
stone, as in the case of large rounded stones in
fields to be brought under culture, and when it has-
become red hot where it is in contact with the burn-
ing coals, to dash cold Avater upon it; and in this
way, by the sudden and unequal contraction, the stone
is reduced to fragments, Where coal is abundant
this method may be both effectual and economical.

Mr Knight has invented an apparatus for blasting
logs of wood by means of gunpowder. The instru-
ment is a hollow screw. An auger hole is made in
the log to be split ; a ijuantity of gunpowder is put
into the bottom of the hole ; the screw is fixed in it
nearly to the gunpowder ; a match, prepared in the
usual way, is passed through the hole in the screyir
till it touch the gunpowder ; and being set on fire,
its explosive force tears the log asunder.

BLATTA, the Cock-roach, a genus ef insects be-
longing to the order hemiptera, of which one species,
the American cock-roach, seems to be naturalised ia
some parts of this country, particularly in sea-port
towns, to which it has been brought along with im-
ported goods.

BLEACHIISG.

Introduction The materials of which cloth is made, whether de-
rived from vegetables or animals, as they are produced
in nature are rarely in that state of purity which an-
swers the demands of the more improved periods of
civilized society. Exclusive of those substances which
adhere to them in the progressive operations of their
fabrication, and which are generally removed by sim-
ple washing in water, with some slight addition, they
are intimately combined with certain colouring mat-
ters, which can only be separated by chemical pro-
cesses, the effects of natural agents, or applied by
means of art. Hence it is obvious, that the art of
bleaching, from the French word hUnchir, " to whi-
ten," belongs to an age of luxury and refinement, and
that it is in vain to search for its origin in the remote
and barbarous periods of antiquity ; and accordingly
the improved state of the art is of modern date, and
can be traced no farther back tlmn the close of the
18th century, when chemistry, in the progress of its
brilliant discoveries and entlless applications to the
purposes of life, was directed to an examination of
its principles, and to the improvement of its practice.
' Bleaching, in its more restricted meaning, is ap-
plied to the whitening of cloth, or the materials of
which it is made, which are derived from vegetable
substances ; but in a more enlarged sense it may in-
clude the whitening of both vegetable and animal
matters, and, with no great impr(>pricty, may be ex-
tended to every detersive or purifying operutioB.

History About the middle of the 1 8th century, Historjp.

the excellent fabric, and especially the perfect mode
of bleaching Dutch linens, brought them into high
repute in every part of Europe, and hence the name
Holland cloth is not forgotten in this country at the
present day. The most celebrated bleaching grounds
of Holland w-ere in the vicinity of the village of Bloe-
mendaal, about three miles from Haarlem. The re-
markable whiteness of their linen was ascribed to the
lye-ashes of Muscovy, and to the water of the downs,
which was said to be sea-water filtrated through
banks of sand ; but this must be a mistake, for sea-
water could not become frceh merely by passing
through sand. When the successful n\odes of bleach-
ing at this establishment were compared with the Icsa
perfect processes which were attempted in other
places, a groundless prejudice was excited that no
perfect bleaching could be eti'ected at a distance from
the sea. But the cloth bleached at this place was
not merely the produce of the manufactories in tlie
vicinity. The greater part was made in 8ile;3ia, and,
after being bleached at Haarlem, was sold under the
name of Dutch cloth, or Hollands. About the same
time all the linen which was manufactured in Scot-
land was sent to the same place to be bleached, and
such goods were distinguished by the name of Scotch
Hollands.

It is probable that the Dutch mode of bleachiilg
was iirat ihtrodaccil into Ireland, irhere it was long

648

BLEACHING.

conducted on ft larger scale than in any other part
of the Britisli dominions. The first attempt in Scot-
land was made by a native of that kingdom ; but
whether he acquired his knowledge of the art from
the practice in his own country, or by direct com-
munication with Holland, is not recorded. He esta-
blished a work in the north of Scotland in the year
1749; and in the liope of completing at home the
preparation of their goods for the market, some of
the principal manufacturers entrusted him with the
bleaching of their linens ; but he failed in his pro-
cesses, and the disappointed manufacturers were
obliged to transmit tneir cloth to Holland to be
cleared and finished. One whole season and the half
of the next were occupied in bleaching another par-
cel, and with no better success ; but the experience
and observation of a few years enabled him to im-
prove his processes, and he became at last an ex-
■cellent practical bleacher ; his industry and intelli-
■gence were rewarded with affluence ; and to this en-
terprising individual the manufacturers of Scotland
were indebted for the means of preparing their linens
.for the market without foreign aid.

The discovery of oxymuriatic acid by ScheeJe, in
"1774, and the application of that powerful agent, by
. Berthollet and other French chemists, to the pro-
cesses of bleaching, constitute one of the most re-
markable eras in the history of the art ; and the
compounds of that substance with the alkalies and
earths, which rendered its use safer and more com-
modious, especially the combination with lime, which
was first proposed and successfully tried by Mr Ten-
nant of Glasgow, have contributed in a high degree
to its improvement and perfection.

The different kinds of stuffs which are to be puri-
fied or whitened, from the diversity of elements of
which they are composed, require to be subjected to
different processes, and the application of very dif-
• ferent ingredients, in the operation of bleaching,
according as they are of an animal or vegetable na-
ture. It may be, therefore, convenient to treat of
them under separate heads.

Chap. I. Of Bleachins Linen.

As the object of bleaching is to separate the co-
. louring matter from the stuffs which are to be whiten-
ed, it is undoubtedly of great importance to inves-
tigate its nature and properties, for the purpose of
applying the different processes according to just
chemical principles ; and perhaps this subject, which
shall be slightly adverted to before entering on the
detail of the operations of bleaching, is worthy of a
larger share of the attention of those who are en-
fraged in this valuable department of our manu-
lactures.

Sect. I. Of the Colouring Matter of Linen.

■The colouring matter of linen yarn or cloth which
is to be removed by bleaching, is either naturally
combined with, the vegetable production during its
growth, or unites with it in some of the operations to
which it must be subjected in the progress of manu-
facture. A minute examination of the changes
which it imdergoes, from the period of the plant

ripening to its fabrication into yarn or cloth, when it Of Lii
is put into the hands of the bleacher, would greatly
assist in deciding this point. In the mean time, a
slight sketch of some of the previous processes may
be useful.

Steeping flax, — The first operation to which flax or
hemp is subjected, after being ripe, is steeping or
watering ; the object of which is to separate the
fibres, which are to be formed into thread, from the
other parts of the plant. This object is accomplished
by a kind of fermentation or decomposition, which
the sap and wood of the plant undergo, while the
fibres, are little affected by proper management dur-
ing the operation. This process is conducted either
by steeping the plants tied up in bundles in water,
which is called water-rotting, or Ly spreading them out
on the grass, and thus exposing them to tlie moisture
and dew of the atmosphere, which is called dew-rot-
ting. Without considerable precaution, the fibres of
the plants sometimes receive considerable injury in
this process ; and, with a view to obviate this effect, an
improved method of watering has been proposed, by
which the time necessary for the process is greatly
abridged. In this method, a weak alkaline lye is
employed instead of pure water. The plants are
introduced into a chamber of twenty or thirty feet
square, and the steam of water impregnated with
caustic soda is passed through them till the neces-
sary change be produced.

By whatever process it is conducted, when the
watering is finished, the plants are dried either by
exposure to the air, or by the application of artifi-
cial heat. To separate the fibres from the enclosed
wood, the plants are subjected to the operation of
beating, which is performed either by manual labour
with mallets, or on a large scale by means of ma-
chinery, and the tender wood being bruised or broken
into small pieces, is separated by the operation of
heckling. The remaining fibres are then fit for
being spun into yarn.

Mr Lee's method. — Beside the colouring matter
naturally combined with the fii)res of the plant, it
can scarcely be supposed that it should not undergo
considerable changes in the process of watering ;
and when this process is carelessly conducted, the
fibres themselves are injured in their texture. To
obviate these effects, a method of preparing flax
was lately proposed by Mr Lee, by which wa-
tering, and the consequent injury to the fibres, are
avoided. According to Mr Lee's method, the
woody part of the plant is broken to pieces by
beating the stalks on fluted rollers, and in this way
is fully, prepared for the operation of heckling. The
supposed advantages derived from this method,
were, that the fibres are not exposed to any injury,
and, according to the rash opinion of a chemist of
some reputation, all the processes of bleaching
would be completely superseded ; but the experi-
ments of many intelligent manufacturers m Ireland,
who had adopted this method of managing flax,
clearly proved that the fibres were shortened, and
thus the fabric of the cloth was injured ; and a well
conducted series of experiments, under the autho-
rity of the Board for the Encouragement of Manu-
factures in Scotland, shewed, that tlie produce of

BLEACHING.

64P

Of Ijnon. "ax was considerably less than by the common me-
s^'V'^^ thod. And whatever advantages were derived from
Mr Lee's method, the process of bleaching was still
found to be necessary.

Colouring matter. — It seems not improbable that
a more rigid examination than has yet been at-
tempted of the nature and properties of tlie co-
louring matter, might afibrd the means of improving
the bleaching processes. The researches of the in-
defatigable Mr Kirwan have thrown some hght on
this subject. When linen cloth is steeped in an
alkaline ley, a change is produced both in the cloth
and the alkali. The cloth is deprived of part of
its colouring matter, and the alkaline properties of
the salt disappear. Some new combination, there-
fore, has been eifected. To a portion of alkaline
ley thus changed, or saturated with the extract of
linen yarn, muriatic acid was added ; the precipitate
obtained being dried on a filter, became clammy to
the feel like moist clay, and assumed a dark green
colour ; and it was insoluble in 60 times its weight
of boiling water. Dried on a sand heat, it became
of a shining black colour, and more brittle, but in-
ternally it remained of a greenish yellow.

A portion of the greenish precipitate being di-
gested in rectified spirit of wine, was almost entirely
dissolved, and communicated to the spirit a reddish
hue; but distilled water being added, the solution
appeared milky, and a whitish precipitate was formed.
The solution of the black matter was conducted in
a similar manner, and afforded nearly the same re-
sults. Neither spirit of turpentine nor linseed oil,
even after long continued digestion, dissolved either
the green or the black matter. The green matter
communicated to sulphuric and muriatic acids a
brownish colour, and to nitric acid a greenish tinge ;
but no other change was effected, for the quantity
of matter was not diminished.

From these experiments it appears that the mat-
ter extracted by alkalis from linen yarn is a pecu-
liar resinous substance, but different from pure resins
by being insoluble in essential oils, in wliich pro-
perty it approaches to the nature of lac. In the
farther prosecution of these experiments, Mr Kirwan
found that the colouring matter of linen yam is so-
luble, either partially or entirely, in solutions of the
alkalies, both in their pure state and in the state of
carbonate; but that potash, whether pure or com-
bined with carbonic acid, is the best solvent of
this resinous matter.

Sect. II. Operations of Bleaching.

Steeping. — The first operation to wliich linen cloth
is subjected is steeping ; and this may be considered
as chiefly preparatory. The object of this process
is to remove the paste, or dressing, which is applied
to the threads in weaving. This matter is separated
by fermentation, to promote which, the pieces of
cloth are immersed in water, of the temperature of
6.5° to 75° Fahrenheit, for about 4S hours. Having
remained a sufficient time, the pieces are well wash-
ed in running water, eitlier by treading with the
feet or by means of machinery.

But in the improved process of steeping, the
nieces, after being washed for several hours, to se-

VOL. I. PART II.

parate any loose matters which adhere to them, are
introduced into a circular wooden vat, and are re-
gularly dispo.sed above each other, without being too
much pressed together. The vat is then filled with
the alkaline ley, at a blood heat, which has been
employed in the bucking or boiling processes of other
parcels of goods ; and, to keep the whole immersed
in the liquid, a piece of wood in form of a cross is
fixed above them. A few hours only elapse when
the temperature is increased, the liquid is enlarged in
bulk, an intestine motion t kcs place, air is evolv-
ed, and a thick scum is formed on the surliue.
The period of fermentation varies from twelve to
eighteen hours, according to the temperature of the
air. But as soon as it ceases the linens must be
removed, otherwise tliey are apt to be injured from
the oficcts of the putrid fermentation which follows,
and the colouring matter is at the same time more
strongly fixed. The goods are then subjected to a
second washing, to separate all the loose matters
which adhere to them, and they are then prepared
for the operation of bucking.

Bucking The next operation, after steeping and

washing, is what is technically called bxickmg, and
is one of the nicest processes in the art of bleaching.
In this operation, the goods are introduced, as in
the former, into a large wooden vat ; and, from a
boiler placed above the vat, the linens are covered
with caustic alkaline ley at a blood heat. The ley
having remained for some time on the goods, is let off
by a stop-cock at the bottom of the vat into an iron
vessel sunk in the ground, from which it is pumped
up into the boiler, where the ley is raised to a higher
temperature, and is again admitted to the goods in
the vat, and from the vat it is let off into the iron
vessel, and again raised by the pump to the boiler.
The same series of operations is repeated till the al-
kahne solution is fully saturated with the colouring
matter, and is also deprived of its causticity. This
change is easily ascertained by the offensive smell
which it assumes.

In this process it is of great importance, for the
complete separation of the colouring matter, to at-
tend to the gradual increase of temperature of the
alkaline solution in its repeated applications to the
goods : For when, by ignorance or mismanagement,
the first application is made at the boiling tempera-
ture, the colouring matter, instead of being remov-
ed, is so strongly fixed that no after treatment can
produce the desired purity.

Another necessary precaution, in concluding the
operation of bucking, is to avoid washing the linens
in cold water while they are hot, because a portion
of the colouring matter is again fixed in them, which
is not easily removed. To obviate this inconvenience,
a stream of warm water is passed upon the goods,
immediate!}' after the saturated alkaline solution is
let off. I'he soluble impurities are thus removed,
after which a current of water is allowed to flow on the
goods till it pass offnearly transparent. They are then
washed and prepared for the succeeding operations.

The improvement propo-sed by Widmer in France,
and varied by Mr Lowrie of Glasgow, in the ope-
ration of bucking, has greatly contributed not on-
ly to the economy of labour, but also to the saving of
^ o

Of Unea

660

BLEACHING.

Of Ijnen. the materials employed, especially when it is conduc-
ted on a large scale. Wlien the linens are introduced
into the vat, and the boiler is tilled with the alkaline
solution, a pump moved by machinery raises the solu-
tion to a sufficient height above thevat to pass through
four pipes pierced with small holes, or to fall on a
broad plate of metal, through theperforationsof which
it is equally spread in a continued stream on the goods,
and, by means of a valve which opens inwards, the
ley, after having passed through the linens, returns
to the boiler. As soon as the operation commences
the fire is applied to the boiler, and the alkaline solu-
tion is gradually heated during its circulation through
the goods in the vat, and when it begins to boil the
operation of pumping is stopped by detaching the
handle of the pump from tiic machinery, and the ley
being forced from the close boiler through the pump,
falls in a continued stream on the goods in the vat.
The advantages of this improvement are obvious ; as
the operation is conducted by means of machinery,
no danger arises from the inattention of the work-
men ; the gradual increase of temperature, and regu-
larly repeated application of the alkaline ley, are more
effectual in removing the colouring matter ; and the
quantity of alkali saved is estimated at one-fourth,
and sometimes even one-third, of what is required in
the former mode of conducting the operation.

Souring. — According to the older mode of bleach-
ing, the process to which linen goods were next sub-
jected was that of souring. The linens were steep-
ed in milk which had become sour by spontaneous
decomposition. This usually took place for the first
time after the fourth or fifth bucking, and was cal-
led the first sour, when the whole operations of
bleaching consisted of bucking, washing, and croft-
ing, or exposing the goods on the grass. In this first
sour the linens remained for two or three weeks, or
till it was observed that the scum on the surface be-
gan to crack and subside. They were then subjec-
ted to a repetition of the other operations.

But as the acid obtained from the milk, or from
the fermentation of farinaceous substances, was of un-
certain strength, and at best produced but a feeble
effect, the introduction of sulphuric acid, the strength
of which could be exactly regulated, contributed es-
sentially to the improvement of this operation, and
to the abridgement of the time requisite to whiten
goods for the market. By this improvement linens
could be completely bleached in three or four months,
which by the former method required seven or eight
months; in proof of which it is only necessary to state,
that the souring process, when sulphuric acid is em-
ployed, can be completed in eighteen or twenty-four
hours, which, in the other method, was less eftisctually
performed in four or five weeks.

In preparing the acid liquor, the sulphuric acid
is introduced into a large wooden vessel lined with
lead,' and diluted with water till it is reduced; to
the strength of good vinegar. But* the proper degree
of strength is precisely ascertained by the use of the
hydrometer. As the specific gravity of the acid is
much greater than that of the water, the precaution
should be observed of mixing them well together by
agitation before the goods are immersed. When the
steeping process is completed, the linens are drained,

and carefully washed in pure water, that every part Of Linen,
of the acid may be removed, otherwise they are apt
to be injured when they are dried, because the water
with which the acid is diluted is evaporated, and the
acid remains behind and acts on the vegetable fibre.

Whatever effect the application of acids may pro-
duce in the bleaching ))roccss, whether they combine
with the alkali, or with iron, or with some earthy
matter, and thus form neutral salts, which are remov-
ed by washing, it is certain that there is no good
bleaching without their use. A strong prejudice has
indeed prevailed against the employment of acids,
and it has received some support from the opinion of
speculative chemists ; but these are fully counterac-
ted by the observation and experience of the practi-
cal blepcher, and a fair comparison of the state of
the goods soured with the mineral or vegetable acid.
It is well known that the omission of the use of acids
to neutralize the alkali employed in the bucking
operations, subjects the goods to injurj- when they
are exposed to the rays of the sun. This effect never
fails if they are laid on the grass, even after a single
operation, without souring ; and that part of tlie
cloth thus corroded is called hy the workmen ici/-ljimit.

Boiling In bleaching linen goods, boiling is em-
ployed when they are considerably whitened ; the
ley employed in this operation is made with pearl
ashes, or with pearl ashes and a certain proportion
of soap. In conducting this operation, a moderate
heat should be applied ; violent ebullition should be
avoided, and the precaution should be observed of
keeping the stuffs immersed in the liquid, that its
action may be equal and uniform. Cast-iron boilers
are used in the boiling operation, and they are fur-
nished with a stop-cock at the bottom, for the pur-
pose of letting off the waste ley.

Sect. III. Of Bleaching with Oxymuriatic Acid and
its Compounds.

The discovery of oxymuriatic acid by Scheele, in
1774, forms one of the most remarkable eras in the
history of bleaching. But although its property of
destro3'ing vegetable colours was observed by that
eminent chemical philosopher, the application of this
active substance to the art of bleaching was not
known till ten years afterwards, when the subject
was successfully investigated by Berthollet, and its
importance in bleaching was fully established. Chap-
tal, whose labours in the application of chemistry to
the arts of life have developed the nature of many
important processes, directed his attention to ascer-
tain the properties and use of oxymuriatic acid in
bleaching, about the year 1787 ; and about the mid-
dle of the same yeai', in consequence of a communi-
cation from Professor Copland, of Marischal college,
Aberdeen, who had witnessed experiments with it at
Geneva, to Messrs Milne, of the house of Gordon,
Barron, and Company, Aberdeen, they seem to have
been the first who employed it in bleaching in this
country. But although they were fully satisfied of
its efficacy and safety, they limited its use to the
bleaching of such goods as the demands of the market
did not permit to be subjected to the usual more te-
dious processes.

In the succeeding year, Dr Taylor of Manches-

BLEACHING.

651

0{ linen, ter, in conjunction with Mr Cooper of the same place,
s^rv^fc/ instituted a most decisive experiment to ascertain
the use of oxymuriatic acid in bleaching ; for by its
application an entire piece of cotton cloth was
bleached, printed, and prepared for the market in
less than three days. The favourable result of this
experiment led to the establishment of an exten-
sive bleaching concern near Bolton in Lancashire.
In 1789, a detailed account of the construction of
the apparatus for preparing the new bleaching li-
quor, and the mode of applying it to use, was pub-
lished by Berthollet ; and the practice of chemical
bleaching was then followed in different parts of
France. As it frequently happens in the application
of new substances, where even the most cautious
observer is apt to overlook some circumstances in
the process, many difficulties arose in the first em-
ployment of oxymuriatic acid in bleaching. In
some cases the cloth was injured ; and when the
texture remained perfectly sound after the bleaching
was completed, it assumed a yellowish shade after
an interval of some weeks. But by care and atten-
tion in its application, the safety of the fabricwas com-
pletely preserved ; and the alternate use of the acid
and alkaline solutions produced a perfect and per-
manent white. This is to be understood of bleaching
cotton goods ; for the yellowness of linen cloth can
only be removed by exposing it for some time on
the grass.

The celebrated Mr Watt of Soho, when on a
visit in France, having seen the experiments with
the new processes repeated by Berthollet, introduced
this method of bleaching into the extensive esta-
blishment of his friend Mr Macgregor, at Glasgow ;
and in the first attempt 500 pieces of goods were
finished.

The first application of the oxymuriatic acid was
in the state of gas, and the first useful combination
of that substance, for the purpose of bleaching,
was with potash. This compound was first pre-
pared by a company at Javelle near Paris, and
hence it was denominated ley or liquor of Javelle ;
and it was announced as having the property of
bleaching cloth by immersion for a few hours only.
Some of the partners in this concern, with the
hope of encouragement for the manufacture, settled
at Liverpool, and applied to Parliament to secure
to themselves the right of the invention. They
failed in their application, on the ground that the
discovery was not new. The manufacture was con-
tinued for some time ; but as it was inconvenient to
carry it to a distance in the liquid form, and as it
was besides subject to a diminution of its strength
by the action of the light and air, the demand gra-
dually ceased, and the establishment was finally
abandoned. Mr Foy, one of the operators in the
manufactory, proposed to the principal bleachers
for a suitable premium to assist them in the construc-
tion of the requisite apparatus, and to instruct them
in the preparation of this liquor for themselves, and
by his means the use of oxymuriate of potash became
pretty general. Mr Tennant of Glasgow proposed
oxymuriate of lime as a substitute for the compound
with potash, and, in the year 1798, obtained a pa-
tent for this new bleaching liquor, the cheapness of

which offered a material advantage to the manufac- of Ljacn.
turer; but being in a liquid form the objection to the
carriage of a bulky commodity was not removed.
To obviate this objection, the right of preparing the
liquor at their own works was communicated fer a
stipulated premium, and the new method of bleach-
ing became still more general ; but the validity of
the patent was afterwards disputed, and, after a legal
discussion, it was set aside. Mr Tennant's right to
the advantages from the preparation of the oxymu-
riate of lime in the solid form, it is proper to observe,
remains entire.

Preparation of oxymuriatic acid. — In the prepa-
ration of oxymuriatic acid for the use of the bleacher,
various proportions of the materials employed have
been recommended. In explaining the construction
and principle of the apparatus for its distillation,
Berthollet proposes six ounces of black oxide of man-
ganese, one pound of common salt, and 12 ounces
of sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal quantity of
water. Bleachers in general employ a redundant
proportion of materials, the reason of which perhaps
is, the inequality of their strength or properties.
The most common proportions for the production of
this acid in this country, are equal parts, by weight,
of sea salt and manganese, which are either care-
fully mixed together, or, with the addition of a little
water, brought to the consistence of a thick paste.
The quantity of sulphuric acid employed is equal
to the weight of the other materials, and it is diluted
with its bulk of water. When it is cool, it is poured
upon the salt and manganese which have been in-
troduced into the retort for the process of distilla-
tion ; but it is supposed that the proportion of some
of the materials in this mode of preparing the acid
is too great ; two-thirds of the sulphuric acid are
reckoned sufficient for the purpose, and the quantity
of manganese is also superabundant. The propor-
tions recommended by Mr Rupp, are three parts of
manganese, eight of common salt, six of sulphuric
acid, and twelve of water ; but Mr f ennant pro-
poses equal parts of manganese, salt, and sulphuric
acid, and the quantity of water to be equal to the
bulk of the sulphuric acid. This, however, it is ob-
vious, must depend on its strength. In Ireland, six
parts of manganese with the same quantity of com-
mon salt, and five parts of sulphuric acid, diluted
with five parts of water, are the most common pro-
portions.

Oxymuriate of potash. — The combination of oxy-
muriatic acid with potash, which was effected by
Berthollet about the year 1788, and by Mr Higgins
of Dublin about the same time, was an essential im-
provement in the application of oxymuriatic acid to
the purposes of bleaching. It is somewhat slower
in its operation, but its effects are not less certain,
and the manipulations of the workmen, in conse-
quence of its offensive smell being obviated, are far
less disagreeable. The following are recommended
as the proportion of the ingredients for the prepara-
of this saline conipountl : A receiver of sixty gallons
capacity, English wine measure, is filled with a solu-
tion of caustic potash whose specific gravity is about
1015 ; a mixture of seven pounds of black oxide of
manganese, and ten pounds of comtnon salt, is brought

652

BLEACHING.

Of IJnen. to the consistence of thick paste with the addition of
a liltle water, and, beinfj intimately incorporated, is
introduced into tlie retort of the distilling apparatus.
The head of the retort is then secured in its place.
Eight pounds of sulphuric acid are gradually diluted
with an equal weight of water ; and when the mix-
ture cools, one half of it is poured into the retort by
means of a leaden funnel, through a small opening,
which is innnediately secured by a plug of lead, to
prevent the escape of the gas, which is copiously
evolved the moment that the diluted acid comes in
contact with the mixture of salt and manganese.
The sulphuric acid combines with the soda of the
common salt, the muriatic acid is set free, and, ac-
cording to the older chemical explanation of these
changes, unites with the oxygen ofthemanganese; and
in the form of oxymuriatic acid gas, as it passes through
the solution of potash in the receiver, enters into
combination with the alkali, and produces the oxy-
muriate of potash. It is usual to commence this
operation in the evening ; and in the morning when
the distillation diminishes, the remaining half of the
diluted sulphuric acid is introduced, an increased
evolution of gas takes place, and when it again falls
off the temperature is increased by means of a water
bath ; and when the process is finished, the solution
of oxymuriate of potash is drawn off from the re-
ceiver, and applied to use.

Oxymuriate of lime. — Mr Tennant's patent for the
preparation of liquid oxymuriate of lime being set
aside, as already noticed, that solution is usually pre-
pared by the bleachers themselves , the proportions of
the materials originally directed by Mr Tennant are,
30 pounds of common salt dissolved in 140 gallons
of water, wine measure, the object of which is to in-
crease the specific gravity of the water, and the so-
lution being com})leted, 60 pounds of quick lime in
the state of an impalpable powder are added ; 30
pounds of oxide of manganese, well incorporated
with an equal weight of common salt, are intro-
duced into the retort, and 30 pounds of sulphuric
acid, previously diluted with 18 pounds of water, are
poured upon the mixture. The distillation is con-
ducted iu the usual way, but it is recommended that
the contents of the receiver be constantly agitated,
to prevent the lime from subsiding.

But the preparation of oxymuriate of lime in the
solid form, for which Mr Tennant still retains the ex-
clusive privilege, is another essential improvement,
because it can be conveyed to a distance at a trifling
expence. When it is applied to use, the concrete
compound is dissolved in water by agitation, and
any insoluble matter contained in the lime is allowed
to fall to the bottom, and the liquor to become tran-
sparent. Before it is applied to the purpose of
bleaching, it is still more diluted with water.

The application of oxymuriatic acid gas, in com-
bination with potash or lime, to the purposes of
bleaching, is attended with very essential advanta-
ges ; for although the process be less rapid, yet its
gradual effect in destroying the colouring matter
and whitening the goods is not less effectual, while
at the same time it is neither offensive nor injurious
to the workmen who are engaged in the business, or
to those who superintend the operations.

Oxi/muriale of magnesia This compound has

been found highly beneficial in bleaching the white
grounds of printed cloth, and at the same time retain-
ing the different shades of colour unimpaired. In
preparing the oxymuriate of magnesia, the earth be-
ing reduced to as fine a state as possible, is diffused
in water and put into the receiver of the apparatus
which is usually employed in the distillation of oxy-
muriatic acid. One part of manganese is introduced
into the retort, and two parts of muriatic acid, of
1200 specific gravity, diluted with an equal bulk of
water, are poured on the manganese ; the operation
commences, and the oxymuriatic acid gas, as it passes
off, combines with the magnesia, which is kept diffus-
ed in the water of the receiver by occasional agita-
tion ; when the process ceases, and the insoluble impu-
rities have subsided, the transparent liquor is drawn oft'.

Strength of bleaching liquors. — In extensive bleach-
ing establishments, where the consumption of expen-
sive materials, even by the most careful management,
is very great, economy in their use must always be
of great importance. It is also a matter of no small
consideration to bring the substances which are em-
ployed in the different processes to the requisite de-
gree of strength, to avoid, on the one hand, an un-
necessary waste of labour by a repetition of the ope-
rations, and to obviate any risk of injury to the tex-
ture of the stuffs to be bleached. The strength of
simple alkaline solutions may be ascertained with suf-
ficient precision by determining their specific gravity
by means of the hydrometer ; and all that is necessary
in the application of the alkaline leys, that they may
produce their full effect, is to render the alkali em-
ployed as caustic as possible, and then to reduce it
to that state of dilution which the particular stage of
the process requires. The same remark is equally
applicable to the strength of the souring liquor, par-
ticularly when sulphuric acid is employed.

But in using some of the compounds of oxymuria-
tic acid, the test of the specific gravity is not equally
to be depended on, because, from the complicated
action of the different ingredients in the compound,
new substances, which indicate the same specific gra-
vity in the solution, make their appearance, and pro-
duce very different, and often injurious effects on the
stuffs subjected to their operation. In ascertaining
the strength of the solution of oxymuriate of lime,
the test of the specific gravity as it is indicated by
the hydrometer is not alone to be trusted, because a
solution of muriate of lime may have the same spe-
cific gravity, and not only produce a feeble effect in
the bleaching process, but may be actually injurious ;
for it has been found by experiment, that the fabric
of linen cloth boiled in this solution is greatly im-
paired. Beside the specific gravity, therefore, the
property of the solution in discharging vegetable
colours must be attended to. To ascertain the pro-
per degree of strength, a solution of indigo in sulphu-
ric acid is employed. In preparing this solution, one
part of the indigo, reduced to a fine powder, is di-
gested for several hours on a water bath, with eight
parts of concentrated sulphuric acid ; when the so-
lution is completed, a thousand parts of water are
added. One measure of this solution is introduced
into a graduated glass tube, and the bleaching liquor,

BLEACHING.

655

Of Linen, whose strength is to be ascertained, is poured in till
the colour entirely disappears. In this way the num-
ber of measures of the bleaching liquor requisite to
destroy the colour of the indigo is determined ; and
when the effect of any bleaching liquor on cotton or
linen goods has been ascertained by experiment, and
when it is known at the same time what number of
measures of the same liquor is necessary to destroy
the colour of the solution of indigo, the artist can al-
ways command a simple test to regulate the prepara-
tion of his liquors at any determinate strength. An
improvement of this 'test has been proposed by Mr
Rupp, who employs an acetate of indigo, which is
prepared by adding a solution of acetate or sugar of
lead to a solution of indigo in sulphuric acid, as
long as any precipitate is produced. The sulphate
of lead, which is insoluble, fells down, and the ace-
tate of indigo which remains in solution, is poured off
and preserved for use. An infusion of cochineal is
employed by some for a similar purpose.

Bleaching wit/i oxymuriate of lime. — When oxy-
muriate of lime is employed in bleaching linen gootls,
they are subjected to the same preliminary opera-
tions as in the old method. The bucking operations
are carried on to the fourth or fifth time ; but in-
stead of crofting or exposing the goods on the grass
for a certain time between each bucking operation,
they are subjected to washing with abundance of
water. They are then immersed in the solution of
oxymuriate of lime ; and after being washed with
pure water, they are introduced into the souring ves-
sels, again washed in waten and afterwards boiled
in the alkaline solution.

For linen goods, three immersions at least in the
solution of oxymuriate of lime are necessary. These
immersions are followed by the alternate operations
of souring and bucking, and between each of the in-
dividual processes the goods are to be well washed in
water.

When linen stuffs are bleached by this method,
they assume a yellowish colour, for the removal of
which it is necessary to expose them to the air for
a few days. The last operation to which they are
subjected is boiling for a short time in a diluted solu-
tion of< pearl-ashes and white soap. This operation
is not only necessary for finishing the goods, but tends
to destroy the disagreeable smell which usually ad-
heres to those stuffs which are bleached by oxymuri-
atic acid, or any of its compounds.

Sect. IV. Bleaching by Sleem.

Bleaching by steam, which, it is said, has been long
practised in eastern countries, was first proposed by
Chaptal in a memoir published in ISOl, a translation
of which soon after appeared in our own periodical
works. This method was tried near Paris and in Ire-
land about the same time. M. Bawens, the proprie-
tor of the manufactory of cotton thread and stuffs,
near Passy in France, made the first trial on 1500
ells of cloth intended for printing ; and the result of
the experiment proved highly satisfactory. The fol-
lowing directions for the management of this ope-
ration were given by Chaptal. The cotton, disposed
in handfuls, is first impregnated with a weak solution
of soda which has been rendered caustic by lime ;

the cotton is trod down in a wooden or stone trough Of Line».
containing the alkaline liquor ; and when it is uni-
formly penetrated, it is piled up on a wooden grate
within a copper boiler ; the redundant liquor flows
through the bars of the grate into the boiler, and
forms a stratum of fluid, which allows the mass to be
heated, without any risk of burning either the cot-
ton or the metal of the boiler. This arrangement
being made, the apparatus is closely shut up to pre-
vent the escape of the steam. The fire in the fur-
nace is lighted, and the heat is continued till the
whole of the liquid in the boiler has been converted
into vapour, the temperature of which, from its com-
pression in close vessels, is higher than that of boil-
ing water, and produces a proportional effect iu
whitening the cotton. After being exposed to the
steaming process, which in some cases is continued
for thirty-six hours, the cotton is carefully washed,
and exposed on the grass for a. few days, when it as-
sumes a great degree of whiteness ; but if any co-
loured portion remdin, a repetition of the steaming
operation, and of exposure to the air, removes it.

This method of bleaching is not confined to cot-
ton goods. A very successful experiment was made,
at the suggestion of Chaptal, at the manufactory of
M. Bawens, when 200 pairs of linen sheets, from the
hospital of Hotel Dieu, were scoured and whitened.
In the first experiment, 130 sheets were impregnated
with an alkaline ley, containing one hundredth part of
soda, were exposed ibr six hours to the action of
the steam, again impregnated with the alkaline so-
lution, and exposed for six hours more in the steam-
ing apparatus. The same operation was repeated a
third time ; and the clothes being rinsed in wa-
ter, with the addition of a small proportion of soap,
were completely freed from every kind of spot
or stain, and appeared of a pure white colour. In
a second experiment, a smaller proportion of soda
was employed, but with the addition of soap ; and
the cloth being treated in the same way the results
were still more satisfactory. The advantages of this
method appeared very considerable, both with regard
to the saving of time and expence. By numerous trials
which have been made in bleaching goods by this
method since it w^as first announced, it has been found,
that five steepings in the alkaline solution, with the
alternate operation of the steam-bath, are sufficient '
for bleaching cotton goods ; but nine steepings in
the alkaline ley, with the same number of steaming
operations, are requisite for whitening linen stuffs.
It has been properly suggested, that the method of
bleaching by steam may be essentially aided by
an occasional immersion of the goods in some of
the compounds of oxymuriatic acid. The objec-
tion which has been started against bleaching by
steam, from the danger of the apparatus bursting
by the elastic force of the confined vapour, is not
worthy of any attention. To what dangers are not
workmen exposed in a thousand other operations,
which are not less hazardous when the proper pre-
cautions to avoid injury are not observed.

It appears somewhat unaccountable, that after the
detailed description of the mode of bleaching by
steam, which was published both in the French and
British pt;riodical works, and the distinct view of

654

BLEACHING.

the whole process which is given in O'Reilly's Essay
on Bleaclung, a patent was granted, after the lapse
of a few years, to a bleacher in Dumbartonshire in
Scotland," for the exclusive right of a process ex-
actly sitnilar.

Chap. II. Oi Bleaching Cotton Stuffs.

The colouring matter which adheres to cotton
■when it is obtaine<l from the plant on which it is
produced, seems to be somewhat of an oily nature.
This greasy matter is removed by steeping it in a
weak alkaline ley, and afterwards washing it well in
running water. But however perfectly the washing
is performed, a small portion of earthy matter still
adheres to the fibres of the cotton. This matter is
easily removed by the use of a diluted solution of
sulphuric acid in water, and an after washing in pure
water to remove the redundant acid.

Sect. I. Of Bleaching Muslin.

The coarser kinds of muslin, after steeping and
washing, are boiled in a weak solution of pearl-ashes,
and after a second washing they are twice boiled
with soap alone ; they are then subjected to the
souring operation ; and after being well washed, to
remove the whole of the acid, they are again boiled
in soap, and after another washing, they are im-
mersed in a solution of oxymuriate of potash. The
boiling in soap, and the immersion in the ox3m)u-
riate of potash, are again repeated, until the goods
have acquired the requisite degree of whiteness,
when they are last of all soured, and washed in pure
water. The same processes are followed in bleach-
ing the finer kinds of muslin, excepting that soap
only is employed in the boiling operation, because
the pearl-ashes are apt to injure the texture of the
cloth when it is of a very fine fabric.

Coloured goods. — In bleaching cotton cloths, in
which fixed colours, such as turkey red, or indigo
blue, are dyed in the yarn before it is manufactured
into cloth, much precaution is necessary ; and be-
fore the effects of the different ingredients were un-
derstood by the practical bleacher, no small degree
of uncertainly prevailed in the result of the pro-
cesses to which the goods were necessarily subjected.
Cotton stuflfe which have permanent colours are first
steeped and washed in cold water, and after being
boiled with soap, and a second washing, they are
immersed in a solution of oxymuriate of potash of
moderate strength ; the same processes are re-
peated till a pure white colour is obtained, and the
operation is finished in the usual way by souring
and washing. In this manner, by proper manage-
ment of the different operations, the colours are so
far from being injured, that they are greatly im-
proved in delicacy and brilliancy.

Ginghams, or other stufis of which the yarn of the
white part has been previously bleached, require few-
er operations ; after being steeped and washed, to re-
move the paste or dressing, they are again washed
and slightly boiled with soap, rinsed in pure water,
soured, and washed.

Driving mtislin. — In extensive bleaching establish-
ments much inconvenience and delay arose in bleach-

ing large quantities of muslin, especially in the win- of Coiioa.
ter season, and when the time for finishing them for v_ -^r*
the market was limited, from the want of sufficient ~ '" ^
means for drying the goods. An ingenious contriv-
ance of Mr Burns of Paisley completely'obviates this
inconvenience, and enables the manufacturer to bring
his goods to the market at all seasons of the year, how-
ever unfavourable may be the state of the weather.
Mr Burns's discovery consists in the elegant appli-
cation of a beautiful chemical process, in which
great dispatch and perfect safety to the goods are
happily combined. The apparatus for conducting
this operation is equally simple as the process itself.
Hollow cylinders of tin plate are prepared, of such
a length as to correspond with the breadth of the
cloth to be dried, the pieces of muslin are rol-
led upon these cylinders, which are then filled with
the vapour of water, and are so contrived that the
escape of the steam is precluded. The chemical
reader will be at no loss to perceive the change
which takes place, and the effect of this fortunate
application of science to the purposes of art. The
large proportion of heat which retains the water in
the state of vapour, is given off to the cylinder, and
the wet cloth which is wound upon it. The moisture
of the cloth is converted into vapour, and is driven
off, or, in other words, tiie cloth is dried. Deprived
of its heat, the steam or vapour confined within the
cylinder returns to the state of water, and the tem-
perature of the apparatus is consequently diminish-
ed ; and when this happens, the water is let off, and
the cylinder is charged with a new portion of steam.

Sect. II. Bleaching Cloth Jor Calico Printing.

In bleaching cloth which is to be printed, a less
pure white is required, but at the same time the
stuffs must be perfectly freed from the colouring or
other matter, which would prevent the goods from
receiving and retaining the colours with which they
are to be printed. The alkaline ley in which the
stuffs are to be bucked, should be made moderately
caustic by means of quicklime, that the fabric of the
cloth may sustain no injury, and the solution should
remain at rest for some time till it become quite
transparent ; for if any particles of lime remain in
it, and be fixed on the cloth, the colour of those
parts which are to be left white never retains the re-
quisite clearness.

When linen cloth is to be prepared in this manner
for printing, ten or twelve bucking operations %vith
the alkaline ley are necessary. Between each ope-
ration it is well washed, and exposed for some time
on the grass ; at the end of the sixth bucking it is
immersed in the souring liquor, and the same process
is repeated as the concluding operation, when it is
supposed to be sufficiently white for the purpose of
printing.

Test nf bleaching for calico printing. — It is extreme-
ly convenient for the manufacturer to have an easy
test, which enables him to detemiine when the cloth is
sufficiently bleached for printing. This is easily as-
certained by cutting off a small stripe from the end
of one of the pieces, and printing with the mordant
which is to be employed in fixing the colour. It is
then allowed to remain for some time that the mor-

BLEACHING.

655

Of Cotton, dant may adhere to the fibres of the cloth, after
■~ ~ which it is well washed to remove the redundant
particles, and then introduced into a weak madder
bath, the heat of which is gradually increased, and
the cloth is alternately immersed and exposed to the
air, till the depth of shade required be obtained.
If the bleachint: process be properly conducted, that
part of the clolh lo which the mordant was applied
combines with the colouring matter of the madder ;
but if those parts of the cloth which are intended to
remain white assume a faint red hue, the bleaching
process is imperfect and must be resumed.

As in other cases the bleaching of cotton cloth
for calico printing is a less tedious operation, the
same processes are followed, but a less quantity of
matevials is employed in the solution ; five or six
bucking operations are generall)' sufficient, and the
same test to ascertain the perfection of the bleach-
ing may be adopted.

Jn Lancashire the boiling is usually continued for
eight or ten hours ; and the same process, with the
intervention of tliorough washing, is repeated two or
three times. After the second boiling, some bleachers
subject the goods to the soui ing process, while others
defer it till after the fourth or fifth boiling. In
repeating the boilings, the strength of the alkaline
ley is diminished at every succeeding operation.
The cloth is then exposed on the grass for two or
three days ; but as a substitute for the exposure, or
to abridge the time, it is immersed in oxymuriate of
Hme for about twelve hours, after which it is soured
with sulphuric acid diluted with ibrty times its weight
of water. Careful washing with successive portions
of water is then practised, after which the cloth is
hung up in the drying-houses, through which a cur-
rent of atmospheric air constantly flows.

As cloth of a finer fabric is usually employed for
printing with finer and more delicate colours, it is
found necessar)' to repeat the boiling process oftener,
and generally once or twice more ; but the solution
of potash employed is still more reduced in its
strength for these additional boilings. In some
bleaching establishments, where cloth is prepared
for calico printing on a large scale, the pieces are
subjected to powerful pressure after each process of
bucking, souring, or bleaching. In some works the
cloth is passed through a pair of wooden rollers, of
sycamore or plane tree ; and in others, the powerful
agency of Bramah's hydrostatic press is employed
for the same purpose. By this pressure the remain-
ing liquor is forced out along with the impurities
which have been loosened from the fibres of the cloth
by the previous process, and all the pieces are brought
to a uniform state of dryness.

The method of bleaching calicoes for printing, in
some parts of Scotland, is somewhat different ; tlie
goods are first steeped in pure water, and then passed
through rollers to force out the loosened impurities.
After four boilings, for ten or twelve hours each time,
in a caustic alkaline ley of the specific gravity, from
1.0127 to 1.0156, and alternate washings, they are
immersed in a solution of oxymuriate of potash, of
the specific gravity of 1.0625, which is still farther
reduced in strength by the addition of twenty-four
times its bulk of water. Having remained about

twelve hours in this solution, the goods, while yet of Cotiop

wet, are sometimes exposed on the grass for two or v^^v'V''

three days, and after being five or six hours in the

soiu'ing liquid they are completely washed. After

four more boilings, with alternate washings, they are

again steeped in the diluted oxymuriate of potash,

and being again well washed are passed through the

souring liquor for half an hour. The last operation

is a repetition of the washing with abundance of pure

water, after which the goods are placed in the drying

sheds without artificial heat.

Bleaching printed calico. — Those parts of print-
ed cloth which remain white, have seldom that
clearness and purity of colo'ir which are required,
and must therefore undergo some process of bleach-
ing before it is fit for the market. This dullness is
supposed to arise from the previous imperfect bleach-
ing, or from a portion of the mordant adhering to the
fibres of the cloth while in the water bath. On ac-
count of the delicacy of the colours which are applied
to calicoes, powerful re-agents cannot be employed
in whitening the unprinted parts. The oxymuriate
of lime is altogether inadmissible, because it affects all
the colours, and entirely discharges some of them.
The oxymuriate of potash, when eniployed in a very
diluted solution, is less active in its effects, but stiil
it diminishes the intensity of the colours. Il is there-
fore a matter of great importance in bleaching print-
ed calicoes, to employ a substance which, without ini-
pairing their brilliancy, shall completely clear the
white grounds, and also save the time which was
formerly required of exposing the goods on the grass.
For this purpose the oxymuriate of soda has beeu
successfully employed. The solution is copiously di-
luted with warm water, and the maddered pieces are
introduced into it, and allowed to remain till the
white grounds are completely cleared.

The oxymuriate of magnesia has been employed
for the same purpose with still better success ; for,
while the brilliancy of the colours is fully retained,
the white ground is thoroughly purified. This coiu-
jiound, the method of preparing which has been al-
ready noticed, is dissolved in water raised to the
temperature of 165° Fahrenheit, in such ([uantity '

as shall just afford a perceptible taste to the solution,
which being well agitated, the printed goods, alter
being slightly browned, are rapidly run over a winch
into the copper, and the operation, which usually
requires only a few minutes, is continued till the
ground is of a pure white. The cloth is then wash-
ed in a stream of water, that the adhering particles
of the saline compound may not injure the colours.
By adding a small proportion of the salt into the so-
lution, the same process may be repeated on other
parcels of the printed goods.

Test of good bleaching The prejudice which at

one time was very strong against the new method,
or chemical bleaching, as it is called, is perhaps not
yet entirely removed ; but beside the advantages in
the saving of time and labour, and, in consequence,
of the improvement of the processes since its first
introduction in the saving of materials, it ought to be
generally known, that the actual waste of the cloth
itself by the old practice was not less than li-om 33
to 35 per cent. ; but by the new method it rarely

656

BT;E ACHING.

Of CottoB. exceeds 26 or 27 pcf cent. This excessive waste, it
is obvious, must have arisen from the tedious opera-
tions, and from the long exposure on the'grass to wliich
cloth was necessarily subjected in the older method
of bleacliing ; but at the same time it must be ad-
mitted, that, from carelessness or inattention in the
use of the very active substances which are employ-
ed by the modern bleacher, the risk of injury to the
fabric of the cloth is considerable; while, on the
other hand, under the direction of an intelligent su-
perintendant, who is acquainted with the nature and
property of the re-agents which he employs, and
with the ordinary attention of the workmen, the
whole process may be conducted with the utmost
safety to the texture of the goods.

But for the satisfaction of the purchaser and con-
sumer, it is extremely desirable to have a certain
test of cloth being bleached without injury. A test
of this kind is employed by the manufacturers of
thread and cotton stockings in England. A thread
of a very dark blue colour, or of turkey red, is run
along the head of each stocking, and when the
bleaching is properly managed, a perfect white is
obtained, while the brilliancy of the colour is undi-
minished ; but if the re-agents employed, particularly
the oxymuriate of lime, be of excessive strength, the
colours are impaired, and the texture of the goods, it
is probable, is likewise injured. A test of the same
kind has been judiciously recommended for all kinds
of goods ; and it has been proposed, that a line of
coloured thread should be run along the edge of the
cloth for this purpose.

Sect. III. Bleaching of Hosiery.

The preliminary operation in bleaching linen or
■ cotton stockings, is to free them from the oily mat-
ters which are employed in weaving. For this pur-
pose they are scoured in a scalding hot solution of
soap in water, and afterwards well washed in pure
water, which is to be renewed till all the impurities
are removed. They are then boiled in an alkaline
ley composed of one pound of American pearl-ash
to one hundred gallons of water. After being boil-
ed in this weak solution, they are washed in pure
water, and then immersed in the solution of oxy-
muriate of lime, in the proportion of seven or eight
quarts of the liquid, as it is distilled, to twenty gal-
lons of water ; and after remaining an hour and a
half, or two hours, they are well washed in cold
water, again immersed in the bleaching hquid, and
again boiled in the alkaline solution. The alternate
operations of steeping in the solution of the oxymu-
riate of lime, and boiling in the alkaline ley, are
usually repeated four times, when they are found to
be sufficiently whitened. The goods are then steep-
ed in a very diluted sour, composed of sulphuric
acid, in which they remain for three hours, and some
times for a longer period. When they are taken from
the sours, they are washed several times in fresh
portions- of water, to separate any remains of the
acid, which would injure the texture of the fibres
were they allowed to become dry before this rinsing
operation is thoroughly completed. To obviate any
risk of this injurious effect, they are immersed in
a hot solution composed of four pounds of white soap

and one pound of pearl-ashes dissolved in ISO gallons
of water. By this scalding process, as it is called, the
offensive odour of the oxyniuriatic acid preparation is
destroyed, and an agreeable softness is communicat-
ed to the fabric of the stuffs. Scouring in soap and
water, succeeded by repeated washings in cold wa-v
ter, finishes the bleaching process, which is immedi-
. ately followed bj' the operation of what is technically
denominated gelling up. After being immersed in
hot water, to which a small quantity of soap and a
little indigo have been added, they are again scoured
with a stronger solution of soap, from which they are
completely purified by another washing in cold wa-
ter. The coarser kinds of goods of this description
are steeped in indigo and water alone ; but for
hosiery of a finer fabric, a very hot solution of soap,
beside the addition of the indigo, is employed ; and
this application, it is found, botli improves the colour
and communicates a fine gloss.

Dried completely in a stove, by means of artificial
heat, the stockings are introduced into the brimstone
stove, and exposed to the action of sulphurous acid
gas, produced by the combustion of sulphur, without
which operation, when they are laid up for some
time, they are apt to assume a yellovv ish shade ; but
the precaution should be strictly observed of not
subjecting them to the vapours of sulphur in a damp
state, lest the condensed sulphurous acid should in-
jure the fabric, or, from the unequal portions of mois-
ture, should not act uniformly, and thus produce
clouds or spots on different parts of the surface.
The finishing operation of dressing is performed af-
ter they are taken from the brimstone stove, by
slightly damping with water, and drawing each stock-
ing separately on a stocking-leg board, and either
smoothing them by the hand with a hot iron, or sub-
jecting them to a strong press.

Chap. III. Of Bleaching the Materials or
Papeh.

Soon after the powerful effects of muriatic acid
were known, the French chemists and manufacturers
applied it to the bleaching of the materials of which
paper is composed. The processes adopted for this
purpose were necessarily modified, according to the
nature of the substances, and the impurities which
adhered to them.

Old printed and ivriften papers. — In the prepara-
tion of jirinted paper which is again to be worked
up, it is boiled for a short time in a caustic solu-
tion of soda, after which it is steeped in a solu-
tion of soap and water, well washed, and then re-
duced to a pulp by the usual machinery.

Old written papers which are intended for the
same purpose are immersed in a cold solution of
sulphuric acid in water, and after being washed
are subjected to the operation of the paper-mill.
The action of the acidulated water is more power-
ful when the temperature is moderately increased.

Bleaching rags. — The bleaching of rags for the
manufacture of paper is varied according as they
are of a natural brown colour, or have been dyed
with some artificial colour. In the first case, the
rags are opened or separated from each other, ma-

BLEACHING.

657

Of Paper, cerated in water, steeped in a caustic alkaline ley,
s«^~v'^' and then exposed to the action of oxyniuriatic acid,
more or less concentrated with an alkali. But when
the rags have been dyed or printed of difFercnt co-
lours, they are first opened or separated, and then
immersed in the oxyniuriatic acid solution ; and if
the colour should not be sufficiently discharged by
the first immersion, they are passed through water
acidulated with sulphuric acid ; and if the process
should still be incomplete, a second application of
the alkaline, oxyniuriatic acid, and sulphuric acid
solutions, in succession, becomes necessary.

Bleaching the pulp. — A better method of purifying
the materials for the manufacture of white paper
was fortunately adopted by the same chemist, in
the application of the gas to them in the state of
pulp or paste. — Much inconvenience arose to the
workmen employed, from the offensive and suffo-
cating fumes of the oxyniuriatic acid gas, when
it was used in the uncombined state. This incon-
venience was obviated by adding a certain propor-
tion of potash, so that a solution of oxymuriate of
potash was the bleaciiing liquor ; but another dif-
ficulty arose from the cohesive nature of the pulp
or paste when it was reduced to that state of minute
division which rendered it fit for the fabrication of
the paper, for it soon subsided in the bath and pre-
vented the uniform action of the liquid upon every
part of the mass. This difficulty was removed by
subjecting the materials to the bleaching process,
after the texture of the rags was so far destroyed as
to separate the fibres, without reducing them to that
state of minute division which is necessary before
they are worked up. By this management of the
materials, paper of a pure white was obtained.

Bleaching of printed or writ/en. papers. — Should it
be required to bleach printed or written papers with-
out destroying the texture of the leaves, in the first
case they may be steeped in a caustic solution of
soda, either hot or cold, and afterwards in a solution
of soap ; they are then arranged alternately between
cloths, in the way which the paper manufacturer
follows, and are then subjected to pressure. If a suf-
ficient degree of whiteness is not efl'ected by the first
operation, the process may be repeated a second,
and even a third time, when it appears necessary ;
and after being dried and pressed, the bleached
leaves are applied to the same purposes as formerly.

In bleaching old written paper, with the intention
of preserving its texture and again applying it to use,
the leaves are steeped in a souring liqirid prepared
with sulphuric acid. The solution may be either
hot or cold, as the condition of the written papers
may require. They are then immersed in the oxy-
niuriatic acid solution, and after being dried and
pressed are again fit for use.

Cleaning prints, Sfc. — Prints, maps, and books, are
cleaned and whitened by the action of oxyniuriatic
acid gas, and the safest mode of its application is in
the liquid form, but particular attention must be paid
to the management of the process and the strength
of the solution, that the texture of the paper may
not be injured. For cleaning an engraving, immer-
sion in the liquid oxymuriatic acid is all that is ne-

VOL. I. PART JI.

cessary, and it is allowed to remain for a shorter or of Bees vax
longer time according to the strength of the liquor, s.^v'^h^

When the paper of a bound book is to be whiten-
ed, the leaves must be carefully separated from each
other, that the action of the acid may be uniform on
both sides ; and for this purpose the book is opened,
and the boards are made to rest on the edge of the
vessel, that the leaves only may be immersed in the
liquid. At the end of two or three hours the book
is removed from the acid, and carefully immersed in
pure water, that every part of the paper may come
in contact with it, the whole of the remaining acid
may be extracted, and the offensive odour may be
removed. With this view, it is necessary to renew
the water every hour.

But a more effectual method of whitening the
leaves is to unsew the book, and to place the separated
leaves in cases formed in a leaden tub, with thin slips
of wood or glass, so that the leaves when laid flat
are separated from each other by very small inter-
vals. The prepared liquid is then gently poured in
that the leaves may not be disturbed, and when they
are sufficiently whitened the liquid is drawn off by a
stop-cock, fresh water is added, and if necessary
renewed, to carry off the remains of the acid, and
the leaves are dried, pressed, and again bound up.
By this process some valuable books have been ef-
fectually cleaned.

Spots of oil or animal grease may be removed by
means of a weak solution of potash ; and similar spots
or stains of wax may be effectually extracted by an-
other method. The paper which is stained witli
grease,\vax, oil, or any other fat body, is first to be
gently warmed, and as much of the oily matter is to
be removed by means of blottiiig paper as will ad-
here to it. A small brush dipped in hot essAitial
oil of turpentine is then gently drawn over both sides
of the paper, which nuist still be kept warm ; the
operation is to be repeated according to the thick-
ness of the paper and the quantity of oily matter
which it has imbibed. The whiteness of the paper-
may be restored by dipping another brush in higlily
rectified spirit of wine, and drawing it over the stain-
ed spot, and more especially round its edges. By the
cautious use of these means, the spot entirely disap-
pears, and the paper recovers its original whiteness.

Chap. IV, Of Bleaching Bees-Wax.

The time of bleaching bees-wax has been also
greatly abridged by the discovery of the new me-
thod. It was formerly the practice to expose the
wax in the form of thiji cakes to the action of the
air and weather ; but the great saving of time ren-
ders the use of the oxymuriatic acid preferable.

The simple acid is employed in the bleaching of
wax, and the effect is most powerful when it is ap-
plied in the gaseous form. A pneumatic tub, well
secured with a close cover, to prevent the escape of
the gas, is employed for this purpose. This vessel
is filled with water, and the wax, which is to be
shred into thin pieces, being introduced, a current of
the oxymuriatic acid gas is passed through the wa-
ter, which is to be kept in constant agitation by
4, p

658

BLEACHING.

•rwooj.

means of the usual apparatus. This operation is
continued for an hour or two, at tlie end of which
time the wax is generally found sufficiently whiten-
ed, and being removed from the water it is melted
down and formed into cakes.

Chap. V. Of Bleaching Wool.

As wool is an animal production, it contains a
large proportion of those elements which enter into
the composition of animal matters. The affinity
which exists between the different constituents of
animal substances, is more feeble than the affinity
of the elements of vegetables, so that tliey are more
liable to decomposition by chemical agents ; and
hence alkalies and acids have a powerful action on
animal productions.

Chemical analysis shews, that wool contains car-
bonate of ammonia and a considerable proportion of
oily matter. It is little changed by exposure to the
air ; boiling water scarcely produces any action upon
it ; a strong heat reduces it to a state of fusion.
Acids have httle effect ; but the alkalies in their
caustic state entirely decompose it, and form soap.

In bleaching wool, it is subjected to two opera-
tions ; the first is scouring, and the second is sul-
phuring or whitening.

Sect. I. Of Scouring Wool.

By the operation of scouring, the oily matter which
is combined with the wool is separated, which is
necessary before it can be subjected to the pro--
cesses by which it is whitened. For this purpose, a
mixture of five parts of river or soft water, with
one part of stale chamber-ley, is prepared, by boiling
for a short time. As the latter ingredient contains
a considerable portion of ammonia, the mixture is to
be regarded as an ammoniacal solution, the effects
of which are less active than those of the other
alkalies.

After steeping the wool for a short time in this
solution, it is stirred about for a quarter of an hour,
or twenty minutes, that the whole of the greasy
matter may come in contact with the solution, and be
removed. The wool, placed in a basket, is allowed
to drain ; and the liquid which passes off" is returned
to the steeping vessel. The wool is then perfectly
washed in a stream of pure water, till the water
passes off" quite clear. The same processes of steep-
ing and washing are repeated until the wool has ac-
quired that degree of whiteness which it is capable of
receiving from this operation.

In steeping fresh quantities of wool, as the power
of the bath is weakened, it is necessary to add a
fresh quantity of the ley. The temperature also may
be increased to render it more effectual ; but it is ne-
cessary, at the same time, to , observe caution in this
management, for too high a temperature renders
the greasy inatter difficult of solution, and the wool
becomes harsh when too much of the ley is em-
ployed. But the openness, elasticity, softness, and
whiteness of the wool, afi'ord the proper tests of the
process being properly conducted. The loss of
weight which it sustains in scouring is sometimes
more than fifty per cent. ; but the amount of this loss

varies according to the nature of tlic wool, and the of "Wool
impurities with which it is contaminated.

For finer kinds of wool, a more expensive process
is followed : A bath is prepared of black soap dis-
solved in boiling water ; and after the wool has been
washed in this bath, it is wrung out, and exposed to
the air or sunshine to dry. A second scouring is
necessary to clear it entirely of the oily matter, be-
fore it is fit for coiubing ; and after it has undergone
this operation, if a very pure white be required, two
or three additional washings are sometimes necessary.

Sect. II. Of Sulphiinng Woollen Stuffs.

For many purposes a brighter white is requisite
than can be obtained by the process of scouring.
Thi-s is eff"ected by exposing it to the action of sul-
phurous acid. The operation of sulphuring is ge-
nerally performed on the woollen stuff' when it is in
the state of cloth ; and it is conducted in the follow-
ing manner.

The pieces of cloth are arranged on poles in a
close apartment, and a quantity of sulphur, in broad
flat vessels, is set on fire, and burns gradually in the
chamber, which is made so tight that none of the
vapour can escape. The fumes of the sulphur, which
is now in the state of sulphurous acid gas, penetrate
the pores of the cloth, and completely destroy the
colouring matter. This operation requires i"rom six to
twenty-four hours ; and by passing the cloth through
a bath in which a small portion of soap has been dis-
solved, the roughness and harshness which are left
by the actitm of the vapours of the sulphur are re-
moved.

But on examining woollen stuffs whitened in this
way, it was found that the effect of the vapour
was confined to the surface of the goods. To pro-
duce a more perfect and more permanent whiteness,
the sulphurous acid dissolved in water is recom-
mended and employed for this purpose. The appa-
ratus which is used in the preparation of liquid sul-
phurous acid, is similar in its construction to that
which is employed in the production of oxymuriatic
acid. The most economical method of decomposing
the sulphuric acid, for the purpose of obtaining sul-
phurous acid gas, is to take a quantity of chopped
straw, saw-dust, or some similar substance, winch
being introduced into a matrass, sulphuric acid is
poured upon it, and the vapour which is evolved is
conducted into a series of vessels with water in the
apparatus alluded to. When the water is sufficiently
saturated with the gas, it is drawn oft' into the vessel
in which the stuff's are to be immersed. When wool-
len stuff's are bleached by this method, they are first
scoured in a weak alkaline ley, in which the propor-
tion of potash is not more than one pound to fifty
pounds of wool, and the temp'-rature of the bath is
raised to about 100" Fahrenheit. After scouring,
the goods are washed in a warm solution of soap ;
and when a high degree of whiteness is wished for,
a second, and sometimes a third washing in the soapy
solution is required before the process of sulphuring
is employed. The stulfs are then passed through the
bath impregnated with sulphurous acid, and the
operation is continued, by means of a winch, till the
proper degree of whiteness is obtained. This is usu-

BLEACHING.

(559

ally effected in two or three lioui's at a single inimer-
s'on. Tiie stuffs arc tlien drained on a table, whicli is
closely covered up with a cloth, to prevent the ac-
tion of the air on the sulphurous acid, which, by
the change produced on it, might injure them ; they
are then well washed in running water, and some
times steeped in water in which Spanish whitening
is diffused, with the addition of a small quantity of
indigo or Prussian bllie, to improve tlie whiteness.

Chap. VI. Of Bleaching Silk.

Silk is an animal production, which is prepared by
the silk worm, for its cover, in that state which
precedes its appearance as a perfect insect. It is
then said to be in its raw state, and is covered with
a yellow varnish, or gum, which renders it rough
and liard, and impairs its lustre. Water, even at the
boiling temperature, produces no change on silk,
and alcohol has no effect upon it ; but alkaline leys,
of sufficient strength, dissolve it, as well as the yel-
low varnish witli which it is covered.

Sect. I. Of Scouring Silk,

In conducting the process of scouring silk, thirty
pounds of soap are dissolved in water for every hun-
dred pounds of the silk. To complete the solution
the water is kept some time at the boiling tempera-
ture ; but, before the immersion of the silk, the tem-
perature is reduced to 90° of Fahrenheit; and it is kept
at the same degree during the wliole of the process.
The silks, suspended on rods or frames, are immers-
ed in the liquid, and allowed to remain till the gum
is entirely dissolved ; and that every part of the stuff
may be exposed to the action of the bath, their posi-
tion should be occasionally changed. They are then
wrung out and well shaken, put into coarse linen bags,
in separate parcels of twenty or thirty pounds each,
and again steeped in a fresh bath, prepared with a
small proportion of soap. They are boiled in this
bath for two or three hours, and often stirred up with
a stick, to prevent the bags from adhering to the
bottom of the boiler. The silk is then wrung out
and well washed in a stream of water ; and if the
bleaching be not uniformly perfect, immersion in the
bath must be repeated.

Steeping in the lukewarm bath is not required for
silks which are to be dyed; the boiling is considered
sufficient ; but a larger proportion of soap is employ-
ed according to the fineness of the colour. For
common colours, thirty pounds of soap for every
hundred pounds of silk are found to answer ; but for
the poppy, cherry-red, and some other colours, fifty
pounds of soap to every hundred pounds of silk are
necessary.

Bleaching bi/ steam In the processes of scouring,

which have been just described, the silk stuffs are
apt to suffer in their texture. To obviate this incon-
venience it has been proposed to bleach them by the
action of steam. The apparatus for bleaching cot-
ton by the same process is employed. The boiler is
filled with a weak solution of caustic soda ; the raw
silk is placed on the frames, and it is exposed to
the steam of the liquid, which is raised by boiling for
ten or twelve hours. By the action of this vapour,
2

tlie temperature of which is about 250° Fahren. the
gum of the silk is removed, and the stuff itself is
whitened. After washing with warm water, and be-
ing well wrung, the silk is again placed on the frames
of the apparatus, and subjected to a second steaming.
The washing in a large quantity of water is repeated ;
and, to give softness to the stuff, rinsing in water,
slightly impregnated with soap, is employed.

Sect. II. Bleaching Process.

Although silk stuff, arc considerably whitened by
the different operations of scouring now detailed, a
brighter lustre is required for most purposes. To
produce the most perfect whiteness they are exposed
to the action of sulphurous acid, according to the
method which is practised in bleaching wool ; and in
this case also the whitening process, by means of
this acid, is conducted by using it either in the state
of gas or in the liquid form, and the same apparatus
answers the purpose.

Sect. III. Of Bleaching with Alcohol.

The method of bleaching silk, without destroying
the gum, was long ago proposed by the French. In
this process, spirit of wine and muriatic acid are em-
ployed. The bleaching liquor is prepared by mix-
ing a pound of alcohol with an ounce of muriatic
acid ; and the quantity to be prepared in the same
proportions should be sufficient to float the silk.
The stuff to be bleached is introduced into a glass
vessel along with the liquid, and, being closely co-
vered up, is exposed for twelve hours to the sun, or
to a corresponding temperature in the shade for
double the length of that time. The silk is then ta-
ken out, pressed, and again steeped in a fresh por-
tion of the same liquid, and for the same length of
time. It is then taken out, pressed, and washed for
a few minutes in pure spirit of wine. Placed in a
third vessel with pure alcohol, it is kept for twenty-
four hours in the sun, or thirty-six hours in the
shade, and the alcohol, as it evaporates, is renewed.
The silk is then taken out, pressed, and washed two
or three times in fresh portions of pure water ; and,
last of all, it is dried on a frame, upon which it ought
to be strongly stretched to prevent its curling.

But as this is obviously an expensive process, in
consequence of the high price of the materials, ano-
ther method has been proposed, by which the alco-
hol employed may be recovered. This method was
proposed by Baume, a French chemist. In gauzes
and some other fabrics of silk, it is necessary to pre-
serve the natural elasticity and stiffness, and at the
same time give a proper degree of whiteness. This
is effected by destro3ing the yellow colour of the
silk, and at the same time retaining the gum.

By the usual management of the balls, or co-
coons of silk, as they are produced by the insect,
they are introduced into an oven, and exposed to
the temperature of about 158° Fahrenheit, for two
hours, for the purpose of destroying the insect be-
fore it has time to eat its way through the ball.
By this process of baking it was observed, that it
was more difficult to wind off the silk, which be-
sides becomes hard, inferior in quality, smaller in
quantity, and less susceptible of a fine lustre. T«

OfSilV.

G60

BLEACHING.

Of Silk, obviate these disadvantages, M. Baunie thought of
destroying tlie insect by means of spirit of wine. The
cocoons are arranged in a wooden bos, in a stratum
of six inciies deep, and about half a pint of spirit of
wine is sprinkled upon them ; tiiey are then mixtd
by tlie hand, another stratum is placed over the first,
which is iVso sprinkled uniformly with the same liquid.
Proceeding in this way, the box is filled, covered up,
and allowed to remain for twenty-four hours, during
which the heat is increased, and the spirituous vapour
destroys the insects, after which the balls are spread
out to dry. The spirit of wine which is preserved in
glass vessels, or in those of pure tin, or tinned cop-
per, only should be employed in this process. Lead-
en vessels should never be used, and wooden ves-
sels are apt to tinge the spirit, which coniii]unicates
a colour to the sLk that is not easily removed in the
bleaching process.

The cost of the spirit of wine employed in this
•process, it is observed, is fully compensated by the
saving of labour and fuel, and by the greater produce
of silk of a superior quality. It possesses, besides,
another advantage, that the cocoons in which the in-
sects have perished before being exposed to the ac-
tion of the spirit of wine, are more easily distinguish-
ed, and as they aftbrd a much worse silk, they ought
to be separated from the rest.

The cocoons are immersed in water nearly at the
boiling temperature, and the silk is then wound off
upon a reel. The water employed in silk manufac-
tories, it is properly observed, should be of the pur-
est quality ; and the alum which is used in some coun-
tries ought to be rejected ; for no saline substance
contributes any thing to the beauty or colour of the
silk, and in many cases it may prove injurious. Af-
ter the silk is wound upon the reel, and the threads
separated, which are apt to stick together at the four
places where they come in contact with the arms,
which is done by soaking it in warm water for about
two hours, and opening the bands upon a pin, and
lightly rubbing the coherent parts, it is dried, loosely
folded in its original form, and is then ready for the
bleaching process.

Method of bleaching. — A stone-ware vessel, of a
Conical form, of twelve gallons capacity, and having
a large opening at one end, with a smaller one of
about an inch in diameter at the other end, is cm-
plo3'ed for the purpose of bleaching silk according
to this method. This vessel must be of such a na-
ture as shall not be acted upon by the liquids, and
must be entirely free from pores, that no part of the
inclosed liquor shall be lost by leakage. To re-
move the asperities on the inner surface, which might
entangle and break the threads, it is to be rubbed
and smoothed with pumice-stone ; and a cover, of
the same material as -the jar itself, is carelully fitted
by grinding. When this vessel is employed it is in-
Terted ; and the smaller aperture, which is then low-
est, is furrtished witli a cork, tlirough which a glass
tube, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, passes,
for the purpose of drawing oft' the liquid when the
process is completed. A |)erforatfcd false bottom is
introduced within the jar to prevent the tube from
being obstructed. The jar is supported by a wooden
ft iuuc, immediately under \yhich is placed a cask to

receive the liquid as it passes off through the glass of SiBc.
tube in the several periods of the bleaching opera-
tion ; and the apparatus is so contrived that the li-
quor is conveyed through glass tubes to the receiv-
ing vessel below, that it may not be exposed to the
air, by which part would be dissipated by evapora-
tion.

The proportions of the mixture employed in
bleaching silk by this method are, twelve pounds of
spirit of wine to three ounces of pure muriatic acid.
The silk being disposed in the stone vessel, the liquid
is poured upon it, and allowed to remain for twen-
ty-four hours, when it is run off, and clean spirit of
wine is poured upon the silk, and repeatedly drawn
off till it passes colourless. The silk being allowed to
drain, is ready for a second infusion,, with a fresh
portion of the liquid, composed of the same propor-
tions of spirit and acid ; and it remains in this infu-
sion for one, two, or three days, and even a long-
er period, till the silk become perfectly white. This
mixture being drawn off, clean spirit is sprinkled up-
on the silk, while it is at the same time pressed down
with the hand; and when the spirit comes off co-
lourless, an infusion of spirit, without acid, in the
same proportion as in the two first infusions, is pour-
ed upon the silk ; and after remaining for twenty-
four hours, the silk is left to drain, when it is sprink-
led with a small quantity of pure water, and this is
continued till the water passes off colourless and taste-
less. To separate the remaining portions of the mu-
riatic acid, the silk is loosely put into a coarse wool-
len bag, which is still farther secured by means of
another bag, and placed in a basket, which is left for
fi-ve or six hours in a stream of water, or, where this
is wanting, water may be pumped upon a cloth co-
ver, and allowed to pass through the stone-jar for
the same time, or until no indications of acid ap-
pear in the liquid as it drains oft".

Recovery of the alcohol. — The expensive nature of
the materials employed in bleaching silk by this pro-
cess, soon suggested the means of recovering or re-
storing it to a state of purity ; and for this purpose two
methods have been proposed. In the first method the
acid is saturated with potash, to allow the distillation
to be performed in a copper vessel, and fs lost ; and
in the second the distillation is conducted with a sil-
ver or glass apparatus, which is not acted upon by
the acid, and in this way the acid itself is saved.

The first method is considei"ed the most economical
in a manufactory. A solution of potash is added to the
acid spirit, which is agitated to promote the saturation,
which is ascertained by the fluid no longer reddening
the tincture of turnsole, or any other test of acids.
When the potash is added, strong effervescence, with
the evolution of carbonic acid, takes place. The dis-
tillation is then to be carried on in the apparatus of
cepper, and the alcohol obtained is received and pre-
served in proper vc.=sels. If too much of the alkali
shall have been added, the liquor remaining after the
distillation is completed may be employed for the sa-
turation of another portion of acidulated spirit. In
the view of still greater economy in the process for
the recovery of the alcohol, chalk and quicklime
were employed as substitutes for the potash. But it
was found that the calcareous earth united very slow-

BLEACHING.

661

ly or imperfectly with the acid ; for when the fluid
was very largely diluted with water, the saturatibn
was scarcely completed in five or six weeks.

By the second process, when the distillation is con-
ducted without alkali, glass retorts ai-e charged with
the acidulated spirit, and are arranged on the sand-
bath in the gallery of a furnace. The first product
has little acidity, but the portions which afterwards
come oft' become gradually more acid, and must be
preserved in glass or stone-ware vessels. The first
liquor which comes over is reddish and turbid. This
is rejected, and the receivers are changed. The suc-
ceeding product is the colourless muriatic acid, which
has a peculiar aromatic odour, somewhat resembling
the buds of poplar. The resin of the silk, decom-
posed by the acid, remains in the retort ; the muria-
tic acid is obtained of diminished strength, but it is
in a state of considerable purity, and, if necessary,
may be concentrated by the usual method.

When this new process of bleaching silk was an-
nounced, numerous manufactories were immediately
established in France ; but not being aware of the
importance of the materials employed being perfect-
ly pure, the proprietors of some of them were sub-
jected to considerable disappointment and loss. The
muriatic acid of commerce was found unfit for the
purpose, because it rarely happens that the sulphu-
ric acid which is used for disengaging the muriatic
acid from common salt is entirely free from nitric
acid ; so that the purification of the sulphuric acid
becomes a necessary preliminary step in tlie process.

Chap. VII. Miscellaneous Operations.

In extensive bleaching establishments, where large
quantities of materials, some of which are expensive,
are employed, it becomes a matter of no small im-
portance to be able to recover such as may be ap-
plied to useful purposes. In the present chapter,
some of the methods which have been resorted to
for the separation and purification of the valuable
substances which remain after the distillation of oxy-
muriatic acid, or the preparation of its compounds,
may be briefly noticed ; to which it may be useful to
add a short account of the mqthods of scouring and
cleansing various stuffs, and of removing accidental
spots or stains with which they are contaminated.
Such extemporaneous processes may be considered
as rather connected with domestic purposes than be-
longing to large manufactories. The principles are
the same, but their application is less systematically
conducted.

Sect. I. Residuum of the distillation of Oxi/muriatic
Acid.

The substances which remain after the distillation
of oxymuriatic acid, have been very generally re-
jected as useless. As may be supposed, from the
complicated action of the ingredients employed, va-
rious compounds remain after the process is com-
pleted. These substances are ciiiefly a portion of
oxide of manganese which has been added in ex-
cess, some sulpliate of manganese, and a large quan-
tity of Glauber's salt, or sulphate of soda.

It has been suggested, that tlie whole mixture jTisotHs-n.
might be successfully employed as a glazing for the operutions.
coarser kinds of earthen ware, to which it communi- ^
cates a dark brown colour, from the metallic matter
which it contains. It has been suggested also that
the waste residuum from the preparation of oxymuri-
atic salts would be a useful application in improving
and fertilizing the soil. But experiments, it may be
hinted, are still wanting to ascertain its eff'ects in this
way.

Stdphate of soda. — To extract the soda in a pure
state from this mixture, provided the process were not
expensive, would be attended witli great advantage;
but even the separation of the sulphate of soda, a less
difficuUoperation, wouldbe followed with considerable
profit. To accomplish the latter object, the separation
of the sulphate of soda, solution and crystallization are
the only requisite processes. For this purpose an ex-
tensive establishment was begun in Lancashire, which
furnishes an immense quantity of these materials, and
it succeeded in the production of excellent Glauber's
salt ; but the prohibition by government of the sale
of the residuum put a stop to the operations; so that
the bleacher must purify the waste materials for him-
self, or throw them aside as useless.

Soda extracted. — The decomposition of the sulphate
of soda, for the purpose of obtaining the alkali in a se-
parate state, is an object of still greater importance ;
and with this view attempts have been made by chemi-
cal manufacturers. In one of the methods which has
been followed for the decomposition of Glauber's salt,
one part of charcoal powder, and nine parts of sulphate
of soda being well mixed together, were exposed to the
heat of a reverberatory furnace ; and when the sul-
phuret obtained by the decomposition of the acid was
in a state of combustion, from three to five parts of
old iron, reduced to very small pieces, were added.
The fusion of the whole gave a black mixture, com-
posed of iron, soda, and sulphate of iron, which be-
ing dissolved in water, and filtered through a basket
filled with lime, the clear liquid was evaporated to
dryness, and the saline substance was calcined in a
reverberatory furnace. The farther purification of
the soda thus obtained is completed by a repetition
of the processes of solution and crystallization.

The decomposition of the sulphate of soda has been
attempted by means of carbonate of lime, for the pur-
pose of neutralizing the alkali by saturation with
carbonic acid at a very high temperature. Two parts
of sulphate of soda, from which the water of crystal-
lization has been driven off, two parts of chalk reduc-
ed to fine powder, and one part of charcoal dust, are
well mixed together, and subjected to a white heat
in a reverberatory furnace ; when the mixture is in a
state effusion, it is constantly stirred till the whole
of the sulphur is consumed and the flame ceases to
appear. The soda is obtained in a slate of purity by
repeated lixiviation and evaporation in the usual way.
But by whatever process the decomposition of this
salt is clFected, the extraction and recovery of the
soda would render the expense of oxymuriatic acid
preparations comparatively trifling to the bleacher,
and may therefore be considered as an object cf con-
siderable importance.

662

BLEACHING.

!Uii««nan.
opera tioni.

Sect. II. Of Cleansing or Scouring different Stiiffs.

As coloured stuffs arc often contaminated with spots
or stains, a double object must be kept in view in
purifying or scouring them. On this subject M.
Chaptnl has thrown out some excellent hints, wiiich,
with the aid of a little chemical knowledge, may be
highly useful, not only for domestic purposes, but to
the manufiicturer on a larger scale. In conducting
tltese processes properly, he observes, it is neces-
sary to be acquainted with the nature of the sub-
stances which produce stains,"0f those by which stains
are removed, — of the ettects of these re-agents on the
colours, and on the cloth itself, — and of the means
of restoring a changed or faded spot. Stains or spots
on cloths are produced by oily or greasy substances,
acids, alkalies, perspired matter, fruits, &c. Some
of these, as the oily or greasy stains, are easily dis-
tinguished by their appearance, but the effects of o-
thers are of a more complicated nature.

Acids communicate a red colour to black, fawn,
and violet-coloured cloth, and to the different shades
obtained from archil weed, iron, astringents, and to
all the blues, except indigo and Prussian blue. By
the action of the acids yellows become paler, except
the yellow of anatto, which is changed into orange.

The reds which are produced by Brasil wood, log-
wood, and cochineal, are converted into violet by the
alkalies. The greens on woollen cloth are rendered
yellowish by their action ; yellow becomes brownish,
and the yellow from anatto is changed to aurora.
The effects of perspired matter on different cloths are
similar to those of the alkalies.

The removal of the stains or spots produced by sim-
ple bodies on stuffs, is easy and certain. Oily or
greasy matters are removed by alkalies, soaps, theyolk
of eggs, or some of the fat or absorbent earths ; the ox-
ides of iron by the oxalic or some of the mineral acids
greatly diluted ; stains from acids are destroyed by
the action of alkalies ; and spots from alkalies disap-
pear by the effect of acids. Fruit stains are removed
by sulphurous acid, and still more efiectually by the
proper application of oxymuriatic acid. But when
the stains are of a complicated nature, different me-
thods must be emjployed in succession for their re-
moval, as, for instance, when any oily matter com-
bined with iron forms a spot on cloth, the greasy
matter must first be separated, before the re-agents,
which dissolve the iron, can be applied.

Revival oj the coloun. — It rarely happens that the
colours of stuffs which are subjected to the action of
the different re-agents employed in the operation of
scouring or cleansing, arc not in some degree changed
or diminished in their brilliancy. Here, therefore, a
knowledge of the art of dyeing becomes necessary for
the purpose of modifying the means of cleansing stuffs,
andat the same time ofretaining the colours, or at least
of being able to revive those which are injured, and to
restore their fbrmer intensity. The nature of the co-
lour and of the ingredients by which it was produced,
it is obvious, must direct to the proper means for ob-
taining these ends. If, for example, an alkali be em-
ployed to destroy an acid stain on stuffs of a brown,
violet, blue, or poppy colour, the yellow spot which
remains, vanishes by the applicatlou of a solution of

tin ; the colour of brown stuffs which have been gal- jfisccllan.
led, is restored by a solution of sulphate of iron ; opcratiois,
acids revive the intensity of yellow colours which ^^^^/"^^
have been rendered dusky, or brown, by alkalies ;
acids redden blacks which are produced by log-
wood ; but by the action of alkalies the red spots are
converted to yellow, and by means of astringents the
black colour is restored. The blue colour of cotton
or wool which has been changed, may be successful-
ly revived by a solution of one part of indigo in four
parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with water ; and the
brilliancy of scarlet is restored by means of cochineal
and a solution of muriate of tin.

The selection of re-agents requires attention ; ve-
getable acids, as less liable to produce injury, are to
be preferred, but the sulphurous acid may bo em-
jiloyed for removing fruit stains , for neither the blue
of silk, nor the colour produced by astringents, nor
the yellow of cotton, is changed by its action. The
stains produced by acids are more successfully re-
moved by annnonia than by means of the fixed alka-
lies ; and when it is applied in the state of vapour tlie
action is speedy and effectual, while the 'colour is
rarely altered.

Stains of a complicated nature. — When the spots or
stains on stuffs seem to have been produced by com-
pound substances, and when a simple re-agent has no
perceptible effect in removing them, compound niat-
ters are successfully employed. The following com-
position has been found very efficacious in such eases:
To a solution of white soap in alcohol, add the yojks
of four or five eggs, a portion of the essence of tur-
pentine, and some fuller's earth. Mix the whole in-
timately, and form the mass into balls, which are to
be rubbed on the stained spot, moistened witli a little
water. After washing the spot .with clean water the ,
stain generally disappears.

But as washing destroys the lustre of stuffs of a
delicate fabric, it may be fully restored by drawing
over the washed place, in the direction of the pile, a.
brush, moistened with water in which a little gum has
been dissolved. A sheet of paper, or a piece of cloth,
is laid on the stuff, and a considerable pressure is ap-
plied till it is quite dry.

Another process. — The following simple prepara-
tion is recommended as a useful application in clean-
ing silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs, without injury to
the ccflour or texture of the cloth : Take a quantity
of raw potatoes, and grate them down to a fine
pulp over a vessel of clean water. Pass the liquid
matter through a coarse sieve into another vessel of
water, and let the mixture remain at rest till the fine
white particles of the potatoes have subsided. Pour
off the clear liquor, and preserve it in bottles for use.
The stuff to be cleaned is spread upon a linen cloth
on a table, and a clean sponge, dipped in the liquid,
is drawn over the soiled parts, and this operation is
continued till the stains disappear. The stuff" is then
to be washed several times in clean water, to remove
the loosened impurities, and it is smoothed and dri-
ed in the manner directed above.

Two potatoes of moderate size are sufficient for an
English pint of water in the preparation of this li-
quid. The white fecula which subsides may be
used as starch or hair-powder ; and the coarse pulp

BLEACHING.

665

WisceltaB. which remains in the sieve may be employed in
q>erations. cleansing worsted curtains, tapestry, carpets, and
other coarse goods. The application of the liquid
obtained in this way has been extended to the pur-
pose of cleaning oil paintings, soiled furniture, and
painted wainscoats.-

Sect. III. Extemporaneous Processes.

The knowledge of chemistry directs to a variety
of simple processes for removing spots or stains from
clotlies, books, furniture, &c.; and as many of the re-
agents employed for these purposes can be readily
procured, and are of easy application, it may be use-
ful to. enumerate some of the processes which are
most efficacious in removing those spots or stains, or
other impurities which are of most frequent occur-
rence.

Spots oj grease, &c Spots of grease, which have

been recently produced on cloth or paper, into the
pores of which the oily matter sinks and spreads,
may be often entirely removed by laying the piece
of cloth or paper between two folds of blotting paper
and applying a hot iron. The grease is melted by
the heat, and is absorbed by the paper ; and if the
whole is not removed by the first application, a clean
part of the paper is placed on the contaminated spot,
and the operation is again repeated. In some cases
a weak alkaline solution may answer the purpose ;
or where there is any risk of the colours of the stuffs
being injured, either by heat or by the action of the
alkali, heated spirits of turpentine may be success-
fully employed. Stains of white wax may be also
removed by spirits of turpentine.

Oil paint, — Recent spots of paint are often very
easily removed by washing immediately with soap
and water. But such as have been allowed to dry,
and to remain for any length of time, may be effec-
tually extracted by spirits of turpentine.

Spots of tar or pitch The clothes of persons who

are on ship-board are apt to contract spots of tar by
coming in contact with ropes or other parts of the
vessel ; and goods which are conveyed by water-car-
riage are sometimes contaminated with similar stains.
Spirit of wine has the property of dissolving tar com-
pletely. The spot may therefore be removed by im-
mersion in this liquid. Spots of tar may be also ex-
tracted by rubbing the part with olive oil ; and in
some cases, where the spot has been recently con-
tracted, it may be removed by a hot solution of soap
and water.

Ink stains. — Tlie stains of common writing ink on
cloth, paper, or wood, may be extracted by means
of almost all the acids ; but as the vegetable acids
can be employed with less danger to the t^'xture of the
substance to be purified, they are to be preferred. All
that is necessary is to moisten the spot with a solution
of oxalic, citric, or tartaric acids in water, and the
application is to be repeated till the spot disappear.
As the acids produce no effect on printing ink, they
may be effectually employed in discharging written

characters from books, without injury to the text.
But similar stains are effectually removed, and, un-
der proper management, with equal safety, by very
diluted solutions of sulphuric or muriatic acids. The
vegetable acids which are employed for this purpose
are sold in the shops under the name of salt of sorrel
and essence of lemons.

Iron moulds — Stains of iron are produced on cloth
either by coming in contact with iron rust or in con-
sequence of the cloth being washed with soap after
receiving ink stains. When such stains have not
been of long duration, I hey are easily removed by
some of the vegetable acids already alluded to, or
by diluted muriatic acid. But when they have con-
tinued long in the cloth, the extraction of such stains
is a difficult operation, because the changes which
they undergo by repeated moistening with water,
and exposure to the air, render them insoluble in.
acids. The previous application of an alkaline sul-
phuret, and the succeeding washing of the cloth
with water, facilitate the action of the acid and the •
removal of the stain.

Stains of grease a)id iron. — Clothes which acci-
dentally come in contact with those parts of machi-
nery whidi are oiled or greased for the purpose of
diminishing friction, contract complicated stains, •
which must be removed by different re-agents. The
greasy or oily matter is first to be extracted by the
methods already recommended, after which the iron
may be removed by the use of some of the vegetable
acids.

Spots of ivine, S(C. — Stains of wine, cyder, and
most kinds of fruit, are, in general, easily effaced by
means of oxymuriatic acid ; a few drops of the liquid
used on a fresh stain causes it almost instantly to
disappear. Some fruits, such as plumbs, require the
process to be repeated. A very easy method of ap-
plying the oxymuriatic acid in the state of gas, is to
take a table-spoonful of muriatic acid and to pour it
on a tea-spoonful of manganese in powder in a tea-
cup, to place the cup in a larger vessel filled with
hot water, and exposing the stained spot, moistened
with water, to the fumes which arise from the mix-
ture. This operation is to be performed under a chim-
ney, that the offensive vapour may be carried oil".

Such stains may also be effaced by means of sul-
phurous acid, either in the liquid form or in the
state of gas ; and a vej-y easy and economical me-
thod of employing the sulphurous acid gas is to
moisten the stained part of the cloth with water, and to
expose it to the fumes evolved by burning two or three
brimstone matches. Stains on silk may be removed
by a similar process, or by an aqueous solution of
the same acid.

The reader who wishes to be more fully informed
on the subject of bleaching, may consult the works of
Berthollet, Pajot de Charmes, and O'Reilly, Chap-
tal's Chemistry applied to the Arts, Vol. III. and
Parkes' Chemical Essays, Vol. IV.

Miscclluk
operatioDS.

Index.

66^

BLEACHING.

InJcs.

INDEX.

Alcobol applied to blcacliing silk,
metliod of recovering.

Bleaching, history of; - -

introduced in Scotland,
Bleachinfr operations,
Books bound, mode of blcacliing,

recommended.
Boiling, process of,
Bucking old method,

improved,

precautions in.

659
660

647
648
649
657
665
650
649

ib.

ib.

Biums, Mr, improves drjing of muslin 651

Calicoes, cloth for bleacliing, - 654

printed bleaching, - 655

test of bleaching, - - ib.

Caations in scouring coloured stuffs, 662

Cocoons of silk, how treated, - 659

Coloured goods, bleaching, - 654

Colouring matter, - - 649

exaniined by Kirwan, - ib.

of a resinous nature, - - ib.

Cotton stuffs, bleaching, - - 654

colouring matter, . - - ib.

Flax, steeping, ... 648

preparation of, by Mr Lee, - ib.

Furnfture, liquid for cleaning, - 662

Fruit stHins removed, - - 665

Grease spots removed, - - 663

Grease and iron spots taken out, - ib.

H

Holland cloth, origin of nane, - 647

Hosiery, bleaching, - - 656

Ink stains removed - - 663

Iron moulds removed, - - ib.

Lee, Mr, method of preparing flax, 648
Lime, oxymuriate of, first used in

bleaching, - - 651

preparation, - - 552

bleaching witli, - - 653

Linen, bleaching of, - - 648

Liquid for cleaning stuffs, - 662

oil paintings, - - ib.

furniture, - - ib,

wainscots, - - ib.

M

Moulds of iron i-emoved,

Muriatic acid employed in bleacliing

silk,
Muslin bleaching,

coloured,

drjing hnproved.

Oil paint spots removed,
Oxymuriate of potasli first used in
bleaching,

of lime, by Tenuant,

of magnesia,
Oxymuriatic acid, discovery of, -

applied to bleaching,

histoiy of,

preparation of,

- 663

639
654

il>.

b.

663

651
ib.

652

650
ib.
ib.

651

Paper, materials for bleaching, 656

Papers written, bleaching, - ib.

printed, . . . ib.

Prejudice against new mode of bleach-
ing groundless, - - 655

Prints, nicthoil of cleaning, - 657
Printed papers, bleaching, . ib.

Pulp for pajier, bleaching, - ib-

R

Rags for paper-bleaching - 656

Residuum of bleaching materials used, 661
Revival of the colours of bleached stufl's, 662

Silk bleaching, - . 659

with alcohol, - . ib.

scouring, - - - ib.
Soda, sulphate of, decomposed, - 661

Souring, process of, - - 650

Stains of fruit removed, . 663

complicated, - . 662

Steam bleaching, - _ C53

Steeping, how performed, - 649

improvement in, . ib;
Sulphurous acid, easy process for pre-
paring, - . 665

removes stains, . . ib.

Tar spots removed, . . 663

Tenuant, Mr, patent for oxymuriate

of lime in solid form, - 652
Test of bleacliing cloth for calicoes, 65*

of good bleacliing, - 655

W

Watt, Mr, introduces improTed bleach-
ing, - - - 651
Wax, method of bleaching, . 657
Widmer in Fiance improves bucking, 651
Wine stains removed, - 665
M'ool, bleaching o^ - . 658
scouring, - - - ib.
sulphuring, - - - ib.
WiitUn papei-s bleaching, - 657

Bleak

KlcnuByc--.

BLEAK, a species of Cyprinus. See Ichthy-
ology.

BLECHNUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
order Filices and class Cryptogamia.

BLEEDING, the discharge of blood, either arti-
ficially produced, or in consequence of injury or
disease. See Medicine and Surgery.

BLEKINGEN, a province of Sweden, which
stretches along the Baltic nearly seven miles, is about
'23 miles in breadth, and is covered in many places
with thick forests of oak and pine trees. Carlscrona,
which is the capital, Carlshani and Solvitsberg, are
the principal towns. The soil of this province is not
very susceptible of cultivation ; hunting and fishing
are the chief occupations of the inhabitants ; and their
txport trade consists of tallow, hides, leatlier, tar,
and timber.

BLEMMYES, a rude people of Ethiopia, who arc
represented as being deformed in their persons, and
whom the fabulous accounts of the ancients de-

scribed as being without head.s, and having their
mouths and eyes placed in the breast. But it ap-
pears, from authentic history, that this people joined
the Egyptians in their opposition to the Romans un-
der Dioclesian, in the third century.

BLENDE, an ore of zinc. See Mineralogy.

