An English grammar

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An English Grammar

2 7 1"

An
English Grammar

By

John B. Wisely

Head of the Department of Grammar and Ca
position in the Indiana State Normal
School. Terre Haute

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Atkinson, Mentzer h Grover

Publishers

NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON DALLAS

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Copyright , iQob
By John B. Wisely

Entered at Stationers' Hall. London

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The Preface

MUCH progress has been made in the last few years
in the teaching of English. Old ideas and meth-
ods have been thoroughly sifted ; text after text
has appeared ; and the results of all this agitation are seen
in better trained teachers, more natural and efficient methods
of instruction, and a saner view of the entire subject. One
by one V\fe have been trying out the facts in English, as
well as in other lines, and we are every day coming more
surely to the conclusion that we must get back to funda-
mentals. We have been growing gradually into the con-
viction, that the pupils in the grades below the high school
should have about two years of good training in English
Grammar, that will ground them in the principles underly-
ing the English sentence. Nothing less will prepare them
for the subject of composition and nothing less will enable
them to use English intelligently and effectively.

In writing this book, with this thought in mind, the
author has had presented to him two problems :

I. The course in grammar for the grades must not con-
sist in food for babes. The book has been written with the
idea in mind, that below the sixth or seventh year, no at-
tempt is to be made to teach technical or scientific grammar.
All grammar, as such, is to be eliminated from this period ;
and during the last two or three years of the course, the
pupils are to receive a systematic training in the principles
underlying the construction of the English sentence. This
book, therefore, tries to present in a scientific way, those
topics which are vital in the organization of the subject of
grammar as set forth in the Introduction.

[V]

vi An English Grammar

Almost all phases of historical graiTimar have been
omitted because that view is not vital in the organization of
the subject, nor is it necessary to a working knowledge of
the science of the English sentence. It is thought that the
pupil, at this age, has not a sufficient basis for such a discus-
sion of the facts of grammar. The book, then, is an attempt
to present a logical course in scientific, technical, descriptive,
or formal grammar suited to the needs and capacities of
pupils in the upper grammar grades.

2. The author's somewhat extended experience in teach-
ing the subject in public and Normal schools, and his super-
vision of others in the work, has shown him how very easy
it is to make the study of grammar a bugbear, a deadening,
verbal memory grind to children. This is not necessary.
The subject of grammar may be made as interesting to the
pupil as the subject of botany, and it may be studied in
much the same way.

We used to study botany, physics, chemistry, from the
text-book as we have been studying grammar. Bacon,
Agassiz, and others showed us the error of our way. To-day,
in the study of botany, we study plants, using the text as an
aid. In the teaching of physics and chemistry, the labora-
tory is considered an essential. If the teacher of science to-
day had to give up his text-book or his laboratory, he would,
without hesitation, discard the text.

It is thought that this same spirit of investigation, this
same personal examination of the facts of the subject on
the part of every pupil, ought to be introduced into the
study of grammar; and that the great variety of sentences
ought to stand before the student of grammar, for his
scrutiny and examination, just as the great variety of plants
is made to appear to him by the teacher of botany.

The purpose of the author in this book has been to pre-
sent suitable sentences and to ask such questions upon them
as will lead the pupil to construct the science of grammar

The Preface vii

for himself. To this end only such definitions, statements
of facts, and explanations, as have been thought necessary
to help the child to think his way through the subject, have
been inserted.

There is no need of committing to memory any law or
principle of language from a text-book. All the facts
of grammar are embodied in the sentence, and the
pupil may study them at first hand, just as he studies
the flower in botany or the rock in geology. Should
he forget the rule, he has only to examine a few sen-
tences and restate it for himself. Nor is the teacher
asked to accept a single statement in this book. Grammar
is not a matter of authority ; it is a thought subject, and if
the teacher's thought on the materials here presented should
lead her to a different conclusion from that stated in a
definition, she should not hesitate to change the definition.

There is no need to tell the pupil that the flower has so
many petals and so many sepals, or to send him to a book
to read it, says the botanist ; he can discover these facts
for himself. Can he not also discover the uses of the sub-
stantive clause? If he is able to see that the fish has so
many spines in the dorsal fin, why can he not see that the
noun has gender, person, number, and case? There is a
close resemblance between this method of procedure in the
language studies and that followed in the study of the
natural sciences. True, no special laboratory, fitted up with
tables, cases of instruments, or bottles of reagents, is
necessary. The real unit of the subject, the sentence, is the
material upon which we work ; the instruments are the
minds of the pupils, constantly at hand, and never in the
way.

The work as presented in this text, then, is based upon
the following thoughts :

viii An English Grammar

1. That the sentence, as determined by the thought
which it expresses, is the unit and subject of study in
grammar.

2. That there should be a twofold purpose in the mind
of the teacher who teaches it; namely, to make the pupils
familiar with the principles which underlie correct sentence
construction, and to give them skill in the use of the sen-
tence as an instrument in expressing thpir thought.

3. That the method which should be pursued in studying
the subject should be inductive, and might appropriately be
called the laboratory method.

Acknowledgment is due Miss Harriet E. Peet of the
Forestville School, Chicago, for assistance in the prepara-
tion of the work in Composition. For valuable criticisms
on the manuscript and proof thanks are due Mr. T. E.
Spencer of the Irving School, St. Louis, Missouri ; Mr.
A. Jones, Marion Normal School, Marion, Indiana ; Miss
Bertha L. Green, Lincoln, Nebraska; Mr. F. W. Nichols,
Evanston, Illinois ; Mr. F. E. Sanford, Lagrange, Illinois.

J. B. W.
Terre Haute, Ind., February 2, 1906.

The Table of Contents

The Preface v

The Introduction xi

I. THE FIRST SECTION :

Chapter I. The Subject as a Whole i

Chapter II. The Sentence as a Whole 9

II. THE SECOND SECTION:

Chapter III. Classes of Sentences 26

Chapter IV. Classes of Sentences 35

III. THE THIRD SECTION :

Chapter V. Thought Material or Ideas 43

Chapter VI. Words 51

Chapter VII. The Phrase 69

Chapter VIII. Modifiers . . . 76

Chapter IX. The Organic Parts of the Sen-
tence 91

Chapter X. The Simple Sentence 95

Chapter XI. The Compound Sentence 112

Chapter XII. The Complex Sentence 141

IV. THE FOURTH SECTION:

Chapter XIII. Parts of Speech 190

Chapter XIV. The Noun 191

Chapter XV. The Pronoun 219

Chapter XVI. The Adjective 241

Chapter XVI J. \erbs 263

Chapter XVIII. The Adverb 341

The Table of Contents r^

Chapter XIX. The Infinitive 345

Chapter XX. The Participle 356

Chapter XXI. The Preposition 366

Chapter XXII. The Conjunction 371

The Index 383

Introductory

For Teachers Only

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SUBJECT

1. Both a Science and an Art. English grammar is
that language study which has for its subject-matter the
sentence. It is both a science and an art. As a science, it
deals with the fundamentals of sentence structure. It makes
known to the student the laws and principles which under-
lie sentence construction. As an art, it aims to enable the
student to acquire a skillful use of the sentence as an instru-
ment in expressing his thought.

These two phases of the subject are not inseparable.
One may understand the science of grammar and not be
able to use good English in conversation, and one may be
very skillful in the use of language and at the same time
know little or nothing about the laws and principles which
govern correct sentence construction. If a person has been
brought up in a family where he has always heard good
English, if his playmates and those with whom he has asso-
ciated have always used good English, then his English will
certainly be pure, though he may know nothing of the rules
of grammar. On the other hand, we have all known persons
who could repeat rule after rule of grammar and vet could
not speak correctly.