BLENHEIM, a village in the circle of Suabia in
Germany, which has become memorable in history
in consequence of the total defeat of the French and
Bavarians, and the splendid victory of the British
and their allies in its vicinity, on the 13th of August
1704. The French army, composed of 60,000 men,
was led by niarshall Tallard and the duke of Ba-
varia, two of the most celebrated generals of the
age. The British army and the allies amounted to
55,000 men, under the command ol prince Eugene
and the duke of Marlborough. The battle com-
menced about nine in the morning, and the cannon-
ading continued for more than three hours. The
troops then advanced to the attack, the right wing

B L E

66»

BOA

under the direction of prince Eugene, and the left
headed by the duke of Marlborough, and in a short
time obtained a most decisive victory. Marshal
Tallard, and many other officers of rank, were taken
prisoners; 10,000 Frencli and Bavarians were left
dead on the field ; the greater part of the cavalry
perished in attempting to cross the Danube ; 13,000
men were made prisoners ; and 100 pieces of cannon,
with 24' mortars, 129 colours, 171 standards, beside a
considerable treasure, fell into the hands of the vic-
torious army, of whom 4500 men were killed, and
about 8000 were wounded or taken prisoners.
Blenheim is twenty-four miles from Augsburg, eight
miles from Donnawert, and two miles from Hoch-
stet, which latter sometimes gives name to this me-
morable battle.

As a reward for his services, the manor of Wood-
stock was appropriated to the duke of Marlborough
and his heirs, and a grant of L.500,000 was made by
Parliament to erect the princely mansion which re-
ceived the name of Blenheim house, in commemora-
tion of his victory and triumph. Even the tenure by
which the manor is held, refers to the same splendid
event ; for a flag embroidered with Jleurs-de-lis, is to
be annually presented at the castle of Windsor, on
the day on which the battle of Blenheim was fouglit.

BLENNIUS, the Blenny, a genus of fishes be-
longing to the order Jugulares. See Ichthyology.

BLIGHT, an affection of plants, which has some-
times been ascribed to disease, and sometimes to the
work of insects, and is particularly incident to grain.
See Wheat, under Agriculture.

BLIND, an appellation applied to those who are
deprived of the sense of sight. For an account of
the methods which have been invented and practised
for the instruction of those who labour under this
unfortunate privation, see Education.

BLITUM, Elite, or stramherry spinage, a genus of
plants belonging to the Monandria class.

BLOCK, a frame of wood with one or more pul-
leys, employed in the management of the rigging of
ships, as well as for other purposes, to increase the
mechanical powers. For an account of the different
kinds of blocks, and of the ingenious machinery
which is employed in making them, see Ship-Build-
ing.

BLOCKADE, a term in military affairs, which is
applied to a place from which all supplies of men
and provisions are cut off by the vigilance of a be-
sieging army, for the purpose of compelling the be-
sieged to surrender without any direct assault ; and
hence to raise a blockade, is to force the besieging
troops to retire from their posts.

BLOIS, a town of the department of Loire and
Cher in France, which is finely situated, partly on
an eminence, and partly on a plain on the banks of
the Loire. The castle, the cathedral, the Jesuits
college, the gates of the city, and the bridge over
the river, some of which are magnificent edifices, are
the principal buildings. The supply of water is fur-
nished by an aquseduct, supposed to be of Roman
construction, and from a large reservoir near the
walls it is distributed to different fountains. The
population exceeds 13,000. The manufactures of
serges, gloves, hats, stockings, and some hardware,

VOL. I. part II.

are considerable; and the principal trade consists
of brandy and wines, which are conveyed by wa-
ter-carriage to Orleans, Paris, and other places of
France. '

BLOOD, the fluid which circulates through the
vessels in the bodies of animals. For an account of
which, see Anatomy. '

BLOOD-STONE, a mineral substance, belonging
to the Siliceous genus. See Mineralogy.

BLOSSOM, the flower of a plant, which contri-
butes to the ripening and protection of the seed of
the embryo fruit.

BLOW-PIPE, an instrument employed in che-
mistry and mineralogy, for producing a very intense
heat by the flame of a candle or lamp, and thus by
an easy process making experiments on small por-
tions of substances, to asertain some of their proper-
ties and habitudes. See Mineralogy.

BLOWING-MACHINE, is an apparatus for for-
cing air into a furnace with great velocity, for the
purpose of increasing the power of combustion, and
the rapidity of smelting operations. See Furnace.

BLUE, one of the seven colours into which a pen-
cil of rays of light is divided by the intervention of
a glass prism. See Optics.

BOA, a genus of serpents, some species of which
acquire the largest size of this tribe of animals.

BOADICEA, a British queen, who is celebrated
in history for her brave resistance to the Roman arms.
Her husband, the king of the Iceni, bequeathed
to his two daughters, and to the emperor Nero, the
whole of his dominions and treasures, in the hope of
securing to his family and people the friendship and
protection of the Roman governor. But, on his
death, the Romans seized the whole ; and the opposi-
tion and remonstrances of Boadicea to their unjust
proceedings brought upon her a most barbarous
treatment. She herself was subjected to scourg-
ing, a punishment inflicted only on slaves, and her
daughters were violated. The irritated Britons flew
to arms, and, with Boadicea at their head, were de-
termined to shake off the Roman yoke.

To oppose the vigorous efforts of the Britons, the
Romans were obliged to collect their scattered forces,
and, after a bloody battle, in which success long re-
mained doubtful, victory at last declared in their
favour. Dreading the consequences of falling into
the hands of her enemies, from whom neither mercy
nor generosity was expected, the unfortunate Boa-
dicea destroyed herself with poison.

BOARD signifies a piece of timber which is sawn
iitto thin pieces for various purposes ; the same term
is applied to a table or bench on which artisans per-
form their work, as, a vrovk-ltoard, shop-board ;- it
denotes also a frame on which certain games are
played, as, a Araft-hoai-d, a chess-ioarrf ; and likewise
an office where public business is transacted, as, the
hoard of works, the Ao«rrf of ordnance.

Board is also a naval tei-m, which signifies to go
into a ship, as wlien it is said to go on board.

BOARDING is a term in naval tactics, when the
crew of one thip, determined speedily to finish the
combat, go on board the ship of the enemy, and at-
tack them with small arms.

BOAT, a small open vessel, which is employed in
4a

Blood

Boat.

BOA

666

B O C

Boat-Une

Bocacce.

short voyages, and is conducted on the water either
by rowing or sailing. Boats are constructed of dif-
fbrent forms and sizes according to the purposes for
which they arc destined. See Ship-Building.

BOAT, LIFE, a boat of a particular construction,
which is well calculated for resisting the violence of
a stormy sea, and is thus fitted to afford relief to
stranded vessels, and to save the lives of the unfor-
tunate mariners ; and from this circumstance it de-
rives the name of life-boat. See Ship-Building.

BOAT- BILL, a species of bird. See Cancroma,
under Ornithology.

BOATSWAIN, a naval officer, to whose charge
is committed the management of the boats, sails, rigg-
ing, &c. It is also the business of the boatswain to
summon the crew of the ship to their duty, and to
attend to the change of the several watches.

BOCCACE.or Boccacio, John, a celebrated Ita-
lian writer, was the son of a peasant in Tuscany, and
was born in 1313. Placed by his father under the
tuition of a merchant at Florence, for the purpose of
being instructed in the knowledge of commercial af-
fairs, to which his future life was destined, he was
fortunate at first in securing, by his industry and fi-
delity, the approbation of his master; but the charms
of poetry, which captivated his fancy, rendered the
dull routine of trade irksome ; he grew careless in
business, and, after six years service, he was dismissed
for negligence. The study of law, to which he after-
wards directed his attention, was not more congenial
to his taste ; and having relinquished every plan of
life that was suggested or urged by his friends for the
pleasures of poetry, he attached himself to Petrarch,
and, while he enjoyed his friendship and instruction,
his exhausted finances obliged him to share in the
bounty of that immortal bard. Boccacio was initia-
ted in Greek literature by a learned native of Thes-
salonica, who visited Italy ; the fame of his attain-
ments spread abroad; and the Florentine republic con-
ferred on him some honorary marks of distinction.
Employed in the management of important public
affairs, he was charged with the mission of soliciting
the return of Petrarch, whom the violence of faction
had driven from Florence. But the literary friends
preferred quiet and retirement, in security, to honours
and emoluments in the midst of bustle and danger.

Having spent several years at the courts of Italy
and Sicily in scenes ofgdiety and dissipation, he was re-
called from a dissolute life by a singular warning from
a Carthusian friar, who pretended that he received a
commissionfrom one of theholy brothers of his convent,
to predict to Boccacio that his life would be short un-
less he reformed his licentious manners, and corrected
the libertine sentiments of his writings. The super-
stitious mind of Boccacio was strongly impressed by
this strange admonition. He abandoned the study
of profane authors, entered into the clerical profes-
sion, and became more serious and sober in his ha-
bits ; and having been employed in a diplomatic
capacity at the court of Rome, and in other public
affairs, he retired from active life, and died in 1375.

Tlie principal work of Boccacio is It Decamerone,
a collection of one hundred stories, wliich are sup-
posed to have been recited in ten days, to which the
tatle alludes, by a party of both sexes, who had re-

tired from Florencewhile the plague prevailed in that
city. This work, which is partly fictitious, and is a
severe satire on the practices of the priests, and
some of the doctrines of the Catholic faith, inct with
great applause, and was translated into different lan-
guages ; but it abounds with licentious sentiments
and indelicate descriptions, although, in common
with his other prose compositions, the elegance
and purity of the style are conspicuous. Bocca-
cio was the author of numerous other works, some of
which were written in Latin and some of them in
Italian.

BOCCONIA, Greater Tree Celandine, a genus of
plants belonging to the Dodecandria class.

BOCHAUT, Samuel, a learned French writer,
was the son of a minister of the reformed church
at Rouen, v/here he was born in the year 1599, was
remarkable for the early maturity of his genius, and
is particularly commemorated as the author of Greek
verses in his twelfth year. Having completed his
philosophical and theological studies at Sedan, Sau-
mur, and Leyden, he was appointed, on his return
to France, to the church of Caen in Normandy,
and soon after greatly distinguished himself by his
learning and acuteness, in a dispute which he main-
tained in the castle of Caen, in presence of a nume-
rous assemblage of Catholics and Protestants, with
Father Veron, a famous itinerant controversialist.
The chief work of Bochart is his Sacred Geography,
written in Latin, in which he treats of the dispersion
of mankind, and of the colonies and language of the
Phoenicians. His researches were afterwards directed
to the animals, plants, and precious stones mentioned
in the Old Testament ; and in a separate publication
he treats of the animals of Sacred Scripture. While
engaged in a dispute at the academy of Caen, in
1667, he was suddenly carried off by a stroke of
apoplexy. To his praise it is recorded, that his
modesty and humility were equal to his learning and
knowledge. His works have been collected and pub-
lished in three volumes folio.

BOCNIA, a town of Austrian Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Cracow, and twenty miles distant from
the town of the same name, is celebrated for its salt
mines and the immense excavations which have been
formed in them, in the course of many centuries-
since their first discovery.

BODMIN, a borough town of Cornwall in Eng-
land, stands in the centre of the county, and from
the numerous monumental remains, supposed to be
Druidical, in the vicinity, lays claim to great anti-
quity. With a population exceeding 2000, Bodmin
is now remarkable for its wool market and its manu-
factures of the same commodity, particularly serges.
Bodmin is 235 miles west from London.

BOECE, orBoETHius, Hector, one of the older
historians of Scotland, was born at Dundee in 1470,
completed his academical studies at Aberdeen, and
afterwards at the university of Paris, where he con-
tracted a close friendship with the learned Erasmus ;
and being recalled to his native counti-y, was ap-
pointed principal of King's College, Aberdeen, with
a salary of 40 merks, or L.2, 4s. 6d. Sterling. Gra-
titude for this distinguished elevation, prompted him,
it is said, to compose the Lives of the Bishops of

Boece.

B O E

667

B O E

Aherdeen, a large portion of which is devoted to his
patron bishop Elphinston, the founder of the college.
But his greatest work is the History nf Scotland, from
the origin of the nation ; a work which 1ms been the
subject of much controversy among later historians,
defended by some, and charged by others with the
detail of events the materials of which are drawn
from fabulous tradition. Boetliius is highly eulogised
by his friend and correspondent Erasmus, on account
of the eloquence of his compositions, and the ele-
gance of his language. He died about the middle of
the 16th century.

" Boethius," Dr Johnson observes, " may be justly
reverenced as one of the revivers of elegant learning.
His style, though perhaps not always rigorously pure,
is formed with great diligence upon ancient models,
and wholly uninfected with monastic barbarity. His
history is written with elegance and vigour, but his
fabulousness and credulity are justly blamed. His
fabulousness, if he was the author of the fictions, is
a fault for which no apology can be made ; but his
ci-edulity may be excused in an age when all men
were credulous. Learning was then rising on the
world, but ages so long accustomed to darkness were
too much dazzled with its light to see any thing dis-
tinctly. The first race of scholars in the fifteenth cen-
tury, and some time after, were for the most part
learning to speak rather than to think, and were
therefore more studious of elegance than of truth.
The contemporaries of Boethius thought it siifficient
to knov/ what the ancients had delivered. The exa-
mination of tenets and of facts was reserved for an-
other generation." — " In the present age of trade
and taxes," continues he, " it is difficult for the ima-
gination so to raise the value of money, or so to di-
minish the demands of life, as to suppose 44s. an ho-
nourable stipend ; yet it was probably equal not only
to the needs but to the rank of Boethius."

BOEHMEN, Jacob, denominated the Teutonic
Philosopher, was a noted German visionary, and
was born in a village near Gorlitz in 1575. While
engaged in the humble occupation of a shoemaker,
he had turned his attention to alchemical researches
and astrological studies ; and, under the influence of
fancied celestial visions, he was seized with the en-
thusiastic raptures of divine illumination. The fruits
of his wild reveries appeared in 1612, in a treatise,
entitled, Aurora, or The Rising Sun, which exhi-
bits, in quaint and obscure language, a strange mix-
ture of alchemy, astrology, and divinity. This work
brought down upon him the censure of the civil
authorities ; and it was not till after the end of se-
ven years that he published various other works, and
concluded his labours with a key to his writings.
The visionary scenes which appeared to his disor-
dered imagination through life continued at his death.
Fancying that he heard sweet music, and receiving
an answer to his inquiry what was the hour, it is said
he replied that his end was fast approaching ; and
having taken leave of his wife and family, he expired
about the time which he had predicted. This fana-
tical visionary has not been without followers, both
in Germany and Britain, and a translation of his
works appeared in England.

BQiOTIA, a kingdom of ancient Greece, which is
2

separated from Attica on the east by mount Cithe- Boeriuare.
ron, has for its boundary on the north Negropont,
Phocis on the west, and the gulph of Corinth on the
south. This region is watered by numerous streams ;
the vallies are remarkable for their fertility, and the
hills afford rich pasture to flocks and herds. Many
of the places in Boeotia are famous in classical an-
tiquity, among which may be noticed Aulis, a sea-
port town on the strait Euripus, where the confe-
derated heroes of Greece assembled for their success-
ful expedition against Troy ; — Thermopyla;, at the
straits of which Leonidas and three hundred Spar-
tans fell gloriously in opposing the immense array
of the Persians under Xerxes ; — the cave of Tropho-
nius, who was consulted as an oracle, and from which,
as the fable relates, no person who ever entered it
was afterwards seen to laugh ; — and the far-famed
mount Helicon, the seat of the nmses. The ancient
capital of Boeotia was Thebes, and hence the inha-
bitants of the country were distinguished by the ap-
pellation of Thebans more frequently than by that
of Bceotians.

BOERHAAVE, Herman, the most celebrated
physician of his age, was the son of the clergyman
of Voorhout, a village in the vicinity of Leyden, and
was born in 1668. He was originally destined for his
father's profession, and with this view his studies at
the public school and university of Leyden were
conducted. During the intervals of his application
to literary pursuits, it was his father's custom to em-
ploy him in rural occupations, which he continued
through life to love and practise. In his 16th year
he was deprived by death of his father, who left be-
hind him a very slender provision for a widow and
nine children, of which he was the eldest. Tiiis af-
fecting loss seemed to present a serious obstacle to
the acquisition of a learned education ; but with a
firm resolution, and a spirit not to be depressed, he
determined to surmount the difficulties of poverty,
and to supply by industry the want of fortune.

When he took his degree in philosophy in 1690,
he chose for the subject of his thesis the discussion
of the distinct nature of the soul and body, and he
treated it with such accuracy and perspicuity that
he successfully exposed, the sophistry of Epicurus,
Hobbes, and Spinoza, and equally raised the charac-
ter of his learning and piety. Divinity and its col-
lateral branches of education continued to be hig
chief employment , in the pursuit of those stu-
dies his slender patrimony was exhausted ; and being
now compelled to depend for his support on his own
active exertions, the proficiency which he had made
in mathematical learning enabled him to derive some
emolument from the instruction of less advanced
students in that science.

A strong bias to medical studies now seized his
mind. At first he proposed to liimself that they should
be only an accompaniment to the study of divinity,
which he intended as the serious occupation of his
future life ; and, in following out his new course of
study, he made himself familiar with the structure
of animal bodies, not only by the perusal of anato-
mical works, but also by the dissections and inspec-
tion of the bodies of different animals. With this
preparatory knowledge, he commenced the arduous

B O E

668

B O E

Boerhaavc.

task of reading the best medical authors, from Hip-
pocrates to iiis own time.

Cnemistry and botany also obtained a large share
of his attention. But with these laborious inquiries
his theological studies were not neglected ; for still
he proposed, as soon as he had advanced to a medical
degree, to engage in the cure of souls. Having ac-
complished this ciui, he returned, in 1 696, to Ley-
den, with the pious design of undertaking the mi-
nistry ; but he found, to his surprise, that a rumour
which prevailed of the tendency of his opinions to
the doctrines of Spinoza, or to atheism itself, was a
complete bar to the execution of his plan. Prudence
forbade him to struggle against popular calumny,
and iuduced him to relinquish all pretensions to ec-
clesiastical preferment. With new ardour he re-
sumed his medical studies, and commenced the prac-
tice of that profession in which he rose to such dis-
tinguished eminence. In the beginning of his medical
career his encouragement was not flattering, and his
circumstances were by no means easy.

But he was resolved to persevere in the plan
which he had formed for himself, determined, if suc-
cess should be his lot, that it should be the reward
of diligence and real merit. Declining the most
flattering invitations to settle elsewhere, he continued
to employ his time in increasing his knowledge, in vi-
siting the sick, and in teaching mathematics. His
appointment, in 1701, to teach the institutes of medi-
cine in the university, extended his reputation. His
lectures were heard with great applause, and he was
invited by his audience to enlarge the original plan
of his course, and to instruct them in chemistry ; a
task which he undertook, and executed not less to
the advantage of his pupils, than to the improvement
of the science itself. Having continued in these la-
bours for nine years, he succeeded to the professor-
ship of medicine and botany ; and in the latter de-
partment of his official duty he greatly enlarged the
botanical garden, and enriched it with an immense
number of new plants. In 1714 he was deservedly
elevated to the rectorship of the university ; and in
the succeeding year, when he resigned that office, he
pronounced an oration on the subject of attaining to
certainty in natural philosophy, in which, with the
true spirit of science, he illustrates the advanta-
ges of experimental knowledge, and reflects with just
severity on the arrogance of those who are better
pleased with constructing hypotheses than disposed
to submit to the toils and drudgery of making ob-
servations. In 1718, he was chosen professor of
chemistry ; and in teaching that science was success-
ful in introducing a perspicuity of arrangement, and
elegance of style, which were altogether unknown to
its former teachers, or to writers on the subject. In
1722, the course of his lectures and his practice were
interrupted by a severe illness; but this afflicting event
affords ample proof in what estimation this great man
was held by his countrymen. The history of his
disorder, which was induced by imprudent expo-
sure to cold, can scarcely fail to excite horror in the
reader. For five months he was confined to his bed,
where he lay upon his back, unable to attempt the
slightest exertion without the most excruciating
pain, which deprived hun, not only of motion, but Qf

sense. A fortunate remission of his illness took
place in the sixth month, which was followed by a
recovery greatly desired, but at that time little ex-
pected ; and when he resumed his official duties, the
pleasing event was celebrated with general joy and
public illuminations. It is not unworthy of record,
that, during the many painful days and sleepless
nights which he passed daring his illness, he found
nothing so effectual in filling up the lingering hours,
and alleviating his suflcrings, as meditation upon his
studies, recollection of what he had read, and a re-
view of those storei; of knowledge with which his me-
mory was so amply furnished.

In 17^7 he was seized with another severe disor-
der, which became so alarming that his life was de-
spaired of. The return of his distemper became fre-
quent, and the vigour of his constitution was so ex-
hausted that in 1729 he resigned his professorships;
but although he lived with less public employment,
his life was not spent in idleness. For, beside the
time which was occupied for communicating instruc-
tion to his scholars, a large portion was devoted to
the cases of patients, who either waited upon him
personally for advice, or who consulted him by let-
ter from distant places. His last illness commenced
in 1737, and although it was lingering, painful, and
afflictive, his firmness and constancy, supported by
the warmest piety, and the utmost resignation to the
divine will, remained unshaken. On the 23d day of
September 1738, when he had reached the 70th year
of his age, he was relieved by death from all his
troubles.

Thus ended the life of this extraordinary man,
whose private virtues, extensive knowledge, and dis-
tinguished reputation, have been rarely equalled, and
never surpassed. His celebrity as a pubhc teacher
drew together crowds of pupils from all parts of
Europe; and being well aware that his labours would
not be less useful if he studied to recommend truth
by elegance, he was not negligent of the embellish-
ments of polite literature in his lectures and writings.
His temper was cheerful, and he was always desirous
of promoting mirth by facetious conversation ; never
soured by calumny and detraction ; cautious of pro-
voking enemies by severity of censure, he never
touched on the faults or defects of others, and never
inflamed the envy of rivals by obtruding his own
merit ; modest, but not timorous, and firm without
rudeness, he was neither overawed nor depressed by
the presence or insolence of the great.

It seems almost incredible that Boerhaave amass-
ed a fortune of more than L.200,000 ; and on this ac-
count he has been charged with excessive parsimo-
ny ; — a charge which has been repelled, by stating,
that the multifarious avocations of his busy life pre-
cluded him from the indulgence of expensive luxu-
ry ; but perhaps it may be more justly alleged, that
his simple habits were altogether incompatible with
what may be deemed liberal or profuse expenditure.
He rose early, conmionly at four in sununer and five
in winter ; devoted his morning hours to study, al-
lotted the middle of the day to public business, and
occupied the evening in necessary recreation and
amusement. In his dress, he was not more distin-
guiished than the plainest citizen ; riding, as long as

B O E

669

BOH

tlie distem{>ers with which he was afflicted permit-
ted him to enjoy it, was his favourite exercise ; and'
he derived great pleasure from the garden attaclied
to his country-house, which was stored with great va-
riety of all the plants and herbs which were suitable
to the climate.

Boerhaave was the author of numerous works
on medicine or its kindred sciences. Of these works
the Institutes of Medicine, his Theoretical and Prac-
tical Chemistry, and Medical Aphorisms, are the
most esteemed, and may be read with advantage at
the present day. His elaborate treatise on Chemistry
has been translated into English, and his Aphorisms
have been illustrated by Van Swieten, in a copious
commentarj' of five volun>es.

BOERHAVIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the Monandria class, which is so named to conmiemo-
rate the illustrious Boerhaave, who, amidst his other
labours, was an assiduous and successful cultivator
of Botany.

BOETHIUS, Flavius Anicius Manlius Tor-
tiUATUs Seveuinus, an illustrious Roman, and au-
thor of a celebrated work, Tlie Consolation of' Phi-
losophy, was descended from one of the noblest fa-
milies of Rome, where it is supposed he was born
about the year 470. He flourished in the time of
the emperors Zeno and Theodoric. His early youth
was spent at Athens, where he improved himself in
the learning and philosophy of Greece ; and return-
ing to Rome, soon rose by his talents and virtues to
the chief dignities of the state. His illustrious birth
and exalted station, did not prevent him from prose-
cuting those studies which had a tendency to en-
lighten and refine his countrymen. With this view,
he was anxious to make them acquainted with the
arts and sciences which had long flourished in
Greece ; and he translated, and elucidated by com-
mentaries, the principal works of the Greek philoso-
phers. He filled the important office of consul ;
he was raised to the patrician rank ; and when his
sons grew up, he enjoyed the rare and singular feli-
city of seeing them united in the consulship.

In the struggle which prevailed between Theodo-
ric and the senate, some of whose members had de-
termined to resist the growing tyranny of the em-
peror, Boelhius appeared as the eloquent advo-
cate of his friend Albinus ; but asserting the liberties
of Roman citizens, and claiming the equal protection
of the laws, he was involved in the same charge, and
the senate, overawed by the power of the tyrant, re-
luctantly pronounced the sentence of banishment.
Immured in the tower of Pavia, and loaded with fet-
ters, he successfully directed his attention to those
sources of intellectual enjoyment which the pursuits
and studies of his life so amply furnished. Within
the walls of his dungeon, and during the awful mo-
ments of suspense that preceded his approaching
fate, he composed the Consolation of Philosophy, a
work which the voice of succeeding ages has pro-
nounced to be not less distinguished by the sublime
morality of its views than the elegance and purity
of the language. About a year after his imprison-
ment, this virtuous philosopher was put to death by
the orders of Theodoric ; and with Boethius, it is

said, the Latin tongue and the last remains of Ro*
man dignity vanished in the western world.

The learning and eloquence of Boethius are con-
spicuous in his works, which were collected into a
folio volume, printed at Venice in 1499. Another edi-
tion appeared at Basle in 1570. Boethius was one of
the chief writers on music among the Romans ; but
his principal work is his Consolation of Philosophy,
which has descrvedlj' retained its popularity through
every succeeding age ; and among its translators
are two royal personages, whose auspicious reigns
added peculiar lustre to the throne of England, and
whose lives, like the author's, had experienced many
vicissitudes of fortune. Alfred the Great produced
a version of this work in the Saxon language, and
Queen Elizabeth, during her captivity before she as-
cended the throne, translated it into English. The
poet Chaucer also executed the same task.

BOHEMIA, a kingdom subject to Austria, which
occupies a central situation in Germany, has Saxony
and Silesia on the north, Moravia on the east, Aus-
tria on the south, and Bavaria on the west ; lies
between the 48° and the 51° of north latitude, and
the 12° and the 16° of longitude east from London ;
and extends in an elliptical form about 200 miles from
east to west, and nearly 150 from south to north.

Physical state. — It has been maintained that Bo-
hemia, at some remote period in the histoi-y of this
earth, must have been under water, and constituted
a great inland sea — an opinion which derives proba-
bility from its external appearance ; for it is encom-
passed with high mountains, while the interior ex-
pands into an uninterrupted plain, so that the whole
assumes a bason-like form. The highest summit of
the western range is elevated 3980 feet above the
level of the sea ; the northern chain rises to the
height of 3780 feet ; and the ridge on the eastern
and southern frontier 2562. The sheltered hollows
of these heights are filled with snow during the whole
year ; in one place some straggling brushwood crowns
the loftiest summits ; in another, groups of fantastic
peaks shoot up from the mingled confusion of shelv-
ing precipices and deep ravines. In the neighbour-
hood of Adersbacl), a space, five miles in length and
a mile and a half in breadth, is covered with innu-
merable columnar masses of sandstone rock, in a
perpendicular position, which exhibits to the travel-
ler a grand and singular scene, and presents an ob-
ject of peculiar interest to the geologist.

Rivers. — No stream traverses the great plain of
.Bohemia that has not its source in her mountains. —
The torrents which rush down their steep declivi-
ties are numerous and rapid ; and many of them,
uniting their waters, form large rivers, which cross
and divide the flat country. The Moldau which ^
rises on the southern frontier, the Eger which flows
from the mountains near Bavaria, and several con-
siderable streains which rise on the northern side,
fall into the Elbe, which traverses the whole of
Bohemia from east to west ; and having opened
a passage for itself through the rocks of the Erz-
gebirge, continues its course across Saxony towards
the ocean.

Climate. — Writers have flatly contradicted each

Bohenda.

BOH

670

Bvhftnln.

Other in their accounts of the climate of this coun-
try : one assures us that, as neither lake nor marsh
pollutes the atmosphere, the climate is dry, tem-
perate, and salubrious ; that the heat of summer is
neither intense, nor the cold of winter severe ; and
that Italy itself cannot boast a finer spring : — while
another, with equal claims on our credit, asserts,
that the air of Bohemia is dense, damp, cold, and
consequently unwholesome, and subjects the inha-
bitants to more epidemical diseases than fall to the
lot of those that dwell in the neighbouring provinces.
The truth is probably to be sought for between these
extremes. Bohemia is a region placed in a tem-
perate latitude, sheltered from the violence of storms
by surrounding mountains, and refreshed and beau-
tified by many living streams — circumstances highly
conducive both to the health of its inhabitants and
the fertility of its soil.

Productions. — In a mineralogical point of view,
this country is interesting above most others ; its
mountains exhibit, in a successive series, every kind
of primary and secondary rock. Many varieties of
excellent marble are abundant, as well as mines of
of all the common metals ; and gems are sometimes
found which are held in high estimation. The mi-
neral springs of this country, both cold and hot,
are celebrated for their medicinal virtues, and are
therefore places of great resort. The soil, though in
some places light and sandy, is in general rich and
fertile, and brings forth abundantly wheat and other
kinds of grain, fruits in great variety and of exqui-
site flavour, flax and hemp, hops and timber. Nor
is Bohemia deficient in animal productions ; its cattle
are of a good kind ; its horses are peculiarly valua-
ble ; numerous flocks of sheep, and great herds of
swine, are reared for a foreign market ; and even
the poultry ot (his country are deemed of a superior
quality, and exported in great numbers to the «ur-
roundmg provinces. Wild-fowl and game are also
plentiful, and the Bohemian pheasant is reckoned the
most beautiful in the world.

Social state. — Bohemia is said to contain 8,000,000
of inhabitants, who are generally distinguished for
beauty of person and vigour of mind. They are de-
scribed as having high breasts and sparkling eyes,
undaunted courage and resolute perseverance. They
Are well known as excellent soldiers — patient of fa-
tigue, and brave in action. Till very lately villenage
prevailed in all its rigour ; every man was either
a despot or a vassal. In some instances the demands
of feudal obligation have relaxed, and it is to be.
hoped that their remission will pervade the country
till they be entirely dissolved. In ni*, this country
was divided into twelve circles, through which are
distributed 250 cities, 308 borough-towns, 11,4'5.5
villages, and 4'30,0(X) houses. Prague, the capital,
stands on both banks of the river Moldau, fif-
teen miles in circumference, built on seven hills,
and divided into four towns, — the old, the new, the
little, and 'the Radshin towns. A bridge ef 18 arches,
and 1700 feet in length, connects the new and the
old towns together. The churches and palaces of
Prague are numerous ; it is adorned also with a ca-
thedral rich in relics, by a university founded by

BOH

and, it is said, contains about 75,000 Eoi.e

Charles IV,
inhabitants.

Mantijactiires. — Almost every artificial production
which cultivated society requires, is prepared in
perfection and abundance. Buhemia manufactures
woollen, linen, and silk ; leather, stockings, hats, and
gloves ; pottery, stoneware, and glass ; goods in iron,
tin, brass, and other metals, both for omament and
use ; in her founderies are cast artillery and bells
for the whole empire ; she excels in the manu-
facture of paper, mirrors, and flint-glass. For none
of the commodities now enumerated iuis Bohemia oc-
casion to resort to a foreign market ; and, after serv-
ing herself, she has a considerable surplus for expor-
tation. Many of her manufactured goods find their
way into Austria, Turkey, Spain, and Portugal ; her
cut glass is in demand throughout Europe, and much
of it goes to America. The roads are kept in good
repair; and in 174-9 Maria Teresa, with the view of
encouraging commerce, established a regular mail
between Vienna and Prague. It is obvious, from
these statements, that the balance of trade must be
in favour of Bohemia.

Government, Sfc — This country is one of the heredi-
tary possessions of the house of Austria, and its attairs
are administered by six courts, or councils, — that
of the regency, the chancery, the chamber of justice,
the chamber of finance, the chamber of fiels, and the
tribunal for deciding the appeals of vassals. Taxes
are levied from the land, the mines, &c. and contri-
bute to the state between 15 and 17 millions of flo-
rins. The religion of Rome is established; but Jews
and Protestants are protected in the rights of con-
science by a liberal toleration.

History, Sfc — In the remoter periods of her history,
Bohemia, with the rest of Europe, was the seat of
ignorance and the scene of barbarism ; but the detjiil
of the transactions of those times could aftbrd neither
instruction nor amusement. In 1275, when Ottocar,
who had aspired to the imperial power, fell in the
battle of fVeidendotf, Rodolph I. of Austria, newly
rid of his rival, and exhausted with the war, gladly
concluded a peace with his widow, and recognised
the title of Wenceslaus, her infant son, to his father's
crown. His reign was turbulent, and on his death,
as well as of that of several of his successors, a multi-
tude of pretenders preferred their claims to the va-
cant throne, and not unfrequently enforced them by
the sword; so that in a long series of years the sove-
reignty of Bohemia was neither obtained nor held as
a peaceable possession. But when (Jharles IV. had
ascended the throne, this hitherto distracted country
enjoyed a long period of peace and tranquillity, in
which she made rapid advances in science and civi-
lization. Under this mild, but public spirited prince,
the laws were reduced into a code which still bears
the name of the Caroline Constitutiuns ; he excited
the industry of his people by enlarging and adorning
the capital of his kingdom; and by the encourage-
ment which he gave to commerce, and for the im-
provement of science and literature, he founded the
university of Prague, to which students flocked from
all quarters to receive their education among a people
now distinguished throughout Europe for learning

BOH

671

B O I

Bobemia. and politeness. But, on his demise, through the
*^^-y^^ weakness and wickedness of his sons, who were indo-
lent, quarrelsome, and dissolute, Bohemia became
again a scene of usurpation and misrule, which were
increased and continued by the Hussite wars that
arose and raged with a destructive influence. John
Huss, a member of the university, had adopted the
opinions of Wickliff of England, and began to inveigh
with vehemence against the corruptions of the church.
This conduct provoked discussions, in which the ci-
tizens sided with the reformer, and the students took
part with the pope. A schism was the consequence,
and all the ibrcign professors and students took leave
of the university. Huss, and his disciple Jerome,
propagated their opinions with equal zeal and suc-
cess, and sustained persecution with unshaken forti-
tude, till they were decoyed to Constance, where, af-
ter a raock trial, they were committed to tlie flames.
This tragical event served only to cement the uni-
on, and to increase the energy of their party. John
Ziska, the king's chamberlain, and an excellent sol-
dier, had been roused to enthusiasm by the new doc-

the fate of their au-
revenge ; and having

trines, and, deeply affected b}'
thors, thought of nothing but

interpreted some expressions of his master into a
sanction of his designs, he left the court, put himself
at the head of a small band, which rapidly increased
to a mighty army, and proceeded to pei-petrate the
most wanton and blood}' outrages. In 1419, he and
his frantic followers slew' the magistrates of Prague,
broke into the churches, overthrew the altars, and
destroyed the ornaments. During these proceedings
Wenceslaus, the king, died : his queen, Sophia, as-
sumed the regency, but the castle of Wishbrad, to
which she had retired, was invested by so close a
siege, that she was glad to purchase a suspension of
hostilities by granting an unlimited liberty of con-
science. Ziska then retired to the top of a mountain,
which, in allusion to that of Palestine, was named
mount Tabor, and which he fortified with such skill,
that it became a sure asylum to all who fled from per-
secution. Here he bade defiance to Sigismuud, the
brother of the late king, though assisted by all the
powers of Germany, and encouraged by the exhort-
ations and fulminations of the pope ; and the royal
troops experienced such great and continued defeats,
that the very name of the Hussites became a terror
throughout the empire. But internal dissensions soon
made them less formidable ; two parties arose ; and
as each happened to be under the influence of rea-
son, or the sway of passion, the partizan became a
Calixtin or a Taborite. Sigismund had the address
to foment and encourage the opposition of one party
to the other ; and, after a long negociation, he suc-
ceeded, in 11'83, in effecting an accommodation with
the Calixtins, soon after which the refractory Ta-
borites were subdued.

Charles IV. who was both emperor of Germany
and king of Bohemia,- had established her rights in
the Golden Bull, with freedom from public burdens ;
but she seldom availed herself of these privileges ;
and for a long period all connection between her and
the empire was nearly suspended, till the crowns were
again united in Ferdinand I. He and his successors
made several ineffectual attempts to renew the former

intercourse ; and the only privilege enjoyed by the
kings of Bohemia is the right of voting in the elec-
tion of the king of the Romans.

BOHUS, orBAHUs, a province of Sweden, which
has Norway for its boundary on the north, and West
Gothland on the east and south, extends about 100
miles from north to south, is copiously watered
by numerous lakes and rivers, which are abundantly
stored with excellent fish, and timber, pitch, tallow,
hides, lime, and fish are enumerated as the principal
commodities of exportation.

BOILEAU, SiEun Nicholas Despreaux, one
of the most distinguished French poets of the classi-
cal age of literature in the time of Louis XIV. wan
born in 1636. Descended from a family of lawyers,
he was destined for the same profession ; and having
completed his academical course at the college of
Beauvais, his studies were directed to the prelimina-
ry knowledge for his future occupation ; but it soon
appeared that these studies were little congenial to
his taste, — and although he persevered till he was
qualified for the practice of his intended profes-
sion, he at last relinquished it in disgust, and ex-
changed it for that of theology, which, in its turn,
was soon abandoned as equally repulsive. Thus un-
fettered by any professional avocation, he resolved t»
indulge his passion for literary pursuits, and he re-
turned with fresh ardour to poetry, from which, dur-
ing his academical course, he had acquired consider-
able reputation. The Satires of Boileau, which ap-
peared in 1666, exhibited to the public the most de-
cided proofs of the powers and vigour of his genius,
his sound judgment, and correct taste. The Lutrin,
a mock heroic poem, which was published 1674', and
in 1683, in six cantos, affords an excellent speci-
men of his talent for humorous description. This
poem, the subject of which is a dispute between the
treasurer and chanter of the holy chapel at Paris
concerning the position of a reading desk, has been
compared to the celebrated Rape of the Lock of
Pope, from the similarity of character and humour
which prevail in both productions, although it has
been generally admitted that the superiority in fancy
and execution belongs to the English poet, and in
this judgment Voltaire himself has not hesitated to
acquiesce. The critical skill of Boileau appeared in
the Art of Podry, and a translation of Longiaus,
which latter he enriched with many valuable notes.

The poetical productions of Boileau obtained for
him not only the favour of Louis, but the more sub-
stantial reward of a pension, and the appointment, iii
conjunction with his friend, the celebrated Racine,
of historian of the reign of that pompous monarch, —
an appointment, it may be observed, which produced
nothing, for the task which the associated poets had
undertaken was never executed. The admission of
the poet into the learned academiesof France, which
in most cases may be regarded as a matter of course,
or of interest, need scarcely be noticed ; and the do-
tail of the controversy concerning tlie comparative
merits of the ancient and modern authors, in whioli
Boileau took a decided part, and much literary vio-
lence and personal animosity prevailed, could affoitl
neither instruction nor amusement. He died in 1711,
when he. had reached the 75th year of his age.

Boilcao.

B O I

672

B O L

BOILING, or Ebullition, is the agitation of a
i quid when it is converted into vapour by the appli-
cation of heat. As the heat is generally applied to
the bottom of the vessel, the lowest stratum of liquid
is first converted into the state of vapour, or steam,
and this steam rising throujih the liquid produces the
bubbling, or agitation, which is niore or less violent
in proportion to the heat applied. See Cfjemistry.
BOIS-LE-DUC, the capital of Dutch Brabant,
stands at the conHucncc of the rivers Dommel and
Aa, in a plain, which is nearly surrounded with mo-
rasses, is a place of considei-ahle anticiuity, strongly
fortified, and defended by a castle. The approaches
to the town, on the land side, are by causeways, and,
by water at three separate gates. The cathedral,
built in 1366, and reckoned one of the most magni-
iicent structures in the Low Countries, was remark-
able for a lofty wooden tower, supported by four
stone pillars ; but it was destroyed by lightning about
the end of the 16th century. While in the hands
of the catholics, the churches and other religious
houses, some of which have been converted into
■warehouses, were numerous ; and as the place is in-
tersected by many canals, the accommodation of a
great number of stone and wooden bridges is ne-
cessary. The population of Bois-le-Duc is about
10,000, and the chief manufactures are confined to
linen cloth and different kinds of hardware.

BOKIIARIA, an extensive region of Tartary.
See BucuARiA.

BOLCA-MONTE, a hill near a village of the
same name in the Veronese territory in Italy, and
about 20 miles distant from the city of Verona.
Monte-Bolca has been long the subject of investiga-
tion and speculation among naturalists, on account
of the extraordinary abundance of vegetable and ani-
mal petrifactions which it contains, and which clear-
ly prove, although it is now not less than 50 miles
distant from the sea, that it must have been at some
remote period immersed in its waters. The rocks of
which this hill is composed are of a marly or calca-
reous nature, and of a slaty structure. The summit
consists of columnar basalt ; but the most singular
feature in the natur.al history of Monte-Bolca, is the
prodigious accumulation of almost every kind of
land and sea animals in a petrified state, as the re-
mains of larger quadrupeds, birds, fishes, insects,
and zoophytes ; and it is not the least remarkable
" circumstance, that these organic remains have be-
longed to animals the species of which, in the pre-
sent condition of the world, inhabit very different
regions of the globe. Of the petrified fishes nearly
one hundred different species have been discovered,
most of which are now natives of the seas or rivers
of Europe, but some of them are only found in the
rivers of India and America.

BOLE, an absorbent earth, of which numerous
varieties have been described by the older naturalists.
See Mineralogy.

BOLETUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
order ot" Fungi, under the Cryptogamia class.

BOLOGNA, or Bononia, a city of Italy, and
capital of the duchy of the same name, stands in a
beautiful plain at the foot of the Apennines, and on
the baiiks of the rivers Savtwa and Rheno, is of an

oblong form, five or six miles in circumference, and Bologna,
encompassed with high brick walls. The houses, ">*
which are flat-roofed, are in general built on arcades,
the pillars of which are of wood or stone. The pave-
ment for carriages is considerably lower than the
porticos for foot passengers ; and as the streets are
narrow, they present a gloomy aspect.

In the public buildings of Bologna, art seems to
have exhausted all her resources, whether the gran-
deur of the designs, the magnificence of the struc-
tures, the splendour and variety of the decorations,
or the unrivalled specimens of the productions of
the pencil or of the chisel by the most celebrated
masters, with which they are adorned, be consider-
ed. The public palace is one of the noblest buildings
of the city. In this spacious edifice the municipal
government and the courts of justice are accommo-
dated ; some of its apartments are appropriated to
the museum of the celebrated naturalist Aldrovandi,
and to a valuable collection of medals ; and an ex-
tensive arsenal for military stores is included within
its walls. The private palaces are also numerous and
splendid ; and the churches, the number of which is
said to be not less than 200, exhibit a remarkable
display of architectural beauty and elegance ; and,
when it is added, that few of them are unadorned
with the most exquisite productions of the graphic
art, furnished by the Caraccis, Albani, Guido Rheni,
Raphael, Guercino, and others, the traveller who
admires their genius and their works will not fail,
when opportunity offers, to indulge his taste in con-
templating these noble efforts of human skill.

The tower of Asinelli, which derives its name from
the person by whom it was constructed in the begin-
ning of the 12th century, stands in the centre of
Bologna, and is not less remarkable for its great
height, rising 370 feet from the ground, than for its
inclination, which is more than three feet from a per-
pendicular position. But this inclination is exceeded
by another tower, which has the appropriate appella-
tion of the leaning tower of Garisenda, is 144 feet
high, and deviates from the perpendicular more than
eight feet. The elevation was originally much great-
er, but the instability of the foundation occasioned
the fall of part of it, or required it to be taken down
for safety.

The university of Bologna, founded in the early
part of the fifth century, became a celebrated school
of law, and attracted an immense concourse of stu-
dents from all quarters. The college in which the
sciences are taught still retains considerable celebri-
ty ; and the institutions for the improvement of the
fine arts are numerous and excellent.

The population of Bologna is estimated at 70,000.
The manufacture of velvets and other kinds of silk
stuffs has been continued for nearly five centuries.
To these are added the manufactures of crapes,
gauzes, damasks, paper, andplaying cards. For throw-
ing silk and preparing it for the various fabrics for
which it is destined, as well as for numerous other
purposes, extensive machinery, driven by water, has
been erected on the banks of the Rheno in the vici-
nity of the city. The trade with other towns of Ita-
ly, which is greatly facilitated by means of water-
carriage, and with Venice, Germany, and France, in

B O L

the various natural and artificial productions, such
as heiup and fl;ix, haras, dried tongues, sausages,
maccaroni, olives, perfumes, and essences, beside
the produce of the silk manufacture, is very conside-
rable. The fertility of the soil, and the perfection
of the cultivation, give to the surrounding territory
all the richness, variety, and beauty of an extensive
garden. The soil and climate are peculiarly favour-
able to the culture of the olive and the melon, and
are equally congenial to the growth of tobacco ;
hemp siioots up with remarkable luxuriance; and
the warmth and shelter aftbrded by the rows of mul-
berry trees and elms which surround the vineyards,
elaborate and improve the juice of the grape.

Bologna seems not to have been a place oC much
importance in the flourishing periods of the Roman
republic ; it rose to eminence on account of its learn-
ed institutions about the 13th century; possessed
some degree of independence under the German
emperors ; and when, by civil dissensions, it fell un-
der the papal dominion, it still retained some of its
ancient privileges and former distinction. In its ci-
vil polity Bologna presented the semblance of a re-
publican form of government ; the French became
its masters in 1796, and, with other territories of
Italj', it formed part of the Cisalpine republic ; but
since that immense fabric of usurped dominion has
fallen, it has been no doubt restored to its original
constitution.

BOLOGNIAN STONE, or SPAR, is a native
sulphate of barytes, or heavy spar, which was first
found in the neighbourhood of Bologna, from which
the name is derived. After being exposed to strong
heat, for the purpose of extracting the precious
metal which it was supposed to contain, it emit-
ted a phosphorescent light. See Mineralogy.

BOLSENA, a town of Italy, which stands on a
lake of the same name, encompassed with mountains
covered with wood, is a place of no great importance,
although it is surrounded with walls, and flanked with
towers. The ancient Volsinium, one of the finest
citias of Etruria, the temples and squares of which
■were adorned with 2000 statues, stood in the vicini-
ty of Bolsena, and the ruins still furnish to the anti-
quary beautiful specimens of Roman art, in curious
marbles and sculptured ornaments. The lake is 30
miles in circumference, — is the great resort of nume-
rous water fowl, — is abundantly stored with various
kinds of fish, and is remarkable for the extraordinary
size of its eels. Two islands in the lake are occupied
with religious houses, one of which contains a con-
vent, to which extensive gardens are attachetl ; and
the other, a small spot, includes only a hermitage
with its chapel. According to fabulous antiquity,
these islands floated about in the lake, and this incredi-
ble story is alluded to by Pliny.

BOLSO VER, a town of Derbyshire in England, is
situated on the declivity of a steep hill, is a place of
great antiquity, and seems to have been protected by
a strong castle, on the site of which a modern struc-
ture is raised. The manufactures of various kinds of
hardware, once considerable, have been transferred to
Birmingham ; but it still retains its celebrity for to-
b&cco pipes, which are reckoned the best in the king-
dom. The population is estimated at 1000.

VOL. I. PART II.

673

B O M

BOLTON LE MOOR, or Bolton in thb
Moor, a town of Lancashire in England, is divided
by a rivulet into two parts, denominated Great and
Little Bolton, and has b^en famous from the earliest
times for its manufactories. The population, in 1 77S,
was little more than 5000 ; in 1801 exceeded 17,000;
and in 1811 had increased to 24,000. The annual re-
turns from the manufacture of fustians, calicoes, dimi-
ties, counterpanes, muslins, and all other kinds of cot-
ton goods, arc estimated at more than one million Ster-
ling. The Wigan cannel coal, in the vicinily, furnishes
employment to some of the inhabitants of Bolton, in
making various utensils and triiiketj of tliat substance,
which takes a fine polish, and is converted into snufl-
boxes, candlesticks, &c. The inland navigation af-
fords numerous facilities to the manufactures and
trade of this placa.

BOMBAX, the Silk Cotton Tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the Monadelphia class.

BOMBAY, an island on the western coast of In-
dia, about ten miles in length, and three in breadth,
situated within the 19th degree of north latitude, and
the 73d of longitude east from Greenwich, and is one
of the three English presidencies in that part of the
world.

Produclions. — This island, being full of inhabitants,
is in a high state of cultivation, although not remark-
able for its fertility ; but it is celebrated over the
east for the excellence of its onions ; the common
and sweet potatoe are also raised in it of a good qua-
lity ; rice is cultivated, as in the rest of India ; co-
coa nuts are abundant, and other fruit trees indige-
nous to the climate ; buffaloes, sheep, goats, and
poultry are plentiful ; game, such as red-legged par-
tridges and snipes, is not scarce ; the shores are also
frequented by fishes of various kinds and of excellent
quality ; of these the prawn is uncommonly fine, as
also the btimbelo, resembling a large sand eel, which
is dried and eaten to breakfast ; the frogs grow to a
large size, and are sometimes eaten both by the Por-
tuguese and the Chinese.

Inhabitants. — The human beings residing in Bom-
bay are estimated at 220,000. Of these, three-fourths
are Hindoos, 8000 are Mahometans, 8000 are Parsees,
4000 are Jews ; the rest are Portuguese, English, &c.
The Parsees, who are Persian emigrants, and disciples
of Zoroaster, dwell chiefly in those districts which
are under the jurisdiction of the president of Bom-
bay. They still adhere to their ancient customs ;
they wear an Asiatic dress ; they adore the sun, the
sea, and fire. They have a singular mode of interring
their dead. For this purpose, a piece of ground is
surrounded with a triple wall, having a well sunk in
the centre. In the space nearest the well they de-
posite their children taken from them by death ; the
outer division is alloted to the males, and the inter-
mediate one to the females. Here the bodies are ex-
posed till their flesh is devoured by vultures, when
the friends with pious care collect the bones and
throw them into the well. The Parsees are an active
and an industrious race ; the soil is chiefly in their pos-
session, which they cultivate with care ; they make
excellent ship-builders, and patient labourers. Al-
most every mercantile liouse has a Parsee partner,
who generally advances the principal part of the ca-
* R

Boitou

Bombay.

B OM

674

B O M

BonAav. pita' ; a"*l >" every respect tliis tribe contributes
greatly to the prosperity of the settlement. The li-
■ver complaint is the most prevailing disease of Bom-
bay, and exposure to the night breeze is apt to in-
duce fever. In other respects it is not unhealthy.

Citi). — The town of Bombay was originally built
and fortified by the Portuguese ; but it has been
greatly enlarged and strengthened since their time.
It is now about a mile in length, strongly defendeil
on all sides, especially tow.irds the sea, where it is
deemed impregnable. The fort is washed on three
sides by the waves, and presents a very imposing
appearance. The English have a church within the
fort ; a presbyterian church has been lately erected ;
and the Portuguese, the Armenians, and Jews, have
places of worship both in the town and the suburbs.
The houses consist chiefly of a single story, and, con-
trary to the Indian mode of architectui'e, have slop-
ing roofs covered with tiles. The English have country
houses,which generally command delightful prospects.
Commerce. — Bombay has attained to greatness,
and derives the whole of its present importance from
its facilities for commerce. Its capacious harbour,
capable of containing more than 1000 ships of bur-
den, is sheltered on all sides from the violence of the
waves. Its situation commands an easy access to
the richest and the rarest productions of the most
favoured regions of the earth. Hence, it has be-
come the centre of the entire trade of the north-west
coast of India. Cotton is the principal commodity,
which is collected from all the neighbouring districts
and exported to China. But this place is also the
depot of sandal-wood, pepper, &c. from the Malabar
coast ; of gums, drugs, coffee, and pearls from Per-
sia, Arabia, and Abyssinia ; of ivory, precious stones,
piece goods, and other manufactured commodities,
from Cambay, &c.; of sharks' fins, birds' nests, &c. &c.
from the Maldive and Lacadive islands ; and of ma-
nufactured goods, porter, grain, &c. from England.
From this great mart, thus composed of such various
productions, and collected from so many places,
many ship loads are annually exported to numerous
and far distant countries. "The most of the cotton,
a great deal of manufactured goods, wine, &c. are
carried to China. The produce of Gujrat, of Persia
/and Arabia, and the manufactures of Cashmere, Surat,
&c. are annually transported to England. The goods
of this market are also in demand in Goa and the
■ Brazils, as well sis in all the countries and districts
in the north and west of India, so that both the
import and export trade is prosperous. The mtfst of
this trade is carried on in English bottoms. The
ships which are built here of teak timber are said
to be greatly more durable than other Indian-built
vessels. The teak is brought from the mountains of
Gujrat, or frotn Rangoon, a Birman sea-port.

Eslablishment. — The president of Bombay's juris-
diction extends over the districts of Surat, Broach,
Cambay, -Gochwarah, and other countries in the pro-
vince of Gujrat, by far the most fertile, populous,
and best cultivated region in India, abounding in
large towns and excellent harbours. A single judge,
"Vrith the title Of recorder, holds a court of judicature,
to which three barristers and eight attornies are at-
tached. The whole establishment of Bombay con-

sists of about 75 civil servants, 550 military officers, Bombnv.
and 21,000 soldiers, W surgeons, and five chaplains, ■s^'V^^'
the annual expence of which amounts to L. 373,359.
The Company's inarinc, to protect the trade, con-
sists of 15 ships of war, armed boats, advice boats,
and others, which give employment to a considerable
number of officers and men.

History The Portuguese obtained possession of

the island of Bombay in the year 1530, and, delight-
ed with the fineness of its harbour, they built on its
shore a town and a fortress. But it was too near
their capital Goa to rise, under them, to any high
degree of importance. When Charles II. married
Catherine, the princess of Portugal, this island was
ceded to him as part of her portion. The king, how-
ever, having learned that the traffic which his ser-
vants carried on in this newly acquired possession,
injured the regular commerce of the English East
India Company, transferred it, by letters patent from
the crown, to that body, on condition of tbeir paying
the annual rent of L.IO in gold ; and, in consequence
of this transaction. Sir George Oxinden, the Company's
governor, received possession of the island of Bom-
bay, with the garrison, the arms, ordnance, and stores.

The revenue of this establishment was, in 1668,
nearly L.7000. About this time a mint was esta-
blished, where rupees and other Indian money were
coined. But it still continued unhealthy, and ex-
posed to the depredation of the Mahratta pirates ;
and though the garrison consisted of 400 regulars
and 300 militia, and 100 cannon were mounted on
the fortifications, the vigorous government of Au-
rengxebe and the other native powers on the coast,
kept it in a state of perpetual alarm.

After the capture of Bantam by the Dutch in
1684, the court of directors constituted this station
an indeiJendent settlement, and the seat of the trade
and power of the English nation in the East Indies.
Two vears afterwards the English government of Su-
rat was also transferred to this island, and about the
same time it was infested by enemies and afflicted by
the plague. In 1700, Sir Nicolas Waite, the English
Company's resident at Surat, procured, by means of
his intrigues, the imprisonment of Sir John Gayer and
Mr Colt, the Old London Company's servants. On the
union of these two rival bodies in 1708, Sir Nicholas
was dismissed, but Gayer and his associate were not
released from their confinement. At this period the
settlement was so much distracted by faction, so
closely invested by enemies, and so dreadfully reduc-
ed by the plague, that, to conceal its weakness, its
governors declined to receive an envoy from the king
of Persia.

Such was the original condition of this important
settlement, which thus by slow degrees, and amid
disastrous circumstances, has become one of the
greatest commercial stations of the east. In 1802 it
obtained an accession of territory from Anund Gui-
cowar, a Mahratta prince ; the island of Bombay has
also been lately united to that of Salsette by means
of a causeway ; and at present the jurisdiction of this
presidency extends over a considerable part of the
adjoining coast, and even exerts a sensible influence
in Persia and Arabia. The travelling distance fror»
Bombay to Calcutta is 1300 miles.

BOM

675

BON

BOMMEL-WAERT, the Insula Balavoriim of
Ca!sar, is an island of Holland, which is formed by
the rivers Meuse and Waal ; is about fifteen miles in
length, and six miles in breadth, contains Bonimel
and some other towns, with several forts for its de-
fence, and possesses in many places a rich and fertile
soil, which produces abundance of corn and fruits.

BOMMEL, the chief town of Bommel-Waert in
Holland, stands in a fine plain, which is remarkable
for its fertility and vegetable productions, includes
about 3000 inhabitant!^, and at one time enjoyed an
extensive trade, which, on account of the difficult
access to the harbour, occasioned by sand banks, has
been transferred to Bois-le-Duc.

BONA, or BONNE, a sea-port town of Algiers,
in Africa, formerly the capital of the province of the
same name, supposed by some to be the ancient Hip-
po, and was once distinguished for trade, wealth, and
population. The surrounding territory produces a-
bundance of corn, fruits, and cattle; and the expor-
tation of grain, oil, hides, wax, and wool, by the Eu-
ropean mercantile establishments, was the principal
source of the commercial prosperity of Bona. A va-
luable coral fishery on the banks in the bay is suc-
cessfully prosecuted by the Genoese and the na-
tives of other states of Europe ; and it is said, if
properly regulated and encouraged, might afford pro-
fitable occupation to 1 0,000 men.

By a contract entered into with the dey of Al-
giers in 1806, Bona and some neighbouring places
were to be put in possession of the British, for the
purpose of forming commercial settlements, and the
stipulated sum of 1 1 ,000 Sterling was paid for the
privilege ; but it is not understood that any esta-
blishment was made.

Bona was the scene of a most barbarous outrage on
the Christians engaged in the coral fishery in 1816. To
check the predatory practices of the Algerines and
other Barbary states, and particularly to force them
to abolish the disgraceful slavery to which they
doom their unfortunate Christian captives, under the
too lenient connivance of the European powers, a
British squadron, under Lord Exmoutli. appeared
before Algiers, and obtained a compliance with the
reasonable conditions required ; that peace should
be made with Sicily and Sardinia, that their captives
should be restored at a moderate ransom, and that
all future prisoners of war should be treated accord-
ing to the usages of civilized nations. But the Bri-
tish admiral, after concluding the treaty, had no
sooner left the coast, than it was violated by the per-
petration of a dreadful massacre of the crews of
some hundred Neapolitan boats engaged in the coral
fishery on the coast. This cruel massacre was the
consequence of a premeditated design. A gun fired
from the castle was the signal of attack on the de-
fenceless fishermen ; two thousand Moors and Turks
rushed upon them, and, supported by the guns from
the forts, involved the whole in indiscriminate car-
nage, so that not one escaped. The British flag,
under the sanction of which the fishing operations
were carried on, was torn down and treated with the
utmost indignity. This inhuman outrage brought
on these rapacious barbarians the signal chastisement
which was inflicted by the same admiral on the me-

morable 27th of August of the same year, and thus
led to the unconditional acquiescence of the dey of
Algiers in the terms proposed by the British govern-
ment.

BONAIR, or Bu^n-avre, an island which lies on
the north coast of South America, 30 miles east from
Cur.-t(;oa, about jO miles in circumference, with a good
harbour on the south-west side, and produces maize,
yams, and potatoes, some part of which is exported
to Cura^oa. Cotton is also among the vegetable
productions of Bonair, and some cattle and goats arc
reared.

BONAVISTA, or Buena-Vista, so denominat-
ed from the delightful aspect which it presented to
the first discoverers in 1450, is one of the Cape de
Verd islands, about 50 miles in circumference, has two
bays which admit ships, and which are distinguished
by the names of English and Portuguese bays, but are
both somewhat inconvenient on account of shoals
and banks, and is said to contain about 80C0 inhabi-
tants. The maritime parts of the island are low, but
the central regions rise into hills ; the soil is light
and sandy, and not well cultivated ; and salt, cotton,
and indigo are the chief productions, iVlilk, goat*
flesh, fish, and turtle, furnish the principal food to
the inhabitants ; and their superabundant produce is
exchanged with English vessels for old clothes, meal,
and biscuit. Cotton and indigo would thrive well in
the soil and climate ; but the natives are indolent,
and careless in the culture of the former, and follow
a very rude process in the manufacture of the latter.

BOND, a deed or written obligation, by which a
person binds himself, his heirs, executors, and admi-
nistrators, to perform some act, or to pay a certain
sum of nioney to another at a fixed time. In this
form a bond is called a simple obligation. But there
is generally a condition added, that if the person
bound does some particular act, the obligation shall
be void, or shall remain in full force ; and in case this
condition is not performed, the bond becomes for-
feited, or absolute at law, and charges the person
bound while living, and after his death the obliga-
tion descends upon his heir, who is bound to discharge
it.

If any condition of a bond be impossible at the time
of making it, or if it be contrary to some rule of law,
that IS, merely positive, or if it be uncertain, the con-
dition alone is void, and the bond shall stand single
and unconditional. If the condition be an obligation
to perform something that is immoral in itself, that
obligation is void ; and if the condition be possible at
the time of making it, but if it become impossible by
the act of God, the act of the law, or the act of the
obligee himself, the penalty is saved, because no pru-
dence or foresight of the person bound could guard
against such contingency.

When no time is fixed for the payment of a bond,
it is then held to be payable on demand ; but, even
in this case, a reasonable time is aiiowed by the courts
of law for the payment. On the forfeiture of a bond
the whole penalty was formerly recoverable by law,
but courts of equity do not permit more than the
principal, interest, expenses, and reasonable dama-
ges sustained by non-performance of the conditions ;
Bnd by special statute it is ordaiued, that in ca^e

Bonair

I!

Bond.

BON

676

BON

Bordoa. a bond for the payment of money be forfeitetl, and a
suit commenced, "the tender or payment of the prin-
cipal sum, interest, and costs, shall be a full satisfac-
tion and discliarge. Blackstone's Commentaries.

By the law of Scotland a bond is either heritable
or moveable. All bonds which bear a clause of in-
feftment, beside the personal obligation to repay the
principal sum and interest, arc lieritable. Bonds
merely personal have been always considered move-
able before the term of payment, but afterwards they
are held to be heritable. But by statute 1661, all
sums in contracts and obligations are made moveable
in regard to succession ; but in reference to the fisc,
and the rights of husband and wife, they continue
heritable, with the exception of bonds bearing an
obligation to infeft, and such as are payable to heirs
and assignees, secluding executors, which are in all
respects heritable.

A bond which is payable to heirs, without any men-
tion of executors, descends not to the heir in heri-
tage, but to the executor ; but a bond which is taken
payable to heirs-male, or to a series of heirs, is heri-
table ; and bonds which are originally moveable, may
become heritable, either by destination, or in conse-
quence of a supervening heritable security. All
bonds, whether they are personal or heritable, before
seisin, may be affected by creditors, either by adjudi-
cation or arrestment.

BONDOU, a district or kingdom of Africa, which
is included between the rivers Gambia and Senegal,
and has for its boundaries on the east and south-
west Bambouk and Wooll ; is an elevated region,
many parts of which are covered with woods ; the
Faleme is the principal river; and a large proportion
of the district is said to be fertile in grain. Fatte-
conda is the principal town ; and the inhabitants in
general, who are said to be remarkable for their in-
dustry, are chiefly occupied in agriculture and the
rearing of cattle. The Mahometan faith has been
established, and the natives are represented as being
very exemplary in the observation of its laws and the
practice of its precepts. The Arabic language is
spoken by the inhabitants of Bondou, and this may
be regarded as a natural consequence of the intro-
duction of the Mussulman religion. A French tra-
veller, who visited this country in 1786, describes the
village of Coursan as the residence of the king. This
place is fortified with palisades, and is supposed to
contain more than a thousand inhabitants.

The inhabitants of Bondou belong chiefly to the
Foulahs, who are of a yellow complexion, with small
features and soft silky hair, naturally, it is said, of a
jtiild disposition, and gentle and tractable in their man-
ners. The trade in slaves was at one time considera-
ble, and the barter of coi-n for iron, gold-dust, and dif-
ferent kinds of gums, is still carried on. A coarse
cotton cloth is manufactured and dyed with the
cotton and indigo produced in the country. Ivory
is also a valuable commercial commodity in Bondou.
But after all that has Ijeen said by travellers of the
•ibundance and profusion which the inhabitants of
this region enjoy, of the wisdom of their government
and laws, and particularly of their moderation in
giving no encouragement to religious persecution, it
eannot be doubted, from the relations of the same

travellers, that they are not less barbarous than the
other natives of that uncivilized country, and not less
rapacious and oppressive in their exactions from
strangers. The first question put to the French
traveller already alluded to, when he was admitted
to the presence of the king of Bondou, was a de-
mand for presents ; and no small disappointment
was expressed when none was produced, anel a
threat was oftisred that he would not be suffered to
depart.

BONES, the solid parts of animal bodies ; for an
account of the structure and uses of which, see
Amatomy.

BONN, an ancient city of Germany, and the
usual residence of the electors of Cologne, occupies
a fine situation on the left bank of the Rhine. The
streets are generally narrow ; thfe cathedral, the
town-house', a Gothic structure adorned with paint-
ings, and the palace of the elector, a magniticent
edifice erected in 1777, are the principal buildings.
The great rampart affords a very extensive and de-
lightful view of the course of the Rhine and the
adjoining country. The population is estimated
at 9000. The mineral springs at the distance oi'
three miles from Bonn have acquired considerable
celebrity, and, before the revolution, were much re-
sorted to ; but the military occupation of the place
by Bonaparte was fatal to the fine walks, pleasure
gardens, and elegant buildings, which were laid out
and constructed by the electors for the accommo-
dation of visitors.

BONNER, Edmund, an English bishop, whose vin-
dictive spirit, religious zeal, and versatility of opinions
have given his name a conspicuous place in the his-
tory of the times in which he lived, was a native of
Worcestershire, and, according to one account, was
the natural son of a priest, but, according to another,
was descended of parents in humble life, the place
of whose residence, it is said, still retains the name
of Bonner's Place. Admitted as a student at Oxford
in 15 12, after seven years residence he took his degrees
in canon and civil law, was soon after ordained and
appointed to a living in the church. With the repu-
tation of an able politician, he was fortunate in ob-
taining the favour and patronage of the celebrated
cardinal Wolsey, who raised him to offices of high
trust, and loaded him with ecclesiastical preferments.
Besides being archdeacon of Leicester, and a prebend
of St Paul's, he held livings at the same time in
Yorkshire, Worcestershire, and Norfolk. The dis-
grace and death of his patron, the ambitious cardi-
nal, did not interrupt the fortunate career of Bon-
ner, for he was successful in obtaining the favour of
Henry VIII., was appointed one of his chaplains,
and proved a useful instrument in the hands of that
tyrannical monarch, in promoting his divorce from
queen Catharine, and in abrogating the supremacy of
the pope in England.

In the violent struggle which Henry maintained
with the papal court, Bonner was twice sent to Rome
to appear on behalf of his sovereign ; and on one
occasion his firmness of conduct, or rudeness of
manner, drew from the pope a violent threat of sum-:
mary vengeance on his person. Dreading the con-j
sequence, he deemed it most prud,eut to witjidraw ;

Bones

Bonner.

BON

677

BON

Bonnet, ^ind liaving returned to England he was promoted, at
the rt;comniendation of the reformers, first to the see
of Ht'reford, and soon after to that of London.

Daring tlie reign of Henry, Bonner was an active
and zealous opponent of popery ; but when he had
obtained high preferment in the church, or had
changed his vii.nvs, lia refused to take the oaths of
abjuration and allegiance on the accession of Edward
VI. His commitment to prison produced a recanta-
tion and submission, which were followed by his en-
largement. But his private conduct did not corres-
pond with his public professions, for he was still dis-
posed to support the cause and promote the re-esta-
blishment of popery ; and, after a minute enquiry
under the autiiority of a conunissioner, and a long
trial, during which, it is recorded, he behaved more
like a madman than a bishop, he was again sent to
prison and deprived of his bishoprick.

The accession of Mary in 1.353 was a fortunate
event to Bonner, in restoring him to his honours and
emoluments, while it afforded an opportunity of a
full display of his natural disposition and true cha-
racter. Elevated to the high station of president of
the convocation in place of archbishop Cranmer,
who was degraded and sent to the Tower, he began
the dreadful work of persecution, with a persever-
ance and cruelty which have been rarely equalled.
Exclusive of those who were subjected to imprison-
ment, public whipping, and severe torture, it is said
that not fewer than 200 persons perished in the
flames, by his agency, within the short period of three
years.

The accession of Elizabeth in 1558, produced a
favourable change to the persecuted reformers.
Bonner appeared among the protestant bishops who
congratulated the queen on that event ; but his
doubtful character seems to have excited suspicion in
that princess. He was coolly received, lived for some
time unnoticed, and probably foreseeing the fate
that awaited him he refused to take the oaths, was
degraded and committed to prison, where he died,
after ten years confinement, in 1569. To prevent
the indignity and violence of the irritated populace,
iiis body was privately interred.

The narrative of this prelate's life affords ample
evidence that he was of a violent temper and cruel
disposition, actuated by strong ambition, and little
scrupulous of the means he employed in promoting
his views ; but the bloody persecution which he in-
stigated, during the reign of Mary, must remain an
indelible stain on his memory.

BONNET, Charles, a distinguished naturalist,
was descended from a French family, who had fled from
-their native country on account of religious persecu-
tion, and who had taken refuge in Switzerland, and
was born at Geneva in ] 720. He was an only son,
and his father bestowed a large share of attention on
his education; but either his dislike to the dry study
of grammar, or a deafness with which he was early
afflicted, rendered his progress in education at the
public school less rapid than his friends expected ;
he was afterwards intrusted to the care of a domes-
tic tutor, and, under him, his advances in general
learning were promising and successful. At the
early age of sixteen, his taste and bias for the study

of natural history seemed to have been completely
formed ; and the perusal of Reaumur's Memoirs on
Insects led him to repeat and extend the curious ob-
servations and experiments of that illustrious natura-
list,— the details of which being communicated to him,
excited no small degree of admiration of the sagaci-
ty and acuteness of the young philosopher.

Destined by his fatlier for the profession of the law,
Bonnet entered reluctantly on the requisite studies ;
but this was merely a formal acquiescence, and re-
garded as an unwelcome task, for his inclination led
to very different pursuits, and his mind was occupied
with other objects. Beside other investigations in
natural history in which he was engaged about this
time, he communicated, in IT-l-O, to the academy
of Sciences, the result of a curious inquir}' respecting
the multiplication oi aphides, or tree-lice ; and in the
succeeding year he instituted an interesting series of
experiments on the effects that follow the division of
worms, from which it appeared that many species
possessed, in some degree, the same remarkable re-
productive powers as the polype. The minute ob-
servations in which he had been long engaged, and
particularly the constant use of the microscope,
which was necessary in the prosecution of some of
his inquiries, greatly affected his eyes, as well as his
constitution, and obliged him for a time to decline
every kind of study. The temporary relaxation
which he enjoyed materially improved his health, and
again enabled him to resume his inquiries concerning
vegetation. The ascent of the sap, and the action of
the upper and under leaves of plants were the next
subjects which occupied his attention, and the result
of his labours appeared in a separate publication.

From physiological studies Bonnet turned to me-
taphysical speculations, and soon became a volumi-
nous writer on this fruitful subject of inquirj'. His:
Essay on Psychohigtj, Analytical Essay on the Facul-
ties of the Soul, Conlemplalions on Organised Bodies,
and Tlie Contemplation o/'A'fl/i<)r,successivelyappear-
ed, and met with approbation and applause. The
last production of Bonnet is entitled Palingenesis
Philosophujiie, and treats of the past and future state
ofliving beings; and to thiswork is annexed an inquiry
into the evidences of the Christian revelation and the
doctrines of Christianity. Some other subjects of na-
tural history again attracted his attention, and occu-
pied part of his leisure in the remaining years of his
life ; and although he was attached by inclination
and habit to studious retirement, he did not altoge-
ther relinquish the social duties of a citizen. For the
period of sixteen years he was a member of the great
council of the republic, and often distinguished him-
self by his manly eloquence in the support of wise
and moderate measures, and in the cause of morals
and religion. The last labours of the philosopher were
devoted to the revisal and correction of his works,
which were published in a general collection, in nine
volumes quarto. They are all written in the French
language, but manj' of them have been translated in-
to English and other languages. He died in 1793,
at the advanced age of 73 ; and such was the respect
in which he was held by his countrymen, that public
honours were paid to his remains..

BONNETIA, a genus of plants belonging to the

Bonnet.

13 O N

678

BON

Ihnonia

Bonzn.

Polyandria clas$, and so denominated to commemo-
rate the name of the great Swiss naturalist.

BONONIA, a city of Italy. See Bologna.

BONONIAN STONE, a mineral substance, which
Jias received this name from being found near Bono-
nia in Italy, and which, alter being subjected to heat,
gives out light in the dark. This mineral is heavy
.spar, or sulphate of baryti's. See t'HEMisTRY.

BONONIAN JAR, ou BOTTLE, denominated
also Philosophical Phial, is a thick glass-jar which has
not been subjected to the process of annealing, and
which exhibits the singular property of breaking in-
to minute fragments, when a small bit of flint is drop-
ped into it, although it is capable of bearing a con-
siderable blow externally. See Annealing.

BONPLANDIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the Pentandria class, and so named in honour of the
enterprising traveller who accompanied Humboldt in
his arduous journey through South America.

BONTlA, a genus of plants belonging to the Di-
dynamia class.

BONZES are priests or monks in eastern coun-
tries, who are devoted to the religion of Fo, are^ very
numerous in those regions where that superstition
prevails, and are distinguished by different names.
In the kingdom of Siam they are denominated Ta-
Ittpoins ; in China they are called Ho-chavg ; in
Tartary Lamas ; in Japan the usual appellation is
Bonzes ; and by this latter name they are generally
known in Europe. The institutions of the Bonzes
have some resemblance to the monastic establish-
ments of the church of Rome ; they live in separate
communities, and in retirement from the affairs of the
world, bind themselves by vows of perpetual celiba-
cy, and attach themselves to particular pagodas or
temples. Female institutions of Bonzes are also
known in some of the countries of the east. As the
doctrine of the transmigration of souls is a tenet of
general belief in Asiatic regions, temples are erect-
ed to different kinds of animals, which thus become
the objects of public veneration and worship, from
the notion that the soul of the god in his various
transmigrations may have occupied their bodies. On
this account the worship of the god Fo is conducted
by these devotees under the form of different animals
into which he is supposed to have passed in the va-
rious stages of his existence.

The Bonzes are very numerous in some parts of
China, many of their establishments are richly en-
dowed, and possess extensive domains ; and as a great
portion of their revenue depends on the superstitious
veneration in which they are held by the people, they
have had recourse to the various arts of mendicity to
increase their income. To excite the commiseration
of their countrymen more effectually, and to increase
the liberality of those who are disposed to give them
alms, they subject themselves to the severest morti-
fications, and sometimes to the most painful suffer-
ings, appearing in the public places loaded with hea-
vy chains, cutting and mangling their bodies till they
stream with blood, carrying burning coals on their
bare head, and examples are not wanting of some
who inclose tlicmselves in narrow boxes or cases
stuck full of sharp nails, so that the flesh is torn by
the slightest motion. But besides these open means

of obtaining charity, the Bonzes are charged, and
perhaps justly, with practising the most nefarious
arts of imposture and fraud in exciting the benefi-
cence of tile public, and the dissolute lives of some
are remarkable for selfishness, profligacy, and cruel-
ty. With all the superstition of the Chinese, the
Bonzes are held in great abhorrence by that people,
and their detestable practices meet with frequent and
severe checks from the public authorities. In the
northern part of China these devotees are little en-
com-aged, and the pagodas to which they were at-
tached are now greatly neglected, and most of them
have fallen into deca}'.

BOOBY, a sea bird belonging to the genus Peli-
can. See Pelicanus under Ornithology.

BOOK, a general denomination for any literary
composition, but, in a more restricted meaning, is ap-
plied to such works of this description as are of suf-
ficient magnitude to form a volume. Smaller pro-
ductions are distinguished by the name of pamphlets;
and from the size or form of books appropriate ap-
pellations have arisen. When the whole sheet is em-
ployed, the book is said to be in folio ; when the
sheet is folded once, and thus forms four leaves, or
eight pages, it is said to be in quarto ; and when the
sheet is folded twice, it makes eight leaves, or sixteen
pages, and is then called a book in oc/auo; and so on,
according to the number of leaves of which the sheet
is composed.

Origin of books. — As books are to be regarded as
written records of the thoughts and transactions of
mankind, their origin may be traced, in some forn*
or other, to the invention of letters or characters,
which are the representative signs of language. The
materials of which books have been composed have
been extremely different in different nations, and in
different periods of the progress of civilization. Let-
ters, or hieroglyphical characters, were written or
engraved on tables of stone, or wood, but more fre-
quently on the bark of trees, a substance which could
be readily procured and easily prepared for the pur-
pose; and hence the Latin word//6er,as well as the Eng-
lish word book, derived from a Saxon word, and the
corresponding denomination, refer to the same origin,
and denote the bark of some part of a tree of which
books were originally made. The materials of books
were afterwards derived from the ■papyrus, a plant
which is a native of Egypt, and which obviously gave
its name to paper. Tlie use of papyrus, it is said,
was common among the ancients in the time of Alex-
ander the Great. As the demand for books increas-
ed, more durable materials were sought for, and lea-
ther, made of the skins of goats or sheep, was em-
ployed. The use of parchment prepared from skins
next followed, and, it is said, was invented at Perga-
mus, when the exportation of the Egyptian papyrus
was prohibited. The ancient manuscripts are chief-
ly written on this substance, for it was not till about
the l2th century that the method of manufacturing
paper was known.

Attempts have been made to discover and apply
to use, in the fabrication of books, materials of a still
less perishable nature than any of the substances al-
ready alluded to. It has been proposed to ma-
nufacture linen from asbestos, the mineral substance

Booby

II
Book.

B O O

679

BOO

Book. from wliicli tlie famous incombustible cloth of the an-
cients was made, and which would be proof against
fire ; and in the rage, as it may be called, for the ex-
treme durability of books, this attempt has been car-
ried still farther by proposing an everlasting book,
the whole of which was to be made of asbestos, the
leaves, the cover, and the thread with which the
leaves are stitched together. The writing was to be
composed of letters of gold; and thus the whole would
be formed of very indestructible materials.

Many changes have taken place in diB'erent coun-
tries, and at different periods, in the internal order
and arrangement of letters into lines and pages. At
first the letters were only divided into lines; they were
afterwards separated into words, and were gradually
marked with accents, and distributed by points and
stops into periods, paragraphs, and chapters. In some
countries the lines proceeded from the right to the
left, in others, as among the northern and western na-
tions, they ran from the left to the right ; the Greeks
followed both directions, alternately going in the one
and returning in the other ; but in the Chinese mode
of writing, the lines run from top to bottom.

Scaiciti/ of books. — Before the manufacture of pa-
per was known, and the invention of printing, the
labour and expence of multiplying books rendered
them extremely scarce. On tliis subject Mr Warton,
in his history of English poetry, has collected many
curious anecdotes. The number of books, he ob-
serves, in the papal library at Rome, about the end
of the seventh century, was so inconsiderable, that
the pope made a formal request to the bishop of
Maestriclit to supply the defect from the remote
parts of Germany ; and about the middle of the
ninth centur;,', the abbot of Ferrieres in France
sent two of his monks on a mission to the pope to
beg a copy of Cicero de Oratore and Quinctilian s
Institutes, ijecause, although he was in possession of
part of these books, yet no entire copy of them ex-
isted in all France. The abbot of Gemblours, with
great trouble, and at an immense expence, hav-
ing collected 100 volumes on divinity, and 50 vo-
lumes on profane subjects, thought himself master
of a splendid library. The emperor Charlemagne,
about the end of the eighth century, granted an un-
limited right to the abbot and monks of Sithin for
making their gloves and girdles of the skins of the
deer they killed, and covers for their books. On this
privilege, it is facetiously remarked, that these reli-
gious were fonder of hunting than of reading ; at
any rate they were obliged to hunt befqre they
could read ; and it seems probable, in such cir-
cumstances, and with such materials, the manufac-
ture of volumes was not very prosperous. In the be-
ginning of the tenth century, books were so scarce
in Spain, that the same copy of the Bible, of St .Je-
rome's Epistles, and some volumes of ecclesiastical
offices and martyrologies, often served several dift(°r-
ent monasteries.

The constitutions framed for the regulation of the
monks in England, by archbishop Lanfranc, in the
year 1072, atford another proof of the scarcity of
books at that period. At the beginning of Lent the
librarian was ordered to deliver a book to each of
the religious ; a whole year was allowed for its

perusal, and at the returning Lent those nioiiks yitho
had neglected to read the books they had received,
were commanded to prostrate themselves before the
abbot and supplicate his indulgence. In a catalogue
of the library of the bishop of Winchester, drawn
up in 1294, the whole number amounts only to
seventeen books on different subjects. The bequest
of a Bible in two large folio volumes, with the
original annotations, certainly a valuable donation in
those times, procured for the liberal donor, bishop
Nicholas of Ely, the institution of a daily mass for
his soul by the monks of the convent of St Swithin*
at Winchester, on whom it was bestowed. When a
single book was bequeathed to a friend or relation,
it was usually accompanied with many stipulations
and restrictions; and the gift of a book to a religious
house was regarded as a donation which merited
eternal salvation ; it was offered on the altar with
great ceremony, and the most formidable anathemas
were denounced against those who should dare to
alienate so precious a gift. Of the formalities ob-
served in making the bequest of a book, the follow-
ing is an example. " I Philip of Repyndon, late of
Lincoln, give this book, called Peter de Aureolis, to
the new library to be built within the church of
Lincoln ; reserving the use and possession of it
to Richard Trysely, clerk, canon, and prebendary
of Milton, in fee, and to the term of his life ; and
afterwards to be given up and restored to the said
library, or to the keepers of the same for the time
being, faithfully and without delay. Written with-
my own hand, A D. 14'22."

The royal library of Paris, about the beginning
of the fourteenth century, contained only four clas-
sics, namely a single copy of Cicero, Ovid, Lucan,
and Boethius ; the rest consisted of books of devo-
tion, treatises on astrology, chiromancy, and medi-
cine, originally composed in Arabic, and translated
into Latin and French, and pandects, chronicles, and
romances.

As a proof of the scarcity of books in England
about the middle of the fifteenth centuiy, the fol-
lowing order, which is recorded in the statutes of
St Mary's college at Oxford, founded in 1446, has
been quoted : " Let no scholar occupy a book in
the library above one hour or two hours at most,
that others be not hindered from the use of the
same."

Early manuscripts, it is obvious, must always be
scarce, and when they are well executed are highly
prized by bibliographers ; but the scarcity of print-
ed books is owing to various causes, as the suppres-
sion of particular works on account of their imniofal,
irreligious, or seditious tendency, — a small impres-
sion of some books, — accidents which have happen-
ed to printing-offices and warehouses, as in cases of
their being destroyed by fire, — the unfinished state
of some books, and the expensive materials on which
others are printed. Books which have escaped such
accidents are much sought after by collectors, and,
as well as first editions from ancient manuscripts,
early editions of celebrated printers, such as are dis-
tinguished by peculiar characters, and such as have
not been exposed to sale, bring extraordinary prices.

High prices of books,— Oi the excessive prices of

BOO

680

BOO

<Baok. books in the middle ages, some curious examples are
recorded Bede's Homilies, and St Austin's Psalter,
were purchased in the year 11 74', by Walter, prior
of St Swithins, at Winchester, for twelve measures
of barley, and an embroidered pall. The countess
of Anjou paid 200 sheep, five quarters of wheat,
and an equal quantity of rye and millet, for a copy of
the Homilies of Haimon, bishop of Halberstadt ; and,
about the year 1400, a copy of John of Mean's Komati
de la Rose was sold before the palace gate at Paris
for forty crow OS, or L.;i3, 6s. 8d. But of the pre-
valence of bibliomania in modern times, a better
proof cannot be selected than the sale of the duke
of Roxburgh's library in London in the year 1812.
That nobleman had been long known as an assidu-
ous collector of the rarest editions of books. The
sale extended to forty-two days, and it is supposed
that the whole collection brought nearly L. 30,000.
As it forms a curious feature in literary history, the
reader may be gratified in seeing the prices and pur-
chasers of some of these highly valued productions.

The Festival ; printed by Caxton, in two columns.-
L.lO.'j, bought by Lord Spencer.

The Proulfy table Boke for Mane's Soul, called the
Chastysing of Godde's Chyldren ; printed by Caxton.
L.140, Lord Spencer.

Lyf of Saint Katherin of Senis ; printed by Cax-
ton.'L.95, Mr Clarke.

Sessions Papers and Trials at the Old Bailey, from
1690 to 1803. 2 vols, in folio, and 80 vols, in 4to.
L.378, Mr Read.

A Translation of Cicero on Old Age ; printed by
Caxton. L.115, Mr Nornaville.

The Boke of Seynt Albons ; printed at St Albans,
1486; imperfect. L.147, Mr Triphook.

The Mirrour of the W^orld ; printed by Caxton in
1480. L.351, 15s. Mr Nornaville.

The Kalindayr of the Shyppers, folio ; printed at
Paris, 1503. L.180, Mr Nornaville.

CAUimachi Hyrani. Florence, 1472, 4to. L.63,
Mr Payne.

A Discourse of English Poetrie, by W. Webbe,
1586, 4to. L.64, Mr Triphook.

Paradise of Daintie Devises, 4to, 1580. L.55, ISs.
Mr Rice.

A Collection of Old Ballads, in 3 vols, folio. L.477,
13s. Mr Harding.

Guy Earl of Warwick, a metrical romance; print-
ed by Copeland, 4to. L.43, Is. Mr Ileber.

Love's Martyr, or Rosalin's Complaint, by Ches-
ter, 4to, 1601. L.24, 3s. Mr Dubois.

Gower's Confessio Amantis ; printed by Caxton,
1493, folio. L.336, Mr Payne.

Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, a manuscript on vel-
lum, folio, L.357.

Chaucer's Works, by Pynson, 1526, folio. L.30,
98. Mr Evans.

The Passetyme of Pleasure, by Stephen Hawys ;
printed by Wynkyn de Worde, 1517. L.81, Mr Dib-
ain.

The Exemple of Vertu, by Stephen Hawys ; print-
ed by Wynkyn de Worde, 1530. L.60, Mr Rice

History of King Boccus and Sydrake. L.30, Mr
Triphook. U.i'J-

The Complaynt of a Lover's Life, 4to, printed by
Wynkyn de Worde. L.58, Mr Nornaville.

The Castell of Pleasure, 4to, printed by Wynkyn
de Worde. L.58, Mr Nornaville.

The Love and Complaynte between Mars and
Venus. L.60, Mr Dibdin.

Watson's translation of Brant's Ship of Fools, 4to.
L.64, Mr Nornaville.

Churchyarde's Works, 2 vols. 4to. L.96, Mr Trip-
hook.

Le Mystere de la Vengeance de Notre Seigneur
J. Christ, 2 vols, folio, M. S. L.493, 10s. Mr Payne.

Shakespeare's Plays, folio, 1623. L.IUO, Mr Nor-
naville.

A Collection of Prints of Theatrical Scenes aud
Portraits of Performers, 8 vols, folio. L.102, 12s.

The Nice Wanton, a Comedy, 4to, 1573. L 20,
9s. 6d. Mr Nicol.

Marlow and Nash's Tragedy of Dido, 1594. L.17,
17s. Mr Heber.

Morlini Novellas, 4to, Neapolis, 1520. L.48, Mr
Triphook.

Recueil des Romans des Chevaliers de la Table
Ronde, 3 vols, folio, an ancient manuscript. L.78,
15s, Mr Triphook.

Le Romant de Fier a Bras le Geant, folio, Genev.
1478. L.3S, 17s. Mr Triphook.

Recueil des Histoires de Troyes, pjir Raoul Le
Fevre, folio. L.116, lis. Lord Spencer.

II Decamerone di Boccacio, iolio, first edition,
printed at Venice by Valdarfer, 1471. L.2260, Mar-
quis of Blandford.

The Boke of the Fayt of Armes and of Chyvalrye
printed by Caxton. L.336, Mr Nornaville.

The veray trew History of Jason. L.94, 10s. Mr
Ridgway.

The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, by Raoul
Le Fevre. Caxton, 1471. L.1060, Mr Ridgway,

History of the Noble Appolyn, 4to. L.UO, Mr
Nornaville.

History of Blanchardyn and Eglantyne ; printed
by Caxton. L.215, 5s. Lord Spencer.

Delphin Classics, 67 vols. L.504, Duke of Norfolk.

The prevalence of bibliomania is not unknown in
France, as will appear from the extraordinary prices
of the following books at the sale of Count Macar-
thy's library in Paris, in 1816 :

Psalmorum Codex, fol.MogMn/. 1457, 12,000francs.

Psalmorum Codex, fol. Mugunt. 1459, 3350 francs.

G. Durandi Rationale Divmorum Otficiorum, fol.
Mogunt. 1459, 2000 francs.

Speculum Humanae Salvationis, folio, 1320 francs,
(sold in 1769 for 1600 francs.)

Historia Beata; Maria; Virgmis, per figuras, folio,
1560 francs, (sold in 1769 for 352 francs.)

Ciceronis Officiorum, Libri lO. fol. Mogunt. 1466,
1190 francs.

Biblia in Lingua Vulgari, 2 vols, folio, 1471, 1199
francs, (sold in 1784 for 720 francs.)

Virgilii Opera, folio, 1472, 2440 francs.

Euripidis Opera, studio Jos. Barnes, fol. Cantab.
1694, 1800 francs.

Xenophontis Opera, 6 vols, 8vo, large paper, Oxon.
1703, 1960 francs.

Book.

BOO

681

BooVbiuaio? Xenophontis Cyropaedia, fol. Oxon, 1728, et Xeno-
v«w~ ,-^ pliontis de Cyri Expeditione, Lib. VIl. folio, Oxon.
1735, large paper, 2550 francs.

Thuani Historia, 7 torn. fol. bound in 14 vols. fol.
London, 1733, 1225 francs.

The enormous prices of books on natural history
which have issued from the French press in the pre-
sent day, are worthy of being recorded as a literary
curiosity. Various editions of Buffon's Natural His-
tory have appeared at Paris between the years 1799
and 1801, from L.6 to L 50 ; the edition by Sonnini,
in 123 volumes 8vo, with coloured figures, is stated
at L.lOO ; and another, with original designs and co-
loured figures by the most eminent artists, in 80 vo-
lumes 18mo, is set down at the extraordinary price
of L.500. Duharael's Treatise on Trees and Shrubs,
in five volumes folio, with engravings, beautifully co-
loured, is marked at L.150. Le Vaillant's Natural
History of Parroquets is L.45 ; the Natural History
of Birds of Paradise, Rollers, &c-. by the same author,
is L.150; Rousseau's Letters on Botany, large folio,
with coloured engravings from the drawings of Re-
doute, is L.20 ; and one copy of the same work, with
the original drawings of that celebrated artist, stands
conspicuous in bibliographical history. It is set down
in the catalogue of M. Bossange and Masson at
L.IOOO.

The reader who is desirous of indulging his taste
for inquiries into this department of literary history,
will find it amply gratified by consulting Dibdin's Bi-
bliomania, or " Book Madness," a singular produc-
tion, and richly stored with amusing anecdotes.

BOOK-BINDING, is the art of sewing together
.the sheets of a book, for the purpose of securing them
from injury, and, at the same time, of admitting the
convenient perusal of their contents. The origin of
book-binding, which, in some form or other, must be
nearly coeval with the invention of letters and the com-
position of books, is ascribed to Phillatius, a learned
man of Athens, who is said to have first taught
the use of a kind of glue for fastening the leaves to-
gether ; and for this valuable discovery a statue was
erected to his memory by his grateful countrymen.

The leaves of books are put together or secured
in various ways. When they are merely sewed to-
gether, the operation is called stitching, which is usu-
ally practised with pamphlets, and, for temporary
convenience, with larger works. In half-binding, the
edges of the leaves are generally left uncut, the back
only is covered with leather, and the pasteboard
sides are covered with marbled or coloured paper.
Different kinds of binding are distinguished by diffe-
rent names. In Dutch binding, the backs of the books
ate of vellum; and in French binding a slip of parch-
ment is applied over the back, between each band,
and the ends are pasted on the inside of each paste-
board. This method of binding, technically called
indorsing, is peculiar to the French binders, who are
required by a particular regulation, under the sanction
of a penalty, to practise it. Binding in parchment, in
sheep, in calf's leather,and in Russia, Morocco, &c.by
which the nature of the material with which the book
is covered is designated, are familiar terms in this art.

The most ancient method of binding books in vo-
lumes was that of glueing the leaves together, and rol-

VOL. I. PART XI.

BOO

ling them on cylindrical pieces of wood ; this is cal- fookbiadliis
led Egyptian binding, and it is now altogether dis- ' "
used, except in Jewish synagogues, where the books
of the law are written on vellum, and sewed toge-
gether, constituting one long page, which has a rol-
ler at each extremity, furnished with clasps of gold
or silver. The invention of square binding, which is
now generally practised, and in which the sheets are
laid over each other, is ascribed to a king of Perga-
mus, to whom the world, it is said, is also indebted
for the method of preparing parchment.

Folding, Sfc Tlie preliminary operation in book-
binding is, to fold the sheets according to the form
in which they have been printed, namely, in two
leaves, for folios, four for quartos, eight for octavos,
&c. A folding-stick, as it is called, which is a thin
slip of ivory, or bone, or hard wood, is employed
for this purpose. The letters and numbers at
the bottom of the pages, technically denominated
signatures, direct the workmen in the proper ar-
rangement of the sheets. The leaves being folded
and disposed in the order of the signatures, are beat-
en with a heavy hammer on a stone, to make them
smooth and solid, and they are afterwards pressed :
they are then sewed in a sewing press on cords,
or packthreads, or bands, at a proper distance from
each other, and in a convenient number. Beginning
with the first band, and proceeding to the last, the
workman draws a thread through the middle of each
sheet, and turns it round the bands. The number of
bands, which varies according to the size of the book,
is usually six for folios, and five for quartos, octavos,
and the rest. When the back of the book is intend-
ed to be smooth, as is frequently the case in the bind-
ing of the present day, a saw is employed to make
places for the bands, so that they are sunk in the
paper. The back of the book is then glued, and the
ends of the bands being opened, are scraped with a
knife, for the more convenient fixing of the paste-
board sides ; the back is then turned with a hammer,
the book being fixed in a press between backing
boards, for the purpose of making a groove for admit-
ting the pasteboard sides ; when the boards are ap-
plied, holes are made in them, through which the
bands are drawn, the superfluous ends of which are
cut off, and the parts are hammered smooth.

Cutting the edges, Sfc. — After the operations now
described are completed, the book is pressed for cut-
ting ; this is performed by an instrument called a
plough, to which a knife is attached ; it is placed in
the cutting press between two boards, one of which
is even with the press for the knife to run upon, and
the other rises above it for the knife to cut against ;
the pasteboards are then squared with a proper pair
of iron shears, after which the book is ready for
sprinkling, blacking, marbling, or gilding the leaves.
Vermilion orsap-green is usually employed for sprink-
ling the leaves, which is performed with a brush of
hogs bristles, the brush being held in one hand, and
the hair being moved with the other.

Gilding the edges. — W^hen the edges are intended
to be gilt, it is placed in a press between two boards,
and first scraped with a knife called the scraper, and
then with another called the smoother, that all the
scratches may be removed. When it is quite smooth

4 s

BOO

Bod fcin^ng a littTe yellow ochre is scraped upon it, and, being
N^^V^ moistened with a little size-water, is rubbed off with
clean shavings. The gilding size is composed of
white of eggs mixed with water, and well beaten to-
gether, and the leaves being moistened with a brush
dipped in the size-water, the gold is laid on and dried
before the fire ; when it is dry it is burnished with a
dog's tooth. When the leaves are blacked, they are
first moistened, then rubbed with fine antimony till
they are quite dry, and afterwards subjected to the
operation of the burnisher, as in gilding.

Covering of books. — The skins employed in the
covering of books are prepared by different processes,
according to their different qualities. When the
cover is of calf skin, it is moistened in water, cut to
the size of the book, and the thickness of the edges
pared off; the cover is then smeared over with paste,
stretched over the pasteboard on the outside, and
doubled over the edges within ; the book is then firm-
ly bound between two boards, the back is warmed at
the fire to soften the glue, and the leather of the
back is rubbed down to make it apply close ; the book
is then dried and uncorded, when it is washed over
with a little paste and water, the edges and squares
are blackened with ink, and sprinkled or marbled ; the
cover is then glazed twice with white of egg, fil-
leted plain or with gold, and, last of all, polished with
an iron passed hot over the glazed cover. When the
book is titled on the back, a piece of Morocco leather,
of such colour as may be required, is pasted between
the first and second band, to receive the title in gold
letters.

682 BOO

Gilding the lack nnd cover. — In common binding, Bookbindi'!"

the edges of the cover and the backs of books onlj'
are gilt ; but books are sometimes splendidly decor-
ated with various figures in gold. Flowers, roses,
coats of arms, and other ornaments, are made with
gilding instruments engraved in relievo, either on the
points, puncheons, as in the case of letters, stars, or
small figures, or a round small cylinder of brass, and
the like. Those parts of the leather on which tha
gold is to be applied, arc glazed three or four times
with size-water, by means of a spunge ; when they
are nearly dry they are slightly oiled, the pieces of
gold leaf are laid on, and the tools are either pressed
with the hand, or the cylinders are rolled along the
places to be gilt, both instruments being a little heal-
ed. The gilding being finished, the redundant gold
is rubbed off, and the whole is polished. Gilding o»
rough leather is performed by means of resin dried
and powdered, instead of whites of eggs ; the gold
leaf, cut to a proper size, is placed on a hot slight-
ly-oiled stamp, and pressed down, and as the resin
melts only in those parts where the hot stamp is ap-
plied, the other parts of the leather remain as at
first.

Improved methods of binding books have beea
proposed of late years, and the advantages of the im-
provements have been secured to their inventors by
patent ; one of these, by Messrs Williams of London,
IS applied to all kinds of books ; and another, by Mr
Palmer, is chiefly useful formerchants acccountbooks.
For an account of both, see Reperiory of Arti, Vol.
XIV.

^-n'

BOOK-KEEPING.

Definition. BoOK-KEEPiNG IS the art of keeping merchants
accounts, — the art of recording the transactions
of trade, in such a manner that the merchant may be
able, at any time, to determine with facility the exact
state of his affairs. The mode of doing this being
perfectly arbitrary, various methods of book-keeping
have been used. We shall here endeavour to explain
the principles of what has been termed the Italian
Method, or the Method by Double Entry, as it is the
method most universally adopted.

Chap. I. Of the Books.

The great object of book-keeping is to discover,
at any time, what the merchant is worth, and there
are two ways in which this may obviously be accom-
plished, namely, \st, By collecting into one sum the
whole amount of his property, and deducting from it
the whole amount of his debts ; or, 2f//;y, Knowing
the amount of his property at any former period, as,
for example, at the time he begins business, by add-
ing to or deducting from it the amount of his gain or

loss since that time. Now, it has been found neces-
sary in book-keeping to use both these methods, in
order that, by arriving at the sanae conclusion in dif-
ferent ways, we maybe the more assured of the accu-
racy of the result, or, in case of any inaccuracy, that
we may perceive the extent of the errors that have
been committed.

In every mercantile concern, where the merchant
is continually buying and selling, receiving some
goods and delivering others in return, receiving from
some people on credit, and delivering on credit to
others, his property must consist, in a great measure,
of the value of the goods delivered on credit, and his
debts of the value of the goods received. The amount
of his profit or loss also, in the whole of his transac-
tions, must be equal to the total sum of the profits or
losses that have arisen by his dealings in each sepa-
rate article, and these again depend evidently upon
the prices at which he buys, and the prices at which
he sells the articles. In recording these various
transactions, therefore, with the view of readily strik-
ing the balance between his debts and his credits, his
gaius and his losses, it is necessary to adopt a pecu-

BOOK-KEEPING.

683

Waste-book. ''*' arrangement. It is necessary, li^, That the oj)-
Si^V*^ posite transactions of giving away and receiving be
kept quite distinct from each otlier ; Idly, It is ne-
cessary, vpith the view of ascertaining the state of the
merchant's accounts with other people, that the trans-
actions with different persons be kept distinct from
each other ; and, Sdly, With the view of shewing the
gain or loss in each article, that the transactions ia
diifereat articles be kept distinct from each other.

Leger. — There is, accordingly, in the Italian, as
in every other method of book-keeping, a principal
book, termed the Leger, to the formation of which
the other books are only subservient, which contains
a complete state of the merchant's affairs, and in
■which all his transactions are recorded, according to
the above arrangement.

Waste-Book But in order to secure the insertion

•f every transaction without exception, it is quite ne-
cessary that each of them be entered in the books at
the moment, if possible, it takes place; and as it would
be very inconvenient, in the hurry of business, to be
searching in the leger for the place where every
transaction, according to its nature, ought to be
inserted, it has been found necessary to make use
of another book, termed the Waste-Look, where each
transaction, of whatever description, is entered exact-
ly as it arises, and from whence it is transferred, at
leisure, to its proper place in the leger.

Joumal.-^Ta make this transference also with
greater expedition and accuracy, it has been found
oecessary to use a third book, termed the Journal.

The construction of these books we shall now more
particularly describe.

Chap. II. Of the Waste-Book.

From what has been said of the nature of this
book, its construction will be easily understood. It
begins, as in waste-book A, with a full account of the
merchant's property, an inventory of every article in
his possession, and a list of all the debts due to him,
and of all the claims against him, and then proceeds
with an account of every transaction that occurs, ex-
pressing it in short but intelligible language. It is
ruled, as in the example below, from top to bottom,
with three columns to the right for L. s. d. and one
to the left for a margin, the space between these co-
lumns being occupied with the dates and narratives
of the transactions ; the date is written at full length,
and in large characters, as the head-line of each page,
and in the middle of that line, — ink lines being drawn
on each side of it to tlie margin line on the left, and
to the money lines on the right. In dating the trans-
actions of the following days, the day only is written
between the opposite ink lines, the month not being
repeated in the same page. Lastly, the transactions
of the same day are either separated from each other
by a line drawn wholly across the page, from the
margin to the money columns, or the date is repeat-
ed.

EXAMPLE.

WASTE-BOOK.

Edinburgh, January 1. 1816".

Bought for ready money, 400
yards shaloon, at Is. 3d.

3 :

Bought of J. Innes, 18 hhds.
wine at L.30,

3

Received of David Jackson, L.lOO
lent to him, with interest on the
same.

Sold William Keith, 1 pipe of port
wine,
6

Bartered with Robert Stevens, 1
pipe of port wine for li ton of
madder at L.3 per cwt.

L. s.
25 0

5iO

104.
90

00

0

Chap. III. Of the Leger.

Sect. I. Of the opposite sides of the Leger,

In the leger, as we have already observed, the
transactions entered in the waste-book are arranged
in distinct classes.

In t\\ejirst place, they are all arranged according
to the opposite relations of buying and selling — of
things received and of things delivered. It has
therefore been agreed to allot the opposite pages of
the leger for inserting the values of articles ol these
opposite kinds ; and, in numbering the pages, these
two opposite ones are considered as one folio.

Sect. II. Of Personal Accounts.

Secondly, The transactions of the waste-book are
arranged in relation to the persons with whom they
have taken place ; the dealings with each person or
company being all collected together unJer one
point of view, and under the title of an account.
These accounts are termed personal accounts, and
one of them is opened with every person with whom
there are any dealings ; a certain space is allotted in
the leger for receiving this account, and when that
space is filled up the account is transferred to ano»
ther page, where another space is allotted to it.

The object of a personal account is to shew how
much the merchant owes that person, or how much
the latter owes him ; and as this quantity, in every
particular transaction, is evidently the difference be-
tween the value of what he gives that person and
the value of what he receives from him, so in the
whole of their transactions with each other it is the
difference between the sum total of the values given
and the sum total of the values received. In trans«
ferring, therefore, the entries of the waste-book to
the leger, with the view of ascertaining these sums,
we have only to set down carefully, in every personal
account, the value of the articles received by each
transaction, on that side of the leger which has
been allotted to articles bought, and the value of the

LegM.

I

684

BOOK-KEEPING.

articles ^ivcn by each transaction on the opposite
side of the leger, and in the same account ; money
columns being dracvn on the opposite pages to re-
ceive these opposite values.

In this manner the state of accounts with Thomas
Anderson, according to the transactions narrated in
waste-book A, are easily ascertained. Thus,

Goods delivered or
sold on credit
Jan. 15. Paper L.18 0

Feb. 1. Salt, yarn,
and iron,
amount-
ing in all
to 28 0 5

Train oil 27 0 0

Goods received or
bought on credit.
dMar. 24. Paid in by
him to
the Roy-
al bank,
on L.40 0 0

Ap. 12.

73 0 5

Amount of goods
delivered 73 0 0

Difference — the
sum due by — ^—
T. Anderson L.33 0 0

In forming this balance, it is evidently of no con-
sequence on which of the pages of the leger these op-
posite quantities are inserted. But it has been agreed
to enter goods bought on the left hand page, and
goods sold on the opposite. A peculiar form has also
been adopted in these entries, as will be seen in
Thomas Anderson's account in leger A. The left-
hand page has been called the debtor, or Dr. and the
right the creditor Cr. or contra side of the leger or
of the account. In the former is written, at the head
of the account, the name of the person in large cha-
racters ; in the same line of the page the word Dr.;
and the titles of the articles are preceded by the
word to, so that the whole reads thus, Thomas Ander-
son, Dr. to paper, to oil, to sundries, and so on, which
means nothing more than that these things have been
delivered to Thomas Anderson, and that he is ac-
countable for them to the deliverer. On the opposite
side of the account, again, which contains articles re-
ceived from the person, the words Contra Cr. are
written in a line, with the name and the articles pre-
ceded by the word by ; so that the whole reads thus.
Contra Cr. that is to say, Thomas Anderson, Contra
Cr. By Royal bank paid in by him, — By cash, or by
any article received. It is doubtful if this technical
mode of entering the accounts has any, and at all
events it is not necessary that it should have any
meaning, further than indicating the opposite sides
■of the leger — the opposite relations of buying on
credit and selling on credit ; and though the words
to and by are universally prefixed to the narratives,
these opposite relations might equally well have been
indicated by the simple terms Dr. and Cr. which
would then have been of the same nature with the
signs plus, minus, &c. in arithmetic.

But at the time of opening the b«oks, there usually
remain unsettled a number of balances of the personal
accounts of the former books ; these>constitute so
many debts due to the merchant on the one hand, or
by him on the other. Being accordingly all entered
in the inventory with v-hich the waste-book begins,
they are transferred from it to the accounts of the
same persons in the new leger ; and as they are
evidently of the same nature, the debts due to the

merchant as goods sold, and the debts due by him as
goods bought, they are entered on the same sides of
the accounts respectively, the former on the Dr. or
left-hand side, and the latter on the Cr.

Sect. III. Of Real Accounts.

Thirdly, The transactions in the waste-book are
arranged in the leger relatively to the articles about
which they have taken place, such as goods of all
kinds, houses, lands, ships, shares in public compa-
nies, and the like ; those concerning each article
being formed into a separate account. These ac-
counts are called real accounts, and their object is to
exhibit the gain or loss that has arisen by the deal-
ings in any particular article ; and also, by shewing
how every article has been disposed of, to satisfy the
merchant that nothing has been lost, or to point out
the quantity amissing.

If A, for example, buys 100 qrs. of wheat at 80s.
a quarter, and sells it again at 90s. he will evidently
gain L.50 ; but if he again buys 100 qrs. at 90s. and
is obliged to sell it when the price has fallen to 7Ss.
he will lose L.75 by the latter transaction ; but in
the two transactions together he will only lose L.25.
One object of every real account, therefore, is to
shew the total quantity of gain or loss upon a variety
of separate transactions in the article to which it re-
lates ; and as the gain or loss on any particular
transaction is evidently the difference between the
price at which we buy (the prime cost as it is
termed by retail dealers) and the price at which
we sell, so the total gain or loss is the difference
between the total sum of the prices at which we
buy, and the total sum of the prices at which we
sell. In transferring, therefore, to the leger the
transactions concerning articles, with the view of
striking the balance of profit or loss, it is only ne-
cessary to set down the value of every article bought
on one side of the account, and the value of every
article sold on the opposite ; by adding these oppo-
site money columns into two sums, and taking the
difference between them, we obtain the total gain or
loss upon the article in question, viz. the total gain,
if the value of articles sold exceeds that of the ar-
ticles bought, and the total loss if the contrary. In
this manner the "profit on the dealings in iron, for
example, is obtained, as they are narrated in tlie
waste-book A. Thus,

Jan.

Articles bought.
13. Bought of
W. Johnston
320 stones at
3s. 4d. L.53

6 8

Articles sold

L.53
5(}

6 8
2 11

Difference, the a-

mouBtof gain 2 15 3

Articles sold.

Feb. 1. Sold Tho.
Anderson, 100
st.at3s.4Jd.L.16 17

Mar. 28. Robert-
son & Ritchie,
150 at 3s. 7d. 26 17

April 1. Sold for
ready money
70st.at3s.6}d.l2 7

II

L.56 2 IX;

BOOK-KEEPING.

685

Heal In the above examples we have supposed the goods

Accounts, to have been all bought and all sold ; but this is sel-
dom the case, as there is generally a quantity on
hand at the time of opening the books, and a quantity
unsold at the time of striking the balance ; the gain
or loss, however, is obtained upon the same principle.
A, for example, has on hand at the time of beginning
business 100 quarters of wheat, the selling price be-
ing then 60s. and at balancing the accounts finds
that 50 quarters had been sold at 80s. and 50 at 70s.
producing in all L.375. Now, the value of the wiieat
on hand at opening the books was evidently L.300,
the sum for which it could have been then sold, but
it was actually sold for L.375, and tlius produced
a gain of L.75, the difference between these two va-
lues.

On the other hand, if none of the goods have been
sold, but all remain on hand at the time of balancing,
it is clear that the gain or loss on these goods would be
the difference between the sum of the prices at which
they have been bought, and the price for which they
would then sell, that being their value at the time.
If A, in the above example had only sold 50 quarters
at 80s. leaving on hand 50 quarters at the time of ba-
lancing, the price being then 70f . it is evident that his
gain on the transactions would be still L.75, for if he
did not sell the 50 quarters at 70s. he might have
sold them, and that was their value at the time. It
appears then, that, in every case, the gain or loss is
the difference between two quantities which stand oa
the opposite sides of the leger, viz.

l«f, .When the goods are all on hand at the time
of opening the books, and all sold during their cur-
rency, it is the difference between

The price at which they
would sell at opening
the books,

and

The suraof the prices at
which they have been
, sold.

^dly, Wlien the goods are all bought and all sold
during the currency of the books, it is the difference
between

The sum of the prices at 1 f Thesumof thepricesat

which they have been > and -; which they have been
bought, ) (^sold,

Zdly, When the goods are all bought during the

1816.
Jan. 5.

currency of the books, and all remain on hand at the
time of balancing, it is the difference between
The sum of the prices at )
which they have been V and
bought 3

Real

Accounts,

The price at which they
would then sell.

Now, every case that can possibly happen is made
up of these three in different proportions. In gene-
ral, therefore, and universally, the gain or loss is ob-
tained by adding up, on one side of the leger, the
market-price of the goods on hand at opening the
books, together with the prices of all that are bought
during their currency, and, on the opposite side, the
prices of all that are sold during the currency of the
books, and the market-price of what remain on hand
at balancing ; and hence the general rule, to enter, at
their marhet-price, goods on hand at opening the books
on the same side of the leger v:ith goods bought, and goods
on hand at balancing on the same side Kith goods sold.

Charges on goods. — Any charges on goods, such as
carriage, freight, postage, or other incidental ex-
pences, tend evidently to diminish the profit which
would arise from the sale of them. Thus A buys
100 quarters of wheat at 60s. and, after keeping it a
year, sells it at 70s. thus gains, if there were no
charges, L.50 ; but L.5 is paid for granary rent, and
L.2 for the interest of money, L.7 therefore must be
deducted from the price sold at before it can shew
the nett gains by its excess above the price bought
at. As in every particular transaction, therefore, all
charges must be deducted from the prices of goods
sold, so in a variety of transactions all the charges
are entered as they arise on the opposite side of the
leger, and, being all added up along with good»
bought, are all deducted along with them, at one ope-
ration from the total value of goods sold.

Advantages. — Any immediate advantage, on the
other hand, is entered upon the same principle on the
opposite side of the leger along with articles sold.

Quantity columns. — The next object of real ac-
counts is to indicate any deficiency; or the contrary,
that may have arisen in any of the articles. This is
done by Betting down their quantities, that is, their
weight, measure, or the like, in an inner column, as
well as their values in the outer money column,, as •
in the above example. Thus, .

Bought
Of Mr Johnston, iron
at 3s. 4;d.

Stones.
320

L.S3

6

8

320

L.53

6

8

Sold

Feb. 1.
Mar. 28
Apr. 1,

Thos. Anderson, at

Stones.

3s. ^A.

100

L.16

17

6

Robertson and Ritchie,

at 3s. 7d.

150

26

17

6

For ready money at

3s. 6^d.

70

12

/

11

320

L.S6

"2

11

The quantities bought being tiius equal to the
quantities sold, shews clearly that the whole stock
has been disposed with nothing lost or missing.

But it frequently happens that the quantities
bought, when they coipe to be minutely examined,
turn out sometimes more, but most frequently less,
than what they have been entered for, either from er-
roneous measurements or other causes, on the one

hand, or from tear and wear, leakage, or wastcof any
description, on the other; and these inner columns of
quantities, therefore, have the advantage of indicat-
ing this excess or defect. For, if there be no error
in the entries, in the measurements, or in any other
way, the quantities on hand at opening the books, to-
gether with the quantities bought during their cur-
rency, must be exactly equal to the quantities sold

686

BOOK-KEEPING.

together with the quantities on hand at halanciDg; and
when this equality, therefore, does not take [ilace, it
shews clearly an error, which, if not in the entries,
must be in the quantities themselves. If the quan-
tity bought and on hand at opening exceeds the
quantity sold and on hand at balancing, as in the ac-
count of oatmeal in lejjcr A, it shews clearly that
there has been an error in the measurement, or that
so much has been wasted, lost, or is missing, and the
excess is termed income, or amissing. If, on the
other hand, the latter quantity exceeds the former,
it shews that the quantities have turned out more
titan what they were entered for, and, therefore, is
entitled outcome. But in both cases, as the values of
tliese exce>ses have been already entered in the mo-
ney columns, their quantities only are set down in
the inner columns, under the titles of income and
outcome.

Partktdar accminls. — We may now mention a few
accounts in particular. From what has been said
the reader will easily see the reasons of the different
entries ; and thus guided by the general, and really
most obvious principles, on which all accounts are
constructed, will have no difficulty with any more
complex case that may occur. The general rule is,
that every real account must contain, on the one hand,
1st, The quantity of the article on hand at the time of
opening the books, and its value at the market price ;
^dly. The quantities and rvalues of all that is bought ;
' and, 3rf/y, All dumdvantages, stick as incidental ex-
jjenccs : And, on the other, 1st, The quantities and
values sold ; Idly, The quantity on hand at balancing,
and its value at the market-price ; and, idly. All ad-
vantages, such as draivbacks, bounties, &;c.

Accounts of houses and lands contain, on the one
eide, the value of the property at the time of opening
the books, together with the amount of all the money
laid out for repairs, taxes, improvements, or any
other species of expence, and also the value of any
other property that may have been annexed to it by
purchase ; on the opposite side, the amount of all
money received for rents, for the sale of any part of
the produce, or of any part of the property, and also
the value of the property at the time of balancing.

In the same manner accounts of ships contain, on
the one side, the value of the vessel at opening the
books, together with the expences for repairs, for
shore-dues and other taxes, for mens' wages, or for
any other thing ; and, on the opposite side, the a-
mount of all freights or other advantages received.

Accounts of property in the funds, or in public or
private companies, contain the value of the sliare at
opening the books, with all the sums paid in, on the
one side, — and on the opposite, the amount of all the
dividends received.

The account of ready money, termed the Cash ac-
count, of which the balance shews merely what is on
hand or missing, contains the quantity on hand at
opening the books, and all sums received, on the one
hand, — and,-on the other, all sums paid, together with
the quantity on hand at balancing. These opposite
columns should be alike, else some money has been
received or given away which is not accounted for ;
and thus any loss or incidental gain is indicated.

Besides these and similar accounts, it is necessary

to open in the leger an account termed the StocJc ac- ■Reai

count, h» order to exhibit at the time of opening the Aecounls.

books the nctt amount of the merchant's property.

It contains, therefore, on one side, the amount of all

his debts, and of all claims upon his property, and

on the opposite side the amount of ready money,

goods, an;! property of every kind, together with all

his claims upon other people. The balance shews

the extent of his stock, or, in case of bankruptcy,

the excess of his debts above his funds.

La<:tly. There is opened in the leger an account
termed the Profit and Loss account, in which are col-
lected all the articles of gain or loss, in order to
shew the general balance upon the whole. It con-
tains, on the one hand, every article of gain which
arises during the currency of the books, and is not
entered in the other accounts, such as money receiv-
ed by legacy, by commission, insurance, or the like ;
and, on the other, every article of loss, such as
goods destroyed, money paid for interest, for insur-
ance, for warehouse rent, or other expences. At
balancing the books also, the total gain or loss arising
from all the different accounts is entered on this ac-
count, and the balance exhibits the result of the
whole. This account, however, contains only the
abstract of various other accounts of profit and loss,
the details of which it has been found convenient to
keep by themselves, and even, in extensive business,
to keep in separate books. The following are the
principal of these accounts.

The account of Charges of merchandise, which con«
tains on the one side all charges incurred in busi-
ness which have not been entered in the other ac-
counts ; and if any should be afterwards so entered,
they are not erased from this account, but, what has
the same effect, entered again on the opposite side.

The account of Proper expences, which contains
on the one side all the money, or any other thing,
withdrawn from the business for private use ; and
there is seldom any thing on the opposite side.

The interest account, the commission account, the
insurance account, the account of loss by bad debts,
the account of abatements, and various others, are
all of the same kind. The account of stock and of
profit and loss are sometimes termed fictitious ac-
counts.

Sect. IV. On Double Entries.

Such are the principal accounts in the leger. Now,
in all these accounts, as well as in the case of per-
sonal accounts already noticed, it is obviously of no
consequence, in obtaining the balances, on which of
the two pages of the leger the different articles be
entered, provided those of the same kind be kept on
the same page, — articles bought, for example, on one
page, and articles sold on the other. Lot us see,
then, which of them is to be preferred on other ac-
counts. This is a matter of some importance in
book-keeping, as on it depends a method of proving
the accuracy of the accounts. Wc may first consi-
der the transactions of buying and selling. In every
case of tliis kind there is the thing bought or sold,
aud the person who buys or sells it ; and in the above
arrangement of leger accounts, the value, as we have
seen, is entered in the account of the former as well

BOOK-KEEPING.

687

Double 3S in the account of the latter, — is entered both in the
Entries, real and in t!ie personal account to which it relates.
"■^"V^^ In every case of this kind, therefore, the very same
quantity is entered twice in the leger.

Now it has been agreed, as we have shewn, to enter
the values of articles bought on the right hand, or Cr.
side, of personal accounts, and the values of articles
sold on the lell. If in real accounts, therefore, we
should enter the values of articles bought, not on the
right, but on the te/l hand side of the leger, and also
the values of articles sold on the right, it would then
happen that the value of each article of this kind,
without exception, would be entered once on the
right of the leger and once on the left. The total
sum of the money columns, therefore, of all the
right-hand pages, would exactly equal the total sum
of the money columns of all the left ; and the exist-
ence of this equality would prove the accuracy of the
entries, while the smallest inequality would indicate
with certainty a proportional degree of error.

This arrangement has accordinrrly been universally
adopted in the Italian book-keeping, which lias since
received the name of the Double Entri/ method. The
values of articles bought, which have been agreed to
be entered on the right of personal accounts, have
been also agreed to be invariably entered on the le/t
of real accounts ; and the terms Dr. and Cr. have been
also extended to the latter, the left-hand page being
still termed the Dr. and the right-hand the Cr. side
of the account. It must not be imagined, however,
that these terms have any meaning, farther than to
designate the opposite sides of the account. In per-
sonal accounts they may perhaps have some analogy
to their ordinary acceptation, but in real accounts
they have none ; and the signs plus and minus of
arithmetic would have equally answered the purpose.

Many articles of the leger, however, are neither
bought nor sold from the time of opening to the time
of closing the books, and many are not bought or
sold at all. But in whatever account any article of
this description be entered, there is always, from the
nature of leger accounts, another in which it must
also be inserted. Thus, goods or money on hand at
opening the books, houses, lands, &c. which are en-
tered in real accounts for the purpose of shewing the
balance of profit or loss, &c. must also be entered in
the account of stock, in order to determine what the
merchant is worth. In the same manner, money re-
ceived or paid must be entered both in the cash ac-
count and in the account of the person from whom
or to whom, or of the thing on account of which it is
received is paid ; every article of gain or loss also
must be entered on the account of the article, as
well as in the account of profit and loss. Thus, in
every other transaction, as well as in that of buying
and selling, there is also invariably a double entry
in the leger. Now, as it is in all cases a matter
of perfect indifference, as to the formation of a ba-
lance, on which of the two sides of an account all
the Dr. and Cr. articles be placed, it has been
agreed, as in the case of articles bought and sold,
to enter the articles upon the respective sides of the
leger, in such a manner that all the double entries
may be equally divided between its onposite pages.
The sums of the whole of the opposite money co-
lumns being in that case exactly alike, the existence

of this equality serves to prove the accuracy of the Balancing
accounts ; and as any inequality indicates with cer- Accounts,
tafnty an error, we thus obtain a very convenient
check upon those mistakes which are so apt to arise
in every system of keeping accounts.

Sect. V. On the Balancing ike Accounts and
Closing the Books.

To enter every article, in this manner, upon the
proper side of its account, is the most difficult part
of book-keeping ; and the Jouknal has been con-
trived to facilitate this operation, to smooth the
way, as it were, from the waste-book to the leger.
Before explaining, however, more particularly the
nature of the journal, we shall shew how to balance
the accounts in the leger, which may be sufficiently
understood without regard to the sides on which the
Drs. and Crs. of each account ought to be entered.

Personal accounts. — Whenever accounts are settled
with any person, his account in the leger to that
period is finished or closed, and a new one opened
for future transactions. When the sums of the op-
posite sides of the account are equal, it shews that
the parties are clear with each other, or that there
is nothing due on either side. In this case, the ac-
count balances itself ; it is closed by setting down
the equal suras of the opposite money columns op-
posite to each other, and the new account begins
with the first subsequent transaction that occurs.
But when the sums of the opposite sides are unequal,
the difference shews how much one party is indebted
to the other ; the account is balanced by adding this
difference to the smallest side in order to make it
equal or balance the other, — and this balance being
carried forward, forms the first article of the new
account. Thus in A's account with the Royal
Bank, the sums of the Dr. and Cr. sides are L.190
and L.iOO respectively ; the difference between them,
L.210, is what A owes the Royal Bank, The account
is closed thus.

Royal Banli, Dr.
To cash paid L.190
To balance 210

400
And the new account begins thus,

Contra, Cr.

By cash received L.400

400

Royal Bank, Dr.

Contra, Cr.

By balance of for-
mer account L.210

Real accounts. — Real accounts are balanced in the
same manner as personal : When no part of the ar-
ticle remains on hand, if the opposite columns of quan-
tities, and also the opposite money columns, be equal,
the account balances itself, — there has been neither
gain nor loss, neither outcome nor income, — and
it is closed by setting down the equal sums oppo-
site to each other. If part of the article be on hand,
it is added, as we have seen, to the creditor side of
the account, the quantity in the quantity column, and
the market-price in the money column. If the op-
posite quantity columns be then unequal, the difflT-
ence is outcome, or income, and is added, under its
proper title, to the smallest quantity column of t!>e

688

BOOK-KEEPING.

Bdsnoiac account. If the opjjosite money columns be un-
Arcounta. equal, the difference h the gain or loss, and is added
to the smallest money column. The sums of the op-
posite columns being then equal, the account balan-
ces ; it is closed by setting down the equal sums op-

posite to each otlicr, and the new account bepini Batunciftj
with the quantity on hand. The manner of thus Account*,
closing the account, and entering the different quan-
tities, will appear in the example of oatmeal, leger A.

Oatmeal,

Bolls

Dr.

Contra,

Bolls

Cr.

The sum of the articles on

Sum of articles on this side

114.

L.H3

9

0

this side is - - -

130

L.I 33

13

0

By balance on hand at 30s.

15'

23

5

0

To profit and loss for gain

33

1

0

Missing ..----

2

130

130

L.166

14

0

L.166

14

0

The new account begins thus :-

Oatmeal,

To balance on hand by for-
mer account, at 309. -

Bollsl

Dr.

154 L.23

0

In the same manner, the cash-account is balanced
by adding the difference, if any, between the oppo-
site money columns, to that which is the least; — this
difference shews the account of cash on hand, and
its agreement with what is actually on hand serves to
prove the accuracy of the account.

General balance. — Few of the real, or even of the per-
sonal accounts, however, are closed until the time of
forming the general balance of the books, which it is
usual among merchants to do once a-year. This
operation is merely the collection of all the scattered
balances into one general result, in order that, by find-
ing the total gain or loss on the whole of the transac-
tions, and also the total amount of debts owing to or
by him, the merchant may be thus enabled to deter-
mine the exact amount of his property. The first
thing to be done in balancing the books, after settling
all the small accounts and charges in the business, and
•taking an exact inventory of the goods on hand at their
market-prices, is to prove the accuracy of the leger-
entries, by forming what is called the trial balance.
This is done by adding into one sum the whole of the
Dr. money columns, and into another the whole of
the Cr. If the two sums be equal, the accounts are
correct; if unequal, they must be carefully examined
until the error be discovered. The next object is to
add together all the balances. Those of personal ac-
counts are collected in a separate paper, termed the
balance-sheet, — the balances due to the merchant on
<one side, and by him on the opposite. The balance-
sheet contains, also from the inventory, the value of
every article of property on hand, including cash.
The balances of real accounts are also collected on a
separate paper, termed the profit and loss sheet, those
of profit on one side, and of loss on the opposite.
The difference between the opposite sides of the
balance-sheet then shews evidently what the mer-
chant is worth. The difference between the oppo-
site sides of the profit and loss sheet is the total
gain or losS ; and this being added or taken from the
Bett amount of his property at the time of opening
the books, shews also what the merchant is worth.
When the two results, thus obtained by methods so
totally independent of each other, agree together, it
affords the strongest proof of the accuracy of the ac-

Contra,

Bolls

counts. If they do not agree, it shews that some
error has been committed ; and the accounts must
be all re-examined in order to discover it, or at any
rate to bring the two results as near to each other as
possible. In an extensive business, it is Seldom that
they come out exactly alike ; but as the difference
between them is always the extreme limit of the er-
ror, it forms a very convenient measure of the accu-
racy of the books ; and, therefore, when this differ-
ence has, by repeated examinations, been reduced
to a trifling amount, the error is neglected, and the
balance is effected by making profit and loss Dr. or
Cr. for the amount.

Closing the books. — Having thus ascertained the
exact state of the business as nearly as circumstances
will admit, or as there is any occasion for, the next
object is to close all the accounts. Real and perso-
nal accounts are closed in the manner already stated ;
and there only remains, after these, the accounts of
stock and of profit and loss. The stock account, as
we have seen, contains, on one side, the property of
the merchant, or the debts due him, and on the o-
ther the debts which he owes. By adding to, or
taking from the former the nett gain or loss, and ad-
ding to the latter the nett stock at the time of clos-
ing the books, the opposite sides become equal, and
the account is balanced. Thus from Icger A.

Stock, Dr.

To Royal Bank, per ac

count L.250 0 C

To balance

account for

nett stock 735 13 1

Contra, Cr.

By sundries L 973 0

0

By profit and

loss for nett

gain 12 13

1

L.985 13 1

L.985 13

Tlie reason of this is obvious ; for L.973, being the
amount of property and debts due, just exceeds the
nett stock at opening tlie books by L.250, the debts
then owing. By adding the gain L.12, 13s. Id. we
obtain L.985, 13s. Id. the nett stock at balancing,
together with the same L.250 ; by adding, therefore,
the nett stock at balancing to L.250, it is clear that
we obtain the same quantity, 1.1.985, 13s. Id.

To the profit and loss account in the leger is car-

BOOK-KEEPING.

689

Jooinal. Hed the amount of the profit and loss sheet ; the dif-
ference between the sums of the Dr. and Cr. sides is
then the total gain or loss ; and being added to the
smallest side, tlie account balances, and is closed,
like the rest, by setting the opposite suras opposite
to each other. In this manner, the whole of the le-
ger accounts are closed, and every thing is prepared
for opening a new series. We have now only to ex-
plain the forms and rules for entries in the journal.

Chap. IV. Of the JouHNAt.

The journal is either kept separately, or, what is
far more convenient, it forms, along with the waste-
book, tlie opposite pages of the same book. It is
ruled and dated in the same manner as the waste-book.
The entries, as they refer to tlie same transactions, are
made in the same order, and, if upon opposite pages,
exactly opposite each other ; and on the left-hand
margin are written, for the sake of reference, the
folios of the leger to which the articles are carried.

Form of entries. — The only object of the journal is
to shew, upon inspection, in what account, and on
what side of the account or of the leger the value of
each article should be placed. The account is indi-
cated by writing its title, that is to say, the name of
the person or thing to which it relates, and the side
of tlie account is marked by writing for the Dr. side
the word Dr. after the title, and for the Cr. side the
word to before it. Thus, if the value of an article
were to be entered on the Dr. side of A's account,
and on the Cr. side of some real account, suppose
casli, the journal e7ttri/, as it is termed, would run
thus, A. Dr. to cash ; then follows a short account
of the transaction, called t/ie narrative, but which
may be omitted if the journal occupies the opposite
page with the waste-book, as the narrative of the
latter will then be sufficient. In the same manner,
the transaction in waste-book A, of January 3, viz.
Sold James Spiers 30 bolls of oatmeal at 20s. 6d.
is thus posted, as it is termed, into the journal. J.
Spiers Dr. to Oatmeal, sold him 30 bolls at 20s. 6d. ;
and the meaning of this journal post is, that the va-
lue of the meal must be entered on the Dr. side of
J. Spier's account, and the Cr. of the account of
oatmeal. When there are more Drs. and Crs. than
one, the entry in the journal is termed a complex
post. Thus :
Jan. 13. Bought of William Johnston, merchant,

Leith,
200 bush, salt, at Is. 8d. L.16 13 4
320 stones of iron, at 3s. id. 53 6 8

L,70 0 0

This transaction is either entered thus :
Salt Dr. to Wm. Johnston for

200 bush, at Is. 8d. L.16 13 4<

Iron Dr. to Wm. Johnston for
320 St. at 3s. 4d. L.53 6 8

Or thus, at once, by uniting the two or more Drs.
under the term sundries :

Sundries Dr. to Wm. Johnston.
Salt for 200 bush, at Is. 8d. L.16 13 4
Iron for 320 stones at 3s. 4d. 53 6 8

L.70 0 0

and in this form there is only one entry on Wnii John-
ston's account.

VOI-. I. FAKT II.

Nature of entries. — Such is the method of indicat-
ing any account whatever, and any side of that ac-
count ; but the great thing is to be able to decide,
with facility, from the nature of the transaction in the
waste-book, the particular account, and, what is most
difficult, the proper side of that account on which the
value of the article should be placed. As the latter
depends entirely upon the conventional arrangement
of leger accounts, which we have already described,
and of which the object is to obtain a trial balance
in the leger, it is only by considering the nature of
this arrangement that any general rules for these
journal entries can be drawn.

The transactions of trade which are entered in the
waste-book relate,

1st, To things received into, or delivered out of
the merchant's possession, and to the persons from
whom they have been received, or to whom deli-
vered.

2d, To things on hand at opening the books.
In order to deduce rules for each of these cases,
we must consider the nature of the accounts already
described. In regard to the first case, we have seen
that personal and real accounts contain, on the one
hand, things received, and, on the other, things de-
livered ; and that, as it has been agreed in personal
accounts to enter things received on the Cr. and
things delivered on the Dr. side, real accounts must
therefore contain, in order to obtain a trial balance,
things received, not on the Cr. but on the Dr. and
things delivered on the Cr.

In the stock account there are no entries during the
currency of the books ; none, therefore, either of
things received or delivered. The profit and loss ac-
count contains ai-ticles of gain or loss, which must
clearly consist of things received and of things deli-
vered. Each article is also entered in some real ac-
count, and as the latter contains things delivered on
the Dr. and things received on the Cr. it is evident
that, according to the arrangement which divides the
double entries equally between the opposite pages of
the leger, the profit and loss account must contain
things received, that is, articles of gain on the Dr.
and things delivered or articles of loss in the Cr.

The nature of the transactions indicates at once the
particular account in which the things received or de-
livered must be entered. If received on credit, they
are entered in some real and in some personal ac-
count— in the account of the thing received, and of
the person from whom received, — on the Dr. of the
former therefore, and on the Cr. of the latter. If
received from one person on account of another, or
on account of some thing, as the rent of a house, or
the like, they are entered in the account of the thing
received, and of the person or thing on whose account
they have been received, — on the Dr. of the former,
therefore, and on the Cr. of the latter. If received
in exchange for other things, they are entered on the
Dr. of the things received, and on the Cr. of the things
delivered, or given in exchange ; if on account of
gain or loss, they are entered in the account of the
thing received, and in the account of profit and loss, —
on the Dr. of the former, therefore, and the Cr. of
the latter. Upon the whole, therefore, and adopting
the form for journal entries already described, the
following rule for things received may be drawn.
4 X

Joumai.

690

BOOK-KEEPING.

The thing received is

■i

To the thins; delivered.

Jinirn.il. 1 f "^^ *'"^ person from

whom it is received. To

the person or tiling on

> Dr. \ whose account it is re-

I ceived. To the thing

I given for it. To profit

l_and loss.

Tlie same rule applies in a reverse order to things
delivered, thus :
The person to whom'
the thing is delivered.
The person or thing
on whose account it is } Drs
delivered. The thing
received for it ; or, pro-
fit and loss.

The application of these rules will be evident from
the following examples.

1. Bought of William Maclaren 100 qrs. of wheat at
80s. L.400. Here wheat being the thing received,
and William Maclaren the person from whom it is
received, the entry is,

Wheat Dr. to William Maclaren.

2. Received from Alexander Beattie in full, L.60.
The entry is here evidently,

Cash Dr. to Alexander Beattie.

3. Bought for ready money, 20 gallons rum at 20s.
L.20. Here rmn, (the thing received,) is Dr. to
Cash, (the thing delivered.) In the same manner
in the following :

\ Bartered 10 doz. port wine at 30s. for 15 gallons

rum at 20s. ; the entry is.
Rum Dr. to Port Wine.

4. Paid for repairs to my house in Queen's Street,
L.30. Hfie House in Queen's Street, (on account
of which the thing is delivered,) is Dr. to Cash,
(the thing delivered.) In the same manner are en-
tered the following :

Paid for shop rent L.IO.

Profit and Loss Dr. to Cash paid for shop rent.

Receired rent of house in Queen's Street, L.70.

Cask Dr. to house in Queen's Street, (the thing
en whose account the money is received.)

Received 100 bolls of oatmeal, being the rent of
my farm of Braehead,

Oatmeal Dr. tojarm of Braehead.

Taken for the use of my house, I doz. port wine,

Profit and Loss Dr. to Port Wine, (the thing de-
livered, or withdrawn from the busmess.)

Received in a legacy L.IOO.

Cash Dr. to Profit and Loss.

In the above transactions, things received or de-
livered on credit are entered in the accounts of the
things ; but in many cases debts are incurred for
things which have no accounts in the leger, — as for
services in the business, expences for articles, such
as houses, ships, &c. interest of money, insurance, or
the like, on the latter of which also debts become
due to the merchant. Tliese, however, are entered
in the same manner, only substituting for things re-
ceived the persons indebted to the merchant on ac-
count of them, and for things delivered the persons
to whom the value is due, according to the follow-
ing ruk s :

rTothethinggiven. To jaam^i
! the person or thing on
1 whose accountit is giv-
V en, or to profitand loss.

'"It-, -/

To the person to whom
the value is due.

The person who owes, i

or is accountable for > Dr.

the thing, is \

The thing received.
The person or thingon
whose account it is re-
ceived, orprofit & loss,

Thus the following are entered :

William Burnet owes me rent of my house in
Princes Street —

William Burnet, Dr. to House in Princes Street.

David Dobson owes me L.IO for interest of L.200

David Dobson, Dr. to Projtt and Loss.

Due William Davidson, my clerk, for wages, L.20

Profit and Loss, Dr. to IViUiam Davidson.

Due David Henderson for repairs on the ship
Elizabeth —

Ship Elizabeth, Dr. to David Henderson.

In some cases things are delivered by one person
to another on the merchant's account. Thus, Tho-
mas Anderson has paid the Royal Bank on ray ac-
eonnt L 40. Here the eifect is the same as if there
had been a double transaction,— as if Thomas Ander-
son had paid the merchant L.40, and the latter paid
it to the Royal Bank, for which there would evident-
ly have been the following entries :

Cash Dr. to Thomas Anderson.
Royal Bank Dr. to Cask.
But instead of making four entries in the leger, it is
sufficient to enter the quantity in the accounts of the
Royal Bank and of Thomas Anderson, omitting en-
tirely the two entries on the opposite side of the cash
account, which can have no effect wliatever upon
the balance. In that case the entry will run thus :

Royal Bank Dr. to Thomas Anderson:
And the rule will be, that

The person to whom any "1 f -t> .^i, i

thing is delivered on thit Dr. U%^^^ person who

"i ^. ^ I i delivers it.

merchant s account, 3 (.

Things on hand at opening the books, and debts
due to or by the merchant, are all entered in the in-
ventory in the waste-book, from which they are trans-
ferred to the journal, and from the latter they are
entered in the leger, the former in real, the latter in
personal accounts, and all of them in the stock- ac-
count. Things on hand are entered, as we have seen,
on the Dr. of real accounts ; they must therefore be
entered on the Cr. of stock. In the same manner,
debts due to or by the merchant, which are entered,
the former on the Dr. the latter on the Cr. of per-
sonal accounts, must be entered in the stock-account,
the former on the Cr. the latter on the Dr. Hence the
following rules.

The things on hand. The persons! ^^^ ,^ ^^^^^ '
indebted to the merchant, J

to the persons to whom the merchant
indebted.

The application of these rules is suiBciently exem-
plified in the beginning of journal A.

In closing the books in the manner already describ-
ed, the most regular way is to enter the results of
the balance account in the journal. Thus, in order
to close the real and personal accounts, the entries
will be, for the profit and lose sheet,

Stock

JDr.

' \ is in

BOOK-KEEPING.

691

Profit and Loss Dr. to Sundries for articles of loss.

Sundries Dr. to Profit and Loss for articles of gain.
And for the balance sheet,

Balance Account Dr. to Sundries for articles belong-
ing to me.

Sundries Dr. to Balance Account for articles due
by me

And in order to close the accounts of stock, and
of profit and loss, the entries are.

Profit and Loss Dr. to Stock for nett gain.

Stock Dr. to Balance Account for nett stock.

These entries are exemplified in Journal A, and
balance account.

The above rules comprehend all the transactions
of ordinary business ; as illustrating also the general
principles on \yhich all journal posts are formed,
they afford the means of forming with ease the pro-

per entries of any more complex transactions tha*
mayoccur; and, along witli what has been said in the
preceding chapters and the following specimen of
books, will be sufficient to make the reader full}' ac-
quainted both with the theorj' and practice of this
usei'ul art.

Besides the waste-book and journal, a variety of
subsidiary books are opened in every extensive
business to facilitate the composition of the leger,
such as the cash-book, the bill-book, the books of
accounts and invoices, the letter-book, &c. ; these
books contain all the details of the business which it
would bo inconvenient to enter in the others. Their
nature is sufficiently obvious from their titles ; and as
their forms are quite arbitrary, we seed not describe
them more particularly.

.Tounia.1.

(1.) WASTE-BOOK A.

Edinburgh, January 1. 1800.

INVENTORY of ready money goods and

debts taken by me, A. B. this day.
Ready money - - L. 85 0 0
100 bolls of oatmeal, at 20s. 100 0 0
46 reams of paper, at 10s. 23 0 0
120 sp. five-hank yarn, at 2s. 3d. 13 10 0
A house in Prince's-street, value 700 0 0
Wm. Macdonald, merchant, Dun-
dee, owes per account - 50 0 0

I owe the Royal Bank, per account -
•3.

Sold James Spiers, merchant, Leith, 30 bolls
of oatmeal, at 20s. fid.
-5

Bartered 60 sp. five-hank yarn, at 2s. id

for 80 yards diaper, at Is. 9d.

13.

Bought of William Johnston,

merchant, Leith, 200 bush.

salt, at Is. 8d. - L.I6 13 4

320 stones iron, at 3s. 4d. 53 6 8

-I-'!.-

Sold Thomas Anderson, mer-
chant, Edinburgh, 30 reams
of paper, at 12s. - L.18 — -

5 ditto for ready money, at lis. 2 15 -

-18.-

Sold George Cooper, merchant,
Musselburgh, 150 bush, salt,
at Is. 9d.

Received in part L.IO, ■ -

18.

Paid the Royal Bank
. 26.

Bought of William Macdonald,

merchant, Dundee, 500 sp.

4-hank yarn, at Is. lid. L.47 18 4
Paid him in part - 15 —

971
250

30

70

20

13
10

100

And the balance due hira is L.32 18 4

10

15

15

18

(1.) JOURNAL A.

Edinburgh, January 1, 1800.

Sundries Dr. to Stock for property belong-
ing to me, A. B.

Cash on hand - - L.85 — -

Oaimea/, for 100 bolls, at 20s. 100 -- -

Paper, for 46 reams, at 10s. - 23 — -

Yarn, for 120 sp.5-hank,at2s. 3d. 13 10 -

House in Prince's street, value 700 — -
William Macdonald, nierchant,

Dundee, per account, - 50 •- -

Stock Dr. to Royal Bank,
-3.-

James Spiers, merchant, Leith, Dr. to Oat-
meal, sold him 30 bolls, at 20s. 6d.
-5.

Diaper Dr. to Yarn, bartered 60 sp. five-
hank, at 2s. 4d. for 80 yards, at Is. 9d.

Sundries, Dr. to William Johnston,
Salt, for 200 bush, at Is. 8d. L.16 13
Iron, for 320 stones, at Ss. 4d. 53 6

L.

-15.-

Sundries Dr. to Paper.
Thomas jinderson, merchant,

Edinr. for 30 reams, at I2s. L.18 —
Ca«/j for 5 reams, at lis. - 2 15

■18.-

George Cooper, merchant, Musselburgh,
Dr. to Salt, for 150 bush, at Is. 9d.
Cash Dr. to George Cooper, re-
ceived in part

18.-

Royal Bank Dr. to Cash paid them

Yarn Dr. to William Macdonald, nierchant,
Dundee, for 500 sp. 4-hank, at Is. lid.

William Macdonald, Dr. to Cash paid him,

971
250

30

7

70

20

13

10

100

47

15

10

15

18

BOOK-KEEPING.

WMte-book. (2)

WASTE-BOOK A.
Edinburgh, February 1. 1800.

Sold Thomas Anderson 50
bushels salt, being the re-
mainder, at Is. 84d. X,.4 5 o

60 spindles five-hank yam at
23. 3^. - 6 17

100 stones iron, at 3s. 4|d. 16 17 6

3.-

Received from J. Spiers, in part
■10.

Bartered 10 reams of paper at

128. - - L.6 "

30 bolls of meal, at
258. - 37 10 "

For 435 spindles, four -hank
yarn, at 2s.

-13.

Taken for use of my counting-house, the
remaining ream of paper

-15..

Received from Geo. Cooper, in
full - - L.IO -

from William Mac-
donald, in part - 40 —

15..

Paid the Royal Bank
20..

Sold 10 bolls oatmeal for ready money, at
26s.

8 to Geo. Cooper, at 28s. L.ll 4

12 to Robertson and Rit-
chie, at 28s. - 16 16 "

-22.

Drawn on Royal Bank
Paid William Johnston in part L.50
William Macdonald 15

• March 1, 1800.-

Paid charges and cellar rent of
salt ■ - L.l 2 6

charges and granary rent
of meal - 3 3

-24.

Thomas Anderson has paid the Royal
Bank on my account
-28

Sold Robertson and Ritchie 150 stones
iron, at 3s. 7d.

. April 1

Sold for ready money 50 yards

diaper, at Is. lid. L.4 15 10

12 bolls oatmeal, at 30s. 18 -- -

70 stones iron, at 3e. 6^. 12 7 11

L.

28
20

43

50
50

13

28
100

65

40

26

35

10

10

17

d.

(2) JOURNAL A.

Edinburgh, February 1. 1800.

Thomas Anderson, Dr. to sundries sold him

To salt, for 50 bushels, at Is.
8id. - L.4 5 5

To yarn, for 60 spindles five-
hank, at 2s. 3|d. - 6 17 6

To iron, for 100 stones at 3s. 4|d. 16 17 6

3. -~

Cash Dr. to J. Spiers, received in part
10

Yam, Dr. to Sundries, for 435 spindles

4-hank, at 2s.
TojEiaper, for lOreams at 12s. L.6 —
To meal, for 30 bolls, at 25s. 37 10 --

13.

Profit and Loss Dr. to Paper, taken for use
of counting-house

15

Cash Dr. to Sundries.
To Geo. Cooper, in full L.IO --

To William Macdonald, in part 40 •• —

15.

Royal Bank Dr. to Cash, paid them
20.

Sundries Drs. to Oatmeal,
Cash for 10 bolls at 26s.
Geo. Cooper for 8 bolls at 288. L.ll 4
Robertson and Ritchie, for 12
bolls, at 28s. - 16 16

.22..

Cash Dr. to Royal Bank, drawn on them
Sundries, Drs. to Cash.
William Johnston, paid him L.50 — -
William Macdonald, paid him 15 — ■

—March 1. 1800. —

Sundries Drs. to Cash.
Salt, for charges and cellar rent L.l 2 6
Meal, for charges and granary

rent - - 3 3-

24.

Royal Bank Dr. to Thomas Anderson.
Paid them by him on my account
28

Robertson and Ritchie Dr. to Iron, for
ISO St. at 3s. 7d.

. April 1

Cash Dr. to Sundries

Todiaper, for50yards,atls.lld.'L.4! 15 10

To oatmeal, for 12 bolls, at 30s. 18 — --

ro?Vo»,for70stones,at35.6^d. 12 7 11

JTounn].

d.

28
20

43

10

■10

50 .

50

13

28
100

65

4
40
36

35

17

{

BOOK-KEEPING.

695

Waste-book. (3)

WASTE-BOOK A.

Edinburgh, April 7, 1800.

Bought for ready money,
30 casks train oil, at 22s.
] 0 bolls meal, at 20s.
20 ditto, at 20s. 6d.

L.33 -.
10 --
20 10 --

12.-

Sold Thomas Anderson 20 casks train oil,

at 27s.
15

Sold David Dunlop of Stirling, 10 casks

train oil, at 28s. L.H —

12 bolls oatmeal, at 27s< 16 4

Received in part

.23.-

Paid for small charges in my business since
January Ist L.5 3 8

Personal and family expences 32 —
J. Davidson, my clerk, for wages 5 ~

Inventory of goods and other effects belong-
ing to me at the time of balancing my
books :
15i bolls meal, at 30s. L.23 5 -•

953 sp. yarn, at 2s. Id. 99 3 5

32 yds. diaper, at 2s. 3 4<

House in Prince's street

L.125 12 5
700 ~ -

L.875 12 5

L.

63

27

30
10

42

10

(3) JOURNAL A.

Edinburgh, April 7, 1800.

Sundries Drs. to Cash.
Train oil, for 30 casks, at 22s. L.33 —
Oatmeal, for 10 bolls, at 20s. 10 -

for 20 ditto, at 20s. 6d. 20 10 --

-12..

Thomas Anderson Dr. to Train Oil, for 20
casks, at 27s,

-15

David Dunlop of Stirling, Dr. to Sundries,
To train oil, for 10 casks, at 28s.

L.14. -- -•
To oatmeal, for 12 bolls, at 27s. 16 4 -

Caik Dr. to D. Dunlop, received
23-

Prqfit and Loss Dr. to Cash, for charges on
business and family expences

Profit and Loss Dr. to Salt, for loss

Sundries Dr. to Profit and Loss for articles

of gain :
Oatmeal L.33 1

Yarn 8 2

Diaper
Iron
Paper
Train oil

- 19 10

2 16 3

4 5 6

8 -

Balance Account Dr. to Sundries, for arti-
cles belonging to me :
To cash L.35 19

To oatmeal, for 15f bs. at 30s. 23 5
To yarn, for 953 sp. at 2s. Id. 99 3
To diaper, for 32 yds. at 2s. 3 4

To Thomas Anderson 33 ~

To George Cooper 4 6

To J. Spiers 10 15

To Robertson and Ritchie 43 13

To D. Dunlop 20 4

To house irt- Princes street 700 —

Sundries Drs. to Balance Account for debts

due by me :
By Royal Bank L.210 ~

By William Macdonald 7 18 4

By William Johnston 20 ~

Prqfit and Loss Dr. to Stock for nett gain
Stock Dr. to Balance Account for nett stock

63

27

30
10

42

10 "

'II

57

973

11

237

12

735

18
13
13

694

BOOK-KEEPING.

LEGER A.

1

(1

)

LECxKR A.

1800
Jan.
Apr.

1800
Feb.
Apr.
Apr.

1800
Jan.

Feb.
Apr.

1800

Jan.
Mar.

Apr.
Apr.

1800
Jan.

Feb.
Apr.

1800

Jan.
Apr.

1800

Jan.
Mar.

1800

Jan.
Apr.

1
30

IS
2fi
30

1
15
18

3
1.5
20
22

1

iry

I
]

7
30

1
26
10
30

5
30

13
1

23
30

Sfnd, . Dr.
To Ro)'al Bank, per account £
To balance account for nett stock

735
985

42
14
57

85
2
10
20
50
13

150
35
10

375

100

3

30

133

33

166

13

47

43

8

18
1;.

10

11

3

5

15

3
IF

3

10
13

1

14

10
18
10

2

i

T

6

7
1
2

9
~9

4

7

I8(K

Jan

Apr

1800
Apr.

1800
Jan.

Feb.

Mar.
Apr.

Apr.

1800

Jan.
Feb.

Apr.
Apr.

1800
Jan.

Feb.
\pr.

1800
Apr.

1800

Jan.
Feb.
Apr.

1800

Feb.
Mar.
Apr.

1

3f

30

18
26
15

22
1
7

23

30

3

10
20

1
1.G

30

5

1
30

1

3

18

I
30

1

28

1

Contra, Cr.
By Puiuiries £
By profit and loss for nett gain

971
14

10

1

985
57

100
15
50
65

4
63
42

13
5

5

10

3

1

£

6
8

Profit and Loss, Dr.
To paper £
To sundries
To stock for nett gain

£

Contra, Cr.
By sundries, per J. £

Cask, Dr.

To stock on hand £

To paper, for 5 reams

To salt in part

To J. Spiers in part

Contrfi, Cr.
By Royal bank, paid them £
By yarn, in part, for 500 spind. 4-hanks
By Royal Bank, paid them
By sundries
By sundries
By sundries
By sundries for charges and expences

£
By balance account

£

To sundries

To oatmeal

To Royal Bank, drawn on them

To sundries

To David Dunlop in part

£

339
35

375

30
37
41
18
16

19
19
18

15
10

4

2
7
9

Oatmeal, B

L
To stock on hand at 20s.
To cash paid, charges, ^nd granary

rent
To cash per J.

To profit and loss for gain

r.

lolls.
100

30
130

Contra, i

1

By J. Spiers, at 20s. 6d.

By yarn in barter, at 25s.

By sundries

By cash, at 30s.

By David Dunlop, at 27s.

By balance account at 80s.
Missing

>.

3olls.
30
30
30
12
12

114
I5j

2

143
23

9
5

--

130

166

7

6

99

14

17

3

6
5

Yarn, D

Spin
To stock on hand
To Wra. Macdonald, at 10s. lid.
To sundries in barter at 2s.
To profit and loss for gain
Income

1

r.

dies.
120
500
435

18

Contra, C

Spir
By diaper in barter for 60 spindles

at 2s. 4d.
By Thomas Anderson at 2s. 3^d.
By balance account at 2s. Id.

>.

dies.

60

60

95?

073

113

7

0
19

11
10

1073

113

4
3

7

13
4

17

16
26
12
56

15

4

l9

2
5

/

15

17
17

"2

11
10

••

lo

6

5

11

lo

6

6

11

11

Diaper, D

Yi

To yarn in barter, at Is 9d.
To profit and loss for gain

r.

irds.
80

Contra, C

Y

By cash, at Is. lid.

By balance account at 2s .

V.

2rds.
.50
32

82

V.

hels.

150

50

Income

2

82

16
1

17

19

13

2

15

10

4

6

U)

Salt, D

Bus
To William Johnston, at 1 s. 8d.
To cash paid charges and cellar rent

r.

hels.

200

200

Contra, C

Bus
By George Cooper, at Is. 9d.
By Thomas Anderson, Is. 8d.
By profit and loss

1

53

2
56

6

16
2

8

3
II

|Z.VU|

Iron, D

St<
To William Johnston, at 6s. 4d.

To profit and loss for gain

r,

mes.
320

320

Contra, C

St
By Thomas Anderson, at 3s. 4 Jd.
By Robertson and Ritchie, at 3s. 7d.
By cash, at 3s. 6^d.

r.

mes.

100

150

70

320

BOOK-KEEPING.

695

LEGER A.

(2)

(2)

LEGER A.

1800
Jan

Apr.

1800
Apr.

1800
Jan.

Jan.
Feb.
Apr.

1800
Jan.
Feb.

1800
Jan.
Feb.

Apr.

1800
Jan.

Feb.
Apr.

1800
Jan,

1800
Feb.
Mar.

1800

Feb

Apr

1800
Apr,

30 To profit and loss for gain

Paper,
To stock on hand at 10s.

Dr.

Reams.
46

iti

Train Oil,
To cash for 30 casks at 22s.
To profit and loss for gain

Br,

House in Prince's Street,
To stock for value

Dr.

T/io. Anderson, Mercht. Edinburgh, Dr.

To paper, for 30 reams, at 12s.

To sundries per .1.

To train oil, for 20 casks at 27s.

George Cooper, Mercht. Musselburgh, Dr.
To salt, for 150 bushels at Is. 9d.
To oatmeal, for 8 bolls, at 28s.

Rot/al Bank, Dr.

To cash paid them
To cash paid them
To Thomas Anderson paid them by him

i

To balance account

IVm. Macdonald, Mercht. Dundee,
To stock due by him, per account
To cash in part
To cash

To balance account

Dr.

James Speirs, Merchant, Leith,
To oatmeal, for 30 bolls at 20s. 6d,

Dr.

Robertson and Ritchie,
To oatmeal, for 12 bolls, at 28s.
To iron, for 150 stones, at 3s. 7d.

Dr.

Wm. Johnston, Merchant, Leith,
To cash paid him
To balance account

Dr.

£

David Dunlop, Stirling,
To sundries per J.

Dr.

23

700

73

24

100
50
40

190
2^0
400

50
15
25

80
_7
87

30

lo

16
26

43

50
20
70

SC
"30

1800
Jan.

Feb.

1800
Apr,

1800
Apr

1800
Mar
Apr,

1800

Jan.

Feb.

Apr.

1800
Jan.
Feb.

1800
Jan

1800
Feb.
Apr

Apr,

800
Jan,

Apr.

15

By Thomas Anderson at 12s.

By cash at lis.
10 By yarn in barter at 12s.
13 By profit and loss

30

30 By balance account

30

13

Contra,

Cr.
Reams
30

5
10

46

Contra, Cr.

By Thomas Anderson, for 20 casks at 27s.
By David Dunlop, for 10 casks at 28s.

Contra,
By balance account

Cr.

Contra,

By Royal Bank paid in by him
By balance account

Cr.

27

ii
41'

700

40
33

Contra,
By cash
By cash

Cr.

Contra, Cr.

By stock due them, per account
By cash drawn on them

Contra,
By cash in part
By yarn, 50 spindles at Is. lid.

Cr.

Contra,
By cash in part
By balance account

Cr.

Contra,

By balance account

Cr.

Contra,
By sundries per J.

Cr.

Contra,
By cash in part
By balance account

Cr.

73

10
H)

¥o"
_i'

24

250
150

400

40

47

87

20
_10

"30

18

18

15
15

43

70
■70'

10
20
"30"

13

6^

Book-keeping,

COMPUTATIONS.

Bolls.
IH

130

16

15i

5

Spin.
120
1055

935
95a

Charges Merctiandise,

Oatmeal.

Cr.
Dr.

Difference

On hand at SQt.

Missing.

L.

L

Yarn.

Cr.
Dr..

L.

18

Yards,
SO
80

30

32

On hand at 2s. Id.

Outcome.

Difference L.

Diaper.

42

143

23

166
133

33

13
99

113
104

14 2

17

Cr.
Dr.

On hand at 2s.
Outcome.

L.

Bolls.
200

Cr.

200 Dr.

Stones,
3201

320 Dr.

Reams.
46
46

Casks.
80

Salt.

15

Loss.

Cr.

Dr.

Profit.

10

19

19

10

10

Cr.

Dr.

Profit.

Home in Princes Street,

Value L,

Thomoi Anderson.

L.
Owes L,

Cr.

Br.

Profit.

Iron.

Cr.

L.
L.

Paper.

Cr.
Dr.

L,
L.

Train Oil.

Cr.

SO Dr.

L.
L

17

17

56
53

27
23

41
33

16

U

Cr.
Dr.

Loss.

Cr.
Dr.

Profit.

Profit.

Profit.

George Cooper.

L.
Owes L.

Royal Bank.

L.

Due them L.

700

73
40

33

24
20

190
400

210

William Macdonald.

L.

Due him L,

J. Spiers.

L
Owes L.

Robertson and Ritchie.

L.
Owes L.

Dr.
Cr.

80

8'

80
20

10

4S

18

lb

15

15

13

43

Wm. Johnston.

L.
Due him L.

D. Dunlop.

L.
Owes L.

13

Dr.

Cr.

Dr.

Cr.

Dr.

Cr.

50
70

20

30
10

20

Dr.
Cr

Dr.
Cr.

Dr.
Cr.

Dr.

Cr.

I.eger.

Salt

In ledger

Dr.

Loss.

BOOK-KEEPING.

PROFIT AND LOSS SHEET.

Cr. Profit.

Nett gain
L.

7

11

42

11.

2

43

2

J

14

3

1

57

5

~2

Oatmeal

Yarn

Diaper

Iron

Paper

Train oil

BALANCE SHEET.

Dr.
Cash

Oatmeal, 15^ bolls at 30g.
Yarn, 953 spindles at 2s. Id.
Diaper, 32 yards at 2s.
House in Princes street
Thomas Anderson
George Cooper
J. Spiers

Robertson and Ritchie "

D. Dunlop

L

35

19

7

23

5

..

99

3

5

3

4

,.

700

„

,,

33

„

5

4

6

6

10

15

,,

43

13

6

20

4

L.

973

11

~5

Cr.

Royal Bank,
William Macdonald
William Johnston

Stock

m

L.

33

1

,,

8

2

7

,,

19

10

2

16

3

4

5

6

8

..

..

L.

37

5

2

L.

210

7
20

18

4

237
735

18
13

4

1

L.

973

11

5

Leger,

Boors.

BOORS, a general denomination of the Russian
peasantry, who are under various degrees of bond-
age, according to the rank which they hold or the
class to which they belong. The boors are divided in-
to two great classes, the first includes the free pea-
sants, who seem to hold a middle place between the
free citizens or burghers, and the vassal boors, of
which the second class is composed. The free pea-
sants cannot be alienated or sold, they possess pro-
perty, and, on paying the taxes and performing cer-
tain services, are permitted to enjoy the fruits of their
labour ; they are allowed to educate their children,
and are exempted from all authority which is sub-
ordinate to that of the sovereign and laws of the state.
The class of free peasants comprehends foreign co-
lonists who have settled in Russia as husbandmen ;
those who are called one-house owners, who possess
houses and lands as free property, for which they
neither perform any feudal service, nor contribute
any portion of their produce, but are bound to fur-
nish recruits, and are prohibited from purchasing in
villages, or having vassals as property ; the various
tribes of Cossacks, Baschkirs, Kalmucks, and the in-
habitants of the Steppes in the southern regions of
the empire ; disbanded soldiers who have fixed their
residence in tlie country ; and vassals who have pur-
chased their freedom from their superiors, or obtain-
ed it as a reward for their former services.

The vassal peasantry of Russia has been divided
into three classes, private boors, boors of the mines,
and crown-boors Those who are included under the
first class, belong to individual noblemen, on whose
peculiar temper and dispositions their comfort and
Itappiness depend ; these private boors are bound to

VOL. 1, PART II.

pay a certain sum annually to their masters, and to Booslmwas.
perform a certain quantity of labour, amounting
sometimes to three days in the week ; but the quan-
tity of toil and of pecuniary tax being under no par-
ticular regulation, depends on the will of the lord.
W'omen, as well as children above ten years of age,
are compelled to contribute their share of these op-
pressive exactions. The boors of the mines are at-
tached to particular establishments, and can neither
be sold nor exchanged, but may be transferred to
different masters along with the works. The crown-
boors enjoy comparatively a much greater degree of
freedom and comfort than those belonging to private
individuals. The rent or tax exacted by government
is generally more moderate ; they are permitted
to enjoy in security the benefits which arise from
their improved condition ; and, when they have ac-
quired the means, they are allowed to purchase from
noblemen villages and lands, with vassals attached to
them. Those who are included in the class of crown-
boors are distinguished by different appellations; some
are called empire-boors, who seem to be in the rank
of citizens, and belong to no particular institution
or corporation, but are members of the empire ; im-
perial-boors, who belong to the sovereign or to the
court ; monastery-boors, who were formerly annexed
to the monasteries ; and post-boors, who, on condi-
tion of keeping pOst-horses, are f^xcnipted from the
usual tribute, as well as from other taxes.

BOOSHUANAS, a tribe of Caffres in southern
Africa, who have arrived at a considerable degree
of civilization. The first knowledge of this country
and people was obtained in the year 1801, in conse-
quence of an expedition which was sent from the
4u

BOO

698

B O R

Bmit»E. Cape of Good Hope to explore the interior of that
part of Africa. The more recent visit of Mr Camp-
bell, a missionary traveller, has added to the infor-
mation collected concerning this region, %vhich is re-
presented as populous and fertile. Agriculture is
gucccssfully prosecuted, and abundant crops of grain
and pulse are raised in inclosed fields. The natives
of this country are remarkable for the simplicity of
their manners, and are chiefly occupied in attending
their cattle and hunting ; but the women are very
generally employed in the labours of the field.

The first visitors of this part of Africa were not a
little surprised by the discovery of a large town, with
a population of 10,000 or 15,000 inhabitants, besides
many other towns and villages of considerable mag-
nitude. Leetakoo, the chief town, is traversed by a
considerable stream ; the streets are not witliout re-
gularity ; and the houses, covered with reeds or straw,
are of a circular form, and, as they are low, the town
occupies a very large space. The inhabitants pre-
gerre their grain in jars of baked clay, each of which
contains about 100 gallons, is elevated a little above
the ground, and is furnished with a round straw
roof. The country inhabited by the Booshuanas is
included between the 20° and 28" of south latitude,
and the town of Leetakoo stands in 26° 30' of south
latitude. ,

BOOTAN, a mountainous region of northern Hin-
dostan, which is chiefly included between the 27°
and 28° of N. lat. is about 200 miles in length, and
about 60 or 70 miles in breadth, is separated on the
north from Tibet by the Himalaya mountains, and
has the province of Bengal for its boundary on the
south; and while the unexplored regions north of As-
sam lie on the east, a district subject to the Nepau-
lese forms the limit on the west. The remarkable
inequalities in the surface of this province produce
striking diversities of climate. Of two places within
sight of each other, the inhabitants of one, chilled
by perpetual snows, experience all the rigours of
winter, while those of another are exposed to the
burning rays of an almost vertical sun. The moun-
tains of Bootan form part of the great chain which
appears in geographical descriptions under the name
of Imaus, and which is of frequent occurrence in
the mythological histories of the brahmins bv the
name Himalaya, Hmmaleh, or snowy mountains. On
the Bengal frontier, at the foot of this chain, a plain
of about twenty-five miles in breadth presents an al-
most impenetrable mass of the most luxuriant vege-
tation ; the trees are of immense size, and the thick
forests, rarely disturbed by mankind, abound with
elephants. The less elevated mountains are cover-
ed with perpetual verdure ; and populous towns and
villages are seen rising in the midst of orchards, rich
plantations, and fertile fields.

Of mineral substances lime-stone, is chiefly noticed
on account of its abundance.

Strawberries, rasjiberries, and blackberries, grow
wild ; the apple, the pear, the peach, the apricot,
as well as oranges, pomegranates, and walnuts, are
cultivated in perfection ; and the ash, birch, maple,
yew, and pine, and other useful trees, are abundant
in the forests. The number of wild animals is small,
but a large and handsome kind of monkey, which is

held in great veneration by the inhabitants, is abun-
dant ; and the horse of Bootan is strong and active.

The robust and active mountaineers of Bootan
form a remarkable contrast with their neighbours,
the feeble-bodied and meek-spirited natives of Ben-
gal. They are fairer in complexion than the Ben-
galese, have small eyes, broad faces, and high cheek-
bones, and are greatly subject to glandular swellings
in the throat. In matters of religion the sect of
Buddha prevails, and the priests form a distinct class ;
but the distinction of casts, which is so rigidly ob-
served in Hindostan, is unknown. The supreme
head of the province is the Deb Rajah, who resides at
Tassudon, the capital, and has under him inferior
governors and magistrates.

Woollen cloth lor raiment, animal food, spirits, and
tea, the latter of which is not less common as a re-
freshment in Bootan than in China, are in use among
the inhabitantfi. The trade of the province is pro-
bably not very extensive, but a caravan annual-
ly visits the district of Rungpoor in Bengal, and
brings with it oranges, walnuts, and the coarse
woollen manufactures of the country, with the horses
that carry them, for sale ; and among other commodi-
ties which were sent by the Rajah of Bootan to the
presidency of Bengal, some of the precious metals,
as gold and silver, musk, woollen cloths of Tibet, and
silks of China, are enumerated, from which it appears
that some intercourse exists between this province
and those countries.

BOOTON, an island in the Indian ocean near the
south-eastern extremity of Celebes, and in 5° of
S. lat. is about 85 miles long and 20 miles broad ;
the surface is high and woody, but in many places is
well cultivated, and produces rice, maize, yams, and
various tropical fruits ; fowls, goats, buffaloes, and
fish, are sold to ships which touch at the island ; and
the inhabitants, who speak the Malay language, and
profess the religion of Mahomet, are of a short sta-
ture and tawny complexion. The Dutch had former-
ly a settlement in the bay of Booton, and for the pay-
ment of an annual tribute to the chief of the island
they were permitted to inspect the woods and des-
troy the clove trees, that, agreeable to their jealous
policy, none but themselves should enjoy the benefit
of the trade in that spice. A gulpli from the east
side of this island has received the name of Mistake-
bay, from the extreme difficulty of a ship that has
once entered it being extricated, in consequence of
the strong currents which constantly flow into it. A
Dutch governor, on his passage to Banda, was de-
tained a whole year in this bay.

BOPAL, a town in the province of Malwah, and
capital of a territory of the same name in Hindos-
tan. This small state is tributary to the Mahrattas.
The town is of considerable extent, surrounded with
a stone wall, and secured with a fort built on a
solid rock. Under the walls of the fort, a tank, or
pond of water, six miles in length, is formed by an
embankment at the confluence of five streams which
issue from the neighbouring hills. The town and ter-
ritory of Bopal are occupied by a colony of Patans,
to whom they were assigned by Aurengzebe.

BORACIC ACID, a pecuhar acid, which forms
one of the constituent parts of the native salt borax,

Booton

Boracie.

B O R

699

B O K

BorficWe

and the base of which, borone, according to recent
discoveries, is analogous to carbonc in some of its
Borda, properties. See Chemistry.

BORACITE, a mineral substance, composed chief-
ly of magnesia, lime, and boracic acid. See Mi-
neralogy.

BORAGO, Borage, a genus of plants belonging
to the Pentandria class.

BORAX, a native salt, which is collected in the
East Indies, and is employed in medicine and the
arts. See Chemistry and Mineralogy.

BORBONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
Diadelphia class.

BORDA, John Charles, an eminent French
mathematician and natural philosopher, was born at
Dax, in the department of Landes, in 1733. Hav-
ing completed his elementary studies, he was placed
under the superintendence of the Jesuits, who Well
knew how to appretiate his talents, and were anxious
to number him among their members ; but the early
and strong bias which he discovered for mathemati-
cal researches opposed all solicitation to seduce him
to other studies. The father, who had a large family,
was desirous that his son_should be placed in some si-
tuation the emoluments of which might be equal to
his support ; and with this view the young mathema-
tician reluctantly spent several years in an office con-
nected with the municipal authorities of tlie country.
Relieved from this drudgery, by the advice of a
■friend, Borda had soon after the good fortune of be-
coming acquainted with the celebrated D'Alembert,
and at his recommendation he entered the French
cavalry, and at the same time continued to prosecute
his mathematical studies. In his twenty-third year
he presented a memoir on the motion of projectiles
to the academy of Sciences ; in the succeeding year
was present at the battle of Hastembeck, where he
acted as aid-de-camp ; and soon after his return was
nominated inspector of the dockyards, an appoint-
ment peculiarly suited to his genius and studies. The
researches which occupied his attention while he held
this office relate to an examination of the theories of
the resistance of fluids, the motion of fluids, water-
wheels, the construction of water-pumps, and the
theory of projectiles.

The application of Borda's mathematical know-
ledge was now to take a wider range ; and, with this
view, contrary to ordinary usage, he was appointed
an officer in the French navy ; and the first service
in which he was engaged was, in conjunction with an
associate, to try the chronomoters, or time-pieces,
which were proposed for finding the longitude at
sea. This voyage was performed in 1771 and 1772 ;
he was afterwards employed on a survey of the Ca-
nary islands, for the purpose of ascertaining their
precise position ; and he attained the rank of major-
general to t^e armament under the count D'Estaing,
who tpd so large a share in the naval operations of
the war which terminated in the separation of Ame-
rica from the parent state. Having obtained after-
wards a higher rank in the navy, he was entrusted
v/ith the command of several frigates under the or-
ders of the famous count de Grasse, by whom he was
appointed to a cruizing station ; but his little fleet,
alter s brave resistance, was compelled to surrender

to a British squadron. But the mortification for the
loss he had sustained, and the state of his health,
wliich had suffered greatly by long and arduous ser-
vice, led to the resolution of relinquishing the active
duties of the profession, and spending his days in
study and retirement. M. Borda seems to "have
taken an active part in the French Revolution, for
he appeared as a candidate for the office of a direc-
tor of the republic ; he had some concern in the
improvement of weights and measures ; he en-
tered keenly into the grand national schemes for tri-
gonometrical surveys ; and he instituted many inge-
nious experiments on the changes whicli metallic
rods of different kinds sustain by difference of tem-
perature. He died in 1799, when he had reached
the 64th year of his age.

BORELLI, John Alphonso, an eminent Italian
phj'sician, was a native of Naples, and was born
in 1608. Having acquired considerable reputation
by his progress in geonieti ical science during the
period of his education, which was completed at
Rome, he was appointed to teach mathematics at
Messina in Sicily ; and during his residence in that
island, a malignant fever, which carried off great
numbers of the inhabitants, prevailed, and of this fe-
ver he afterwards published a detailed account. Bo-
relli held for some time the professorship of philoso-
phy and mathematics at Pisa. He spent the latter
years of his life in retirement at Rome, under the
patronage, it is said, of queen Christina of Sweden,
who then resided in that city ; and having reached
the 72d year of his age, he died in 1679.

Borelli was highly respected by his cotempora-
ries ; he corresponded on scientific subjects with
some of the principal philosophers of the age ; and
he was the author of numerous treatises on mathe-
matics, natural philosophy, and medicine. But in
his most interesting work, Dc Motu Animalium, a.
posthumous publication, he applies the laws of sta-
tics to the motions of living beings. In this elabo-
rate investigation, his object is to estimate, not only
the individual, but the collective power of the fibres
of a muscle, and to point out the variations in their
effects according to the mode of insertion and action.
BORGIA, C^sAR, one of the most conspicuous
characters of the concluding part of the fifteenth
and the commencement of the sixteenth century,
but distinguished by his -^ces, especially his ambition
and cruelty, was the son of cardinal Roderigo, who
was raised to the papal tlirone in 1'192, and assumed
the name of Alexander VI. The elevation of his fa-
ther enlarged his ambitious views, and the hope of
realizing those schemes of greatness which were
suited to his aspiring temper, induced him to appear
at the court of the Vatican, for the purpose of se-
curing some share of the power and influence of the
head of the church. But although his reception
was cold and formal, and his disappointment ex-
treme, yet he was soon after pruicned to the arch-
bishopric of Valenza, and in the succeeding year ele-
vated to the dignity of cardinal. The influence at-
tached to the high station which 15orgia now filled,
rendered him a fit instrument in the hands of a fa-
ther equally a'jibitious and depraved, in those poli-
tical struggles In which he was c(mccrned. Among

Borelli

Borg;ia.

B O R

700

B O R

Soring'
machine.

the first atrocities which marked the flagitious ca-
reer of Cocsar Borgia, was the deat'i of his brother,
who, at his instigation, fell by the hands of assassins,
in consequence, it is said, of the marked preference
which the father discovered towards his eldest son,
or of jealousy in finding him his rival in the affections
of a lady to whom he was attached. The father's
grief and resentment at this barbarous deed were ap-
peased by a hint from the mother of Borgia, that the
same fate, and from the same unseen hand, a-
waited himself if he should persevere in his enquiries
concerning the perpetrators of the murder.

Aspiring to higher distinctions and greater power,
Borgia was employed in a mission to the French
court in the character of ambassador, was raised to
the rank of nobility by Louis XII. with a large pen-
sion, and soon after married the daughter of the king
of Navarre. He now appeared in a military ca-
pacity, and took the command of <a party of troops
for the purpose of reducing Romagna into subjection
to the Holy See. The success of his arms alarmed
the Italian states, and produced a confederacy a-
gainst him ; but the cup of poison and the secret
blow of the assiissin were not less effectual in defeat-
ing its object, and in accomplishing the wicked pro-
jects of the father and son, than the vigouf of open
warfare.

The vicious career of this accomplished villain
now approached to its termination. To obtain pos-
session of the wealth and property of some bishops,
the usual means were resorted to ; poison was pre-
pared for the purpose, but the deadly mixture in-
tended for others, by the mistake or design of those
who were employed to administer it, was swallowed
by the pope and his son. The pope died ; but the
strength of the son's constitution resisted its effects.
Providence seemed to permit him to live, that he
might experience adversity and poverty as a punish-
ment for his crimes. Banished from the papal do-
minions, he narrowly escaped with his life, and found
no asylum in any other territory except in the walls
of a prison. After two years close confinement in
Spain, he escaped from a window by means of a rope ;
and thus, stripped of all his honours and possessions,
degraded and destitute, he fled to his brother-in-law
the king of Navarre, who was then at war with some
of his rebellious subjects. Borgia entered the ser-
vice as a volunteer, and was slain in a skirmish in
the year 1507 ; thus leaving to mankind a memora-
ble example of the vicissitudes of fortune, and of the
effects of lawless ambition, profligacy, and villainy.

BORING-MACHINE, an apparatus which is em-
ployed for the purpose of boring pumps or cylinders,
and of rendering their diameters equable and straight.
Great precision in the construction, and great accu-
racy in the operation of such machines, are necessary.
The following is a description of an improved boring-
macHine for tlie purpose.

A, Fig 1. Plate Tl. is a pinion driven by the steam-
engine or other power, and communicating motion to
the wheel C. B lever for engaging and disengaging
the motion. D D D, axis of the wheels. E, pinion on
the axis communicating motion to the wheel V. G GG,
coupling box with ])iiiching screws, for driving bor-
ijig-bar. Ill, plummer-block for the axis D. J J,

strongiron plate for fixing and holding down the shafts
DG. KKKK,strongboltsfor holding down piummer
blocks II. L L, strong mason-work. M M, level of
floor upon which the rail-road is placed. N N N N,
end view of rail-roads upon which the boring carriage
to be described moves. O () O, end view of racks lor
advancing the carriage forward to the cutter-block.
P P P, end view of walls or foundations to which
rail-roads are fixed. Q Q Q Q, strong holding down
bolts for rail-roads.

Fig. 2. Perspective view of boring carriage for
small work. A, pump to be bored. C, Boring-bar.
D, carriage advanced forward by the lever E and
weight F, by means of the pinion G^working into the
rack H. 1 1, rail-road. J J, carriage wheels moving
on rail-road.

Fig. 3. Section of boring-bar for largej cylinders.
A, coupling box. B, coupling sliaft. C C C, stand-
ards for carrying boring-bar and framing for wheel
work. D, hollow boring-bar turned on the outside
to a complete cylinder, upon which the accuracy of
the work entirely depends. E, cutter -wheel moved
along the bar D by the screw F in the inside of the
hollow bar. G, pmion on boring- bar working into
the wheel H, giving motion to the shaft I, and pinion
K, working into the wheel L, which gives motion to
the screw F, for advancing forward the cutter- wheel E.

Fig. 4'. End view of standard for supporting the
bar.

Fig. 5. Cutter- block for hollow bar. Fig. 3 ; 1, slid-
ing box which is accurately fitted on the hollow bar,
and upon which the different sizes of cutter-blocks
are keyed by the keys 2 22.

Fig. 6. Cutter-block for smaller work. Ill, steel
cutters. 22 2, wooden wedges for- keeping the cut-
ter-block steady.

The motion of the different shafts is best regu-
lated by the alteration of the first moving power
A, Fig. 1. The wheel C with its shafl. Fig. 1. should
move from two to three revolutions in the minute
for small work, and the wheel F from a half-revolu-
tion to one revolution in a minute, for cylinders or
larger work. The ingenious mechanic will readily
perceive, that with a sufficient moving power the
apparatus may be extended, and any number of
borers may be employed at the same time. In some
works the boring of six or more pieces of work is
going on at once.

For the description and information relative to
the above apparatus, we are indebted to Mr Gut-
zmer, the proprietor of the foundery, Leith Walk,
Edinburgh, whose ingenuity and accuracy, in the
construction aud fitting up of machinery, are de-
servedly acknowledged by all who have had the be-
nefit of his talents.

BORMIO, a district in Switzerland, about 15 miles
in length and the same in breadth, and forming part
of the country inhabited by the Grisons, is surr(J«nded
almost on all sides by the lofty Rhetian Alps. It is
in general extremely fertile ; on the hills, besides ex-
tensive woods that adorn their majestic brows, the
inhabitants rear numerous herds of cattle ; and the
valleys, if well cultivated, might produce abundant
crops of grain. But agriculture is not the chief ob-
ject of the inhabitants, as appears from the number

Boimio.

B ORIIVG -MACHINE RY.

PliATK

J>ratm fcSn^raytd by t^.itZ/J.ixiuv ivr thjUin^yctupie-iliaJiittnaisis.

B O R

701

B O R

Born. of exported cattle, and the quantity of imported
'^ -^j com ; for .ilihough Bormio is nearly encompassed
'' with high and rugged mountains, they trade with

every country that surrounds their territory, — ex-
changing the produce of their hills, mines, and dairies,
* for tlie wine o!'the Valteline, the cloth of Germany,
and the corn of Tyrol.

The climate of this district is keen, but pure and
saluiirious. The population is about It, 000 ; and
the Grisons when called upon to defend their terri-
tory, or to maintain their rights and privileges, can
bring into the field a formidable force.

BORMIO, the capital and principal town of the
district of the same name in Switzerland, stands in
a dcliglitful situation between two rivers. The ge-
neral aspect is extremely mean ; and even the re-
sidences of those of superior rank, as well as the pub-
lic buildings, display little taste either in beauty of
architecture or internal convenience ; yet some of
them might be regarded as ornaments of the place,
were they not disfigured by miserable huts in their
vicinity. At a short distance from the town are
the famous warm baths of St Martin's, greatly esteem-
ed for their virtues in the cure of various diseases.

BORN, Inigo, better known by the name of Ba-
BON Born, an eminent German mineralogist, des-
cended from a noble family in Transylvania, was born
in 174'2, was educated in the Jesuits college at Vien-
na, and after a tour through various parts of Ger-
many, Holland, and France, he returned to Prague,
commenced the study of natural history and mining,
and in 1770 was admitted into the department of the^
mines and mint established in that city. In the same
year he travelled through Transylvania and Hungary,
and the detail of the information collected on this
journey, chiefly relative to mineralogy and geology,
was published in a series of letters addressed to the
celebrated naturalist Ferber ; a translation of this
work from the German afterwards appeared in Eng-
lish. While on this journey he had nearly lost his
life by descending into a mine at Felso-Banya, in
which some wood had been burnt, the smoke of which
was not dissipated. In the succeeding year he was
appointed counsellor of the royal mines in Bohemia,
and continued through life to devote a large portion
of his time to mining operations, and to the improve-
ment of the processes which are employed in separa-
ting the precious metals from their ores, and par-
►j ticularly of the process of amalgamation, on which

he afterwards composed a treatise, which was also
published in an English translation. Baron Born
> had a considerable share in the secret associa- ■■
tions, under the name of free masons and illuminati,
which prevailed in Germany during his time ; and as
he possessed talents for humour, he was not scrupu-
lous in indulging his satirical powers against some of
the institutions and monastic orders of the Romish
church. Having suffered much through life from the
accident which befel him in the mine of Felso-Banya,
he died in the year 1791, leaving a wife and two
daughters not only to lament his loss, but to feel the
effects of the embarrassed state of his affairs, arising
chiefly, it is supposed, from the expensive nature of
the experiments in which he was concerned.

Baron Born was the author of several other works,
particularly a catalogue of his own mineral collection,

which he afterwards disposed of to the honourable
Mr Greville, and which forms a part of that gen-
tleman's splendid collection purchased by the pub-
lic, and now deposited in the British Museum ;
the catalogue of Miss Raab's collection of minerals ;
and a superb work on conchoiogy, descriptive of the
shells in the imperial cabinet. To his praise it is re-
corded, that the learned stranger who visited Vienna
never failed to experience his hospitality ; and unpro-
tected genius always found in him a warm friend and
a liberal patron.

BORNEO, one of the Sunda islands, extends from
the 8th degree of north latitude to the 4'th degree
of south latitude, and from the 109th to the 1 19tii de-
gree of east longitude ; is in breadth about 800 miles,
and in length about 700 miles, and, before the disco-
very of New Holland, was supposed to be the largest
island in the world. Though situated beneath the
equator, and exposed to the rays of a vertical sun, it
enjoys a mild and salubrious climate, free from oppres-
sive heat, and purified by gentle breezes and refresh-
ing showers. It is extremely fertile in animal, mine-
ral, and vegetable productions. Of the former, ele-
phants, bears, tigers, buffaloes, orang-outangs, and a
peculiar species of black and white ape, are abundant ;
and on the sea coast is found a sort of snail, which
forms a valuable commodity in the trade to China.
Among the mineral productions may be mentioned
tin, iron, copper, gold, and diamonds, the last of
which are likewise found in several rivers, are sup-
posed to be of a finer water than those of Hindostan,
and constitute a lucrative branch of commerce.
The vegetable productions, as the various sorts of
delicious fruits, vast quantities of pepper, and other
spiceries, and, in the northern parts, the extensive
forests of excellent kinds of timber for various pur-
poses, give ample proof of a rich soil and genial
climate.

The inland parts are mountainous, and inhabited
by the Idaans and Biadjoos, a race of savages who
boast in the number of victims that fall a sacrifice to
their barbarity, and whose skulls they expose in pub-
lio'as trophies of their valour. In their marriage and
funeral ceremonies the same inhuman custom is ob-
served. In the former it is necessary that the suitor,
before he can obtain the consent of the parents of his
intended bride, produce the head of an enemy as a
token of hig courage ; and in the rites of the latter
a similar cruelty is practised, by the fi-ionds of the de-
ceased putting to death a slave in order to attend his
master in another state. These barbarians, though
they have no sovereign of their own, in some degree
show respect to the sultan of Banjar-massin, by giv-
ing annually a little gold-dust ; yet they acknowledge
the authority of a chieftain, whose power is confined
within narrow limits. No regular code of laws or
form of government exists ; but when any trespass is
committed to the prejudice of an individual, and no
sufficient evidence is produced to convict the accused,
a method is adopted, similar to the trial by ordeal, to
ascertain his innocence or guHt.

The coasts of Bonieo are inhabited by the Moors,
a people more civilized in their manners, and contains
seven provinces or kingdoms, the largest of which,
Banjar-massin, is celebrated on account of various
attempts by Europeans to forna a junction with the

BomM.

TB O B

702

B O k

natives for commercial purposes. Tlie first was made
by the Portugese in 1526 ; in this attempt they fail-
eu; but about the close of the I7tli century they were
allowed to establish a factory, and by the treachery
of the ]Moors tlie whole settlers were murdered, and
their vessels and property seized. The Spaniards
also visited the island, and were equally unsuccessful.
The Dutch likewise endeavoured to plant a colony,
but being at first disappointed, they appeared agaai
on the coast of Borneo, and obtained permission to
erect a factory at Banjar-massin, under certain regu-
lations. The English, in their turn, attempted seve-
ral times to form a settlement. Their first landing,
in 16£4', proved entirely fruitless ; but when they ar-
rived a second time, the natives appeared more
friendly to their wishes, and, by the assistance of a
number of Indians, a colony was begun, which had a
promising appearance, yet, falling short of several ne-
cessaries of life, they were obliged to abandon it. The
third time they landed on the island, to regain pos-
session of their colony, the Moors attacked them,
but were driven back ; and the brave commandant.
Captain Barr, dying in 1706, two years after the
forming of the establishment, and the command hav-
ing devolved on Cunningham, a weak and cowardly
person, the colony was assaulted and given up, the
governor with his whole garrison embaiked for Eng-
land without offering the least resistance, and the
enemy plundered their stores, and destroyed the
extensive works. And, in 1766, a settlement was
formed in another quarter, which, after existing a
few years, was entirely destroyed by the natives ;
yet in Borneo, the capital of the kingdom of that ^
name, the English have still a factory, and retain
possession of the northern coast of the island.

Before this portion of the globe was known to Eu-
ropeans, ^he Chinese were in possession of the prin-
cipal trade of Borneo, and a large share still remains
in their hands. For various kinds of wood, tortoise-
shell, spiceries, gums, camphor, and swallows nests,
they exchange silks, chintz, calicoes, and the differ-
ent manufactures of China and Japan.

BOllNEO, a sea-port town of the island of Bor-
neo, and capital of a kingdom of the same name,
which occupies a marshy situation on the banks of
the river Borneo, on the north-west quarter of the
island ; the houses are raised on piles of wood ; the
communication is by boats on the river, or canals ;
and a considerable trade is carried on between the
natives and foreigners who frequent the harbour.
, BORNHOLM, an island in the Baltic, subject to
Denmark, is about six miles in length, and thre%
miles in breadth, and is sixteen miles distant from
Zealand. All kinds of grain are raised, and excel-
lent pastures aflbrd nourishment to sheep and cattle.
The number of inhabitants is estimated at 30,000,
and they are distributed into six small towns and nu-
merous farm-houses in every part of the island. The
fishing of jierring, cod, and salmon gives employment
to a large proportion of the population, and in the
curing and smoking of salmon they are particularly
successful.