2. Mastery of the Art. As a mastery of the art side
of grammar is an accomplishment which comes only through
long and careful practice, it is essential that the teacher de-
vote much time to this side of the child's education in Eng-

xii hiiroduclory

lisli. His language will need the careful supervision of his
teacher in all his work, and the pupil, himself, should be made
to feel that he must keep a constant watch over his language
in order to become proficient in its use. Eternal vigilance
on the part of both teacher and pupil, is the price of pure
English. The science of grammar will help, to some extent,
to give the pupil the art; it will help him to judge when his
sentences are correct, and to discover his own mistakes, but
the use of good English must be acquired largely by prac-
tice.

3. Value of Purpose. In teaching any subject, the
teacher should constantly bear in mind the end to be at-
tained. The teacher who sees clearly the end from the be-
ginning will be able, for the most part, to select such means
and devices as will accomplish this end. She will waste no
time on side issues or irrelevant matter, because the pur-
pose which she sees in the work draws her constantly toward
that end and excludes everything which does not contribute
to it.

4. Contribution to Character. If w^e say that the end
of education is moral character, then the chief value of the
study of grammar lies in that element which it contributes
to moral character. Does grammar really do this? I think
so.

5. It Deals With Mind. In the study of grammar,
the pupil's attention is directed inward for the first time.
It is the only subject in the common school course which re-
quires the pupil to consider his mental acts as such. Here
he stops to consider for the first time the nature of that
for which the word, the phrase, the clause, the sentence
stand. He deals primarily with the forms of pure thought,
although in a very elementary way.

This means that he gets some knowledge of the human
mind ; he sees, to some extent, the delicate working, the
marvelous powers of the human soul. Here he finds an op-

Introductory xiii

porttinity for making distinctions and doing similar thinking
to that which mnst be done in the study of psychology and
logic. He does closer and stronger thinking than that re-
quired in arithmetic or physiology, because the subject-mat-
ter upon which he is working is more subtile.

This work gives him an element of moral character which
he can not get from the study of any other subject; namely,
acute intellectual judgment, without which there could be
no moral judgment and hence no moral character. For if
the element of moral judgment be left out of character, if
the individual lie unable to make fine distinctions in ques-
tions of right and wrong, strong moral character is impos-
sible.

6. More Immediate Purpose of the Subject. But
while this is the great value of the study of grammar, it is
not the immediate end which the teacher keeps before her
day by day. The result stated above is obtained only by
keeping in mind the fact, that the sentence is the unit or sub-
ject-matter of grammar, and that all work in the subject has
for its object :

(i). To give pupils a knowledge of its structure — the
laws and principles which underlie its correct construction,
or the science of the English sentence.

(2). To give the. pupils a mastery of the sentence as an
instrument in expressing thought that will enable them to
use it correctly — the art of the English sentence.

7, Characteristics of the Subject. In order to ac-
com.plish these results, the teacher should bear in mind :

(i). That grammar is a subject in itself, apart from all
text-books on the subject, and if all the texts were destroyed,
we should still have the subject of grammar. It has a cen-
tral or organizing idea which binds together the facts of the
subject and indicates their relations to all other facts of
knowledge.

xiv Introductory

(2). That it is a logical or thought subject. It is not
arbitrary and mechanical, but reasonable.

(^). That it is analytic and inductive and not synthetic
and deductive, and should be taught according to the labora-
tory method, as explained in the preface. The purpose of
the discussion that follows is to make these three proposi-
tions clear to the teacher and thus enable her to get above
the common plane of ordinary text-book grammar work.

GRAMMAR A SUBJItCT IN ITSELF.

8. Related to Other Subjects. There is a body of
facts which we call grammar. Can these facts be known
scientifically, just as one would learn the facts of botany, or
nmst the student be required to commit them to memory
from a text? This group of facts is related tO' other groups
of facts. Grammar is related to the word studies of the lan-
guage group. It is also a near relative of reading, composi-
tion and rhetoric, and literature — those language studies
which have discourse for their subject-matter. Grammar is
the handmaid of logic. All its forms are determined by and
adapted to the thought they express. The relations which
are found in the subject are logical relations and the true
study of these facts is the study of the logic of the English
sentence. Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard University, in his
"Science of Thought,'' says: "Certainly, while logic de-
rives such help from grammar, the reverse should be done,
and our grammars placed upon a direct logical footing."

9. Constructive Study of Grammar. When the stu-
dent studies grammar in the light of the relations set forth
above, when he sees it as based upon and growing out of
logic, as a practical illustration of psychology, as conditioned
by the word studies, and reading, and as preparing for and
aiding in a mastery of the other discourse studies, he is
studying the subject " constructively." as Dr. W. T. Harris
says.

Introdnctory xv

Heretofore he has learned a great many of the facts of
orthography, orthoepy, grammar, reading, composition,
rhetoric, and Hterature, but these are somewhat fused to-
gether in his mind and mixed, to some extent, with the
facts of history, geography, and all other subjects which he
has studied. Now he sees the language group clearly set off
from all other studies, he sees the place of each study in
this group, and he sees all of them in the light of the studies
upon which they are based.

10. Facts of Grammar Related. But while the stu-
dent is corning into a complete comprehension of the rela-
tions stated above, he learns that the facts of grammar have
certain relations to one another and to the subject as a
whole.

In the consideration of such a common object as the
table, he has noticed that it is made up of parts, each one
holding a certain relation to every other one and all together
forming tlie whole. Without any one of these parts the
whole would not be complete. In this case, he sees a com-
mon idea, the idea of design or purpose, embodied in every
part of the table and binding all the parts together into the
whole. The table is to write upon and at the same time is
to be ornamental, and every part and attribute of it, legs,
sides, top, color, etc., embodies the central idea of the table.
Why was the table not painted red? Why are the legs all
the same length ? Why is this bit of carving on the side ?
Why is it made of hard wood ? To answer any of these
questions is to refer it to the central idea in the table.

It will be readily seen that the student might take another
view of the table. He might see it as a number of isolated
parts, existing in space — a mere heap of material. What is
the difference between this view and the first one? The
parts are all in the second view. The legs, top. sides, etc.,
every bit of carving, all the attributes of the parts, color,
form, etc., all materials arc present. But the view of the

xvi Introductory

tabic is not the same as the first, because these parts are not
seen in their relations. They are not bound into a whole by
a unifying- idea.

11. Two Views of Any Subject. It will be seen from
the foregoing discussion that there were two phases or sides
in this first view of the table ; namely, the part phase or
fact phase ; and the relation phase or unifying idea.

It is held that the relations existing among the facts of
grammar are similar to the relations existing among the
parts of the table with one exception. The relations exist-
ing among the parts of the table are mechanical relations,
and the whole is a mechanical whole, while the relations ex-
isting among the facts of grammar are vital, and the subject
may be shown to be a vital unity.

12. Two Points of View. Grammar, then, may be
studied from these two points of view :

(i). The student may consider the fact side, sentences
in their great variety of form and many shades of meaning,
together with the words which compose these sentences in
their various uses in the sentences. These form the subject-
matter of grammar, upon which the mind of the student is
to be exercised.

(2). The student may consider the relation phase of the
subject. This is the central idea, which is found in some
measure embodied in all the facts of the subject, and which
binds them all together.

The two points just stated are not two different subjects.
They are the same thing considered from two points of view ;
it takes both to form the science of grammar ; and any knowl-
edge which leaves out either phase of the subject could not
be said to be a scientific knowledge of grammar.

13. To Know a Subject Scientifically. Science, it has
often been said, is organized knowledge. To know a thing
scientifically is to know it in its relations. To know any
subject scientifically, is to know the relations which exist

Introductory

xvii

among- the facts of that subject ; to see the relation of each
fact to other facts and to the whole by means of the funda-
mental idea in tlie subject; and to see the relation of the
subject as a whole to other subjects of study.