BORNOU, an extensive region of Africa, which
is included between the 22° and 27" of N. lat. and
is bounded on the S. E. by Tezzan, and on the W.

by Nubia. The heat is often excessive, and deluges
of rain, and tempests of thunder and lightning,
which are often highly destructive, arc frequent. As
in other districts of Africa, fertile spots and barren
wastes cover tlie surface of Bornou. Indian corn is
much cultivated ; cotton, hemp, and indigo thrive
well, and the rich fruits of tropical climates are abun-
dant. Sheep, goats, cattle, buffaloes, horses, and
camels are reared, and the lion, the leopard, the
wolf, and the antelope, are enumerated among the
wild animals. The houses are constructed in the
same manner as in other regions ol" Africa, and the
towns are composed of straggling houses.

The inhabitants of Bornou are of a black complex-
ion, but have features somewhat different from those
of the negro race. Some of them profess the religi-
on of Mahomet, but the larger portion is addicted to
pagan superstition. The government is a kind of
monarchy, but the sovereign is elected from some one
of the royal family, according to the choice of three
persons of respectable character ; this arbitrary mode
of election is no doubt influenced by force and cun-
ning, and is the fertile source, among a rude and tur-
bulent people, of frequent revolutions and barbarous
murders. Coarse linen and some cotton stuffs, a
kind of carpets, and a coarse cloth of goats and ca-
mels hair mixed with wool, are manufactured in tlie
country ; and gold-dust, ostrich feathers, salt, some
perfumes, horses, and slaves, are the chief commodi-
ties for their commercial intercourse with Tripoli.

Bornou, the capital of the empire, is a town of con-
siderable extent, and is 600 miles S. E. from Mour-
zouk.

BOROUGH, or BURGH, from the Saxon borgh,
usually dlbnotes a town or corporation which has not
the rank of a city, but is particularly applied to towns
which possess the privilege of sending representatives
to parliament. Borough is supposed by some to
have originally meant a ty thing, or community of ten
families, who were conjoined and bound together as
pledges for the conduct of each other. The term
borough afterwards was emplo)'ed to denote a town
which was fortified by means of a wall or some kind
of enclosure, and, in latter times, country towns of
any note, whether walled or not, had the same ap-
pellation. Cities were denominated boroughs by the
ancient Saxons, but the episcopal sees being remov-
ed from villai;es and small towns, the name of city
was limited to episcopal towns, and the denomina-
tion of borough was retained by all others. The bo-
roughs of England are distinguished into those which
enjoy their rights by statute or charter, and by pre-
scription or custom, and some of them send one and
others two representatives to parliament.

The boroughs of Scotland are either royal bo-
roughs or boroughs of regality. The first are con-
stituted by charter of the sovereign, and have the
power of electing annually their own magistrates,
whose authority extends to the regulation of all mat-
ters of police connected with the corporation, and,
within a limited extent, to civil and criminal matters.
The whole of the boroughs of Scotl Ad return fif-
teen members to the British parliament ; so that seve-
ral boroughs, generally five, unite in the election of
a member.

BOS

705

BOS

The convention of royal boroughs, which was con-
stituted by James III. in 1-187, and consists of depu-
ties or commissioners from each of the royal boroughs,
first met at Inverkeithing, and is now held annually
at Edinburgh, for tlie purpose of considering and re-
gulating all matters relative to trade and the general
interests of the boroughs.

The right of electing magistrates in boroughs of
barony and regality, is sometimes committed to the
inhabitants themselves, and sometimes retained by
the baron or superior ; the powers of the magistrates
of such boroughs are more limited than those of
royal boroughs, and extend chiefly to the cognizance
of debts, and questions of possession between the in-
habitants.

BOROUGH ENGLISH is^ peculiar descent of
lands or tenements in some ancient boroughs and
copyhold manors, by which the youngest son suc-
ceeds to the possession on the death of the father,
the reason of which, as it is assigned by some, is the
tender age of the youngest son, by which he is less
able to provide for himself; but by others this cus-
tom is traced to the pastoral state of society, such as
exists among the Tartars at the present day, among
whom the elder sons are allowed a certain portion of
cattle, and seek a new habitation, while the youngest
son remains longest with the father, and becomes
the heir of his possessions. This custom also prevails
among some northern nations, and is alluded to by
Caesar and Tacitus.

BOROUGH-HEAD, or Head-Borough, or
Tything-man, was the chief man of a tything or
hundred, and was chosen annually, according to the
institutiens of Alfred, to preside over its affairs ; but
the appellation Head-borough is now applied to a
kind of head constable.

BORROWS TOVVNNESS, sometimes called Bo'-
NESS, a town of Linlithgowshire in Scotland, stands
on a point of land on the south side of the frith of
Forth, and is 18 miles N.W. from Edinburgh; the
streets in general have no great regularity, but con-
tain some good houses, besides extensive warehouses
for grain and merchandise. It became a place of
.some importance about the beginning of the 18th
centur}'. The population stated at 2613 in 179+,
had only increased to 2919 in 1811 ; but the trade,
both foreign and coastwise, which was at one time
considerable, had greatly declined. The manufacture
of salt, which has been long extensively conducted,
of sal ammoniac, soap, and of earthen and stone-ware,
derive great facilities from the abundance of coal in
the neighbourhood. Some ship building is also car-
ried on ; and many of the women in the town and
vicinity are occupied in tambouring, and in the
spinning of silk for stockings.

BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, an eminent
mathematician, and the founder of a theory of na-
tural philosophy, was born at Ragusa in Dalmatia on
the 11th May 1711. His earlier years were spent at
the schools of the Jesuits in his native place, and
gave promise of the eminence and reputation to
which he afterwards attained. He was removed to
Rome in 1725, according to the policy of the Je-
suits which enjoined the supreme care and educa-
tion of those pupils who exhibited the greatest ta-

lents and most effective improvement. Here be took
the habit of the noviciate, cultivated theology and
general science, perfected himself in classical studies,
and from the station of private teacher was at last
promoted to the professorship of mathematics ; for
which department of knowledge, notwithstanding
the variety of objects presented to his ambitious and
enterprising mind, he continued to display the strong-
est genius and predilection. In the discharge of the
duties of his office, he composed several elementary
treatises on different branches of the science,'sonie
of which have very uncommon merit. He had lht>
rare and valuable art of combining strictness of rea-
soning on profound subjects with the rich and varied
product of a lively fancy, and those embellishments
of taste and manner which never fail to captivate
attention. A considerable talent for the composition
of poetry furnished him with topics and illustrations, ■
and a facility in reciting verses yielded gracefulness
and the most imposing effect to his stated labours
and ordinary conversation. These and other excel-
lencies soon raised him to the highest distinction
and secured general applause, whilst the extent of
his learning, the depth and solidity of his judgment,
the acutcness and inventive power of his genius,
added to the integrity and amiableness of his cha-
racter, formed the substantial means of supporting
and enhancing any reputation which he acquired.

The fame of Boscovich, accordingly, in a short
time, travelled much beyond the circle of his ac-
quaintance, or even his extensive official responsi-
bility. Foreign societies appear to have viedf in the
abundance of honours which they conferred on him ;
and his advice and assistance were thought worthy
of being solicitously applied for in order to deter-
mine the disputes of various princes and states. An
engagement of this kind, in behalf of his native
country, brought him to London, where he was fa-
vourably received, and where he had the satisfaction
of obtaining a title, certainly not less flattering than
any that had hitherto graced his name, that of a
Fellow of the Royal Society. During his residence
in this city, he published his work De Solis ac LzmcE
Defcctibus, and dedicated it to the body of which
he was thus chosen a member. It is one of the few
examples of didactic poems, in which the principles of
science are happily blended with the offspring of crea-
tive imagination, and the beauties of language. Bos-
covich accomplished the object of his mission, and
prepared to return home, but not before receiving
another proof of the respect in which he was held.
This was an invitation by the Royal Society to accom-
pany some of its members destined for America, to
observe the approaching transit of Venus, which,
for various reasons, he found it necessary to decline.

Accompanying a friend whom he met at Venice,
he visited the plain of Troy, and afterwards resided
a short time at Constantinople, and having traversed
Bulgaria, Moldavia, and part of Poland, projected
a journey to Petersburg, but abandoned his inten-
tion on hearing of the death of the Emperor Peter.
Some time after his return to Rome, Boscovich was
appointed to the professorship of mathematics in the
university of Pavia, which was soonrelinquishedfor the
chair of astronomy and optics at Milan, under the

BotcoTicIi.

BOS

704

BOO

Boteofiolt.

patronage of the Empress, and with the superinten-
dence of the observatory at Brers. Tlie envy or
contemptible jealousy of some of lus contemporaries
and colleagues, had ere now invaded the philosophi-
cal retirement and indulgence which he had promis-
ed himself in the evening of his days ; and he had
already experienced an attack on his health which
threatened his dissolution, and from which it is
doubtful if he ever thoroughly recovered.

The suppression of the order of the Jesuits, which
took place in 1 773, augmented his distress, and pre-
vented the plan he had formed of retiring for the
remainder of his days to his native city, in hepes of
enjoying that tranquillity and affection which seemed
so necessary to liis existence. He finally determin-
ed, in his embarrassments of mind, body, and estate,
to retire to Paris, where he had, when once on a
visit, been so hospitably entertained, and where it
was supposed the respectability of his character, and
the amount of his services to science, could not fail
to procure an adequate establishment and comfort.
The munificence of the French monarch, through
the interest of the chamberlain La Bord, one of his
friends, so far realized these hopes, as to appoint him
director of optics for the marine, with a salary of
more than L.300 sterling, — a sum fully commensu-
rate to his moderate habits. But this liberality could
hardly soften down some strong prejudices which
he manifested against the manners and principles of
his new associates, and the French in general, and
far less could obviate a very visible inclination on
the part of many to detract from his merits, or to
suggest that they had been too amply rewarded.

The keen feelings of the Ragusan, and a consci-
entious regard to religion, bitterly contended with
his sense of duty and a conviction of necessity, for
about ten years, when he solicited and obtained leave
of absence to visit his friends in Italy. At Bassano,
in the state of Venice, which was the first place
where he now resided for anj' considerable period,
he published a collection of some of his works, in
five vols, tto, and in the Latin, Italian, and French
languages. This abounds in curious, profound, and
valuable dissertations on mathematical and philoso-
phical subjects. He afterwards travelled to Rome,
in order to see some of his early acquaintances, and
thence to Milan, where the resumption of his stu-
dies, and the felicity of a respected and respecting
society, shed a ray of pleasure on the shortening pe-
riod for which his leave of absence had been grant-
ed. But in proportion to its intensity was his ap-
prehension of misery as the eftect of fulfilling his
obligations to royal favour. His mind, long harras-
sed by dread of encountering a renewal, perhaps an
aggravation, of the jealousies and discordancies which
had formerly assailed him, urged on by solicitude
at the same time not to appear wanting in gratitude,
and, in all probability impaired in the natural course
of bodily infirmity and advancing age, at last sunk
in the conflict. A state of derangement ensued, not,
however, without some lucid moments, which at one
time gave room to anticipate comparative restora-
tion. A relapse followed, and an imposthume burst-
ing in his breast, he was released from suftering on
the 13th of February 1787, in the 76th year of his

age. « Such was the exit," says one of his biogra- BosjesmarM
pTiers, Fabroni, " of this sublime genius, whom n
Rome honoured as her master, whom all Italy re- Bosnia,
garded as her ornament, and to whom Greece
would have erected a statue, had she, for want of
space, been obliged even to throw down some of her
heroes."

Boscovich was tall and robust ; his complexion
was sallow ; his temper was somewhat irritable ; and
a degree of vanity was conspicuous in his usual de-
portment, and still more in his frequent allusions to
his own works ; but it was compensated by liveliness
of wit, elegance and fluency of conversation, arid the
more estimable qualities of cordial friendship and
benevolence of disposition.

Of the works of Boscovich, which arejtoo numerous
to be specified, Dr Hutton's classification may suf-
fice. 1. Elements of Mathematics, with a Treatise
on Conic Sections. 2. His many Dissertations pub-
lished during his professorship in tlie Roman college.

3. His account of the Survey of the Pope's Estate.

4. His Poem on Solar and Lunar Eclipses, already
mentioned. 5. The five volumes published at Bas-
sano. 6. His Hydrodynamical works. 7. A Theory
of Natural Philosophy. This last work is said to have
been composed in thirty days. It was first printed
at Vienna in 1758 ; and a second edition, ab auctore
perpolita et aucta, appeared at Venice in 1763, a pre-
sentation copy of which to an illustrious character in
our own country is now in the hands of the writer.

BOSJESMANS, or BOSHIESMEN, a tribe of
Hottentots who occupy an extensive district at the
Cape of Good Hope ; they derive this name, which
is equivalent to Bushmen, from having their abodes
in woody and mountainous places. They are de-
scribed as a rude and barbarous people, of small sta-
ture, and are said to be the ugliest of all the savage
tribes ; they have scarcely any covering to their bo-
dies, and their precarious subsistence chiefly depends
on plunder, or on locusts, and the spontaneous pro-
ductions of the soil. The arms which they employ
in their predatory excursions are bows and arrows,
and lances, and it is said that they use poisoned
weapons. These savages have often been extremely
troublesome to the Dutch colonists, by whom they
are treated with great barbarity, and hunted like
wild beasts. According to the relation of Mr Bar-
row, one colonist boasted of having shot not fewer
than 300 of that unfortunate tribe with his own hand.
Those who are taken prisoners are doomed to slave-
ry the rest of their lives. — Barrow's Travels in South-
ern Africa.

BOSNIA, a mountainous province of European
Turkey, so called from the river of that name which
passes through it and falls into the Save, is bounded
on the N. by Sclavonia, on the east by Servia, on the

5. by Servia and Albania, and on the VV. by Dalnia-
tia and Croatia, and is about 120 miles in length,
and 72 in breadth. The soil is fertile, particularly
near the rivers, producing good wheat ; numer-
ous herds of cattle are reared on its excellent pas-
tures ; and it is also enriched with silver mines. Bos-
nia exports to Sclavonia, raw skins, wool, and
cotton, but not to any extent, and at other small
ports the Bosnians exchange their cattle, where

B OS

705

BOS

Eoiphonu weekly fairs are held, under the cognizance of a
II customhouse-officer,

Bossuet. This province was anciently part of Pannonia,

but became, in course of time, part of Hungary, was
erected into a kingdom, and governed by its own
kings till 14-65, when the Turks became its masters.
The inhabitants are Greek Christians, with some
Mahometans, Jews, and Catholics. The capital of
the province is Banjaluka.

BOSPHORUS, from two Greek words signifying
the passage of oxen, is chiefly applied to the straits
of Constantinople, or the Thracian Bosphorus, and
to the straits of Caffa, or the Cimmerian or Scythian
Bosphorus, which joins the sea of Azof with the Black
sea. The narrowness of these straits, which permit-
ted an ox easily to swim across, according to one
opinion, gave origin to the name ; but, according to
another, it was derived from a market for cattle be-
ing held in its vicinity. The Thracian Bosphorus is
about twenty miles in length, and two miles in
breadth ; the breadth of the Cimmerian Bosphorus is
stated at twelve miles.

BOSSUET, James Benigne, an eminent French
divine, and eloquent preacher, was born at Dijon in
1627, commenced his studies among the Jesuits, and
completed his education at Paris. He was early
destined to the clerical profession ; and by the study
of the sacred writings, the ancient fathers of the
church, and the classical productions of Greece and
Rome, he soon distinguished himself by varied ac-
quirements and extensive learning. At the age of
sixteen he displayed remarkable powers for eloquence,
and became one of the first preachers in France. The
reputation of his splendid talents reached the court,
where he obtained the favour of Louis XIV. was pro-
moted to a bishopric, and afterwards intrusted with
the charge of the dauphin's education. For the use
of his royal pupil his Discourse on Universal History
was composed, one of the most valuable of his works,
which is still read with advantage, and admired as a
comprehensive sketch of the subject. When he en-
tered on the duty of superintending the studies of the
heir of the throne of France, Bossuet had resigned
his bishopric ; and when he had finished this task, his
fidelity and diligence were rewarded by his promo-
tion to the see of Meaux. In this dignified station
he devoted himself with great assiduity to the ser-
vice of religion, and was not less zealous in defence
of the catholic faith. This led him into numerous and
violent theologicalcontroversies,inwhich he displayed
.great acuteness au''^ vigorous powers of argumenta-
tion. But in the midst of these disputes the harshness
and severity with which he opposed the views and
doctrines of the amiable and celebrated Fenelon, a
member of the same church with himself, have been
justly censured and generally regretted ; and although
the piety and zeal of the bishop of Meaux have been
rarely called in question, or ascribed to any other mo-
tive than sincerity of conviction, yet his conduct in this
case seems not altogether divested of invidious feehng.
Retiring from the splendour and bustle of a
court, Bossuet devoted the last years of his life to
the useful and unobtrusive duties of a Christian mi-
nister ; and the same person who had acquired such
distinguished reputation on the great theatre of tli^

VOL. I. PART II.

world, was equally assiduous in dispelling the dark-
ness of ignorance by the light of truth, in pouring
the balm of consolation into the wounded mind, and
in providing for the temporal wants of the indigent
and unfortunate among the meanest of his flock ;
In the midst of these humble and important services,
he closed his mortal career in the year iTOi. The
sermons of the bishop of Meaux, which have been
printed, are less to be regarded as finished composi-
tions than rapid sketches ; but they exhibit ample
proofs of powerful genius ; and his funeral orations,
which are distinguished by elevated sentiments and
tender effusions, are universally admitted as unrival-
led productions.

BOSTON, a town of Lincolnshire, in England,
stands on the banks of the river Witham, about five
miles distant from the sea ; the town is well built, and
has been greatly improved of late years ; a spacious
market-place is adorned with a fine cross; and St Bo-
tolph's church, the building of which commenced in
the beginning of the lith century, is a magnificent
structure, and the largest parochial church, without
cross-aisles, in Europe. Its lofty tower, which rises
to the height of 282 feet, serves as a landmark to
mariners. The correspondence of the pillars, win-
dows, and steps in this church and tower, to the
months, weeks, and days of the year, is somewhat sin-
gular. The population, in 181J, exceeded 8000, and
the inhabitants are employed both in foreign and
coasting trade. The river is navigable for small ves-
sels to the town.

BOSTON, the capital of Massachussets and of
New England, in North America, occupies a penin-
sular situation at the bottom of Massachussets' bay.
The town is disposed in a crescent form round the
harbour, and the country rises gradually behind it,
presenting, to those who approach it from sea, a sin-
gularly beautiful and picturesque scene. Boston is
indebted for its origin to a colony from Charlestown
in 1631 ; in 1727 it sustained great damage from an
earthquake ; and, since that time, as the houses are
chiefly of wood, has repeatedly suffered from destruc-
tive fires. Many of the public buildings are magni-
ficent structures, and two bridges over Charles' river
are not less ornamental to the place than commodi-
ous for the inhabitants ; the harbour is spacious and
convenient, and capable of admitting 500 sail to ride
at anchor ; and the narrow entrance is defended by a
fort, erected on an island, and well furnished with
heavy artillery.

The population of Boston, which was estimated, in
1790, at 18,000, exceeded 20,000 in the year 1800,
Sail-cloth, cordage, sugar-refining, hats, glass, to-
bacco, paper hangings, cards for wool and cotton,
and playing cards, are the principal manufactures ;
the trade, foreign and coastwise, is considerable ; and
charitable institutions, as well as those for promoting
the improvement of arts and literature, are nume-
rous.

BOSWELL, James, the celebrated biographer
of Dr Johnson, was the son of Alexander Boswell,
the representative of an ancient family in Ayr-
shire, and a judge of the supreme civil and cri-
minal courts of Scotland, who, on his elevation to
the Bench, in compliance with the custom of the
4 X

Bast«n

Boswell.

BOS

706

BOS

Bmnell. ''ountrj', assumed the distinctive title of Lord Auch-
s^V^' inleck, the name of his patrimonial estate. James,
the subject of this notice, was born in Edinburgh,
October 1740. His education, for which, from the
beginning, he discovered a high degree of aptitude,
commenced in his father's house, and was successful-
ly prosecuted at the school of Mr Mundell in Edin-
burgh, and afterwards at the universities both of that
city and of Glasgow, In tiie twentieth year of his age
he visited London, and happening to form an intimacy
with Mr Derrick, a man of literary pursuits, and well
known in the city, he was by him introduced to its
novelties and gaieties, in all tlieir variety. At this
time, swayed by inclination, and in love with a Lon-
don life, he wished to obtain a commission in the
guards, but his father having signified his disappro-
bation, he relinquished the design, returned to Edin-
burgh, and resumed the study of the law.

In 1763, when in London, on his way to the conti-
nent, he was first introduced to Dr Johnson, with
whom he afterwards spent so much of his time, and
with whose name his own has been since so closely
associated. On his arrival on the continent he made
some stay in Holland and Flanders ; he traversed a
considerable part of Germany ; passed through Swit-
zerland to Geneva; over the Alps to Italy, and thence
to Corsica ; he returned home in 1766, and commen-
ced his career as a counsellor at the Scotch bar.
The Douglas cause, then pending, having excited a
general interest, he drew up and published a popular
view of the respective claims of both the parties,
which he entitled, Tke Essence of the Douglas cause.
In 1768, he published his Account of Corsica, and his
Memoirs of General Paoli, a work which was highly
commended by Johnson, and very acceptable to the
public. In the following year his happiness was en-
hanced by his marriage with Miss Margaret Mont-
gomery, his own cousin. From this time he passed a
series of years amid the comforts of domestic and so-
cial life. He lived in terms of the closest intimacy
with the most eminent characters of the age both for
rank and literature, among whom were Lords Karnes
and Hailes, Drs Robertson and lilair. In 1773, he
and Johnson made their long projected tour to the
Hebrides, a journey which has been rendered me-
niorablc by means of the lively and characteristic ac-
counts which both have published of it.

From the period in which Boswell had read the
Spectator he had felt and cherished a strong predilec-
tion for the manners of England, and this feeling was
strengthened by thefriendships which he formed with
spme of the gentlemen from the southern part of the
island, whom he mgt while a student at Glasgow col-

lege, as well as in his frequent visits to the metropo-
lis ; and having lately succeeded to his father's for-
tune, which was sufficiently ample to warrant his de-
sign, he resolved to gratify his inclination by settling
finally in London, a scheme which he carried into
elfect in the year 1786. The remainder of his life
was spent chiefly in London, where he died of a lin-
gering illness on the 19th of June 1795. Dr Johnson
paid the debt of nature in December 1781^, and Bos-
well's account of liis life appeared in two thick quarto
volumes in 1790. It is presumed that there are few
English readers who have not perused and have been
pleased and instructed with this work. The constant
obtrusion of the author and his affairs — all that he was,
or is, or would be — on the reader's attention, though at
first provoking to disgust or contempt, soon becomes
highly amusing, and constitutes a principal part of the
entertainment. The numerous anecdotes of persons
and events which it contains, serves in many instan-
ces to illustrate the literary history of the period it
includes. The preservation of so many of the opi-
nions and sentiments of Johnson in his own language,
both on subjects with which his studies had made him
familiar, as well as on those to which it was not sus-
pected he had bestowed any portion of his attention,
displays the strength and the extent of his powers,
and forms at the same time a valua'ole repository of
critical, moral, and political maxims and rules. And
still more, the dramatic form in which so large, a por-
tion of it is cast, and so well sustained, gives an im-
pressive reality to the scenes which it exhibits, — pre-
sents a finished picture of the domestic manners of
the age to which it belongs, — and affords an exqui-
site gratification to that gossiping curiosity which
seems inherent in human nature.

Thus, though Boswell's life of Johnson cannot be
recommended as a model of biographical composition,
and never can be generally imitated ; because the sus-
picion of a person haunting social scenes, watching-
and writing down with the view of publishing what-
ever is said or done in the most unguarded momenta
of life, would soon destroy the jilay of fancy and the
jlovo of soul, and introduce into conversation, study,
and stiffness, and hypocrisy ; and because few will be
found inclined, or qualified to undertake the task of
following, and observing, and recording the ordinary
discourse and private behaviour of any man, in order
to enable them to detail the particulars of his con-
duct, and to delineate the features of his character ;
yet, as often as a Johnson appears on the stage of life,
it is devoutly to be wished, that, 'iLth this intention,
he may be attended by a patient, a persevering, and
an admiring Boawell.

707

t-gwtw'ntm

BOTANY.

Introduction.

Botany, from a Greek word, which signifies hcrh,
or grass, is that department of natural history by
which plants are distinguished from each other and
systematically arranged ; but, in a more enlarged
sense, it includes also a knowledge of the structure
and functions of vegetables, as well as of their pro-
perties and uses.

The vegetable kingdom, which consists of more
than 30,000 species, is divided, according to tlie sys-
tem of Linna;us, into 24 classes ; each class is sub-
divided into orders, and eacli order is again subdi-
vided into genera and species. The classification of
Linnaeus is confessedly artificial ; but it is by far the
simplest and most convenient yet proposed for study-
ing botany ; and those who have made objections to
this system, have forgotten, that its object is to dis-
tinguish plants from each other with precision, ra-
ther than to associate them according to their natu-
ral alliances. In all attempts to arrange and classi-
fy the objects of nature, it ought to be recollected,
that it is for the purpose of assisting the limited
powers of man in his investigations ; and the more
numerous any class of objects becomes, the more
necessary it is to adopt method and arrangement in
acquiring the knowledge of their distinctive pro-
perties. The books of a library, composed of many
thousands of volumes on different subjects and in dif-
ferent languages, could not be easily found out if
they were promiscuously placed in the shelves ; but
if they are arranged according to certain rules or
principles, such as the subjects on which they treat,
the language in which they are written, or even the
form or size, the place in which they are deposited
can be easily discover.ed. The amount of a sum of
money, consisting of different kinds of coin, as cop-
per, silver, and gold, thrown together into a heap,
may be known by reckoning the number and value
of each individual piece as it comes to hand ; but
the knowledge of the value of the whole will be
more easily obtained, by arranging the different
pieces according to the kind and value of each. All
this, it must be admitted, is an artificial procedure ;
but it is quite obvious that it greatly abridges labour
and facilitates investigation.

The characters of the classes in the Linnaean sys-
tem are taken from certain parts within the flower.
In the common primrose, or single polyanthus, the
yellow part in the one, and the red in the other, is
called the corolla ; and the green part, which is a
continuation of the covering of the stem, is called
the cup, or calyx, from its shape. Separate the co-
rolla from the calyx, and open the tube of the co-
rolla with a pointed knife, and several threads or fi-
2

laments attached to its inner surface, and support-
ing roundish bodies of a yellowish colour, will ap-
pear ; these are called stamina, or stamens. Some of
the classes are determined by the number of sta-
mens ; in this flower the number is five, denoting
that it belongs to the fifth class. Tlie flower of the
crocus, examined in the same way, presents three
stamens, shewing that it is arranged in the third
class. Six stamens appear within the flower of the
tulip, from which it takes its place in the sixth class-
to which also belong the white and orange-lily, the
snowdrop, and hyacinth. In the conwnon pink are
ten stamens, which point out its place in the tenth
class.

The stamens in some of the flowers now mention-
ed, derive their origin from the inner surface of the
flower, and when the flower is drawn out of the cup
they come along with it ; but when the six petals of
the tulip are broken off, the stamens remain behind ;
and when these stamens are carefully removed, an-
other part rising from the middle of the seed-vessel
appears. This is called style or pistil ; and from the
number of pistils the orders are determined ; as the
tulip, in which there is one pistil, belongs to the
first order. In the pink there are two pistils, and it
belongs to the second order of its class. The cha-
racters of the genus are usually derived from the
other parts of the flower, and those of the species
are taken either from some peculiarity in the parts
of fructification, or from the leaves, stem, or root.
But, to be able to discriminate plants with facility
and accuracy, it is necessary that the student. of bo-
tany be familiar with the language which is employ-
ed, and be well acquainted with those parts on which
the character of the classes, and their subordinate
divisions, depend.

Chap. I. Principles of the Linnaean Classi-
fication.

The characters of the classes and orders of the
Linnaean system are taken from the parts of fructifi-
cation ; those of the genera from the same parts, and
those of the species from the leaves, stems, and
roots.

Sect. I. Parts of Frudtjicalion.

The parts of fructification, as they are described
by Linnasus, are seven in number ; and as some of
these parts are wanting in some plants, they are not
all essentially necessary to the perfection of the seed
or fruit. The seven parts are, the calyx or cup, the
corolla or flower, the stamina or stamens, the pisti-
lum or pistil, the pericarpium or seed-vessel, the
seed, and the receptaciiliun or receptacle.

Classifica-
tion.

708

BOTANY.

Calyx. — Several varieties of calj'x are described ;
it is called perianthium, or perianth, when it includes
the other parts of the flower, as in the primrose and
the pink ; but it is sometimes wanting, as in the tu-
lip, in some cases permanent till the fruit is ripe,
and in others it drops off before the flower is expand-
ed ; in mallow it is double, and in scabious it is
triple. The involucrum is a kind of calyx peculiar to
umbelliferous plants ; and it is eitlier partial or ge-
neral, as it includes the whole or only a part of the
umbel. The amentum or catkin is a common re-
ceptacle, furnished with scales, each of which in-
cludes the parts of fructification, and the whole
forms an aggregate flower. The willow and the fir
tribes furnish examples of the catkin. The xpalka,
or sheath, is a kind of calyx which appears m the
snowdrop and the narcissus. The gluma or glume is
the calyx peculiar to glasses, and it is of a chaffy
texture.

Corolla. — The corolla is included within the ca-
lyx, and usuall)' exhibits those rich and beautiful co-
lours which are so much admired in plants. When
the corolla consists of different parts, they are call-
ed petals; it consists sometimes of one petal, and
then it is said to be monopetalous, as in the prim-
rose ; and when it consists of many petals, it is call- -
ed polypetalous, as in the rose.

A monopetalous corolla is divided into two parts ;
the tube, or cylindrical part, included in the calyx,
and the limb, limbus, which is spread out, as in the
primrose. When the corolla consists of many pe-
tals, as in the pink, that part of it which appears
without the. calyx is called the border, or lamina, and
that part inclosed in the calyx is denominated un-
ffuis, or claw. The corolla is said to be regular or
irregular, equal or unequal, when its figure is uni-
form or otherwise, and the parts of which it is com-
posed are of the same or of a different size.

The more common forms of a monopetalous co-
rolla are the following : Bell-shaped, campanulata,
as in campanula and hyacinth ; funnel-shaped, infun-
dibuiiformis, as in pulmonaria or lungwort ; salver-
shaped hypocrateriformis, as in the primrose ; wheel-
shaped, rotaia, which is the same as salver- shaped,
but with scarcely any tube, as in borage ; ringent,
ringerts, irregular and gaping, formerly called labi-
ated or lipped, as in dead-nettle ; and personate, per-
sonata, irregular, and closed by a kind of palate, as
in snapdragon.

The polypetalous corolla is called cruciform, cru-
ciformis, when the petals are disposed in the form of
a cross, as in wallflower ; rosaceous, rosacea, when
the petals are disposed like a rose ; papilionaceous,
■papilionaceu, when they are irregular and spread-
ing, and have the appearance of a butterfly.

The corolla is said to be incomplete when some
parts seem wanting ; and in some cases it is altoge-
ther wanting, although a diversity of opinion pre-
vails "whether the calyx, which is present in some of
these case's, should not be considered as such.

Nectary. — The nectary, nec<an«»», is generally con-
nected with the corolla, or forms part of it ; the nec-
tary is distinct from the petals of the corolla in co-
lumbine, and it is an elongation of the corolla in
the violet, and a productiou of the calyx in Indian

cress. Larkspur and monkshood furnish striking
examples of the nectary in the spur-like appendages
of their flowers ; and a small gland at the base of
the petals of some flowers, as the ranunculus, comes
under the same denomination. The use assigned
to the nectary is the secretion of honey.

Stamens. — The stamens are placed within the co-
rolla, and vary in number in different flowers. A
stamen consists of two parts, the filament and anther. .
In the pink the filament is slender, and in the orange-
lily and tulip it is strong and thick ; in some plants
it is wanting : but where the filament exists it sup-
ports the anther, which is a membranous body, con-
sisting generally of two cells or cavities. Tlie pol-
len, or fine powder, is prepared in the anther, which
either bursts longitudinally or opens by pores near
the summit. The pollen, when examined with the
microscope, exhibits great variety of form and struc-
ture in different plants.

Pistil — The pistil is that part which arises from the
centre of the flower ; it is composed of three parts,
the stigma, the style, and the germon. Tlie stigma,
which is the upper part of the pistil, is varioos in
form, either simple, scarcely more than a point, glo-
bular, lobed, hollow, and gaping. The length and
thickness of the style are various, but it is some-
times entirely wanting. The germen, which gives
origin to the style and stigma, is also various in its
form and size ; sometimes it is included between the
calyx and corolla, and then it is said to be superior,
as in the strawberry and raspberry, and inferior, as
in the apple and pear.

Pericarp. — The pericarp, pericarpium, or seed-ves-
sel, is the enlarged germen or covering of the seed.
It is not an essential part of every plant, for in some
it is wanting, as in the dead-nettle, in which the
seeds are naked in the bottom of the calyx ; and in
the common dandelion, and many plants of the same
kind, the seeds are attached to the receptacle with-
out any covering.

Various kinds of seed-vessels are described, as the
capsule, which is of a leathery or membranous tex-
ture, composed of one or several cells, as in campa-
nula and poppy. The follicle is a seed-vessel of
one valve and one cell, bursting lengthwise, and
bearing the seeds near its edges, as in periwinkle
and paeony. The silique, siliqita, is a long dry seed-
vessel of two valves, as in stock jilly- flower. The
silicic is a short round pod, as in vernal whitlow
grass. The legume, legumen, is a seed-vessel of two
oblong valves, and is peculiar to the pea tribe. The
tamarind produces a legume filled with pulp, in
which the seeds are imbedded. The drupe, drupa, is
the seed-vessel peculiar to stone fruit,f4ias a fleshy
coat, and contains a single hard and bony nut, as in
the cherry, the plum, and the peach. The cocoa-
nut also comes under the denomination of drupe.
The pomum or anple has a fleshy coat, but includes
a capsule, with several seeds, as in the common
apple or pear. The berry, bacca, is fleshy, without
valves, and contains one or more seeds, surrounded
with pulp, as in deadly nightshade and ivy. The
fruit of the raspberry and bramble is called a com-
pound berry, and the separated pdrts are named
acini. Strobilus or cone, is a catkin, hardened and.

BOTANY,

709

linntnu

, Classifica-
tion.

enlarg;etl into a seed-vessel, examples of which are
found in the pine tribe.

The seeds are extremely various in form and size ;
they are composed of the embryo or germ ; of cotyle-
dons or seed-lobes ; the albumen or farinaceous part ;
the vitellus or yoke ; the testa, which contains tiie
different parts of the seed ; and the hilum, or scar, by
which the seed is attached to the seed-vessel. The pel-
licle, or epidermis, adheres closely to the outside of
some seeds ; and the ariilus, or tunic, is either a com-
plete or partial covering attached to the base only,
and surrounding the other parts more or less loosely.
Some seeds are furnished with a pappus or down,
which is chaffy, feathery, or bristly. The seeds of
dandelion afford an example of the feathery structure.
Seeds are also furnished with a tail, with a beak, or
with wings.

The receptacle, receptaculum, is the common point
of connection of all the other parts of fructification.
It is called the receptacle of the flower, when the
calyx, corolla, and stamens, only are attached to it.
It is denominated a proper receptacle, when only
one flow or with its fruit is inserted into it, — and com-
mon, when it supports many flowers. In such as
are called compound, it is very distinct, as in the
daisy, where it is of a conical form ; in others,
it is convex, flat, or concave ; and in some it is nak-
ed, hairy, scaly, or cellular, like a honey-comb.

Sect. II. Of the Classes and Orders.

The Linnaean system of botany includes 24 classes,
the characters of which are derived from the num-
ber, situation, and proportion of the stamens. The
first eleven classes are determined by the number of
the stamens, and the names by which they are dis-
tinguished, derived from the Greek language, are
characteristic of this mode of discrimination.

The 1st class, Monandria, signifies that the plants
included under it have only one stamen. The 2d,
class, Diandria, indicates two stamens ; the 3d,
Triandria, three stamens ; 4th, Tetrandria, four sta-
mens ; 5th, Pcntandria, five stamens ; 6th, Hexan-
dria, six stamens ; 7th, Heptandria, seven stamens ;
8th, Octandria, eight stamens ; 9th, Enneandria,
nine stamens ; 10th, Decnndria, ten stamens ; 11th,
Dodecandria, from 12 to 19 stamens; 12th, Ico-
sandria, 20 or more stamens ; and, 18th, Polyandria,
in wfiich the stamens are very numerous. But, in
the two last classes, the situation of the stamens
must be taken into consideration. When they arise
from the inside of the calyx of plants they belong to
the class Icosandria, as in the strawberry and bram-
ble, the cherry and the myrtle ; but when they are
inserted into the receptacle or base of the flower, they
fall under the class Polyandria, of which the poppy
and anemone are good examples.

The I4th class, Didynamia, is distinguished by
the proportion in the length of the stamens, which are
four in number, two of which are long and two short.
This is justly reckoned a natural class, for it includes
plants which exhibit the same general character in
the structure of their flowers, to which the denomi-
nation ringent or personate has been applied. The
dead-nettle, foxglove, and snapdragon are examples.

The 15th class, Tetradynamia, is also a natural

class, and is distinguished by four long and two
short stamens ; the flowers of this class are called
cruciform, because the four petals of the corolla are
set in opposition to each other in the form of a cross,
as wallflower, radish, and mustard.

In the 16th class, Monadclphia, the stamens are
united by their filaments into a tube, as is distinctly-
seen in mallow and lavatera, and less obvious in the
numerous family of geranium.

The I7th class, Diadelphia, has the stamens united
by their filaments in two parcels ; and it is a natural
class, for it consists of papilionaceous flowers, of
which the flowers of the pea tribe are examples.

Tlie 18th class, Polyadelphia, includes such plants
as have the stamens united by the filaments into
more than two parcels, as in St Johnswort.

In ,the 19th class, Syngenesia, the stamens are
united by their anthers into a tube, and the flowers
of this class are compound, that is, a number of flow-
ers is collected together within the same calyx, or
upon the same receptacle, of which the common dai-
sy, dandelion, and sun-flower furnish appropriate eK-
amples.

The 20th class, Gynandria, is characterised by
the stamens growing out of the pistil, or being unit-
ed with it, of which examples are found in the or-
chis tribe.

The 21st class, Moncecia, signifying one house,
includes those plants which have stamens and pistils
in separate flowers, but growing on the same plant,
as in the oak and hazel.

In the 22d class, Diacia, which signifies two hou-
ses, the stamens and pistils are not only in separate
flowers, but the flowers which produce stamens, and
those which produce pistils, grow on separate plants,
as in the hop, the willow, and yew.

The 23d class, Polygamia, comprehends such
plants as have stamens and pistils separate in some
flowers and united in others, either on the same
plant or on two or three different plants, as in pelli-
tory, and sea-purslane.

The 24th class, Cryptogamia, includes those plants
in which the parts of fructification are not distinctly
ascertained, and therefore cannot be referred to any
of the preceding classes Ferns, mosses, and sea-
weeds are examples of this class.

The Palmet, palm-trees, from their peculiarity of
structure and appearance, were described by Lin-
naeus in an appendix to the twenty-four classes ; but it
appears, from the researches and observations of suc-
ceeding botanists, that they may be arranged under
the Hexandria, or 6th class, or under Moncecia, or
Dicecia, the 2lst or 22d class.

Orders In the first 12 classes of the Linnasan

system, the orders are determined by the num-
ber of pistils, and the Greek words, Monogynia, Di-
gynia, Trigynia, denote one, two, or three pistils. The
number of pistils is reckoned by the styles, or, when
the style is wanting, by the number oi^ stigmas, as in
the gelder-rose ; and the number of pistils expressed
by the Greek numerals marks the order, as Monogy-
nia, having one pistil, denotes the first order, Digynia,
Trigynia, Telragynja, Pentagynia, Ilexagynia, Ilepta-
gynia, Decagynia, Dodecagynia, expressive of two,
tiiree, four, fave, six, seven, ten, and twelve pistils, and

710

BOTANY.

TjBwmn Poly^ynia, signifying many pistils, all fefer to corres-
Clnsniica- pondiiig orders of the class in whicl) such pl»its occur.
•*"•• Didifnamia,X\\(i \\l\\ class, contains two orders:

*'\i Gymnospermia, so denominated from the seeds
being naked, or uncovered, and they are almost al-
ways four in number, as in the dead-nettle ; '2. An-
s;iosi>ermia, cx])ressive of the seeds, which are nume-
rous, being included in a capsule, or seed-vessel, as
in foxglove and snapdragon.

Tetradynnmia, the 15th class, has also two or-
ders, which arc determined by the form of the fruit :

1. ^ilioulosa, in which the fruit is a silicic, or round-
ish pod, as in shepherds-purse, and the common
garden-cress ; and, 2. Siliquosa, in which tlie fruit is
u-siliqua, or long pod, as in the pea tribe.

In the 16th, 17th, and 18th classes, Monadelphia,
Diadelphia, Polyadeiphia, the characters of the orders
are taken from the number of the stamens, as in the
first thirteen classes.

Synaenesia, the 19th class, comprehends five
orders, the characters of which are taken from the
florets, of which the compound flower is formed, be-
ing united or separated, barren, fertile, or abortive.

The first order, Polygamm cequalis, includes
those plants in which all the florets have both sta-
mens-and pistils, and produce seeds, as in dandelion.

2. Polygamia superjlua, in which the flowers consist of
two parts, a disk, or central part, and radii, or rays,
which project outward ; the florets of the disk have
stamens and pistil, and those of the rays have pistil on-
ly, but each of them produces perfect seed, as in the
daisy, chamomile, and corn-marygold. S. Polygamia

jrustranea, in which the florets of the disk have sta-
mens and pistil, but those of the rays have only an
abortive pistil, as in blue-bottle, -i. Polygamia ne-
cessaria, in which the florets of the disk are furnish-
efi with stamens only, and those of the radius with
pistils only, as in garden-raarygold. 5. Polygamia
sfgregala, in which each of the florets has a proper
calyx included in one general calyx, as in echinops, or
globe-thistle. To this class Linnajus added a sixth
order, Monogamia, in which the flowers are not com-
pound, but single, as the word denotes ; but as the
union of the anthers is not always uniform,' the plants
belonging to this order have been arranged by later
botanists under other classes, according to the num-
ber of stamens.

In the 20th, 21st, and 22d classes the orders are
formed fiom the number of stamens, or from the cha-
racter of some of the preceding classes.

Polygamia, the 23d class, includes three orders,
forme« upon the principles of the classes immediate-
ly preceding. 1. M(Tncecia, in which flowers with
both stamens and pistils, or flowers with pistils or sta-
mens only, gi-ow on the same plant. 2. Dicecia, when
two or three kinds of flowers appear on two separate
plants. 3. Tricecia, in which the dittbrent flowers
just described grow on three separate plants, of which
the fig furnishes an example.

The 21th' class, Cryptogamia, was divided by Lin-
na;us into four orders, namely, ferns, mosses, flag?,
and mushrooms ; but Dr Smith has added a fifth or-
der. 1 . F///c«, or ferns, in which the fructilicatioa
appears on the back, summit, or near the base of the
, l«af, which is denominated a frond. 2. Musci, or

mosses, which liave separate leaves, and often a stemi
and are furnished with a calyptra, or hood-like co-
rolla. 3. HepaticcB, or liverworts, having the leaf
and stem united, forming a frond, but the capsules
do not open with a lid as in the mosses. In the 4th
order, Algee, or flags, the herb is a frond, and the
seeds are imbedded in its substance, or in the disk of
a peculiar receptacle. 5. Fungi, or mushrooms, have
no leaves, and the fructification is in a fleshy sub-
stance.

Sect. III. Of Genera and Species.

The orders are again subdivided into genera. The
characteristic marks of the genera are derived from
the flow-ers and fruit, and a genus comprehends one
or more species, which resemble each other in some
parts of the flower or fruit, or of both. Three kinds
of generic characters are mentioned by Linnaeus, the
factitious, essential, and the natural, all depending on
the fructification alone, and not on the inflorescence
or on any other part : by the factitious character, ge-
nera that come together in the same artificial order,
or section, are discriminated ; by the essential cha-
racter, a particular genus is distinguished by one
striking mark from ail genera of the same natural or-
der, and, consequently, from all other plants ; and
the natural characters include all the marks common
to all the species of the genus. The natural charac-
ter of genera is employed by Linnaeus in his Genera
Plantarum; but to this method of discrimination it
lias been objected, that it does not direct the mind to
the most important marks, and that it only accords
with such species of the genus as are known to the
author, from which it is obviously imperfect ; but
the essential character, which is now universally
adopted to distinguish genera, comprehends all the
marks necessary to discriminate each genus from
every other in the system.

The characters which are employed in distinguish-
ing species should be constructed on the same prin-
ciples as the characters of the genera, and they ought
to be certain, clear, and concise. No characters
ought to be adopted in the discrimination of the spe-
cies which have been already enumerated among the
generic marks. For the sake of brevity, Linnaeus
limited his specific definitions to twelve words, a rule
which has been followed by succeeding naturalists,
especially those who have employed the Latin lan-
guage, in which it is most practicable.

In the construction of generic and specific charac-
ters, the arrangement of the difierent parts from which
these marks are derived ought to be attended to.
The most important in the natural order, or genus,
are first mentioned, and the subordinate, or more par-
ticular marks of the object to which they are applied,
ought to conclude the description ; but in drawing
up the natural characters of a genus, the calyx, co-
rolla, stamens, pistils, seed-vessel, seed, and recep-
tacle, are to be described in their order ; and the
root, stem, leaves, appendages, flower, and fruit,
point out the arrangement, when a full description
of any particular plant is required.

O/' ficctions. — The labour of research is greatly
abridged and facilitated by associating together such
genera and species as are allied by certain marks.

B O T A K Y.

711

Such groups of genera and species are distributed in-
to sections; and each section being particuhirly cha-
racterised, if it shall api)ear that the plant possesses
the character of that section, after the class and or-
der have been ascertained, and the genus to which it
belongs is sought for, it is onlj' necessary to compare
it with the descriptions comprehended under that
particular section. Thus the position of the germcn
furnishes marks for the formation of two sections in
certain genera, which are characterised by iiaving
the flower superior or inferior, as when the recep-
tacle of the flower is above the germen it is cal-
led superior, and when the receptacle is below the
germen it is called inferior. The number of petals
i'urnishes discriminative marks for the division of the
genera of the 13th class into sections. In the Hth
class, Didynamia, the character of the sections is
derived from the calyx, which is said to be two-lip-
ped, or bilabiated, when the mouth resembles two
lips, and cleft when it is divided into so many parts.
The pod being notched at the point, or being en-
tire, in the first order of the 15th class, is the founda-
tion of two sections ; and the calyx being closed or
open, affords characters for the two sections into
which the second order is divided. The first order
of the fourth class, in Smith's Flora Brilannica, ex-
hibits a good illustration of this division into sec-
tions. This order consists of five sections : In the
first the flowers are monopetalous, one-seeded, and
superior ; in the second, they are monopetalous,
two-seeded, and superipr ; in the third section the
flowers are monopetalous, many-seeded, and inferior ;
in the fourth section the corolla has four petals ; and in
the fifth the flowers are apetalous, or want the corolla.
An example of the distribution of the species belong-
ing to the genus veronica, or speedwell, may be taken
from the same work. This genus is divided into
three sections, including, first, those species which
have flowers in a spike ; second, those whose flowers
grow in clusters ; and, third, those which have soli-
tary flowers.

Sect. IV. Method of invest i^aling the Class, Order,
S;c. of a Plant.

The principles of the Linnsean classification being
distinctly understood, the examination of plants, for
the purpose of ascertaining to what class, order, ge-
nus, and species they belong, is next to be attempt-
ed. Flowers in different states, some that are ex-
panded, some not yet unfolded, and some which
have ripened their fruit or seed, should be select-
ed ; and, in determining the class, the number, si-
tuation, proportion, or connection of the stamens,
is to be considered. To assist the student in deter-
mining this point, reference may be made to Plate
28. in which the Roman numerals mark the classes.
Fig. I. represents one stamen inserted at the base of
the germen. 2. Two stamens attached to the tube
of the corolla. 3. Two stamens rising from the tube
of the corolla. 4. Three stamens rising from the
tube. 5. A B, a glume; CD, the chaff; D E, one of
thj valves of the chaff, terminated by an awn, three
stamens with anthers bifid at the two extremities.
6. Four sessile anthers attached to the orifice of the
corolla. 7. Four stamens rising out of it. 8. Five

stamens alternating with the petals. 9. Five stamens
opposite to the divisions of the corolla. 10. Five
stamens with arrow-headed anthers attached to the
corolla. 11. Six stamens alternating with the divi-
sions of the perianth. 12. and 13. Six stamens with
sessile anthers attached to the orifice of a globular
perianth; A, is a limb with six teeth. H: Seven
stamens. 15. A spurred calyx ; five petals with long
claws. 16 Eight stamens ; the germen central. 17.
A ca!3'x with three small leaves, the corolla with
three petals, stamens nine. 18. The germen sur-
rounded with nine stamens. 19. A monophyllous
calyx calyculated, or with a small calyx at its base, and
five petals. 20. Ten stamens supported on a cylin-
drical disk proceeding from the bottom of the calyx
of Fig. 19. 2i. Monophyllous calyx, five petals with
two lobed laminae and ten stamens. 22. Twelve sta-
mens with double anthers and pedicellated germen.
23. Twelve stamens proceeding from a simple mono-
phyllous perianth, the limb three-lobed. S-t. Tlie
same perianth opened lengthwise. 25. A corolla
with five petals, the stamens numerous. • 26. A com-
pound berry. 27. The stamens inserted on the ca-
lyx. 28. Stamens inserted at the orifice of the peri-
anth, the germen globular, the style short, and the
stigma rounded. 29. A flower with five petals and
a great number of stamens. 30. Calyx of the flower,
Fig. 29. separated from its petals, to shew the at-
tachment of the stamens below the germen. 31. B,
the part where the leaves of the calyx, the petals,
and the stamens, were attached ; A, many germen*
united into one head. 32. B, one-lipped corolla, the
stamens didynamious ; A, two-lipped corolla, the sta-
mens didynamious, or two long aftd two short. 33.
The calyx divided lengthwise, shewing a germen
with four lobes becoming four small seeds, the styles
slender, with a bifid stigma. 34. An irregular two-
lipped corolla, with a spur. 35. The same opened
lengthwise, to shew the didynamious stamens. 36.
The capsule cut transversely, to shew the two cells
and the seeds. 37. Tetradynamious stamens, or four
Jong and two short, surrounding a slender pistil,
surmounted by a stigma notched at the top. 38. A
cruciform flower. 39. A silique, silitjua, or long jjod.
40. Another cruciform flower. 41. Silicic, or short
pod open. 42. Stamens united together in the class
INIonadelphia. 43. Corolla, with five petals notched
at their summits. 44. The fruit divided into five
small capsules, each surmounted by a part of the
style which is permanent. 45. Ten stamens, of which
nine are united and one is separated, indicating the
class Diadelphia. 46. and 47. Papilionaceous flowers.
48. A legume, or pod of the pea tribe. 49. A co-
rolla with five petals, the stamens united in three par-
cels, A B C, as in the class Polyadelphia. 50. A p C,
a floret; A, the stamens united by the anthers, the
character of the Syngenesia class ; B, the tubulated
])erianth formed of the petals ; C, feathered seeds.
51. A, The style coming from the tube of the united
anthers ; C, the liuih lengthened into a strap called
a lipulated flower. 52. A compound, radiated, or ray-
ed ilower. 53. A, An involucruni, or common calyx;
B, a common receptacle ; C, feathered seeds ; " E,
the down ; D, the foot stalks. 54. A simple irre-
gular perianth, attached by its-base to the germen ;

Clasfiilica-
tiuii.

r.i2

BOTANY.

B,the gertneo; A, six sessile anthers fixed on the style,
denoting the class Gynandria. 53, An irregular po-
lypetalous flower, with the anthers united by the fila-
ments. 56. A monoecious plant ; A, the flowers with
stamens, and B, the flowers with pistils, both grow-
ing on the same plant. 57. A, Flower with stamens ;
B, Flower with pistils. 58. A, Flower with sta-
mens; B, Flower with pistils. 59. A, Flower with
stamens ; B, Flower with pistils ; and C, Flower with
both stamens and pistils, on the same or diflerent
plants. 60. A moss. 61. A mushroom.

Iriflorescence. — The inflorescence, or mode of flow-
ering, that is, the distribution of the flowers on plants,
afford useful discriminating marks ; and of these, dif-
ferent kinds have received appropriate names.

When the flowers surround the stem in a kind of
ring, it is called verticillus, or whorl, as in dead-nettle
and wild marjoram.

A cluster, or raceme, racemus, is composed of nu-
merous rather distant flowers, each having its own
proper stalk, but all arising from a common stalk,
as in red currants. Solanum dulcamara, bitter-sweet,
exhibits an example of a compound raceme ; and
actaa racemosa produces an aggregate raceme, where
several are collected together.

The spike, spica, is characterised by numerous
flowers on a common stalk, without partial stalks,
as in broad-leaved plantain. Sometimes the spike is
compound, as in lavandula pinnata ; and when the
flowers are all on one side, it is called spica secunda.
A spicula, or spikelet, is applied to the grasses which
have many florets in one calyx, as in poa aqualica.

Corymbiis, or corymb, is a spike with partial
flower-stalks, gradually longer as they are lower on
the common stalk, so that all the flowers are nearly
on a level, as in the common cabbage, which becomes
a raceme when it is in fruit.

Fasciculus, or fascicle, is applied to flowers which
have little stalks variously inserted and subdivided,
but collected into a close bundle, which is level at
the top, of which common sweetwilliam is a good
example.

Capitulum, a head or tuft, has sessile flowers ar-
ranged in a globular form, as in sea-pink and globe-
amaranthus.

Umbella, or umbel, has several flower-stalks or
rays, nearly of equal length, rising from a common
centre, and the summits forming a level, convex,
rounded, and rarely a concave surface. It is called
a simple umbel when each ray has a single flower,
and compound when each stalk or ray supports a
small or partial umbel. This peculiar distribution of
the flowers is the origin of the name of a natural or-
der of plants, which are thus denominated umbellat-
ed, or umbelliferous, as the common carrot, parsley,
and hemlock.

Cyma, or cyme, agreeing in general appearance
with the umbel, has the stalks arising frorti one cen-
tre, but variously and alternately subdivided, as in
the common laurus-tinus and elder.

Panicula .or panicle, has the flowers in a loose sub-
divided bunch or cluster, without order. When the
stalks are distant, it is called a spreading panicle, as
in London-pride, saxifraga umbrosa, and in the com-
mon cultivated oat. When the panicle is more crowded

it is called dense or close, and when more spreading,
it is said to be divaricated.

Thyrsus, a bunch, is a dense or close panicle, ap-
proaching- to an ovate form, as in the common lilac ;
tussilago petasiies, or common butter bur, is also an
example of the thyrsus.

Stems. — A flower-stalk is said to be solitary when
it bears one flower, clustered, in which several stems
are united together ; radical, when they arise from the
root ; cauline, when they spring from the stem ; ax-
illary, when they grow from the axillaj of the leaves ;
and lateral, or terminal, as they proceed from tlie
side or extremity of the stem.

Culmus, Culm, or Straw, is the stem peculiar to
the grasses, rushes, and similar plants. It is either
without joints, as in the common rush ; jointed, as in
most of the grasses ; geniculated, or kneed, as in a
common species of fox-tail grass;

Scapus, or stalk, is that stem which springs from
the root, and supports the flower and seed, but not
the leaves, as in the common primrose.

Pedunculus, is the flower-stalk which springs from
the stem, and supports the flowers and fruit, but not
the leaves.

Petiolus, or petiole, is the foot-stalk of the leaf,
and is a term exclusively appropriated to leaves ; and
it is either simple or compound, as it supports one
or more leaves.

Frons, or frond, is a term applied to the leaves of
ferns, in which the stem, leaf, and parts of fructifica-
tion are united.

Stipes, or stipe, is the term applied to the stem of
a frond, and to the stalk of a mushroom ; the stipes
in ferns is commonly scaly.

Leaves — In the description of plants, and particu-
larly in the discrimination of species, the forms of
leaves afford obvious characters, and therefore merit
attention. Leaves are properly distinguished into sim-
ple and compoimd. Plate 29. exhibits a view of the
forms of simple leaves ; Fig. 1. is an elliptical leaf; 2.
an oval pointed leaf; 3. an oval reversed ; 4'. oblong ;
5. linear and lance-shaped ; 6. awl-shaped ; 7. thick
linear; 8. linear; 9. arrow-headed; 10. triangular ;
II. crescent-shaped; 12. kidney-formed ; 13. round
kidney-formed; 14. rounded and crenulated ; 15.
five lobed; 16. four lobed ; 17. three lobed ; 18.
heart-shapedreversed; 19.halbert-shaped; 20. arrow-
headed and blunt at the summit; 21. runcinated ;
22. with seven or eight toothed lobes ; 23. seven lob-
ed with two small ears, rounded at the base ; 2^.
with five divisions nearly palmated ; 25. trifid and
bitten ; 26. with five divisions, palmated ; 27. oblong,
crenulated, and wrinkled; : 28. rounded, with nine
lobes not deep, and toothed ; 29. plaited, with seven
toothed lobes ; 30. seven lobed ; 31. sinuated and
toothed ; 32. lance-shaped, and serrated, or toothed
like a saw ; S3, heart-shaped, oval, and serrated ; 34.
cylindrical and fistulous, or hollow ; 35. rounded,
oval, and doubly toothed ; 36. palmated, the divisions
notched at the summit; 37. rounded, oval, toothed; 38.
rounded, elliptical, crenulated; 39. a, slightly sinuat-
ed, b, sinuated; 40. heart-shaped, serrated; 41. ob-
long, oval, serrated ; 42. rounded, sinuated, peltated ;
43. round, peltated ; 44. lyre-shaped, or Ivrated ;
45. notched at the summit ; 4'6. oval, bifid at the sum-

IJnnicfta
Classifica-
tion.

BOTANY.

715

mlt ; ■tT. oval, pointed ; 48. petiolated, rounded,
heart-shaped, and dotted ; 49. oval, lance-sliapedj
sh'ghtly sinuated ; 50. three-cornered, pyramidal ;
,^1. heart-shaped, pointed; 52. oval, five-nerved;
53. pointed, oval, three nerved ; 54. oblong, lance-
shaped, half embracing the stalk ; 55. fleshy, linear,
cylindrical, and rough with points ; 5G. divided hito
five segments ; 57. dotted, succulent, spatulated ;
58. fiddle-shaped ; 59. halbert-shaped, and double-
eared ; 60. angular, equally sinuated; 61. united;
62. elliptical, oval, crenulated ; 63. arrow headed, tri-
angular, bitten ; 64. rhomboidal ; 65. oblong, with
two small pointed cars on the foot stalk ; 66. pinna-
tifid ; 67. arrow-headed, embracing ; 68. perfoliated,
sharp, oval ; 69. long linear, sheathing at the base,
a, b, the sheath.

Plate 30. presents a view of the forms of compound
leaves : Figure 1. a leaf composed of four oval serra-
ted leaves ; 2. three reversed oval leaves, toothed ;
3. two opposite leaves ; 4. five-fingered serrated leaf;
.5. nine digitated leaflets, oval, lance shaped, and ser-
rated ; 6. five reversed, oval, and serrated leaflets ; 7.
pennatiforni, interrupted, with the pinna; serrated ;

8. pinnated, with an odd leaf, the pinna: opposite ;

9. eight lance-shaped pinnas, serrated, and pedated ;

10. pinnated, without an odd one, the pinnaj alternate;

11. pinnated without an odd one, the pinnae opposite;

12. pinnated, with an odd one, the pinnae alternate ;

13. a winged stem, articulated, with sessile leaves at
the articulations ; 14. with opposite lance-shaped
pinnae, the foot-stalk terminating in a tendril ; the
stipulae arrow-headed ; 15. pinnated, with opposite
pinnae, and terminated by a tendril ; 16. with six pin-
nae, without an odd one, the connnon foot-stalk
winged ; 17. twice pinnated, with heart-shaped pin-
nae; 18. twice pinnated, with unequal pinnae; 19.
twice pinnated, without an odd leaflet ; 20. triply pin-
nated ; 21. triply pinnated, with an odd leaflet ; 22. tri-
ply pinnated, with an odd leaflet, with pointed oval
pinnae ; 23. a decompounded leaf.

Roots. — Roots sometimes aftbrd specific names to
plants, so that their forms and diversities require at-
tention in descriptions.

A fibrous root, radix Jibrom, is the simplest kind,
and is composed of fibres which are either undivided
or branched. This kind of root is peculiar to many
grasses, and to most annual plants.

A creeping root, radix repens, is considered as a
kind of underground stem, which shoots out horizon-
tally, and throws off fibres in its course. Couch-grass,
and the common bent on sand hills near the sea, are
excellent examples of this kind of root, to which may
be added common mint.

A fusiform, or spindle shaped root, radix Jtwfor-
mis, is of a tapering form, and penetrates perpendi-
cularly into the ground, as in the carrot, the parsnip^
and radish.

An abrupt root, radijc prcemorsa, has somewhat of
a spindle-shape, but it is abrupt or bitten oft' at its
extremity, as in scabiosn succisa, devils bit scabious.

A tuberous or knobbed root, radix tuberosa, is com-
posed of fleshy knobs, connected by common stalks
or fibres, as in solamon tuberosum, the potatoe, and
heliautkm ttiherosus, or Jerusalem artichoke.

A bulbous root, radix bulbosa, is either solid, as in

VOL. I. PART II.

the crocus, — or composed of concentrical laj^ers, as Mcnaadxi*,
in the onion, — or scaly, consisting of fleshy scales at-
tached at the base, as in the white and orange lily.

A jointed or granulated root, radix aiiiadata, or
gramdata, is composed of a number of small grains,
or fleshy knobs, as in saxifraga granulala, white saxi-
frage, and oxalis acctoscUa, or wood-sorrel.

Chap. II. Illustration of the Classes.

In the selection of examples for illustrating the
classification, the preference has been given to such
plants as are most common, or most accessible, whe-
ther they are found indigenous, cultivated in the gar-
den, or require the shelter of the green-house or
stove ; in some the choice has been determined b}'
peculiarit}' of structure or habits, or the valuable
uses to which they are applied as food, or in the arts
of life ; and such notices of their natural history are
occasionally introduced, as may enable the student
to extend his view of the diversified objects of the
vegetable kingdom beyond the limits of mere no-
menclature.

Class I. Monandria. One Stamen.

This class includes two orders.

Order I. Monogvnia.

In the distribution of the genera belonging to tliis
order, four sections are formed. Sect. 1. contains
the natural order called scitaminece, or spicy plants,
all which are exotics, and they are distinguished by
having the germen inferior, and having one or two
cells ; sect. 2. germen inferior, and four-celled ; sect.
3. germen superior ; sect. 4. one-seeded. ■•

Hedychium Coronarium, Sweet-scented Garland
Flower. Gen. char. — Calyx, one-leaved, bursting;
tube of corolla very long ; limb double, tripartite ;
nectary two-leaved. This fragrant flower is snow-
white, is a native of India, and is much cultivated in
the Malaccas ; requires the heat of a stove in this
country, and is met with in some of the gardens near
London. — Bat, Mag. 708.

Amomum Zinziber, Ginger. Gen. char. — Cal.
three-cleft, unequal, cylindrical ; corolla tripartite,
unequal, spreading ; nect. two-lipped, and somewhat
erect. Spec. char. — Scape naked, spike and scales
ovate, leaves lance-shaped, and ciliated on the margin
near the summit. This plant has something of the
habit of a grass in its appearance, and it grows to the
height of two, and sometimes three feet ; it is a na-
tive of the East Indies, and is extensively cultivated
in the West Indies, where it is planted in March or
April, flowers about September, and, when the stalks
have witliered about the end of the year, the roots
are dug up in January and February following.

The roots of ginger, on account of which it is cul-
tivated, furnish a well known and excellent spice.
Two kinds are met with in commerce, the black and
the white ginger. They are the roots of the same
plant, and differ only in the selection and mode of
curing. The larger roots are chosen for the white
4 Y

714

BOTANY.

MonaiiJria. ginger ; and each root being washed and scraped
separately, is dried in the sun. The whole of the
remaining roots of the crop, after being picked and
cleaned, are put into baskets, dipped into boiling wa-
ter, and after being scalded, are dried on a platform,
and put up in bags for the market, under the name
of black ginger.

The young roots of ginger constitute one of the
most delicious preserves. When intended for this
purpose, the roots are dug up while they are tender
and full of sap, carefully picked and washed, and
after being scraped and peeled, they are put into
jars, and covered with syrup, which is sometimes
shifted two or three times.

Canna Indica, common Indian Reed, or Indian
Shot; the first name derived from the appearance of its
stem and leaves, and the second from its hard round
seeds, resembling lead shot, and employed, it is said,
by the Indians for the same purpose ; is a native of
both the Indies, and is often cultivated in the gar-
dens of Europe on account of the beauty of its fo-
liage and flowers ; but it requires artificial heat. Geii.

char Cal. three-leaved ; cor. six-parted, erect, with

a two-parted revolutc lip ; style lance-shaped, adher-
ing to the corolla. Spec, char — Leaves ovate, acunii-
nate, and ribbed. Several varieties of this beautiful
plant are enumerated, some of which have yellow
flowers. Plate 31. Fig. 1.

Salicobnia. Gen. char — Cal. entire, ventricose ;
cor. none ; one seed, covered by the calyx.

Sal. //er6«cea,JointctVGlasswort, or Saltwort. Knees
compressed, emarginate, joints obconical, spikes with
footstalks, tapering towards the top.

Sal. Fruiicosa, Shrubby Samphire, or jointed Glass-
wort ; knees round, entire, joints equal, spikes sub-
sessile. Both these species are natives of Britain
and grow in salt-marshes near the sea. They flower
in August and September, and the first is annual or
biennial, and the last perennial.

Hli'PURis Vulgaris, Mare's-tail. Gen. char. — Cal.
indistinct, entire ; cor. none; stigma simple; one seed,
inferior. Spec. char. — Leaves linear, in whorls. Native
of Britain, in ditches and stagnant pools, but not
very common. Near Lynn, and other parts of Nor-
folk, and at the edge of Duddingston-loch near
Edinburgh. Perennial, and flowers in May. This
plant is easily distinguished by its spreading linear
leaves, from eight to twelve in the whorl, and by
the single stamen rising from the base of the leaf, or
the single seed at a later period of the season.

Order II. Digynia.

Callitriche. — Gen. char — Cal. none ; petals
two; stigmas acute; seeds four, compressed, naked,
margined on one side.

Call. Aquatica, Water Starwort ; an annual plant,
common in the ditches or stagnant waters of Britain ;
is ill flower fro:n Apiil to October, and is easily dis.
tinguished by its floating leaves and :;ii!all white ses.
sile, solitary iuid axillary flowers. Two species,
verna and nutuivnali.i. have been described ; but they
are considered as only varieties, the latter of which

is distinguished by all the leaves being uniformly Dinndiin.
linear.

Blitum. Gen. char. — Cal. three-cleft; petals none;
one seed in a berried calyx.

Blit, Virgatum, Strawberry-blite. Little heads,
sparse, and growing from the sides of the stem. This
species, which is a native of Spain and Tartary, and
was first introduced into this country in 1759, is now
well known among the hardy annuals of every gar-
den imder the name of Strawberry Spinach, a name
derived from the beautiful red colour of its berries,
and the form of its leaves.

Ohserv. — It sometimes happens, that a plant, from
the parts of fructification that determine the class,
should bo arranged in a different class from those
species with which it agrees in all other respects. To
mark the anomaly, and at the same time to retain
the plant in its place among those species with which
it is naturally allied, Linnaeus has ingeniously con-
trived to introduce it after the generic characters of
the order and class to which it belongs. Thus, the
genus Tradescantia belongs to the sixth class ; but
one species has only a single stamen, and therefore
belongs to the first class, and to the third section of
the first order of that class, at the end of which it
is set down with its specific name, thus, Tradescantia
monandra. According to the same plan, Valeriana
rubra, and Angiistijhlia, have only one stamen and
one seed, and are therefore noted at the end of the
fourth section of the first order of the first class,
but retain their place among the species to which
they are naturally allied, iu the first order of the
third class.

Class II. Diandria. Two Stamens.
This class is divided into three orders.

Order I. Monogynia.

Jasminum, Jasmine. Gen. char. — Cor. fivecleft;
berry two-seeded ; seeds in a seed.coat ; anthers
within the tube.

Jas. Officinale, Common Jasmine ; with opposite
pinnated leaves, leaflets sharp pointed. The com-
mon jasmine, which is a native of Switzerland and
India, recommends itself by the beauty of its leaves,
and the fragrance of its flowers, and finds a place in
every garden.

Jas. Odoralissimum, Sweetest Jasmine ; with leaves
alternate, bluntish, ternate, and pinnated ; a native
of Madeira, but common in the greenhouses of this
country, and displaying its yellow flowers from May
to November. The trivial name is far from being
appropriate, for it is inferior in fragrance to the
common jasmine.

Jas. Fruticans, Yellow or Berry-bearing Jasmine ;
with alternate, ternate, and simple leaves, and angu.
lar stems, leaflets ob-ovate ; a native of the Levant
and the south of Europe ; is easily distinguished by
the rich green of the foliage, and fine yellow colour of
the blossoms, which are succeeded by black berries.

BOTANY.

715

LiGUSTKuM, Privet. Sen. char — Cor. four-cleft;
berry superior, two-ceiled, four-seeded.

Lig. Vulgare, Privet, or Prim-print ; leaves ellip-
tical, lance-shaped, obtuse, and somewhat dagger-
pointed. This beautiful evergreen is a native of Bri-
tain and other parts of Europe, and shews its white
flowers in May and June, which are succeeded by
black berries of a very bitter taste.

Syringa, Lilac. Gen, char. — Cor.'four-cleft; caps,
two-celled.

Syr. Vulgaris, Common Lilac ; with entire, ovate,
heart-shaped leaves. This fine slirub, a native of
Persia, is universally cultivated in this country, and
is always admired on account of the beauty of its
large bunches of blue, violet, or white flowers, which
appear in different varieties.

Syr. Persica, Persian Lilac ; with entire, lance-
shaped leaves ; is also, as the name indicates, a na-
tive of Persia, but is common in the gardens of Eu-
rope ; is a shrub of humbler growth, and produces a
large panicle of flowers of a pale purple colour.

Fraxinus. Gen. char. — Cal. none, or four-part-
ed ; cor. none, or four-parted ; caps, superior, two
celled, leafy above, and compressed ; seed solitary,
pendulous.

Frax. Excelsior, Common Ash-tree ; with serrated
leaflets, and flowers destitute of calyx and corolla.
This lofty tree, which is met with every-where, af-
fords a fine example of pinnated leaves terminated
by an odd leaflet, and is remarkable for the lateness
of its frondescence, or coming into leaf. It flowers
in April and May, and the large dark-purple anthers
fall off before the leaves are unfolded.

The variety with pendulous branches, called Weep-
ing ash, is also well known.

CiRC^A. Gen. char Cor. two-petaled ; cal.

two-leaved, superior ; caps, two-celled ; seed solitary.
Cir. Lutetiana, Common Enchanters Nightshade;
with erect stem, and leaves ovate, toothed, opaque,
pubescent ; is common in woods and moist shady
places of Britain, and flowers in June and July.

Veronica, Speedwell. Gen. char — Cor. four-
cleft, wheel-shaped, the lowest segment narrower ;
caps, superior, two-celled.

Ver. Spicata, Spiked Speedwell; spike terminal,
with opposite bluntish-notched serrated leaves, which
are very entire at the extremity of the stalk, ascend-
ing, and very simple ; grows in meadows and ele-
vated pastures with a calcareous soil, in England, as
at Newmarket-heath, and Penny-bridge, Lancashire ;
perennial, and flowers in July.

Ver. Serpyllifolia, Thyme-leaved or Smooth Speed-
well ; with a terminal raceme, approaching to a spike ;
leaves ovate, slightly notched, smooth, and three-
nerved ; is common m meadows and pastures of Bri-
tain, and flowers in May and June.

Ver. Becahunsa, Brooklime ; with lateral racemes,
plain, elliptical leaves, and creeping stem ; is not un-
common in rivulets, and ditches with clear water ;
is perennial, and flowers in July.

Ver. Anagnllis, Water Speedwell or Long-leaved
Brooklime ; with opposite lateral racemes, hmce-

olated serrated leaves, and upright stem; is not un- Diandric
common in ditches and marshes of this " country ; "^
flowers in July ; and is easily distinguished from the
former by its lanceolate kuives and erect stem.

Ver. Chamcedrys, Germander Speedwell, or Wild
Germander ; racemes lateral, leaves "vate, sessile,
wrinkled, serrated, the stem hairy on two sides ; very
common in meadows and pastures, and under warm
hedges ; flowers in May and June, and is easily re-
cognised by its beautiful blue flowers. >

Ver. HederifoUa, Ivy-leaved Speedwell ; with soli-'
tarj' flowers, heart-shaped, plain, five-lobed leaves,
segments of the calyx heart-shaped, seeds pitcher-
shaped ; annual, and very common in gardens and
fields ; flowering from April to September.

Verbena, Vervain. Gen. char. — Cor. funnel-shap-
ed, nearly equal ; curved calyx with a single truncated
tooth ; seeds two or four, as the stamens are two or
four, which happens in the species of this genus.

Ver. Aublclia, Rose- Vervain; with 4 stamens, loose
solitary spikes, and trifid notched leaves ; native of
North America; is biennial; flowers in June and
July ; and the brilliancy of its scarlet flowers renders
it a charming ornament of the greenhouse. Plate 31.
Fig. 2.

Ver. Triphylla, Three-leaved Vervain; tetrandrous,
flowers paniculated, leaves ternate, stem shrubby ;
native of South America, and common in the green-
house, where it is easily recognised by the three
leaves in a whorl, and the agreeable fragrance which
every part of the bruised plant emits. Bot. Ma<r. II,
367.

Rosmarinus Officinalis, Common Rosemary. Gen.
char. — Cor. unequal, upper lip two-parted, filaments
long, curved, simple, with a tooth. Spec, char.
Leaves sessile. Native of south of Europe, but com-
mon in gardens, where its large flowers afford an
easy investigation.

Salvia. Gen. char. — Cor. unequal, fdaments two,
short, transversely attached to a small footstalk.

Sal. Verhenacea, Wild English Clary ; leaves ser-
rated, sinuated, and somewhat smooth ; the corolla
narrower than the calyx. In dry stony places in Bri-
tain ; perennial ; flowers from June to October.

Sal. Hormimim, Pui-ple-topped Clary ; with blunt
crenated leaves, and with bracteas at the top of the
stem, coloured and larger. Native of Greece ; but is
well known as an annual in the flower-garden by its
blue and purple tops, which are sometimes taken for
flowers.

Order II. Dicynia.

Anthoxautiium Odoratum, Sweet-scented Ver-
nal Grass. Gen. char. — Cal. a glume with two valves
including one flower; cor. a two-valved glume, awned.
Spec. char. Spike ovate-oblong, the florets on little
footstalks longer than the awn. This grass is very
common in meadows and pastures, flowers in May,
and communicates a fine fragrance to hay ; and is a
remarkable exception to the tribe of grasses which
have three stamens, and are therefore arranged under
the third class.

716

BOTANY.

Triandria.

Order III. Tbigynia.

Piper, Gen. char, — Cal. none ; cor. none ; berry
roundish, containing one seed.

Pip. N/gruw, Black Pepper ; leaves ovate, seven-
nerved, smooth, foot-stalks simple. This plant, which
is shrubby and creeping, is a native of the East Indies,
and is extensively cultivated in Java and other places,
on account of the berries which afford the black pep-
per of commerce, and arc well known by their hot
and aromatic taste as a spice or condiment. The
berries are collected before they are ripe, and, being
dried in the sun, become wrinkled and black, and are
known under the name of black pepper ; but when
the fruit is fully ripe, and the external coat is sepa-
rated by maceration in water, the berry exhibits a
smooth surface, is less hot to the taste, and is the
white pepper of commerce.

The species belonging to this genus are very nu-
merous, and some ($ them are natives of Jamaica
and the other islands in the West Indies, of South
America, and of the South sea islands.

Class III. Thiandria. Three Stamens.

'Phis class is divided into three orders.

Order I. Monogynia.

Valeriana. Gen, char. — Cal. none ; cor. mono-
pef alous ; gibbous at the base on one side, superior ;
one seed.

Val. Dioica, Small or Marsh Valerian; flowers
triandrous, dioecious, (that is, the stamens on one
plant and the pistils on another,) radical leaves
ovate, stem leaves pinnated. Native of Britain;
grows in wet and marshy meadows; is perennial, and
flowers in June.

Val. Officinalis, Great Wild Valerian ; flowers
triandrous, leaves pinnated, leaflets lance-shaped,
nearly uniform ; a common plant on the banks of
rivers and in marshy places ; is perennial, and flowers
in June. The roots of this plant are employed in
medicine, and are well known for a peculiar odour
which seems to be extremely grateful to some ani-
mals ; cats are very fond of it, and it is said also
that rats are attracted by the smell.

Crocus. Gen. char — Cor. six-parted, superior,
tube very long, stigma convolute, eroded, spathe one-
valved, radical.

Croc. Sativus, Saifron Crocus ; with tripartite pro-
duced stigma, segments linear ; flowers in Septem-
ber, and is extensively cultivated in Cambridgeshire,
and about Saffron Walden in Essex, from which it has
spread to the neighbouring fields, and grows in
meadows and pastures. The summits of the pistils
are collected and dried, and constitute the saffron of
the shops.

Croc. Vcrnus, Spring or Garden Crocus; with trifid
included stigma, and deeply cut wedge-shaped lobes;
flowers in March, and is well known as one of the
earliest ornaments of the parterre, where it appears
with purple, white, and yellow flowers.

Croc. jV!«/!^orfw, Naked Flowering Crocus ; with Triandria.
trifid included stigma ; is remarkable for the flower
appearing in autumn without the leaves, from whence
it is called autumnal and naked crocus.

Iris. Gen. char. — Cor. six-parted, superior ; the
petals alternately reflected ; stigmas petal-shaped.

Ir. Pseudacorus, Yellow Iris, or Water Flower-de-
luce. Cor. without beards ; interior petals les,s than
the stigma ; leaves sword-shaped ; perennial ; flowers
in July, and is very common in wet ground.

Ir. Fcetidinsima, Gladwin or Stinking Iris Cor.

without boards, interior petals very spreading, stem
one-angled, leaves sword-shaped ; in shady woods
and hedges ; not uncommon in the west of England ;
perennial, flowers in June, and is easily recognized
by its unpleasant odour.

Ir. Persica, Persian Iris ; cor. unbearded, inte-
rior petals very short, spreading horizontally : A
native of Persia, and a great favourite with the
florist for its early appearance in February or March,
and the beauty and fragrance of its flowers.

Ir, Florentina, Florentine Flag; cor. bearded, with
pale green leaves shorter than the stem. Native of
Italj' and the south of Europe ; grows abundantly on
the walls of Florence, and is planted about graves in
Algiers. The dried root furnishes the orris pow-
der of commerce, which is extensively employed as
a perfume. Bot. Mag. xviii. 671.

Ir. Lurida, Dingy Flag ; bearded, with a stem
nearly one-half longer than the leaves ; native of
the south of Europe, is cultivated in gardens, and
flowers in May. Bot. Mag. xviii. 669. and Plate 31.
Fig. 3.

Ir. Susiana, Chalcedonian Iris; with smooth, sword-
shaped leaves, scape one-flowered, petals rounded ;
is a native of Persia, as the trivial name imports,
and is the most magnificent of the Iris tribe ; is cul-
tivated in gardens, but is impatient of moisture, and
flowers in June. Bot. Mag, iii. 91.

ScnoENUS. Gen. char. — Glumes chaffy, crowded,
the exterior barren ; cor. none ; one seed, roundish.

Sch. Mariscus, Prickly or Long-rooted Bog-rush ;
with a round stem, and leaves acutely serrated on
the margin and back ; native of England, grows in
marshes, and is very common on the moors near
Cambridge.

Sch. Albiis, White-headed Bog-rush ; with a leafy
triangular stem, flowers fasciculated, and bristly
leaves ; common in marshy places, particularly in
Scotland ; is perennial, and flowers in August.

Many species belonging to this genus are natives
of tropical regions, particularly ratioides and cladium,
the former of which grows to the height of six feet,
and the latter from eight to ten feet, in moist places
and sea-marshes in Jamaica.

CvpERus. Gen. char Glumes chaffy, imbricat-

ted on two sides ; cor. none ; one seed, viithout awn.

Cyj>. Longus, Sweet Cyperus,or English Galingale;
with a leafy triangular stem, a leafy divided umbel,
naked peduncles, and alternate spikelets ; perennial,
and flowers in July ; is a rare plant in England, but
is met with in thq isle of Purbeck, and near St Da-
vid's Head.

BOTANY.

717

Triandna, Many species belong to this genus, chiefly natives
«_--,_> of warm climates.

Cyp. Elsgnns, is a splendid species which grows in
the sea-marshes near Liguanea in Ja'.i'aica. The
rofit-leaves are from two to three feet in length, the
stalk rises two feefand a half, with two or three leaves
on the top, one of which is a foot long ; and the ele-
gant panicle is composed of numerous spikelets, some
of which are sessile, and some are elevated on pedun-
cles three or four inches long.

Cyp. Odoratics, Sweet-scented Cyperus, a native of
lov/ lands in the same island, exceeds five feet in
height. Cyp. Papynts, a native of Egypt, is still a lof-
tier plant, which is alluded to by the ancients, and
seems to have furnished the first materials for the
manufacture of paper.

SciRPUs. Gen. char. — Glume chaffy, imbricated
on all sides ; cor. none ; one seed.

Scir. Palustris, Marsh-creeping Club-rush ; with a
round stem, sheathed at the base, spike terminal,
nearly oval, glumes acute, root creeping ; very com-
mon in ditches, marshes, and small streams ; is pe-
rennial, and flowers in June and July.

Scir. Lacustris, Bull-rush; stem round, naked, pa-
nicle cymose, terminal, spikelets ovate ; is common
in Clearwater, as instill rivers and lakes ; is perenni-
al, flowers in July, and rises to the height of four or
five feet.

The Bull-rush is also a native of Jamaica, where
it is employed, as in England, in thatching cottages
and stuffing chair-bottoms.

Tills is also a very numerous genus, the species of
which are spread over the southern parts of Europe,
the East and West Indies, and America.

Eriophorum, Cotton-grass. Gen char. — Glumes
chafty, imbricated on all sides ; cor. none ; seed one,
surrounded with very long wool.

Er. Vagiiiatum, Single-headed Cotton-grass ; with
round sheathed stems, solitary s])ike, and membran-
ous glumes ; perennial, flowers early in the spring, and
is common in marshy and boggy places throughout
Britain.

Er. Polystachion, Broad-leaved Cotton-grass ; with
round stems, plain leaves, and spikes with foot-stalks ;
is perennial ; flowers in April, and is equally common.

Er. Angustifolium, Common Colton-grass ; with
lound stems, grooved leaves, triangular at the top,
and spikes on foot-stalks ; grows in similar places
with the preceding.

Nardus Slrkta, Mat-grass. Gen. char. — Cal.
none ; cor. a two-valved glume. Spec. char. — Spike
setaceous, upright, with the flowers on one side.
Perennial ; flowers in July, and is very common in
moist sandy heaths. This grass is separated from its
natural family by having only one pistil.

Order II. Digvnia.

This order includes almost the whole of the valu-
able tribe of grasses, which either grow up sponta-
neously, or are cultivated for th.e sake of their leaves
as food for domestic animals, or for the sake of their
seeds as food for man. A few of the more common
may be noticed..

Phleum. Gen. diar. — Cal. two-valved, truncated
acuminated, sessile, one flowered, including the cor-
olla.

Ph. Pratense, Common Cats-tail Grass, or Ti-
mothy-grass ; with a very long cylindrical spike, the
glume ciliated on the back, longer than the awn ; pe-
rennial ; flowers from June to October, and is com-
mon in meadows and moist pastures. This grass
sometimes rises to the height of three or four feet,

Alopfxurus, Fox-tail Grass. Gen. char Cal.

two-valved ; one flowered ; cor. one-valved.

Al. Pratensis, Meadow Fox-tail Grass ; with a
smooth erect stem, spike somewhat lobed ; glumes
of the calyx villous, and united at the base ; peren-
nial ; flowers in May, and is very common in mea-
dows and pastures.

Al. Genictdatus, Floating Fox-tail Grass; with an
ascending kneed stem, spike slightly lobed and cy-
lindrical, glumes hairy, retuse ; perennial ; flowers in
July, and is common in pools and watery places.

Agrostis. Gen char — Cal. two-valved, one-flow-
ered, valves acute; cor, two-valved, unequal, larger
than the calyx ; stigmas plumose.

Ag. Vulgaris, Fine Bent-grass; with a spreading pa-
nicle, the little branche^B capillary, divaricated, cal}'-
ces equal, the interior petal one-half shorter ; peren-
nial ; flowers in July, j^ndis common in meadows and
pastures.

Ag. Stolonifera, Creeping Bent-grass; panicle com-
pact, with a branchy creeping stem, florets crowded,
calyces equal, downy ; perennial ; flowers in July and
August, and is common in moist meadows. This is
the celebrated fiorin-grass, which has been most inju-
diciously and erroneously recommended for all soils
and situations.

Ag. Alba, Marsh, or Wood Bent-grass; with a loose
panicle and creeping stem ; perennial ; flowers in
July, and grows in ditches and marshy places. This
species has been also cultivated as florin grass.

PoA. Gen. c/(ar.— Cal. two-valved, many flower-
ed, spikelets rounded at the base ; cor. two-valved,
ovate, valves somewhat acute.

Poa Trivialis, Roughish Meadow-grass ; panicle
diffuse, spikelets three-flowered, glumes lance-sliaped,
five-nerved, straw upright and rough ; perennial ;
flowers through the summer, and very common in
meadows and pastures.

Vo^ Annua, Annual Meadow-grass; panicle divari-
cated, spikelets ovate, and chiefly four-flowered, with
an oblique compressed stem ; flowers through the
v.«hole summer, and is'one of tlie most common gras-
ses.

Stipa Pcnnata, Feather-grass. Gen, char.— Ca\.
two-valved, one flowered ; cor. exterior valve, with a
very long terminal awn, articulated at the base.
Spec. char. — Awns ^^oolly ; perennial ; flowers in
July ; and is cultivated in the garden on account of
its beautiful awns.

AvENA. Gen. char Cal. two-valved, many flower-
ed; cor.exterior valve awned on the back, awn twisted.

Av. Falua, Wild-oat, or Haver ; paniculated, calyx
containing about three flowers, the florets hairy at the
base, and all of them awned, and v.ithout nerves ;

Triandna.

718

BOTANY.

Tftnindia. annual ; flowers in August, and is not uncommon
~ ~ ■ in fields and among corn.

To this genus belong the numerous varieties of the
cultivated oat, beside many other species, some of
which are native and some are exotic.

Abundo Pkrngrtitcs, Common Reed. Gen. char.
■Cnl. two-valved, florets surrovindcd with persistent

down. Spec, clinr Cal. five-flowered, panicle lax.

Perennial ; flowers in .lul)', and is well known as a
native of ditches, stagnant waters, and banks of rivers.

Saccharum OJficinarum, Sugar-cane. Gen.char.
Cal. two-valved, covered with down at the base, one-
flowered ; cor. two-valved. Spec. char. — Flowers pa-
iiiclcd, and flat leaves. This valuable vegetable is a
native of India, South America, and the South-sea
Islands; was introduced into Europe, it is supposed,
during the crusades in the 12th century ; and was
planted in Spain, Madeira, the Canary, and Cape de
Verd Islands, soon after their discovery in the 15th
century ; and from some of these islands found its
way to the West Indies, where it is now so exten-
sively cultivated. Several varieties of this plant are
known ; and, in the year 1796, a new variety, called
the Bourbon, or Otaheite cane, of a larger size, and
more productive, was introduced into Jamaica.

A rich, deep, and open soil, is the most suitable
for the culture of the sugar-cane. Trenches, six or
eight inches deep, and at tlie distance of three feet
and a half, are formed ; and the cuttings of the
canes, having five or six joints, are placed horizon-
tally at the bottom of the trench, and covered with
mould to the depth of two inches. The sprouts ap-
pear in twelve or fourteen days; and as they shoot
up the soil is gradually' drawn about them, till, in the
course of a few months, the ridges of earth are all level.

The cane-plant, including its leaves and flower
stem, rises to tl)e heig"ht of twelve or fourteen feet ;
and when it arrives at maturity, which requires the
period of a year or fourteen months, the canes are
cut down, and the leaves and top being separated,
the solid stems are tied up in bundles and carried to
the mill, where they are passed through iron-plated
rollers, and the juice is received in a proper vessel,
from which it is conveyed to boilers, where it is boiled
down and concentrated ; a quantity of quicklime is
added, to separate some acid, which would prevent
the crystallization, and some blood, or similar animal
matter, is mixed with it, for the purpose of clarifying
the liquid. When it is sufficiently concentrated and
purified, the syrup is conveyed to coolers, where the
sugar crystallizes, and the molasses separate. The
sugar is then carried to the hogsheads in the curing-
house, the bottoms of which are perforated that the
molasses may drain off into a cistern below ; and when
the sugar is sufficiently dry it is brought to market
under the name of muscovado, or raiv sugar.

To this order also belong those plants which come
under the denomination of ccrealia, or those which
produce corn, such as wheat, barley, rye, and oats ;
■one species of which has been already mentioned.

Order III. Thigynia.

MosTiA Fonlana, Water Chickweed. — Gen, char.

Cal. two-leaved ; cor. menopetalous, irregular ; caps. Tetraudrim.
one-celled, three-valved, three-seeded. This is the
onlj' species. It is annual ; flowers in April and
May, and is not uncommon j^ar springs and moist
places.

HoLosTEUM. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved ; petals
five eroded ; caps. 1 -celled, nearly cylindrical, open-
ing at the top.

Hoi. Umljellattim, Umbelliferous Chickweed ; with
unibellated flowers. Is annual ; flowers in April, and
is sometimes met with on old wails, as the walls of
Norwich. Several ether species are natives of tro-
pical regions.

Class IV. Tetrandeia,
With four stamens and three orders.

Order I. Monogynia.

DiPSAcus. Gen. char. — Common calyx many-leav-
ed, foliaceous; proper calyx superior, one-leaved,
down cup-formed.

Dip. Fullonum, Cultivated or Fuller's Teasel ; leaves
connate, or united at the base, the chaff bent back,
involucrum reflexed. This fine plant, which grows to
the height of five feet, is biennial ; flowers in July,
and is cultivated on account of its heads, which are
employed in the woollen manufactures to raise the
nap of cloth.

Dip. Sylvestris, Wild Teasel ; leaves opposite, ser-
rated, chaff straight, involucrum bent inwards, and
longer than the head ; a smaller plant than the pre-
ceding ; biennial ; flowers in July, and grows in moist
hedges and way-sides in England.

Scabiosa. Gen. char — Common cal. many-leav-
ed ; proper, superior, double ; receptacle chaffy, or
naked.

Scab. Succisa, Devils-bit Scabious ; florets quad-
rifid, equal ;' stem-leaves toothed, flowers nearly glo-
bular. Perennial ; flowers in August, and is common
in pastures. The trivial name is derived from the
truncated or bitten appearance of the root.

Scab. Arvensis, Field-scabious; small corollas four-
cleft, radiating ;*leaves pinnatifid, deeply cut, stem
hairy. Perennial ; flowers in July ; is common in
fields and meadows, and is easily distinguished from
the preceding, particularly by its long branches and
spindle-shaped root. The flowers exposed to the
fumes of tobacco assume a bright green colour.
Smith.

Sherardia Arvensis; Little-field Madder. Gen.
char. — Cor. monopetalous, funnel-shaped, superior ;
seeds two, three-toothed. Spec. <7m>-.- Leaves whorled,
flowers terminal. This beautiful little plant is annual,
flowers through the whole summer, and is not un-
common among corn and in uncultivated fields.

Asperula Oc?orc^n, Sweet Woodroof. Gen.char.
Cor. one-petaled, funnel-shaped, superior; seeds two,
round. Spec. char. — Eight lanceolatcd leaves in
the whorl, fascicles of flowers on footstalks. Pe-
rennial ; flowers in May, is common in shadv wood?,

Tetrandria. and is Collected on account of its fragrance,
\tm'-y'^ dried it gives out the odour of benzoin.

Galium. Gen. char — Cor. one-petaled, plain, su-
perior ; seeds two, roundish.

Gal. Vermn, Yellow- Hed-Straw, or Chccse-Rcnnct;
with eight leaves, linear, furrowed, entire, rough ;
flowers paniculated and crowded ; perennial ; flow-
ers in July and August, and is very common on
dry banks. It is easily known by its bright yellow
flowers, which emit the smell of honey.

Gal. Aparine, Goose-grass, or Cleavers ; with eight
leaves, lanceolate, keeled, rough, reversely prickled;
stem flaccid, seeds rough. An annual plant; flow-
ers in May and August, and is very common in hedg-
es, on which its weak trailing stems are supported.

Plantago. Gen. char. — Calyx four-cleft ; cor.
four-cleft, inferior, limb reflected, stamens very long,
capsule two-celled, opening horizontally.

Plan. Major, Greater Plantain; with ovate smooth-
ish leaves, shorter than the footstalk„scape or flower-
stem round, spike imbricated with flowers, seeds
very numerous ; perennial ; flowers through the sum-
mer, and is one of the most common plants in mea-
dows, pastures, and by way-sides.

Plan. Media, Hoary Plantain ; with ovate downy
leaves, longer than the footstalk. Is perennial ; flow-
ers through the summer, but is less common than
the other species, ft-om which it is readily distin-
guished by its dense spike and purple stamens, fur-
nished with white anthers. Roman camp, near
Dalkeith in Scotland, and on the walls of Carlisle
castle.

Plan. Z.cn(;eo7a/3, Ribwort Plantain; with lanceolate
leaves and angular flower-stem. Is perennial; flow-
ers in June and July, and is very common in mea-
dows and pastures. Two other species, Plan. Mart-
lima. Sea Plantain, with linear leaves, on the sea-
shores ; and Plan, Coronopus, Buckshorn Plantain,
with pinnatifid leaves, in dry sandy places near the
shore, — are natives of Britain.

Alchemilla._ Gen, char — Cal. eight-cleft, with
the alternate segments smaller, inferior ; cor. none ;
one naked seed.

Al. Vulgaris, Common Lady's Mantle; with leaves
folded, lobed ; perennial ; flowers in June and July,
and is very common in meadows and elevated pas-
tures.

Al. Alpina, Alpine Lady's Mantle ; with leaves di-
gitate, serrated, covered underneath with a white
silky down ; perennial ; flowers in July, and is a na-
tive of the mountains of Scotland and the north of
England.

Protea. Gen. char. — Four-petaled, the petals
uniting in different ways ; the anther inserted on the
petal below the apex ; one seed, superior, naked.

Prot. Cynaroides, Artichoke-flowered Protea, or
Silver-tree ; with roundish, smooth leaves, on foot-
stalks. This plant is a natirc of the Cape, is a low
shrub remarkable for the magnificence of its flowers,
and is cultivated in green-houses in the vicinity of
London. Bot. Mas. 770.

Prot. Cordi/blia, Heart-leaved Protea ; with heart-
shaped leaves, is a dwarf species, but is remarkable

BOT ANT

When

719

for the bright red colour of the stalks, and the red Pentandria.
cartilaginous margin of the leaves. Bot. Mag. 649. >^'V^W

Prot. Lepidocarpon, Black-flowered Protea ; with
solitary flowers ; rays of the calyx strap-shaped, in-
curvated, and bearded ; leaves lanceolate; is also- a
native of the Cape of Good Hope, and has been ad-
mitted into the green-houses of this country. Bat.
Mag. 674'.

The structure of the flowers in the genus Protoa
is extremely curious. A great number of florets is
inclosed within a common calyx, which is formed of
many imbricated leaves or scales, and all attached
to a common receptacle ; and some parts of the
flower are covered with fine hairs or down, from
which the name of Silver-tree is derived.

B AH Ksi A Ericifolia, Heath-llaved Banksia. Gen,
char — Amentum or catkin scaly ; cor. four-petaled ;
anthers sessile, in a cavity of the segments ; caps,
two-valved ; two-seeded. Spec, char Leaves ap-
proximate, acerose, smooth. Native of New Hol-
land, but is an inmate of the greenhouse of this coun-
try. The generic name is intended to commemorate
the first discovery of the plant by Sir Joseph Banks.
Several other species have been added, and all na-
tives of the same region. The length and undulat-
ing appearance of the style adds greatly to the beauty
of the flower ; and the stigma being retained within
the corolla till the petals are fully expanded, exhi-
bits the singular appearance of each flower being
furnished with a loop. Bot. Mag. 738. See Plate S I.
Fig. 4.

Order II. Digynia.

BuFFONiA Tenuifolia, Slender Buffonia. Geji.
char. — Cal. four-leaved ; cor. four-petaled ; caps, one-
celled; double seeded. An annual plant; flowers in
June ; but is rare in this country.

Order III. Tetragynia.

Ilex. Gen. char, — Cal. four or five toothed ; cor.
wheel-shaped ; no styles ; some flowers are four-cleft,
and have only stamens.

II. Aqui/olium, Holly-tree ; with ovate, acute, spi-
nous leaves ; flowering in May, and common in
hedges and woods. The holly is well known by its
beautiful evergreen leaves and scarlet berries, which
stand through the winter. The wood, which is sus-
ceptible of a fine polish, is employed by tlie cabinet-
maker, and coumion birdlime is prepared from the
bark.

PoTAMOGETOV. Gen. char. — Cal. none ; petals
four ; no style ; four seeds.

Pot. Naians, Broad-leaved Pondweed; with the
upper leaves longish, ovale ; foot-stalked ; flouting.
Perennial ; flowers in July, and is common in rivers
and stagnant waters.

Pot. Lucetis, Shining Pondweed ; with ovate, lan-
ceolate, plain leaves, diminishing into fQotstalks ;
perennial ; flowers in June and July, and is frequent
in ditches, rivers, and lakes. The flower-spike only
of this plant appears above water.

Pot. Pcctinalum, Fennel- leaved Pondweed; with
setaceous, parallel, approaching leaves, tet on two

T20

BOTANY.

Tentwdria. »>^" °^ *" *'^"'' ^""^ sheathing at the base ; peren-
nial ; flowers in July, and not uncommon in rivers
and pools, and is also met with in salt-water ditches.

Sagina. Gen. char. — Cal. four-leaved ; petals
four ; caps, one- celled.

Sag. Frocumbens, Procumbent Pearlwort ; with
procumbent, smooth stems, and very short petals ;
perennial ; flowers from May to August, and is a
common plant in sandy places, on walls, and in the
neglected walks of gardens.

Sag. Apelala, Annual small-flowered Pearl-wort ;
with downy, somewhat erect stalks, and obsolete
petals ; annual ; flowers in May and June, and is
common on walls and sandy places.

Class V. Pentandria. Five Stamens.

Tliis is a very large class, and is divided into six
orders.

Order I. Monogynia. One Style.

Heliotropium. Gen. char. — Cor. salver-shaped,
flve-clcft, with teeth between ; seeds four ; throat
closed with arches.

Hel. Peruvianum, Peruvian Turnsole ; with lanceo-
late, ovate leaves, shrubby stem, and numerous aggre-
gated corymbose spikes ; native of Peru, as the name
indicates, but seldom absent from the greenhouse or
stove, on account of the delicious fragrance of its
flowers.

EcHiuM. Gen. char. — Cor. with a naked throat,
irregular ; stigma two-parted.

Ech. Vulgare, Common Viper's Bugloss ; with a
hairy, tuberculated stem ; stem-leaves hairy, lanceo-
late ; spikes lateral, deflected. Biennial ; flowers in
June and July, and is common in fields and waste
places.

Ech. Italicum, White Viper's Bugloss ; in which
the stamens are very long. Is common on sandy
grounds in the island of Jersey.

Lycopsis. Gen. char Cor. tube incurvated,

closed with convex scales.

Lye. Arvensis, Small Bugloss ; with rough, lanceo-
late leaves ; annual ; flowers in June and July, and
is very common in fields and by waysides, where it
is easily recognised by its beautiful blue flowers, and
the curved tube of the corolla.

Symphytum. Gen. char. — Cor. limb tubulated,
ventricose ; throat closed with awl-shaped rays ;
cal. five-parted.

Sym. Officinale, Comfrey ; with leaves ovate, lan-
ceolate, decurrent ; perennial ; flowers in May and
June, and is not uncommon in moist and shady places.

Sym. Asperrimum, Prickly Comfrey ; with prickly
stalks ; acute, ovate leaves on footstalks ; floral leaves
opposite ; racemes double. This splendid species is
a native of Caucasus, is a hardy perennial, rises to
the height of five feet, and with its blue and red
flowers is a fine ornament of the shrubbery. Bot.
Mag. 927.

BoRAGO. Gen. char.— Cor. wheel-shaped, throat
closed with rays.

Bor. Officinalis, Common Borage ; with all the pcntendri*.
leaves alternate ; biennial ; flowers in June and
July, is ia common plant in the garden, and is some-
times met with in waste places, and by way-sides.

PuLMONARiA. Gen. char Cor. funnel-shaped,

with an open throat ; cal. prismatic, five-angled.

Pul. Officinalis, Common Lungwort ; cal. of the
same length as the tube ; leaves ovate, rough ; pe-
rennial ; flowers in May, is common in gardens,
and sometimes appears in woody places.

Pul. Marilima, Sea Bugloss, or Lungwort ; cal.
shortened; leaves ovate, azure coloured; stem branch-
ing, procumbent. Perennial ; flowers in July, and
with its beautiful blue and red flowers, contrasted
with elegant waved azure leaves, adorns the sandy
shores of the western coasts of Scotland and north
of England.

Myosotis Scorpioides, Mouse-ear Scorpion Grass.
Gen. char. — Cor. salver-shaped, five-cleft, slightly
notched, throat closed with arches. — Spec. char. Seeds
naked, leaves elliptical-lanceolate ; racemes many
flowered, without bracteas. A very common plant,
and greatly diversified in its habits and appearance,
from soil and situation. In dry shady places it is rough
and hairy, but on a wet soil it is quite smooth. Its
beautiful blue flowers, which are of a fine flesh colour
before expansion, cannot fail to excite admiration.

The plants now described, from the roughness of
the leaves, belong to the natural order aspcrifolicv,
or rough-leaved plants ; and on examination it will
be found that a general uniformity of character in
other respects prevails, and particularly in the evolu-
tion of the flower stem.

Primula. Gen. char — Cap. one-celled, mouth
ten-cleft ; tube of the corolla cylindrical, stigma
round.

Prim. Vulgaris, Common Primrose ; with leaves
toothed, wrinkled; scape or flower- stem one-flowered,
limb of the corolla plain ; perennial ; is the well
known harbinger of spring, and is very common in
woods and hedges.

Prim. Elatior, Oxlip, or great Cowslip ; with tooth-
ed and wrinkled leaves contracted in the middle,
many flowered scape, limb of the corolla plain ; per-
ennial ; flowers in April, and grows in pastures and
among brushwood, but is not very common.

Prim. Veris, Common Cowslip, or Paigle ; differs
from the preceding by the limb of the corolla being
concave ; is also perennial ; and is common in mea-
dows and pastures in England.

Prim. Farinosa, Birds-eye Primrose ; with smooth
crenated leaves, dusty underneath ; is also perennial ;
flowers in June and July, and with its elegant flow-
ers adorns the mountainous pastures in the north of
England, and grows plentifully in a nieado\f north
from Stromness in Orkney.

All the varieties of polyanthus which have arisen
from long and repeated culture, derive their orighi
from the species of primula now described ; and from
another species. Primula Auricula, all the beautiful
varieties of the auricula which adorn the flower gar-
den in the spring, have proceeded.

SoLDANELLA Alpina, Alpine Soldanella. Gen.

BOTANY.

721

Pentanilria. char.—Cot, bell-shaped, deeply divided, or fringed ;
caps, one-celled. Of this genus this beautiful species
only is known ; it is a native of the elevated regions
of Switzerland and Germany ; grows readily in this
country, and expands its fine blue or white blossoms
in March.

DoDECATHEON Mcadia, American Cowslip ; is a
native of Virginia, common in gardens, and is easi-
ly recognised by its wheel-shaped corolla, the seg-
ments of which are bent back.

Menvanthes, Gen. char. — Cor. villous; stigma
bifid ; caps, one-celled.

Men. Trifoliata, Marsh Trefoil, Buck-bean, or Bog-
bean ; with ternate leaves, upper surface of the cor-
olla villous; perennial; flowers in June and July, and
is very common in marshy places. The elegant flow-
ers of this plant, which are of a pure white, or deli-
cately tinged with pink, and beautifully fringed on
the upper surface, will amply reward a minute exa-
mination.

Anagallis. Gen. char. — Cor. wheel-shaped, caps,
divides horizontally, stamens furnished with jointed
hairs.

An. Arvensis, Scarlet Pimpernel; leaves ovate,
dotted on the lower surface ; stem procumbent. An-
nual ; flowers in June and July, and is common in
corn fields and gardens. This beautiful little plant,
varieties of which appear with blue and white flow-
ers, will recommend itself to the attention of the bo-
tanist by the curious jointed structure of the hairs on
the filaments, which may be seen by a hand magnifi-
er, but more distinctly with a microscope of greater
power, and also by its seed-vessel, which divides in-
to hemispheres.

An. Monelli, with fine blue flowers ; a native of
Spain and Italy, has been long an inmate of the
green-house; and Fruticosa, Shrubby Pimpernel, with
large orange flowers, supposed to be a native of Af-
rica, has been lately introduced.

Azalea. Gen. char. — Cor. bell-shaped, stamens '
attached to the receptacle, caps, five-celled.

Az. Procumbens, Trailing Azalea; with diffuse pro-
cumbent branches, and opposite, very smooth revolute
leaves ; is a native of the high mountains of Scotland.

Az. Pontica, Yellow Azalea ; with lance-shaped,
shining leaves ; is a native of mount Caucasus, and
the banks of the Dnieper, and is now cultivated in
gardens ; rises to the height of two or three feet, and
produces umbels of fragrant flowers at the extremi-
ties of the branches.

CoNVOLVunjs. Gen. char. — Cor. bell-shaped,
folded; stigmas two; caps, two or three-celled, with
two seeds in each.

Con. Arvensis, Small Bindweed ; with arrow-shap-
ed leaves, acute on both sides ; one-flowered pedun-
cles, and minute bracteas remote from the flower.
Perennial ; flowers in June and July, and is a very
common weed in fields and gardens.

Con. Senium, Great Bindweed; with arrow-shaped
leaves, and one-flowered angular peduncles ; is peren-
nial ; grows in moist hedges, where it is readily dis.
tinguished by its large white or pinkish flowers.

Con. Soldanella, Sea Bindweed, with kidney.shaped

VOL. I. PART JJ.

leaves, and one-flowered peduncles ; perennial ; flow- Fentaadria.
ers in July, and is a native of particular spots on the "^ ■^'^^-'
sandy shores of the western parts of Scotland. Its
specious reddish flowers are highly ornamental to the
barren shores.

PoLEMONiuM C^nJeMW, Jacob's Ladder, orGreek
Valerian. Gen. char. — Cor. five-parted, stamens
inserted on scales ■ shutting the base of the corol-
la ; stigma three-cleft ; caps, superior, three-celled.
Spec. char. — Leaves pinnated, flowers erect, with the
calyx longer than the tube of the corolla. This plant
offers itself for examination in every garden, and
varies with blue and white flowers.

Campanula. Gen. char. — Cor. bell-shaped, the
bottom closed with valves supporting the stamens ;
stigma three-cleft ; caps, inferior, opening by lateral
pores.

Cam. Rotundifolia, Round-leaved Bell-flower; with
radical leaves kidney-shaped, stem leaves linear;
perennial ; flowers in August and September, and is
very common on heaths, walls, and about the borders
of fields.

Cam, Latifolia, Giant Bell-flower; with ovate lan-
ceolate leaves, very simple round stem, and one-flow-
ered peduncles ; perennial ; flowers in August, and
is not uncommon in woods and shady places, both
on the east and west of Scotland.

Cam. Speculum, Venus' Looking-glass ; with branch-
ed diffuse stem, oblong slightly crenated leaves,
and solitary flowers ; is a native of the south of Eu-
rope, and generally finds a place among the orna-
mental annuals of the garden, to which the brilliancy
of its flowers justly recommends it.

Cinchona. Gen. char — Cor. shaggy, stigma sim-
ple ; caps, two-celled, opening within ; seeds nume-
rous.

Cin. Officinalis, and some other species of the same
genus, which grow to the size of trees, furnish the
pale, yellow, and red bark, which are so extensively
employed in medicine. From the place of their
growth it is called Peruvian Bark ; and the generic
name. Cinchona, is said to have been derived from
the Countess del Cinchon, the lady of a Spanish vice-
roy, who was cured by its use about the year 1640 ;
and being recommended by the Jesuits, it obtained'
the designation of Jesuits bark.

Cin. Caribbea, called in Jamaica, Sea-side Beech, is
a tree which rises to the height of fifteen or twenty
feet, and was brought into notice by Dr Wright, who
found that it was not less efficacious in the cure of
fevers than the Peruvian bark. Two other species
have been discovered in Jamaica.

CoFFEA. Gen. char — Cor. salver-shaped, five-
cleft ; stigma two-parted ; berry two-seeded.

Several species of this genus have been described.
Occidentalis is a native of the West Indies ; but Cof-
Jea Arabica or Coftee-tree, originally from Arabia as
the name imports, is the cultivated species. The
leaves are opposite, and many sessile flowers are pro-
duced at their insertion. The coffee tree naturally
rises to the height of 17 or 18 feet ; but when under
culture it is kept at five or six feet, for the convenience
of collecting the ripe berries. The trees are planted
4z

722

BOTANY

PentanarU. '" regu'a'' 'O"'* '< """^ when' they are in full bloom
v^^-V*^ nothing can exceed the beauty of their pare, white,
clustered flowers, and the delicious perfume which
they exhale ; the air is filled with fragrance, and the
trees seem as if covered with a shower of snow,
aifording a fine contrast to the dark green foliage.
But this enchanting scene is of transient duration; tlie
flowers decay a few hours after they are full blown,
and all the beauty and fragrance which delighted
the senses in the morning, have vanished before
noon. The berries which succeed the flowers are
first green, when fully grown become red, ripen into
a dark purple, and at last shrivel and drop from the
tree. The fruit is fit for collecting about seven
months from the appearance of the flowers. The
berries are either dried on platforms, or the pulp
is bruised by means of a machine, or passed through
the grating-mill, by which the pulp is torn off,
and the seeds completely separated ; they are then
washed in water, dried in the sun or by means of
■artificial heat, and afterwards put up in bags for the
market.

Viola. Gen. char. — Cor. five-pctaled, irregular,
horned behind ; anthers united ; caps, superior,
three- valved, one-celled ; cal. five-leaved, lengthened
at the base.

V. Odorata, Sweet Violet ; without stem, shoots
creeping, leaves heart-shaped, with smootliish foot-
stalks ; perennial ; flowers in INIarch and April, and
grows iu woods and hedges. Cultivated in the gar-
den for the sake of its fragrant flowers.

V. Tricolor, Pansy Violet, Heart's Ease ; stem
angular, leaves oblong, toothed, crenated, with lyre-
shaped pinnatifid stipula; ; annual ; flewers through
the summer.

\. Luiea, Yellow Mountain Pansy; with triangu-
lar stein, and leaves ovate-oblong, crenated and cili-
ated ; perennial ; flowers through the summer, and is
common in mountainous pastures in Scotland and
the north of England.

Hyoscyamus Niger, Common Henbane. Gc7i.
char. — Cor. funnel-shaped, obtuse, irregular ; sta-
mens inclined ; caps, covered, two-celled. Spec. char.
Leaves embracing the stem ; flowers sessile. An-
nual ; flowers in July, and is frequent in waste places
about towns and villages. The calyx is finely re-
ticulated, and the yellow corolla is beautifully marked
with purple veins ; but the whole plant b of a poi-
sonous and narcotic quality.

Atropa Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade. Ge7i.
char. — Cor. bell-shaped ; stamens distant ; berry su-
perior, two-ct-Ued. SjK'c. char. — Stem herbaceous ;
leaves ovate, entire. Perennial; flowers in June, and
grows in waste places, but rarely. We have only
met with this plant, in Scotland, near the ruins of
religious house*, — at Lincluden near Dumfries, and
Kinloss Abbey in Morayshire, which has excited a
conjecture that it may have been originally intro-
duced. The berries are a deadly poison.

SoLANUM. Gen. char. — Cor. wheel-shaped ; an-
thers slightly united, opening at the top by a double
pore ; berry superior, two-celled.

Sol. Dulcamara, Woody Nightshade, or Bitter-

'*

Sweet ; with a shnibhj-, waving, unarmed stem, up' rentfinttri^
per leaves halbcKl-shaped, racemes cymose ; a shrub-
by plant ; flowers in June and July ; and is common
in moist hedges, where it is consjncuous by its climb-
ing stalks, purple flowers, and red berries.

Sol. Nigrum, Common or Garden Nightshade ;
with herbaceous unarmed stem, and nodding later-
al umbels : flowers through the summer, produces
black berries, and grows in ^\aste places. Koth spe-
cies arc poisonous.

To tliis genus belongs the common potatoe, So-
lanum Ttdjerosiim, the varieties of which, from cul-
ture and diversity of soil and situation, are almost
endless. Its large flowers aftbrd great facihtics in
examining the characters of the genus.

LoxicERA. Gen. char. — Cor. monopetalous, ir-
regular ; berry many-seeded.

Lon. CaprifoUum, Pale Perfoliate Honeysuckle;
with flowers ringent, whorled, terminal ; decidu-
ous leaves: upper leaves perfoliate ; shrubby ; flowers
in May and June, and grows in woody places.

Lon. Pcriclymemim, Common Honeysuckle, or
Woodbine ; with flowers in ovate, imbricated, ter-
minal heads ; all the leaves distinct and deciduous ;
shrubby ; flowers in June and July, and is common in
woods and hedges.

RiBEs. Gen. char Cal. superior, bell-shaped,

five-cleft ; petals and stamens inserted in the calyx ;
style two-cleft ; berry many-seeded.

Rib. Rubrum, Common Currants ; unarmed ; with
smooth pendulous racemes ; plain flowers ; petals
obcordate ; flowers in May, and is a native of woods
and banks of rivers in the north of England, and of
the island of Isla in Scotland, but is well known
as the red and white currants of the garden.

'Rib. Nigrum, Black Currants; with racerrtes hairy,
pendulous, and with a simple peduncle at the base ;
grows wild in some parts oi' England and in Isla, but,
from being universally cultivated, is equally familiar.

Rib. Grosiidaria, Rough Gooseberry ; with prick-
ly branches ; footstalks of the leaves hairy ; pedun-
cles one-flowexed ; fruit rough.

Rib. Uva-Crispa, Smooth Gooseberrj'; is reckoned
a distinct species, but is scarcely different, except in
the smoothness of the fruit. From these two species
all the varieties of the gooseberry have been pro-
duced.

Hedera Helix, Common Ivy. Gen. char Cal.

five-toothed ; petals five, dilated at the base ; berry
five-seeded, surrounded by the calyx. Spec. char.
Leaves ovate- lobed. This well known plant flowers
in October, and affords a fine example of the caidis
radicans, or rooting stem, which throws out fibres
for its support, and attaches itself to walls or trees,
as it creeps along. The leaves on the stem are five-
lobed, but on the top of the branches they are
ovate and undivided.

Order II. Digyxia. With two Styles.

Ulmus. Gen. char Cal. five-cleft, inferior, per-
manent ; cor. none ; caps, membranaceous, com-
pressed, one-seeded.

Ulm. Cainpeitris, Common Elm; with leaves dou-
bly serrated, rough, and une:]ual at the base ; the

BOTANY.

723

Pentandria. flowers appear in April, and it is easily distinguished
by the inequality of the leaves.

Ulm. Montana, Broad-leaved Elm, or Witch Hazel;
is distinguished from the preceding by its broader,
less rough, pointed leaves ; flowers at the same time,
and is common in woods and hedges.

Genti ANA. Ge-ii. char. — Cor. tubular at the base ;
destitute of nectariferous pores ; caps, superior, one-
celled, two-valved, many-seeded.

Gen. Verna, Spring Gentian; with five-cleft, sal-
ver-shaped, crenated corolla ; segments with appen-
dages at the base ; leaves ovate, crowded together.
Perennial; flowers in April, and is a native of the
mountains in the north of England and in Ireland ;
but is an early and beautiful ornament of the garden.

Gen. Campestris, Field Gentian ; with four-cleft,
salver-shaped corolla ; bearded at the throat ; in-
terior segments of the calyx very large. Annual ;
flowers in September ; and grows in dry upland pas-
tures, and in sandy downs near the sea.

Stapelia- Gen. char. — Cor. wheel-shaped, with
a double star-like nectary covering the parts of fruc-
tification.

Stap. Grandiflora, Great Flowered Stapelia ; with
club-shaped, quadrangular branches ; the angles
toothed ; the corolla large, five-cleft ; segments lan-
ceolate, acute, and ciliated on the maj'gin. But.
Mag-TiSS. See Plate 31. Fig. 6.

All the species of this singular tribe of plants are
natives of the arid deserts in the vicinity of the
Cape of Good Hope. They are remarkable for
the succulence of their stems and branches, which
enables them to exist in a parched soil. The
Stapelia, from a mistaken analogy, has been de-
nominated the camel of vegetables, because it re-
tains a large portion of fluid in the midst of those
burning sands, where scarcely any other plants ap-
pear ; but the resemblance between the animal and
the vegetable does not hold with regard to structure,
although the stapelia, in some of its properties, ap-
proaches to the nature of animal matter. Stap.
listerias, star-fish stapelia, exhales the odour of pu-
trid fish ; and insects, attracted by the smell, deposit
their eggs in some of the species a$ on anunal matter.

UmbeliAted Plants.

In their general habits and appearance these plants
exhibit a striking resemblance, and are therefore as-
sociated in the same natural order. They are sub-
divided into three sections, as they are furnished with
an involucrum or are destitute of that appendage.

A. With universal and partial involucrum.

Eryngium. Gen. char. — Involucrum many-leaved,
flowers in heads ; common receptacle, conical, chaffy.

Eryn. Maritimum, Sea-holly ; with radical leaves,
roundish, folded, and spinous flower-heads, with foot-
stalks ; perennial ; flowers in July and August, and is
common on sandy shores.

Eryn. Campe&tre; with leaves embracing the stem,
somewhat pinnated, and deeply cut ; is also j)erennial ;
flowers in July and August, and is found, but more
rarely, in pastures near the sea.

CoNiuM Maculatum, Common Hemlock. Gen.

char The small involucrum extending half round,

and about three-leaved ; fruit ovate, with five ribs on

each side ; petals equal. Spec, char With seeds

smooth and much branched, stem shining, spotted.
Biennial ; flowers in June and July, and is one of the
most common plants among rubbish and in waste
places.

Heracleum S/;/ion(/y/t!(j«, Common Cow-parsnep.

Gen. char Fruit elliptical, compressed, striated,

dilated with a margin; flowers radiating; petals in-
flected, emarginate; involucrum not permanent. Spec,
char. — Leaves pinnated, the leaflets pinnatifid, cut,
and serrated. Biennial ; flowers in July, and is very
common in hedges, on the borders of fields, and in
moist meadows, where it is readily recognized by its
tall stem, which rises to the height of four feet, and
large leaves.

Daucus Carota, Wild Carrot. Gen. char Invo- '

lucrum pinnatifid, flowers nearly radiated, fruit niu-
ricated. Spec. char. — Seeds rough, foot stalks of
the leaves nerved beneath. Biennial; flowers in June
and July, and is common everywhere in pastures
and on the borders of fields.

B. With partial involucrum, none universal.

CicuTA Virosa, Water Hemlock. Gen. char.

Fruit nearly ovate, furrowed ; cor. regular. Spec. char.
Umbels opposite to the leaves, with obtuse stipula:
attached to the foot-stalk. Perennial; flowers in Au-
gust, and grows in ditches and on the banks of rivers ;
but as it is a very poisonous plant, it is fortunately not
common. It grows sparingly at the edge of Lochend
lake near Edinburgh, and on the borders of one of the
lakes at Lochmaben in the south of Scotland.

^TuusA Cunapium, Fools Parsley, or Lesser Hemr
lock. Gen. char. — Fruit striated, small involucrum,
three-leaved, pendulous. This species is easily dis-
tinguished by its round, slightly striated stem, and
smooth, deep green, doublypinnated leaves. Annual;
flowers in July and August, and is a common weed
in gardens. It has been sometimes mistaken for
parsley, to which it has some resemblance ; but as it
is of a noxious quality, it should be carefully avoided.

ScANDix. Gen. char. — Flowers radiating, petals
emarginate, seed awl-shaped, flowers of the disk of-
ten with stamens only.

Scan. Odorata, Sweet Cicely, Great Chervil, or
Myrrh ; with angular furrowed seeds ; flowers in May,
and is common in waste places, but is always near
houses ; supposed not to be indigenous.

Scan. Pecten- Veneris, Venus's Comb, or Shepherd's
Needle ; with seeds furnished with very long beaks ;
common in cultivated fields ; annual ; and flowers in
June and July.

C. With no involucrum.

Pastinaca Saliva, Wild Parsnep, Gen. char.

Seed elliptical, compressed-plain ; petals rolled in-
wards, entire. S/jec. char. — ^Leaves simply pinnated,
hoary on the lower surface. Biennial, and rises to
the height of three feet ; flowers in July, and not un-
common on the borders of fields.

7-24

BOTANY.

Prnundria. Apium GraveoUns, Smallage, or Wild Celery.
Gen.char. — Seed ovate, ribbed ; petals inflected, equal.
Spec char. — Leaflets of the stem wedge-shaped,
stem furrowed. Biennial, and flowers in August ; in
ditches and i^jarshes near the sea ; is acrid and poison-
ous, but becomes esculent when cultivated.

^GOPODIUM Podagraria, Gout- weed. Gen. char.
Seed ovate-oblong, ribbed; petals inflected, heart-
shaped, unequal. A troublesome weed in cultivated
grounds and waste shady places. Perennial, and
flowers in May and June.

Order III. Trigynia.

Sambucus. Gen. char. — Cal. superior, five-part-
ed ; cor. five-cleft, berry three-seeded.

Sam. Elndus, Dwarf Elder ; with three-parted
cymes, and herbaceous stem ; perennial ; flowers in
July, and grows in waste places and hedges, but not
very common. The stem, which rises to the height
of three feet, dies away in the winter.

Sam. Nigra, Common Elder; with five-parted
cymes and arborescent stem ; flowers in June, and
is very common in hedges and woods, where it is
easily recognized by its white fragrant flowers, and
dark purple or white berries.

Oader IV. Tetragynia.

Parnassia Palustris, Grass of Parnassus. Gen.

char Cal. five-parted, petals five; nectaries five,

heart-shaped, ciliated with globular summits ; caps,
four-valved ; perennial ; flowers in September and
October, and is frequent in marshy soils, where it is
easily distinguished by its angular twisted stem,
bearmg one leaf and one beautiful snow-white ter-
minal flower ; but the curious and elegant structure
of the nectaries will not fail to excite the attention
and admiration of the botanist.

Ordek'V, Pentagynia.

Statice. Gen. char. — Cal. one-leafed, entire,
folded, withered ; petals five ; seed one, superior.

Stat. Armeria, Thrift, or Sea-gilliflower ; with
simple stem, flowers capitate, leaves linear ; peren-
itial ; flowers in July and August, and is common on
slimy shores, and in moist alpine regions.

Stat. Limonium, Sea-Lavender, with a round pani-
culated stem ; perennial ; flowers in July and August,
and grows also on muddy shores, but is less common.

LiNUM. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved ; petftls five ;
caps, superior, ten-valved, ten- celled, seeds solitary.

Lin. Usitatissimum, Common Flax ; with the leaves
of the calyx ovate, acute, three-nerved, petals crenated,
leaves lanceolate alternate ; annual ; flowers in July,
and sometimes appears among corn, but is well
known as tlie cultivated species of flax.

Lin. Calharticum, Purging Flax; with leaves op-
posite, stem divided above, petals acute ; annual ;
flowers from June to August, and is not uncommon
in dry elevated pastures.

Lin. Arborcuvif Tree-Flax; with wedge-shaped

leaves and arborescent stem ; is a native of the Le- nexandriii.
vant, but has been admitted to the green-house on
account of its beautiful yellow flowers, which grow
in succession throughout the summer.

Drosera. Gen.char. — Cal. five-cleft, petals five;
caps. one- celled, three- valved, superior; many-seeded.

Dros. Rotundifolia, Round-leaved Sun-dew ; with
leaves round, radical, stem branched ; perennial; flow-
ers in July and August, and is not uncommon in
boggy ground.

Dros. Longifolia, Long-leaved Sun-dew ; with
leaves radical, obovate; in similar places with the for-
mer, but less frequent.

Dros. AngUca, Great Sun-dew ; has nearly the
same characters as the preceding, but is furnished
with eight styles and a four-valved capsule, is double
the size, and a rarer plant.

The upper surface of the leaves of all these spe-
cies of sun-dew is thinly set with long red hairs,
which exude a transparent viscid fluid, especially dur-
ing bright sunshine. Small insects, which are at-
tracted to the leaves, or alight accidentally upon
them, are entangled in the hairs, and destroyed by
being enclosed in the leaves, which fold upon them
in consequence of the irritation from the motions of
the struggling insect.

Crassula. Gen.char. — Cal. five-leaved ; five pe-
tals ; and five nectariferous scales at the base of the
germen.

■ Cras.CocaWo, Scarlet-flowered Crassula; with ovate,
plain, cartilaginous-ciliated leaves, sheathing and u-
nited at the base. Native of the Cape, but a splen-
did inmate of the green-house, on account of the
fragrance and rich scarlet of its flowers, which blow
during the summer. — Bot. Mag.i-dS. Plate 31. Fig.5.
The numerous species of crassula are remarkable for
succulent leaves ; they are chiefly natives of the Cape,
and some of them shoot up to the size of small trees.

Order VI. Polygynia.

Myosurus Minimus, Mouse-tail. Gen char. — Cal.
five leaved, with an appendage at the base ; petals
five, with a tubular nectariferous claw. An annual
plant ; flowers in May, and sometimes appears in
fields of a gravelly soil.

Class VI. Hexandhia.

Six Stamens.; Six Orders.

Order I. Monogynia.

The genera arranged under this order are the most
numerous of the class ; they are divided into six sec*
tions, and include the splendid liliaceous tribe, which
Linnaius has distinguished by the pre-eminent de.'
signation of the nobles of the vegetable kingdom.-

Bromelia. Gen char. — Cor. tripartite ; cal. tri-
partite, superior ; a berry.

Brom. Penguin, Penguin of Jamaica ; with leaves
ciliate, spiny, dagger-pointed ; raceme terminal.
This singular plant is common iu the Savannahs,

BOTANY.

725

and on the rocky hills of Jamaica, and is usually em-
ployed for making fences ; for which purpose it is
admirably suited, by its firm leaves, thickly set on
the edges with strong bent spines.

Brom. Ananas, Pine-apple ; with leaves ciliate,
spiny, dagger-pointed, and comose or tufted spike.
Numerous varieties of this most delicious fruit are
cultivated in tropical regions ; and, to bring it to
any degree of perfection in this country, the power-
ful heat of the stove is necessary.

Brom. Karatas, Silk Grass ; with leaves erect, and
aggregate, sessile flowers ; native of Jamaica. The
leaves of this plant grow to the height of five or six
feet; and, wlien the outer rind is scraped off, the
silky fibres are soaked in water, afterwards dried in
the sun, and then manufactured into ropes and fish-
ing-nets*

Galanthus Nivalis, Snowdrop. Cor. superior,
six-petaled, the three interior petals shorter, acutely
notched ; stigma simple. The early appearance of
the snowdrop, with its delicate nodding flowers, in
February and March, renders it a well known plant.

Narcissus. Gen, char. — Cor. superior, six pe-
taled, equal; nectary funnel-shaped, one-leafed, pe-
taliferous ; the stamens within the nectary ; stigma
three-parted.

Nar. Poeticus, Common Narcissus ; witli one-
flowered sheath, nectary wheel-shaped, very short
membranaceous notched leaves, obtusely keeled, re-
flected on the margin ; said to be a native of some
parts of England, but finds a place in every garden,
and often varies with double flowers.

^ax. Pseudo-Narcissus, Common Daffodil ; with one-
flowered sheath, and erect bell-shaped nectary, equal
in length to the ovate petals ; perennial ; flowers in
March and April ; not unfrequent in woods, com-
mon in gardens,' and varies with double flowers.

Nar. Jonquilla, Common Jonquil, a native of
Spain, Nar. Tazetta, Polyanthus Narcissus, a native
of Spain, Portugal, and of the Barbary coast, Nar.
Orientalis, with its .numerous varieties, and other
species of this beautiful genus, have been introduced
among the ornaments of the flower-garden.

Amaryllis. Gen. char. — Cor. six-petaled, irre-
gular ; filaments inserted in the throat of the tube,
declining, unequal.

Am. Belladonna, Belladonna Lily ; with many
flowered sheath ; cor. bell-shaped, equal ; supposed
to be a native of South America, as it was introduc-
ed from Portugal, is frequently cultivated in gardens
on account of the beauty and fragrance of its flowers.

Am. Sarniensis, Guernsey Lily ; with plain linear
petals, and the stamens and pistil upright and longer
than the corolla; a native of Japan, but is culti-
vated in the open ground in the island of Guernsey,
to which it was introduced by the melancholy acci-
dent of the shipwreck of a Dutch or English ship,
with some of the roots on board from Japan, before
the middle of th€ 17th century. The roots were
cast ashore, buried in the sand, and after a few years,
to the surprise and admiration of the inhabitants,
exhibited their splendid flowers in all their pomp and
beauty. Various other species of Amaryllis have been

since introduced, all which are remarkable for their HexandiU.
beauty and grandeur ; but among them Am. Vittata,
or Superb Amaryllis, which shoots up its stem to the
lieight of three feet, shines conspicuous. — Bot. Mag.
129.

Allium. Gen. char. — Cor. inferior, six-petaled,
spreading ; spathe two-cleft, many flowered ; umbel
crowded, stigma simple.

Al. Ursinum, Broad-leaved Garlic or Ramsons ;
with a naked semi-cylindrical stem, and lanceolate
leaves on foot-stalks ; perennial ; flowers in May and
June, and is common in woods and moist meadows.

Al. Viiieale, Crow Garlic ; with round-leafed bul-
biferous stem, and stamens three-pointed ; peren-
nial ; flowers in July, and is not uncommon in dry
pastures and on old walls.

To the same genus belong Al. Schcenoprasum, or
Chive Garlick, Al. Porrum, the garden leek, and A).
Cepa, the cultivated onion.

A.GAVE Americana, American Aloe'. Cor. supe-
rior, six-cleft, limb erect, shorter than the filaments ;
leaves somewhat compressed, dagger-shaped, spin-
ous, toothed on the edges. This splendid plant is a
native of the rocky hills of Jamaica ; it is several years
before it throws up the flower stem, which, in a vigo-
rous plant, rises to the height of eight or ten, and
sometimes, it is said, twenty feet, adorned with a pro-
digious number of yellow flowers, which render it
conspicuous at the distance of many miles. It ap-
pears to be viviparous in its native soil ; it seldom
flowers in the stove in this country; but it is a vulgar
mistake that it puts forth its blossoms only once in
a hundred years. This seems to depend on the
management and state of the plant. Plate 31 . Fig. 7.

Hyacinthus. Gen. char. — Cor. inferior, six-cleft,
somewhat bell-shaped ; stamens inserted in the tube.

Hyac. Nonscriptus, (scilla nutans of Smith,) Wild
Hyacinth ; with linear leaves, nodding spike, with
the flowers reflected at the summit ; perennial ; flow-
ers in May, and is very common in woods and hedges.

Hyac. Orientalis, Garden Hyacinth, with many
flowered raceme. ■ This fine ornament of the garden
and the parlour is a native of the vicinity of Aleppo
and Bagdad, and of the coast of Barbar}'. It was
cultivated in England about the end of the IGth cen-
tury ; and its numerous varieties, with white, red, blue,
yellow, double, and seniidouble flowers, have been
objects of great attention among the Dutch florists.
A single rootof a rarevariety has brought from L.lOO
to L.200 Sterling. T\vo thousand varieties are enu-
merated and named by the Harlem gardeners ; and
whole acres in the vicinity of that city are occupied
in the cultivation of those flowers.

LiLiuM. Gen. char. — Cor. six-petaled, bell-shap-
ed, with a longitudinal nectariferous line, petals chan-
nelled at the base.

Lil. Candidum, White Lily ; with leaves sparse or
scattered, bell-shaped corolla, smooth within ; sup-
posed to be a native of the Levant, or of Palestine,
and is now a very common but splendid ornament of
almost every garden, where it varies with double
flowers, spotted with purple, and leaves striped or
edged with yellow.

72G

BOTANY.

irfrandrin. I-"''' ^"f^lf^'^'"' Orange Lil_v: Tv-itli scattered leaves,
^,„^^^-<^^ erect, bcll-sliaped corolla, rough within. Native of
Austria and Ital}-, but now one of the most common
garden flowers.

Lil. Chalcedonkum, Chalcedonian Lily, or Scarlet
IMurtagon ; with lanceolate scattered leaves, flowers
reflected, corolla bent back. Native of Persia, and
common in gardens.

Various other species of lily are cultivated, among
which Lilium Martagon, Turks' cap Lily, and IJlimn
Superkiin,' Su\)crh Lily, the former a native of Ger-
many and the latter of Carolina, are stately and mag-
nificent plants.

TuLiPA. Gen. char. — Cor. six-petaled, bell-shap-
ed, inferior, no style; caps, three-celled.

Tul. Sj/lvestris, Wild Tulip ; with a single, sliglitly
nodding tlower, and lanceolate leaves. Native of seve-
ral parts of England; perennial, and flowers in April.

Tul. Suaveolens, Early dwarf Tulip ; with lanceo-
late glaucous leaves, nearly equal in height to the
one-flowered stem. This beautiful little tulip is sup-

posed to *be

a native of the south of Europe, is
well known under the name of Due Van Thol, and is
deservedly admired on account of its rich colours and
sweet scent.

Tul. Gesneriana, which in its specific name com-
mem'orates Conrad Gesner, a botanist of the 16th
century, and a systematic writer on the classification
of plants, is a native of Turkey, and is the parent of
all those rich varieties, amounting now to not fewer
than a thousand, which command so much of the flo-
rist's care and admiration; Tul. Breijniana, a native
of the Cape, with stem supporting from two to six
flowers, is yet rare in the gardens of this country.

Berberis, Vulgaris, Barberry. Gen. char. — Cal.
six-leaved, petals six, with two glands at the cla,ws ;
no style; berry superior, two-seeded; a shrubby plant;
flowers in May and June, and is common in hedges
and among brushwood. The irritability of the sta-
mens of the barberry is very remarkable.

Order IL Digynia.

Or\za Saliva, Rice. Cal. one-flowered, glume
two-valved ; Cor. two-valved ; one oblong seed —
One species only of this valuable plant is known ; the
stem rises to the height of four or five feet, and the
flowers are arranged on a terminating panicle. Rice
is most successfully raised in those situations which
admit of flooding with water ; it is extensively culti-
vated in China and India, where it forms the chief
fo«d of the native inhabitants, as well as in Carolina,
from all of which places it is imported into Europe,
and forms a wholesome, nutritious aliment.

Order IIL Trigynia.

RuMEX. Gen. char. — Cal. three-leaved ; petals
"three, meeting together ; one triangular, superior,
naked seed ; stigmas much divided.

Rum. Crismis, Curled Dock ; with all the valves
ovate.entire ; leaves lanceolate, waved, acute. Pe-
rennial ; flowers in June and July, and is very com-
mon in waste places and by way -sides.

Rum. Ohtusifolius, Broad-leaved Dock ; radical nexandria.
leaves, heait-sliaped, blunt; stem roughish. Com- ^^^--^
mon.

Rum. Digj/nus, Mountain Sorrel ; the leaves radi-
cal, kidney-shaped, and on foot-stalks. Common on
the mountains of Wales and Scotland, and sometimes
used as salad.

Riun. Acetoia, Common Sorrel ; with dioecious
flowers, and oblong arrow-headed leaves ; common
in meadows and pastures.

Rum. Acetosdla, Sheep's Sorrel ; with dioecious
flowers, and lanceolate halberd-shaped leaves ; very
common in barren pastures.

Order IV. Tetka6ynia.

Petiveria AUiacea, Guinea Henweed. Cal. four-
leaved, no corolla ; style lateral ; one seed. This
plant is a native of Jamaica and South America, is
remarkably acrid, and, when chewed, produces great
heat in the mouth ; the Guinea hen is extremely
fond of it, from which it derives its name ; and it
communicates the taste of garlic to the milk, and an
unpleasant flavour even to the flesh of cattle that
feed upon it. The Peruvians employed it as a charm,
and fancied that its eft'ects were very powerful and
extensive; but its use was prohibited by the Spaniards,
either from a desire to discourage such superstitions,
or from an apprehension that they were injurious to
their power.

Order V. Polygynia,

petals

Alisma. Gen. char. — Cal. three-leaved;
three ; several seed-vessels.

Al. Plantago, Great Water Plantain ; with acute
ovate leaves, and bluntly-triangular capsules ; com-
mon on the banks of lakes and rivers.

Al. Ranunadoides, Small Water Plantain ; with
linear lanceolate leaves, and incurvated five-angled
capsules. In similar places with the preceding, but
less common.

Class VII. Heptandria.

With Seven Stamens, and divided into Four Orders.

Order I. Monogynia.

Trientai,is Europesa, Chickweed Wintergreen.
Cal. seven-leaved ; cor. seven-cleft, equal, plain ; a
dry berry. Common in woods on the sides of moun-
tains in the north of England and in Scotland.

DisANDR|A Prostrata, Trailing Disandra. Cal.
five or seven parted ; cor. wheel shaped, five or seven
parted ; caps, two- celled, many-seeded. Native of
Madeira, but not uncommon in the greenhouse and
parlour, where its trailing stems, peltate leaves, and
yellow flowers, render it an agreeable object. It is
sometimes called by mistake a geranium. Plate 31.
Fig. 8.

iEscuLUS ITijypncastanum, Horse-Chesnut. Cal.
five-toothed ; cor. five-petaled, unequal ; caps, three-
celled. The horse-chesnut, which recommends itself

BOTANY.

727

to attention as a fine spreading tree, with large di-
gitated leaves, and beautiful spikes of flowers, is a
good example of this class and order, although the
irregularity of the corolla may produce some diffi-
culty to the young botanist.

To the second order, Digynia, belongs Limeum,
an African genus of plants : Under the third, Te-
tragynia, is included Saururus, or Lizard's Tail, a
native of Virginia : And the fourth order, Hepta-
gynia, has only one genus, Septus, and one species.
It is a native of the Cape ot Good Hope, and is
nearly allied to the genus Crassiila ; but it is remark-
able in having seven segments in the calyx, seven
petals, and seven germens.

Class VIIL Octandria.

Eight Stamens, and divided into Four Orders.

Order I. Monogynia.

Tropjeolum Majus, Greater Indian Cress. Gen.
char. — Cal. one-leafed, with a spur ; petals five, un-
equal ; berries three, dry ; leaves peltate, five-lobed.
Native of Peru, introduced about the end of the
17th century, and now one of the most common,
although not the least splendid ornaments of the
flower-garden, where it sometimes varies in colour,
and with double flowers.

Epilobium. Gen. char. — Cal. four-cleft; petals
four ; caps, oblong, inferior ; seeds downy.

Ep.Angustifolium, llosebay Willow-herb, or French
Willow ; with scattered linear lanceolate leaves, un-
equal flowers, and declining stamens. Native of
Britain, and common in gardens and shrubberies.

Ep. HirsiUum, Great Hair}' Willow-herb, or Cod-
lins and Cream ; with leaves half embracing, ovate,
lanceolate; stem much branched. Common in moist
and shady places, as in the ditches rouTid Edinburgh.

Ep. Tetragonum, Square-stalked Willow-herb ; with
lanceolate toothed leaves, and square stem. On the
sides of ditches, and in marshy places.

Oexotheiia. Gen. char — Cal. four-cleft ; petals
four ; caps, cylindrical, inferior ; seeds naked.

Oen. Piunila, Divarf Oenothera, or Tree Prim-
rose ; with lanceolate, obtuse, and smooth leaves.
Native of North America, and the smallest of this
tribe of plants ; is a hardy perennial, and continues
to blossom through the summer.

Oen. Lona-ijlora, Long-flowered Tree Primrose;
with toothed leaves, simple hairy stem, and two-
lobed petals. Native of Buenos Ayres, and rising
to more than five feet in height ; forms a fine orna-
ment to an open border, where it flowers from July
to October. Bot. Mag. 365.

Oen. Biennis, Biennial Tree Primrose; has been
long an inhabitant of the garden, aad possesses the
remarkable peculiarity, as well as the preceding, and
some other species, of expanding its flowers only
in the night, contrary to the ordinary habits of plants
in general.

. Fuchsia Coccinea, Scarlet Fuchsia. Gen. char.
Cal. one-leafed, coloured, very large ; petals four ;

berry inferior, four-celled, many seeded. Spec. Octandrla.
char.- — Leaves opposite, oviite, toothed ; obovate ob- ^.^"v"^*/
tuse petals. Native of Chili ; and although now one
of the most common ornaments of the greenhouse
and parlour, still recommends itself by the beau-
ty of its rich, pendulous blossoms ; the calyx and
stamens are of a fine scarlet ; and the corolla, as if
apprehensive that exposure to light would injure its
deep purple colour, is folded up within the cup.
This fine plant is of humble growth, as it has been
hitherto treated in this country ; but in its native soil
it probably attains a considerable magnitude ; and in
the splendid conservatory of Sir Robert Listen at
Millburn Tower, near Edinburgh, it has reached the
height of more than eight feet, and exhibits the gay-
est profusion of flowers and shining black berries.
The scarlet fuchsia, planted in a sheltered border,
survives the winter ; tlie stems decay, but shoot up
vigorously in the spring, and are clothed with flowers
during the summer. Plate 32. Fig. 8.

Erica. Gen. char. — Cal. four-leaved ; cor. four-
cleft ; stamens inserted in the receptacle ; caps, supe-
rior, four-celled, many-seeded.

Er. Vulgaris, Common Heath or Ling ; with an-
thers included, bearded style protruded ; cor. four-
parted, shorter than the calyx, with leaves opposite.
Very common in moorlands and woods.

Er. TetralLc, Cross-leaved Heath ; with four cili-
ated leaves in the whorl ; flowers capitate. In moist
moorlands.

Er. Cinerca, Fine-leaved Heath ; with ternate
leaves ; also common in moorlands.

The three species now described are natives of
every part of Britain.

Er. Vagans, Cornish Heath, is common in Corn-
wall ; and Er. Dakcccii, Irish Heath, is a native of
Ireland. But of this beautiful tribe of plants, nearly
SOO species, chiefly natives of the Cape of Good
Hope, and many of them pre-eminent for the ele-
gance of their form, and the beauty of their flowers,
are cultivated in this country.

Daphne. Gen. char. — Cal. four-cleft, having the
appearance of a corolla inclosing the staBien ; berry
one-seeded.

Daph. Mezcreum, Mezereon, or Spurge Olive ;
with sessile, ternate flowers on the stem ; leaves lan-
ceolate, deciduous. In woods in England, and com-
mon in gardens, wliere it is well known by the ex-
pansion of its fine red flowers before the leaves.

Daph. Lagkctiu, Lace-bark Tree ; is a native of
.Jamaica, and grows to the height of 20 feet on rocky
hills ; but it is remarkable ibr the thickness of its
bark, which is divisible into 20 or 30 thin layers as
fine and white as gauze or lace, from which it has
derived its name. Caps and ruftles, it is said, have
been made of it ; and a governor of Jamaica pre-
sented Charles II. with a cravat of the bark of this
tree.

Order II. Digynia.

MoEiiRiNGiA Muscosa, Mountain Chickweed. —
Cal. four-leaved ; cor. four-petaled ; caps, one-
celled. Native of Germany, but not uncommon in
gardens, where it sometimes has the common name

728

BOTANY.

Oo»»ilri«. of Moss-plant, from the leaves forming a close turf
~ like some mosses.

Order III. Trigtnia.

Paollinia Curassavica, Supplejack. Cal. four-
leaved ; cor. four-petalcd ; caps, three-celled, one-
seeded ; leaves biternate ; the foot-stalks margined,
and branches unarmed. Common in the woods of
Jamaica, and rises to a great height, witli its slen-
der, woody, and flexible stems on the neighbourmg
trees. Deprived of its bark, it is well known in this
country by the use of the smaller twigs, as riding-
switches, and the larger pieces as walking-sticks.

CoccoLOBA Uvifera, Sea-side Grape. Cal. five-
parted ; cor. none; berry cup-like, one-seeded ; leaves
round, smooth. Common on the sandy shores of
Jamaica, grows to a considerable magnitude, and the
berries, about the size of the common grape, are
sometimes eaten. Another species, Coc. Pubescens,
is also a native of Jamaica, is sometimes seen in the
stove in this country, and is remarkable for its large
downy leaves.

PoLYGOMC>f. Cal. five-parted, coloured, in place
of a corolla, persistent ; seed one, superior, angular,
covered with the calyx ; the stamens and pistils vary-
ing in number.

Pol. Amphibium, Amphibious Persicaria; with flow-
ers of five stamens and two pistils, spike ovate. Not
uncommon in ditches and pools, where it may be
readily distinguished by its floating leaves and ele-
gant flower-spike.

Pol. Persicaria, Spotted Persicaria ; flowers with
six stamens, and ovate oblong spikes. Common in
ditches and moist places.

Pol. BistoHa, Great Bistort, or Snake-weed ; with
a simple leafy stem, and ovate waved leaves. In
meadows and pastures, and common in gardens.

Pol. Aviculare, Knot-Grass ; with axillary flowers,
dliptical lance-shaped leaves, rough on the margin,
and herbaceous procumbent stem ; in waste places,
and by way-sides, very common. The number of
Stamens, eight, and pistils, three, is complete in this
species.

Order IV. Tetragynia.

Paris Quadrifolia, Herb Paris, or True Love.
Cal. four-leaved; petals four, narrower ; berry supe-
rior, four-celled ; anthers attached to the middle of
the filaments. Perennial ; flowers in May ; grows in
shady woods, but is a very rare plant. No habitat
is specified in the Flora Britannica, and we have met
with it only in two places in Scotland, in the woods
on the banks of the Cart, a little above Cathcart
castle, near Glasgow, and in a shady wood on the
banks of the same river, not far from the bridge on
the road from Hawkhead, the seat of the Earl of
Glasgow, to the old castle of Crookstone near Pais-
ley.

Adoxa Moschatelima, Tuberous Moschatel. Cal.
two or three-cleft; cor. four or five-cleft, supe-
rior; caps, four or five-celled, A small perennial

plant ; common in woods and shady hedges, and Enneand
flowers early in spring.

Class IX. Enneandria.

Nine Stamens ; Three Orders.

Order I. Monocynia.

Laurus. Gen. char Cal. none; cor. six petal -

ed, in the forpi of a calyx ; berry one-seeded ; glands
of the nectary furnished with two bristles.

Under this genus are arranged many valuable
plants, natives of different regions, among which are
enumerated,

Laur. Nobilis, or Bay Tree, with spear-shaped,
nerved, stiff leaves ; a native of Italy, and deserved-
ly admired on account of its evergreen foliage and
fine red berries.

Laur. Cassia, the Cassia Tree ; a native of the
East ; of which both buds and bark, having the pro-
perties of cinnamon, are employed as a spice, and
for medical purposes.

Laur. Cliloroxylon, Green Heart, or Cogwood
Tree of Jamaica, with three-nerved, ovate, coriaceous
leaves ; a native of the mountainous parts of that
island, and affording a strong durable wood, which
is employed in machinery.

Laur. Cinnamomum, Cinnamon Tree ; with ovate,
oblong, three-nerved leaves. This precious tree, the
bark of which yields the well-known and universally
esteemed spice, is a native of Ceylon, and rises to
the height of twenty or thirty feet. The cinnamon
is obtained from the inner bark of the tree, and the
strongest and best kind is got from the small branches,
which do not exceed an inch in diameter. The leaves
and other parts of the tree yield the same delicate
flavour as the bark, and may be employed for si-
milar purposes.

In Ceylon the cinnamon trees are barked twice in
the year ; the first, or great harvest, continues from
April to August, and the second, or small harvest,
from November to January. Branches of three years old
are lopped off; and the epidermis, or outer bark, be-
ing removed by scraping with a knife, the twigs are
ripped up lengthwise, and the bark is gradually loos-
ened till it slips off. Smaller tubes or quills of peel-
ed bark are inserted into those of larger diameter,
which, as they dry, roll up closer together. They
are afterwards tied up in bundles, and are ready for
the market.

The Dutch long monopolized the trade of cinna-
mon. The first introduction of this plant into a
British colony was in 1782, when some cinnamon
trees were found in a collection of East India plants
in a French ship from the Isle of France to St Do-
mingo, which was captured by admiral Rodney. The
collection was carried to Jamaica, and one of the cin-
namon trees was planted in Mr East's noble garden in
Liguanea, and another in the botanic garden at Bath.
From them many hundreds of young trees, which
now thrive in almost every part of the island, were
produced ; and it is gratifying to learn that they yield
bark of the very finest quality.

BOTANY.

729

EnMMidria. Laur. Camphora, Camphor Tree ; with lanceolate,
s^V^/ ovate, triple-nerved leaves, the nerves extending to
the point of the leaf. The camphor tree is a native
of Japan, and grows to a large size, but is not a
stranger to the green-house in this country. A fine
specimen of this tree has been long an inhabitant of
the botanic garden at Edinburgh ; and this, as well
as the sassafras tree, another species of the same ge-
nus, are among the fine collection in Sir Robert Lis-
ton's conservatory.

Every part of the tree yields camphor. The root,
trunk, and branches, are cut into small pieces, and
introduced into a still with water. The head of the
still is lined with straw, and heat being applied, the
water is kept boiling for two days, during which the
- camphor rises and attaches itself to the straw. In
this state it is called crude camphor, which was for-
merly imported, and farther purified, by the Dutch.
Laur. Persea, Avocado, or Alligator Pear ; with
ovate, coriaceous, transversely veined leaves ; said
to be a native of South America, but very generally
cultivated in the West Indies. The pulpy fruit of
this tree is the celebrated vegctni/e marrow, a soft
substance, of a consistence between butter and mar-
row, and is a mild nutritious food, agreeable to most
palates, and greedily sought after by almost all ani-
mals. The eatable part is included between a thick
rind and a large hard seed. It is commonly eaten
■with pepper and salt ; and sometimes wine, sugar, or
lime-juice, is added.

ANACARDiUiM Occtdentale, Cashew-nut Tree. Cal.
five-parted ; a tenth stamen is without an anther ;
seed, a nut attached to a fleshy receptacle. This
tree grows in a spreading form to the height of 20
feet ; the cashew apple, which is reddish, or yellow,
or streaked, is about the size and form of a French
pippin, and is full of acid juice, which is employed as
an ingredient in punch. The nut grows attached to
the end of the fruit, and its covering contains a very
acrid oil, which produces blisters on the skin, and is
sometimes employed as a caustic.

Ohdeh II. Trigynia.

Rheum Palmalum, Rhubarb. Cal. none ; cor.
six-cleft ; one triangular seed. This species, which
has large pahnated leaves, is a native of China, and
yields the true rhubarb of the shops ; although it is
probaI)le that the roots of more than one species are
brought into commerce. The cultivation of this
• species has succeeded well in different parts of Bri-
tain ; and the roots are considered by many to pos-
sess medical virtues equal to the imported rhubarb.
Several other species of rhubar') are known ; and of
the stems of rlieiim ihaponticum, which sometimes is
called English, and sometimes Scotch Rhubarb, an
excellent tart is made.

Order III. Hexagvnia.

BuTOMUS Utnbellatus, Flowering Hush. Cal. none;
petals six ; caps, six, superior ; many-seeded. This
plant, which is the only species of the order and ge-
nus, is a fine ornament to the banks of rivers and
pools in England, where it is a native.

VOL. I. PART II.

Class X. Decandria.

Decaadno,

Ten Stamens ; Five Orders.

Order I. Monogymia.

Sophora. Gen. char. — Cal. five-toothed, gibbous
above ; cor. papilionaceous, with wings the length of
the vexillum.

Soph. Tctraptera, Winged-podded Sophora ; with
pinnated leaves, and pods furnished with four mem-
branaceous wings. Native of New Zealand, where
it was discovered by Sir Joseph Banks, and culti-
vated in green-houses in this country ; in Chelsea
gardens it has produced a magnificent profusion of
pendulous yellow flowers, remarkable for the rich-
ness and brilliancy of their colouring. — Bot. Mag.
167.

Soph. Monosperma, Red Bead-tree ; with leaves
unequally pinnated, leaflets five-paired ; pod one-
seeded. Native of Jamaica and of the other West
India islands ; rises 10 feet high, and produces beau-
tiful round scarlet seeds, marked with a black spot,
which are brought to this country and employed for
ornamental purposes.

C^salpinia. G(?«. cAar.— Cal. with unequal seg-
ments ; cor. with five petals, the lowest the largest.

Caes. Braziletto, Brazil Wood ; with leaves much
divided, leaflets oval. Native of Jamaica and Bra-
zil, produces a fine pyramidal spike of white flowers,
beautifully variegated with red ; is a strong durable
wood, susceptible of a good polish, and affords the
famous Braziletto wood, extensively employed in
dyeing.

Hj^matoxylon Campeachianum, Logwood, or Cam-
peachy-wood ; stigma of the pistil notched at the sum-
mit, pod with boat-shaped valves. Native of the
bay of Campeachy, from which the specific name is
derived ; it rises to the height of 16 or 20 feet, and
is furnished with pinnated leaves, each having four
pairs of small leaflets ; has been introduced into Ja-
maica, where it grows luxuriantly, and is employed
as a fence against cattle ; but the wood of this tree
is better known as it is imported into Europe for
the purpose of a dye-stuff.

SwiETENiA. Gen. char. — Nectary tubular, ten-
toothed ; caps, noody, five-valved ; seeds imbricat-
ed, with a membranous border.

Swiet. Mahagoni, Mahogany Tree ; with pinnat-
ed leaves, four-paired, panicle axillary. Native of
Jamaica, Cuba, and the Spanish Main ; becomes a
magnificent tree, and has been long celebrated as a
commercial commodity, and for its extensive use in
cabinet- work ; it thrives well in almost every soil,
but the wood o( the closest texture, and most beau-
tifully veined, is obtained from trees which grow oa
rocky ground.

The maJiogany tree has been met with in Jamaica
more than 100 feet in height ; and one which was
cut down in the parish of St Ehzabeth measured 12
feet in diameter ; it produced nearly L.400 Sterling
to the proprietor, but.it must be observed that this
5 a

750

BOTANY.

IV«uiariii happened in the time of the American war, when
N«^V^ the price was high. Mahogany is now scarce m Ja-
maica, and is rarely met with, excepting in moun-
tainous situations, from which it is with difficulty
brought to convenient shipping-places for the mar-
ket.

The introduction of mahogany into England took
place about the commencement of the 18th century,
and its first application was to the ignoble purpose
of a candle-box. A Captain Gibbons, in the West
India trade, brought home some planks of it as bal-
last, and presented them to his brother, a physician
in London, who was then buikling a house, but the
wood being found too hard for the tools of the car-
penters, was laid aside as useless. Mrs Gibbons, de-
sirous that the wood might not be lost, employed
Mr WoUaston, cabinet-maker, to make a candle-
box ; he executed the task, but complained also of
the hardness of the wood. Dr Gibbons then propos-
ed to have a bureau made of the same wood ; its
agreeable colour and fine polish were universally
admired ; and, among the rest of his friends who
crowded to see it, the Duchess of Buckingham was
CO delighted with its beauty, that she requested as
much wood as would furnish her with a similar piece
of furniture; the same cabinet-maker was employed;
the fame of mahogany and Mr Wollaston spread far
and wide, and the use of this wood soon became ge-
neral.

The bark of the mahogany tree, as Dr Wright ob-
serves, resembles Peruvian bark in colour as well as
in taste, but has more bitterness ; and it has been em-
ployed as a substitute, in the form of powder, of in-
fusion, and of tincture. The bark of another species,
Sivietenia Febrlfuga, discovered by Dr lloxburgh
in India, possesses similar properties, and has been
used for similar purposes.

GvAiACVM Officinale, Lignumvitae. Cal. with the
two outer segments smaller ; caps, fleshy, three or
four- celled; leaves angular, pinnated, with two pairs of
obtuse leaflets. Native of the south side of Jamaica,
to which it is chiefly confined, and rising to the
height of forty feet. ' The wood is solid and ponder-
ous, and aflbrds a fine example of the difference be-
tween perfect, wood and the alburnum, the former of
which IS of a yellowish colour, and the latter dark
brown. It is extensively employed in machinery and
turnery-work ; and the gum-resin which exudes from
the wounded tree is much used in medicine.

RuTA Graveoleiu, Common Rue. Germen with
ten honey-bearing points ; caps, five-cleft, five-celled
and many-seeded, with supra-decompound leaves;
leaflets wedge-shaped. Native of the south of Eu-
rope, but common in gardens, and oncoin great esti-
mation ou account of its medical virtues.

Quassia. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved, petals five,
nectary five-leaved ; caps, five, two-valvcd, one-seed-
ed.

Quas. Amara, Bitter Quassia ; flowers with both
«taniens and pistils, and leaves pinnated, with an odd
leaflet. Native of Surinam, and, with its fine scar-
let flowers, is a great ornament to the stove, where it
blossomsjfrecly. Three other species, simaruba, ex-

cehft, and poli/gnma, are natives of Jamaica ; and from Decandria.
the bark of the roots a very strong bitter, which has
been employed in medicine, and as a substitute for
hops, ie obtained.

DiONAEA Muscipttla, Venus Fly-trap. Cal. five-
leaved, petals five, caps, one-celled, and many-seeded.
Native of marshy places in South Carolina. The
leaves of this singular plant are all radical, and sup-
ported on long, winged, succulent, and strongly veined
foot.stalks; the leaf itself is composed of two semi-
oval lobes, jointed at the back, which permits thcni
to fold together. The sides of the lobes are furnish-
ed with a row of cartilaginous cilise, which lock into
each other when the lobes close. Three very small
spines, or bristles, rise in the middle of each lobe in
some plants, but in others only two are observed.
These spines are the only irritable points of the leaf;
every other part may be touched with the point of
a needle without the least motion being produced ;
but the moment it comes in contact with any of the
spines the lobes fold together ; and, iu some experi-
ments which we had lately an opportunity of making
on a fine vigorous plant, it seemed that the motiou
was first communicated to the opposite lobe. The
irritability of the spines was first discovered by Mr
Edwards, natural history painter, and about the same
time by Mr Koenig.

This curious plant thrivee well in pots with bog-
earth mixed with white sand, and the pot being kept
in a pan of water in an airy stove; but it has been
known even to succeed better when covered with a
glass cylinder, open at top, and placed in the window
of a room with a warm aspect. Bol. Mag. 785.
Plate 32. Fig. 2.

Melastoma. Gen. char. — Cal. five-cleft, bell-
shaped ; petals five, inserted on the calyx ; berry
five-celled, covered by the calyx.

Mel. Tomentosa, Woolly Melastoma, or Indian Cur-
rant-Bush ; with large subsessile oval leaves, woolly
on the under side. Native of Guiana. Plate 32.
Fig. 3.

Mel. Corymbosa ; a native of Africa, is figured in
Bot. Mag. 904 ; not fewer than thirty-two species are
natives of Jamaica^; and sixty species are described,
with beautifully coloured figures, in the Monograph
of this genus by Bonpland, the enterprising compa-
nion of Humboldt in his travels in South America,
one of the most splendid botanical works which has
yet appeared.

The number of stamens varies in the different spe-
cies from eight to ten; and the nerved structure of
the leaves in all the species gives them a striking and
very natural character.

Andkombda. Gen. char. — Cal. five-parted ; cor.
ovate, with mouth five-cleft ; caps, superior, five -celled.

And. Polifolia, Marsh Andromeda, or Wild Rose-
mary ; with aggregated terminal peduncles, and alter-
nate, lanceolate, revolute leaves, glaucous on the lower
surface ; on peat-bogs in the north of England and
south of Scotland.

And. Arborea, Tree Andromeda, or Sorrel. Tree ;
with termai.il panicles, the corolla somewhat downy,
and elliptical, sharp-pointed, toothed leaves. Native

BOTANY.

731

Becandria. of the Alleghany mountains, in North America,

S^'Y"^ where it is said to grow to the height of fifty or sixty

feet ; but in the vicinity of London it becomes only a

large slirub, with pendulous branches, terminated by

long racemes of white flowers. Bat. Mag. 90j.

Rhododendron. Gen. char Cal. five-parted ;

cor, funnel-shaped ; stamens bent downwards ; caps,
five-celled.

Rhod. Pontlciim, Purple Rhododendron ; with
shining lanceolate leaves, smooth on both surfaces,
and terminal racemes. Native of Gibraltar, and of
the south side of Mount Caucasus, but is familiar to
the gardens of this country.

Rhod. Maximum, Laurel-leaved Rhododendron ;
with oblong leaves, smooth and discoloured under-
neath, with an acute reflected margin. Native of
North America, where it grows to the height of six-
teen feet, and has been introduced into the gardens
oi'this country. JSot. Mag. 951.

Kalmia. Gen. char. — Cal. five-parted ; cor. sal-
ver-shaped, with the limb five-horned beneath ; caps,
five-celled.

Kal. Z,a<i/o/M, IBroad-leaved Kalmia ; with ovate,
elliptical, ternate, and scattered leaves. Native of
North America, and now common in the garden.

Kal. Glaiua, Glaucous Kalmia ; with opposite ob-
long polished leaves, hoary underneath, revolute on
the margin, and with terminal corymbs. Native of
Newfoundland, but now not uncommon in the garden.

A curious structure is observed in the flowers of
this genus ; when they first expand the anthers are
imbedded in a cavity of the, corolla, and, as the flower
advances to maturity, they spring up successively ;
or the same thing may be seen by touching them
gently with a sharp point.

Arbutus. Gen. char. — Cal. five-parted ; cor.
ovate, with the mouth five-cleft, pellucid at the base ;
berry superior, five-celled.

Arb. Unedo, Strawberry-tree ; with arborescent
stem, smooth, fobtusely-serrated leaves, terminal pa-
nicle, and many-seeded berries. This fine shrub
adorns the limestone rocks in the west of Ireland, and
is abundant about the lake of Killarney.

Arb. Alpina, Black-berried Alpine Arbutus ; with
procumbent stems, and wrinkled, serrated leaves. Na-
tive of some of the higher mountains of the High-
lands of Scotland, where it is distinguished by the
reticulated veins of the leaves.

Arb. Uva Ursi, Red-berried trailing Arbutus ;
with procumbent stems and entire leaves. Common
in the Highlands of Scotland, and near Hexham in
Northumberland.

Order II. Digynia.

Hydrangea. Gen. Char. — Cal. five-clefk; cor.
five-petaled ; caps, two-celled, two-beaked, inferior,
opening betwreen the styles.

Hyd. Arborescens, Shrubby Hydrangea ; with a
woody stem. A native of Virginia, and long an in-
habitant of some gardens in England.

Hyd. Horlensis, Garden Hydrangea ; with ellipti-
cal, serrated, very smooth leaves, and equal stamens.
This magnificent plant, which, from being so com-
2

mon, ceases to be admired, is remarkable for the
changes in the progress of flowering. The blossoms
are at first green, then rose-coloured, and, last of all,
green a second time ; and the plant which has pro-
duced red flowers one year, shall send forth blue
flowers the next, although treated in the same man-
ner. It is a native of China and Japan, where it is
also cultivated for the sake of its beauty, and was in-
troduced from China to the gardens at Kew in 1790.

Saxifraga. Gen. Char Cal. five-parted ; cor.

five-petaled ; caps, two-beaked, one-celled, many-
seeded.

Sax. Umbrosa, London Pride, None -so-pretty ;
with obovate leaves, and naked paniculated stem.
Native of some high mountains in Ireland, and of
some parts of England, and one of the most com-
mon plants in the flower-garden.

Sax. Grantdata, White Saxifrage ; with kidnej'-
formed, lobed leaves, paniculated stem, and granu-
lated root. Frequent in meadows and pastures of a
gravelly soil, and is not uncommon in the garden
with double flowers.

Sax. Hypnoides, Mossy Saxifrage, or Lady's Cu-
shion ; with linear leaves, entire, or three-cleft ; on
mountainous places, as on Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh.

Sax. Crassifolia, Oval-leaved Saxifrage ; with oval
crenulated leaves, and naked stem. Native of the
Alps of Siberia, but common in the garden, and
easily distinguished by its large leaves, which are
red on the under, and of a fine shining green on the
upper surface, and by its tall stem supporting a large
bunch of purple pendulous flowers, which ajipear
early in spring.

Sax. Sarmentosa, Strawberry Saxifrage ; with ra-
dical leaves, roundish, heart-shaped, notched, axil-
lary, rooting runners ; irregular corolla, and com-
pound raceme. Native of China, but very common
as an ornament of the greenhouse and parlour. This
species is particularly distinguished by its variegat-
ed leaves and the unusual size of the two lowermost
pendmit petals of the flower. By some unaccount-
able mistake, it is vulgarly called an Otaheite plant.

DiANTHUS. Gen. char Cal. cylindrical, one-leaf-
ed, scaly at the base ; petals five, furnished with
claws ; caps, cylindrical, superior, one-celled.

Dian. Carijophyllus, Clove, Pink, or Cai-nation ;
with solitary flowers, scales of the calyx very short,
and somewhat rhomboidal, petals notched, and with-
out beard. Native of England, and found on ancient
walls, as on Rochester and Deal castles ; and from
this species numerous varieties have been obtained
by culture.

Dian. Deltoides, Maiden Pink ; witli solitary flow-
ers, scales of the calyx about two, ovate lanceolate
acute leaves, slightly downy ; in sandy and gravelly
pastures, as in the north side of the King's park at
Edinburgh.

Dian. Bariafus, Bearded Pink, or Sweet William;
with fasciculated, aggregated flowers ; scales of the
calyx ovate, awl- shaped, equal to the tube. Na-
tive of Germany, but long an ornament of the flower-
garden in this country, where it exhibits endless va-
rieties of colours, and appears occasionally with
double flowers.

Decandria.

732 BOTANY.

IVctndrifc Dian. Chinensis, China or Indian Pink ; with soli

tary flowers, scales of the calyx open, equal »o the
tube, and corolla notched. Native of China, and,
recommended by the brilliancy and variety of its
colours, among the annuals of the flower-garden.

Order III. Trigynia.

Stellaria. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved, spread-
ing ; petals five, two-parted ; caps, superior, one-cell-
ed, many-seeded, six-toothed at the summit.

Steh Media. Common Chickweed; with ovate leaves,
and stems procumbent, with an alternate hairy late-
ral line ; an annual ; common every where ; flower-
ing throughout great part of the year. The number
of stamens is observed to vary from ten to five.

Stel. Holostea, Greater Stitchwort ; with serrulat-
ed lanceolate leaves, two-cleft petals, and cal. with-
out nerves ; in dry woods and among bushes.

Stel. Graminea, or Lesser Stitchwort ; with linear,
lanceolate, entire leaves, and three-nerved calyx
nearly equal to the petals. In pastures and hedges
in a dry soil.

Stel. Nemorim, Wood Stitchwort; with lower
leaves heart-shaped, and with footstalks ; upper leaves
ovate and sessile. In moist, shady woods, but not very
common. It is readily distinguished by its larger
leaves and more specious flowers.

Arekaria. Gen. char — Cal. five-leaved, spread-
ing ; petals five, entire ; caps, superior, one-celled ;
many-seeded.

Ar. Peploides, Sea-chickweed, or Sandwort ; with
ovate, acute, fleshy leaves ; cal. obtuse, and without
nerves ; perennial ; flowers in June and July, and
is frequent on sandy shores. ' '

Ar. Verna, Vernal Sandwort ; with bluntish awl-
shaped leaves, obovate petals longer than the three-
nerved calyx ; perennial ; continues in flower from
May to August, and is a native of n^untainous dis-
tricts, as on Arthur's Seat, near EiMburgh, and
about the mouths of lead-mines in Derbyshire.

Order IV. Pentagynia.

SfeDiJM. Gen. char. — Cal. five-cleft ; cor. five-
petaled ; five nectariferous scales at the base of the
germen ; capsules five, superior.

Sed. Acre, Biting Stone-crop, or Wall Pepper;
with alternate, subovate, fleshy, gibbous leaves, and
trifid leafy cymes ; perennial ; flowers in June, and
is very common on walls, houses, and sandy places.

Sed. Viliosum, Hairy Stone-crop ; with alternate
, linear, somewhat plain, leaves ; slightly hairy foot-
stalks, and upright stem. Perennial ; flowers in July,
and is found in moist elevated pastures, as in the
northern counties of England, and on the banks of
the water of Leith, near its sources in the Pentland
hills, in Scotland.

OxALM AceloseUa, Common Wood Sorrel. Cal.
five-leaved ; petals five, united by the claws ; caps,
superior, five-celled, opening at the angles ; seeds
enclosed in an clastic covering ; stem one-flowered ;-
leaves ternate, obcordate, hairy. Perennial ; flowers
io May, and is conunon in shady woods.

Agrostemma Githago, Corn-Cockle. Cal. one- Decaadria.
leafed, leathery ; petals five, clawed, with obtuse
and divided limb ; caps, superior, one-celled, with
five-toothed mouth; calyx shaggy, longer than the co-
rolla ; petals entire, naked. An annual plant ; flowers
in June and July, and is common among corn.

Lychnis. Gen. char. — Cal. one-leafed, oblong;
petals five, clawed; limb often divided ; caps, superior,
opening, five-toothed ; from one to two-celled.

Lych. Flos-cuculi, Meadow Lychnis, or Ragged
Robin ; with four-cleft petals, and one-celled round-
ish capsule ; perennial ; flowers iij June, ana a very
common plant in moist meadows.

Lycli. Viscaria, Red German Catchfly ; with un-
divided petals, and five-celled seed-vessel ; perennial;
flowers in June, and is found in the fisures of rocks,
but is rather a rare plant, although abundant on the
rocks of the King's park at Edinburgh.

Lych. JJioica, Red or White Campion, as it varies
in the colour of its flowers ; with dioecious flowers,
and one-celled capsule ; perennial ; continues ia
flower through the summer, and is common in moist
woods and hedges.

Cerasfium. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved; pe-
tals two-cleft ; caps, superior, opening at the sum-
mit, mouth ten-toothed, one-celled.

Cer. Vulgatum, Broad-leaved Mouse-ear Chick-
weed ; rough, viscid, with ovate leaves, petals equal
to the calyx, and flowers longer than the peduncle;
annual ; flowers in May, and is common in pastures,
waste places, and on walls.

Cer. Latifolium, Broad- leaved Rough Chickweed;
with rough elliptical leaves, and terminal, simple,
nearly solitary flower-stems ; perennial ; flowers in
June, and is not uncommon on the mountains of
Wales and Scotland, as on Benlomond.

Some species of Cerastium are deficient in the
parts of fructification, as Semidecandrum, which has
five stamens, and Tetrandrum, which has only four
petals and four stamens.

Spergula. Gen. char — Cal. five-leaved, petals
five, entire ; caps, superior, ovate, one-celled, five-
valved.

^^e.r. Arvensis, Corn-Spurrey; with wliorled leaves,
flower stems reflected, seeds kidney-shaped. An-
nual ; flowers in July and August, and is a trouble-
some weed in poor exhausted soils.

Sper. Nodosa, Knotted Spurrey ; with opposite,
awl-shaped, smooth leaves; upper leaves fasciculated ;
calyx without nerve. Perennial ; flowers in July and
August, and is frequent in moist sandy places.

Order V. Degagynia.

Phytolacca, American Nightshade or Poke-
weed ; cal. five-leaved, resembling a corolla ; cor,
none ; berry ten-celled.

The species of this genus are natives of America,
Africa, and India, and are conveniently distinguished
by the variable number of stamens and pistils.

Phyt. Decandra, Redweed or Foxglove ; with
ten stamens and ten styles ; a native of Jamaica,
where it is very common ; it produces reddish ber-t -

BOTANY.

735

Dodecandria. ries, which were employed to deepen the colour of
~ ^ red wines ; to [jrevent which a severe edict, even on
pain of deatli, was issued by the King of France.
The seeds arc used by the negroes for washing linen ;
they are very bitter, and communicate the same taste
to the flesh of birds which feed on thera.

Phyt. Octandia, Spanish Calalue ; flowers with
eight stamens and eight styles ; native of Jamaica,
and cultivated in the kitchen gardens of the island
as a palatable green.

Class XI. Dodecandria.

Stamens from 12 to 20. Six Orders.

Order I. Monogynia.

AsARtTM Europaum, Asarabacca. Cal. three-cleft,
sitting on the germen ; cor. none ; stamens twelve ;
caps, leathery, six-celled, crowned; stigma six-cleft;
leaves kidney-formed, obtuse, in pairs. Perennial ;
flowers in May, and is a native of the woods of the
north of England, but rare. The dried root in
powder is employed to provoke sneezing and the
flow of mucus in the nostrils.

Rhizophora Mangle,Mangrove. Cal. four-parted,
inferior ; cor. four-parted; seed one, club-shaped ; a
fleshy receptacle ; leaves acute. Native of Jamaica,
and rises to the height of 30 or 40, and even 50 feet.
The Mangrove-tree is generally found on the borders
of the sea, in whose waters only it seems to thrive,
and in such places as have a soft bottom. Tiie larger
branches throw out soft leafless shoots, which bend
downward, and in a short time reach the mud, where
they strike root, and become supports to the parent
tree. The American oyster attaches itself to those
branches of the Mangrove tree which dip in the wa-
ter, and from hence has arisen the fabulous account
of this shell fish growing on trees.

Lytiirum Salicaria, Purple Loose-strife. Cal.
twelve-cleft ; inferior petals six, inserted in the calyx;
caps, two-celled, many seeded; leaves opposite, heart-
shaped lanceolate ; flowers spiked, with twelve sta-
mens. Perennial ; flowers in July and August, and
is a fine ornament to marshy places and banks of ri-
vers, where it is most common.

Halesia Tetraptera, Four-winged Snowdrop
Tree. Cal. four-toothed, superior ; cor. four-cleft ;
nut quadrangular, four-celled; seeds solitary ; leaves
ovate, pointed, with hairy veins on the lower surface;
■wings of the seed equal. Native of South Carolina ;
flowers in April and May, and, from the beauty of its
flowers, might be a fine ornament to pleasure grounds
in this countrj'. Bot. Mag. 910.

Order II. Digvnia.

Heliocarpus Americana, Sun-seed. Cal. four-
leaved ; cor. four-petaled; caps, two-celled, one-seed-
ed. Native of Vera Cruz, and remarkable for the
fringed or radiated structure of its fruit.

AamuojiiA Eiipatoria, Common Agrimony. Cal.
five-toothed, calyculated, or with a double calyx ;

petals five, inserted in the caljoc ; seeds two, in the Bodecandris
bottom of the calyx ; stem leaves pinnated, the odd
leaflet with a foot-stalk ; seeds rough, with hooked
bristles. Perennial; flowers in June and July, and is
common in woods and on the borders of fields.

Order III. Trigynia.

Reseda. Gen. char. — Cal. one-leaved, divided ;
cor. with petals, much divided ; caps, superior, open-
ing at the summit, one-celled, many-seeded.

Res. Luteola, Dyers' Weed, Yellow Weed, or
Weld; with lanceolate, entire, plain leaves ; cal. four-
cleft. Annual ; flowers in July, and is not uncom-
mon in waste places and near walls ; it is also culti-
vated on account of the yellow dye which it affords.

Res. Lutea, Wild INlignonette, or Base Rocket ;
with all the leaves three-cleft, tlie inferior pinnated ;
cal. six-cleft. Annual or perennial ; flowers in July
and August, and is not uncommon in dry soils.

Res. Odoraia, Mignonette ; with leaves entire and
three-lobed, the calyx equal to the flower ; native
of Egypt, but a peculiar favourite of the garden and
parlour, on account of the sweet fragrance of its
flowers.

Euphorbia. Gen. char. — Cal. one-leaved, ventri-
cose, inferior ; nectaries four or five, attached to the
calyx ; caps, with a foot-stalk, three-celled.

Euph. Peplus, Petty Spurge ; with trifid umbel,
branches divided into two, leaves entire, obovate,
foot-stalked ; annual ; flowers in July and August,
and is very common in cultivated grounds.

Euph. Exigua, Dwarf Spurge ; umbel trifid, branch-
es divided, leaves linear ; annual ; flowers in July,
and is common among corn.

Euph. Helioscopia, Sun Spurge, or Wartwort; um-
bel five-cleft, leaves serrated, wedge-shaped ; annual ;
flowers in July and August, and is very common ia
cultivated places.

Order IV. Tetragynia.

To this order belong CalUgonum, the species of
which are natives of Russia and Siberia, and have
been illustrated by L'Heritier, Transact. Linn. So-
ciety, Vol. I. ; and Aponogeton, the species of which
are aquatic plants, and natives of the Cape and of the
East Indies. Two genera are arranged under the
fifth order ; but they are little known, or indistinctly
discriminated.

Ordep VI. Hexandria;

Cephalotus FoUicidaris, Pitcher Plant. This
singular plant was discovered by Labillardiere, on
the southern shores of New Holland ; and it was
found by Mr Brown in marshy places in the neigh-
bourhood of King George's sound. The peculiarity
of Its structure is in certain appendages called ascidia,
or pitchers, which are supported by foot-stalks, and
are arranged in a circle around the leaves. " The
ascidia, or pitchers of Cephalotus," says Mr Brown,
"were observed to be in general nearly half filled
with a watery fluid, in which great numbers of a

734

BOTANY.

Irwitwlrii. small spfctes of ant were fteqiwrrtlj' found drowned.
'This fluid, which had a sligluly sweet taste, might
foatMj be in part a secretion of the pitcher itself,
bat wore probalily consists merely of rain water re-
ceived and prcser\'ed in it. The lid of the j>itcher,
in the full grown state, was found either accurately
closing its mouth, or having an erect position, and
therelore leaving it entirely open ; and it is not un-
likely that the position of the lid is determined by
t^lc state of the atmosphere, or even by other exter-
nal causes." — Append, to Flinders Voyage. See
Plate 32. Fig. 4.

OrDEH VII. DODECACYXI.V.

Sempervivum. Gen. char. — Cal. inferior, twelve-
parted ; petals tw^elve ; caps, twelve, many-seeded.

Semper. Tectorum, Common House-leek;; leaves
ciliated, with spreading shoots. Perennial; flowers
ia July, and frequent on houses and walls.

Semp. /iracfiiioideiim, Cobweb House-leek ; with
leaves interwoven with hairs. Native of the Alps of
Switzerland, but is not uncommon in gardens. The
singular appearance of this plant arises from the
woolly tops of the leaves;foras they expand thewoolly
.substance is extended, and exhibits somewliat of the
structure of a cobweb.

Class XII. Icosandria.

Twenty or more Stamens on the calyx ; Three Or-
ders.

Order I. Monogynia.

Cactus. Cal. superior, one-leaved, imbricated;
cor. many-cleft; berry one-celled, many-seeded.

Cact. riagelli/ormts, Creeping Cereus ; with creep-
ing angular slioots ; native of the "West Indies, but
not an unfrequent inmate in the stove or green-house,
where it cannot fail to be admired on account of the
■brilliancy of its flowers.

Numerous other species belong to this genus; they
are all natives of warm climates; and on one of them,
Cact. CocheniUi/er, the precious Cochineal insect
fnakcs its abode.

Phii.adelpiius Coronarms, Mock Orange. Cal.
four or five-parted, superior; petals four or five ; caps,
four or five-celled, tuany-seeded ; leaves somewhat
toothed. Supposed to be a native of the south of
Europe, but it is now one of the most common shrubs
in the garden.

Myrtus. Gen. char. — Cal. superior, .five-toothed;
petals five; berry striated, seven-celled.

Myrt. Tomentosa, Woolly-leaved Myrtle ; with one-
flowered peduncles ; leaves triply nerved, woolly on
the under surface. A native of China, and is culti-
vated in the stove in this country, on account of the
beauly of its foliage and flowers.

Myrt. Communis, the^Comraon Myrtle, a native of
Italy, is rarely absent from collections of plants in
the green-house or parlour.

Myrt. Pimenla, Jamaica Pepper, or Allwjice Tree ;
with oblong lanceolate leaves. Native of the West

India islands. Tliis fine tree, which gfowsspontane-
ously and abundantly in Jamaica, rises to the height
of yo feet, and is remarkable for the beauty of its
leaves, which are of a deep shining green. The Pi-
menta plantations are chiefly on the north side of the
island ; and nothing can exceed the fragrance which
is exhaled from these spicy groves. Soon after the
trees are in blossom the berries are fit for gathering,
for they are not suftered to ripen on the tree ; they
are then collected and spread on a terrace; and being
exposed to the sun for about a week, they are ready
for the market. A single tree sometimes yields a
hundred weight of dried spice; and more than 170,000
lbs. weight are annually exported from Jamaica.
The name. Allspice, is derived from the smell and
taste, resembling that of a mixture of cloves, cinna-
mon, and nutmegs.

Eucalyptus. Cal. superior, truncated, covered
with a lid ; no corolla ; caps, four-celled, many-seed-
ed. Of this genus nearly 100 species have been dis-
covered ; most of them are trees, and some of them
rival in height and magnitude the tallest vegetable
productions. Eucalyptus Globulus, and another spe-
cies peculiar to the southern extremity of Van Die-
men's island, rear their lofty heads 150 feet, and are
from ten to twelve feet in diameter. W'ith one ex-
ception only, all the species of this genus are confined
to New Holland.

Metrosideros Citritta, Harsh-leaved Metrosi-
deros. Cal. five-toothed, including the germen ; pe-
tals five, deciduous ; stamens separate, many times
longer than the petals ; leaves linear, lanceolate, ri-
gid. Native of Botany Bay, but not uncommon in
the nurseries about London. The generic name is
derived from the hardness of the wood. In the struc-
ture of its flowers it is nearly allied to the splendid
genus Melaleuca ; and for all its beauty, it is indebt-
ed to the brilliant scarlet colour of its long filaments.
Bot. Mag. 260 ; and Plate 32. Fig. 5.

PsiDiUM Pyriferum, Guava. ' Cal. superior, five-
cleft ; cor. five-petaled ; berry one-celled, manj--
seeded ; leaves elliptic, peduncles one-flowered. A
common tree in the pastures of Jamaica, growing
from eight to twelve feet high ; the fruit is eaten
raw or stewed with milk, and it affords an excellent
marmalade and a richly flavoured jelly.

Psid. Montanum, is also a native of Jamaica, and
rises to the height of 60 or 70 feet, producing also
an agreeable fruit and a valuable wood.

Amygdalus. Gen. char Cal. inferior, five-
cleft ; cor. five-petaled ; drupe, a nut, marked with
pores.

This genus includes the Peach, Amyg. Persica, a
native of Persia; the Almond-tree, .\myg. Commttnis,
which by difference of culture affords bitter and
sweet almonds, is a native of Barbary, but is culti-
vated in the south of Europe ; and Dwarf Almond,
Amyg. Nana, with leaves tapering at the base, a
native of llussia and Tartary, and one of the most
delicate ornaments of the shrubbery in early spring.

Phunus. Gen. char. — Cal. inferior, five-cleft ;
cor. five-petaled ; drupe, with an entire kernel.

BOTANY.

735

Icwandria. Prw". Padus, Bird Cherry ; with flowers in pen-
dulous racemes ; not uncommon in woods and
hedges in Britain, especially in the north of Eng-
land.

Prun. Spinosa, Sloe-tree, or Black Tliorn ; with
solitary peduncles, smooth lanceolate leaves, and
spinous branches ; common in hedges and among
brushwood, and flowers early in the spring.

To this genus belong Bullace-tree, Prun. Insititia,
with double peduncles, and branches ending in a
spine ; common in hedges and woods : the Cherry-
tree, Prun. Ccrasiis, of which numerous varieties
arise from culture : and the Plum-tree, Prun. Do-
mestica, of which the varieties are not less numerous.

Order II. Pentagynia.

Mespilus. Gen. char Cal. five-cleft, petals five,

drupe inferior, from two to five-seeded.

Mesp. Oxyacaniha, Hawthorn, White-thorn, or
May; spinous, with obtuse nearly three-cleft, smooth,
serrated leaves ; flower with two pistils. This plant,
of which varieties are produced by culture, is well
known for its important application in making living
hedges, for which it is admirably fitted by the stitt-
ness of its branches, the sharpness of its thorns, and
hardy nature.

Mesp. Germanica, Common Medlar ; is without
spines, has downy leaves, and flowers with five styles;
is not uncommon in gardens and shrubberies.

Pyrus. Gen. char. — Cal. five-cleft ; petals five ;
pome or apple, inferior, from two to five-celled, seeds
two.

Pyr. Communis, Pear-tree ; with simple serrated
leaves, and corymbose peduncles ; in woods and
hedges ; but the cultivated varieties are almost end-
less.

Pyr. Mains, Crab-tree, or Apple-tree ; with sim-
ple serrated leaves, and simple sessile umbels ; na-
tive of woods and hedges, and the parent of all the
cultivated varieties of the apple.

Pyr. Aticuparia, Mountain Ash, Quicken or Roan-
tree ; with smooth pinnated leaves, leaflets serrated ;
common in woods and hedges, and deservedly ad-
mired for its white flowers in the early summer, and
scarlet berries in the autumn.

Mesembkyanthemum. Gen. char. — Cal. five-
cleft, petals numerous, linear ; caps, fleshy, inferior,
raariy-seeded.

Mesem. Dolalriforme, Ilatchet^leaved Fig Mary-
^old ; is a native of the Cape, and is easily distin-
guished by the form of the leaves, of which the spe-
cific name is descriptive.

Most of the species belonging to this genus are
remarkable for the form or structure of their leaves,
and many of them are peculiarly distinguished by
the beauty and brilliancy of their flowers. Not
fewer than fifty species, chiefly natives of the Cape,
have been discovered, one of which Mcsem. Crystal-
linum, the ice plant, is a well known annual.

Spir-Sa. Gen. char. — C^l. five-cleft, petals five,
capsules superior, two-valved, many-seeded.

Spir. Filipendida, Connnon Dropwoi t ; with

leaves interruptedly pinnated, leaflets uniform, icosandria.
smooth, serrated ; not uncommon in dry pastures,
and cultivated in the garden, where it varies with
double flowers.

Spir. Ulmaria, Meadow-sweet, or Queen of the
Meadow ; with leaves interruptedly pinnated, wool-
ly underneath ; the odd leaflet large and lobed ; very
common in moist meadows, and on the banks of
rivers.

Order III. Poltgitnia.

Rosa. Gen. char. — Cal. pitcher-shaped, five-
cleft, fleshy, contracted at the neck ; petals five ;
seeds numerous, attached to the inside of the calyx.

Ros. Spinosissima, Burnet Rose ; with globular
fruit, and smooth peduncles, stem covered with nu-
merous prickles ; common on the borders of fields,
and among brushwood in a sandy soil.

Ros. Canina, Common Dog-rose, Wild Brier, or
Hep-t;ee ; with ovate fruit, smooth peduncles, and
prickles on the stem hooked ; very common in
hedges and among brushwood.

Ros. Rubiginosn, Sweetbrier, or Eglantine ; with
ovate fruit, rough peduncles, and prickles on the
stem hooked ; in mountainous places, but well
known in the garden for its charming fragrance.