This view of the subject cannot be gained by committing
rules and definitions from a text-book on grammar, however
good the rules and definitions may be. The student's mind
must come into contact with the real unit of the subject, if
he is to see relations. In short, the subject of grammar must
be viewed as stated above in "' (i) " and " (2) " : the facts
and the central or relating idea. When one sees the sub-
ject in this v.'ay, one may be said to have an organized knowl-
edge of grammar.

The sentence cannot say to the subject, " I have no need
of you " ; nor the adverb to the verb, " I have no need of
you '" ; nor can grammar say to the most insignificant fact in
it, " I have no need of you." For this body of facts which
belong to grammar, being many, are at the same time one,
by reason of a common idea which is found in all of them,
and every one members one of another.

14. The Subject-Matter. It has been said that sen-
tences in their manifold variety of form and many shades
of meaning, together with the multitude of facts concerning
them, which the student must know in order to understand
how thoughts are expressed in sentences, form the subject-
matter of grammar. The student is to combine this vast ar-
ray of facts into an organized whole by means of what has
been called the " relation phase," or " unifying idea." This
unifying idea or central principle of the subject of grammar
must be a general truth, because every fact in the subject
must partake of its nature. It must be a primary truth, be-
cause every fact in the subject is to be built into it. It must
be a determining idea or relating truth, because, by means
of it, all the facts of grammar are to be logically arranged
or organized.

xviii Introductory

15. The Central Idea. J'hc only use of a sentence
is to express a thought. How does the sentence express
thought? The mowing machine expresses thought. By ob-
serving its parts and how they all cooperate to do the work
of the machine, one becomes aware of the fact that all this
existed in the mind of the inventor before it was put into
completed form. The mower is simply the expression of the
thought of the designer.

16. The Nature of a Judgment. The sentence does
not express thought in the v/ay indicated above. A judgment
or thought is a mental act in which the mind asserts a re-
lation between ideas. There are three elements in every such
judgment :

(i). The idea about which the mind asserts another
idea, which may be called the thought subject.

(2). The idea which the mind thinks with the first idea
and which it affirms or denies of it. This may be called the
thought predicate.

f^). The relation which the mind asserts between these
ideas, which is always one of agreement or disagreement and
which may be termed the thought relation.

I have in mind the idea, the cloud, and the idea, fleecy,
but these do not form a judgment. I must see a relation be-
tween the two. My mind must combine the two ideas into
a unity in which I see the attribute, fleecy, as belonging
to or forming one of the attributes of the cloud. In this
way, my mind forms the judgment or thought expressed by
the sentence, Tlic cloud is fleecy. It is this triple unitx*
which the sentence expresses, and in order to express it,
the sentence must take on the triple form of the thought.

17. Three Parts of a Sentence. A sentence is the ex-
pression of a thought or judgment in words. Why is it
necessary that the sentence have the triple form of the
thoucht ?

Introductory xix

(i). A subject, expressing the thought subject of the
judgment.

(2). A predicate, expressing the tliought predicate of
the judgment.

(^). A copula, expressing the thought relation of the
judgment.

A picture expresses thought but it does not express
thought as the sentence does. There are no three parts to the
picture. It expresses thought by resemblance. Its form is
determined by the form of the object which it represents.
But there is no resemblance between the thought and the
sentence which expresses it, such as exists in the picture.
The thought is spiritual, subjective; the sentence is phys-
'cal, objective. The sentence is adapted to the thought
for the purpose of expressing it, and is determined by the
thought. Since the thought is not like the sentence and can-
not be like it in any other particular, except in the number
of its elements, the sentence, in order to express the thought,
must take on the triple form of the thought. The thought
imposes its form upon the sentence.

It might be said here, that grammarians, while recog-
nizing the fact that the sentence has three* parts, have not
usually considered it of enough importance to make the dis-
tinction, at all times, between predicate and copula. Since
the thought predicate and thought relation are so frequently
expressed by the same word, they have fallen into the in-
accuracy of dividing sentences into two parts, a subject and
a predicate.

18. Dr. Whitney on the Verb. The greatest linguistf

* See Reed and Kellogg's Higher Lf^ssons in English, beginning
of lesson 29. Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, p. 158,
par. 353. " Our Language," p. 84. Lee and Hadley's Grammar, pp.

53-55-

t The late Dr. William Dwight Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit
and comparative Philology and instructor in modern languages in
Yale College; author of "Language and the Shidy of Language,"
" Life and Growth of Language." etc

XX I It I rod lie lory

this couiUry has known says : " The verb, be, in ah its
various forms, has come to stand as a mere connective of
assertion between a subject and some word or words de-
scribing- that subject, and so to have no meaning of its own
except that of signifying the assertion." And he adds,
" Indeed, every verb admits of being taken apart, or an-
alyzed into some form of this copula, be, which expresses
the act of assertion, and a predicate noun or adjective (es-
pecially the verbal adjective, the present participle), ex-
pressing the condition or quality or action predicated. Thus,
/ stand is nearly / am erect, or, still more nearly, / am
standing; again, They beg, is equivalent to They are beg-
gars, or, They arc begging.

In the above examples, each sentence has three parts.
For example, in They are begging, the word, Thcv,
is the subject of the sentence and expresses the thought sub-
ject of the judgment; the word, begging, is the predicate
of the sentence and expresses the thought predicate of the
judgment; and the word, are. is the copula of the sen-
tence and expresses the relation which the mind sees between
the thought subject and the thought predicate, or the thought
relation of the judgment.

Since every sentence must cointain a verb, it follows, that,
if the above statement from Dr. Whitney is correct, every
sentence may not only be separated into three parts, but
must contain three parts, and no group of words can be a
sentence or can possibly express a thought, if it lacks sub-
ject or predicate or copula.

19. Psychologists and Logicians. In addition to the
foregoing discussion it might be said that psychologists and
logicians in all times and almost wdthout exception, have in-
sisted that the sentence must have three parts corresponding
to the three elements of the judgment. The inaccuracy, on
the part of grammarians, has come about, as Dr. C. C.
Everett, of Harvard University, points out, because they

Introductory xxi

have divorced grammar from logic. This is sure to lead to
error, since the sentence is only an instrument for express-
ing the thought, and grammar is directly dependent upon
logic at every point. If one word contains two parts of the
sentence, in which it occurs, that is all the more reason why
the analysis of the student should be subtle enough to dis-
cover that fact and to identify each part of the sentence with
the element of the thought which it expresses. To express
two elements of the thought in one part of the sentence
would be confusing to say the least.

20. The Central Idea Stated. This fundamental at-
tribute in the nature of the sentence, as it is determined by
the nature of the thought, is the universal truth in the sub-
ject of grammar. To put it in other words, the most gen-
eral truth, the central idea, in the subject of grammar is:
The three elements of the thought as they are accurately
expressed in the three parts of the sentence. The student
must see the sentence as the expression of the thought. It
expresses thought in common with a great many other
things ; the picture, the piece of music, the statue, all ex-
press thought ; but the sentence is arbitrary, expressing
thought in a particular way, by means of its triple form. The
student must see this.

This states the end and purpose of all the study of the
science of grammar. Why does the student study the
simple sentence or the declarative sentence? To see how
the three elements of the thought are expressed in those lan-
guage forms. He wants to know how the sentence form
which we call complex is adapted to express the thought.
Why does he study noun and verb? To see what part they
play in the expression of the three elements of the thought
in the three parts of the sentence ; to see how these lan-
guage forms are adapted to the expression of the thought
and how thev are determined bv the thought.