Numerous other species of the rose have been de-
scribed, and equally numerous varieties have been
produced by culture. The Yellow Rose is a native
of Germany ; the Moss Rose, supposed by some to
be a variety of the Provence, and by others, of the
Hundred-leaved Rose ; and the China Rose, Sem-
perjlorcns, which is seldom without flowers, is a fine
ornament of the green-house and the parlour.

RuBus. Geru char. — Cal. five-cleft, petals five,
berry superior, composed of one-seeded acini.

Rub. Idtvits, Raspberry ; with leaves five-pin-
nated and ternate, woolly underneath, foot-stalks
channelled, stem prickly ; common in woods, and cul-
tivated in the garden.

Rub. Fruticosus, Common Bramble ; with leaves
about five together, .woolly underneath, leaflets
foot-stalked, prickles hooked, stem angular, and ca-
lyx reflected. One of the most common plants.

Rub. Chamrrmorus, Mountain Bramble ; with sim-
ple lobed leaves, one-flowered, unarmed ; stem and
segments of the calyx ovate ; not uncommon on the
higher mourftains of Scotland, Wales, and the north
of England.

Fragaeia. Gen. char. — Cal. ten-cleft, inferior ;
petals five ; receptacle of the seeds ovate, berry de-
ciduous, seed smooth.

Frag. Vesca, Wood Strawberry; with creeping
runners ; frequent in woods and hedges.

Frag. Steritis ; Barren Strawberry ; with declining
stem and loose flower bearing branches, with about
two flowers ; coumion in barren pastures.

PoTENXiLtA. Gen. char. — Cal. ten-cleft^nfe-
rior ; petals five ; seeds roundish, naked, oiten
wrinkled, attached to a small dry receptacle.

Pot. Anserina, Silverweed or Wild Tansj' ; with
pinnated, serrated leaves, silky underneath ; creep-

7^6

BOTANY.

Mrandriu. ing stem, one-flowered {>eduncles ; very common in

^^yi^» moist meadows and by wAy-sides.

Pot. Frulicosa, Shrubby Cinquefoil ; with pinna-
ted leaves, and shrubby stem ; said to be a native of
Yorkshire, but is commonly cultivated in shrubberies.

Geum. Gen. char. — Cal. ten-cleft, inferior; pe-
tals five ; awn of the seeds bent.

Ge. Urbanum, Comraon Avens, or Herb Bennet ;
with ternate leaves, erect flowers, and naked, hooked
awns ; very common in woods and hedges.

Gc. Rivale, Water Avens ; with radical leaves
lyre-shaped, nodding flowers, and feathery twisted
awns ; common in moist places, and on the banks of
rivers.

Calycanthus F/onV/«i, Carolina All-spice; cal.
one-leaved, pitcher-shaped, with the leaflets co-'
loured; styles very many, with a glandular stigma,
interior petals longer ; nati^'e of Carolma, and has
been long in the gardens of this country, where it is
kept in the green-house and conservatory. The
bark of this plant has an agreeable aromatic odour,
from which the name is derived; it seems to ap-
proach to the flavour of ginger.

Cal. Pracox, .lapan All-spice ; with the interior
petals small ; is cultivated in Japan as an ornamental
plant, and has been introduced into the gardens of
this country, where it is deservedly admired for the
vast profusion of its flowers, and the remarkable fra-
grance, which difluses to a great distance Bot, Mag.

Class XIII. Polyandria.

In this class the Stamens amount to twenty or more,
and they are inserted in the receptacle. : It is divided
into Seven Orders.

Order I. Monogynia.

Papaver. Gen. char. — Cal. two-leaved ; petals "
four ; stigma radiated ; caps, superior.

Pap. Argemone, Long Rough-headed Pappy ; with
rough, club-shaped capsules, many-flowered, leafy
stem ; annual ; flowers in July, and is not uncommon
in fields.

Pap. Rhaas, Red Poppy, or Corn Rose ; with
smooth, somewhat globular capsules ; rough, many-
flowered stem ; leaves pinatiiid. Common among
corn, and annual.

Pap. Sonmi/erum, White Poppy ; with cal. and
caps, smooth, leaves glaucous, cut, embracing the
stem ; annual ; and cultivated in the East for sup-
plying the demands of commerce with the valuable
drug opium, which is the inspissated milky juice
of the capsules.

CisTus. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved, with the
leaflets unequal ; petals five ; caps, superior, angu-
lar, three-valved, many-seeded.

Cist. Hetianlhemutn, Common Dwarf Cistus; shrub-
by, procumbent, with elliptic oblong leaves, hoary
underneath ; common in dry upland pastures.

Many species of this genus are cultivated in the
garden : Among which,

Cist. Formosus, or Beautiful Cistus, a native of poiyanndrla.
Portugal, appears conspicuous for its specious flowers, s^v^*^

Capparis Sphiosa, Caper Bush. Cal. four-leaved ;
berry with a footstalk. This species is a low, prickly
shrub, a native of Italy, the buds of which, preserved
in vinegar, are well known under the name of capers.

Sanguinaria Canadensis, Canada Puccoon, or
Bloodwort. Cal. two-leaved ; cor. eight-petaled ;
pod ovate, one-celled. Native of Canada, and re-
markable for the singular structure of its leaves, and
the bright red or orange-coloured juice of its roots.
It has been long cultivated in this country.

Sarracenia Flava, Yellow Side-saddle Flower.
Cal. double, three and five-leaved ; cor. five-petal-
led ; caps, five-celled ; stigma in the form of a shield ;
leaves tubular, erect ; valve contracted at the neck.
Common in the swamps of North America. The
tubular structure of the leaves of this plant has ex-
ercised the ingenuity of physiological botanists ; but
they have not succeeded in ascertaining its use.
Other species are cultivated in this country. Bot.
Mag. 780, and 849.

Nymph^a. Gen. char. — Cal. four or five-leaved ;
cor. many-petalous ; stigma radiated, sessile ; berry
superior, many-celled.

Nymph. Lutea, Yellow Water-lily ; with cal. five-
leaved, larger than the petals ; stigma entire ; leaves
entire, heart-shaped. Not uncommon in rivers and
lakes.

Nym. Alba, White Water-lily ; with four-leaved
calyx, and lobed stigma. Frequent in rivers and
lakes, where it is easily recognised by its large white
flowers.

Nym. Lotus, Egyptian Water-lily, or Lotus ; with
heart-shaped, very smooth, toothed leaves. Native
of Egypt and of the East Indies, and an object of
veneration among the inhabitants of both countries.
A native of Nepaul, seeing the flowers of this plant
in Sir William Jones's study, made prostrations be-
fore it. Bot. Mag. 797.

TiLiA Europcea, Lime or Linden Tree. Cal. five-
parted ; petals five ; cap. superior, leathery, angu-
lar, five-celled, five-valved, opening at the base.
Spec. char. — Flowers destitute of nectary, leaves
heart-shaped ; branches of the veins downy. In
woods and hedges.

CoRCHORus. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved, length
of the corolla, deciduous ; caps, about five-celled.

Cor. Hiliquosiis, Podded Broom-weed ; with linear
compressed capsules, and lanceolate leaves. A na-
tive of Jamaica, where it grows to the height of
three ftet.

Cor. Olitorius, Common Jews Mallow ; with ob-
long, ventricose capsules ; grows to the height of
two feet, and is cultivated as a pot-herb at Aleppo.
The Jews boil the leaves, and eat thein with their
meat.

Cor. Japonicus, Japan Broom-weed ; with dou-
bly serrated, heart-shaped, acuminated leaves, and
smooth round stem ; has become, on account of its
fine double yellow flowers, a great favourite in the
garden and parlour.

BOTANY.

737

Polyaadria. TrtEA, Tea-tree. Ge«.cArt>-.— Cal. five or six-leaved;
petals six or nine ; caps, three-celled ; seeds solitary.
Two species, Thea Viridis and Tliea Bohea, are de-
scribed as distinct by some botanists, while they are
considered by others as only varieties. In the first,
or the green tea, the stem is covered with a thin,
ash-coloured bark ; the leaves are oval, pointed,
serrated, and of a deep green. In the bohea, the
branches of the foot-stalks of the leaves and flowers
are reddish, the leaves are larger, wrinkled, and of
a pale bluish green.

The two species or varieties are cultivated in China
and Japan. The leaves are collected at three dif-
ferent periods, at the end of February, of March,
and April. The leaves of the first crop, which are
the smallest, are most esteemed, and, it is said, are
reserved for the princes and persons of rank in Japan
and China ; and the produce of the two later crops
is exported to Europe. When the leaves are col-
lected, they are roasted on iron plates to make them
shrivel up ; and for the same purpose, the better
kinds of tea leaves are rolled 'in the palm of the
hand. Before roasting, the Chinese immerse the
leaves for a few minutes in boiling water ; which
process has given rise to a report, that the tea which
they export has been already infused.

The varied preparations to which the leaves are
subjected, the period of collecting them, the age of
the shrub, and the influence of the soil where it is
cultivated, produce the varieties of tea in commerce,
which are distinguished by difterent names, and sold
at very diiferent prices. Tlie finest and most highly
flavoured tea, it is said, is brought from China by
land to Petersburgh.

The Chinese method of infusing tea is usually
practised in Europe ; but the Japanese reduce the
dried leaves to fine powder, and add a small spoon-
ful of this powder to a cup of boiling water. Be-
side the ordinary use of tea, it is perhaps little
known, that it is sometimes employed as an addition
to the usual ingredients in punch.

BixA Orellana, Annotto. Caps, five-toothed; cor.
five-petaled, double ; caps, two-valved. Native of
the West Indies and of some parts of the American
continent; rises to the height of 10 or 12 feet, and
yields, from the pulpy matter which covers the seeds,
the dye-stuff called Annotto ; for the preparation of
which, see Annotto.

Order II. Digynia.

P^ONiA. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved ; petals
five, regular ; germens from two to five ; no style ;
caps, many-seeded.

The common Pseony Rose is a splendid ornament
of the garden and shrubbery ; and Paeonia Tenui-
Jolia, Fine-leaved Paeony, with doubly ternate leaves,
and leaflets much divided, and naked, produces a
specious flower — is a native of the Ukraine, and is
found to be a hardy perennial in the gardens of this
country.

Order III. Trigynia.
Delphinium. Gen. char Cal. none; petals five,

VOL. I. PART II.

the uppermost with a spur ; nectary two-cleft, spur- Polyandria.
shaped behind.

Del. Consolida, Field Lark-spur ; with solitary
capsule, one-leafed nectary, and subdivided stem.
Native of some parts of England.

Del. Ajacis, Larkspur ; is one of the most common
annuals in the flower-garden.

Aconitum, or Monk's-hood, of which there are
many species, belongs also to this order.

Order IV. Tetragynia.

Under this order are arranged Wintera Aroma-
ilea, a tree which is a native of South America,
and from which is obtained the winter's-bark of the
shops.

Order V. Fentagynia.

Aquilegia Vulgaris, Common Columbine. Cal.
none ; petals five ; nectaries five, horned, and ar-
ranged among the petals ; caps, five, distinct. Spec,

char Nectaries bent inwards, scarcely equal to the

petals ; stem and leaves smooth. In mountainous,
pastures in England, but, with numerous varieties,
cultivated in gardens.

Order VI. IIexagynia.

Stratiotes Aloides, Water Aloe, or Water Sol-
dier. Spathe two-leaved ; perianth superior ; three-
cleft ; petals three ; berry six-celled. Spec, char.—
Leaves sword-shaped, triangular, prickly, serrated.
In marshy places of Lincolnshire and Norfolk.

Order VII. Polygynia.

Anemone. Gen. char. — Cal. none ; cor. six-pe«
taled; seeds many.

An. Nemorosa, Wood Anemone ; with one-flowered
stem, furnished with a three-leaved involucrum, sup*
ported on a foot-stalk. Very common in woods.

An. Pulsatilla, Pasque-flower ; is also a native of
England. An. Hepatica, is well known in gardens
for its early double flowers ; and the beautiful varie-
ties of the Anemone, with double flowers, constitute
some of the chief ornaments of the flower-garden.

Ranunculus. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved ; pe-
tals from five to eight, with a honey pore within the
claws ; seeds naked.

Ran. Flammula, Lesser Spearwort ; with ovate,
lanceolate leaves on footstalks ; stem declining. Com-
mon in marshy places.

Ran. Lingua, Great Spearwort ; with lanceolate
pointed leaves, many flowered, erect stem. In marshy
places, but less common.

Ran. Ficaria, Pilewort, or Lesser Celandine ; with
heart-shaped leaves on footstalks. Common in mea-
dows and moist places, and one of the earliest flowers
of the spring.

Liriodendron Tulipifera, Common Tulip tree.

Cal. three-leaved, petals six ; seeds imbricated in the

form of a cone ; leaves lobed. This splendid tree,

which, in its native soil in North America, grows to

5b

738

BOTANY.

I)ij,„„,i^ the height of 70 or 80 feet, is successfully cultivat-

>,>V-v^ ed in this couiitrv ; and one of thcra, m Mr Ord s

garden at Walhan'i-green, near London, is every year

Severed with blossoms. BoL Mag. 275. See Plate

- 32. Fig. 6.

Annona. Gen. char. — Cal. three-leaved, cor. six-
petaled, berry many-seeded, with an imbricated co-
vering.

An. Murkala, the Sour Sop, an agreeable acid
fruit, and An. Squamosa, Sweet Sop, the fruit of
which is sweetish, are both natives of Jamaica.

Class XIV. Didynamia.

The plants of this class have four stamens, and the
character depends on their unequal length ; two of
them are long and two short, by which they are dis-
tinguished from plants in the fourth class. The co-
rolla is irregular in its form. This class is divided in-
to two orders ; the first, Gymnospermia, in which the
seeds are naked ; and the second, Angiospermia, in
which the seeds are contained in a capsule.

Order I. Gymnospeiimia.

A JURA Reptans, Common Bugle. Gen. char. — The
upper lip of the corolla smallest, notched, stamens
longer tlian the upper lip ; plant smooth, with single
stem, and creeping shoots. Common in woods and
moist pastures.

Tevcrivm Scorodonia, Wood-sage. Cor. with no
upper-lip, but divided to the base ; stamens protrud-
ed ; leaves heart-shaped, serrated, on footstalks, with
lateral racemes ; the flowers on one side ; erect stem.
Common in woods and heaths.

Mentha. Gen. char. — Cor. nearly equal, four-
cleft, with the broader segment notched ; cal. five-
cleft ; stamens erect and distant.

Of this genus, 12 species, with numerous varieties
imder most of them, are described as native plants.

Men. Viridis, Spearmint ; has interrupted spikes ;
leaves sessile, lanceolate, acute, naked ; bracteas
bristly, and teeth of the calyx somewhat rough.

'\k:n. Piperita, Peppermint; has obtuse spikes,
interrupted at the lower part ; leaves subovate,
smoothiijh, on footstalks; base of the calyx very
smooth. Botlj are natives, and grow in marshy and
moist places, but are extensively cultivated for medi-
cal purposes.

Lamium. Gen. char — Cal. five-cleft, with bristly,
spreading teeth ; cor. upper-lip entire, arched, infe-
rior, two-lobed, inflated, toothed on the margin on
each side.

Lam. Album, White Dead-nettle ; with heart-shap-
ed, serrated, pointed leaves, on footstalks ; flowers in
whorls. 'Very common in waste-places about towns.

Lam. Purpureum, Red Dead-nettle ; with heart-
shaped, obtuse leaves, on footstalks ; upper leaves
crowded together. Annual, and very common in
waste places and cultivated grounds.

Staciiys. Gen. char.— Cal five-cleft, bearded ;
or. upper-lip arched, lower reflected at the sides ;

middle segment larger, notched; stamens towards DiaTnamia.
the reflected sides, without anthers.

Sta.Si/lvatica, Hedge Woundwort; with six-flowered
whorls, and heart-shaped leaves on footstalks. Com-
mon in woods and hedges.

Sta. Arvensis, Corn- Woundwort, or Hedge-nettle;
with six-flowered whorls, weak stem, and leaves
heart-shaped, blunt, crenated, somewhat hairy. An-
nual, and common in gardens and gravelly soils.

Sta. Coccinea, Scarlet Stachys ; with six-flowered
whorls, and ovate, heart-shaped, crenated leaves, with ,
dilated footstalks. Native of Chili, and seems hardy
enough for the climate of this country. Bot. Mag.
xviii. 666.

Sta. Lanata, Woolly Stachys ; cultivated in gar-
dens, remarkable for its woolly leaves and stem, and-
much sought after by the domestic bee.

Prunella. Gen. char. — Filaments two-forked at
the summit, stigma two-cleft.

Prun. Vidgaris, Self-heal ; with all the leaves a-
vate, oblong, and on footstalks. Perennial, and'
common in meadows and pastures.

Prun. Grandijiura, Great-flowered Self-heal ; leaves
ovate, oblong, slightly serrated, upper lip of the ca-
lyx deeply divided into three lobes. Native of the
Alps, and, with its fine purple blossoms, is a hardy
ornamental plant in the flower-garden. Bot. Mag.

X. 337.

Order IL Angiospermia.

Rhinanthus Cm^a-Gfl^^j, Yellow-rattle, or Horse-
rattle. Cal. inflated, four-toothed; shieldofthecorolla
compressed, caps, two-celled, obtuse, compressed ;.
seedsimbricated. Spec. char. — Upper lip of the corolla
arched ; cal. smooth ; leaves lanceolate, serrated.
Annual, and very common in meadows and pastures.

Euphrasia Officinalis, Eye-bright. Cal. cylindri-
cal, four-toothed, equal; upper lip of corolla two-cleft,
lower lip three-lobed, with two-cleft segments ; an-
thers furnished with unequal spines. Spec, char.—
Leaves ovate, minutely toothed. Very common in
pastures and heathy grounds.

Antirrhinum. Gen. char. — Cal. five-parted, base
of the corolla prominent downwards, nectariferous;
caps, two-celled.

Ant. C^w6a/nn«, Ivy-leaved Snapdragon ; with
leaves heart-shaped, tive-lobed, alternate, smooth ;
stems inclining. Perennial ; originally introduced
from Italy, but common on walls, on the banks
of the Thames, about Oxford and Windsor castle,
and beginning to appear on the walls near Edin-
burgh.

Ant. Linaria, Common Yellow-toad Flax ; with
lance-shaped, linear, crowded leaves ; stem erect,
spiked ; cal. smooth, shorter than the nectary. Com-
mon in hedges and the borders of fields.

Ant. Majus, Great Snapdragon. Cor. without spur;
flowers in spikes ; cal. obtuse, hairy. Perennial, and
a common plant in the flower-garden.

Digitalis Par/jurca, Purple FoSglove. Cal. five-

parted ; cor. bell-shaped, five-cleft, inflated, caps,
ovate, two-celled, many-seeded. Spec. char. — Seg-
ments of the calyx ovate, acute ; corolla obtuse, up..

BOTANY.

Tetradyna- P^"" I'P entire ; leaves downy. Common in woods and
raia. hedges in a sandy or gravelly soil, and varies some-

759

times with white flowers.

LiNN^A BoreaUs, Two-flowered Linnsea. Cal.
double; cal. of the fruit two-leaved, of the flower five-
parted, superior ; cor. bell-shaped ; berry dry, three-
celled. This plant, which is intended to commemo-
rate the venerable father of botany, is a native of the
northern parts of Europe and America, and has
been found in an old fir-wood in Aberdeenshire, in
Scotland.

BiGNONiA. Gen cAar.— Cal. five-cleft, cup-form-
ed; throat of corolla bell-shaped, five-cleft, inflated
beneath, pod two-celled; seeds with membranaceous
wings.

Big. Radicans, Ash-leaved Trumpet-flower ; with
pinnated leaves, leaflets gashed, stem jointed, root-
ing. Native of North America, and successfully
cultivated as an ornamental climber in the neigh-
bourhood of London, mounting to the summit of
the loftiest tree, and spreading over the highest wall ;
and displaying, in August and September, a vast
profusion of magnificent flowers. A tree of this spe-
cies has been long an inhabitant of Chelsea-garden.
£ot. Mag. xiv. 485. See Plate 32. Fig. 7.

Big. Longissima, French Oak, or Trumpet-flower ;
with simple, oblong-pointed leaves ; stem erect, and
woolly seeds. Native of Jamaica, and an elegant
tree, which rises to the height of 40 feet. Some
other species of Bignonia are natives of Jamaica ;
and it ought to be observed, that the irregular co-
rolla of Big. Radicans sometimes assumes a regular
form, and five stamens of equal length appear, so
that it more properly belongs to the fifth class.

Crescentia. Gen. char. — Berry one-celled, with
a hard, woody covering ; cor. with tube; bell-shaped
-gerraen, supported on a foot-stalk.

Cres. Cujete, Narrow-leaved Calabash, with wedge-
shaped lanceolate leaves. Native of Jamaica ; a
tree which rises to the height of twenty feet, and is
remarkable for the large size of its fruit, which is
sometimes a foot in diameter ; and the hard woody
shell is employed by the negroes as bottles, cups,
spoons, and other kitchen utensils. Another species
is a native of Jamaica ; but the shell of the fruit is
so thin that it cannot be applied to the same pur-
poses.

Melianthus. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved, with
the inferior leaf gibbous ; petals four, with the nec-
tary beneath the lowest; caps, four-celled.

Two species of this genus have been described,
Major and Minor, both of which are cultivated in
this country, and are remarkable for the copious se-
cretion of honey, which is so abundant in the former
as to drop from the flowers.

Class XV. Tetradynamia,

In this class the character is derived from the une-
qual length of the stamens, four of which are long
and two short, standing opposite to each other. The
flowers are composed of four petals, arranged two
and two opposite to each other, in the form of a
2

cross, and hence are called cruciform flowers. This Tctrad«ia.7
class is divided into two orders, characterised by the
length of the pod.

OrdeH I. SiLICULOSA.

The plants belonging to this order have a roundish
pod or pouch, which is sometimes called silicle, or
little pod.

Draba Venia, Common Whitlow Grass. Silicle
entire, with plain valves parallel to the partition; stems
naked ; petals divided ; leaves lanceolate, rough,
slightly gashed. Annual, and one of the earliest
flowers of the spring ; is common on walls and dry
pastures.

Thlaspi Bursa-Pastoris, Common Shepherds'
Purse. Silicle notched, obcordate, with valves mar-
gined, keeled ; an annual plant, flowering through
the summer, and everywhere common.

Lunaria. Gen. char — Silicle on a pedicle with
flat valves ; style protruded.

To this genus belongs a common plant in the gar-
den, called Moonwort, Honesty, or Satin-flower,
which last is derived from the silky appearance of
the pod.

Under this order are comprehended Cramle, Sea-
Cabbage, or Kale ; Lepidium, one species of which,
Lep. Sativum, is the well-known Garden Cress; Cock-
learia. Scurvy Grass ; and Iberis, Candytuft, remark-
able for the inequality of its petals, and familiar in
the flower-garden.

Order II. Siliquosa.

This order is distinguished by the fruit being in
the form of a long pod.

Cardamine Pratensis, Meadow Lady's Smock,
Cuckow-flower ; pod opening with a spnng ; valves
bent backward, equal to the partition ; stigma entire ;
cal. slightly gaping ; a single gland on both sides
between the shorter stamens and the calyx ; leaves
pinnated ; radical leaflets, roundish, toothed, those
on the stem lanceolate. Perennial, and common in
moist pastures, where it exhibits its fine purple or
white flowers early in spring.

Sisymbrium. Gen. char Pod opening with up-
right valves ; cal. and cor. spreading.

Sis. Nasturtium, Water-Cress ; with declining
pods, pinnated leaves, leaflets heart-shaped, round-
ish. Common in rivulets and near springs, and well
known as one of the earliest salads for the table.

Sis. Monense, Isle of Man Rocket, or Dwarf Sea
Rocket ; with erect pods ; pinnatifid leaves, simple,
naked, smooth stems. This plant is very remark-
able for its habitat. It is very abundant in dry pas-
tures along the coast of Ayrshire, in Bute and Ar-
ran in Scotland, in the Isle of Man and in Cumber-
land in England, and in Anglesea in Wales, while a
single- plant has not been discovered in the eastern
parts of the kingdom.

Erysimum. Gen. char — Pod straight, exactly,
square ; cal. shut ; stigma capitate.

740

BOTANY.

Er, Officinale, Common Hedge-Mustard ; with pods
closely pressed to the stem, leaves runcinated. An-
nual ; flowers in June and July, and is very common
in waste places and by way-sides.

Er. Barbarea, Yellow Rocket, or Bitter Winter
Cress ; with inferior leaves lyre-shaped, terminal
lobe round, upper leaves obovate, toothed. Perenni-
al ; flowers during the summer months, and is com-
mon in waste places, by river sides, and hedges, and
cultivated in the flower-garden with double flowers.

Er. AUiaria, Garlic Hedge-Mustard, or Jack-by-
the-Hedge ; with heart-shaped leaves. Biennial ;
flowers in May, and is common in hedges and shady
places, where it is at once recognized by the garlic
odour which any part of the bruised plant exhales.

Cheiranthus Fruticulosus, Wild Wallflower; ger-
men with a small tooth on each side furnished with
a gland ; cal. closed ; seeds plain ; leaves lanceolate,
acute, hoary on the lower surface ; stem shrubby ;
branches angular. Common on old walls. From
the wild variety the wallflower of the garden is dif-
ferent in some of its characters, arising probably
from culture.

Brassica. Gen. char — Cal. upright, pod roundish,
seeds globular.

To this genus belongs Bras. Napm, Rape ; Bras.
Rapa, Turnip; and Bras. Oleracea, the Cabbage;
and the various species and varieties which are culti-
vated in gardens.

SiNAPis. Gen. char Cal. spreading; claws of the

corolla upright ; pod roundish, with a prominent par-
tition.

Three native species belong to this genus ; Sin.
Arvensis, Wild Mustard, or Charlock, with angular
pods, a troublesome weed among corn ; Sin. Alba,
White Mustard, with rough pods, which grows in
fields and by way-sides, and is sown in the winter
and spring as a salad ; and Sin. Nigra, Common
Mustard, with smooth square pods, closely pressed
to the stem, which is cultivated on account of its
seeds, from which is obtained the mustard of the
table.

Raphanus. Gen. char..— Cal. closed ; pod round,
twisted, jointed.

Raph. Raphanistrum, Wild Radish, or Jointed
Charlock; with jointed, smooth, one-celled pods.
Not uncommon' among corn.

Raph. Sativtu, Cultivated Radish; is a familiar
plant in tlie kitchen garden.

Class XVI. Monadelphia.

Tlie character of this class is derived from the sta-
mens being united by their filaments into one tube ;
and the eight orders mto which it is divided are dis-
tinguished by the number of stamens.

Orbbr I. Thiandria.

Tamarindus Ihdica, the Tamarind Tree; with
one pistil ; cal. four-parted ; petals three ; seeds con-
tained in a pod ; leaves pinnated, composed of six-
teen or eighteen p«in of leaflets. This tree, which

is a native of both the Indies, grows to a large size,
and sends forth numerous branches, which are thick-
ly set with a beautiful bright green foliage. The '
pulp, in which the seeds are imb'jdded within the pod,
preserved with sugar, forms the well known acid sub-
stance, the tamarinds of the shops.

SiSYRiNCHiUM. Gen. char — One pistil ; two-
leaved spathe ; petals six, plain ; caps, three-celled,
inferior.

Sis. Bermudiana, Iris-leaved Sisyrinchium ; with
sword-shaped leaves; oblong, obcordate, veined pe-
tals. Native of Bermudas ; and cultivated in the
green-house in this country.

Sis. Gramineum, Grass-leaved Sisyrinchium ; with
broad, double edged stem ; germen smooth. Native
of Virginia, and a hardy perennial in the flower gar-
den.

Ferraria. Gen. char. — One pistil ; spathe three-
leaved ; no calyx ; petals six, the three outermost
broader ; caps, three-celled, inferior,

Fer.^,Tigridia, Mexican Ferraria, or Tiger-flower;
with folded leaves ; corolla broad, pitcher-shaped,
inner segments depressed, intersected. This plant,
which is a native of Mexico and Peru, is conspicuous
for the splendour and rich colouring of its flowers ;
but it is not less remarkable for its transient exist-
ence— all its beauties vanish in a few hours. Bot.
Mag. XV. 532.

Fer. Undulafa, Culled Ferraria; with many-flow-
ered stem. A native of the Cape ; and, though less
splendid, yet it is equally singular and beautiful in
its form and appearance, and not less fugacious in
the duration of its flowers.

Order II. Pentandria.

Erodium. Gen. char — Cal. five-leaved ; cor.
five-petaled ; nectary five scales ; fruit five-seeded,
beaked.

Er. Cicutarium, Hemlock Stork's-bill ; with many
flowered peduncles and pinnated leaves, leaflets ses-
sile, pinatifid, gashed ; frequent in waste and sandy
places.

Er. Maritimum, Sea Stork's-bill ; with about
three flowered peduncles ; heart-shaped, gashed, cre-
nated, rough leaves, depressed stems. Not uncom-
mon in sandy places on the sea-coast.

Er. Incarnatum, Flesh-coloured Crane's-bill ; with
few flowered peduncles ; leaves three-parted, ter-
nate, or trifid, rough ; stem shrubby. Native of the
Cape, and one of the taoit beautiful ornaments of
tlie green-house.

Order HI. Heptandria.

Pelargonium. Gen. char. — Cal. five-parted, up-
per segment terminating the inner capillary, necta-
riferous tube ; cor. five-petaled, irregular ; fruit five-
seeded, beaked. ' • .

Pel. Pinnatmn, Pinnated Crane's-bill ; without
stem ; umbels somewhat compound ; leaves pinnated.
Native of the Cape, and one of the tenderer species.

Pel. Bicolor, Two-coloured Crane's-bill ; with
many-flowered umbels, and leaves ternatc, divided^

Monadel.
phia.

BOTANY.

741

Monadcl- lobed, and waved. This beautiful species is a fine
pliia. ornament of tiie green-house.

Pel. Peltatwm, Ivy-leaved Crane's-bill ; with one-
leaved calyx ; leaves five-lobed, very entire, smooth ;
stem shrubby. Native of Africa.

Pel. Incrassahim, Fleshy-leaved Crane's-bill ; near-
ly without stem, scape divided, rough ; leaves lobed,
pinnatifid, smooth. This species is tuberous-rooted,
produces beautiful flowers, and is yet rare in this
country Bot.Mag. xx. 761. and Plate 32. Fig. 8.

Order IV, Octandhia.

AiTONiA Capensis, Cape Aitonia. One style;
cal. four-parted; cor. four-petaled ; berry dry, quad •
rangular, one-celled, many-seeded. Native of the
Cape, and cultivated in the green-house in this coun-
try.

Order V. Decandria.

Gerakium. Gen. char, — Cal. five-leaved ; cor.
five-petaled ; five nectariferous glands ; fruit five-
seeded, beaked ; beaks bent backwards, naked.

Ger. Roberlianum, Herb Robert, or Stinking
Crane's-bill ; with two flowered peduncles ; pinnati-
fid, five-augular leaves ; cal. with ten angles ; caps,
wrinkled. Very common in waste-places, and in
liedges.

Ger. Dissectum, Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill ; with
two-flowered peduncles ; petals notched ; leaves di-
vided into five segments ; caps, rough ; seeds reticu-
lated : Not uncommon in waste places and gravelly
soils.

Ger. Sanguineum, Bloody Crane's-bill ; with one-
flowered foot-stalks, five-parted, three-cleft, round
leaves ; caps, bristly at the summit. Among brush-
wood in mountainous rocky situations ; and, with
its deep red specious flowers, rivals some of the ex-
otic species.

The three genera, Erodium, Pelargonium, and
Geranium, were formerly included under the latter
genus, till they were arranged according to the cha-
racters given of each by the celebrated French bo-
tanist L'Heritier.

Order VIII. Polyandhia,

BoMBAX Ceiba, Cotton Tree. One pistil ; cal.
simple ; caps, five-celled, many-seeded ; style undi-
vided ; seeds woolly ; leaves digitate, with five seg-
ments. Native of Jamaica, and one of the largest
trees of that island, sometimes rising to the height
of 100 feet; the wood is light and porous, and an-
swers well for canoes.

GossypiuM Barbadense, Cotton Tree. One pistil ;
cal. exterior, three-cleft ; three or four-celled ; seeds
numerous, imbedded in cotton.

This remarkable plant, which furnishes such a-
bundance of materials for manufactures and com-
merce, is the spontaneous production of all the tro-
pical regions of Asia, Africa, and America. Diffe-
rent kinds or varieties of cotton are cultivated in the
West Indies. Two kinds are particularly distin.

guished by the planters under the names of green- Monadel--
seed cotton and shrub cotton ; the first is only culti- phia.
vated for domestic purposes, because it is difficult to '^r^r^t
separate the seeds from the wool. Several varieties
of shrub cotton are described, some of them, perhaps,
arising from diversity of soil and culture ; such are
the common Jamaica cotton, with oblong smooth
seeds, and of a strong coarse staple ; brown bearded,
more productive, and of a finer staple ; Nankeen, si-
milar to the preceding, excepting the colour of the
wool; French, or small-seecl, usually cultivated in
St Domingo ; and Kidney cotton, so called from the
seeds adhering to each other in the pod, and sup-
posed to be the true Brazil cotton.

A valuable kind of cotton, called the Bourbon cot-
ton, was introduced into Jamaica from Bengal in
1795 ; it is very productive, bears the driest weather,
and parts freely from the seed. '

The cotton plant, as it is cultivated in Jamaica, is
raised from the seed, which is sown from April to
October in rows from six to eight feet distant, and
the seeds in the row four feet apart. The plants ap-
pear in a fortnight, and at the end of three or four
months they are pruned or topped, and if tiie crop be
luxuriant the same operation is repeated a second, and
even a third time. At the end of five months the
beautiful yellow flowers begin to expand ; in two
months more the pods arc formed ; and from the se-
venth to the tenth month they ripen in succession,
when they burst open in three partitions, and display
the white and glossy down ; the wool is then gather-
ed and passed through the gin, a machine composed
of two small rollers, turning in opposite directions
for the purpose of separating the seeds ; the wool is
afterwards hand-picked to clear it of decayed leaves,
broken seeds, and any portions that are stained and
damaged in the pod ; and being packed in bags of
about 200 lb. weight, is ready for the market. The
produce of an acre is estimated at from L.200 to
L.300, but the crop is very precarious, from nume-
rous accidents to which the plant is exposed. In
the first stage of its growth it is attacked by the
grub ; devoured by the caterpillar in the second ;
withered by the blast, or destroyed by rains, both
in the flowering and ripening state.

Malva. Gen. char.^Ca\. double, exterior, about
three-leaved ; caps, numerous, one-seeded, arrang-
ed circularly.

Mai. Sylvestris, Common Mallow ; with herbace-
ous, erect stem ; seven-lobbed, acute leaves ; foot-
stalks of leaves and flowers liairy. Common in waste
places, by way-sides and hedges.

Mai. Rotundifolia, Dwarf Mallow; with leaves
heart-shaped, round, five or seven lobed ; common
in waste places and by way-sides.

Mai. Moschata, Musk Mallow; with radical leaves
kidney-shaped, gashed; stem-leaves five parted; leaf-
lets much divided ; calyx hairy. On the borders of
fields, but less frequent.

Lavatera. Gen
three cleft ; caps,
circularly.

Lav. Arborea, Sea-tree Mallow ; with woody stem,
leaves with seven angles, woolly, and folded. On

char. — Cal. double, exterior,
numerous, one-seeded, arranged

742

BOTANY.

Piwlfipiiin. rocky places near the sen, but rare : on the Bass isl-
^^.^i-m^ and in the frith of Forth, and on Portland island in
the British channel. A biennial plant, and grows
to the height of six feet.

Lav. Trimeslris, Annual Lavatcra ; with rough
herbaceous stem, smooth leaves, and one-flowered
footstalks ; is the well known and shewy annual of
the flower garden, where it frequently varies with
■white flowers. •

Hibiscus. Gen. char. — Calyx double, exterior,
many-leaved ; caps, five-celled, many-seeded.

Hib. Syriacus, better known by the name of At-
th<ea FnitcT, is a native of Syria, and one of the fin-
est autumnal ornaments of the flower-garden.

Hibisc. Elatiis, Mountain Mahoe ; with heart-shap-
ed, roundish, entire leaves ; one-flowered, very short
iootstalks; calyx ten-toothed. Frequent in the woods
of Jamaica, grows to a large tree, sometimes 60 feet
high, and produces specious yellow flowers from the
extremities of the branches, from which it has been
called tulip tree. The wood is suitable for many
valuable purposes, and the bark furnishes an excel-
lent material for ropes. It varies sometimes with
red flowers.

Hibisc. Esculenlm, Eatable Hibiscus, or Ochra of
the West Indies ; with leaves five-parted, pedate ; in-
ner calyx bursting at the side. The capsules of this
plant, which are very succulent, are an mgredient in
the celebrated pepper-pot, or are eaten by themselves
at table, and constitute a rich nourishing food.

Hibisc. Subdai-iffa, Indian Sorrel ; with serrated
leaves, upper seven parted, lower ovate, undivided.
Cultivated in Jamaica on account of the calyx and
capsules, which have an agreeable acid taste, and
are made into tarts, stewed with milk, or formed into
syrup.

Camellia. With imbricated, many-leaved calyx,
interior leaflets larger ; of which Cam. Japonica, or
Japan Rose, varying with red and white, single and
double flowers, becomes a large tree in the groves
and gardens of Japan, and is one of the most splen-
did mmates of the stove and conservatory in this
country, — and Alcea, the Holly-hock, with calyx
double, the exterior six or nine- cleft, caps, nume-
rous, one-seeded, the varieties of which, with single
and double flowers, constitute the shewy ornament
of the gardeu and shrubbery towards the close of
summer.

Class XVII. Diadklphia.

The character of this class is derived from the di-
vision of the stamensinto two parcels. It contains
four orders, which are distinguished by the number
of their stamens ; and the flowers are almost univer-
sally papilionaceous.

Under the first order, Pentandria, a single genus,
Monnieriay. a South American plant, with gaping
corolla and alternate leaves, is placed.

Order II. Hexandbia.

FuMARiA, Gen. c/iar.— Cal. two-leaved; cor.

gaping ; filaments two, membranaceous, each with DWelpHg.
three anthers.

Funi. Officinalis, Common Fumitory; with loose
spikes, one-seeded, globular, notched pods, segments
of the leaflets dilated; very common in fields and gar-
dens.

Order III. Octandria.

Polyoala. Gen. char. — Cal. five-leaved, two
largest leaflets wing-shaped, coloured ; pod heart-
shaped, two-celled.

Pol. Vulgaris, Milk Wort ; with flowers crested
and in racemes ; and leaves linear, lanceolate. Com-
mon in warm dry pastures ; and its beautiful flowers
are blue, violet, and white. To the same genus be-
long some beautiful species from America and the
Cape of Good Hope.

Order IV. Decandria.

In this order the stamens are usually divided into
nine in one parcel, with a single one separate, and
the genera are distributed into six sections, in the
first of which the stamens are all united, as in the
common broom ; in the second the stigma is downy,
as in Pisitni or Pea, and Vicia or Vetch ; in the third
the pod is nearly two-celled, as in Astragalus or Milk-
vetch ; in the fourth the pod has scarcely more than
one seed, as in Trefolium or Trefoil ; in the fifth the
pod is nearly jointed, as in Hedysarum ; and in the
sixth the"ped is one-celled and many-seeded.

Spartium Scoparium, Common Broom ; stigma
longitudinal, villous above ; filaments united, adher-
ing to the germen ; cal. produced downwards ; leaves
ternate and solitary ; branches angular and unarmed.
Frequent in dry pastures.

Ulex Europants, Common Furze or Whin. Cal.
two-leaved ; pod scarcely longer than the calyx ;
all the stamens united. Spec. char. — Teeth of the
cal. obtuse ; bracteas ovate, loose ; branches erect.
In barren and heathy soils frequent.

Hedysarum. Gen, char. — Pod with one-seeded
joints ; keel of the cor. transversely obtuse.

Hed. Onohrychis, Saint Foin ; with pinnated leaves;
p(Jds one-seeded ; hairy wings of the corolla of the
length of the calyx. On hills and chalky pastures
in England, and frequently cultivated as food for
domestic animals.

Hed. Gyrans, Moving Plant ; with ternate leaves.
A native of the interior parts of Bengal, and remark-
able for the constant motion or alternate meeting and
receding of the two small appendages or leaflets on
each side of the footstalks. This singular motion
is continued through the whole day in its native
soil ; but it is only in the middle of the day that it
exerts this power in the stove in this country. Plate
82. Fig. 9.

To this order belong Lupinus, Lupine, with the
anthers alternately round and oblong, and legume
or pod leathery ; Pisum, in which the style is keeled
and woolly above ; and of which Pisum Saiivutn, the
Garden Pea, furnishes a good example.

B O T A N Y.

745

Polyailclpliia Phaseolus, the Kidney Bean ; with the keel and
^^J^~y^ style spiral.

Lathyrus ; with style plain and woolly above,
and upper segments of the calyx one half shorter, of
which Lath. Odoratus, Sweet Pea, or Painted Lady
Pea, is one of the most shewy and common annuals
in the flower garden ;

ViciA ; of which flie garden bean, Vicia Faha, is
a species ; with the style bearded under the stigma.

Trifolium, or Trefoil, in which the pod is one or
two-seeded, and scarcely longer than the calyx, and
the flowers grow in heads.

Indigofera, in which the keel has a tooth on each
side, and different species of which are cultivated in
the East and West Indies for the purpose of extract-
ing the indigo of commerce ; and

Cytisus, with two-lobed calyx, and pod on a foot-
stalk, of which Cyt. Laburnum, Common Laburnum,
is a well known ornament of the shrubbery.

Class XVIIL Polyadelphia.

In this class the stamens are united by their fila-
ments into more than two parcels ; and the three
orders into wliich it is divided are distinguished by
the number or insertion of the stamens.

Order L Dodecandria«

TnnoEKOMA Cacao, Chocolate-nut Tree. Cal.
three-leaved ; cor. five-petaled ; nectaries five ; the
number of stamens not distinctly ascertained. Tlie
chocolate tree grows to the height of 12 or 16 feet ;
" it is carefully cultivated," says Dr Wright, " in
all the French and Spanish islands in the warmer
parts of America. This was formerly the case also
in Jamaica ; but at present we have only a few strag-
gling trees left as monuments of our indolence. This
tree delights in shady places and deep vallies. The
leaves are oblong, large, ami pointed ; the flowers,
which are small and pale red, spring from the trunk
and large brandies ; and the pods are oval and point-
ed. The seeds or nuts are numerous, and curiously
enclosed in a white pithy substance. The cacao-
nuts being gently parched in an iron pot over the
fire, the external covering easily separates; the ker-
nel is levigated on a smooth stone, a little annotto is
added, and with a tevf drops of water is reduced to a
mass, and formed into rolls of one lb. weight each.
This simple preparation is the most natural and the
best." But it ought to be added that the chocolate
of the shops is composed of various otlier ingredients,
and perhaps, in some cases, contains but a small
proportion of the real powder of the cacao-nut.
Plate S3. Fig. 1.

MoNSONiA Speciosa, Large-flowered Monsonia ;
with five-leaved calyx ; cor. five-petaled ; stamens
15, united in five divisions; style five-cleft; caps,
five-seeded; leaves in fives, and leaflets twice pin-
iiated. This splendid species is a native of the Cape,
and may be treated as a hardy green-house plant.

Citrus. Gen. char. — Cal. five-toothed ; cor. five-
petaled; stamens twenty, united into a cylinder; pis-
til one; beriy celled, with a vesicular pulp.

This genus was placed under the following order, SyuRenewa.
Icosandria; but as the filaments are not inserted in- ^i^-v^^
to the calyx, it belongs more properly, as Dr Smith
remarks, to this order.

To this genus belong Cit. Medica, the Citron^
the rind of which, and the young fruit, are pre-
pared as a sweet-meat ; Cit. Aurantium, the Orange,
of which two varieties, the China and Seville, or the
sweet and the bitter, are well known ; Cit. Decumana,
the Shaddock, which produces a fruit equal in size
to a man's head, and eaten, like olives, to give a
zest to wine, — and of which the forbidden fruit, as it
is called in Jamaica, is supposed to be a variety. To
these may be added lime and lemon trees, account-
ed by some as varietiesv but, from the diversity of
their appearance and fruit, might be properly re*
garded as different species^

Order IL Icosandria.

In this order the stamens are numerous, and their
filaments are inserted into the calyx.

Melaleuca. Gen. char Cal. five-parted, supe-
rior ; cor. five-petaled ; caps, half covered with a
berried calyx. Of this splendid tribe of plants,
which are remarkable for the length and rich colours
of the filaments, several species are successfully
cultivated in the conservatories of this country ; they
are chiefly natives of New Holland.

Mel. Leucadcndron, tlie Cajeput Tree ; the dried
leaves of wliicli afford, by distillation, an essential
oil used in medicine, is a native of mountainous
places in Amboyna.

Order III. Polyakdria.

In this order the stamens are unconnected with
the calyx.

Hypericum. Gen. char. — Cal. five-parted, infe-
rior ; petals five ; filaments in three or five divisions,
united at the base ; cajis. many-seeded.

Hyp. Androsainum, 'J^utsan or Park Leaves ; with
flowers having three pistils; berried capsules, and
double-edged shrubby stem ; not uncommon in woods,
and with its large yellow flowers is a conspicuous
ornament in the garden.

Hyp. (luadravgnbtm. Square St John's Wort ; is
frequent on the banks of rivers and moist meadows,
where it is easily distinguislied by its specific cha-
racter ; and Hyp. Perforatum, Perforated St John's
Wort, is common in hedges and woods, and is dis-
tinguished by its double-edged stem and obtuse
leaves, marked with pellucid spots.

Class XIX. Syngenesia.

' In this class the anthers are united into a tube,
and the flowei's are compound ; that is, each flower >
consists of a rtumber of small flowers called florets.
The structure of the florets varies in different plants ;
sometimes each floret is furnished with perfect sta-
mens and pistil, and brings its seed to maturity;
sometimes the florets of t!ie disk are perfeci or unit-
ed, while those of the margin have pistils only, but

744

BOTANY.

tltey all produce perfect seed ; sometimes the florets
of the disk are perfect or united, but those of the
margins have neither pistils nor stamens ; in other
cases the florets of the disk have stamens only, and
those of the margin have pistils only ; and in others,
several flowers, either simple or compound, but with
united tubular anthers, and with a partial calyx, are
all included in one general calyx. These ditierences
are tlie foundation of the five orders of this class.

Order I. Polygamia ^qualis.

The character of this order is derived from each
floret having perfect stamens and pistil, and pro-
ducing ripe seed. Some other differences in the
structure of the florets give rise to the distribution
of the genera of this order into three sections. Un-
der the first section are included those which have
the florets all ligulate or strap-shaped, and which are
denominated by Toumefort, semiflosculous ; their
flowers are generally yellow, sometimes blue, and
rarely reddish ; they expand in a morning, and close
towards noon, or in cloudy weather ; and their her-
bage, when bruised, affords a bitter milky fluid. Of
this section common dandelion, goats'-beard, and
hawk-weed, are good examples. In the second sec-
tion the flowers are globose, or grow in heads, and
tlie florets are all tubular, five-cleft, and spreading,
as in Carduus, Thistle, and Arctium, Burdock. In
the third section the flowers are discoid, the florets
are all tubular and regular, forming a flat or conical
surface, as in Bidens, Bur Marygold, and Santolina,
Sea-cotton Weed.

Leoktodon. Gen. cAar.— Receptacle Baked ;
cal. imbricated, down, simple, on foot-stalks.

Leon. Taraxacum, Common Dandelion ; with
the exterior scales of the calyx reflected, leaves
runcinated, toothed, smooth ; very common in mea-
dows, pastures, and waste places.

Leon. Paliistre, Marsh Dandelion; with leaves
sinuated, and sometimes slightly downy ; in moist
meadows and marshy places.

HiERACiUM. Gen. char — Recept. naked, dotted ;
cal. imbricate, ovate ; down, simple, sessile.

Hier. Pilosellc, Mouse-ear Hawkweed ; with ellip-
tical entire leaves, woolly underneath, creeping run-
ners, and one-flowered naked stem ; very common in
dry pastures.

Hier. Subaudum, Shrubby Broad-leaved Hawk-
weed ; with many-flowered erect stem, and ovate lan-
ceolate leaves. In woods and rough stoney places.

Arctium Lappa, Burdock. Cal. globular, scales
bent inwards, and hooked at the summit; leaves
heart-shaped, unarmed, and on foot-stalks. Very
common by way-sides and in waste places.

Carduus. Gen. char — Cal. inflated, imbricated,
with spinous scales ; recept. hairy, down falling off.

Car. Lanceolatus, Spear Thistle ; with decurrent,
pinnatifid. rough leaves, segments divaricate, or al-
ternately pointing in different directions. Common
in waste places and by way-sides.

Car, ArventU, Creeping Thistle ; with sessile, pin-

natifid, spinous leaves, stem paniculated ; cal. ovate, Sjngenesia.
furnished with spines, down feathery. Very com- ~ '

mon in fields and by way-sides.

Car. Marianus, Milk Thistle ; with leaves embrac-
ing the stem, spinous, radical, leaves pinnatifid;
scales of the calyx leafy, prickly on the margin. In
waste places, where it is easily known by its fine
green leaves, beautifully marked with white veins.

Eupatorium Cannalinunt, Hemp Agrimony ; re-
cept. naked, down rough ; cal. imbricated, oblong ;
style half two-cleft, protruded ; leaves digitate. In
wet places on the banks of rivers.

Order II. Polygamia Superflua.

The genera belonging to this order are divided in-
to three sections ; discoid, or without strap-shaped
florets ; florets half tubular, and nearly two-lipped ;
and radiate flowers. To the first section belong
Tanacetiim, Tansey ; Artemisia, Wormwood ; and
Gnaphalium, Cudweed : To the second, Perdicium,
a rare foreign genus, which is the only example : And
the following having radiant flowers, or the marginal
floret strap-shaped, come under the third section.

Bellis Perennis, Common Daisy ; recept. naked,
conical ; no down ; cal. hemispherical, with equal
scales ; seeds obovate; flower-stem naked; root creep-
ing. Very common in meadows and pastures.

Chrysanthemum. Gen. char. — Recept. naked,
no down ; cal. hemispherical, imbricated, with scales
dilated at the margin, and membranaceous.

Chrys. Leitcanthemum, Great White Ox-eye ; with
leaves embracing the stem ; oblong, obtuse, gashed,
pinnatifid at the base ; radical leaves obovate, and
on footstalks. Common in fields and pastures, and
is easily distinguished by its specious white flowers.

Chrys. Segetum, Yellow Ox-eye, or Corn Mary-
gold ; with stem embracing leaves, divided into seg-
ments above, toothed at the base ; common among
corn, especially in a sandy soil. The corn fields in
Scotland were at one time so overrun with this plant,
that laws were enacted obliging the inhabitants to
eradicate it from their grounds, and penalties were
inflicted on those who neglected it. Similar regu-
lations were established in Denmark.

Chrys. Indicum, Indian Ox-eye Daisy ; with simple
ovate, sinuated, angular, serratedleaves. Thisbeautiful
species, which is much cultivated in China and Japan,
is highly ornamental to the green-house and parlour
in the winter season, when it shews its fine double,
tubular, or quilled flowers, and is not less admired
for the fragrance of its leaves.

Chrys. Tricolor, Three-coloured Ox-eye Daisy ;
with double pinnatifid leaves ; leaflets linear, distant,
bent backward ; stem branching, erect. Supposed
to be a native of Barbary, and introduced into Bri-
tain in 1798, and is an annual of easy culture. Plate
33. Fig 2.

To this order belong Solidago, Golden-rod ; Sene-
do. Groundsel ; Ttmilago. Colt's foot ; Aster, Star-
wort; Anthcmis, Camomile; and Achillea, Sneeze-
wort ; different species of which are indigenous, and
moat of them common.

BOTANY.

745

OnOER III. POLYGAMIA FbUSTRANEA.

In this order the florets of the disk are perfect or
united, and those of the margin have neither pistils
nor stamens.

Centaurea. Gen. char. — Recept. bristly, down
simple ; rays funnel-shaped, longer than those of the
disk, and irregular.

Cent. Ni^ra, Black or Lesser Knapweed ; with
the scales of the calyx ovate, and with erect capil-
lary cilia; lower leaves lyre-shaped, angular; upper
leaves ovate. Common in pastures.and by way-sides.

Cent. Cyanus, Corn Blue-bottle; with the scales
of the calyx serrated ; leaves linear, entire ; lower
leaves toothed. Common among corn.

RuDBECKiA. Gen. char — Recept. , chaffy, coni-
cal ; down with a four-toothed margin ; cal. with a
double series of scales.

Rud. Purpurea, Purple Rudbeckia ; with lanceo-
late-ovate leaves, alternate, undivided, and petals
of the ray two-cleft. Native of Carolina and Vir-
ginia, but cultivated in the open ground in this coun-
try. Plate 33. Fig. 3.

Helianthus. Gen. char. — Recept. chaffy ; down
awned ; cal. ragged.

Hel. Multiflorus, Many-flowered Sun-flower ; with
inferior leaves heart-shaped, three-nerved ; upper
leaves ovate. Native of North America, and a hardy
perennial in the gardens of this country.

Hel. Annuus, Common Sun-flower ; is a well known
and shewy annual in every garden ; and Hel. 7'«-
berosus, Jerusalem Artichoke, is sometimes cultivated
for the sake of its tuberous roots, which are eaten
like potatoes.

Order IV. Polygamia Necessaria.

In this order the florets of the disk have only sta-
mens, and those of the margin have pistils only.

Calendula 0^c/«afo, Garden Marygold, in which
the receptacle is naked, there is no down, andtheseeds
are membranaceous, is an example of this order.

Order V. Polygamia Segregata.

In this order, several flowers, either simple or com-
pound, but with united tubular anthers and a partial
calyx, are included in a general calyx.

EcHiNOPS' Ritro, Small Globe Tliistle ; perianth
one-flowered ; recept. bristly ; down obsolete ; head
globular ; leaves pinnatifid, smooth on the upper
surface. Native of Siberia and Southern Europe,
but has been long cultivated in the gardens of Bri-
tain. Plate 33. Fig. 4.

Class XX. Gynandria.

In this class the stamens are inserted either upon
the style or germen. Linnaeus divided the class in-
to nine orders, the character of which is taken from
the number of stamens ; but succeeding botanists
have abolished some of these orders, and some have

VOL. I. PART II,

abolished the whole class, and referred the plants in^ GynandKa,
eluded under it to other classes. Without going over
the whole of the orders, a few examples will be suf-
ficient to illustrate the class.

Order I. Diaxdria.

Orchis. Gen. char. — Nectary horn-shaped, pla/-
ced behind the flower.

Or. BifoUa, Butterfly Orchis ; with undivided
bulbs; lip of the nectary lanceolate, entire; horn very
long, and lateral petals spreading. In woods and
moist places, with a clay soil.

Or. Maculata, Spotted Orchis ; with palmated, di-
varicate roots ; horn of the nectary shorter than the
germen ; lip three-Iobed, plain ; petals spreading.
Comrhon in moist meadows and pastures.

Ophrys. Gen. char Nectary slightly keel-shap-
ed underneath, deflected.

Oph. Ovata, Common Twayblade ; with fibrous
roots ; two-leaved stem ; leaves elliptical ; lip of the
nectary linear, two-cleft. In woods, meadows, and
pastures.

,Oph. Corallorhiza, Coral-rooted Ophrys ; with
branching, winding, divaricate roots ; stem sheathed,
without leaves ; lip of the nectary undivided. A rare
plant, observed by Lightfoot in Ross-shire, and late-
ly discovered near Ravelrig, five miles from Edin-
burgh.

Cypripedi0M. Gen. char. — Nectary two-lipped,
lower lip ventricose, inflated, hollow.

Cyp. Calceolus, Ladies Slipper; with fibrous roots;
leafy stenp ; petals four, lanceolate, pointed ; upper
lip elliptical, channelled. In woody places in the
north of England, but rare.

Cyp. Parviflorum, Yellow Ladies Slipper; with
lateral petals, linear, twisted, and longer than the
nectary, which is without veins. Native of North
America. See Plate 33. Fig. 5.

LiMODORUM. Gen. char. — Nectary one-leaved,
concave, raised on a footstalk within the lowest petal.

Lim. Tuberosum, Tuberous-rooted Limodorura ;
with bearded, thin, spiked flowers. Native of mar-
shy places in South Carolina ; was accidentally in-
troduced into England in 1788, along with bog-
earth brought over with some plants of Venus fly-
trap. The roots of limodorum were discovered by
Mr James. Smith, a zealous and excellent botanist,
at that time gardener to Mr Curtis, now nurseryman
at Monkwood in Ayrshire.

Lim. Altum, Tall Limodorum, or Jamaica Saloup ;
with beardless flowers, and spike in the form of a
panicle. Native of Jamaica, where it grows in the
cooler parts of the mountains. Two* other species
are natives of the same island.

Epidendrum. Gen. char, — Nectary waved, o-
bliqUe, reflected.

Epi. Sinense, Chinese Epidendrum ; with sword-
shaped, striated, radical leaves ; petals nearly equal ;
nectary bent-back, spotted ; and bractea a little
shorter than the germen. Native of China, and cul-
tivated in the stove in this country. Plate 33. Fig. 6.

Epi. Vanilla, Vanilla; leaves ovate, oblong, nerv-
5c

746

BOTANY.

iVIonnrrin.

ed sessile; tendrils spiral. Native of Jamaica, and
cultivated on account of the seeds, which have an
aRrecablc aromatic odour, and are employed to give
a flavour to chocolate, and as aperlume to snuff and
other substances. Many other species of the same
genus are natives of Jamaica.

Order III. Tetrandria.

Kepenthes Didillaloria ; one pistil ; cal. four-
p.^rttHl ; no corolla ; caps, four-celled. This smgu-
lar plant, a native of Ceylon, is remarkable for the
peculiar structure of its leaves, each of which ter-
minate in a kind of close shut tube, like a tankard,
and is furnished with a lid or covering, which con-
tains water, supposed to be secreted through tlie
footstalk. Small worms and insects are found dead
in the tube ; and a little animal like a shrimp, which
is met with alive, is supposed to feed on them.

Order IV. Pentandria.

Passiflora. Gen. char — Three pistils; cal.
five-parted ; cor. five-petaled ; nectary in the form
of a crown ; berry on a footstalk.

Pass. Ccerulea, Common Passion-flower ; with en-
tire, palmated leaves. Native of the Brazils, and
cultivated in the green-house in this country.

Pass. Alata, Winged Passion-flower ; with undi-
vided entire leaves; membranaceous square stem.
Native of the West Indies, and cultivated in the
stove on account of the beauty of its flowers.

Pass. Serratifolia, Notched-leaved Passion-flow-
er ; with undivided, ovate, serrated leaves. Native
of Surinam, and has been admitted into the stove,
for the sake both of the beauty and fragrance of its
flowers. Plate 33. Fig. 7.

Pass. Quadrangularis, Four-angled Passion-flower,
or Granadilla; leaves oval, subcordate, smooth ; stem
square, membranaceous. Native of Jamaica, and one
of the largest and most beautiful of this splendid tribe
of plants. It is cultivated in that island, both on ac-
count of its excellent fruit, which contains a rich
pulp, with an agreeable odour and pleasant acid
taste, and for forming arbours, for which it is well
calculated by its thick foliage and highly ornamental
flowers.

Pass. Mnliformis, Apple-formed Passion-flower,
or Water Lemon, the fruit of which furnishes food
to the wild hogs ; and Pass. Murucuja, Bull-hoof, the
flowers of which, infused in wine or spirits, are em-
ployed as a narcotic, — are also natives of Jamaica.

Class XXI. Moncecia.

In thfs class the staniens and pistils are in separate
flowers, but both grow on the same plant. The cha-
racters of the orders are taken from the number of
stamens, the connection of the filaments, or of the
anthers, and their insertion on the style or germen.
In describing the genera belonging to this class, as
there are two sets of flowers, the one bearing sta-
mens and the other pistils, separate descriptions are
necessary. The first or the flowers with stamens are
denoted by (1 ), and the flowers with pistils by (2).

MOKAKDRIA.

' Monctcva.

Zannichellia. (1) Cal. none, cor. none. (2)
Cal. one-leafed, cor, none, pistils four, seeds four.

Zan. Palustris, Horned Pond-weed ; with square-
celled anther, and stigmas very entire. Native of
Britain, and found in ditches and pools.

Artocarpus, Bread-fiuit Tree. (1) Cal. two-
valved, cor none. (2) Cal. none, cor. none, one
style ; drupe many-celled.

Art. Incisa ; Notch-leaved ; with gashed leaves ; is
the celebrated bread-fruit tree ; a native of Otaheitc
and other South-sea islands, which was introduced
into Jamaica in the year 1793. Three hundred trees
were brought from Otaheite by captain Bligh in the
ship Providence, and distributed to different places,
from which they have spread to every part of the
island.

When the fruit of this tree is used as bread, it is
collected before it is quite ripe, roasted in an oven,
and the rind being scraped off, the inside, which i&
soft and white, is eaten, and is found to be a nutri-
tious substance.

The bread-fruit tree was alluded to by Dampifer,
lord Anson, captain Cook, and other voyagers, as
a production of the Ladrone and Philippine islands,
and of Otaheite and some of the neighbouring
islands ; and from the opinion that was formed of its
valuable qualities, the Bounty, commanded by cap-
tain Bligh, was dispatched by the British govern-
ment in 1787 to collect plants to be transported to
the colonies in the West Indies. A mutiny of the
crew, who seized the ship, and carried it back to
Otaheite, frustrated for a time this beneficial scheme;
and it was not till 1793, as already alluded to, that
the plan was successfully accomplished.

Several varieties of the bread-fruit tree are knowm
in its native soil ; and another species, with entire
leaves, was also introduced at the same time with the
first into Jamaica, and is now very generally culti-
vated in that island.

Diandria.

Lemna. Gen. char (1) One-leafed, cor. none.

(2) Cal. one-leafed, cor. none; style one; caps. many-
seeded.

Lem. Trisulca, Ivy-leaved Duckweed ; with lance-
olate proliferous leaves, on footstalks. In ditches
and pools.

Lem. Minor, Lesser Duckweed ; with sessile
leaves, plain on both sides, and solitary roots. Very
common in ditches and in pools.

Triandria.

Gen. char. — (1) Cal. thrce-leav-
(2) Cal. three-leaved ; drupe dry,

Sparganium.
ed, cor. none,
one-seeded.

Spar. Ramomm, Branched Bur-reed : with leaves
three-cornered at the base, concave at the sides ;
common peduncle branched ; stigma linear. Fre-
quent ia lakes and on the banks of rivers.

BOTANY.

747

Moncecia. Spar. Simplex, Unbranclied Upright Bur-reed ;
with leaves triangular at the base, plain at the sides,
and the common peduncle simple. In lakes.

Cahex. (1) An imbricated catkin, cal. one-valv-
ed glume ; cor. none. (2) Imbricated catkin ; cal.
one-valved glume ; cor. none ; stigmas two or three ;
seed inclosed in an inflated coat.

Car. Ovalis, Oval-spiked Carex ; with about six
oval spikes, alternately approaching ; glumes lance-
shaped, equal to the seed-coat. In marshes and
moist meadows.

Car. Remota, Remote Carex ; wjth single distant,
nearly sessile spikes ; bracteas very long, exceeding
the stem ; seed-coat nearly entire. In moist woods
and wet shady ditches.

Car. Arenaria, Sea-Carex ; with the spikelets
crowded ; bracteas scaly ; stem triangular ; leaves
plain. Abundant in sandy places near the shore.

Car. Sylvatica, Pendulous Wood-Carex ; with
sheaths one-half shorter than the peduncle ; spikes
thread-shaped, loose, nodding ; fruit ovate, triangu-
lar, beaked. Frequent in woods ; rises to the height
of two or three feet, and is furnished with an upright,
leafy, smooth, triangular stem.

Car. F/ava, Yellow Carex ; with shortened sheaths
nearly equal to the peduncle ; spikes producing pis-
tils, roundish ; fruit beaked, deflected, stem smooth.
Frequent in marshy places.

Car. PreBcox,y ernal Carex; with shortened sheaths
nearly equal to the peduncle; spikes ovate, approach-
ing ; glumes slightly dagger-shaped ; fruit roundish,
woolly. Common on heaths and dry pastures.

Car. Pilulifera, Round-headed Carex ; without
sheaths ; spikes with pistils, sessile, crowded, round-
ish ; glumes slightly dagger-shaped ; fruit roundish,
hairy. Frequent in pastures' and heaths.

Of this extensive genus, fifty-two species are ele-
gantly described in the Flora Britannica. The at-
tentive study of these descriptions, and the careful
comparison with the living specimens, cannot fail to
improve the learned botanist in the knowledge of
the discriminating characters of this curious tribe of
plants.

Typha. G«2.cAar.—(l) Catkin cylindrical ; an-
thers about three on a common filament. (2) Cat-
kin cylindrical ; seed one, with a downy footstalk.

Typha Latifolia, Great Cat's-tail, or Reed-mace ;
with the leaves nearly sword-shaped, and spikes pro-
ducing anthers and pistils, approaching each other.
Not uncommon in lakes and ditches.

Typha Ansustifolia, Lesser Cat's-tail, or Reed-
mace ; with leaves semi-cylindrical, plain, equal to
the stem ; the anther and pistil bearing spike dis-
ant. In ditches and lakes, but less frequent. In the
middle of Woolwich common.

Hernandia. Gen. char (1) Cal. three-part-
ed ; cor. three-petaled. (2) Cal. truncated ; cor.
six-petaled ; drupe hollow.

Hern. Sonora, Whistling Jack-in-a-box ; with
heart-shaped, peltate leaves. Native of the East and
West Indies. A lofty tree, and remarkable for the
singular structure of the fruit. The external cover-
ing is much larger than the contained seed ; and
2

through a small opening the wind being freely ad- Mono-cis.
mitted, when it blows strong, the reverberated sound
produced within the hollow capsule is heard at a
great distance, and is sometimes alarming to travel-
lers.

From this sonorous whistling noise, the trivial name
of Jack-in-a-box is derived. ,

Tetrandria.

Urtica. (1) Cal. four-leaved ; cor. none; ru-
diment of the germen cup-formed. (2) Cal. two-
leaved ; cor. none ; seed one, superior, shining.

Urt. Urens, Small Nettle ; with opposite elliptical,
about five-nerved leaves ; racemes nearly simple.
Very common in cultivated places.

Urt. Dioica, Great Nettle ; with leaves opposite,
heart-shaped, racemes much branched, double, flow-
ers sometimes dioecious. Common in waste places
and hedges.

Buxus. Gen. char. — (1 ) Cal. three-leaved, petals
two, with the rudiment of a germen. (2) Cal. four-
leaved, petals three, styles three, caps, three-beaked,
three-celled.

Bux. Semjjervirens, Box-tree ; on some of the
chalk hills in England, and well known, as it is era-
ployed as edgings of borders, for which it is well
fitted by its evergreen leaves. The close texture of
the wood, and the fine polish of which it is suscep-
tible, render its use extensive for the purpose of
turnery.

Betula. Gen. char. — ( 1 ) Cal. scale of the catkin
one-leafed, three-cleft, tliree-flowered ; cor. four-
parted. (2) Cal. scale of the catkin one-leafed,
nearly three-cleft, two-flowered; styles two, seeds
compressed.

Bet. Alba, Common Birch ; with ovate-pointed,
serrated, smoothish leaves ; common in woods. In
the beautiful variety with pendulous branches, from
which it is called the weeping birch, the leaves are
quite smooth.

Bet. Nana, Dwarf Birch ; with notched roundish
leaves ; native of elevated marshy places in Scotland,
and rises only to the height of three feet.

Bet. Alnits, Common Alder ; with branching pe-
duncles, leaves roundish, wedge-shaped, serrated,
viscid ; common in marshy places.

MoRus. Gen. char. — (]) Cal. four-parted; cor.
none. (2) Cal. four-leaved ; cor. none; styles two,
seed one, berried.

Mor. Tinctoria, Fustic-tree ; with oblong leaves,
lengthened on one side, and axillary spines. Native
of Jamaica, and remarkable for its quick growth,
rising to the height of 30 or •tO feet in eight or ten
years ; the timber is of an excellent quality, and it
furnishes the valuable dye-stuff, fustic.

Mor. Alba, White Mulberry ; a native of China, is
extensively cultivated for the sake of its leaves as
food for silkworms ; grows in Britain.

Mor. Rubra, Red Mulberry, a native of Virgi-
nia, is cultivated for the same purpose ; Mor. Nigra,
Black Mulberry, is a native of Persia, with dark red
IViiit; from which wine is made ; and Mor, Pajii/ri-

748

BOTANY.

Monoccm. f^a, Paper Mulberry, a native of Japan and the
'South sea islands, affords materials for paper and
cloth from its bark.

Pentandria.

Amabanthus. Gen. char.— {\) Proper calyx
three-leaved ; cor. none ; stamens from three to five.
(2) Proper calyx three-leaved ; cor. none ; styles
three ; caps, one-celled, cut round ; seed one.

Am. Blifum, Wild Amaranth ; with lateral heads ;
flowers throe-cleft, triandrous ; leaves ovate, stem
spreading. In cultivated places in some parts of
England.

Am. Spinosus, Prickly Calalue ; with compound
terminal racemes, and short prickles under the leaves;
a common plant in Jamaica, and frequently era-
ployed as a wholesome and agreeable vegetable.

POLYANDRIA.

Fagus. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. bell- shaped, five-
cleft ; cor. none ; stamens from five to twelve'.
(2) Cal. four-cleft; cor. none; styles two or three,
tbree-cleft ; seeds two or three, covered with a
leathery muricated calyx.

Fag. Castanea, Chesnut-tree ; with lance-shaped,
sharp-pointed, serrated leaves ; and the prickles of
the fruit compound, interwoven. In woods in Eng-
land ; sometimes grows to a very large size ; and a
tree in Gloucestershire is supposed to be more than
a thousand years old.

Fag. Sylvatica, Beech- tree ; with leaves ovate and
indistinctly serrated ; common in woods and hedges,
and well known for its use as a close fence.

QUERCUS. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. bell-shaped,
lobed; cor, none ; stamens from five to ten. (2) Cal.
bell-sbaped, entire, rough ; cor. none ; stjle one ;
stigmas three ; nut superior, leathery, one-seeded.

Quer. Robur, Common British Oak ; with decidu-
ous, oblong, indented leaves, broader at the summit,
indentations acute, lobes obtuse, and peduncles
lengthened; common in woods.

The oak in a favourable situation attains a prodi-
gious size. The trunk of an oak in Shropshire, men-
tioned by Lightfoot, measured in circumference 68
feet, or nearly 23 feet in diameter ; and another in
Yorkshire measured 48 feet in circumference, or 16
ieet in diameter.

Various other species of oak are natives of the
south of Europe and of North America.

Quer. Suber, grows abundantly in Italy, the south
of France, Spain, and Portugal, and furnishes the
well known substance cork, of so much importance
in domestic economy. The cork-tree is an ever-
green, with ovate, oblong, undivided, serrated leaves,
slightly downy underneath. Cork is a singular sub-
Stance, which is produced on the cuticle. The trees
are barked 'for the first time before they are 20 years
old, but the best cork is obtained from the oldest
trees; and after every peeling the succeeding bark
is of a better quality. They are generally peeled
once in eight or ten years, and this operation so far
froin being injurious, contributes to their growth and

vigour ; for it is observed that those trees which are MonOEcia.
not stripped of the bark, in a few years begin to
decay, and in the course of 50 or 60 years a whole
plantation is destroyed ; but those trues that are re- ■
gularly barked, live and thrive more than 200 years.

When the cork is stripped off, an exudation of a
reddish brown colour immediately takes place ; and
of the excreted matter, as it acquires consistency by
the action of tlie air, the succeeding layer of cork is
formed. The uses of cork are too familiar to require
enumeration.

Quer. Ccrris, Gall Oak ; with smooth, oval, ser;-
rated leaves. This tree, which is a native of Asia
Minor, from the Bosphorus to Syria, and from the
shores of the Archipelago to the frontiers of Persia,
seldom attains the height of more than six feet, and
more frequently appears in the form of a shrub. The
galls are produced on the shoots of the young
branches, and the best are those which are collected
before the escape of the insect to which their pro-
duction is owing. Those which are perforated are
less fit for the purpose of dye-stuff, and are known in
commerce by the name of white galls ; but the black
or green galls are heavier, and therefore more va-
luable.

Juglans. Gen, char. — (1) Catkin imbricated;
cor. six-cleft; stamens about 18. (2) Cal. four-
cleft ; cor. four-petaled ; styles two, drupe leathery.

Jug. Regia, Walnut-tree ; with alternate, oval,
sessile, entire leaves ; native of Asia, and cultivated
throughout the warmer and more temperate regions
of Europe, on account of its fruit, which is exten-
sively employed in its green state as a pickle, and
when ripe furnishes the well known walnuts of com-<
merce.

CoRYLus. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. scale of the
catkin three-cleft ; cor. none; stamens eight. (2)
Cal. two-cleft, ragged ; cor. none ; styles two ; nut
ovate, smooth, one-celled, covered wjth a leathery
inflated calyx.

Cor. Aveltana, Hazel-nut Tree ; with ovate, ob-
tuse stipulae, roundish, heart-shaped, pointed leaves,
and small branches hairy ; common in woods and
hedges.

Cor. Colurna, Constantinople Hazel ; is much cul-
tivated in some of the Greek islands on account of,
the excellence of its nuts, which are greatly esteemed
in the Turkish metropolis, from which probably the
trivial name is derived. The bark of this species,
produces a fungous substance, similar to the cork o£.
the oak.

Call A. Gen. char A plain spathe ; the spadix,

or flower stem, covered with florets ; cal. none ;
petals none ; berries many-seeded.

Cal. jJLthiopica, Ethiopian Calla ; with arrow-
headed, heart-shaped leaves ; native of the Cape,
of the sides of rivulets in St Helena, and of the
ditches in India, and is now common in the green-
house and parlour of this country.

Arum. Gen. char. — Spathe one-leaved, convo-
luted at the base ; spadix or flower-spike cylindri-
cal, naked above ; flowers below producing pistils,
and those in the middle stamens ; berries one-celled. .

BOTANY.

749-

Mon<Ecia. -Ar. Maculatum, Cuckow-pint or Wake-robin ;
with halberd-shaped, entire leaves ; spadix or flower-
spike club-shaped, blunt. Not uncommon in hedges
and among brushwood.

Ar. Triphyllum, Zebra-flowered Arum ; with tri-
foliate leaves, leaflets oval-pointed. Native of North
America ; is the largest and most beautiful of the
genus, and has been introduced into tlie gardens of
this country. Bot. Mag. xxiv. 950.

MONADELPHIA.

PiNus. Gen. char — ( 1 ) Cal. scale of the cat-
kin peltate ; cor. none ; anthers sessile, attached to
the scales. (2) Cal. scale of the catkin two-flow-
ered ; cor. none ; nut one-celled, winged.

Pin. Sijlvestris, Scotch Fir ; with double, rigid,
linear, acute leaves ; younger cones on foot-stalks
b.ent back ; summit of the anthers small. Not un-
comrjion in tlic elevated districts of Scotland, and
the only species indigenous to the island.

Pin. Cedrus, the Cedar Pine ; Pin. Larix, tlie
Larch-tree ; Pin. Picea, the Pitch Pine, and some
other species, — are natives of other parts of Europe,
of the north of Asia, or of America.

RiciNUS. Gen. char (1) Cal. five-parted, cor.

rone, stamens numerous. (2) Cal. three-parted,
cor. none, styles three, caps, three-celled.

Ric. Commimis, Common Oil-nut Tree ; with
deeply divided leaves. This plant, which has been
long known by the trivial name of Palma Chrisii, is
cultivated in the West Indies for the sake of its seeds.
The growth is so rapid that it attains the full size of
fifteen, and even twenty feet, in a single year. From
the seeds, or nuts, the castor oil, so much employed
in medicine, is obtained, either by expression, when
it is said to be cold-drawn, and is esteemed of the
best quality ; or by boiling, the product of which
brings an inferior price.

Ric. Iiiermis, Unarmed Oil-nut Tree; with pel-
tate, somewhat palmated, serrated leaves, and un-
armed fruit. A native of the Spanish West Indies,
and much cultivated in Jamaica, because the nuts
are larger and more productive, and the quality of
the oil equal to the former. Excepting in the fruit
being destitute of prickles, this plant resembles the
other so closely that it is regarded rather as a variety
than a distinct species.

Jatropha. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. none ; cor. five-
cleft ; stamens ten. (2) Cal. none; cor. five-petaled ;
styles three ; caps, three-celled.

Jat. Manihot, Bitter Cassada; with palmated leaves,
lance-shaped, entire lobes. This plant, from the
root of which cassada-bread, a very nutritious sub-
stance, is obtained, is much cultivated in the West
Indies, and rises, by a slender woody stalk, to the
height of five or six feet. The roots, which grow
to a large size, are fit for use in eight months from
the time of planting ; being well washed and scrap-
ed, they are grated down into a kind of pulpy meal,
which is put into strong linen bags, and subjected to
powerful pressure, that the whole of the juice may
be separated. The meal is then dried in the sun,

beaten in a wooden mortar, and passed through a Monoccia.
coarse sieve. In this state, and without any addi- Sv^vr-^p'
tion, it is spread on flat iron plates fixed in a stove.
By the action of the heat, the particles of the meal
coalesce, and form cakes, which, being thoroughly
baked, are eaten as a wholesome and nourishing bread.
The juice of the cassada- root is of a poisonous na-
ture, and is extremely noxious to most animals ; so
that this deleterious substance must be separated
before the root can be employed as food.

A variety of this species, called Sweet Cassada,
the root of which is free from any deleterious quality,
is also cultivated in the West Indies.

Jat. Gossypifolia, Cotton-leaved, or Wild Cassada ;
with five-parted leaves, and ovate, entire, ciliated
lobes. Native of Jamaica, and common about the
streets of Spanish-Town and Kingston.

HuRA. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. two-leaved; cor.
none ; anthers twenty, sessile. (2 ) Cal. cylindrical ;
cor, none ; one pistil ; caps, ten-celled.

Hura Crepitans, Crackling Sand-box Tree; A
native of Jamaica ; rises to the height of thirty or
forty feet, and with its large heart-shaped leaves,
some of which are near a foot in length, and of a
beautiful green, forms a thick shade. The capsule
is of a woody texture, round and flat, and regularly
divided into cells, each of which contains a single '
seed. The seeds being taken out, the shell is con-
verted into a sand-box, from which the name is de-
rived ; and when the seeds ripen on the tree, the
cells burst with an explosive noise, and discharge the
seeds to a considerable distance. This is the origin
of the specific name.

HiPPOMANE. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. two-cleft;
cor. none; anthers two-cleft. (2) Cal. three-cleft ;
cor. none; stigma three-fold; drupe or capsule one-
seeded, or three-celled.

Hip. Mancinella, Manchineal Tree ; with ovate
serrated leaves. A native of Jamaica ; grows to
a large tree, the wood of which answers well for
furniture, and produces a fruit having some resem-
blance to the crab-apple. The fruit seems to pos-
sess, in certain stages of its growth, an acrid or dele-
terious quality ; and indeed it was supposed, from
the idle tales of credulous travellers, tliat it is a
deadly poison. Even the drops of rain which fell
from the leaves were said to have acquired so much
acrimony as to corrode the clothes and skin of those
on whom they fell ; but these stories are altogether
without foundation. We have often taken the shel-
ter of a manchineal tree, loaded with fruit, during
the torrents of rain of that tropical climate, and ne-
ver experienced the slightest injury. .

Syngenesia.

CucuMis. (1) Cal. five-toothed; cor. five-cleft;
filaments three. (2) Cal. five-toothed ; cor. five-cleft;
style three-cleft.

To this genus belong the Common Cucumber,
Cue. Sativus; the small Wild Cucumber of Jamaica,
Cue. Angaria, which is employed with other pot-
herbs in soups ; the Melon, Cue. Melo, of which

T50

BOTAN r.

DicccuL

there are several varieties ; and Coloquintida, or Bit-
ter Apple, Cue. Coloci/irlJiis, a native of Turiicy,
which i£ soraetiroes employed in medicine.

Class XXII. DifficiA.

In this class the flowers which produce stamens,
and those which produce pistils and seeds, are on
different plants. The characters of the orders are
taken, as in the preceding, from the number and con-
nection of the stamens.

DiANDRIA.

Vallisneria. Gen. char — (1) Sheath many-
flowered, two-parted ; cor. three-parted. (2) Sheath
one-flowered ; cal. three-parted ; cor. three-parted ;
erne pistil ; caps, one-celled.

"Val. Spiralis ; a remarkable aquatic plant, which
shoots up from the bottom of ditches in Italy, and in
still places of the river Rhone. The flowers, bearing
stamens, are produced from a distinct root, on short
straight stalks ; and, as they approach to maturity,
ate separated from the stalks, suddenly expand when
they reach the surface, and float about in great pro-
fusion. The fertile flowers are attached to long spi-
ral stalks, which, by uncoiling, permit them to rise
to the surface, where the seeds are ripened in the
open air. The spiral stem is finely accommodated
to the variable depth of the waters in which this cu-
rious plant grows.

Salix. Gen. char (1 ) Cal. a scale of the cat-
kin ; . cor. none ; gland of the base nectariferous ;
stamens two, seldom five. (2) Cal. a scale of the
catkin ; cor. none ; stigmas two ; caps, superior, one-
celied, two-valved ; seeds downy.

Sal. Helix, Rose Willow; with lance-shaped, point-
ed, serrated, smooth leaves; style lengthened, thread-
shaped, and stigmas linear. In willow and marshy
grounds ; rarely exceeds ten feet in height, and is
much employed in all kinds of basket-work.

Sal. Triaudra, Long-leaved, or Smooth Willow ;
with linear, oblong, serrated, smootli leaves, and ger-
mcns on footstalks. Frequent in willew grounds and
on the banks of rivers ; rises to the height of thirty
feet, and is esteemed one of the most valuable bas-
ket willows.

Sal. Pcntandra, Sweet Willow, or Bay-leaved Wil-
low ; with five stamens ; elliptical, lance-shaped,
notched, smooth leaves, and germens smooth, near-
ly sessile. On banks of rivers in the north of Eng-
land and south of Scotland.

Sal. Vitellina, Yellow Willow ; with lance-shaped,
acute, serrated leaves, smooth on the upper surface ;
serratures cartilaginous ; stigmas notched. In willow
grounds and marshes.

Sal. Frafritis, Crack Willow ; with lance-shaped,
serrated, .very smooth leaves ; footstalks toothed,
glandular, and nectary in the flowers bearing sta-
mens double. In willow grounds, and on the banks
of rivers, and is remarkable for the brittleness of its
branches. The bark of this species is sometimes em-
ployed as a substitute for Peruvian bark.

Sal. Aitia, Common White Willow ; with lance- liiofria.
shaped, painted, 8t;rrated leaves, downy on both sides,
the lowest serratures glandular. In woods and moist
meadows, and becomes a tail tree.

Of th!s genus forty-three species are described in
the Flora Britannica. Salix Bubulonica, Weeping
Willow, is cultivated on account of the elegance and
beauty of its delicate pendulous branches.

Triandria.

Empetrum. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. three-parted;
cor. three-petaled ; stamens capillary from three to
nine. (2) Cal. three-parted ; cor. three-petaled ;
stigmas nine ; berry superior, nine-seeded.

Emp. Nigrum, Black Crow, or Crake Berry ; with
trailing stems. Frequent in elevated heaths in the
northern parts of Britain.

Euscus. Gen. char ( 1 ) Cal. six-leaved ; cor.

none. (2) Cal. six-leaved ; cor. none ; pistil one ;
berry superior, three-celled ; seeds double.

Rus. Acukatus, Knee-holly, or Butcher's Broom ;
with dagger-pointed sharp leaves, producing flowers
on the upper surface. In woods and heaths in a
gravelly soil ; abundant at Stoke near Gosport.

Tetrandria.

ViscuM. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. none ; petals four,
dilated at the base, united, and in the form of ca-
lyx; anthers sessile, attached to the petals. (2)
Cal. slightly margined ; petals four, dilated at the
base ; style none ; berry inferior, one-seeded.

Vis. Aliiml), Misseltoe ; with lance-shaped, obtuse
leaves ; divided stem ; spikes axillary. This is the
celebrated misseltoe, a parasitical plant, which at-
taches itself to trees, and was held in great venera-
tion by the ancient druids, who employed it in the
celebration of their mysterious rites.

Myrica. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. scale of catkin
concave ; cor. none. (2) Scale of the catkin hollow ;
cor. none ; styles two ; berry one-seeded.

Myr. Gale, Sweet Gale, or Dutch Myrtle ; with
lance-shaped slightly-serrated leaves, and shrubby
stem. Not uncommon in marshy places ; grows to
the height of two or three feet, and may be readily
distinguished by its agreeable fragrance. In Wales
and in Scotland it is sometimes employed to keep
oif vermin from clothes and apartments, to tan
calf-skins, and to communicate a yellow colour to
wool.

From the berries of Myr. Cerifera, Candle-berry
Myrtle, a native of North America, candles for do-
mestic use are made.

TRorms. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. none; cor. four-
petaled. (2) Cal. and cor. none ; style two-cleft ;
berry one-seeded.

Troph. Americana, Ramoon Tree. A native of Ja-
maica ; rises to the height of twenty feet ; and the
leaves and tops of the branches afford a nutritious
and desirable food for horses and cattle, and are thus
employed in dry seasons when the grass crops are
deficient.

BOTANY.

751

nioFfia

Pentandkia.

Cannabis. Gen char. — (1) Cal. five-parted; no
corolla. (2) Cal. one-leaved ; cor. none ; styles two ;
seed, a nut.

Can. Snfiva, Hemp. A native of India, but exten-
sively cultivated in Europe on account of the fibres
of the stem, which furnish the hemp of commerce,
one of the most important substances in the arts.

HuJtuLus. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. five-leaved; cor.
none ; anthers with a double pore at the summit.
(2) Cal. scale of the catkin oblique, entire ; cor. none;
styles two ; seed one, coated.

Hum. Litpu/iis, Hop; grows among brushwood and
in hedges, was introduced from Flanders into England
about 1520, and is now extensively cultivated on ac-
count of its seeds and membranous seed-coverings,
which furnish the hops of commerce, the infusion of
which, of a bitter aromatic nature, is employed for
preserving and communicating an agreeable flavour
to malt liquors.

Hexandria.

Myristica. Gen. char, — (1) Cal. one-kaved,
three-cleft; cor. none. (2) Cal. one-leaved, thrdb-
cleft; cor. none; germenoval; fruit a drupe. Three
species of this genus have been described ; but by
far the most important is the Nutmeg Tree, Mi/ris-
tica Moschata, which produces the precious and de-
licate spice, and which is a native of many of the
islands in the East Indies ; but its cultivation was
chiefly confined by the Dutch to the island of Banda,
for the purpose of retaining a monopoly of the trade ;
and, witli the same view, all the plants within their
power in the other islands were destroyed.

The nutmeg tree grows to the height of thirty
feet. When the nutmegs are ripe, the natives ascend
the trees and collect them with the hand, by pulling
the branches near them with long hooks. The fruit,
in this state, is composed of a green shell, or rind,
of a fibrous substance of a beautiful red colour,
which is the spice called mace, and of the nutmeg
itself, which is inclosed within the two coverings.
When the first rind is separated, which is done when
they are gathered from the tree, the nutmegs are
carried home, and the mace is carefully taken oft'
Avith a small knife. Exposed to the sun for a day,
and afterwards placed in an airy situation, the mace
loses its bright red colour, is moistened with sea-
water to prevent it from drying too much, and is then
put into small bags and strongly pressed, when it is
ready for the market.

The nuts, which are still covered with a woody
shell, are exposed to the sun for some days, after-
wards dried before a fire, and then beaten with small
sticks to remove the shell, which flies off in pieces.
The nutmegs thus prepared are distributed into three
parcels, the first of which includes the largest and
best formed, which are destined for the European
market ; the second contains those of an inferior
kind, which are reserved for the consumpt of the
country ; and the third contains those which are un-
ripe and of a small size, which are usually burnt.

Before they are ready for exportation, the nut- Dicccia.
megs are subjected to another process ; to prevent the
depredations of insects, they are immersed two or
three times in a mixture of lime and salt-water, af-
^terwards laid in a heap, where they heat, and after
having sweated sufficiently they are prepared for a-
sea voyage.

OCTANDRIA.

PoPULUS. Gen. char. — ( 1 ) Cal. scale of the cat-
kin ragged ; cor. turbinated, entire. (2) Cal. scale ot
the catkin ragged; cor. turbinated, oblique, entire;
stigmas four ; caps, superior, two-celled, two-valved ;
seeds downy.

Pop. Alha, Great White Poplar ; with heart-shap-
ed, roundish, lobed, toothed leaves, hoary under-
neath ; catkins ovate. In moist woods.

Pop. Trennda, Trembling Poplar, or Aspen ; with
roundish toothed leaves, smooth on both sides ; foot-
stalks compressed ; branches rough. In moist woods,
and becomes a tall tree.

Pop. Nigra, Black Poplar ; withrhomboidal, point-
ed, serrated leaves, smooth on both sides ; a lofty
tree, which grows on banks of rivers, and in watery
places.

RnoDioLA. Gen. char — (1) Cal. four-parted ;
petals four ; nectaries four, notched. (2) Cal. four-
parted ; petals four ; nectaries four, notched ; pistils -
four ; caps, four ; many-seeded.

Rhod. Rosea, Rose-root. On the mountains of
Whales and Yorkshire, and frequent on the rocky
shores of the Western islands of Scotland ; it is easi-
ly recognised by its succulent, smooth, azure, im-
bricated leaves, and yellowish flowers.

Enneandhia. . "^

MEncuRiALis. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. three-part-
ed ; cor. none ; stamens from nine to twelve. (2)
Cal. three-parted ; cor. none ; stylestwo ; caps, two-
celled ; seeds single.

Merc. Perennis, Perennial Dog's Mercury ; with
very simple stem, rough leaves, and creeping root ;
perennial,; flowers in April and May, and is common
among brushwood.

To an inexperienced eye this plant has something
of the appearance of spearmint, and has been used
by mistake in the form of infusion, with fatal effects
to those who swallowed it. It is said also to be
equally deleterious to other animals, sheep, for ex-
ample, as to man.

Merc. Annua, Annual Dog's Mercury; with
branched stem, smooth leaves, flowers in racemes,
and fibrous root ; frequent in waste places near towns.

Decandria.

Caric.a. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. scarcely any; cor.
five-cleft. (2) Cal. five-toothed ; eor. five-petaled ;
stigmas eight ; berry many-seeded.

Car. Pajiaya, Papaw Tree ; with leaves peltate-
lobed ; lobes variously sinuated. Native of Jamaica,
and rises with a soft herbaceous stem to the height
of eighteen or twenty feet. The Iruit of the papaw

752

B O T A N y.

ri1jiMi« grows to tlie size of a small melon ; In its green state
>^»V^»' w employed as a pickle or preserve ; when ripe, is
oaten like the melon with pepper, sugar, and salt ; or
boiled, is beaten up like turnips for the table ; and
tlie leaves are employed by tlie negroes for washing
cloches.

MOSADELPHIA.

JuNiPEnus. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. scales of the
catkin ; cor. none ; stamens three. (2) Cal. scales
of the catkin few, become at last fleshy, and unite
into a three-seeded berry.

Jun. Communis, Common Juniper ; with leaves
ternate, spreading, needle-shaped, longer than the
berry. Common in heaths and elevated places, and
well known by the sweetish aromatic berries which
it produces.

Taxus. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. none ; cor. none ;
stamens numerous ; anthers peltate, eight-cleft. (2)
Cal. pitcher-shaped, entire ; style none ; seed one,
placed on the berried calyx.

Tax. Baccata, Yew Tree; with approximating
leaves ; grows in mountainous woods, and moist, loa-
my soils. The remains of an old wood of yew trees
in Upper Lome, in the Western Highlands of Scot-
land, were observed by Mr Lightfoot ; and the trunk
of a decayed yew tree in Fortingal church-yard is
mentioned by Mr Pennant, in his tour in Scotland, as
5Q^ feet in circumference. Before the use of fire-
arms, when the bow and arrow formed a principal
warlike instrument, the yew, it is said, was planted in
every church-yard to supply the inhabitants with
bows. As an evergreen, and susceptible of pruning
into any form, the yew was much employed in the
old fashioned style of gardening in tiiis country,
for thick lofty hedges. Tlie wood is reddish and
veined, hard, and smooth, and much employed in
cabinet-making and turnery.

The berries of the yew-tree are generally admitted
to be free from any poisonous quality, but the leaves
have been supposed to be deleterious to animals ;
but it seems doubtful whether this charge be not
less owing to any noxious property than to its lurid
aspect and peculiar situation, which have furnished
an impressive image to the author of the " Grave."

' Well do I know thee by thy trusty yew.

Cheerless, unsocial plant, that loves to dwell
Midst skulls and coffins, epitaphs and worms ;
Where light-iieeled ghosts, and visionary shades,
Beiieath the wan, cold moon, as fame reports,
Embodied thick, perform their mystic rounds.
No other merriment, dull tree, is thine. — Blair.

Class XXIII. Polygamia.

In this class the stamens and pistils are separate
in some flowers, and they are united in others, either
on the same or on two or three distinct plants. This
diversity i« the foundation of the three orders into
which the class is divided. As in the two former
classes, the flowers with §tamens are marked by the
figure (1), and the flowers with pistils by the fi-

gure (2). Tlie flowers producitig both stamens and )P„iygani!a.
pistils are marked (3).

Order I. Moncecia.

MuSA. Gen. cAar.— (3) Cal. none ; cor. two-pe-
taled ; stamens six, one of which is fertile ; fruit in-
ferior. (3) Cal none; cor. two-petaled ; stamens six,
five of which are perfect ; pistil one ; no berry.