21. How Do We Know This is True? How do we

xxii Introductory

know that the principle just stated is the most general, and,
ihcrefore, the governing truth, in the subject of grammar?
Because it is the truth which organizes the subject. It
touches every fact in the subject and is the essential attribute
of every such fact. It is the truth to which every question
concerning the subject of grammar must be referred for its
answer, just as every question concerning the table can be
answered only by referring it to the central idea in the table.
This central truth in the subject of grammar is the most
general truth in the subject, because every other fact of the
subject depends upon it.

22. The Value of This View to the Teacher. The
value of this view of the subject to the teacher may be made
clear by pointing out what the governing or central idea of
any subject will indicate to the teacher concerning that sub-
ject. The organizing truth of a subject will determine the
following points with regard to the subject :

(i). It will set off the subject-matter of the study from
the subject-matter of all other studies.

(2). It will indicate the logical order of topics in the
subject.

(^). It will determine the order in which the topics
should be acquired or presented.

(4). It will indicate the important and unimportant facts
of the subject.

(^). It will indicate the important and unimportant ele-
ments in each fact in the subject.

(6). It will test the definitions of the subject.

fy). It will indicate the mental steps which the student
must take to master the subject, and the materials which
the teacher must put before the pupil in order to mduce his
mind to take these steps.

23. The Central Idea Sets Off Facts of Subject.
There must be some reason why mathematicians liave
grouped certain facts and called that group arithmetic. It

Introductory xxiii

is not mere chance chat scientists include just the facts
they do inchide in the subject of physiology and exclude all
other facts. There is certainly some method by which gram-
marians have been able to decide what facts constitute the
science of grammar. It is the central idea in the subject
whicli sets oft the facts of that subject from all other facts.
The central idea or organizing truth of the subject is the most
universal attribute of the subject. Any fact possessing this
attribute is a fact of the subject. Any fact which has to do
with the accurate expression of the three elements of the
thought in the sentence form is a fact in grammar.

24. It Indicates Logical Order of Topics. This or-
ganizing truth is the most general or universal truth in the
subject. Every fact is related to it. Some facts in the sub-
ject are more closely related to it than others. The fact
which stands most closely related to the organizing truth,
is first in the subject ; one equally near in its relation to the
central truth is coordinate with it ; one containing a less
degree of the central truth is subordinate to both ; and so on
with all the facts of the subject.

When each fact is given its place in the subject, according
to the relation which it bears to the central idea, the sub-
ject is organized. This means that the order of dependence
among the facts of the subject has been discovered ; the rela-
tive importance of the facts and of the elements in each
fact n;ay be seen ; and the teacher sees the order in which
the facts of the subject should be presented and why they
should be presented in that order.

25. It Tests Definitions. The organizing truth tests
the definitions of the subject. Every fact in the subject
contains a certain degree of the general truth or universal
attribute of the subject. To define any fact of the subject
is to show its relation to the central idea of the subject. A
definition of the noun which does not show its relation to
the organizing truth of grammar, or which does not show

XXIV

Introductory

how it helps to express the three elements of the thought in
the three parts of the sentence, is faulty.

26. Organized Knowledge. When the student sees
the central idea of the subject of grammar and all it indi-
cates with regard to the subject, as set forth in the preceding
discussion, he may be said to have an organized or scientific
knowledge of the subject.

He is free from text-books, except as he uses them as a
means, and he sees the subject in the light of reason and in
all its relations.

Can the teacher be satisfied, or do mtelligent work in the
school room, with a less comprehensive view?

27. A Criticism. The most severe criticism which
could be pronounced upon grammarians and teachers of
grammar is that made by Dr. C. C. Everett, of Harvard,
when he says, they have divorced grammar from logic. And
any one who has carefully examined our text-books in gram-
mar, or observed thoughtfully much of the work done in our
schools in this subject, must admit that there is some truth
in the charge. The study of grammar has become largely
a study of form ; a mere classification of words ; a kind of
jugglery with symbols. What wonder that most boys and
girls, with normal minds, hate it !

28. The True View. But if, as Dr. Harris says,*
" Grammar defines and fixes speech ; by its mastery man
obtains the first mastery over his mind as an instrument.
* * * It is the key to all that is spiritual. * * •*
Grammar as etymology and syntax initiates the pupil into
the general forms of thought itself. Thus there branch out
logic, psychology, and metaphysics, as well as the various
phases of philosophy. Has it not been said, indeed, that
the father of logic discovered its forms through grammar?
Under a thin veil the pupil deals with pure thought when he

* See Report of Board of Public Schools, St. Louis, bound vol-
ume of 1872-73.

Introductory xxv

studies syntax "" — if this be true, then there is no lack of op-
portunity for thinking in the study of grammar.

The sentence is only the " veil " ; it is composed of mere
words; but this form has a content, the thought, and to un-
derstand the sentence, the student must be able to separate,
in thought, this form from its content. The student must
constantly hold these two elements in mind while dealing
with the sentence. When he considers the sentence, Glass is
brittle, he views it as the expression of a thought composed
of three elements :

(i). A thought subject, the idea, glass.

(2). A thought predicate, the idea, brittle.

(^). A thought relation of agreement between the two.
In the expi-ession itself, he sees parts corresponding to the
elements of the thought :

(i). A subject, the word, glass, expressing the thought
subject.

(2). A predicate, the word, brittle, expressing the
thought predicate.

(^). A copula or relational clement, the word, is, ex-
pressing the thought relation.

29. The Two Elements. When he considers the
word, so)ir, in the sentence, The sour apple ripened rap-
idly, he sees two elements ; first, the form or word, and sec-
ond, its content. The word, sour, expresses an attribute
which belongs to the idea expressed by the word, apple. So
in dealing with the word, rapidly, he sees that it expresses
an attribute of the attribute expressed by the word, ripened.
Tn each case the student is required, first, to distinguish be-
tween the form and its content, and second, to combine the
two again to see how the form organizes itself around the
thought and is determined by it.

30. Form and Content. This seeing of form and con-
tent and the relation bctAvcen t1ie two cannot be too strongly
emphasized. The failure on the part of grammarians and

xxvi Introductory

teachers to keep it in mind has given to the study of gram-
mar its formal and lifeless nature. The study of the sentence
from this point of view is no simple mental activity. It
requires the most careful attention and very close and ac-
curate thinking on the part of the student.

He is first conscious of the sentence form, a group of
words, and having obtained the thought which it expresses,
he proceeds to analyze that thought into its elements. He
finds that there are three principal elements in every thought ;
a thought subject, a thought predicate, and a thought rela-
tion, each of which may be composed of several elements.
Finally, he associates each element of the thought with its
corresponding part of the sentence, thus making the parts
of the sentence, the relations existing among them, and
their relations to the thought, to appear clearly. It will be
seen that this is a complex activity, the student being re-
quired to hold several points in mind, while he thinks his
way carefully through the sentence.

These two processes of separating form and content from
each other, and each one into its elements, analysis; and
combining form and content again into a vital unity, in
order to see how the thought determines the form, synthesis,
are the two fundamental processes in the mastery of gram-
mar.

31. The Student Must Deal With Sentences. The
principles already discussed would indicate, that in com-
bining the almost infinite variety of sentences into the unity
of a single principle, and in gaining the mastery over the
sentence as an instrument for communicating thought, it
is necessarv for the student to deal not with text-books, but
with this great variety of sentences. Text-books are helpful
to him in proportion to the degree in which they put the sub-
ject-matter of grammar, the sentence, before him in such
a way as to help him to think it through for himself. But
if all texts on grammar were destroyed, we should still have

Introductory xxvii

the subject-matter of grammar, the sentence, left; and the
student might be led to construct the entire science of gram-
mar from his study of sentences.

GRAMMAR A LOGICAL SUBJECT.