Musa Paradisaica, Plantain-tree ; with nodding
spadix or flower-spike, and flowers producing sta-
mens permanent. This remarkable plant is culti-
vated in the West Indies on account of its fruit, and
rises to the height of 15 or 20 feet, on a round, soft
stem, composed of the elongated footstalks of the
leaves ; wliich latter are sometimes eight feet in
length and two in breadth. The fruit or plantains
are about a foot in length, and two or throe inches
in diameter, when fully grown, and of a pale yellow
colour, and luscious sweet taste. A bunch of fruit,
from a single plant, sometimes exceeds 40 pounds in
weight ; but the plantain is generally used as an ex-
cellent substitute for bread, before it is ripe and has
acquired the sweet taste ; and for this purpose, the
outer skin being removed, it is either roasted or
boiled. Plate 34. Fig. 5.

Musa Sapientum, Banana Tree ; with the spadix
or flower-spike nodding, and flowers producing sta-
mens deciduous. The banana tree nearly resembles
the plantain, but the stem is marked with dark purple
spots, the fruit is shorter, rounder, and in more
compact bunches, and when it is ripe the pulp is of
a more agreeable flavour and more delicious taste.

The plantain and banana are supposed to have
been brought originally from Guinea to the Canary
islands, and from them introduced to the West
Indies, where they have been long extensively culti-
vated. The green leaves are an excellent food for
horses or cattle ; cordage is made of the fibres of
the plant by the natives of the Philippine islands ; and
encouragement has been given to a similar manu-
facture by public premiums in Jamaica.

Mjmosa. Gen. char. — (1) Cal. five-toothed, cor.
five-cleft, stamens five, ten, or more. (3) Cal. five-
toothed, cor. five-cleft, stamens five or more, pistil
one, fruit a pod.

Mim. Verticillata, Whorled-leaved Mimosa ; un-
armed, with linear sharp leaves in whorls. In tliis
species, as in some others from Botany Bay, of
which it is a native, the leaves on the seedling plants
are pinnated, but afterwards grow in whorls ; it is
a greenhouse plant, and ripens its seeds in this
country.

Many species of this genus are natives of New
Holland. Mimosa Nilotica, is a native of Egypt and
the East, and produces the gum-arabic of com-
merce ; see Plate 34. Fig. 3. : And Mimosa Pudica,
is a well known plant in the stove, and remarkable for
the irritability of its leaves and stems, wliich shrink
and contract with the slightest touch.

Atriplex. Gen. char — (3) Cal. five-parted,
inferior; cor. none; stamens five; style two-parted,
seed one. (2) Cal. two-leaved ; cor. none ; style
two-parted ; seed one, compressed.

BOTANY.

753

At, Palula, Spreading Halberd-leaved Orache;
with spreading shrubby stem, leaves somewhat square
and halberd-shaped. Common in waste and cultivated
grounds, and exhibiting some varieties when it grows
on the sea-shore.

At. Angmti/nlia, Narrow-leaved Orache ; with en-
tire lance-shaped leaves, the lowest somewhat hal-
berd-shaped ; common in waste and cultivated places.

In the second order of this class, Dioecia, the dif-
ferent flowers are on two different plants ; but ex-
cepting Hippuphae, wliich is generally arranged un-
der Monoecia Tetrandria, no distinct example has
occurred to the extensive experience and acute ob-
servation of Dr Smith.

Order III. Trkecia.

Ficus. Gen. char — Common receptacle, tur-
ban-shaped, converging, closed, fleshy. (iJ) Cal. five-
parted, cor. none, pistil one, seed one. (1) Cal. three-
parted, cor. none, stamens three. The flowers produc-
ing stamens and those producing pistils are included
within the same common receptacle, but with the
partial fructification distinct.

Fie. Carica, Fig Tree; with palmated, nearly three-
lobed leaves, and pear-shaped, smooth fruit. The
figs of commerce are the preserved fruit of this tree,
which is extensively cultivated in Turkey, and in the
warmer regions of Europe.

Fie. Indica, or Banyan Tree, is one of the most
remarkable vegetable productions; shoots are thrown
out from the horizontal branches, and as they extend
towards the earth increase in size, and at last strike
into the ground and become stems. New branches
push out, which, as they extend, again form roots
and new stems, till at last a single tree becomes the
parent of an extensive grove, appropriately charac-
terised by the poet as a " pillared shade high over-
arched." Some banyan trees cover an immense ex-
tent of surface. A tree of this description in an isl-
and of the river Nerbudda, in India, occupies a space
which exceeds 2000 feet in circumference ; the chief
trunks amount to 350, and the number of smaller
stems is more than 3000, although it is considerably
reduced by the encroachment of floods on the banks
of the island.

Ciibbeer Burr, the name of this famous tree, de-
rived from a venerated saint, is celebrated through-
out Hindostan for its beauty and magnitude ; thou-
sands of votaries, from all parts of the Mogul empire,
repair to the sacred spot, at stated seasons, to attend
solemn festivals ; seven thousand persons, it is said,
may repose under its ample shade ; and numerous
colonies of wood-pigeons, peacocks, and singing birds,
with large families of monkeys, find abundant accom-
modation in its thick, wide-spreading branches, which,
in the proper season, offer a copious supply of small
scarlet-coloured figs, as food to its crowded inhabi-
tants. The banyan tree may be regarded as a natu-
ral temple in eastern regibns ; it is held sacred by
the natives, and idols are set up under its shade, be-
fore which they perform their devotions. It is also
tailed the tree of councils, from the people assembling
under its shade for deliberating on civil affairs.
Plate 3*. Fig. 4.

VOL. I. PART II.

Crypt(^aua

Class XXIV. Cryptogamia.

In this class the parts of fructification are so minute
that they cannot be arranged according to the prin-
ciples observed in the preceding classes ; but the
plants which it includes are considerably different
in their structure and habits from the other vegeta-
ble tribes ; it is divided into five orders.

Order I. Filices, or pEnxs. •

This order is subdivided into three sections, which
are characterised by the fructifications being spiked,
arranged on the under surface of the leaf or frond,
or being near the root.

EauisETUM. Gen. char — Catkin with peltated
scales including the parts of fructification ; small in-
volucruras, two-valved ; seeds numerous, naked, in-
folded by four filaments producing pollen.

Equis. Falustre, Marsh Horsetail ; with angular
branched stems ; fructifications on the summit ;
branches simple, erect, slightly rough. In wet and
marshy places.

Equis. ^ruew^e. Corn Horsetail; with barren stems,
branched all round ; branches slightly rough, stenas
producing seed, simple. Frequent in moist meadows,
and among corn in a wet soil.

Equis. Hyemale, Rough Horsetail, or Shavegrass ;
with a naked, very rough stem, slightly branched at
the base, and terminal catkin. In marshes and moist
woods ; and to the habitats noticed in the Flora
Britannica may be added, a place where water stood
in the winter on the Newton-green near Ayr, and
the banks of the Doon, three miles south from the
same place. The dried stems are much employed
by cabinet-makers for polishing their work.

Ophioglossum. Gen. char. — Spike two-rowed,
capsules two-valved, sunk, and openmg transversely.

Oph. Vulgatunt, Common Adder's-tongue ; with
ovate veinless frond ; in moist meadows and pastures,
but not very common.

OsMUNDA. Gen. char. — Spike branched, cap-
sules two-valved, naked, globular.

Os Lunaria, Common Moonwort ; with pinnated
frond, and spike rising from the base ; the leaflets
crescent-shaped, crenated. In dry pastures and
meadows.

Os. Regalis, Royal Moonwort, or Flowering Fern ;
with frond twice pinnated, and spike produced at the
summit ; leaflets heart-shaped, lanceolate, smooth.
This splendid plant, when in full vigour, rises to the
height of three or four feet, and is not uncommon in
marshy places and the crevices of rocks in the West-
ern Highlands of Scotland.

Gnt. char. — Capsules axillarj^,
naked, slightly kidney-shaped.

Lycopodium.
single, two-valved,
compressed.

Lye. Clavatum, Common Clubmoss ; with scatter-
ed filamentous leaves ; flower-bearing stems, bristly.
Not uncommon in elevated heaths, and readily dis-
tinguished by its long, trailing, branched stems, and
5d

754

B O T A N Y.

Ctyptogumd)

erect flower- stalks, which are gometimes divided into
two or three spikes.

Lye. Selago, Fir Clubmoss ; with entire lance-
ehaped scattered leaves, and erect divided stem. In
moist places on mountainous heaths.

PoLYPODiUM. Gen. char. — Fructifications inround-
ish points ; scattered ; not marginal; no involucrum.

Pol. I'u/gare, Common Polypody ; with pinnatifid
frond, lobes oblong, somewhat serrated, obtuse ;
root scaly. Common on walls and on the trunks of
trees.

Pol. Phegopteris, Pale Mountain Polypody; with
pinnated frond ; leaflets lance-shaped, pointed, pin-
natifid, united at the base, the lowest reflected. In
fissures of rocks and moist places, in elevated si-
tuations, but not very common. Plate 35. Fig. 7.

'AspiDiUM. Gen. char. — Fructifications in round-
ish points, scattered, not marginal, involucrum um-
bilicated, opening almost on all sides.

Asp. Filijc Mas. Male Fern ; with doubly pinnated
frond ; lefiflets, obtuse, serrated, with chaffy footstalk ;
involucrum bent inwards. Common in woods and
shady places.

Asp. Aculeatum, Common Prickly Shield Fern ;
with doubly pinnated frond, leaflets ovate, crescent-
shaped, ciliated, spinous, hairy underneath. In moist
rocky places and woods. Plate 35. Fig. 8.

BLECifNUM. Gen. char. — Fructifications in conti-
nuous longitudinal lines near the rib ; involucrum
superficial, continuous, opening towards tiie rib.

Blech. lioreale, Rough Spleenwort ; with smooth
pinnated frond ; leaflets linear, bluntish, entire, near-
ly equal at the base. Common in woods and heaths.
Plate 35. Fig. 5. Osmunda spicant of Lightfoot and
ethers.

ScoLOPENDRJDM. Gen, char, — ^Fructifications in
double scattered lines, involucrum superficial, open-
ing longitudinall}'.

Scol. Vulgare, Common Hart's-tongue ; with sim-
ple lance-shaped frond, smooth underneath. Com-
mon in moist, rocky, and shady places. Plate 35.
Fig. 6. AspUnium ScolopenJrium, Spec. Plant, of
Lightfoot and other botanists.

AspLENiuM. Gen char Fructifications in scat-
tered lines; involucrum opening towards the rib.

Asplen. Marimim, Sea Spleenwort ; with pinnated
fr©nd, leaflets ovate, oblique, serrated, obtuse, un-
equal at the base, and wedge-shaped. Rocks near
the sea in Britain.

Asplen. Septenlrionak, Forked Spleenwort ; with
pinnated, three-cleft frond, leaflets alternate, linear,
ragged at the summit. In the fissures of rocks ; Ar-
thurs' Seat, Edinburgh. Acroxlichum Septentrionale
of lightfoot. Withering, and others.

Asplen. Palmatum, Palmated Spleenwort; with
five-lobed, heart-shaped frond ; three intermediate
lobes pointed. Native of Spain, Portugal, and the
Canary Islands. Plate 35. Fig. 1.

LoNCHiTis. Gen. char Fructifications in lines

under the sinuses of the frond.

Lon. llirsiUa, Hairy Spleenwort ; with blunt en-
tire pinnatifid ironds ; native of the mountains of

Jamaica, and grows to the height of four or five cnstovo
feet. - "-

Lon, Pedata, Footed Spleenwort ; with fronds pe-
date, leaflets pinnatifid and slightly serrated. Na-
tive of the mountains of New Liguanea, in Jamaica ;
grows two or three feet in height on a single stalk ;
divides into three parts, of which the middle is a
single frond, and the lateral divisions are composed
of three fronds each. Plate 35. Fig. 2. a single frond,
and Fig. 3. the entire plant.

Adi ANTUM. Gen. char — Fructifications in round-
ish, distinct, marginal points.

Ad. CaplUus Veneris, True Maiden-hair ; with th^
frond alternately decompounded ; leaflets wedge-
shaped, lobed, on footstalks. On rocLs and moii!
walls near the sea.

LiNDS^A ; fructifications linear, continued, sub-
marginal ; capsules opening interiorly.

Lind. Reniformis, Kidney-shaped Lindsxa ; witii
simple, kidney-formed, very obtuse frond. Native
of Guiiina. Lin. Trans. Vol. III. See Plate 35.
Fig. 4.

Pteris. Gen. cAan— Fructifications in a conti-
nued marginal line ; involucrum from the inflect-
ed margin of the frond, continuous, opening inte-
riorly.

Pter. Aquilina, Common Brakes ; with supra-de-
compound frond, leaflets lance-shaped, somewhat
acute ; the lowest pinnatifid, the upper smaller. Ih
heatlis and neglected pastures, very commun.

Ordbr II. Musci, Mosses.

The plants arranged under this order are furnish ■
ed with distinct leaves, and often with a distinct
stem. The membranous corolla, which is of a co-
nical form, is called a calyptra, or veil, and the sum-
mit is the stigma. This veil covers the capsule,
which, before the seed ripens, is raised on a foot-
stalk. The capsule, which opens by a vertical lid,
consists of one cell and one valve, and the seeds are
extremely minute and numerous. The stamens and
pistils of the mosses are generally in separate plants,
but in a few species they are united in the same
flower.

According to the method adopted by Linnasus,
the genera of mosses are determined chiefly by the
lateral or terminal situation of the capsule ; but the
structure of the fringe or perislomium, which borders
the orifice of the capsule, as proposed by Hedwig,
atibrds more obvious and more precise marks of dis-
crimination. The fringe is either simple or double,
and is composed either of separate teeth, as is mostly
the case, with the external fringe, or of a plaited and
jagged membrane, which is the form of the inner
fringe when it exists. The number of teeth, which
is remarkably constant in each genus and species, is
either four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two, or sixty-four.

The elegance and beauty which are exhibited in
the form and structure oi' this singular tribe of plants,
cannot fail to excite admiration, and amply reward
curiosity for the care and industry requisite ni study-
ing them j — they are spread over the surface of the

BOTANY.

755

Cryptagamia. earth, are found in tropical climes, as well as in polar
regions, and offer themselves for examination at all
seasons ; for even the severity of winter, which over-
whelms the gayer beauties of the empire of Flora with
desolation, and leaves behind a dreary waste, is not
unfavourable to their growth and vigour.

The mosses are divided into three sections ; as they
are destitute of fringe, or as they are furnished with
a single or double fringe. Of these sections the
following are examples.

Sect. I. With no Fringe.

Sphagnum. Gen. char. — Capsule with a naked
mouth ; calyptra divided horizontally, surrounding
the capsule at the base ; anthers surrounded with a
ring.

Sphag. Latifolium, Broad-leaved Bog Moss ; with
swelled deflected branches, and ovate, obtuse, in-
flated leaves ; very common in marshy bogs.

Sphag. Capillijfbliuni, Slender Bog Moss ; with
thread-shaped, deflected branches, and ovate-lance-
sbaped, plain, pointed, closely imbricated leaves ; in
moist places on elevated heaths.

The two species now described are synonymous
with Sphagnum Palustre, of the Species Plantarum,
Withering, and others.

Phascum. Gen. char. — Capsule ovate, closed, de-
ciduous, with the operculum not opening.

Phas. Subulatum, Awl-leaved Earth Moss; with
capsule nearly sessile, and leaves awl-shaped, spread-
ing, dilated at the base, very slender at the summit ;
on heaths and sandy banks.

Phas. Muticum, Common Dwarf Earth Moss ; with
ovate, awnless, concave, closing leaves, and sessile
globular capsule ; frequent on banks and in hedges.

Phas. Cuspidatum, Sharp-leaved Dwarf Earth
Moss ; with ovate, bearded, pointed leaves ; upper
leaves closing, and capsule broadly elliptical, nearly
sessile. In heaths, banks, and walks, especially in a
sandy soil, abundant.

Gymnostomcm. Gen. char. — Capsule with a naked
mouth, and deciduous lip ; entire calyptra separating
from the base.

Gymnost. Trunealtdum, Little Blunt-footed Beard-
less Moss ; with ovate, pointed, plain, entire leaves,
and turban-shaped truncated capsule. In flowers,
banks, and by the sides of ditches.

Gymnost. Ovatum, Hairy-leaved Beardless Moss ;
with ovate, obtuse, very entire, concave, awned
leaves, and ovate capsule ; on banks and mud walls.

Gymnost. Pyriforme, Pointed Pear-shaped Beard-
less Moss; with very simple and very short stem;
leaves ovate, acute, slightly toothed ; capsule obo-
vate, and lid bluntly dagger -shaped. On banks and
wet I^aths.

Sect. II. With a Simple Fringe.

Spxachiiium. Gen. char — ^Capsule cylindrical,
set upon a fleshy process ; fringe simple, with sixteen
teeth approaching by pairs.

Splach. Mniuides, Green Tapering Gland Moss ;
with the process obconical, green, aiid leaves ellip-
tical, lance-shaped, entire, awu^ ; in moist places
pi' elevated districts.

Splach. Ampullaceum, Purple Gland Moss ; with Cryptojcami*.
greenish, purple, obconical, blunt process, three
times thicker than the capsule ; leaves lance-shaped,
acute, serrated. In marshy bogs and moist heaths.

Tetraphis. Gen. char. — Capsule oblong ; fringe
with four pyramidal, erect, loose teeth.

Tet. Pellucida, Transparent Four-toothed Moss ;
Mniiim Pellucidmn, Spec. Plant. In moist, shady
places, and at the roots of trees.

Encalypta. Gen. char Capsule cylindrical ;

fringe with sixteen linear, upright teeth ; calyptra
bell-shaped, inflated, loose.

Enc. Vulgaris, Common Extinguisher Moss ; with
calyptra, having a very entire, smooth margin; stem
nearly simple, and leaves lanceolate. In the fissures
of rocks, on walls, and shady banks.

Enc. Ciliata, Greater Extinguisher Moss ; with
calyptra toothed on the margin ; stem branched, and
leaves lanceolate. On elevated rocks.

The two last species are varieties of Bri/um Ej)i-
iinctorium. Spec. Plant.

Trichostomum. Gen. char. — Capsule oblong ;
fringe with thirty-two thread-shaped, somewhat up-
right teeth, joined in pairs, or connected at the base.

Trich. Trifarium, Three-ranked Fringe Moss ; with
leaves awl-shaped, keeled, entire, in three rows ; cap-
sule ovate, and stem branched. In barren places on
mountains.

Trich. Capillaceiim, Cap.illary Fringe Moss; with
slender sheathing leaves in two rows, conical lid, and
stems forming a close turf. In elevated marshes, as
on the Pentland hills near Edinburgh.

ToRTULA. Gen. c/iflr.— Caps, oblong, with nume-
rous thread-shaped teeth, spirally convoluted, and
with many folds.

Tort. Rigida, Rigid Screw Moss ; with very short
stem ; spreading, stiff, blunt leaves, rolled inwards,
and without nerves ; caps, cylindrical and lid conical.
On rocks, banks, and walls. Bryui* Rigidum of Wi-
thering, Hudson, and others.

Tort. Ruralis, Great Hairy Screw Moss ; with
branched stem ; leaves blunt, recurved, hairy at the
summit ; upper leaves star-shaped ; capsule ovate,
cylindrical. Common on walls, cottages, and trunks
of trees. Bryum Rurale of Spec. Plant. Withering,
and others.

Tort. Siibulata, Awl-shaped Screw Moss ; with
short, somewhat simple stem ; leaves ovate, lance-
shaped, pointed ; caps, cyhndrical, and lid awl-shap-
ed, upright. Common in moist, shady places, but
rare in the northern districts of Britain. Bri/um
Subulatum of Spec. Plant. Hudson, Withering, Light-
foot, &c.

Tort. Muralis, Wall Screw Moss ; with very short,
nearly simple stem ; leaves ovate, sharp, hairy ; caps,
elliptic, cylindrical, and Hd conical. One of the m.ost
common mosses ; on walls and houses. Bryum Mu-
rale, Spec. Plant.

Sect. HI. With Double Fringe.

Orth.qtrichum. Gen. char — Caps, oblong, ter-
minal ; external fringe, with sixteen teeth ; internal,
with eight or sixteen thread-shaped, and somttimes

756

BOTANY.

Cnptopuma. none ; calyptra often rough, With straight hairs, an-
gular.

Orthot. Striatum, Common Bristle Moss ; with
branched stem ; leaves lance-shapeil, keeled, bent
back, spreading ; calyptra entire, and internal fringe
with sixteen teeth. On the trunks of trees. Bryum
Striatum of Spec. Plant, and Withering, and Polylri-
chum Striatum of Hudson and Hull.

Orthot. CVi^)«»i, Curled Bristle Moss; with branch-
ed stem ; with linear leaves bent back and waved by
drying, and footstalks lengthened and thickened at
the summits. On trees. Bryum Striatum, Spec.
Plant ; Bryum Crispum, Withering.

Neckera. Gen. char. — Caps, oblong, proceed-
ing from a lateral peric/tatium or sheath ; external
fringe, with sixteen sharp teeth ; internal, with sixteen
thread-shaped intermediate teeth ; calyptra smooth.

Neck. Pumila, Small Feathery Neckera; with pin-
nated branches ; leaves in two rows, ovate, slightly
waved, and footstalk scarcely exceeding the sheath.
On the trunks of trees, but rare. Hypnum Penna-
tum of Withering, and Fontinalis Pennata of Hud-
son.

Neck. Crispa, Crisped Neckera ; with pinnated
branches, leaves oblong, transversely wrinkled, and
in two rows, and footstalk double the length of the
sheath. On chalk-hills and elevated woods in a dry
soil. Hupnum Crispum, Spec, plant. Hudson, Wi-
thering, Lightfoot.

Neck. Heteromalla, Lateral Neckera; with diffuse
branched stem, leaves ovate, sharp, concave, imbri-
cated on all sides, and capsule sessile, on one side.
On the trunks of trees.

Mnium. Gen. char. — Caps, cylindrical, furrow-
ed ; external fringe, with sixteen teeth dilated at the
base ; internal, membranaceous, divided into seg-
ments ; calyptra smooth, footstalk terminal.

Mnium Androgynum, Narrow-leaved Spring Moss ;
inoncecious, caps, erect, lid conical ; leaves imbricat-
ed, spreading, and toothed at the summit. In moist
shady places.

Mnium Pfl^w/re, Greater-forked Spring Moss; dioe-
cious caps, oblique, lid conical, leaves sharp. In
marshy and flooded places.

Fun ARIA. Gen. char — Caps, obovate, external
fringe, with sixteen teeth, oblique, uniting at the
summit internal, with sixteen plain teeth ; flowers
terminal, calyptra square.

Fun. Hygrometrica, Twisting Cord Moss ; with con-
cave leaves and ventricose capsule. Common in
moist, sandy heaths, gardens, and neglected walks.
Mnium Hygrometricum, Spec. Plant. Withering,
Lightfoot. The flower-stems twist round when moist-
ened, or even breathed upon.

Bartramia. Gen. char. — Caps, round, furrow-
ed ; external fringe with sixteen teeth, dilated at the
base ; internal, membranaceous, folded, divided into
▼arious segments ; calyptra smooth ; lid depressed.

Bart. P(/mi/(j7-)nc, Apple Bartramia; with footstalks
erect, exceeding the stem ; leaves awUshaped, one-
nerved. In shady places and crevices of rocks.
Bryum Pomiforme. Spec. Plant.

Bart. Fontana, Fountain Bartramia; with erect

footstalks exceeding the stem, entire ovate leaves, Cryptogamia.
erect, thread-shaped, fasciculated branches. Abun- ' "
dant on the banks of rivers and in marshy places.
Mnium Fontanum, Spec. Plant. Withering and Light-
foot.

PoLYTRicHUM. Gen. c^ar.— External fringe, with
thirty-two or sixty-four short inflected teeth ; inter-
nal fringe, a plain undivided membrane ; calyptra of-
ten double, the external one hairy.

Polyt. Commune, Hair-moss ; with simple stem ;
leaves linear, lance-shaped, slightly serrated ; caps,
erect, square; external fringe, with sixty-four teeth ;
calyptra double. Common in moist woods and bog-
gy places.

Polyt. Undulatiim, Waved Hair Moss ; with lance-
shaped serrated leaves that curl in drying ; cylindri-
cal nodding capsule, and calyptra rough on the sum-
mit; teeth of the fringe thirty-two. Frequent in
shady places and hedges.

Order III. Hepatic^, LivEnwonxs.

The plants included under this order are separated
from the .Algae or Flags, under which they were ar-
ranged by Linnaeus. In the Liverworts the herbage
is commonly frondose; the fructification originates
from what is at the same time both leaf and stem ;
and the capsules have no lid or operculum.

Jongermannia. Gen. char. — (1) On a footstalk
and naked, anther four-valved. (2) Sessile naked,
with roundish seeds.

Jung. rricAomawe*, Powder-headed Jungermannia;
with fronds simply pinnated ; leaves ovate, plain,
very entire; stem with the pistil at the summit.
Near springs and rivulets in moist woods.

Jung. Asplenoides, Spleenwort Jungermannia;
with fronds simply pinnated, leaflets ovate, slight-
ly ciliated. In moist woods, at the roots of trees,
and is said to be the largest of the British species.

Jung. Complanata, Flat Pale Green Jungermannia ;
with creeping shoots ; leaflets eared below, and dou-
bly imbricated ; brandies equal. Common on trunks
of trees.

Jung. Tamarisci, Red Tamarisk Jungermannia; with
leaves imbricated in a double series, upper leaves
roundish, convex, obtuse, one-fourth larger. On
trunks of trees, rocks., and in dry stony places ; on
the rocks of Edinburgh Castle.

Marchantia. Gen. char.— [\) Cal. shield-form-
ed, covered underneath with one-leaved corollas ;
anthers much divided. (2) Cal. sessile, bell-shaped;
many-seeded.

March. Polymorpha, Great Star-headed Marchan-
tia ; with the common calyx ten-cleft ; by the sides
of wells, and on moist rocks on the banks of rivulets.

A variety of this plant, which some have consi-
dered a different species, is smaller in all its parts, ex-
cepting the umbellated heads ; it grows on walls,
rocks, and neglected shady garden-walks.

March. Hemispharica, Hemispheric Marchantia ;
with the common calyx five-cleft, hemispherical, and
destitute of sheath. On wet banks, by the sides of
rivers, not uncommon ; in the King's park at Edin-
burgh. The leaves are slightly notched on the margin ;

BOTANY.

Crypfogamia. and the margin and under-surface are of a dark red
*^"*' ^*" ' or claret colour, covered with white downy radicles.

757

Order IV. AlgjE, Flags.

^ In this order the herbage is frondose, sometimes
of a leathery geiatinous consistence, and sometimes
only a crust ; and tlie seeds are produced either in a
peculiar receptacle or in the frond itself.

Lichen. Gen. char. — (1) Receptacle roundish,
somewhat plain, shining. (2) Dust scatter.ed on the
leaves.

Lich. Scripius, Lettered Lichen ; warty, whitish,
with small black branched lines resembling letters.
On the smooth bark of trees.

Lich. Gsograjo/iiCMi, Map Lichen ; warty, yellow-
ish, with black lines resenibh"ng a map ; frequent on
rocks, as in the King's Park at Edinburgh.

Lich. Islandicus, Eatable Iceland Lichen ; leafy,
laciniated, with elevated fringed margins. On moun-
tainous places in the Highlands and Lowlands of
Scotland ; on the Pentland hills near Edinburgh.
This lichen contains a considerable proportion of
mucilage, and has on that account been recommend-
ed as a cure, or as a mild nourishing aliment, in af-
fections of the lungs. The inhabitants of Iceland
grind it to powder, and use it as common food, by
boiling it either in milk or water, or making it into
bread.

Lich. Rangiferinus, Rein-Deer Lichen ; shrubby,
and very much branched. Common in woods and
heaths. This plant is the chief support of the
rein-deer, an animal of the utmost importance to a
large proportion of the inhabitants of the polar re-
gions.

Fucus. Gen. char. — (1) Vesicles interwoven with
hairs. (2) Vesicles strewed with imbedded grains,
slightly prominent at the summit ; seeds solitary.

Fucus Serratus, Sea-wrack ; with frond, plain, di- -
vided, ribbed, serrated, toothed, and tubercular ter-
minal fructifications. On sea rocks at low water mark.
The leaf is flat, radical, and about two- feet long.

Fucus Vesiculosus, Common Sea-wrack, or Sea-
ware, in Scotland ; grows abundantly on rocks at
low water mark, and is collected on the shores of
Scotland for making kelp. Several other species of
fucus are employed for the same purpose.

Fucus Palmatus, Palmated, or Sweet Fucus; dulse,
or dilse, in Scotland; with a plain, hand-shaped
frond. Common on sea-rocks, and frequently eaten
by the inhabitants.

Fucus Ruscifolius; found on the southern shores
of England ; is represented on Plate 35. Fig. 9. Fu-
cus Menziesii; a native of the western coast of North
America, Fig. 10. Fucus Sanguineus, Dock-leaved
Fucus ; not uncommon on the shores of Britain; is a
very elegant species, of a bright red or purple co-
lour. Fig. 11. Fucus lUcifolius, a native of the straits
of Sunda, Fig. 12. Fucus Fraxinifolius, a native of
the East Indies, Fig. 13. See Hutoria Ftccorum by
Turner.

Order V. Fungi, or Mushrooms.
The vegetable nature of this order of plants was

long doubted by some naturalists, who were disposed Cryptogamia.
to ascribe to them an animal origin ; but the labours >_, -»^
of Dryander, Schaeffer, and Hedwig, have shewn that ~ V ~
they possess a vegetable character, by detecting their
seeds, and explaining the parts of fructification. In
the Si/nopsis Methodica Fungorum of Persoon, the or-
der of mushrooms is divided into such as produce
their seeds internally, or in vessels, and such as have
them exposed or imbedded in an appropriate mem-
brane. To the first division belong Sphceria and Ly-
coperdon, or Puff-ball ; and to the second Helvella,
in which the seed membrane is smooth and even ;
Boletus, in which it is porous; and Agaricus, in wliich
it is composed of parallel plates, denominated Z,a-
mellce, or Gills.

Agaricus. Gen, cAcr.— Fungus horizontal, la-
mellated underneath.

Ag. Chantarcllus, Yellow Agaric, or Chantarelle,
Paddock-stool in Scotland ; with a stipe or foot-
stalk, and branched lamellae or gills. Frequent in
woods. This species is of a yellow colour ; the pi-
leus, when young, is orbicular; when full grown the
rim becomes waved and variously lobed; and the
gills are branched, curled, and run down part of the
stem.

Ag. Integer, Equal-gilled Agaric; furnished with
a stem ; all the gills of the same size. Nofuncom-
mon in woods.

Ag. Piperatus, Pepper Agaric ; with a footstalk
pileus plain, lactescent, margin deflected, gills pale,
flesh-coloured. Frequent in woods. This mush-
room is of a very acrid nature, yet, after being pick-
led with salt, is eaten by the Russians.

Ag. Campestris, Common Mushroom, or Cham-
pignon ; with a footstalk ; white, convex, scaly pi-
leus, and reddish gills. Common in dry pastures af-
ter rains. This is the only mushroom which may be
eaten with safety ; and the juice, preserved with salt
- and spice, forms the sauce well known by the name
of ketchup. The stalk of this mushroom isshort, white,
solid, and about the thickness of the finger ; the pi-
leus, when young, is white, hemispherical, fleshy^
and covered with ragged scales ; the rim is inflectecl,
and the gills are rose or pink- coloured, and nearly of
equal length.

L-JCOPERDGN. Gen. char. — Fungus roundish, fill-
ed ivith mealy seeds.

Lye. Tuber, Truffles, or Subterraneous Puff-balls ;
globular, solid, with sharp tubercles, and without root.
Foundin woods. This fungus is produced in clu§ters,
three or four inches under ground. The truffles of this
country rarely exceed three or four ounces in weight;
but in Italy they acquire the enormous size of eight
or ten pounds. They are eaten at table either fresh
and roasted like potatoes, or dried and sliced as a
seasoning to ragouts. Dogs are taught, to discover
them by the scent.

Lye. Bovista, Common Puff-ball ; roundish, open-
ing irregularly. Common in meadows and pastures
in the autumn. This species varies much in size, fi-
gure, and colour ; it has been sometimes found in
England as large as a man's head, and specimens
have been gathered in Italy of the extraordinary
weight of 25 lbs. and two yards in circumference.

T5$

BOTANY.

Maw.

APPENDIX.

Palms.

The natural order of palras exhibits such striking
iwculiaritics in the structure and habits of" the plants
which it comprehends, as to be properly enough re-
served for an appendix to the system, as was origin-
ally done by Linnaius, in consequence of the li-
mited knowledge which he possessed of these re-
markable vegetable productions. From the obser-
vations of succeedmg botanists, it appears that
palms have for the ,most part six stamens, more
rarely three or nine, with three or six petals, and one
or three styles. The stamens and pistils are some-
times in the same flower ; sometimes in sepa-
rate flowers on the same plant ; and sometimes
on different plants, — thus tbrming monoecious or
diticcious plants. The fruit of the palms is ge-
nerally a drupe. Having some aflinity in struc-
ture to the liliaceous tribe, which were called by
I<inna>us the nobles, the palms, from their lofty sta-
ture and elegant form, have received the digni-
fied appellation of the princes of the vegetable king-
dom.

The genera of palms, which do not exceed ten or
twelve, have been divided into three sections, the
^aracters of which are taken from the form of the
leaves. In the first they are fan-shaped; in the se-
■ooud pinnated, or wing-shaped ; and in the third
ilpubly pinnated.

Chama'hops. Gen. c/ior.— Dioecious ; pericarp
•tliree globular one-celled drupes.

Cham. Humilis, Smaller Palraeto, or Fan-palm ;
with large fan-shaped leaves and smooth stems. A
common plant in Jamaica, the leaves of which are
much employed for thatching cottages ; and the ber-
ries, which are sweet, are greedily devoured by
birds. This species of palm is also a native of Eu-
rope ; it grows as far north as the vicinity of Nice.
Plate 36. Fig. 6.

Thrijjax. Qen. char. — Perianth minute, six-
toothed ; stamens six ; pericarp a naked berry, one-
celled.

Thrin. Parviflora, Small-flowered Palraeto Royal,
or Thatch-tree ; with palmate plaited leaves. Native
of Jamaica, and grows abundantly on rocky hills
and low moist plains near the sea. It shoots up with
a simple stem from ten to twenty feet in height. The
leaves are used for thatch, and the trunk is employ-
ed for buildings in the sea, for which purpose it is
well calculated from its durable quality.

^ORAssus. Gen. char. — D'oecious; (1) cal. a
coinpound sheath ; cor. with three oval and concave
petals. (2) Cal. a sheath ; cor. with three roundish
petals ; drupe or berry roundish, obtuse, with three
seeds.

Boras. Flabdliformis, Fan-leaved Palm ; with hand-
shaped leaves, folded, wide at top, and drawn to a
point below; footstalk serrated. This palm is a
native of India, rises to the height of thirty feet,
and is termjnated wit^» a buojch pf fw»h«ped leaves.

The wood, which is hard and durable, is employed
in building, and in the construction of domestic im-
plements ; the liquid which flows from the wounded
tree affords, by evaporation, saccharine matter, and
a spirit when it is fermented and distilled ; screens
and parasols are made of the entire leaves ; and, di-
vided into slips, they are converted into mats of va-
rious kinds ; or, cut into small pieces, are used as a
substitute for writing paper.

CoRYPiiA, or Mountain Palm, is also dioecious,
with a drupe containing one seed ; and it includes two
species, which arc natives of the East Indies and
Carolina.

PiiCENix. Gen. char (1) Cal. a three-parted

one-valved sheath ; cor. with three concave oval
petals. (2) Cal. the same ; cor. with three petals;
iruit oval, one-seeded.

Phoen. Dactylifera, Date Tree ; with pinnated
leaves, leaflets sword-shaped, folded. To the inha-
bitants of many extensive regions of Asia and Africa,
the date tree is the most important vegetable pro-
duction ; it grows with a straight cylindrical stem to
the height of thirty or forty feet, thickly set on the
upper part with scales, which are the ve.stiges of old
leaves, and is terminated by a bunch of leaves nine
or ten feet in length. The fruit is composed of a
fine soft pulp, of a sweet and slightly vinous taste,
and of a very wholesome and nutritious quality.

The date-tree is a native of the sandy districts of
India, Arabia, and the northern regions of Africa ; it
grows also in the southern parts of Spain, in some of
the islands of the Mediterranean, and in some places
of France near the sea, although the fruit is rarely
ripened ; but in Arabia, and in those parts of Africa
to the eastward of mount Atlas, countries which pro-
duce little corn, this valuable tree fortunately thrives
most vigorously, and yields the best fruit. On the
borders of the great desert which approaches to
mount Atlas, the date-tree, as it supplies the defi-
ciency of corn, and furnishes nearly the whole of the
subsistence of the inhabitants, is cultivated with great
care. The date-trees are planted at the distance of
twelve feet from each other, in the vicinity of streams
and rivulets, for the conveniency of supplying them
with water, which is necessary at all seasons, but
especially during the great heats of summer.

When the date-palm is raised from seed, it seldom
produces fruit before it is twelve or fifteen years old.
To obviate this inconveniency, the Arabs generally
prefer the mode of propagation by shoots selected
from the best and most flourishing trees. These
shoots, with proper management, begin to bear fruit
in three or four years, although it is not till the plant
has reached its fifteenth or twentieth year that the
fruit is in its highest degree of perfection, after which
it is said that it continues to flourish vigorously lor
200 or 300 years. The date crop is gathered about
the end of November, and the bunches are hung up
to dry in an airy situation. A very extensive trade
in dates is carried on with the interior districts of
Africa, and great quantities are exported to differ-
ent parts of Europe. Plate 36. Fig. 3.

£i..$is. Gen. c/icAn-rDicecious, cal. and eor. u'x-

Palms.

BOTANY.

759

Palius. cleft;, frait a drupe, three-Talrecl, one-celled, and
onc-seedcd.

El. Guineensis, Palm-oil Tree; with pinnated leaves,
and footstalks, furnished on the edges with awl-
shaped spines, some of which are hooked, some
straight, and the lowest spreading and longest. This
palm is a native of Guinea ; the seeds being boiled
in water yield the palm-oil, a valuable commercial
commodity ; and from the fermented liquid obtained
by tapping the tree, palm wine is made.

Areca. Gen, char. — (l)| Cal. two-valved, cor.
with three sharp-pointed petals. (2) Cal. and cor.
in the same sheath, fruit a roundish drupe, with a
thick fibrous rind inclosing an oval nut.

Ar. Oleracen, Mountain Cabbage-tree; with leaf-
lets quite entire. This treu, which is one of the most
stately and most beautiful of the palm tribe, is a na-
tive of the West Indies, and common in many parts
of Jamaica, where it grows to the height of 100 and
of 150 feet. Near the ground it is often seven feet in
circumference, and tapering as it ascends ; the ash-
coloured bark is changed into a deep sea-green at
20 or 30 feet from the top ; and it is terminated by
pinnated leaves, some of which are 20 feet long, with
leaflets often three feet long. When the green bark
immediately under the branches is removed, what is
called the cabbage is discovered, in thin, snow-white,
brittle flakes, which has been compared to the taste
of an almond, but with greater sweetness. This
part is eaten as cabbage is used in this country, and
is considered what it really is — a delicious dish ; but
to obtain a single dish, a whole tree, or several trees,
must be destroyed. Plate 36. Fig. 5.

Ar. Catechu, Betel-nut Tree ; with pinnated leaves,
leaflets opposite, bent back, and bitten off. This
palm is a native of India, grows to a great height,
and is terminated with six or eight pinnated leaves,
each ofj « hich is about six feet long. The betel-nut
forms an important object of trade in the east ; it is
employed as a luxury similar to that of tobacco in
Europe, and for this purjiose it is prepared by mix-
ing it with the leaf of a species of pep|)er, which,
from this use, has obtained the name of betel-leaf.
The nut is cut in slices, sprinkled with slaked lime,
and wrapped up in the pepper leaves. Other spices
and aromatic drugs are employed in the preparation
in some parts of India; and the chewing of betel is a
very general practice throughout the east.

I'lie wood of both species of Areca, which is hard
and durable, is of great use to the inhabitants, as raf-
ters for houses, pales for fences, and water-pipes and
gutters.

Cocos. Gen. char — Monoecious: (1) Cal. with
three leaves, cor. with three petals. (2) Cal. with
two leaves, and cor. with six petals ; seed vessel a
drupe, with a fibrous husk, including a large oval nut.

Cocos Nucifera, Cocoa-nut Tree ; is a native of
almost every tropical region ; grows to the height of
fifty or sixty feet, and is terminated by a bunch of ten
or twelve leaves, from ten to fifteen feet long. The
cocoa-nut tree is of slow growth, but when it reaches
maturity it lives long, and produces fruit three or
lour times a year. 15y wounding the upper pai't of
the tree, which is green and tender, a sweet thick

liquor distils, of an agreeable flavour, and known in
Ceylon by the name of tody, is a wholesome and
cooling drink while fresh, ana acquires, by fermenta-
tion, an intoxicating quality. Of the cocoa-nut tree
it has been said, that it furnishes meat, drink, medi-
cine, clothing, lodging, and fuel. The kernel of the
nut is eaten ; the milk is a cooling and pleasant bev-
erage, which is sometimes employed as an emulsion
in fevers ; a fibrous substance at the base of the
branch is converted into coarse cloth ; the fibrous
covering ef the nut is manufactured into strong and
durable cordage ; the leaves are used as thatch, or
made into mats for baskets ; the woody part is appli-
ed to the purpose of lathing, and the polished shells
are made into drinking cups. Plate 36. Fig 4'.

Cocos Guineensis, Prickly Pole ; with the whole
plant covered with bristle-shaped spines ; fronds dis-
tant, and root creeping. Native of the inland woods
of Jamaica ; rises to the height of forty feet ; and
thirty or forty trees grow together. This palm is re-
markable for being thickly set with a vast profusion
of long, sharp, tough spines, with which it is said the
Indians arm their arrows.

Cocos Aculeata, Prickly Macaw Tree ; with spin-
dle-shape trunk, covered with spines. Native of Ja-
maica, and so called from a bird which feeds upon
the fruit. The trunk of this palm is said to be as
thick as the human body, grows thirty feet high, and
is closely set with sharp black prickles, arranged in
circles, and of various lengths.

Ceroxylon Andicola, Wax-palm; with simple
stem, pinnated leaves, and paniculated spadix or flow-
er-spike. This palm, which is described by Uonpland
in his splendid botanical work, seems to be the loftiest
vegetable production on the globe ; it rises to the
height of 200 feet, and is a remarkable exception to the
tribe of palms, which are natives of warmer regions ;
for although it rears its majestic head on the mountain
Quindiu, in north latitude i" 35', it grows at an eleva-
tion of nearly 6000 feet above the level of the sea, and
is confined to a space of fifteen or twenty leagues.
A peculiar matter, which, by chemical analysis, is
found to be composed of two- thirds resin and one-
third of a substance resembling wax, exudes from
the trunk of the tree, and being collected by the in-
habitants, is melted with tallow, and made into can-
dles. From this production the generic name is de-
rived ; and the specific appellation is descriptive of
its native station on the Andes.

Cycas. Gen. char. — (1) An imbricated catkin;
cal. a sheathing scale ; corolla none ; anthers giobu-
lar, attached to the scale, sessile. (2) Spadix or flow-
er-spike compressed, double-edged ; no calyx or
corolla ; style one ; drupe, one -seeded.

Two species of this genus, Circinalis^and Jievoluta,
both with pinnated leaves, are natives of India, Ja-
pan, and China, aod afford the nutritious substance
known in the shops under the name of Sago ; but it
appears that the production of sago is not confined
to these species of palm, for it is obtained fVom others,
and perhaps might be extracted from the whole of
this singular tribe of plants.

The sago is the medullary part, or pith of the
plant, which is formed into a paste with water, and

Palms.

760

BOTANY.

Wmv when it begins to dry is granulated by passing it
througli a perforated plate ; it is then dried, and ap-
pears in the form of roundish grains like seeds, for
which it is taken by those who are unacquainted with
the origin of this useful substance. Plate 36. Fig. 7-
Observation. — Six species only of the 'border of
palms have been observed in ^^ew Holland ; and,
with the exception of one species in 34° south lati-
tude, all within the tropic. No species were seen
OD any part of the south coast. Sir Jos. Bunks dis-
covered a species of Areca in New Zealand in 38''
south latitude ; which, it is probable, is nearly the
Jimit of this tribe of plants in the southern hemis-
phere, in North America they have not been seen
beyond 36" of latitude ; but in Europe, Chamtsrops
Humilis is a native of the vicinity of Nice. No spe-
cies of palm has yet been discovered in Southern
Africa or on the west coast of New Holland, even
within the tropic.

PnipARATION OF A HeHBARIUM OR HoRTUS

Siccus.

In prosecuting the knowledge of botany, it is re-
<;omiiiended to the student, after being familiar with
the terms and definitions, tocompare, with the descrip-
tions, those plants, the names of which he is acquain-
ted with, or has an opportunity of learning from o-
thers. This preliminary exercise, as it may be cal-
led, will greatly abridge his labours, and enable him
with more certainty and facility to refer to the class,
order, genus, and species, such plants as are new
or unknown to him. In botanical excursions a grea-
ter number of objects present themselves than can
be conveniently examined on the spot ; but by col-
lecting plants in their own native soil and situation,
many facts relative to their natural history are disco-
vered ; and for the purpose of subjecting them at
leisure to future investigation, they are put up care-
fully in a close tin box, that those parts on which
the characters depend may remain fresh and entire.
The zeal of the enthusiast in botany is not to be li-
mited by times or seasons ; he will not fail to grasp
at the objects of his pursuit when they are in his
power ; but when it is equally convenient, plants in-
tended to be preserved are best collected in dry wea-
ther ; and, when it can be accomplished, specimens
in flower and in seed ought to be selected, that all
the characteristic parts may be seen.

Plants are preserved by drying them slowly be-
tween the leaves of unsized porous paper, by the ap-
plication of a hot smoothing iron, or in -a box of
sand. In the first case, the plants being spread care-
fully between the leaves of the paper, and retaining
as much as possible their natural appearance, they
are subjected to pressure, which at first should be
moderate and afterwards gradually increased as the
plants diminish in bulk by the absorption of the mois-
ture. The pressure is applied either by means of a
press constructed for the purpose, of two strong
boards, of sufficient length and breadth to cover a
large sheet of paper, and furnished at the corners
with screws, or what answers equally well, a folio
book placed upon the paper on a flat board or table,
and loaded with other books. la preserving plants

in this'manner, when much nicety is requirtd, every norbarium.
precaution should be observed not to wound or in-
jure any of their parts by which a copious flow of
the juices is produced. If a large quantity of paper
be employed, the plants often dry perfectly without
being shifted, but when they are crowded together
in the same paper it is necessary to change their
place, and at the same time to dry the paper daily.

The application of a hot smoothing iron answers',
in some cases, sufficiently well, particularly for dry-
ing succulent or juicy plants ; but it ought to be ap-
plied slowly and cautiously, and with a considerable
quantity of paper.

The colour of some plants is retained in higher
perfection by drying them in a box of sand. After
the specimen has been pressed for ten or twelve
hours according to the former method, it is placed
within a sheet of blossom paper, and laid in the box
on a layer, an inch thick, of fine dry sand, covered
with another layer of the same thickness, on which
another sheet of paper with plants is (vlaced, and an-
other layer of sand, till the box be full. The box is
then set near a fire for two or three days, or till the
plants be sufficiently dried.

Some vegetables are so tenacious of the vital prin-
ciple, that they continue to grow during the process
of^ drying ; and others, as the heaths and firs, throw
off their leaves. The immersion of the fresh speci-
men in boiling water, or the application of a hot-iron,
counteracts both these effects ; but even with every
precaution, the colours of flowers, and the appear-
ance of the leaves of many plants, undergo very
great changes. Some yellow colours retain all their
brilliancy and beauty ; while others, as well as the
whole plant, become black by drying. Blue colours
generally fade ; reds are not always permanent; and
the natural aspect of most white flowers is altered.

When the specimens are dried, they arc best pre-
served by securing them on paper with weak carpen-
ter's glue, that they may be turned over without in-
jury. When the stems are thick and heavy, the ad-
ditional support of transverse slips of paper is ne-
cessary. A half-sheet of paper of a suitable size is
to be allotted to each species ; or, when the species
occupies little room, two or more may be put upon
the same half-sheet ; and all the species belonging
to the same genus are collected into one or more
whole sheets ; on the latter of which the name of the
genus is written, and on the corner the name of the
species, its place of growth, and other circumstances
connected with its history. The specimens thus col-
lected and arranged, are placed on shelves in a ca-
binet ; and a dry room, without a constant fire, is
recommended as most suitable for a herbarium.

The depredations of insects are peculiarly de-
structive to dried specimens, and especially Ptinus
fur, a small beetle, deposits its eggs in the germens
or receptacles of flowers, which are in a shoit time
devoured by the maggots when hatched. To pre-
vent their devastations, Dr Smith recommends a
solution of corrosive sublimate of mercury in rec-
tified spirits of wine, in the proportion of two drams
to a pint, with the addition of a little camphor, as
the most efficacious remedy. When the specimens
are quite dry, and before they are pasted, the solu-

BOTANY.

761

Structure of tion is applied with a camel-hair pencil. It is also
Ve^etaWes. found useful to mix a few drops of the solution with
the glue which is employed for pasting the plants on
the papers. This application, Dr Smith observes,
not only keeps off all kinds of vermin, but greatly
revives the colours of most plants, and gives the
collection a pleasing air of freshness and neat-
ness.

Chap. III. Structuke and Functions of
Vegetables.

The division of natural bodies into organised and
inorganised, is sufficiently discriminative ; the most
perfect forms of inorganised matter exhibit no analo-
gous characters to the varied and complicated struc-
ture of plants or animals. A striking diversity pre-
vails in the mode of formation, or the growth and in-
crease of the objects of these two great classes. In
mineral bodies, the growth or increase is accomplish-
ed by the mere aggregation of the particles of mat-
ter already prepared, and according to the laws of
affinity between these particles ; and no new pro-
perties can ba detected in the aggregate produced
which are not found in the minutest particle of which
it is composed. But in organised bodies, under
which are comprehended vegetables and animals,
the growth or increase is effected by a very different
process. The substances of which they are com-
posed are received into tubes or vessels, conveyed
to all parts of the vegetable or animal, subjected in
their progress to peculiar changes, and are convert-
ed into new forms, exhibiting properties and quali-
ties which no chemical or mechanical operation could
discover in the simple elements. New changes are
produced, and new combinations are formed, none
of which could be detected in the water, the earth,
the air, the heat, or the light ; all of which contri-
bute their share to the progress and increase of or-
ganised bodies. Observing the remarkable diversi-
ty between the laws which regulate the operations of
vegetables and animals and the established laws of
chemical action, philosophers have naturally inferred
the existence and influence of a different principle,
called the vital principle, under whose power the
wonderful and complicated phenomena of animals
and vegetables are exhibited ; — under whose power
the effects of chemical or mechanical agents, which
seem injurious, are counteracted ; — under whose
power what is beneficial is selected ; — what is defi-
cient is supplied, and what is redundant is cut off.

The division of organised bodies into vegetables
and animals, although in both some points of resem-
blance may be traced, is, in general, sufficiently cha-
racteristic, when their form, structure, power of mo-
tion, constituent parts, and peculiar habits, are taken
into consideration.

Sect. 1. Of the Structure of Vegetables.

A plant is composed of a root, stem, leaves, flow-
ers, fruits, and seeds ; and when these different parts
are fully developed in the progress of vegetation, the
plant is said to be perfect ; when any of them are
deficient or less obvious, it is called an imperfect
plant. The root, concealed in the earth, conveys
VOL, I. pakx II.

nourishment to the whole plant ; the stem supports Structure of
all the other parts, and when it is large and solid is Vegetables,
called the trunk, which is divided into the wood and '•m^'Y'^^
the bark ; and the bark, forming the external cover-
ing, clothes the whole plant. The wood immediately
under the bark is composed of concentric layers,
which increase with the age of the tree; and the
pith, a soft, spongy substance, occupies the centre
of the stem. The leaves consist of fibres, arranged
in a kind of net-work, which proceed from the
stem and footstalks by which they are attach-
ed to the branches ; the flowers are composed ol
different parts destined to the perfection of the
the fruits and seeds; the fruits usually consist of a
pulpy substance, containing numerous vesicles, tra-
versed by great numbers of vessels, and seeds are
constituted of a similar vesicular texture. Beside
the parts now enumerated, plants contain different
orders of vessels, as lymphatic vessels for the circu-
lation of the sap, peculiar vessels which contain
thick or coloured fluids, utriculi, or cells, and tra-
cheas, or spiral vessels.

Cuticle. — The bark is composed of three parts, the
epidermis, parenchyma, and cortical layers. The
epidermis, or cuticle, is a thin transparent membrane
which forms the external covering of the bark, and
is composed of fibres crossing each other. By means
of this membrane, the plant is protected from the in-
juries of the air, and the processes of absorption and
perspiration go on through its pores. It is of a very
delicate texture on some plants, and coarse and thick
on others, as on the trunk of the plane tree ; readily
peals off from some, as from the birch ; and may be
separated by maceration from others.

The cuticle is susceptible of extraordinary exten-
sion ; for, during the growth of the plant, from the
commencement of vegetation, it is stretched over its
whole surface, without receiving any accession of
matter, as the connection with the vascular or living
part of the vegetable body seems to be altogetiier
interrupted ; but on the old trunks of most trees it
may be observed to crack in all directions, and in
many it is entirely obliterated.

In the currant tree, and in the elder, the cuticle is
smooth, and scales off in large flakes ; in the fruit of
the peach, and the leaves of the mullein, it is covered
with dense harsh wool ; in the leaf of the white wil-
low, it is of a silky texture ; in the betony, and some
other plants, it is extended into rigid hairs or bristles ;
on the fruit of the plum, and on many leaves, it is
covered with a dry bluish powder, which repels the
drops of rain; in the cork tree, the common maple,
the Dutch elm, and the Constantinople hazel, the cu-
ticle is covered with a singular fungous substance,
well known as cork ; and in grasses and reeds, si-
liceous earth has been detected by chemical analysis,
and to this, no doubt, their hardness and fine polish
are to be ascribed.

Cellular integument. — Under the epidermis or cu-
ticle, a succulent cellular substance is deposited ; it
is usually of a green colour, at least in leaves and
branches ; exists almost universally ; and has been
observed in mosses and ferns. Leaves are com-
posed almost entirely of a plate of this substance,
covered on each side by the cuticle ; and in this or-
5 E

762

BOTANY.

Siniciiirf or «»"> ^^^ chanffes which are produced on the juices
Vf^ctaWes. oFpluiUs, by light and air, are effected.

1 The bark. — Next to the cellular integument lies
the bark, which in plants or branches oi' one year
old consists of a single layer, scarcely to be distin-
guished from the wood ; but in older branches, and
the trunks of trees, the number of layers is equal
to the number of years during which the plant has
existed. The innermost layer is called liber. The
bark is composed of numerous woody fibres, which
chiefly run in a longitudinal direction, and when
macerated in water exhibit a beautiful structure
resembling net-work. The lacc-bark tree. Dap/me
laghetlo, a native of Jamaica, presents a remark-
able example of this structure, which has been
already noticed in the description of that plant.

The peculiar virtues or qualities of plants chiefly
reside in the bark, and especially in those layers
which are next to the wood ; it is here that the resin
of the fir, the astringent qualities of the oak, and
the aromatic oil of the cinnamon, are found.

Wuod. — The wood whicli lies immediately under
the bark, is composed of numerous concentric layers
which increase with the age of the plant, and may
be separated into thinner layers, which consist of
■ longitudinal fibres. The wood which is next the
bark is softer and whiter, and is hence called al-
burnum or white-wood, and known to workmen by
the name of Sap; the interior part of the trunk is
browner and harder, and is denominated the perfect
wood. In the laburnum the concentric layers which
constitute the alburnum are yellowish, and the per-
fect wood is brown. A tranverse section of lignum-
vitae affords a good example of the same diversity of
appearance.

Pith. — The medulla or pith occupies the centre
of the trunk or stem of the plant, and in growing
stems or branches is a tolerably firm juicy sub-
stance ; but when the same parts are fully grown,
it becomes extremely light and cellular. Many of
the grasses and umbelliferous plants have always
hollow stems, lined only with a thin smooth coating
of pith. Of the nature and functions of the pith,
pliysiologists have entertained very different opinions;
some have supposed that it performs no important
office in the economy of plants, and others regard it
as the seat of life and the source of vegetation ; but
whatever be its nature and functions, as it is most
vigorous and abundant in young and growing
branches, it cannot be doubted that it performs some
essential part. Mr Knight supposes that the pith is
a reservoir of moisture to supply the leaves when an
excess of perspiration takes place ; but it has been
remarked by Dr Smith, that all the moisture in the
pith of a whole branch would be too little in some
cases to supply one hour's perspiration of a single leaf.

VeiseU q/' planh. — Plants are furnished with dif-
ferent kinds of vessels, which arc distinguished from
each otherby their course, situation, and uses. The
lympathic vi-ssels, which serve for tlic circulation of
the sap, are chiefly distinguished in the woody part
of the plant. The peculiar vessels which contain
thick or coloured fluiris lie immediiitely under the
bark. Some of these proper vessels arc placed be-
tween the cuticle and tils' bark; and some forming

oval rings, and filled with the peculiar juices of the structure oi
plant, are situated in the interior part of the bark. Vegetables.

Another set of proper vessels is distributed in the s --^ '-^ '
alburnum, nearer to the centre of the trunk, and
sometimes in the perfect wood.

The tih-iculi, or cells, constitute another set of
vessels, vary in form, colour, and magnitude in dif-
ferent vegetables, and exist in the roots, the bark,
leaves, and flowers. They seem to resemble a flexi-
ble tube slightly interrupted with ligatures nearly at
equal distances, while a free comrcimication is pre-
served through its whole length. The trachea; or
spiral vessels appear in the form of fine threads, and
may be drawn out to a considerable length without
breaking. These vessels are very numerous in all
plants, form a kind of ring underneath the bark, and
are distributed in distinct bimdles in trees, shrubs,
and lierbaceous plants. These spiral vessels are
easily detected in succulent plants, as in the leaf
stalks of elder, syringa, and other shrubs ; and in
many plants of a herbaceous nature, as in the paeony
and many of the lily tribe.

Spiral vessels were supposed by Malpighi and
Grew to be air vessels, performing a similar office
in plants, to the lungs of animals ; but from the cu-
rious experiments and observations of Mr Knight,
the fluids destined to the nourishment of the plant
being absorbed by the root, are conveyed to the
leaves by these vessels; and from their situation
near the pith he has given them the name of central
vessels.

Seeds The seeds from which the future plant pro-
ceeds is composed of different parts ; of these parts
the embryo, or germ, to which Linnaeus gave the
name of corculuin, or little heart, is the most essen-
tial. This part is sufficiently obvious in some seeds,
as the bean, the pea, and the lupine ; and its internal
structure, before the commencement of vegetation,
is very simple. The cotyledons, or seed-lobes, are
immediately attached to the embryo, and indeed are
to be considered as forming part of it. In most seeds
the cotyledons are two in number ; but some seeds,
as those belonging to the grass and corn tribe, the
palms, and some other plants, have only one cotyle-
don, while others have throe or more; and hence the
division of plants suggested by this peculiarity of
structure in the seeds, into monocotyledonous, dico-
tyledonous and polycotyledonous. In those plants the
seeds of which have only one cotyledon, the greater
part of the substance of the seed is composed of a
farinaceous, fleshy, or horny substance, called albu-
men or white. When seeds of this description ger-
minate, the cotyledon never rises out of the ground,
or performs the office of leaves ; but in plants whose
seeds have two cotyledons, they rise out of the ground,
and being formed from the seed itself, are called se-
minal or seed leaves. In some cases the seed leaves
wither and decay as soon as the other leaves begin
to unfold ; but in other cases they continue long, and
remain green and vigorous alter the plant has made
considerable progress ; this may be observed in the
yellow lupine. The cotvledons are abundantly obvi-
ous in the garden beai; alter it has begun to vegttate,
and the embryo is seen to push out from between
them.

BOTANY.

763

Functions of The appendages of many seeds, and the peculiar
Vegetables, structure of some seed-vessels, are admirably calcu-
lated to promote their dispersion ; for this purpose
seeds are furnished with wings, spines, hooks, and
scales. The downy appendage of many seeds of
syngenesious plants, as is familiar to ever)' one in the
dandelion, wafts them through the air ; the elastic
power of the seed-pods of other plants, projects their
contents to a considerable distance ; and the barbed
structure of some seeds retains them in the soil,
while the uncoiling of the attached awn forces them
deeper.

Sect. II. Functions of Vegetables.

When the perfect seeds of a plant are exposed to
the influence of certain agents, they undergo a very
remarkable change, in the progress of which, plants
exactly similar to those from which they originated
are produced. '

Germination. — The first change which is observed
in seeds when they are placed in certain circumstan-
ces, is called germination. Heat, air, and rvjoisture,
are necessary to this process. No vegetation what-
ever takes place wlien tiie temperature is at tlie freez-
ing point, and very little till it rises many degrees
above it. Air is no less requisite for the germination
of seeds ; when it is entirely excluded, as in the va-
cuum of an air pump, no change takes place. Mois-
ture is also necessary in this process ; but in most
cases water must be applied in a regulated and mo-
derate quantity, — for, excepting the seeds of aquatic
plants, which possess peculiar habits, most seeds,
when exposed to excessive moisture, are deprived of
their vegetative power. The exclusion of light is
favourable to the vegetation of seeds, and hence it is
that their germination is greatly promoted by cover-
ing them with the soil.

When a seed begins to germinate, the first change
observed is the increase of size by the absorption of
moisture ; the radicle, or little root, pushes out and
stretches downwards into the earth, from which it
conveys nourishment for the growth of the future
plant. Another part, c&WeAplumula, shoots upwards,
and finally expands into leaves and branches ; but
these remarkable effects are owing to certain changes
which take place within the seed. The absorption
of the oxygen of the atmosphere, the evolution of
carbonic acid gas, by the combination of the oxygen
with the carbone of the seed, and the conversion of
the farinaceous matter into a saccharine substance,
which is destined for the nourishment of the embryo
plant, are the first changes observed in the germina-
tion of seeds. The cotyledons, or seed-lobes, are to
be regarded as store-houses of food for the young
plant, before the evolution of its parts are fully com-
pleted, to enable it to derive nourishment from the
earth.

Roots. — The roots of plants are intended to retain
them firmly in the soil, and at the same time to derive
nourishment for their support. The root is composed
of two parts, denominated caudex, or body, and radi-
ciila, or fibre, the latter of which, as it alone imbibes
nourishment, is essential to the plant. The turnip
and the carrot form the caudex, or body of the root,

2

while the fibres which proceed from thern are to be FniKiioas^oi

., • 1 1 il — . i™ "Vii'-^pfiahtiic

considered as the proper roots,

The fibrous extremities of roofs, which draw nour-
ishment from the earth, are produced annually, and
these extremities have a peculiar structure : for when
the extremities of the fibre are cut off. the vegetation
of the plant ceases till new fibres are formed ; and
hence the practice of cutting olf most of the fibres is
in many cases extremely prejudicial. The peculiari-
ty of structure alluded to may be observed in tlie
fibres of bulbous roots which blow in water, in which
case the extremity of each fibre seems to be includ-
ed in a kind of fringed bag.

Stems, SfC. of plants. — The stem, stalk, or trunk
of a vegetable, thus variously denominated in differ-
ent kinds of plants, forms a support for the leaves and
flowers, and a necessary communication between the
root and those parts which are elevated above the
surface of the earth, and in which the most important
functions of vegetation are accomplished. The stems
of plants are not less various in form, magnitude, and
consistence than thex;haracter and habits of the dif-
ferent kinds of vegetables to which they belong.
This diversity affords many important distinctions for
botanical classification, as well as many curious to-
pics for physiological inquiry.

The branches of trees or shrubs, which constitute
a minuter division of the trunk or principal stem of
the vegetable, may be regarded as a new order of
stems, whose roots are attached to a ligneous base,
and thus form the necessary communication between
the leaves and the source of nourishment.

The general aspect of a plant depends, in a great
measure, on the distribution of the branches, as they
spring from the trunk in a spiral direction, opposite to
each other, in whorls, disposed irregularly, or from
two sides of the trunk only, and form with it more
or less acute angles. On the same plant the branches
are observed to be arranged in very different, and al-
most opposite directions. In a large tree the lower
branches are bent towards the earth, some spread out
horizontally, and those towards the summit of the
tree rise nearly in a perpendicular direction ; but the
disposition of the whole is such that the action of the
air and light, of so much importance to tiie healtli
and vigour of the vegetable, may be the least inter-
rupted. Influenced by we same cause, a plant in a
shady place inclines all its branches to that side
where the action of air and light is most powerful ;
and plants, confined in a hot-house, turn all their
leaves and branches towards that side from which
the light proceeds.

According to Schabol, as quoted by Mirbel, five
different kinds of branches may be distinguished in
fruit-trees, — a distinction of no small importance in
their culture and management. In tlie first kind the
surface is smooth, the vessels run in a straight direc-
tion, and are easily separated ; they bend without
breaking straight across, and jiroduce only wood.
By practical gardeners such shoots are called the
tvood. 2. In the second kind of branches the base is
wrinkled and perforated with small holes, the texture
is more complicated, the vessels' more numerous, and
the juices of greater consistence; these are the fruit

VeQCtabtes.

764

BOTANY.

?Smcti(m» of branches ; they produce flower-buds, and break clean
Vegetables, across when they are bent. 3. Another set of bran-
N^V^' chos bear some resemblance to the first, but they are
less permanent, because they have their origin only
in the bark ; they are denominated branches of spu-
rious wood. 4. In the fourth order of branches the
base is broad, the bark is brownish and rough, their
buds are black and thinly set ; they have their origin
in the bark, and are nourished at the expence of the
useful branches ; they push out rapidly, and have a
short duration. 5. The fifth kind of branches, which
are not particularly characterised, are described as
being useless to vigorous trees, and injurious to those
whose vegetative powers are feeble. They draw
to themselves a large portion of nourishment, and ex-
haust the vegetable on which they exist.

Buds As the trees of tropical regions, where ve-
getation is never interrupted, are destitute of buds,
this part of the vegetable structure, in which the ru-
diments of a plant remain in a dormant state, till the
influence of those agents which produce its evolu-
tion commences, is a necessary preservative in cold
countries. The buds of trees and shrubs are formed
during the summer in the bosoms of the leaves. In
their structure and distribution they are remarkably
uniform in the same species, but a great diversity
prevails in their situation and forms in different tribes
of plants. They are composed of a number of scales,
wliich are closely wrapped upon each other, and unfold
the embryo plant or branch. To enable them to ac-
complish the purpose for which they are destined,
many buds are furnished with some additional cover-
ing, as a coat of wool, or of a gummy or resinous se-
cretion. Thus constructed and protected, buds are
enabled to resist very great degrees of cold ; for it is
only when the vegetative process has commenced,
when they begin to unibld their leaves, that they
sustain injury from the sudden changes of a variable
climate.

Buds derive their origin from the alburnum, or
white wood, according to the observations of Mr
Knight ; but perhaps this is liable to certain modifi-
cations, if the remarks of Schabol, formerly detailed,
on the different kinds of branches be well founded.
In some tribes of plants the same buds produce both
leaves and flowers, but in otj^rs the leaves and flow-
ers appear in different buds. The bulbs, or as they
are, with little propriety, denominated roots, of cer-
tain tribes of plants,' as the hyacinth, the lily, and the
tulip, are true buds ; and in some of them, as in the
tulip, the future flower is distinctly formed, and only
requires the influence of the necessary agents of heat,
air, and moisture, for its complete evolution.

Every bud may be considered as a distinct indivi-
dual performing its functions, when the influence of
the proper agents is exerted, independent of the
parent stem, or of any other part of the plant, except-
ing in the circumstance of deriving its nourishment
from that s'ource. Thus, if the branch of a vine,
whose root is exposed to the open air. be introduced
into a hot-house in the middle of winter, the vege-
tative process will immediately commence, and pro-
ceed with vigour, and if the proper temperature be
continued, leaves, flowers, and fruit may be produ-

ced while every other part of the tree remains in armctlonsrf
dormant state. VegetaUes.

Leaves.— The leaves of plants, not only contribute
to their beauty and elegance, but perform functions
of essential impt)rtance in the process of vegetation.
Deprived of its leaves, no tree brings its fruit to ma-
turity, as is too often experienced in the ravages of
the caterpillar on the gooseberry ; and if by an) ac-
cident a tree has lost its leaves, the progress of its
growth is interrupted till it is again clothed with
foliage.

A leaf is composed of a double layer of the fibres
and vessels of the footstalk, between which is inter-
posed a plate or layer of the parenchyma or cellular
texture. Leaves, it has been long observed, and
proved by decided experiments, transpire a consider-
able quantity of moisture, and in some eases this
quantity was little inferior to the moisture absorbed.
It is greatest during sunshine and warm weather, is
much interrupted during the night, and entirely
checked by cold. In an experiment by Dr Hales, a
plant of sun-flower, Helianthus anyiuus, lost nearly twe
lbs. weight in twelve hours of a hot dry day ; in a dry
night, the diminution of weight was only about three
ounces ; in a moist night, no perceptible diflerence
was observed; and in a rainy night it gained two
ounces. The matter excreted by the leaves of plants
is of very different qualities. In some it is aqueous,
in some of a saccharine nature, and in others it is
glutinous, resinous, or waxy.

The sap of plants flows from the root towards the
branches and leaves ; and in the leaves it undergoes
peculiar changes, in consequence of part being ex-
haled, and of the absorption of different principles,
which, combining with it, contribute to the changes
that are effected. During these changes the pecu-
liar juice of the plant is prepared, which, in its pro-
gress from the leaves towards the roots, deposits
those ingredients which produce all the variety of
substances which are detected by the remarkable di-
versity of odour, taste, and consistence. The exha-
lation of a portion of the moisture taken in by the
roots, and the absorption and decomposition of car-
bonic acid gas, by which the carbone is retained in
the plant and the oxygen is given out, constitute one
part of the functions of leaves. These processes are
most vigorous during the day, and particularly dur-
ing bright sunshine ; but in the night they are re-
versed. Carbonic acid gas is given out, and moisture ■
and oxygen gas are absorbed ; and this absorption
and moisture is chiefly, effected in many plants by
the under surface of the leaves.

The effiscts of light on vegetables are very remark-
able. When it is entirely excluded, although they
enjoy the influence of air, heat, and moisture, they
never acquire their rich green colour, but remain of
a pale, sickly white. The familiar practice of blanch-
ing or whitening celery, affords a good illustration of
this fact ; and it is not only the colour, but the smell
and taste undergo equal changes.

fileep of plants. — When the influence of those a-
gents which have a powerful effect on vegetables is
withdrawn, many plants exhibit a very remarkable
change in their aspect. This is particularly the case

BOTANY.

765

Tmclions of with plants which have pinnated leaves. During tlie
Vegetables, night, and sometimes in dark cloudy weather, the
'"^'V^'' leaves droop or fold over each other ; this has been
called the sleep of plants, and it has been supposed
that it may be a kind of necessary repose in some
way useful to the vegetable constitution. A similar
change takes place in other plants from mechanical
impulse, as in the sensitive plant : the leaves of which,
hv the slightest touch, close together, arid exhibit
the same appearance as those plants which are sup-
posed to be under the influence of sleep.

Heat nf jdanU. — During the clieniical changes
that take place in plants, it cannot be doubted that
heat is evolved or abstracted ; and it is extremely
probable that plants, as well as animals, have the
power of regulating, although in a lower degree, the
excesses of temperature to which they are exposed.
The snow which falls on the leaves and stems of liv-
ing plants melts sooner than on dead matter of the
same kind, — an obvious proof that the temperature
is higher ; but the heat of vegetables is so much su-
perior to that of the atmosphere, as to be indicated
by the thermometer. A remarkable fact is stated by
Senebier with regard to the increased temperature ot
the white-veined variety of the Anim maculatum in a
certain period of its growth, when the flower was for
a few hours very hot ; it was perceptible from three
or four o'clock in the afternoon till 11 or 12 at
night: and when the temperature of the air was 14
or 15 degrees of lleauraur's thermometer, the heat
of the plant, when it was highest, was seven degrees
above it. This curious fact, as is justly observed by
Dr Smith, is well worthy of attention, and may per-
haps be observed in other plants.

Duration of plants. — Many plants, as soon as they
have ripened their seeds, which is accomplished by
some in one season, by others in two, cease to vege-
tate ; and hence such plants have been denominated
annuals and biennials, — terms expressive of their
duration for one or two years ; but other plants live
for a great length of time, and continue to produce
seeds and fruit for many successive seasons ; and
hence such plants have been called perennials.
This diversity of duration exhibits a wonderful and
endless variety among the vegetable tribes. The
humble annual springs up, displays its leaves, and
flowers, and forms perfect seeds, and thus, within
the short period of a few months, passes through the
whole progress of its existence ; while the stately
oak rears its lofty head, and continues to be the glory
and pride of the forest for hundreds of years.

Ejcplanation of Plates.

Plates ex-
plained.

Those who wish to extend their knowledge of the
structure and functions of plants may consult with
advantage, SeneLier Phusiologie Vegetale ; Mirbel on
the same subject ; Smith's Introduction to Botany ;
Willdenow's Introduction ; and, for the classification
and description of plants, Willdenow's Species Plan-
tarum. Brown's Prodromus Plant. Nov. Holland;
and the Appendix to Flinder's Voyage, by the same
excellent botanist ; and, for British plants, Smith's
Flora Britannica, Withering's Botanical Arrange-
ment, and Lightf'oot's Flora Scotica.

Plate 28. Fig. 1 — 61. Illustration of the Linnaean
system, to which particular references are made at
page 711.

Plate 29. Fig. 1 — 69. exhibits a view of the forms
of Simple Leaves, the names of which, and the indivi-
dual references, will be found at page 712.

Plate 30. Fig. 1 — 23. presents a view of the Forms
of Compound Leaves. See page 713.

Plate 31. Yig. 1. Canna Indica, Common Indian
Reed. Fig. 2. Verbena Aubletia, Rose Vervain. Fig.
3. Iris Lurida, Dingy Flag. Fig. 4. Bankda Erici-
Jlilin, Heath-leaved Banksia. Fig. 5. Crassula Coc-
cinea, Scarlet-flowered Crassula. Fig. 6. Stapelia
Grandijlora, Great-flowered Stapelia. Fig. 7. Agave
Americana, American Aloe. Fig. 8. Disandra Pros-
trata, Trailing Disandra.

Plate 32. Fig. 1. Fuchsia Coccinen, Scarlet Fuch-
sia. Fig. 2. Dioncea Musciputa, Venus' Fly-trap.
Fig. 3. Melasloma Tomentosa, Woolly Melastoma.
Fig. 4 . Cephalotus Follicularis, Pitcher Plant. Fig. 5.
Metrosideros Citrina, Harsh-leaved Metrosideros.
Fig. 6. Liriodendron Tidipifera, Common Tulip-tree.
Fig. 7. Bignonia Radicans, Ash-leaved Trumpet-
flower. Fig. 8. Pelargonium Incrassatum, Fleshy-
leaved Pelargonium or Crane's-bill. Fig. 9. Hedi/sa-
rum Gyrans, Moving Plant.

Plate 33. Fig. 1. TIteobroma Cacao, Cacao or Cho-
colate Tree. Fig. 2. Chrysanthemum Tricolor, Three-
coloured Chrysanthemum. Fig. 3. Rudbeckia Pur-
purea, Purple Rudbeckia. Fig. 4. Echinops Riiroy
Small Globe Thistle. Fig. 5. Cypripedium Parviflo-
rum. Yellow Ladies-slipper. Fig. 6. Epidetidrum
Sinense, Chinese Epidendrum. Fig. 7. Passiflora
Serratifolia. Notch-leaved Passion-flower.

Plate 34. Fig. 1. Myristica Moschata, Nutmeg Tree.
Fig. 2. Aiiocarpus Incisa, Notch-leaved Bread-fruit
Tree. Fig. 3. Mimosa Nilotica, Gum-Arabic Tree.
Fig. 4. Ficus Indica, Banyan Tree. Fig. 5. Musa
Paradisaica, Plantain Tree.

Plate 35. Fig. 1. Asplenjum Palmatum, Palmated
Spleenwort. Fig. 2. Single frond of Lonchitis Pe-
dala, Pedaled Rough Spleenwort. Fig. 3. Entire
Plant. Fig. 4. Lindscea Renijormis, Kidney-shajjed
LindsEea. Fig. 5. Blechnum Boreale, Rough Spleen-
wort. Fig. 6. Scolopendrium Vulgare, Common
Hart's-tongue. Fig. 7. Polypodium Phegopteris, Pale
Mountain Polypody. Fig. 8. Aspidium Aculentum,
Common Prickly-shield Fern. Fig. 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, different Specimens oi Fuci. See page 757.

Plate 36. Fig. 1. Ceroxylon Andicola, Wax Palm.
Fig 2. Cocos Guiiicensis, Prickiy-pole Palm. Fig. 3.
Phcenix Dactylifera, Date Palm. Fig. 4. Cocos Nu-
cijera. Cocoa-nut Tree. Fig. 5. Areca Oleracea,
Mountain Cabbage Palm. Fig. 6. C. Hamerops Hu-
milis, Fan Palm. Fig. 7. Cyoas Circinalis, Sago
Palm.

Plate 37, Fig. 1 . a, a, a, a, exhibit the regular hexa-
gons of a transverse section of the cellular texture;
b, b, the same appearance in a vertical section ; c,lc, re-
present the sides of the cells common to contiguous
cells. Fig. 2. The same drawn out, and a little more
porous. Fig. 3. Perforated with pores arranged

7^

BOTANY.

CcDci*. '" transverse scries. Fig. 4. Large porous tubes.
Fig. 5. Tubes divided, or false tracheae. Fig. 6. Hex-
ahedral cell interrupted by membranes. Fig. 7. Spi-
ral vessel drawn out, with tlie pores arranged trans-
versely. Fig. 8. a, the point from whicli the radicle of
the garden bean proceeds. Fig. 9. exhibits the coats,
lobes, and vessels of the bean. Fig. 10. and 11.
The lobes separated, with the plumula and radicle.
Fig. 12. Ramifications of the seminal roots in the
lobes. Fig. 13. The same appearance with the ra-
dicle farther advanced. Fig. H. Tiie radicle throw-
ing out fibres, and the plumula cut transversely to

shew the vessels. Fig. 1 5. Seed leaves of the cu-
cumber, and the first appearance of the plumula.
Fig. 16. The same seed at an earlier period, when
the radicle only appears. Fig. 17. The same seed
farther advanced, and the seed leaves beginning to
separate. Fig. 18. a, a, a, transverse section of the
footstalk of the leaf of Acroslwlmm aureum; b, b, b, b,
vertical section. Fig. 19. Magnified view of a sec-
tion of the sugar cane. Fig. 20. Magnified view of
the common cane. Fig. 21. Magnified view of the
gooseberry cut transversely. Fig. 22. Transverse
section of the garden bean in the pod, magnified.

Genera.

GENERA ILLUSTRATED IN THE PRECEDING TREATISE, ARRANGED UNDER

THEIR CLASSES.

I. MoNAN'DRiA. Page 713.

Iledychium, Sweet-scented Gar-
land-flower.
Amomum, Ginger.
Canna, Indian Reed.
Salicornia, Glasswort.
Hippuris, Mares-tail.
Cailitriche, Water Starwort.
Blitum, Strawberry Elite.

II. DiANDRiA. Page 714'.

Jaminum, Jasmine.

Ligustruni, Privet.

Syringa, Lilac.

Ftaxinus, Ash Tree.

Circaea, Enchanters Nightshade.

Veronica, Speedwell.

Verbena, Vervain.

Rosmarinus, Rosemary.

Salvia, Clary.

Anthoxanthura, Sweet-scented

Grass.
Piper, Pepper.

IIL Triandria. Page 716.

Valeriana, Valerian.
Crocus, Crocus.
Iris, Iris.

Rchfcnus, Bog-rush.
Cyperus, Galingale.
Scirpus, Club-rush.
Eriophorum, Cotton Grass.
Nardus, Mat Grass.
Phleum, Cat's-tail Grass.
Alopecurus, Fox-tail Grass.
Agrostis, Bent Grass.
Poa, Meadow Grass.
Stipa, Feather Grass.
Avena, Oat.
Arundo, Reed.
Saccharum, Sugar-cane.
Montia, Water Chickwecd.
Holosteum, Umbelliferous Chick-
weed.

IV. Tetrandria. Page 718.

Dipsacus, Teasel.
Scabiosa, Scabious.
Sherardia, Little Field-madder.
Asperula, Woodroof.
Galium, Ladies' Bedstraw.
Plantago, Plantain.
Alchemilla, Ladies' Mantle.
Protea, Silver Tree.
Banksia.
BuiFonia.
Ilex, Holly Tree.
Potamogeton, Pond-weed.
Sagina, Pearlwort.

V. Pentandria. Page 720.

Heliotropum, Turnsole.
Echium, Vipers Bugloss.
Lycopsis, Small Bugloss.
Symphytum, Comfrey.
Borago, Borage.
Pulmonaria, Lungwort.
Myosotis, Mouse-ear Scorpion

Grass.
Primula, Primrose or Cowslip.
Soldanella.

Dodecatheon, American Cowslip.
Menyanthes, Marsh Trefoil.
AnagalHs, Pimpernel.
Azalea.

Convolvulus, Bindweed.
Polemonium, Greek Valerian.
Campanula, Bell-flower.
Cinchona, Peruvian-bark Tree.
Coffea, Coftec Tree.
Viola, Violet.
Hyoscyamus, Henbane.
Atropa, Deadly Nightshade.
Solan um, Woody Nightshade.
Lonicera, Honeysuckle.
Ribes, Currant Tree.
Hedera, Ivy.
Ulmus, Elm.
Gentiana, Gentian.

Stapelia.

Eryngium, Sea-holly.

Conium, Common Hemlock.

Heracleum, Cow Parsnep.

Daucus, W^ild Carrot.

Cicuta, Water Hemlock.

.ffithusa. Fools Parsley.

Scandix, Chervil.

Pastinaca, Wild Parsnep.

Apium, Wild Celery.

JEgopodium, Goutweed.

Sambucus, Elder. .

Parnassia, Grass of Parnassus.

Statice, Thrift or Sea Lavender.

Linum, Flax.

Drosera, Sun-dew.

Crassula.

Myosurus, Mouse-tail.

VI. Hexandria. Page 725.

Bromelia, Pine Apple.
Galanthus, Snowdrop, Daffodil, &c.
Narcissus, Common Narcissus.
Amaryllis, Belladonna Lily.
Allium, Onion, Garlic.
Agave, American Aloe.
Hyacinthus, Hyacinth.
Lilium, White and Orange Lily.
Tulipa, Tulip.
Berberis, Barberry.
Oryza, Rice.
Rumex, Dock, Sorrel.
Petiveria, Guinea-hen Weed.
Alisma, Water Plantain.

VII. Heptandria. Page 726.

Trientalis,ChickweedWintergreen.
Disandra, Disandra.
yEsculus, Horse Chesnut.

VIII. Octandria. Page 727.

Tropaeolum, Indian Cress.
Epilobium, Willow-herb.
CEnothera, Tree-primrose.

Genera. Fuchsia, Fuchsia
Erica, Heath.
Daphne, Mezereon, or Spurge

Olive.'
Mcehringia, Mountain Chickweed.
Paullinia, Supple Jack.
Coccoloba, Seaside Grape.
Polygonum, Persicaria, or Bistort.
Paris, Herb Paris.
Adoxa, Moschatel.

IX. Enneandria. Page 728.

Laurus, Bay, Cinnamon, and Cam-
phor Tree.
Anacardium, Cashew-nut Tree.
Rheum, Rhubarb.
Butomus, Flowering Rush.

X. Decandria. Page 729.

Sophora, Sophora, or Bead Tree.
Caesalpinia, Brazil Wood.
Hasmatoxylon, Logwood.
Swielenia, Mahogany Tree.
Guaiacura, Lignumvitae.
Ruta, Rue.

Quassia, Quassia Tree.
Dionaea, Venus' Fly Trap.
Melastoma, Melastoma, or Indian

Currant Bush.
Andromeda, Wild Rosemary, or

Sorrel Tree.
Rhododendron, Rhododendron.
Kalmia, Kalmia.
Arbutus, Arbutus, or Strawberry

Tree.
Hydrangea, Hydrangea.
Saxifraga, Saxifrage.
Dianthus, Clove or Pink.
Stellaria, Chickweed and Stich-

wort.
Arenaria, Sandwort.
Sedum, Stonecrop.
Oxalis, Wood Sorrel.
Agrostemma, Corn Cockle.
Lychnis, Catchfly, and Campion.
Cerastium, Mouse-ear Chickweed.
Spergula, Spurrey.
Phytolacca, Redweed, or Spanish

Calalue.

XI. DODECANDRIA. Pagc 733.

Asarum, Asarabacca.

Rhizophora, Mangrove.
Lythrum, Loose-strife.
Halesia, Snowdrop Tree.
Heliocarpus, Sunseed.
Agrimonia, Agrimony.
Reseda, Dyer's Weed, and Migno-
nette.
Euphorbia, Spurge.
Cephalotus, Pitcher-plant,
Sempervivum, House-leek.

BOTANY.

XII. IcosANDRiA. Page 734.

Cactus, Creeping Cereus, or Mel-
on Thistle.

Philadelphus, Mock Orange.

Myrtus, Myrtle, and Jamaica Pep-
per Tree.

Eucalyptus.

Metrosideros.

Psidium, Guava Tree.

Amygdalus, Almond and Peach
Tree.

Prunus, Sloe and Plum Tree.

Mespilus, Hawthorn and Medlar
Tree.

Pyrus, Pear and Crab Tree.

Mesembryanthemum, Fig Mary-
gold.

Spiraea, Dropwort and Meadow-
sweet.

Rosa, Rose Tree.

Rubus, Raspberry and Bramble.

Fragaria, Strawberry.

Potentilla, Silver Weed.

Geum, Avens, or Herb Bennet.

Calycanthus, Allspice Tree.

XIII. PoLYANDRiA. Page 736.

Papaver, Poppy.

Cistus, Rock-rose.

Capparis, Caperbush.

Sanguinaria, Bloodwort.

Sarracenia, Side-saddle Flower.

Nymphaea, Water lily, or Lotus.

TiHa, Lime or Linden Tree.

Corchorus, Broomweed or Jews
Mallow.

Thea, Tea Tree.

Bixa, Annotto.

Paeonia, Pa;ony Rose.

Delphinium, Lark's Spur.

Aconitum, Monks-hood.

Wintera, Winther's Bark Tree.

Aquilegia, Colombine.

Stratiotes, Water Soldier.

Anemone, Anemone, or Pasque-
flower.

Ranunculus, Ranunculus, Spear-
wort and Pilewort.

Liriodendron, Tulip Tree.

Annona, Sour and Sweet Sop.

XIV. DiDYNAMiA. Page 738.

Ajuga, Bugle.
Teucrium, Wood sage.
Mentha, Mint.
Lamium, Dead-nettle.
Stach3's, Hedge-nettle or Wound-
wort.
Prunella, Selfheal.
Rhinanthus, Horse-rattle.
Euphrasia, Eyebright.
Antirrhinum, Snapdragon.

7-67

Digitalis, Foxglove. Rcncra.

Linnaea, Linnaea.
Bignonia, Trumpet-flowef.
Crescentia, Calabash Tree.
Melianthus, Honey-flower.

XV. Tetradynamia. Page 739.

Draba, Whitlowgrass.

Thlaspi, Shepherds Purse.

Lunaria,Moonwort or Satin-flower.

Crambe, Sea-kale.

Lepidium, Garden Cress.

Cochlearia, Scurvygrass.

Iberis, Candytuft.

Cardamine, Lady's Smock.

Sisymbrium, Water-Cress and Isle
of Man Rocket.

Erysimum, Hedge Mustard, or
Yellow Rocket.

Chciranthus, Wallflower.

Brassica, Rape, Turnip, Cabbage.

Sinapis, Mustard, Charlock.

Raphanus, Wild Radish, or Joint-
ed Charlock.

XVI. MoNADELPHiA. Page 740.

Tamarindus, Tamarind Tree.
Sisyrinchium.
Ferraria, Tiger-flower.
Erodium, Stork's-bill.
Pelargonium, Crane's-bill.
Aitonia, Aitonia.

Geranium, Geranium orCrane's-bin.
Bombax, Cotton Tree.
Gossypium, Cotton Plant.
Malva, Mallow.

Lavatera, Lavatera or Tree Mallow.
Hibiscus, Syrian Mallow, and In-
dian Sorrel.
Camellia, Japan Rose.
Alcea, Hollyhock.

XVII. DiADELPHiA. Page 742.

Furaaria, Fumitory.

Polygala, Milkwort.

Spartium, Broom.

Ulex, Furze, or Whin.

Hedvsarum, Saint Foin.

Lupmus, Lupine.

Pisum, Pea.

Phaseolus, Kidney Bean.

Lathyrus, Sweet Pea.

Vicia, Vetch and Bean.

Trifolium, Trefoil.

Indigofera, Indigo Plant.

Cy tisus. Laburnum, or Trefoil Tree.

XVIII. PoLVADELPHiA. Page 743.

Theobroma, Chocolate-nut Tree.
Monsonia, Monsonia.
Citrus, Citron, Orange, Lemon,&c.
Melaleuca, Cajeput Tree.
Hypericum, St John's Wort.

768

Cfaer*. XIX. SyNGENESiA. Page 743.

Leontodon, Dandelion.

Ilieracium, Hawkweed.

Arctium, Burdock.

CarJuus, Thistle.

Eupatorium, Hemp Agrimony.

Bcilis, Common Daisy.

Chrysanthemum, Ox-eye Daisy.

Soliilago, Golden-rod.

Scnecio, Groundsel.

Tussilago, Colt's-tbot.

Aster, Starwort.

Antheniis, Camomile

Achillea, Sneezewort.

Centaurea, Knapweed, or Blue-
bottle.

Rudbeckia, Rudbeckia.

Helianthus, Sun-flower, or Jerusa-
lem Artichoke.

Calendula, Garden Marygold.

Echinops, Small Globe Thistle.

XX. Gynandria. Page 745.

Orchis, Butterfly-flower.

Ophrys, Twaj blade.

Cyprinedium, Ladies Slipper.

Limodorum, Liraodorura, or Ja-
maica Saloup.

Epidendrum, Epidendrum, or Va-
nilla.

Nepenthes, Nepenthes.

Fassiflora, Passion-flower.

XXI. MoNGECiA. Page 746.

Zannichellia, Horn Pond-weed.

Artocarpus, Bread-fruit Tree.

Lemna, Duckweed.

Spargauium, Bur-reed.

Carex, Sedge Grass.

Typha, Cat'e-tail.

Hernandia, Jack-in-a-box Tree.

Urtica, Nettle.

Buxus, Box- tree.

Betula, Birch and Alder Tree.

BOTANY.

Moras, Mulberry and Fustick Tree.
Amaranthus, Amaranth, or Calalue
Fagus, Chesnut and Beech Tree.
Quercus, Oak Tree.
JugL^ns, Walnut Tree.
Corylus, Hazel-nut Tree.
Calla, Calia.

Arum, Arum, or Wake-robin.
Plnus, Pine, or Fir Tree.
Ricinus, Castor-oil nut Plant.
Jatropha, Cassada Plant.
Hura, Sand-box Tree.
Hipporaane, Manchineal Tree.
Cucuniis, Cucumber and Melon.

XXII. Dkecia. Page 750.

Vallisneria, Vallisneria.

Salix, Willow.

Empetrum, Crow Berry.

Ruscus, Butcher's Eroom.

Viscum, Misseltoe.

Myrica, Gale and Candle-berry

Myrtle.
Trophis, Ramoon Tree.
Cannabis, Hemp.
Humulus, Hop Plant.
Myristica, Nutmeg Tree.
Populus, Poplar Tree.
Rhodiola, Rose-root.
Mercurialis, Dog's Mercury.
Carica, Papaw Tree.
Juniperus, Juniper.
Taxus, Yew Tree.

XXIII. PoLTGAMiA. Page 752.

Musa, Plantain and Banana.
Mimosa, Gum Arabic Tree, Sen-
sitive Plant.
Atriplex, Orache, or Sea Purslane.
Ficus, Fig and Banyan Tree.

XXIV. Cryptogamia. Page 753.
Equisetum, Horse-tail.

Ophioglossum, Adder's-tongue.
Osmunda, Moonwort, or Flower-
ing Fern.
Lycopodium, Club-moss.
Polypodium, Polypody.
Aspidium, Male, or Shield Fero.
Blechnum Rough Spleenwort.
Scolopendrium, Hart's-tongue.
Asplenium, Sea Spleenwort.
Lonchitis, Hairy Spleenwort.
Adiantum, Maiden-hair.
Lindsaea, Lindsaea.
Pteris, Brakes.
Sphagnum, Bog Moss.
Phascura, Earth Moss.
Gymnostomum, Beardless Moss.
Splachnum, Gland Moss.
Encalypta, Extinguisher Moss.
Trichostomum, Fringe Moss.
Tortula, Screw Moss.
Orthotrichum, Bristle Moss.
Neckera, Neckera.
Mnium, Spring Moss.
F'unaria, Cord Moss.
Bartramia, Bartramia.
Polytrichum, Hair Moss.
Jungermannia, Star-tip.
Marchantia, Liver-green.
Lichen, Liverwort.
Fucus, Sea-weed.
Agaricus, Mushroom.
Lycoperdon, Truffle, Puff-ball.

PAtMS.

Chamaerops, Dwarf Palm.

Thrinax, Palmeto Royal.

Borassus, Fan Palm.

Corypha, Mountain Palm.

Phoenix, Date Palm.

Areca, Mountain Cabbage, Betel

Nut.
Cocos, Cocoa-nut, Prickly Pole.
Ceroxylon, Wax Palm.
Cycas, Sago Palm.

Cenero.

INDEX.

A Page

Albomnm ... 7G2

Aloe, American, somstimes viviparous, 725
Amaryllis, Guernsey Lily, history of, ib.
Anthoxanthum, Sweet-scented Grass,

gives a fragrance to hay > 715
Avocado Pear, a nutritious fruit, 729

B

Banana Tree, richness of Its fruit, 7!>2

Banksia, curious structure of 9o'a ers, 719
Banyan Tree, remarkable mode of

growth, - - 755

one of immense size, . ib.

held sacred in India, • ib.

Bark, Peruvian, history of
Bark, structure of
Betelnut Tree, history of
Botany, definition of.
Branches, ditferent kinds of,
Brazil Wood, a dye stuff,
Bread fruit Tree, liistory of
Buds, structuie of,
origin of,

Page.
721
761
759
707
765
7'/d
746
76*
ib.

Cabbage Tree, great height and beauty

of - . 759

Cassada Bread, history of, - 719

Castbr-oil Nut Tree
Calyx, varieties ol.
Camphor Tree,

preparation of,
Capitulum,

Page.
*79
780
729
ib.
712

Cashew-nut Tree, fruit and nut of, 729

Cephalotus, Pitcher -Plant, i>ingular ap-
pendages of, - 753

Chesnut Tree, remarkable for size

and age, - - 7t8

Chocolate nut Tree, history and pro-
duce, - - 7*5

Cinnamon T»ee, history of, - 728

preparation ol', - »•>•

BOTANY

PLATE 28.

Jl,,

»«i"iTi

iS^^A

X7 2a

B OTAJVY.

P3.ATE 29.

J '

»

i/ lixi

'^^f/.

N

r

B () T V N Y

I'LATK 50

„:n.^

;a^

, "^

w

^

■ 0

\\^

W.

MS

U

m

(^

<^i

p

-/^

vw.., -<^.i^

-^te^

0i

m.

•e^^xW .iS^li^j-1

i

^MifVl \W,

iV^/':

Ui

^

^-v

Fjg.8.

bota:vy.

PliATE 31.

J . C<tnnti Jndtca-

3 . Iris Iiitrida.

4. 3€Uvksio Kricifofior.

Jjrimn A-Etufrtived Ify WADLiz/trs fvr &ie ^turycU>poedu!.Edm^isui.

S. Cra**xtJ<t Cucdnea.
G. Shtpe^ia. GrandiflortL.
r. Apave .Anieric antL.
8 • XHsandra. Prturtmta-

bota:ny.

n^ATB 32.

'-^

. J>i4>Tura MtiaciptiZa.

7 . Ji^nimia. RaeUeena

\>ii0-

m

A%.

M

BOTA]VY.

PliATE 5*5.

1. Theohroirva. Cacfto.

2 . Chrysanthemiirti Tricolor

3 . Rutlheclda Purpuf^tt.

4 . Echiiiop* Riiro.

Ttrtrwri a-'B.ttm-rfo^JI lin- t-tim Vw^^.^l^.^^j;.. i

•5 . f^rpripediiunParvHiorunt .
6 ■ Spiilenth'ttm Sinense .,
J . Ttusifloru iienyitithlia ■

H*

BOTAJN^Y.

PLATE 54.

BOTAIVY.

PLATE 3:>.

t'ig-1-

\/S^-^

_JS'

,.;N' VF''

1^

BOTAIVY.

P Ij AT K

06.

J' W X ^tf s.

J . Ctrox^lcn. .Andicola-.

4- . CtfcatL-mUr lit£'.
J . Qthha^ Tree..
6 . Tan Pabn,.

5 .

■A

BOTANY.

Fitl.->-

i i

Cinnamon Ti-ee, introCnction into Ja-

mnica, - - 728

Classes of Linnaeu'!, - - 709

illustration of, - 715

Classification, Linngean, principle? of, 707
Cocoa-nut tree, great value of, - 759
Coffee-plant, liistory and culture, 721

berries, preparation of, - 722
CoiTmb, or corymbus, - - 712

Xork-trec, liistoiy of, and how prepa-
red, - - 748
Corolla, difl'erent kinds of, - 708
Cotton-tree, great height of, - 711
Cotton plant, history and culture of, ib.
Crassula, rich colour and fragrance of

its flowers, - 72t

Crocus jields saffron, - - 716

Culinus, or straw, - - 712

Cyma, or cyme, - - ib.

D

Date tree, history of, - - 758

mode of culture, - - ib.

Daphne Laghetto, bark, used as lace, 727

Dogs mercury poisonous, - 751

mistaken for spearmint, - ib.

Drosera incloses insects in its leaves, 721

Fasciculus or fascicle, - - 712

Fcnis, order of, - - 753

Flags, order of, - - 757

Flowers, distribution on plants, - 712

Fructification, parts of, - - 707
Fuchsia, history and beauty of its flowers, 727
splendid plant at Milbum-

towcr, - - ib.

Fustic-tree yields the dye-stuff fustic, 747

Gall oak, - - - 748
Galls white and black, - - ib.
Genera, characters of, - ' - 710
Germination, progress o^ - 765
Genera, illustrated enumeration of^ 766
Ginger, culture of, - - 715
black and white, ib.
young roots preserved, - ib.
Granadilla, rich fruit of the passion-
flower, ... 746
Gninea-hen Weed used as a charm in
Peru, ... 726

H

Hemlock, Water, very pcisonous, butrare723
Herbarium, preparation of, - 760

Hop, introduction of into Britain, . 751
Hyacinth, Garden, - . 725

extraonlinary price ofroots, - ib.

varieties inuncnie, . - ib.

Iris, Persian, remarkable for its fragrance,7 16
Florentine, roots afford orris jmw-

der, - - ib.

Chalcedonian, largest of the tribe, ib.

Jkck-in-a-box Tree, curious structure

of fruit, - - 747

Jamaica Pepper, or Allspice Tree, his-
tory and produce of - 754

K

Kalmia, curious structure of flowers, 751

BOTANY.

r. Page.

l.ace-bark Tree, layers of bark numer-
ous, and employed as luce, 727
Leaves, different kinds of, - 712

structure of, - - - 764
functions of, - - - ib-
Light, effects of, - - - ib.

XignunivitEe affords a good example of

perfect and white wood, 750
lavenvort, onlerof, - - 7.''6

Logw'ood, a dye-stuff, history of, - 729
Lotus, or Water-lily, an object of vene-
ration in the east, - 736

Mace, the covering of the nutmeg, 751
Mahogany Tree, remarkable for its mag-
nificence, - - 729

extraordinary price of one, - ib.

first introduced into Cngland, 730

bark used in fever, - ib.

Manchineal Tree, credulity of travel-
lers on its corrosive effects, - 749
Mangrove Tiee, history of, - 733

oysters attached to its branches, ib.
Metrosideros, filaments of flower re-
markably brilliant, - 734
Monandria, ... . 719

Mosses, order of^ . - - 754

principles of airangement, . ib.

elegant structure of - - ib.

may be studied at all seasons, 755
Moving Plant, history of, . . 742
Mushroom, eatabla, . . 757

Mushrooms, order o^ - - ib.

K

Nectary described, . - 708
Nepenthes, peculiar structure of leaves, 746
Nightshade, Deadly, near religious

houses, ... 722

Woody, . . - ib.

Nutmeg-tice, history of, . . 751

fruit inclosed in the mace, ib.

Nutmegs, prepai-ation of, . - ib.

Orders of Liiuueus,

709

Panicida or Panicle, - - 713
Papaw tree, fruit of used at table, 752
Pamassia, eleg'ant structure of flower, 724
Pedunculus or Peduncle, . .712
Pepper Black preparation of, - 716 ■
Pericarp or seed vessel, varieties of 708
Peruvian Bark, history o^ . . 721
Pistils, description of, ... 708
Pctiolus or Petiole, ... 712
Pitcher Plant, appendages of; re-
markable, ... 733

Pith, 763

Plants method of drying and pre-
serving, ... 760
vessels of, ... 7G2
sleep of, - - . 764
heat of, ... 765
duration of^ - . . ib.
Plantain tree, fruit of, a substitute

for bread in tropical countries, 752

Plates explained, - - . 765
Prickly [xile Palm, remarkable for

its spines, - - . 759
Piimrose-tree, flowers expand only in

the night, ... 727

769

P Page-

Protea, structure of flowers cnriotis, 7J9
Puff ball, extraordinary size of in Italy, 757
Palms, tribe of, ... 758
PahnoUTree, ... 759

R
Ramoon Tree, leaves of, a nutritious

food for horses, . - 750

Raccnius or raceme, ... 712

Rice, history and culture of, - 726

Roots, kinds of, - . . 7j3

Sago Palm, .... 760
Sand-box Tree, curious structure of

capsule, ... 749

Scapus, or Scape, ... 712

Seeds, structure of, . . 762

appendages of, . 765

Side-saddle Flower, curious sU-ucture of

leaves, ... 7.S6

Species of plants, number of, . 707

Species, characters o^ . - 710

Spica, or Spike, . - 712

Stamens, description of, . - 708
Stapelia, singular tribe of succulent

planU, ... 725

Stems, varieties of, . - - 713

divei-sity of, . . 763

Stipes, or Stipe, . . . ib.

Sugar Cane, history and culture, 71.8

Tamarind Tree, rich foliage of, 740

Tea Tree, liistoi7 of; . - 737

preparation of its leaves, ib.

ThjTsus, or Bunch, ... 718
Tiger-flower, flowers of, extremely fu-
gacious, ... 740
Truffles, enormous size of, . 757

Trumpet-flower, Bignonia radicans,
remarkable as a climber, and
profusion of its flowers, - 759
Tulip, origin of gaiden, and its varie-

Ue., - . .726

Tree, fine one near London, 738

U

Umbella, or Umbel, - . 712

tJmbcllated plants, division of, . 723

Vegetable Marrow, pulp of Avocado

Pear, ... 729

Vegetables, functions of, . 763

sti-ucture of, . . 761

Venus' Fly-trap, curious structui-e of

leaves, ... 759
experiment on its irritable
parts, . - - ib.

Verticillus, or WUorl, - - 713

W

Wax Palm, native of the Andes, 759

the tallest vegetable production, ib.

Wood, white or alburnum, . 768

perfect, - . Ui,

Yew Tree, large size of, - . 752
planted in church yards, rea-
son of, . . . ib.
a valuable wood, . •■ ib.

Index.

\Oh. I. PABT II.

5 P

B O T

770

B O U

BotuT Ut DOTANY-BA Y, a spacious bajr on the south-cast
II ■ coast of New Holland, which derived its name from
Bottle, the great profusion of plants which were found by
the naturalists who first visited that distant region. "
See New Holland.

BOTARGO, a peculiar kind of sausage, which is
made of the milts and roes of the mullet, a fish which
is common in the Mediterranean. Tliis kind of
sausage, which is usually eaten with olive oil and le-
mon juice, is in great reijuest in the southern parts of
Europe.

BOTHNIA, a province or district of Sweden,
which is divided into two parts, denominated from
their position East and West Bothnia.

East Bothnia, which stretches along the east side
•f the gulph of the same name, is about 300 miles
long, and varies from 70 to 200 miles in breadth.
A mountainous ridge forms the eastern boundary be-
tween Russia' and Finland Proper. On the southern
coast the land is low and marshy, but in some places
the soil is remarkable for its fertility; and from the
great length of the days in the middle of summer, or
rather from the absence of night during that period,
for the sun is visible for some weeks at midnight,
corn has been known to ripen in six or seven weeks.
The lakes and rivers abound witii salmon. The po-
pulation is estimated at 80,000; and fishing and agri-
culture afford the chief occupations to the inhabitants.
Cattle, butter, dried salmon, pitch, tar, and timber,
are enumerated as the principal exports.

West Bothnia lies on the west side of the gulph of
Bothnia, and is bounded on the north and west by
Lapland,^and on the south by Angermannia. This
district is in many places mountainous, but in others
the soil is fertile and productive. The labours of
agriculture, fishing, hunting, and the working of
mines of copper and iron, chiefly occupy the industry
of the inhabitants. Beside the commodities enume-
rated among the exports of East Bothnia, the skins
of various wild animals, as those of the black and
blue fox, the bear and wolf, the ermine, and the rein-
deer, furnish the materials of a profitable commerce
to the inliabitants of this district. Umea, Lulea, and
Tornea, are the principal towns.

BOTHNIA, Gui.PH of, a branch of the Baltic,
which is bounded on all sides by the territory of
Sweden, excepting on the south, where the isles of
Aland form the separation between this gulph and
the Baltic sea. The length from north to south is
estimated at 350 miles, and the breadth from east to
west from 50 to 140 miles. In the winter season it
is often frozen over, and thus forms an easy com-
munication between the opposite coasts.

BOTTLE, supposed to be derived from a barbar-
ous Latin word, is a small vessel for containing li-
«)uors, which, in different nations and periods of so-
ciety, has been constructed of leather, stone- ware, and
glass. The skins of animals seem to have been uni-
versally employed by the earlier inhabitants of eas-
tern countries ; and among the Jews, from tlie allu-
sions in Scripture, it appears to have been the com-
mon practice; and hence the expression used by
our Saviour, of " putting new wine into old bottles,"
from the danger of bursting by fermentation and in-
crease of bulk, admits of an obvious explanation.

Earthen jars were employed by the ancient Ro-
mans for preserving their wine. The use of glass
for this purpose has not been traced farther back
than the 15th century. Common bottles, so univer-
sally employed in all European countries, and form-
ing an extensive branch of manufacture, are made of
coarse, greenish-coloured glass. Glass bottles of a
finer quality, and thinner in the sides, are secured
from external injury with a covering of twisted straw,
or wicker-work, and then come under the denomina-
tion of flasks; such are the thin bottles which are brought
from the southern parts of Europe with olive oil.

BOTTOMRY, a term in connnetcial affairs, which
denotes a kind of contract, in the form of a mortgage
of a ship, by which the owner of the vessel borrows
money to enable him to complete the voyage, and
pledges the keel or bottom of the ship, from which
circumstance the contract derives its name, as a se-
curity for repayment. A contract of this nature, as
in many cases it must be highly beneficial to trade,
is allowed to be valid among all commercial nations.
If the ship be lost the lender loses his money, but if
it return in safety the principal as well as the pre-
mium or interest agreed upon, however it may ex-
ceed the legal rate of interest, is repaid. In this
case, the ship and tackle, as well as the person of
the borrower, are answerable for the money lent.
But if security for the loan be given on the goods
and merchandise which are to be sold or exchanged
in the course of the voyage, then the borrower only
is personally bound to fulfil the contract ; and, in
such a case, he is said to take up the money at re-
spondentia.

Contracts of this kind were not unknown to the
ancients ; and laws for their regulation, enacted by
the Romans, are still extant; In modern times, and
particularly in Britain, contracts of bottomry and
respondentia have been the subjects of legislative
regulation. See Marshall on Insurance ; Parke on
Marine Insurances ; and Jacob's Lmv Dictionary.

BOTTS, a kind of worms which are produced m
the intestines of the horse, and which appear to
be the larvce of the gad-fly. See Oestrus under
Entomology.

BOUGUER, Peter, an eminent French mathe-
matician and natural philosopher, was born at Croi-
sic, in the department of Lower Loire, in 1698,
early commenced the study of mathematics under
the tuition of his father, who was royal professor of.
Hydrography, and in his fifteenth year succeeded,
on the death of his father, to the same situation,
the dfties of which he is said to have performed
with great ability. A memoir on the Masting of-
Ships, presented to the Academy of Sciences in
]7'27, entitled him to the prize offered by that learn-
ed body for the best treatise on this subject ; and in
two years afterwards he was honoured with a similar
mark of distinction for his memoir on the best me-
thod of ascertaining the height of the .'^tars at sea.

In the )'ear 1 730 M. Bouguer removed to Havre ;
in 1731 was appointed associate geometer ; and in
1735 was nominated pensioner astronomer. In the
same ywir he embarked with his associates, Godin,
Condamine, and Jussicu, for South America, for the
purpose of measuring a degree of the meridian ; and

B O U

7T1

B O U

after an absence of nine years, during which he and
his ctimpanions experienced the severest hardships
and privations on the heights of the Andes, he re-
turned to Europe in 174-i. Five years afterwards
he published his great work on the figure of the
earth, determined from the observations made in
Peru, and was involved in a controversy with his
fellow traveller Condamine, who charged him with
partiality in the distribution of the merit due to his
associates in the undertaking. Condamine succeed-
ed in securing the largest portion of the favour of
the public who took any part in the dispute. Bou-
guer, who, it is said, was of a suspicious and en-
vious disposition, was severely mortified at the issue
of this controversy, and suffered much in his bodily
liealth. He died in 1758, when he had reached the
60th year of his age. Beside the works already al-
luded to, he was the author of various treatises con-
nected with physics and navigation, whicii appear-
ed in a separate form, or in the Memoirs of the Aca-
demy.

BOULACK, or Bulak, a town of Egypt, which
stands on the banks of the Nile, two miles west
from Grand Cairo, has become a place of consider-
able commercial importance, and is the chief port
of Lower Egypt. A customhouse, a spacious bazar
or market-place, magnificent public baths, and ma-
gazines or warehouses for the accommodation of
merchants, are the principal public buildings. The
surrounding country is covered with beautiful gar-
dens, which afford an abundant supply of delicious
fruits, and all kinds of useful vegetables. But the
invasion of Egypt by the French in 1799 was fatal
to this town, for it was almost entirely destroyed by
their army.

BOULOGNE, called also Bodlogne sur la
Mer, from its situation on the sea-coast, a sea-
port town in the department of the straits of Calais
in France, and formed}' the capital of the province
of Boulognois in Ficardy. Boulogne is a place of
great antiquity. It is supposed to be the Partus
Iccius of Julius Caesar, from which he embarked for
thejnvasion of Britain ; a light-house, or pharos, built
by Caligula, was repaired by the emperor Charle-
magne in the beginning of the ninth century, but
was at last neglected, and about the middle of the
17th century became a heap of ruins.

Boulogne stands at the mouth of the river Liane,
and is divided into an upper and lower town ; the
former is on the declivity of a mountain, is surround-
ed with a wall, and, before the revolution, was chiefly
inhabited by the nobility. The lower town, occu-
pied by persons engaged in trade, is nearer the sea,
and is of «n irregular form, with narrow winding
streets. The harbour is of small extent, and is de-
fended by a fort and batteries ; but the entrance is
incommodious, the depth of water small, and the road-
stead is unprotected and insecure. The inhabi-
tants are estimated at 10,000, a large proportion of
which is occupied in the herring and mackarel fish-
ery, which, for nearly three centuries, has been an
ebjcct of importance to this place. Some manufac-
tures of woollen and linen are carried on ;but the ex-
portation of Burgundy and Champaigne wines, and

the smuggling of brandy, cambric, and other contra- Bminty
band goods, to the shores of Britain, constitute the ||
greater part of its commerce. Boulogne is 20 KoirlMn.
miles S. E. from Calais, and 55 miles N. E. from
Paris.

BOUNTY, a premium, or pecuniary reward, paid
out of the public revenue, for the encouragement of
navigation and shipping, or particular branches of
agriculture or trade ; of the first kind are file bounties
which are paid for the encouragement of the whale
and herring fishery ; and of the latter description are
those which are allowed for the exportation of grain
in certain cases, and for the encouragement of rising
manufactures. Of the beneficial effects of premiums
of this description some diversity of sentiment pre-
vails ; but, in general, the opinions of the most res-
pectable writers on political economy are unfavoura-
ble to the practice. This subject is fully discussed
in the works of Dr Smith and Mr Malthas.

BOURBON, an island in the Indian ocean, in
south latitude 20" 52', and east longitude 55" 30', a-
bout 100 miles S. W. from Mauritius, and 360 east
from Madagascar. When it was first discovered by
the Portuguese it was called Mascarenhas. The
greatest length of this island is stated at 14 leagues,
and the circumference pursuing the windings of the
coast, is nearly 40 leagues. The surface of the isl-
and of Bourbon is said to be chiefly composed of
two volcanic mountains, one of which rises 9000
feet above the level of the sea. The mountain cal-
led Gros Morne towards the northern part of the isl-
and has never been known, since its discovery by Eu-
ropeans, to be in a state of activity, and its sides are
clothed with luxuriant vegetation. But scarcely a
year passes without a furious eruption from the moun-
tain called Volcano in the southern district, and its
ravages are strongly marked by the sterility and deso-
lation of the surrounding territory, which is expres-
sively denominated the burnt land.

The great inequality of surface produces great di-
versity of climate. The lofty peaks of the mountains
are covered with snow in the winter season ; in a
lower region the agreeable coolness of the temperate
zones prevails, while the full influence of a vertical
sun is felt on the sea-coasts. A lake, half a mile in
diameter, occupies the central part of the island, and
seems to depend for the supply of its waters on the
rains, for in some seasons it is quite dry. The rivers
also derive their waters from the same source, or from
the melting of the snows on the elevated summit of
the mountains. Two remarkable plains lie between
the loftier mountains. The plain Des Cafres, rising
between 3000 and 4000 feet above the level of the
sea, present* a desolate aspect ; a few diminutive
shrubs and stunted heaths are its only productions.
But the Plain of Palms, so named from the profusion
of mountain cabbage, or betel-nut palms, which cover
its surface, is adorned with all the luxuriance of the
richest vegetation. Hurricanes, as in other tropical
regions, annually produce their destructive ravages
in the isle of Bourbon.

All the fruits of tropical countries are abundant ;
and coffee, sugar, cotton, and cloves, are successful-
ly cultivated. Corn and rice are raised in consider-

B O U

772

B O U

able quantities ; a large proportion of which is ex-
H ported to the Mauritius to supply its inhabitants with

Bomboonais. provisions.

^^'V^ The population of Bourbon in 1717 was estimated
at 2000, of which 900 were whites and free persons,
and 1100 were slaves; but in 1810, when it fell un-
der the dominion of Great Britain, the number of in-
habitants was computed at 90,000, of which 16,000
are stated to be whites and free persons of colour,
more than 30(X) free blacks, and above 70,000
slaves. Bourbon is divided into eleven parishes. St
Denis is the capital of the island, and the residence
of the governor ; but in the number of its houses it
merits no higher distinction than that of a village.
Similar villages are set down in other parts of the
island. The trade of Bourbon is carried on with
Mauritius and Madagascar, the other islands in the
Indian ocean, and the settlements on the eastern
coast of Africa, and consists chiefly in bartering the
productions of the island for those commodities
which are in demand among the inhabitants. Its
connection with Europe must also be noticed as a
source of commercial intercourse.

The isle of Bourbon, when first discovered in 154-5
by a Portuguese navigator, was destitute of inhabi-
tants ; and 100 years nearly elapsed, when the gover-
nor of the French settlement at Madagascar trans-
ported, in 1642, twelve malefactors who were con-
demned to perpetual exile. In 1654:, a few French-
men, with some negroes, formed a settlement on its
shores, and gave it the name of Bourbon ; but the
failure of their crops from hurricanes, and the hard-
ships and privations to which they were exposed,
forced them to abandon their possessions, and em-
bark with their whole property for Madras. The
remains of the French settlement in Madagascar,
which escaped the massacre of the natives, escaped
to Bourbon, and, with the crew of a privateer which
had been wrecked on the coast, formed a new esta-
blishment. The colony, rising in prosperity and
wealth, was claimed by the French East India Com-
pany as their property ; various disputes took place
between the colonial government and the inhabi-
tants ; and it was not till 1735, when the prudence
and moderation of the governor restored it to order
and tranijuillity. The mad spirit of the French revo-
lution reached this distant settlement. The decree of
the Directory for the emancipation of the negroes
and the abolition of slavery, had it been put into exe-
cution, would have proved its ruin ; but it was wise-
ly opposed by the inhabitants. Bourbon came under
the dominion of Great Britain in 1810.

BOURBON LAKE, a spacious lake of North
America, which derived its name from some French
traders, is about 18 miles in length, and is nearly
circular ; the surrounding territory is mountainous,
or composed of barren plaiirs and extensive morasses;
cedar, spruce, and maple trees, are found in the fo-
rests ; and, all kinds of foxes are abundant on its bor-
ders, which, from the severity of the climate, is spa-
ringly visited by any other description of animals.

BOUKBONNOIS, a former province of France,
which is now included in the department of Allier ;
enjoys a mild and agreeable temperature ; is in some
places covered witli extensive forests ; abounds with

vineyards ; produces corn, hemp, and fruit in abun-
dance, and aflords excellent pasturage for cattle.
Numerous mineral springs, both hot and cold, are
found in the province ; and mines of iron and coal "
are wrought in difl'erent places. The Loire and the
Allier are the principal rivers, and the chief town is
Moulins.

BOURDEAUX, one of the most ancient and ce-
lebrated cities of France, and capital of the depart-
ment of the Gironde ; stands on the west bank of
the river Garonne, and at the distance of forty miles
from its junction with the sea. Bourdeaux was
a place of considerable importance in the time
of the Romans, and perhaps is indebted for its ori-
gin to a colony of that people. Some magnificent
remains still exist to attest its former grandeur. The
Goths became its masters in the fifth century, and
it afterwards suffered severely from the ravages of
the Normans ; for nearly three centuries it remained
in the possession of the English ; and after its re-
union with France it became the scene of many dis-
astrous occurrences, first, during an insurrection
excited by the oppressive exactions of a salt tax,
and afterwards during the civil wars in the time of
Henry IV.

The modern form of Bourdeaux is that of a cre-
scent; it is surrounded by a wall, and defended by
three forts. Many of" the new streets are built on a
regular and elegant plan; some of the public edi-
fices are conspicuous for their grandeur, and the
theatre is particularly specified as one of the most
magnificent structures of the kind in Europe. A
corn-mill, the machinery of which is dViven by the
tide, conducted to it by canals, is a huge building,
erected by a public company, at an expence of
L.350,000. Beside a cathedral and numerous chur-
ches, Bourdeaux has an academy for promoting the
improvement of the fine arts, which was established
in 1712, and the university was founded in 1441.

The population of Bourdeaux is stated at 100,000,
part of- whom is occupied in the manufacture of
serge, printed calicoes, stockings, pottery, glass, and
cordage ; but its chief prosperity depends on exten-
sive commerce, of which the whale and cod fishery
form a considerable branch. Four or five hundred
ships are sometimes seen in its spacious harbour at
one time, taking on board wine, brandy, vinegar,
various kinds of fruit, turpentine, corkwood, honey,
olives, and anchovies, in exchange for woollen-stufts,
tin, copper, lead, coals, herrings, leather, butter,
cheese, salted beef, &c. Bourdeaux is 270 miles
distant from Paris, and 70 miles from Rochelle.

BOURGES, an ancient town of France, is the
capital of the department of Cher, and stands on the
Erve, at its junction with the Eure, was established
in the end of the fifteenth century as a commodious
station for internal commerce, but the scheme was
frustrated by a dreadful conflagration, in which more
than 7000 houses were destroyed ; is now chiefly re-
markable for its cathedral, a splendid Gothic edifice,
and a faw manufactures of woollen stuffs, linens, and
stockings, which afford employment to a small por-
tion of its inhabitants, amounting to about 15,000.

BOW, an offensive weapon, constructed of wood,
horn, steel, or other elastic materials, for the pur-

BOY

773

B RA

Jtoynt

II
Boyle.

pose of projecting an arrow. The bow and arrow
form the most ancient and most universally employ-
ed warlike instrument. .See Auchery.

BOYAR, a title applied to the Russian nohility,
and limited, it is supposed, to those of the higher
order.

BOYER, Abei., author of a well known diction-
ary of the French language, was born Jat Castres in
France in IGfi't ; was driven from his native country
in consequence of the revocation of the edict of
Kaiitz, settled first at Geneva, and remained some time
in the prosecution of his studies at Franeker, and
finally fixed his residence in England, where he was
employed in superintending a newspaper, and in
conducting various periodical publications. He was
the author of a life of queen Anne, and was so much
a master of the English language as to produce an
imitation of one of Racine's tragedies, which was re-
presented on the stage ; but he is best known as the
author of a grammar and dictionary of the French
language, which are still regarded as valuable works.

BOYLE, Robert, an eminent philosopher, was
the seventh son, and the fourteenth child of Richard,
earl of Cork, and was born at Lismore, in Ireland,
in 1627. Descended from a noble family, not less
distinguished by mental endowments than by their
influence in public affairs, he inherited from it no
small portion of intellectual talent. His early edu-
cation was conducted in his father's house ; he spent
several years at Eton, afterwards visited the conti-
nent, and during his residence at Geneva assiduous-
ly devoted himself to the acquisition of mathematical
and physical science, as well as to the improvement
of his knowledge in modern languages.

The death of his father, which happened before he
reached England, left him in possession of an estate
in England, and a considerable property in Ireland ;
and from tliis time he seems to have determined to
live in philosophical retirement. He was one of the
first members of the small, but learned body, whicii
held private meetings, first at Oxford, and afterwards
in London, for the purpose of investigating subjects
of natural philosophy by experimental inquiry, and
who styled themselves the Pfiilosophkal Cnltege,
which, after the restoration, was incorporated, in
1663, under the name of the " Royal Society."
Before this time Mr Boyle had published various
tracts relative to chemistry and different depart-
ments of mechanical philosophy ; and, with the as-
sistance of Mr Robert Hook, he afterwards made
considerable improvements in the construction of the
air-pump, and published the result of his experiments
• on the elasticity of the air.

In the year i668 he removed to London, and fix-
ed his final residence in the house of his sister, lady
Ranelagh, with whom he chiefly lived during the
long period of forty-seven years. Mr Boyle was
held in high respect by the king ; he had been soli-
cited to enter into the clerical profession, with the
view of being promoted to the highest rank ; he was
appointed to the provostship of Eton college, and he
was elected president of the Royal society ; but all
these honours he declined, probably from his reserv-
ed and modest manner, as much as from other causes
which have been assigned by his biographers. His

constitution had been always feeble, and the atten- Brab»iit
tion which his health required may excite surprise ||

that he was able to undergo so much labour in his BraccioUni.
numerous literary pursuits; but he seems to have ad-
justed the occupation of his time with great order
and economy. Having survived his sister one week,
he died in the end of December 1691, in his 65th
year, and his funeral sermon was preached by the
celebrated bishop Burnet.

Mr Boyle is to be regarded as one of the revivers
of physical science, to the progress of which the in-
genious experiments which he instituted, and the
various instruments which he invented or improved,
in no small degree contributed. He was no less dis-
tinguished by his piety and zeal in the service of re-
ligion ; his benevolence was liberal and active, and
his character was adorned with every other amiable
and focial virtue.

BRABANT, a district of the Netherlands, which,
in various periods of its history, has been distinguish-
ed by the title of duchy and province, more lately
formed some of the departments of France, and fi-
nally a part of the kingdom of Belgium. Holland,
Guelderland, and Liege are its boundaries on the
north and east, Namur and Hainault are on the south,
and Flanders and Zealand on the west. The cir-
cumference is estimated at 14-0 miles ; and having
been often the scene of active warfare, it includes
many fortified towns, and a great number of populous
villages. Brabant was formerly divided into four
quarters or districts, Louvain, Brussels, Antwerp,
and Bois-le-Duc. It is watered by some large ri-
vers, as the Mouse, the Scheldt, the Dyle, beside
some smaller streams ; and it is traversed by canals,
which greatly facilitate the cofnmercial intercourse
of the country. The soil is fertile, and agriculture
is in a state of great improvement. The manu-
factures of lace and various kinds of woollen stuffs,
have been long prosperous.

BRABEJUM, African Ai,mond, a genus of
plants belonging to the class Polj'gamia.

BRACCIOLINI, PoGGio, an eminent scholar
who flourished in the fifteenth century, and contri-
buted greatly to the restoration of literature ; he
was a native of the Florentine repubhc, and was
born in 1380, at a time when Florence had become
the resort of learned men, — when the liberal arts
were patronized and encouraged, — and when the
writings of Petrarch and Boccacio, being generally
read, refined and improved the public taste. To
several learned men who were attracted to this seat
of learning and the fine arts, Poggio was indebted for
a great share of the profoand knowledge which he
attained of the Greek and Roman classics. In his
twenty-second year he visited Rome, and was ap-
pointed to an official situation under the Pope ; and
with some intervals of absence, when the court of
the Vatican was disturbed with domestic dissensions
or harassed with foreign wars, he continued in the
service of successive Roman pontiffs for the long
period of half a century. In the latter years of
his life he was promoted to the chancellorship of
the Tuscan republic ; and when he arrived in Flo-
rence, he was honoured by his fellow citizens with
other essential marks of their esteem and regard.

BRA

rT4

BRA

Kracbnuai

After his dentil, whicli happened in 154'9, his por-
„ trait was exhibited in the public hall, and a statue
Bnikf. was crectetl to his memory.

But the labours of Bracciolini in preserving the
numerous relics of ancient literature from oblivion,
entitle him to the highest praise. By his industry a
comiilcte copy of Quintilian's works was presented
to the public ; he recovered several books of the
Arjion-iutics of Valerius Flaccus ; some of the ora-
tions of Ciceto ; some of the comedies of Plaulus ;
the fi(teenth book of Petronius' Arbiter ; and, with
the assistance of other learned men, the works of
Lucretius, Silius Italicus, Tertuliian, Columella, and
otlier ancient writers. He was the author of va-
rious works, some of which are of a moral and in-
structive nature, and others arc written in a satirical
strain ; they are chiefly in the form of dialogue.
But the reader who wishes for a full detail of the
life of this eminent scholar, and to be gratified with
a comprehensive view of the literature of the age in
which he lived, may consult with advantage Shep-
herd's Life ofPogfiio.

BRACH>IANS, Brachmins, or Brahmins, the
chief of the four casts or tribes into which the na-
tive Hindoos, from time immemorial, have been di-
vided. The Brahmins of modern times are supposed
to be descended from the ancient gymnosophists or
philosophers of India, whom the Greek sages visited,
and from whom they were desirous of learning wis-
dom ; and it seems probable that some of the pecu-
liarities of the celebrated doctrines of Pythagoras
were derived from the same source. The knowledge
of astronomy was early cultivated by the Brahmins,
and the astronomical tables which have been ascribed
to them are supposed to be of considerable anti-
quity ; but the Brahmins of the present day have no
pretensions to scientific attainments ; the extent of
their learning is limited to metaphysical speculations.
To them alone the functions of the priesthood are
intrusted ; and the highest respect and veneration are
paid to their persons by tJie other casts or tribes of
the Hindoos.

BRADFORD, a town of Wiltshire in England,
which is finely situated on the declivity of a hill on
the banks of the Avon ; and, with a population of
between seven and 80(X), has been long famous for
its extensive manufactories of superfine broad cloth.

BRADFORD, a manufacturing town in the west-
riding of Yorkshire in England. Various kinds of
woollen stuffs, wool-cards, combs, and leather boxes,
and three iron founderies, afford the chief employ-
ment to the inhabitants, who exceed 6000. The
abundance of iron ore and coal in the vicinity, and
the advantage of inland navigation, contribute to the
prosperity of the manufactures and trade of Brad-
ford. In a large public hall the various productions
sf its manufactures are exhibited for sale.

BRADLEY, Dr James, an eminent English astro-
nomer, wjis born at Shin-born in Gloucestershire,
in lfi92, passed through the elementary part of his
education at a boarding school in North Leach, and,
being destined for the clerical profession, was ad-
mitted as a student at Oxford in 1711. He took or-
ders in 1719, and was presented to a living in Here-
fordshire. His inclination to astronomical pursuits

appeared early, and was encouraged by the kindred
zeal for the same science of his uncle Dr Pound,
with whom he resided for some time as curate at his
living of Wanstead in Essex. In 1721, he was ap-
pointed Savilian professor of astronomy in the uni-
versity of Oxford, in consequence of the death of
the celebrated Dr Keill, and thus became the asso-
ciate and friend of the illustrious Dr Halley, who
was then Savilian professor of mathematics. He as-
siduously devoted himself to thecultivation of astro-
nomical science, and the result of his observations
was occasionally presented to the Royal society. In
1725, when his attention was directed to the parallax
of the fixed stars, he was led to the discovery of the
aberration of the celestial bodies, and the nutation
of the earth's axis. These splendid discoveries, of
which an account appeared in the Transactions of
the Royal Society for 1728, spread his fame as a
philosopher wherever science was known and che-
rished. In 1730, he was appointed lecturer in astro-
nomy and experimental philosophy; and, in 1742,
he succeeded Dr Halley as astronomer royal at Green-
wich. This situation afforded him a fine opportunity
of exercising his diligence and accuracy in conduct,
ing astronomical observations. He furnished the
observatory with the best instruments, in which he
liberally-acknowledges the aid which he derived from
Mr Graham and Mr Bird, who were employed in
their construction ; and he discharged his duties
during the last twenty years of his life in a manner
not less creditable to himself than beneficial to the
world, in the practical application of his observations
and discoveries. But it is melancholy to record,
that a depression of spirits, accompanied with an
apprehension of nnental derangement, embittered the
close of his life. He died in 1762, and in the 70th
year of his age.

BRAGA,a city of Portugal, and capital of the pro-
vince of Entro Douro-e-Minho, stands in a spacious
valley of the same name on the river Cavado. The
remains of an aquaeduct, of an ampliitheatre, and the
discovery of coins, furnish evidence of the import-
ance of this place in the time of the Romans. The
streets are broad, light, and open, but the houses in
general are small. The cathedral is a large Gothic
structure ; and a church and monastery, placed on
an elevated situation, form a fine object, and termi-
nate the view from one of the streets. Braga has
declined from its former prosperity ; but it has still
a consideral)le manufactory for common hats. The
population is stated at 13,000.

BRAGANZA, a town in the province of Tralos-
Montes in Portugal, stands on a spacious plain on
the borders of Leon and Gallicia. It is defended
with a castle and towers. The population is about
3000 ; and velvet and some other silk stuffs are its
only manufactures.

BRAHE, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer, who
was born at Knudstorp in Shonen in Norway, and
was descended from an illustrious Swedish family.
*He was destined by his friends for the profession of
the law ; but a passion for astronomy began to dis-
cover itself in his 14th year; and the remarkable
coincidence between the calculations of a solar eclipse
and the time of its taking place in 1560, made such

BRA

775

BRA

an impression on his mind that he resolved to prose-
cute a science which depended on such certain prin-
ciples. Having finished liis studies at Copenhagen,
he visited tlie principal cities of Germany and Italy,
and became acquainted with the chief astronomers
of the age. On his return to Copenhagen his repu-
tation as an astronomer reached the court, to which
he was'invited ; and the discovery of the new star in
the constellation Cassiopeia, which appeared in 1,572,
confirmed the opinion which had been held of his
talents and industry. Frederick, king of Denmark,
being informed of the astronomer's intention of re-
moving to Basle, in Switzerland, for the purpose of
carrying on observations, generously provided for
him one of the most liberal establishments which any
monarch has erected for the benefit of science. The
island of Huen was assigned to him, a splendid ob-
servatory was built, and well furnished with instru-
ments, and a pension for his support was granted.
The expence of this celebrated observatory, which
was called Uranibiirg, amounted, it is said, to the
sum of L.20,000. In this situation he lived twenty-
one years, and was frequently visited in his scientific
retreat by persons of the first rank and highest repu-
tation. Even crowned heads condescended to visit
the astronomer, and among others James VI. of
Scotland, when he visited Copenhagen in 1590, at
the time of his marriage with Anne of Denmark,
spent eight days with Tycho at Uraniburg. But the
death of his munificent patron'was fatal to the astro-
nomer ; by the advice of wicked ministers the young
king was persuaded to discontinue his pension, and
he was forced to abandon his favourite retreat, and
to seek an asylum in a foreign land. . He removed
his family, his books, and instruments to Rostoch,
where he experienced the liberality of the emperor
Rodolph II. who granted him a handsome pension,
and erected an observatory for his use in the vicini-
ty of Prague. But his mind was broken with dis-
appointment, which scarcely ever permitted him to
resume his labours in his new situation with his for-
mer zeal and industry ; and a severe disorder termi-
nated his existence in 1601, when he had reached
the 55th year of his age. It has excited just sur-
prise that Tycho, who was preceded by Copernicus,
should not have adopted the system of the universe
proposed by that philosopher, or rather that he should
have contrived another, in which he supposes the
earth to be placed in the centre, and the sun, with
all the planets, performing their revolutions round
it ; but it has been alleged that he was influenced by
a spirit of opposition, or by the vanity of being the
author of a new system, which from him received
the name of Tijchonic. His fondness for the study
of alchymy and judicial astrology is less to be won-
dered at. The rays of science had scarcely begun
to, penetrate the dark cloud wljich yet hung over the
human intellect.

BRAHMAPOOTRA, the largest river of India,
the sources of which have remained hitherto unex-
plored by Europeans; but it is supposed they are not
far distant from those of the Ganges, from which
they are separated by a snow-covered mountainous
ridge, about the 32° of north latitude. Proceeding
in its course eastward, the Brahmapootra traverses

Brandrn-

biug.

the country of Tibet, where it is known by the name Brain tree
of Sanpoo, passes to the north of Teshoo-Loomboo,
the residence of Teshoo Lama, and thence flows in a
wide extended bed through numerous channels, and
forming many islands. Swelled by many tributary
streams, it penetrates the frontier mountains of Tibet,
takes a vast circuit towards the Chinese empire, and,
by a sudden change of its course, runs westward,
through Assam, where it receivesjan immense acces-
sion to the body of its waters. Entering Bengal, it
makes a circuit round the western point of the CJar-
row mountains, and again changing its course in the
province of Dacca, is joined by the Megna, a river
of smaller size, which gives its name to the united
streams, till they mix their waters with the Ganges,
near the bay of Beng-al. The whole course of the
Brahmapootra, including its various windings, is sup-
posed not to be less than 1650 miles ; in its course
of 400 miles through Bengal it greatly resembles the
Ganges in its general character, and during the last
60 miles, while it bears the name of Megna, it forms
a stream from four to five miles in breadth.

The united waters of the Ganges and Brahmapoo-
tra, below Luckipoor, form a capacious gulph, stud-
ded with islands, some of which are of considerable
magnitude. The sudden influx of the tide, which is
known by the name of Bore, prevails in the princi-
pal branches of the Ganges and the Megna ; but
the Hooghly river, and the passages between the
islands and sands in the gulph which is formed by
the confluence of the Brahmapootra and Ganges, are
most subject to this extraordinary influx of the ocean.

BRAINTREE, a town of Essex, in England,
which seems to be a place of considerable antiquity ;
the streets are narrow, and many of the houses are
constructed of wood. The population is about 3000,
and, with the village of Becking, which forms part
of the town, the whole number of inhabitants is about
6000, many of whom are engaged in the manufac-
ture of baize, which was introduced by the Flemings,
who were driven fiom the Netherlands by the op-
pressions of the Duke of Alva.

BRANDENBURG, Marquisate or, a coun-
try of Germany, which extends about 200 miles from
east to west, and more than 100 miles in breadth I'rom
north to south ; is bounded on the north and east by
Mecklenburg, Pomcrania, and Poland ; and on the
the south and west by Lower Lusatia and Saxony,
the duchies of Madgeburg and Lunenburg. The Elbe
and the Oder, with their tributary streams, are the
principal rivers which traverse the territory of Bran-
denburg. A great proportion of the soil is light and
sandy ; but by industry and judicious improvement it
produces abundant crops of every kind of grain. The
rearing of cattle and sheep is a great object of atten-
tion in the rural economy of this province. The
breed of sheep has been greatly improved, with the
view of obtaining a finer wool, to furnish mati r ais
for the manufactures of the country. Wood is al-un-
dant, and not only affords an ample supply of fuel
for domestic use and manufactures, but for ship-
building and exportation.

The revocation of the edict of Nantz, was peculi-
arly favou.T.ble to the manufactures and conunerce
of this province. Twenty thousand French refugees,

BRA

776

BRA

BtMdtnbDrg driven from their own country, settled within its ter-
II ritories, and established various manufactures, which

Bra>il. have continued to prosper to the present day. The
internal commerce of the country is greatly facilita-
ted by various canals, which form communications
between the towns and its navigable rivers.

The population of Brandenburg exceeds 750,000.
The Lutheran form of religion prevails generally a-
mong the inhabitants, but many, especially on the
coast, profess the Calvinistic faith ; and the number
of Roman catholics is considerable. Full liberty of
conscience is permitted to all classes. Berlin, Bran-
denburg, and Potsdam, are the principal towns.

The family of Brandenburg is of great antiquity,
founded, according to some historians, by the Scla-
vonians, who distinguished it by the name of the
Guards of the forests. The title of Marquis was con-
ferred in the beginning of the 10th century, and hav-
ing passed through various families it came into the
possession of Frederick the VI. of Nuremberg, who
was dignitied with the title of elector and archcham-
berlain of the holy Roman empire. Brandenburg
was long subject to Poland, and each succeeding
margrave received investiture of Prussia from the
Polish kings. In consequence of a treaty with the
king of Poland, Frederick William was acknowledg-
ed to be sovereign of Ducal Prussia, in an assembly
of the states at Konigsburg in 1663; by the treaty of
Vienna the emperor confirmed this title, and Fre-
derick his son was proclaimed king of Prussia in 1701.
His grandson, the great Frederick, succeeded to the
crown, and astonished Europe by his brilliant victo-
ries, and the extraordinary success of his arms.

BRANDENBURG, the capital «f the Marquisate
of the same name, stands on the banks of the Havel,
by which it is traversed, and divided into the old and
new town. The fishery in the rivers and lakes in
the neighbourhood is a beneficial concern ; hops and
vines are extensively cultivated ; the manufactures of
woollen stulTs, linen, and fustians, established by the
French refugees, still flourish ; and the commerce,
to which the inland navigation greatly contributes,
is considerable.

BRANDY, a spirituous liquor, which is obtained
by the distillation of wines. See Chemistry.

BRASIL, an extensive region of South America,
reaching from the north side of the equator to the
34th degree of south latitude, and stretching into the
interior almost to the 70th degree of west longitude ;
is bounded on the north by Guiana and the Atlantic
ocean; by the same ocean throughout the whole ex-
tent of its eastern border; and on the south and west
by Paraguay, and vast tracts of country hitherto un-
explored.

External aspect. — The descriptions of navigators and
travellers represent the appearance of Brasil from the
coast as extremely rich and beautiful. Blessed with
a serene and salubrious atmosphere, its surface is
finely diversified, and its soil exuberantly fertile ; it
abounds with trees which are green with eternal fo-
liage, and loaded with delicious fruits, which distil
Drecious gums, and diffuse an exquisite fragrance.
Much of its interior is still unknown ; but the curi-
osity or avarice of adventurers has led them to
trace the course of some of its largest rivers, to scale

the lummit of its loftiest mountains, to traverse some Bras!!,
of its most spacious savannahs, and to penetrate its
gloomiest forests ; and they have spoken with admi-
ration of all these objects, of the infinite variety, as
well as of the inestimable value of its indigenous
plants, of the singular form and strange nature of
many of its native animals, and of the degraded con-
dition and the horrid customs of some of the human
tribes who claim it as their country.

Climate. — Though a large portion of Brasil be ex-
posed to the rays of a vertical sun, yet it is not, like
Africa, parched with a withering mfluence, but is
fanned with a perpetual breeze, which maintains a
most refreshing and invigorating coolness of tempe-
rature. The sea-breeze begins to blow about nine
o'clock in the morning, and continues till towards
midnight, bracing the nerves, and preventing or re-
moving languor and lassitude. When it subsides,
about half an hour of sultry calmness mtervenes, but
the uneasiness which it occasions is speedily dissipa-
ted by the land-breeze, which prevails till morn-
ing. The transition from light to darkness is so
sudden that, on the setting of the sun, the twi-
light is scarcely perceptible ; but the nights are, in
general, so mild and salubrious that they may be
safely and pleasantly spent in the open air. As in
other tropical latitudes, the year in Brasil is divided
into the rainy and the dry seasons. Before the fall
of rain the breeze is suspended, the weather becomes
oppressively sultry, dense and dark clone's are quick-
ly collected, and in awful stillness brood over the
country, and then " the rain descends and the floods
come." The rain called " the first waters," falls
near the beginning of the year, and continues about
three weeks ; the weather then clears up till about
May, and from that time till near the end of Sep-
tember the " second waters" fall in torrents, causing
the rivers to overflow their banks, and making all
the level lands assume the appearance of immense,
inland seas. But the return of the dry season spee-
dily removes this excessive moisture, and frequently
brings about an opposite extreme. For during the
dry season the waters not only subside from the
land, but many of the rivers are also deprived of
their streams ; and if the rain happen to be long de-
layed beyond its usual time, or to fall in insufficient
quantity, famine, with all its horrors, is the sure and
calamitous consequence. When this takes place,
as was the case in the years 1791-2-3, who'e pro-
vinces are depopulated. If, however, the inhabitants
were sufficiently acquainted with the climate of their
country, they would be enabled to avail themselves
of its fertility, so as to lay up a store of provisions
both for themselves and their cattle, and to form
reservoirs amid its rocky recesses large enough to
contain a supply of water during the most excessive
and the longest continued droughts.

Mountains. — Of the direction, the structure, and
the elevation of the mountainous ranges which tra-
verse Brasil, little is accurately known. A lateral
branch of the Andes proceeds towards the east ; and
from this central and lofty range, numerous chains
diverge in opposite directions. Of these chains the
Serra des Emeraldas, and the Serra do Frio, are pro-
longed towards the south, while that branch called

BRA

777

BRA

Brasll. Matto Grosso and others stretch towards the north.
The mountains of the Serra de Ibiapaba extend, says
Southey, about eighty leagues in length and twenty
in breadth ; they rise in waves, one towering above
another ; their sides are in some places rocky, in
others clothed with verdure. To ascend them is the
hard labour of four hours, in which hands and knees,
as well as feet, must frequently be exerted; but,
having gained the summit, the traveller is in a region
which is diversified with every beauty ; he beholds
rocks, peaks, hills, and vallies, woods and wide sa-
vannahs, clouds below hanging over the flat country,
and ocean in the distance. The days are short,
the morning being always cloudy, and the evening
hastened by the mountains on the western side which
overtop the others. The greater part of the coast of
this country is walled by a mountainous barrier,
rocky and picturesque ; and in some places, as at
Rio Janeiro, exhibits a bold and precipitous front,
and in others, as at Pernambuco, ascends in a series
of broad, level, and fertile terraces.

Rivers — Tlie natural boundaries of Brasil on the
south and the north are formed by two of the largest
rivers in the world. The Rio de la Plata, on the
south, belongs indeed more to Spanish than to Por-
tuguese America; but as its majestic grandeur de-
pends in a great degree on the waters which flow in-
to it from the country claimed by this latter people,
it deserves particular notice in the most partial enu-
meration of its streams, the principal of which are
the Paraguay, the Parana, and the Uraguay, which
drain the southern regions of Brasil, and swell the
mighty waters of La Plata. The still more magnifi-
cent river which flows along the northern frontier of
Brasil is known by several names. It has been called
the Amazons river, from a nation of female warriors
supposed to inhabit its banks ; but with more pro-
priety, as well as justice, it has been denominated
the Orellana river, to commemorate the name of that
enterprizing European who first traced its course
from the confines of Peru to the Atlantic ocean.
This river, by far the greatest in the known world,
rises among the stupendous Andes, and winds its
way to the ocean through regions diversified by every
variety of soil and surface. The length of its course,
which is chiefly in a north-eastern direction, is said
to be 3300 miles, and its breadth, directly under
the line, where it falls into the Atlantic, about 150
miles. It contains innumerable islands, some of
which are sufficiently extensive and populous to con-
stitute kingdoms. The number of its tributary streams
is above 200 ; and some of them are said to exceed
the Danube or the Nile in the length of their course
and the volume of their waters. Of these the Pari-
ma, the Negro, the Yupara, flow into it from the
north ; while the Paras, the Madera, the Parapa-
tinga, the Tocantin, with its western branch the
Araguay, traversing the northern provinces of Bra-
sil, hasten towards it from the south. Besides these
immense rivers, the coast of this country is indented
by the mouths of a multitude of others, which flow
from mountains at no great distance inland. The
greatest of these is the Rio Francisco, between the
provinces of Bahia and Pernambuco; the Maranham,
the Jaguribe, the Rio Grande, the Rio Dolce, and

VOL. I. PAKT lU

many more of these streams which throughout the
coast fall into the Atlantic, would, in most other >
countries, be regarded as magnificent rivers.

Mineralogy. — The mountains of Brasil belong to
the primitive class of rocks. The peaks and mural
masses are chiefly composed of granite or of sye-
nite, while argillaceous schistus and some of its as-
sociates skirt the declivities. The sand, fragments,
and rolled masses of rocks, bear strong indications of
tlieir metalliferous nature, and that they are the re-
positories of beds and veins of iron, copper, tin, and •
other metals ; but the gold and the diamonds which
have been found in the alluvial depositions of this
country have inspired an avidity, and led to pursuits
liostile to the examination of the mountains with thfe
view of ascertaining their nature or disclosing their
treasures. These, — the most precious of the metals,
and of the gems which, from the beginning, were
eagerly sought after, — have long been found in con-
siderable abundance in the deep soil of some of the
vallies, and in the banks and beds of the rivers ; and,
from this search, some derive riches, and many pro-
cure a livelihood.

Vegetable productions. — A complete enumeration
of the plants of a country clothed with everlasting
verdure, and covered witli forests of boundless ex-
tent, is a task which has not hitherto been executed,
and which indeed is scarcely to be expected. The
cotton-shrub and the sugar-cane are extensively cul-
tivated ; the forests supply timber in the greatest
abundance and richest variety for all the purposes
of the ship-builder, the house-carpenter, the machine,
and the cabinet-maker ; Brasil wood, which, from its
abundance, has imposed its name on the whole re-
gion, fustic and other woods in demand by the dy-
ers, because of their colorific qualities, grow wild
among the mountains. Palm trees in all their gra-
dations of species and variety are met with every
where, displaying at once their opening blossoms and
their mature fruit. But these, with all their gran-
deur and beauty, are far excelled by the Acayba,
with which whole tracts of the Brazilian coast arc co-
vered. It is delightful, says Vaseoncellos, to behold
its pomp when it is re-clothing itself in July and
August with the bright verdure of its leaves; when,
during our European autumn, it is covered with
white and rosy tinged blossoms ; and when, in the
three following months, it is enriched with its fruit
as with pendent jewels. Its leaves have an aromatic
odour ; its flowers are exquisitely fragrant ; its shade
is deep and delightful ; a gum equal to that of Sene-
gal exudes from it in great abundance ; its fruit re-
sembles a pear, at the end of which grows a kidney-
shaped seed, known in England by the name of the
cashew-nut. Every part of this admirable tree is
appropriated to some useful purpose. The juice of
the fruit produces a species of wine, the pulp an ex-
cellent flour ; the wood may be used for any purpose
which requires durable or beautiful timber ; the outer
bark yields a black, and the inner a yellow dye ; tlie
gum is medicinal. Manioc, maize, kidney beans,
wheat, rice, &c. are cultivated for food. The ma-
nioc, a plant peculiar to this country, has a root re-
sembling our parsnip, which is variously prepared
and eaten by all classes of the country. Thirty- three
5c

Brasil.

BRA

778

BRA

sprcies of it Imve been tlistinguished. Tlie shrub
which produces tWs root rises to the height of six or
seven feet ; it lias a knotted stem, small branches,
clusters of oblong leaves, and pale yellow flowers.
Various sorts of spices, ipecacuanha, and other drugs,
tobacco, coffee, and indigo, grow in Brazil, and are
thence exporti^ to other countries. European ve-
getables in all their variety are cultKated, and grow
fu.xuriantly in the Brasilian gardens.

AniniaU. — But this country has deservedly been
as far famed for its animal as for its vegetable pro-
ductions. It abounds with birds of the most splen-
did plumage, among which the different varieties of
parrots and liumming-birds are conspicuous. The
lierds of horned cattle are in some places so nume-
rous as to be hunted merely for the sake of their
skins. Horses, unaccustomed to the yoke, scour the
country in thousands. Wild beasts, such as boars,
leopards, ounces, and the still more tremendous ja-
guar, the Brasilian tiger, lurk and range in the forests.
Apes and monkeys of all kinds and colours, an ex-
traordinary species of porcupine covered with long
spikes instead of quills, the armadillo, or shield-
hog, and many more of the same description, are
»ften thought too common. Serpents from a few
inches in length to the most enormous size, scorpions,
vampire bats, large frogs, and spiders, and immense
colonies of ants, are justly deemed the plagues of
Brasil, ami frequently, especially the last, greatly
injure the plantations, gardens, and houses. It need
scarcely be added to this enumeration, that the sea-
coast, the lakes, and the rivers of this country teem
with many sorts of fishes. The oyster-shells are so
large that they are converted into culinary vessels
and water basons, and entire hills of them are to be
found piled up on the shores.

Inhabitants. — The population of Brasil consists of
aboriginal Indians, either in a wild or domesticated
state ; of Brasilians, or the descendants of Euro-
pean settlers ; of Mamaluccos, or the mixed cast
between the European and the Indian ; of Mulattos,
or the mixed cast between the European and the
African ; of Mestizos, or the mixed cast between
the Indian and the African ; of negroes imported
from Africa in a state of slavery ; and of Europeans
who have lately emigrated from their native country.
These various classes are distinguished not only by
their external appearance, but also by other charac-
teristic features.

Aboriginal tribes. — The native Indians of Brasil
are comprehended in three distinct tribes or nations,
—the Tapuyas, the Aymores, and the Tupis. On
the discovery of this country the Tapuyas were
found in possession of the northern side of'^ it, from
the shore backward into the interior, as far as it
could be explored. The Tapuyas are represented
as the least cruel of all the savage race to which
they belong ; they are cannibals, but they eat not
their eneniies, but their own dead, as the last de-
monstration of their affection. The chief is distin-
guished by a crown tuft of hair, and long nails. They
frequently change their dwellings ; they live by
hunting and fishing, and bake their meat in an
earthen oven lined with leaves. It is the privilege
of the male sex to be beautified, and during their

boyhood their ears, to this end, are bored and
stretched, and the under lip is cut through parallel '
with the mouth. When they are about to marry, to
complete their charms large holes are bored in their
cheeks. The Aymores are far more degraded. They
are an inland tribe ; for when they came to the coast
they could not swim, and a river was. a sufficient de-
fence against their terrible attacks. Their language
is unusually harsh and guttursil. They have neither
garments nor habitations — naked as beasts, they lie
down like beasts in the woods, and like beasts can
run upon hands and feet through thickets where it
is impossible to follow them. They feed on wild
fruits, and what they kill in the chase or in battle.
So impatient are they of slavery, that when taken
by the Portuguese, they have refused food so reso-
lutely as to die of hunger. The Tupis or Tupinambos
inhabit the southern provinces of Brasil. In their
language there is neither f,l, norr; a defect which has
given rise to the jest, that these savages have neither
(fey, ley, nor rey) faith, law, nor royalty among
them. Their names for the numerals did not extend
beyond five when first visited by the Poftugueze.
By the term Jupa, they exj>ress father, supreme
being, and thunder. Yet to this Jkjm or Supreme
Father, they addressed no prayers ; but disasters,
dreams, shadows, nightmare, generated a supersti-
tion which the Payes, at once quacks, jugglers, and
priests, took care to strengthen. Each Paye lived
in a dark hut, into wliich none dared to enter. It
was a deadly sin for any man to refuse his daughter,
or any thing else, to these Payes, and none ventured
to incur the guilt. The macara, a kind of wooden
rattles, form the only object of their worship. The
Tupinambos live in villages surrounded by a close
palisado, in which are loopholes for their arrows.
At the entrance a few heads are stuck up on pikes
to awe their enemies. The houses within this in-
closure may not exceed six or seven ; but they are
about 150 feet in length, and contain 20 or 30 fa-
milies. A warlike expedition is preceded by many
ceremonies. On these occasions an old orator ex-
claims— " WTiat ! Tupinambos, is this the example
our fathers have left us, that we should thus waste
our days at home in idleness. They went out, and
conquered, and devoured ; and shall the enemies who
durst not stand in their sight, come to our doors
and bring the war home to us ? No, my country-
men, let us go out, and kill, and eat !" The Payes
go round the settlements and tell them, speaking
through the macara, that their gods delight to be
satisfied with the blood of their enemies. The men,
boys, and women, in separate companies, set up a
most hideous howling ; then the Payes rattle the
macara, and blow the smoke of petum on the men,
saying, receive the spirit of courage that ye may
conquer your enemies. A club is their principal
weapon ; it is made of the iron-wood of Brasil, from
five to six feet long, with a thin circular-shaped head
sharpened to an edge, so that it becomes a tremen-
dous battle-axe. They have also bows and arrows,
and are unerring archers. When they approach
the enemy they hold up their fifes of human bone,
and rattle their necklaces of human teeth. Wheii
a prisoner is brought home, he is forced to cry out

Brtud.

BRA

779

BRA

Bi-a«i!.

to the women, Here am I come to be your meat!
Tlien he is for a while pelted and pulled and tor-
mented by the women and children ; afterwards he
is led into the area and nearly strangled ; then
strin£;s of macara, or rattles of divination, are fixed
about his legs ; and in this state he is made to dance
what is called the aprasse. When they have gone
through the routine of these and similar ceremo-
nies, the prisoner's brains are knocked out with one
blow, his body cut in pieces, and laid on the boucan
to be broiled. The boucan is a wooden frame, made
of four stakes driven into the ground, and sticks laid
across; food thus smoked and dried is said to be
buccaneered; and hence the origin of the name of
that extraordinary race of pirates, so long the scourge
of South America. On the birth of a child the fa-
ther takes to his hammock, and is nursed with care ;
lest from the intimate union which is supposed to
subsist between him and his offspring the child should
suffer. No man marries till he has taken an enemy,
nor is suffered to partake of a drinking feast while
he remains single. The women are fond of long hair,
and paint their cheeks red, and blue, and yellow. When
the country was first discovered they could spin and
weave cotton ; they cultivated manioc and maize,
and were skilful potters. They were also excellent
fishers, and preserved their fish by drying it on the
boucan, and then reducing it to powder. The labours
of the Jesuits introduced many salutary changes a-
mong this race ; and, for the sake of farther improve-
ment, the extinction of the order is a subject of re-
gret.

Negro slaves. — In Brasil, the loss of liberty is
greatly mitigated by many privileges not generally
enjoyed by African bondmen. The laws allow them
the Sabbath, and thirty holidays in the course of
the year, and compel the master to manumit his
slave on the jiayment of the purchase-money ; a
woman who has reared ten children is entitled to
her freedom ; if the sura of five pounds is offered at
the baptismal font, the master must manumit the
child. Many slaves obtain their hberty on the death
of their masters ; and many humane planters gratify
their feelings by exercising this mode of charity dur-
ing their lives. The inhabitants of Maranham and Pa-
ra have the character of treating their negroes more
rigorously than the other inhabitants of Brasil, and
refractory slaves are sold to this worse slavery from
Pernambuco. Nothing tends so much to keep a
slave in awe as the threat of sending him to Maran-
ham or Para.

Brasilians. — The descendants of the Portuguese
adventurers, convicts and prostitutes, by whom this
country was first colonized, are known by the dis-
tinctive appellation of Brasilians, and are different
in their character as they inhabit the town or the
country. The merchants have little intercourse ; the
planters are more social ; the priesthood is sadly de-
graded. The females are frank in their manners,
lively and entertaining in their conversation ; they
have generally black eyes and good features. Ex-
clusive of their colour, finer specimens of the human
form cannot be found than what is exhibited by the
mulatto females. In gay families, cards and back-
gammon are introduced in the moruiDg, and conti<

nue the whole day. Knives and forks are seldom
seen at entertainments ; their office being in most
cases performed by the fingers. But Brasil is rapid-
ly emerging from this state of semi-barbarism. The
inhabitants of the interior are called Sertanejos.
They live in mud-cottages, and have hammocks in-
stead of beds, and sometimes instead of chairs. Chil-
dren run about naked as they were born, and grown
persons are but scantily clothed. At home the men
wear a shirt and drawers ; abroad, a jacket and pan-
taloons made of leather. The women are content
with a shift and petticoat; they never wear stock-
ings, and seldom shoes. The Sertanejos are employ-
ed chiefly in the rearing of cattle, which at certain
seasons they bring to the towns. They live mostly
on flesh, which they eat three times a-day ; they are
said to be an ignorant, superstitious, and revengeful
race.

Cities. — Brasil contains a great number of large and
populous cities, St Sebastian, the capital, stands on
an eminence close by the magnificent bay of Rio
Janeiro. The entrance into this bay is tlirough an
opening in the ledge of rocks which separates it from
the sea. Within this natural barrier stretches an ex-
tensive bay surrounded by an amphitheatre of lofty
mountains, exhibiting huge columnar masses of gra-
nite, and covered with trees of unfading foliage.
Amid this sublime scenery the city of St Sebastian
is built of stones from the neighbouring rocks in
straight, parallel, and intersecting streets. The pa-
lace, the mint, and public halls, form a spacious
square; The hills behind are covered with woods,
gardens, houses, convents, and churches. This city
lies in 22° 50' S. lat. and is said to contain 60,000 inha-
bitants. St Salvador, the capital of the province of
Bahia, is built on All Saints bay, which is of still
greater extent than that of Rio Janeiro. The en-
trance is three leagues wide ; it is entered from the
south, having the continent on the right hand, and the
island Itaparica on the left. The bay extends a whole
degree west and north ; it receives many rivers ; its
water is every where deep, and its surface is studded
with islands. This magnificent bay, with its creeks
and coves, is denominated the Reconave. On the
south side of this bay, St Salvador, the former capi-
tal of Brasil, is built, remarkable neither for elegance
nor cleanliness, but a place of great trade, and con-
sequently of great population. The next in magni-
tude of the Brasilian cities is St Antonio de Recefe,
so called from a singular reef of rocks interposed be-
tween the harbour and the ocean. This town, the
capital of Pernambuco, consists of houses two, three,
and even five stories high. The houses are of brick,
many of the windows are unglazed, and the lower story
is used for warehouses, shops, and stables. The
streets are but partially paved. The three divisions
of the town are connected by two bridges, and it con-
tains about 25,000 inhabitants. At the distance of a
league standsOlinda on its hilly situation. It has about
4000 inhabitants, many churches, and public build-
ings ; but it has lately been greatly deserted for the
Recefe, which, from the excellence of the harbour, at-
tracts all engaged in commerce. St Luiz, in the
island of Maranham, capital of that state, is a bishop's
see, and the residence of the captain-general. It is

Brasif.

BRA

780

BRA

Bnul. built in a stragglinj; manner, containing squares and
broad streets. The houses are neatly built; the
ground floor is appropriated to various uses ; the fa-
mily occupy the upper story, the windows of which
reach down to the floor, with balconies in front. The
churches are numerous, and the inhabitants are a-
bout 12,000. Belem, the capital of the province of
Para, is a regularly built and tolerably fortified town,
almost under the line, at the confluence of the Tocan-
tin and the Amazons. Besides these, Paraiba, Sca-
ra, Natal, Alcantara, Goiana, Rio Grande, St Chris-
topher, St Paul, Villa Rica, and Villa Bella, are con-
siderable towns.

Agriculture. — Dry situations, of a deep red soil, in-
terspered with yellow veins, are chosen for the cul-
ture of cotton. The spot selected for a plantation is
cleared of wood, holes are dug for the seed six feet
asunder, into which it is deposited immediately after
the fall of the first rain. The cotton is a precarious
crop, and often fails. Between the rows of cotton,
maize is generally planted. The sugar plantations
occupy the moister districts, on which a good deal of
tobacco is likewise cultivated, the seed of which, pre-
viously to its being sown, is mixed with wood ashes,
to prevent it from being eaten by the ants. The
manioc, or cassada, which is here the staff of life, is
planted in beds on good soil ; the roots of this valua-
ble plant degenerate if the soil is not frequently
changed. The banks of the rivers are well adapted
for the culture of rice, considerable quantities of
which are raised, especially in the province of Mar-
anham. Wheat is also cultivated iff the southern
districts. The cocoa-nut tree, applicable to so many
useful purposes, is planted on sandy soils, ten yards
asunder, and requires no other care except to be kept
clear from brushwood till the plants have attained a
certain age. The agriculture of this fine region is
still in its infancy.

GM and diamonds Much gold and many dia-
monds have been, and; are still found in the cavities
and water-courses of the mountains, in conglome-
rated rocks and deep ravines, and still more fre-
quently in the banks and beds of the rivers. Ja-
ragua has long been famous for its gold. When wa-
ter can "be commanded, the ground impregnated
with the metal is cut into long steps, below which a
trench two feet deep is dug. As the water flows
over these steps from above, the negroes work the
earth into a mud, and in this state it flows into the
trench, and the heavy matter containing the gold
falls to the bottom. It continues in this state for
five days, when it is carried to the next convenient
stream to undergo a second clearance. For this pur-
pose, funnel-shaped bowls are provided ; the work-
men, standing in the stream, fill their bowls with
the sediment, which they mix with water, and move
about so dexterously that the gold contained in the
mass separates, and settles on the bottom and the
•ides. When this is effected, they rinse them in a
large vessel of clean water, and begin again. Some-
times troughs are formed by laying planks on an in-
clined plane, in which hides with the hairy side out-
wards are laid, and over them water mixed with
iron ore and particles of gold is made to flow. The
gold is entangled in the hair, and to separate it the

hides are taken out and beaten over a tank of water, BracS.
and then replaced. After this operation, the sedi-
ment of the tank is treated in the bowls in the man-
ner already described. At a convenient time after
the gold is dried, it is carried to the transmutation-
office, where it is weighed, and a fifth reserved for
the crown. The remainder is smelted by fusion
with muriate of mercnrj', cast into ingots, assayed,
and stamped according to its intrinsic value, a cer-
tificate of which is given with it. After a copy of
that instrument has been duly entered at the mint-
office, the ingots circulate as specie.

Diamonds, like the gold, have been found at various
places. At present they are sought for chiefly on
the Jigitonhonha, a river equal to that of the Thames
at Windsor. In the dry season the stream is turned
into a canal, the casalkao, or earth which contains
the diamonds, is dug up and carried to a place con-
venient for washing it during the rainy montlis.
For this purpose, a shed thirty yards in length and
fifleen in breadth is raised on posts, and thatched
with long grass, down the area of which a stream
of water is conveyed. On either side of this stream
the floor is formed into troughs by planks laid on
their edge, into which water is admitted fi-om the
canal. The negroes, in sight of their overseers,
rake a quantity of the diamond-impregnated clay
into the troughs, and there keep it in motion till the
water runs clear, when the gravelly matter which
remains behind is carefully examined for diamonds.
When any are found, they are deposited into a bowl
suspended from the roof of the shed. At the end
of the work they are weighed and registered. The
negroe who has the good fortune to find a diamond of
1\ carats obtains his freedom, and is otherwise high*
ly honoured. This branch of produce is entirely
monopolized by the crown.

Commerce — Cotton, sugar, hides, dye-woods,
drugs, gold, and diamonds, are the principal com-
modities exported from the ports of Brasil. The
trade to the coast of Africa is considerable. Some
ships are sent annually to Goa. The demand for
British manufactures is, it is said, daily increasing ;
and from the port of Pernambuco alone a hundred
thousand bags of cotton go annually to England.
The trade with the interior is carried on chieiiy by
itinerant merchants, who take cattle and other pro-
duce in exchange for their goods.

Government. — Brasil is divided into nine captain-
cies-general, besides several districts which belong
to particular noblemen. Rio Janeiro, Bahia, Per-
nambuco, and Belem, are by far the most important
of these provinces. To each of these, and the other
divisions, a captain or governor-general is appointed
for three years ; on the expiry of which, at the op-
tion of the supreme government, he may be conti-
nued three years longer in office. The captain is
commander in chief of the military force, and in
other respects his power is absolute ; but, before he
can enter on the functions of his office, he is obliged
to present his credentials to the Sendo da Camara,
or chamber of municipality of the principal town of
the district. The Ovidor or Juiz de Fora, judges
of civil and criminal causes, are also appointed to each
captaincy for three years, and may be re-elected.

BRA

781

Biuil. From their tribunal tliere is no appeal, but they
themselves may refer to a higher power. The Pro-
curator, or attorney-general ; the Intendenta dama-
rinha, or port-admiral ; the Escrivam da fazends real,
or chief of the treasury ; and the Juiz alfandega, or
comptroller of the customs, form the junta or council
of the captaincy over which they preside.

Revenue. — When Brasii was first colsnized, the cler-
gy chose to receive a stipend in money in place of
tithes, which, in consequence, became the property of
the crown. Hence, a tithe of this kind is extracted
from every species of produce ; but, besides this,
most commodities are subject to an additional im-
post. The tithe of Cattle is levied, and then meat in
the shambles pays a duty of about twenty-five per
cent ; fish is subject to the tenth, and afterwards to a
fifteenth ; cotton, after having paid the tenth, pays,
on exportation, another duty of more than a penny
per pound ; rum pays about a fourth of its value in
taxes ; and imported goods are subject to a custom-
house duty of about fifteen per cent. These heavy
taxes are farmed by the highest bidder, — a circum-
stance which, together with their own exorbitance,
and the existence of crown monopolies, tends to op-
press the people, to relax the spirit of industry, to
blunt moral sentiment, and to open the sources of
every kind of crime.

Army. — The regular army of Brasii is said to be
composed of men of every cast, colour, and charac-
ter, to be but poorly paid, and wretchedly clothed
and disciplined. Every man, however, from the age
of sixteen to sixty, serves in a mihtary capacity, either
in the militia or in the ordenan^as. Each township
has a regiment of militia, which, with the exception of
a few of the officers, serves without pay, and which is
obliged to assemble yearly in uniform. The erdenan-
^as are a kind of local militia, which neither receive
pay nor wear uniform. The Capitam mor, the cap-
tain-major who commands a district, makes an oc-
casional circuit through it for the purpose of review-
ing his men, which he does sitting at his ease within
doors at a table. He is attended by the captain of a
company who calls the catalogue of his men, and
each, as he is named, approaches, presents arms,
turns, and retires.

The removal of the Court of Portugal to Brasii. —
This extensive territory was in the year 1500 taken
possession of for the crown of Portugal by Pedro Al-
varez Cabral, who discovered it on a voyage to the
East Indies. After it had been colonized, its posses-
sion was long and obstinately disputed by the Dutch ;
and had Maurice, count of Nassau, been enabled by
his country to accomplish his comprehensive and ju-
dicious plans for conquering and securing it, Brasii
at this day might have belonged to the Dutch ; but
a narrower policy prevailed, and the Portuguese re-
covered the ascendency, and ultimately the undisput-
ed sovereignty, which they still retain. In 1806,
while Bonaparte was carrying death and destruction
into many of the kingdoms of Europe, the ro3al fa-
mily of Portugal emigrated, under the protection of
Sir Sidney Smith, to their dominions in America,
where they arrived early in 1807 ; and ever since
that period Rio Janeiro has been the seat of the Por-
tuguese government. Within these few months the

BRE

province of Pcrnambuco has discovered a disposition
to revolt from its allegiance to the house of Braganza ;
but, from the latest intelligence which has reached
this country, it would appear that the spirit of resis- ^
tance will soon be quelled. See Mawe and Koster's
Travels, and Southey's History of Brasii.

BRASIL WOOD, or Brasiletto, a dye-stufF
obtained from the Cccsalpinia Brasiletto Lin, a native
of the American continent. See Botany and Dye-
ing.

BRASS, a metallic alloy, composed of copper and
zinc. See Chemistry.

BRASS, Corinthian, an alloy of gold, silver,
and copper, which was famous in antiquity, and is
said to have derived its origin from the disastrous
conflagration which followed the plunder of Corinth
by Lucius Mummius, nearly a century and a half be-
fore the Christian era. The vessels and implements
of gold, silver, and copper, with which that celebra-
ted city abounded, being melted by the fire, produ-
ced the compound to which it gave its name.

BR.ASSICA, a genus of plants belonging to the
class Tetradynamia, and including under it many im-
portant species, as the turnip, cabbage, and their nu-
merous varieties. See Gardening.

BRAVO, or Brava, one of the Cape de Verd
islands on the western coast of Africa ; lies in 15°
of north latitude, and is more than 400 miles dis-
tant from the nearest point. It is not more than
four leagues in circumference, and the surface is
chiefly composed of elevated land rising into
mountainous peaks ; but the soil of the intervening
vallies is rich and fertile, and produces Indian corn,
gourds, water-melons, and potatoes. Oranges and
lemons are abundant ; the vine, which affords a wine
not inferior to Canary, thrives well ; the culture of
cotton is in some degree attended to ; and the rear-
ing of horses, asses, cows, and hogs, is not neglect-
ed. The commercial intercourse of this island is
chiefly limited to the supplying of ships navigating
the Atlantic with refreshments. For this purpose
some of its bays and roadsteads are commodious and
safe during the spring season.

BRAVA, a small independent state lying between
the coasts of Zanguebar and Ajan, and tributary to
the Portuguese. The chief town is situated on a
bay at the mouth of a river, about 90 miles S. W.
from Magadoxa, is well built, and strongly fortified,
and in the early period of its history enjoyed great
commercial prosperity. The trade in gold dust,
silk, and cotton stuff's, ivory, and different kinds of
drugs, it still considerable.

BREAD is a very general name for some farina-
ceous matter formed into a paste with water, and
prepared by means of heat for the purpose of food.
With this view, various substances have been em-
ployed ; but the use of grain, or the seeds of those
vegetables which come under the denomination of
Cerealia, is by far the most extensive in all nations
which have arrived at any degree of civilization.

History. — The invention of the art of making bread
has been vainly sought for among the nations of anti-
quity. Regarding it as a discovery highly beneficial
to mankind, the Greeks, in their fondness for fable,
or under the grateful impression of its importance,

Brasii

Bread.

B R E

782*

B R E

Bread. Mcribed it to a direct communication of their gods.

i^V^ But this art, as well as every other which commences
with rude beginnings, cannot date its origin, in a
state of great perfection, from any precise period.
The perfection of almost every art is the result of
glow and successive improvements, many of which
are oftner the consequences of fortunate accident,
rather than the eft'ects of studied research or laboured
invention.

It appears from tlie history of the Jews, that lea-
vened bread was known to that people in the time
of Moses ; for among the precepts delivered for the
regulation of the feast of the passover, the use of
leavened bread was prohibited during that festival.
The art of making bread was early known among
other eastern nations ; and indeed it may be fairly
presumed, that the inhabitants of those countries
which abound in corn, as they advanced in civiliza-
tion, would be assiduous in devising various modes
of preparing it as food which would render it more
agreeable to the taste, and of easier digestion. In
Egypt, Chaldea, and Greece, countries whose rich
coil and favourable climate furnished the best mate-
rials, the art of making bread reached a high de-
gree of perfection. The Romans, who were indebt-
ed to the Greeks for their improvements in science
as well as in many of the arts of life, derived their

» knowledge of the method of making bread from the

same people, and, indeed, the trade was long prac-
tised by natives of Greece. When tlie Roman ar-
mies returned from Macedonia, about 200 years be-
fore the Christian era, they were accompanied by a
colony of Grecian bakers, who settled in Italy ; and
of 329 public bake-houses which existed in Rome
in the time of Augustus, almost the whole number
was occupied by Greeks. Many regulations were
made for the government of that class of tradesmen,
and many privileges were conferred upon them ;
thus affording ample evidence of what importance
their services in the community were regarded.

Different hinds of bread. — The Romans had differ-
ent kmds of bread. The finest kind was made of the
best flour, and from a particular species of wheat which
grew in Campania; the next kind, called second bread,
retained a portion of the bran ; the third kind was made
of the whole substance of the wheat ; and the fourth
kind, called bran-bread, was chiefly composed of
bran, and ofa very coarse quality. Beside these-kinds,
the bread prepared. by the soldiers, denominated mi-
litary bread ; the bread called the bread of the ci-
tizens was distributed to the people in the latter pe-
riods of the empire ; sea-bread, corresponding to
the sea-biscuit of modern times ; bread baked in an
oven, or on the embers ; sour bread ; unleavened
bread, and other varieties, are mentioned in Roman
history.

In religious houses four different kinds of bread
are spoken of; the first called esquires* bread, the
second monks' bread, the third boys' bread, and the
fourth servants' bread. A similar distribution of the
different kinds of bread seems to have been esta-
blished in the liousehold of nobles and princes. The
French are celebrated for the excellence and variety
«f their bread ; but in this country, in reference to

loaf-bread of the flour of wheat, three kinds only
are recognised.

IngrcdienU. — The materials of which bread is made,
it has, been already observed, are chiefly farinaceous
grains ; but the ingredients which enter into the com-
position of the grain of wheat, only answer the pur-
pose of affording loaf-bread of a good quality. The
constituent parts of wheat, as they have been ascer-
tained by Mr Edlin, are three ounces of bran, tea
ounce? of starch, six drachms of gluten, and two
drachms of su^ar, from a pound or sixteen ounces of
wheat. From this analysis, it appears that the starch
is in the largest proportion ; but it is on the sugar,
though in small proportion, that the peculiar fer-
mentation, which is necessary for bread, depends;
and no substance can be converted into good bread
witho It a certain portion of gluten.

Nature of the process. — When wheat flour is to be
convei ted into bread, it is formed into a paste with,
water, the proportions of which vary according to the
age and quality of the flour ; a quantity of leaven is
added to the mass, to promote the fermentation ; the
yeast, or frothy matter, which rises to the surface of
fermenting beer, is also employed for the same pur-
pose. But the baker may prepare for himself, in the
course of 12 or 14 hours, his own yeast, by adding one
gallon of boiling water to about five pounds of flour,,
stirring the mixture well into a paste, and adding, at
the end of seven hours, about a pint of yeast. The
mixture being kept in a warm place for six or eight
hours, will pass through the process of fermentation^
and be ready for use ; and the quantity thus produced
will yield sufficient leaven for 50 or 60 quartern loaves.
The exact quantity of leaven necessary for the proper
fermentation of the paste or dough requires some
attention ; for when it is deficient in quantity the pro-
cess is interrupted, and the bread thus prepared is so-
lid and heavy; and if too much leaven be employed it
communicates to the bread a disagreeable sour taste.
When the fermentation succeeds properly, the paste
swells up, and is greatly enlarged in bulk ; this change
is owing to the formation of carbonic acid gas, which
is produced during the process, and is prevented
from escaping by the viscidity of the glutinous part
of the flour. To this fermentation the name of ^ja»-
ary has been given, on the supposition that it has
some peculiarity which distinguishes it from the vi-
nous and acetous fermentation ; but the only differ-
ence probably arises from the consistence of the in-
gredients. The vinous fermentation arising from the
decomposition of the saccharine matter of the flour,
is the first change which takes place in the process ;
andif thisbe allowed to proceed, the acetous fermen-
tation commences, and some of the other ingredients
of the flour are also decomposed. Wlien the dough
has undergone a proper degree of fermentation, it is
divided and formed into loaves, and introduced into
an oven previously heated. The temperature is usu-
ally regulated by throwing a little flour on thebottoia
of the oven. If the flour become black without
taking fire, the oven is supposed to have acquired the
proper degree of heat ; and this is found to be •i48"
Fahren.

M. Duportal of Montpellier, who has paid consi-

Breai.

B R E

783

B R E

Before Baking.

After Baking.

/*. oz.

lb. ox. dr.

19 12

17 6 0

9 14.

8 11 0

4 15

4 5 8

Bread, derable attention to the fermentation of bread, pro-
poses a theory somewhat different. The ferment,
he' observes, having converted the saccharine portion
of the farinaceous matter into carbonic acid gas, and
into alcohol, changes this into acetic acid. The
gluten and the albumen are partially decomposed,
acetic acid is again produced, some ammonia, and
more carbonic acid ; and the starch combining vt'ith
the undecomposed gluten, forms a compound, the
farther change of which is prevented by the action
of the fire, which produces a more intimate combi-
nation of these constituents."

Kinds of bread in Britain.—Three kinds of bread are
made in this country, according to the regulations of
the legislature, which requires that they shall be mark-
ed with the initials of the names by which they are dis-
tinguished. Thus, the wheaten loaf, which is made of
the finest flour, is marked with the letter W. ; the stand-
ard wheaten, which is made of the whole flour mixed
together, is marked with the letters S. W. ; and the
household bread, which is made of the coarser flour,
is marked with the letter H. The loaves are generally
divided into peck, half-peck, and quartern loaves, and
the following are the weights. Avoirdupois, of each,
before and after baking; but it must be observed, that
the weight, after baking, is required by the Jaw to
' be examined within 48 hours.

Teck-loaf
Half peck
Quartern

Method in London. — If a sack of flour, consisting of
S bush, and weighing 280 lbs. is to be made into bread,
the following is said to be the process generally followed
by the London bakers. The flour is first sifted through
a fine wire sieve into the kneading trough, not only for
the purpose of separating the impurities, but also of
making it lie loosely and lightly in the mass ; four
pounds and a half of salt are dissolved with a pailful
of hot-water in a tub ; and to this solution an ounce of
alum, previously dissolved in a separate quantity of
water, is added. In some cases, it is asserted, when
the flour is of an indifferent quality, the saline ingre-
dients employed are composed of two pounds and a
quarter of common salt and an equal quantity of
alum ; to this mixture, when it is reduced to a tem-
perature between 80° and 90° of Fahren. three Eng-
lish pints of yeast are added, the whole is well mix-
ed, strained through a sieve, and poured into a ca-
vity made in the flour in the kneading trough, and be-
ing well incorporated with it, is brought to the state of
paste or dough. A little dry flour is spread over the
Burface ; to retain the heat it is covered with cloths ;
and in about three hours, by the action of fermenta-
tion, the mass enlarges in bulk. Another pailful of
warm water is added and well mixed with the dough,
which is again covered up and allowed to remain for
four or five hours, at the end of which time it is
kneaded for more than an hour, with the addition of
three pailfuls of warm water. The dough is then
divided into pieces, returned to the trough, sprinkled
with a httle dry flour, and at the end of about four
houre agaia kneaded for about half an hour ; and

being divided into pieces of the requisite weight for
the kind of loaf intended, is moulded into the pro-
per form, and introduced into the oven, where it is
baked for about two hours and a half.

Use of alum. — Of the use of alum in making bread
much speculation has been indulged, and it is probable
a good deal of misrepresentation has been employed.
It is scarcely to be expected that correct information
is to be obtained by the officious and suspected enqui-
ries of chemists ; and their experiments are in many
respects liable to erroneous results. The London
bakers are roundly charged with the invariable prac-
tice of using alum in a certain proportion for the
purpose of rendering tlie bread whiter and improv-
ing its appearance, and in some cases, as is noticed
above, the quantity employed is enormous ; but the
use of alum, it is said, is not universal. On the same
loose authority it is asserted that bread of the very ■
best quality is made without it. It must appear not
a little singular, that the bread of London, where
the best wheat is to be had,- where the finest flour is
manufactured, and the art of baking has been long-
est practised, should be of an inferior quality, as
some assert, and worse than most of the bread in
Great Britain.

Proportion of water. — The proportion of flour and
water varies according to the quality of the flour. The
best flour absorbs the largest quantity of water ; in
some cases the flour combines with three-fourths of its
weight of water ; but in others with not more than half
its weight. This aftbrds a simple test for ascertaining
the quality of the flour. When bread is made of
flour of the best quality, it retains nearly one half
of the water employed in forming the dough ; but
deviations take place, as well from the previous ma-
nagement, the regulation of the temperature of the
oven, and some other circumstances, as from the
quality of the flour.

Use of salt and yeast. — The addition of salt renders
the dough capable of combining with more water, in-
creases the quantity, corrects some of the bad qua-
lities of the flour, and makes the bread fit for keep-
ing longer. The use of yeast as a substitute for com-
mon leaven, is regarded as one of the most essential
improvements in making bread ; for it is found, that
dough, to which yeast is added, rises sooner and
better, produces bread of a lighter quality and less
liable to a sour and disagreeable taste,

Household bread The following method of mak-
ing household bread, is described as the practice fol-
lowed in this country : Three quarts of water, with
a handful of salt, and a pint of yeast, are added to
one peck of flour ; the whole is well kneaded to-
gether in a trough, and allowed to remain for about
an hour, and when it has risen sufficiently it is di-
vided into masses of the proper weight, moulded in-
to loaves of the requisite form, and baked in the usual
way.

French bread. — With the addition of some other
ingredients, what is called French bread is made.
To half a bushel of fine flour, ten eggs, a pound and
a half of fresh butter, and an equal quantity of yeast
are addpd. The whole mass is mixed up and kneaded
with new milk, pretty hot ; and having been left for
sometime to rise, is divided into loaves or rolls,

Bread-

B R E

784

B R E

Bretd.

which are washed over with an egg, beaten up with
milk, and then baked, with the precaution that the
temperature of the oven be properly regulated, and
particularly that it be not too high.

Rye-bread, — Rye is used as bread very extensive-
ly in some of the northern countries of Europe ; its
lise is also not unknown in the form of loaves in the
nortli of England, and in some parts of Scotland.
Bread from the flour of rye is of a brownish colour,
and the taste is sweeter than the bread of flour from
wheat. From the analysis of rye, it appears that the
quantity of saccharine matter, on which the fermen-
tation depends, is sufficient for that process ; but the
proportion of gluten is small, and hence it happens
that, when rye-flour alone is used, the bread is com-
pact and heavy ; with the addition of a portion of
wheatcn flour, a light, well-tasted, and nutritious
bread may be made of rye.

Rice Bread.— Uice appears to contain in its com-
position a large proportion of starch. Various me-
thods have been tried and recommended for making
it into bread. A quantity of the flour of rice is mix-
ed with a portion of water, which has been boiled
with a few handfuls of rice in grain till the liquid be-
comes viscid ; and, with the addition of the proper
proportion of salt and leaven, the whole is kneaded
together, and the dough* is covered up for some time
till it rise. During the fermentation the dough as-
sumes a liquid form, which renders it unfit for being
wrought by the hand. In place of this operation, it
is introduced into a tin-box, with a little water, co-
vered with a leaf of paper; and the box being put into
the oven, previously heated, and dexterously invert-
ed, by the sudden action of the heat the dough re-
tains the form of the box, and when baked affords
an excellent bread.

The following process for making rice-bread is
practised in America : The grain when well washed
by repeated stirring and affusion of water, is drained
and beaten in a damp state in a mortar to a fine
powder, which being thoroughly dried is passed
through a hair-sieve and mixed with a small propor-
tion of Indian corn-meal or with boiled potatoes. A
proper quantity of salt and leaven is added to the
mass, and, after undergoing a sufficient degree of fer-
mentatioD, is put into pans and baked.

Potatoe-hread. — In numerous experiments insti-
tuted by M. Parmentier, a French chemist, excel-
lent bread was made from various proportions of
meal from potatoes and wheaten flour. Bread of
the meal of potatoes alone was apt to crumble ; to
render it adhesive, he addtd to the meal a decoction
of bran, or a mixture of honey and water. He ob-
tained also a we!I-fermentcd, agreeably tasted, and
light bread, from a mixture of raw potatoe-pulp, with
the flour of wheat or of potatoes, and with the usual
proportion of yeast and salt. Equal quantities of
wheaten flour and potatoe-meal were found to an-
swer extremely well. The same chemist produced
bread which approached nearly to that from wheaten
flour, from a mixture of four ounces of potatoe-
starch, one drachm of the mucilage of barley, one
drachm of the bran of rye, and a drachm and a half
of glutinous matter dried and reduced to powder.

Another method of making potatoe bread, is to
put a quantity of potatoes, well boiled and peeled,
into a trough, to cover them with boiling water, and
to reduce the whole to a uniform consistence into
the form of a soup. A certain quantity of this mix-
ture, as a half, a third, or a fourth, is kneaded with
wheaten flour, and, after being treated in the usual
way, affords a bread of an agreeable taste, and of a
very nutritious quality.

Turnip-bread. — A palatable bread, it is said, has
been made of turnips mixed with a certain propor-
tion of wheaten flour ; and as it may be useful in
times of scarcity, the following method of prepara-
tion has been recommended. The turnips being
pared, boiled, and mashed, and the greater part of the
water being pressed out, an equal weight of coarse
wheat-flour was added. The dough was prepared in
the usual way, with yeast, salt, and water, rose well
in the trough, and, after being kneaded, was formed
into loaves, and baked. It was allowed to remain in
the oven rather longer than other bread. The turnip-
bread thus prepared was white, light, and of a sweet
taste, but had something of tlie flavour of the tur-
nip, which in the course of twelve hours was scarce-
ly perceptible. At the end of twenty-four hours no
indication of the taste of turnips could be detected ;
and after being kept a week it was found to be as
good as ordinary bread.

Bread.

END OF VOLUME FIRST.

J^inud \>y John Jloir,
£(tiuburgli.

*^,* The deficient Sheets of this Volume will be fully made up by the PHELt*
MINARY DISSERTATION prefixed to it at the conclusion of the Work. And
all the Plates wanting to complete the First Volume, will be delivered with next
Number.

ERBATA IN VOL. rmST.

Page 9. col. 2.line 16. for Messrs Adams, rfati Messrs Haddcn. Page 304. col. 1. I. li. after animals, insert and insects.

- — col. 1. /. 11. from bot. insert, ia 1811 it was estima- io. for cheeks pouclies, reiid cheek-poucbes.

ted at 135,000. 519. col. 1 I. li. for organic, read inorgiiiiic

10. col. 2. I. i. after17fi00, insert, and in 1811 at 25,000. 570 col. 1. I. 24. /or system, read doctrine.

77. coL 2. 1. 2G. dele chctnut and 574. col, 1. I. 15. dele L.

80. col. 1. /. 16. for approbria, read opprobria. 380. col. 1 I. 19. for pleuretic, read plemitic.

— — 85. col. 1. /. 3. for nor, read and. , — col. 2. /. 5i. for musuem, read museum.

— - 131 coL 2 i 7. for, that his ploughs, read, that two of his __584. col. 2 I. 28. for. their Chines*, read the Chinese;

ploughs. aud_/br the character, rrod their.

— ^ 222. col. 1. /. 17. for 1776, read 1796. . 764. coL 2. I. 17. from bot /or and, read o£

DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING THE PLATES OF VOLUME FIRST*

Part L Part II.

Plate 1. to face page 76. Plate 11 — 20. to face page 4'48.

2—5. - 200. -*- 21—25. - 520.

6—10. - 328. 26. - - 560.

27. - - . 700.

28—37. ' 768.

-^■*' ' -i**' '-'m^^^i^-

U, C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES

i

.

i

k

■ / ^ '

V.,.