Now perhaps enough has been said to show that the sub-
ject of grammar is a subject in itself ; that it does not depend
upon text-books ; that the unit of it is the sentence ; and that
every principle, definition, and fact of the subject is wrapped
up in the sentence. The subject has an organization of
its own, because it is a body of facts bound together, or
unified by a central idea or truth, which runs through or in-
heres in all the facts of the subject.

But now I wish to discuss the second proposition. Gram-
mar is a reasonable or logical or thought subject, not an
arbitrary subject to be taken on authority. It is not to be
bolted or swallowed whole.

32. Definitions and Principles of the Subject. The
definitions and principles of the subject of grammar do not
exi?t and thcv arc not true, because Metcalf, or Sw-eet. or
Whitney has them in his grammar. These men did not make
or invent the principles of our language and set them forth
for us to commit to memory and follow the remainder of
our days, nor could they, or any other men, possibly do so.
Grammarians have discovered and stated the principles of
language, and these principles are true, if they are true,
not because they are in the grammarians' books, but they
are in the books because they are true.

33. The Sentence an Instrument. The sentence is
merely an instrument or means ; it is not an end in itself.
The only legitimate use of a sentence is to express a thought.
A sentence is a group of words which expresses a thought.
This statement expresses the only true function of the sen-
tence. One mind has a thought to be communicated to an-
other mind ; the sentence is the vehicle of that thought. Tf

xxviii Infruductory

there were no thoughts to be conveyed trom one mind to
another, we should have no need for a senetnce.

Since the sentence is an instrument or a means, it is Hke
all other instruments or means in one particular ; that is, it is
determined by that which it is to do. We may surely say
of all instruments that they are made to suit the work which
they are to perform ; that which they are to do determines
them in every part and attribute. It would be ridiculous to
think that a man would attempt to make a mowing machine
without understanding the nature of grass, or the place in
which it grows. He might make it so that it would run
only on a smooth floor or concrete walk.

34. The Nature of an Instrument. Here is an instru-
ment called the garden hoe. Why is its handle five feet
long instead of ten feet long? Why is it made of wood?
Why is it round and one inch in diameter instead of square
and three inches in diameter? Why is its blade four inches
wide and three inches long instead of ten inches wide and
nine inches long? Why is it sharp? Is it not easily seen
that it is the purpose of the instrument which determines
these points? How could any man who knew nothing of
the nature of plants and the soil in which they grow ; who
did not know that weeds grow up among plants and must be
cut out, and that the soil about the roots of plants must be
stirred ; how could a man ignorant of the nature of the work
which a garden hoe is to perform, make such an instrument?
And more, how could a person, ignorant of all this, under-
stand the instrument?

You are going along the street and you find a little wheel
with tinv cogs. What is the first question you ask about it?
Why it is this: Where does it belong? What is its work?
Is it a part of a watch or a bicycle, or what is it for?

35. How We Study an Instrument. If one did not
imdcrstand the garden hoc, he might study it point by i)oint.
He might see that the handle is long so that one need not

Introductory xxix

stoop over too much in digging with the tool. He might see
that the blade must be sharp so that it will cut the weeds
and stir the hard ground easily, and so on. Each time he no-
tices a characteristic of the hoe, he sees that there is some-
thing in the nature of the work which it is to do that requires
that characteristic in the hoe. When he has mastered it, he
sees the appropriateness of this instrument to do its work,
and how the instrument depends upon its work for its nature.
Now there is nothing arbitrary or mechanical in the proc-
ess by which the individual has mastered the garden hoe,
if he has done it in the way indicated above. He takes noth-
ing for granted and nothing on authority. He sees the cor-
respondence between the nature of this instrument and the
nature of the work which it is to do, and if forty authors had
written text-books on the garden hoe, and every one of them
had said the handle should be three inches in diameter and
made of iron, he would not believe them.

36. The Sentence Adapted to the Thought. Now the
sentence is like the garden hoe, in that it is an instrument,
and has a work to perform ; namely, the expression of the
thought. What does this mean ? It means that the sentence
is adapted to the work of expressing the thought and that
it is determined in every part and attribute by the nature of
the thought which it expresses. It is just as necessary to
understand the thought and its nature in order to understand
the sentence, as it is to understand the garden in order to
comprehend the garden hoe.

37. Logic and Psychology in Grammar. But one may
say, then, how can you keep from teaching logic and psy-
chology in grammar? No one who teaches grammar scien-
tifically can keep logic and psychology out of his work, for
grammar is dependent upon logic at every point, and the ex-
planation of every grammatical form involves the examina-
tion of a mental process. The great difficulty is that gram-
marians have divorced grammar and logic, in a great meas-

XXX htlrodnctory

lire, and this has given to the subject its lifeless and formal
nature. It has made it a mechanical, deadening, memory
grind, instead of an intelligent, healthful, life-giving, mental
gymnastic.

One might turn to any part of the subject of grammar for
an illustration of the fact, that the sentence is adapted to the
expression of the thought and is determined in every part
and attribute by the nature of the thought ; that it is impos-
sible to give any reasonable explanation of language forms
w^ithout viewing them in relation to the thought which they
express. And I wish now to illustrate at some length, this
fundamental view of grammar.

The entire subject of grammar falls into four great sec-
tions of work :

Section I.

THE STUDY OF THE SENTENCE AS A WHOLE.

38. In the first Section of the work, only those at-
tributes or characteristics of the sentence which are uni-
versal are noticed. The student has as many different kinds
of sentences as can be obtained placed before him, and in all
this variety, he is asked to see the universal attribute, which
makes them all sentences. He finds that some of these in-
dividual exam.ples are long and some short ; some declarative
and some interrogative ; some simple and some complex ;
some inverted order and some natural order; but one char-
acteristic is found in each of them. Not every sentence is
imperative ; not every one has a compound subject ; but they
all have either explicit or implicit in them, the triple form,
expressing the thought.

39. Unity. This fact enables him to unify this great
variety of sentences and to see the unity in the thought of
each sentence. It is not an easy matter for the student to
grasp the unity of the thought in a long and involved sen-
tence ; to see the thought subject and thought predicate,

Introducfory xxxi

which the mind unites hy an act of thinking into the triple
unity — the thought, which the sentence expresses. But this
is what he must do if he ever masters the sentence, either as
an instrument in expressing his own thought, or as a medium
for obtaining the thoughts of others.

40. The Close of Section I. At the close of this phase
of his study in grammar, the student should be able to take
any sentence, distinguish between its form and content, an-
alyze its content into its three essential elements, see the
triple organic form of the sentence as determined by the
thought, the relation of each element of the thought to its
corresponding part of the sentence, and should be able to
express the result of his thinking in some concise form such
as the following:

The large hook is certainly very cheap. This is a sen-
tence, because it is the expression of a thought in words.
The subject of the sentence is the words, The large hook,
because they express the thought subject. The predicate
of the sentence is the words, 7'ery cheap, because they
express the thought predicate. The copula of the sentence
is the words, is certainly, because they express the thought
relation, or unifying act of the mind.

41. Do Not Make the Work Formal. It is not in-
tended that the above form shall always be used by the
student in expressing the result of his thinking. The chief
thing is to have his mind perform the two mental processes
of analysis and synthesis as indicated above, and any set form
of expressing the result is rather to be avoided, as having a
tendency to make the student mechanical and formal.

42. The Main Idea. Throughout this entire first sec-
tion of the work, the student's attention is directed to but
one thing — the universal sentence form as determined by
the thought. He is not permitted to say that the idea ex-
pressed by the word, hook, in the above sentence, is the
thought subject, or that the word. hook, is the subject of

-xxxii Iiilrodiicfory

the sentence ; but lie must see each element of the thought
and each part of the sentence as a unit. The idea expressed
by the words, The large book, for that is one idea, though
a complex one, is the thought subject, and all these words
form the subject of the sentence.

When the student is able to see in any sentence, each one
of the three elements of the thought, which is expressed, and
see it as a unit, no matter how complex it may be; when
he sees each of the essential parts of the sentence in the same
way ; when he has combined the whole into an organic unity,
in which he sees the sentence as standing for or expressing
the thought, he is ready to pass from the first section of the
grammar work.

43. Careful Work. It will usually take considerable
careful work with the student to enable him to do what is
indicated above, but it is worth the effort, for the student
who has this ability is forever free from mechanical or formal
work in the subject, and is a long stride on his way toward
the mastery of grammar as based upon logic.

Section II.

THE STUDY OF CLASSES OF SENTENCES.

44. In the second Section of the work, the pupil still
deals with sentences as wholes, but he finds there are like-
nesses and differences among them which enable him to
classify them.

45. The Basis of Meaning. He notices that one kind
expresses a phase of thought which appeals to the intellect.
It commimicates some information.

Another kind also expresses a phase of thought which ap-
peals to the intellect, but it inquires for information, asks
for some element of the thought which is unknown and
sought.

Still another kind expresses a phase of thought which

Introductory xxxiii

stirs the emotions. Some information may be commu-
nicated, but it is to the end of awakening feeling.

Lastly, he notices that some sentences express thought
which is intended to produce an act of will.

So, on the basis of meaning, or phase of mental activity
which is prominent, or power of mind addressed, or chief
purpose, he divides sentences into the following classes :
Declarative, Interrogative, Exclamatory, Imperative.

46. The Basis of Form. Some thoughts are simple
in structure ; some are complex ; some are compound. The
pupil will see that sentences must be of these kinds, also,
since they express the thoughts. He, therefore, classifies
sentences on the basis of form, as determined by the number
and the relation of the thoughts expressed, into the following
classes : Simple, Complex, and Compound.

47. The Close of Section II. When the pupil is able
to view sentences, as determined by the thought, in the
ways just indicated, he is ready to pass from the second sec-
tion of the grammar work.

Section III.

THE STUDY OF THE ORGANIC PARTS OF THE SENTENCE.

48. Parts of the Sentence. In the third Section of
the work; the study of the organic parts of the sentence is
taken up. Subjects of sentences are not all of the same kind.
Some are simple, consisting of but one word ; others are long
and complex. This requires a combination of words, for,
however long the subject of the sentence may be, it must be
a unity. This means that the pupil must deal with the
words expressing the unified thought subject, just as he has
dealt with the sentence, which expresses the unity called the
thought. He must separate form from content; the extent
and content of ideas present themselves to him ; and he
sees the whole subject of modifiers growing out of this

xxxiv Introductory

distinction. Pie discusses the thought material or ideas, out
of which thought suhjects, thought predicates, and thought
relations are made, and he sees how the words composing the
subjects, predicates, and copulas of sentences may be unified,
because of the ideas they express. He sees, for example,
that in the sentence, The old arm-chair is broken, he could
not say that the word, arm-chair, is the subject of the
sentence, because the mind does not assert the idea, broken,
of the idea, arm-chair; but of the idea, arm-chair, as changed
by the ideas, the and old.

49. The Close of Section III. Thus, all the different
forms which subjects, predicates, and copulas may have,
are seen to be adapted to the expression of thought subjects,
thought predicates, and thought relations and determined by
them. We have principal words and subordinate or modify-
ing words in these parts of the sentence, because we have
principal and subordinate ideas in the elements of the thought
expressed in these parts of the sentence.

Section IV.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

50. Glasses of Words. In the last Section of the
grammar work, the student finishes the work for which he
has laid the foundation in the Section immediately preceding,
so that the last Section is to the third, what the second was
to the first. In the third Section, he became familiar with
the" different kinds of ideas, expressed by words; namely, ob-
jects of thought, attributes, and ideas of relation. On that
ijasis, he classified words into the following classes : sub-
stantive, attributive, and relational words. Two other
kinds, he learned, were sometimes used without much mean-
ing, merely to fill out the form of the sentence ; namely, ex-
pletives and interjections.

51. Close of Section IV. Now, in the fourth Section,

Introductory xxxv

by observing likenesses and differences, he subdivides these
classes of words, and thus arrives at " Parts of Speech."
When the pupil sees the parts of speech, with all their prop-
erties, in the same light in which he has seen all the other
parts of the sentence, as indicated in the previous discussion,
he has finished the fourth Section of the grammar work,
and may be said to have fairly mastered the science of the
subject.

52. Conditions of Mastering the Subject. This fourth
Section of work can never be mastered, it will be seen, until
the pupil sees clearly that there arc distinctions in thought
which give to the noun, gender, person, number, and case ;
to the verb, voice, mode, tense, and so forth. If the action
of the mind in dealing with objective things did not leave
with it a notion of one or more than one, the noun never
would have had that property which we call number ; and if
it were not possible for the mind to think a relation between
a thought subject and a thought predicate in past time, pres-
ent time, and so forth, the verb would never have had that
property which we call tense.

53. A Thought Study. This view of the subject
makes grammar a thought study, not a set of rules and prin-
ciples to be accepted upon authority — and committed to
memory ; but a thing which is logical and is to be reasoned
out by the, pupil. Tt is not a mere study of forms, but a study
of forms as determined by the content which they express.

GRAMMAR IS AN INDUCTIVIi: .SUBJECT.

54. The Laboratory Method. Tt will be evident, I
think, that the work which follows and constitutes the sub-
ject-matter of this text, is arranged according to the prin-
ciples set forth in this discussion and with this thought in
mind ; that grammar, when properly studied, is an inductive
subject, and should be presented according to what might
appropriately be called the laboratory method.

XXX vi Introductory

55. Compared With the Study of the Natural Sciences.
if the scientific student wishes to make himself master of
tlie mushroom, he goes out into the fields and gathers a speci-
men of every variety. He examines the specimens carefully
and tries to discover the common characteristics whicli make
them all mushrooms. By the aid of his glass and knife, he
finds out how the specimens differ and on the basis of the
fundamental differences, he separates them into classes. He
takes advantage of the experience of other men, in work-
ing with mushrooms, as they have recorded it for him in
texts. By means of this experience, he verifies his own con-
clusions. Often, by means of this experience, he finds that
he has made mistakes in his work, and he returns to his
specimens to examine them more carefully and discover his
errors. When he has completed his work, he is an authority
on mushrooms himself.

56. Grammar Can be Studied in this Way. Why can
not the student of grammar study the clause in this way?
He will not have so much difficulty in collecting his spec-
imens as the student of mushrooms had. He will need
neither microscope nor scalpel. He can see that each of his
specimens has a subject, predicate, and copula, and is used
as a part of a sentence just as easily, perhaps more easily,
than the student of mushrooms saw the common character-
istics of mushrooms. He can also see distinctions which will
enable him, on different bases, to separate them into classes ;
as, substantive, attributive ; simple, complex, compound ; ad-
jective, adverbial, and so forth. In short, the entire subject
of clauses can be thought out from examples, just as the
entire subject of mushrooms was thought out from the
specimens, by the student.

57. The Teacher and the Text to Aid the Pupil. Tt
is not held that the pupil in the grades can do this without
the aid of the teacher and the text. The teacher will stim-
ulate and direct his thought by proper questions and encour-

Introductory xxxvii

agement. The text will disclose to him the errors in his
conclusions and send him back to study the examples more
carefully. But when he is through with the subject, he will
see all of grammar in the sentence and it will be a reason-
able thing to him, not a set of dry, arbitrary rules.

58. The Difference Between Life and Death. The
difference between grammar studied in this way, and tech-
nical grammar as it is too often taught, is the difference
between life and death to the student ; it is the difference be-
tween an intelligent, healthful, life-giving, mental gymnastic,
and a mechanical, deadening, verbal memory grind. The
one process leaves him with the arbitrary technic of the sub-
ject, a mere crust, which he loathes; the other makes him
feel, as Dr. C. C. Everett* has said, that, " There is hardly
anything more interesting than to see how the laws of gram-
mar, which seem, at first sight so hard and arbitrary, are sim-
ply the laws of the expression of logical relations in con-
crete form."

* See his " Science of Thought," a book which no teacher of
grammar should be without, p. 82.

Suggestions for Composition

To communicate tliought should be the dominant mo-
tive of all composition work. A child's imagination should
be stimulated before he is asked to write, and then, when the
discourse impulse is upon him, he should be given an oppor-
tunity to express his thought. After this expression he
should be led to criticise his papers from the standpoint of
an audience, asking himself if he has so expressed his
thoughts that they could be easily comprehended by another
person. The study of form should be brought in as a means
to this end.

The work in composition in this book aims to give
the pupil, while working under the impulse of definite
thoughts to express, practice in the forms of discourse natur-
al to children of the grammar school age, and at the same
time, to give them some knowledge of the technique of writ-
ing.

The work begins with tlie study of the composition as a
whole, and then, by easy stages, develops the paragraph, the
sentence, and the choice of words. The work is unified, its
parts forming a natural sequence, but each part is, at the
same time, complete and interesting in itself.

The forms of discourse used are not those of the col-
lege rhetoric, description, exposition, narration and argu-
mentation, which are seldom found in pure form anywhere,
I)ut those more natural to children, the review, the descri])-
tion as the word picture, the character sketch, and the storv.

The revicio has been taken up first because, although it is
the most difficult, it gives the pupil a chance to write away
from the text of his book, and leads him to see that one valu-
able thing in a composition is an honest expression of his
observation and opinions.

Suggestions for Composition xxxix

The work in description gives the pupil an opportunity to
be really creative. In this work he will see that fundamental
thing, the possibilities of the sentence and, further, the
power and beauty which comes through the use of simple
figurative language. He will enjoy painting with words
as much, or even more, than he does with colors.

In the character sketch, some of the work started in the
review and in description is carried on. It gives an excel-
lent opportunity for that which is not strictly composition
work, but which should not be lost sight of at an\' time, the
defining of the ideals of character.

The story gives vent to that most natural impulse, the
narration of events. In it are studied the first elements of
plot and dialogue.

Unity and other things which made for clearness have
been emphasized in the work in the review, beauty and
vividness in the work on description and in story telling
some things which make for interest. This work has per-
force been very elementary.

The subject matter used as a basis for the work is such
as has stood the test of the critical judgment of many chiJ-
(Iren. It appeals to their interests, is varied and good and
yet popular.

The method of the presentation of the subject matter and
the technique has been the following :

1. The reading of a selection.

2. Questions to bring out certain kinds of thought.

3. Directions for writing.

4. A study in technique.

5. A method of criticism.

This order is important, for by placing the study of
technique after the expression of thought the cramping of
thought for the expression of form is avoided.

il Suggestions for Composition

Many of the papers required of the children have been
brief. QuaHty rather than quantity has been sought. Brev-
ity and interest do away with the fatigue and discourage-
ment which come to both teachers and pupils from pro-
longed aimless writing. The work outlined in the book
should be largely supplemented from other sources : the
daily experiences of the children, current events and work
in other studies. The review and character sketch work
in well with the study of literature ; description with ge-
ography, civics, science, and history ; and the story telling
with all.

w

THE WOODS IN WINTER
(See page i88)

An

English Grammar

The First Section
* Chapter I

THE SUBJECT AS A WHOLE

Introductory. Purpose of the Study of Eng-
lish Grammar. We think in language, and it is
the most important means or tool which we use
in communicating with our friends and other
people. The mastery of it is, therefore, of the ut-
most importance to every one of us. Skill in its
use enables us to think clearly, to read under-
standingly, and to speak and write with grace,
ease, and force.

There are several subjects of study which help
us directly in obtaining a command of the Eng-
lish language. English grammar is one of these,
and it is therefore closely allied to our home life,
our social life, and our school life. Do you know
which of the following sentences are correct, and
whv?*

* Chapter One may simply be read carefully. It is preliminary
The real study of the subject begins with Chapter Two.

2 An English Grammar

1. I saw my friend, who T once thought would succeed in
business, fail.

2. I saw my friend, whom I once thought would succeed
in business, fail.

3. One of the children are going.

4. One of the children is going.

Some of you may have to ask your teacher or
some older person to tell you which sentences are
grammatically correct, or if you do know which
are correct, perhaps you may not know why. The
study of English grammar will enable you to de-
termine right and wrong forms of language for
yourself, and to know zvhy they are right or wrong.

How do you distinguish an educated from an
uneducated person ? When you meet a stranger,
do 3^ou not judge him largely by his language?
If he uses good English, and seems to be fairly
well-informed, you decide that he is an educated
person. If he uses poor English, you think he is
illiterate. This method of judging* people is often
unjust, for many very well-educated people use in-
correct English ; but people generally will judge you
in this way. The use of incorrect English, then,
has a tendency to injure one's chances in life and
to destroy one's usefulness.

Besides, the English language is the mother
tongue in this country and we should all have
pride enough in it, and patriotism enough to learn
to speak it, and write it well. The German people
love their language. They enter into long dis-

The Subject as a Whole 3

cussions to show that the German spoken at
Court, or the German used on the stage is the
purer form of the language. Why should not
American boys and girls be proud of their mother
tongue and desire to use it well?

The subject of English grammar also forces
us to think logically. There is no better subject
to train the mind to make distinctions and to
reach conclusions from the consideration of facts.
It is, therefore, a means of education aside from
its practical uses.

I. The Literal Meaning of Words. We are
often helped to understand a subject by discovering
the literal meaning of the word that names it. To
obtain the literal meaning of a word, we must :

1. Find the language from which it is derived;
as, Greek, Latin, French, or whatever it may be.

2. Obtain the parts of the word in the language
from which it is derived.

3. Find the meaning of each part in the lan-
guage from which the word is derived.

4. Then summarize, or jmt the meaning of these
parts together.

This gives the literal or original meaning of
the word.

To illustrate, we may take the word, definition.
In our study of grammar, we shall be constructing
and dealing with definitions of many different top-
ics ; as, subject, predicate, noun, case, and voice. It

4 All English Grammar

is well that we should know what a definition is
and what \\q must do to form one properly. The
literal meaning of the word gives us some light
upon thi'^.

The word, definition, comes from the Latin, de,
meaning around, ahout, from; fimre, meaning to
bound, to limit, to separate; and Hon, meaning the
act of. Literally, then, the word means the act of
bounding about, limiting around, or separating
from. Now this is just what we do when we de-
fine a thing properly. We bound it about, sep-
arate it from everything else, or draw^ a line men-
tally around it.

The literal meaning of words may be obtained
from any modern dictionary. In " The Literna-
tional " it will usually be found the first thing under
the word. In "The Standard" it follows the defi-
nition of the word.

2. The Marks of a Good Definition. To form
an accurate, logical definition of a thing, we must
do three things :

1. Name the thing to be defined.

2. Put it into the smallest known class.

3. Give the marks, characteristics, or attributes
which set it off or distinguish it from all other mem-
bers of that class.

To illustrate, we may take the definition of an
island. An island is a small body of land sur-
rounded by water. When we say, an island, we

The Subject as a Whole 5

have named the thing to be defined. \Mien we say,
is a small body of land, we have put it into the small-
est known class. When we say, surrounded by
zvater, we have given the mark, characteristic, or
attribute which separates it from all other members
of its class or all other small bodies of land, such as,
the cape, promontory, and isthmus.

We must name the thing to be defined, in giving
a definition, in order to get it clearly before the
mind. It is better to put it into the smallest class
because that gives us more information about it and
also leaves us fewer individuals or members from
which to distinguish it. In defining the horse, for
example, we may put it into the class animals or
we may put it into the class quadrupeds. It is
much better, however, to put it into the smaller
class, quadrupeds, for that gives us more informa-
tion about it ; for example, that it is four-footed. It
also makes the third step in the definition easier,
for we do not then have to distinguish it from
bipeds, but only from other quadrupeds. But we
must put the thing to be defined into a known class
whether that class be large or small, because the
mind immediately gives to the thing to be defined
the attributes of the class into which we put it. If
the class be unknown, the mind can have no attri-
butes to give to the thing to be defined. It does not
help us to put the thing to be defined into an un-
known class. We should test all our definitions by
these requirements.

f» An EnglisJi Grammar

3. The Place of Grammar in the Language
Group. Grammar belongs to that group of sub-
jects which we call language studies because it
deals with or has for its subject-matter one phase
of language. Any subject which deals with lan-
guage, or has language for its subject-matter or
unit, is a language study. Geography is not a lan-
guage study because it deals with or has for its sub-
ject-matter or unit the facts and phenomena of the
earth.

The other subjects of this group of language
studies which we study in the public schools are:
literature, rhetoric, reading, composition, orthog-
raphy, orthoepy, and word analysis.

Orthography, orthoepy, and word analysis deal
with or have for their subject-matter that unit of
language which we call the word.

Composition, rhetoric, reading and literature
deal with or have for their subject-matter that
unit of language which we call discourse.

Grammar deals with or has for its subject-
matter that unit of language which we call the
sentence.

We might think, on first thought, that when we
are studying " parts of speech " the unit with which
we are dealing is the word. A little thought will
show us, however, that, although we are studying
words, the word is not the unit. If we ask what
part of speech the word, fine, is, we are unable to
tell until we see it in a sentence. If we say. If is a

The Subject as a Whole 7

fine day, the word, fine, is an adjective. In the sen-
tence, The fine was remitted, the word, fine, is a
noun. While in the sentence, / fine you ten dollars,
the word, fine, is a verb. Thus we see that we can-
not even tell what part of speech a word is until
we see it in a sentence.

If we want to know the case of the word, pen,
we cannot tell until we see the word used in a sen-
tence. In the sentence. My pen is new, the word,
pen, is in the nominative case, while in the sen-
tence, I hold my pen, the word, pen, is in the object-
ive case. Much more might be said to show that
whenever we are dealing with words in the subject
of grammar, the sentence is still the unit. We deal
with words in grammar only as parts of sentences.
In fact, the name "parts of speech," implies that
there is a whole of speech. The whole of speech in
grammar is the sentence.

4. The Distinguishing Mark of Grammar.

The distinguishing mark of grammar, then, is that
it has for its subject-matter or unit the sentence.
No other language study deals with the sentence in
this way, or has the sentence for its subiect-matter
or unit.

5. Grammar Defined. Grammar is that lan-
guage study which has for its subject-matter or
unit the sentence. Test this definition and all
your definitions by the marks of a true definition,
as oriz>en in Section 2.

8 An English Grammar

6. Outline of the Language Studies. An out-
line of the language studies, showing the place
of grammar among them, is as follows:

I. Definition. A language study is a study
that has for its subject-matter or unit some phase
of language; as, composition.

II. Classes- of language studies on the ba-
sis OF THE unit dealt WITH.

Class A. Dealing unth Discourse.

1. Composition and Rhetoric.

2. Reading.

3. Literature.

Class B. Dealing with the Sentence.
I. Grammar.

Class C. Dealing zmth the Word.

1. Orthography.

2. Orthoepy.

3. Word Analysis.

Chapter II

THE SENTENCE AS A WHOLE

7. The Sentence Defined. If a person meets
you on the street and says, '' The tall green tree,"
your mind is not satisfied ; you have no complete con-
ception. You have an idea, but your mind naturally
thinks, "Well, what abovJ 'The tall green tree' f"
Your mind is satisfied when the person says, '" The
tall green tree was blown dozun by the storm."

This last group of words we call a sentence be-
cause it expresses a thought; the first group of
words is not a sentence because it does not express
a thought.

A sentence is a group of words which ex-
presses a thought; as, A soldier must be brave.

Exercise i

Tell which of the follozving groups of words are
sentences and zvhich are not. Change the groups
of words zvhich are not sentences into sentences by
adding words to them:

1. The child in the window.

2. The picture hanging on the wall.

3. The sun is hot.

4. The sun shining in at the window.

5. The girl who tries to paint.

[9]

10 An English Grammar

6. The streets are icy.

7. The large star shining in tlie west.

8. The large star.

9. The large star shining in the west is Venus.
10. The large -chair occupied by my father.

Write five sentences about objects which you
can see in the room. Write Uve groups of zuords
which are not sentences. Change these into sen-
tences by adding words to them. Write statements
showing hozv the first groups differ from your sen-
tences.

8. The Thought and the Sentence. The defi-
nition of the sentence shows us that it is only an
instrument to express the thought. The thought
is the important thing; the sentence exists for it.
If it were not for the thought, we should never need
a sentence. This must be true because every in-
strument depends upon or is determined by the work
which it is to do.

Take the garden hoe, for example. It is an in-
strument. It is made to suit the work which it is to
do. Every part and attribute of it depends upon
the work w4iich it is to perform. Any question we
may ask about it must be answered by the nature
of the work which it is to do. Why is the handle
five feet in length instead of two? If the handle
were only two feet long, one would have to stoop too
much in using it. Why is the blade made of metal
instead of wood? It must stand hard knocks to

The Sentence as a Whole -1^1

break the clods and stir the soil. Why is the blade
sharp ? It must cut weeds. We see that everythins^
about this instrument is adapted to the work which
it is to do.

In the same way, the sentence is adapted to the
expression of the thought. A person could not un-
derstand the garden hoe unless he knew about the
garden and plants, how they grow, and that they
must be cultivated. Nor can a person understand
the sentence — the instrument for expressing the
thought — until he understands something about the
thought.

9. The Thought Defined. If we think of
that which the word, roses, expresses, we have an
idea. That which the expression, red roses or large
red roses, expresses is still an idea, though it is more
complex than the idea, roses. The group of words,
large red roses groiving by the windozv, expresses
only one idea, though it is much more complex than
any of the other ideas just mentioned.

Any one of these ideas is a complete mental- aef,
but it is not a thought. If we think of that
which the words, roses fragrant, or roses growing,
express, we still have only ideas. In this case we
have two ideas, that expressed by the word,
roses, and that expressed by the word, fragrant, or
(hat expressed 1)y the word, roses, and that ex-
pressed by the word, grozving. We do not know
whether the ideas, fragrant and grozving, belong to

12 All English Grammar

the idea, roses, or not. Other things are fragrant
and other things perform the act of groiving.

The expression, roses growing, does not express
a thought, then, but only two ideas. In order to
make a thought out of these two ideas the mind
must assert a relation between them. It must
assert that the idea, groiving, belongs to the idea,
roses, or else it must assert that the idea, growing,
does not belong to the idea, roses. If we express
this first assertion by means of words, we must have
one more word than we have yet used ; as, Roses are
growing. If we express the second assertion, we
must have two more words : as, Roses are not grow-
ing.

This shows us how the mind thinks a thought
and what is necessary to the thought. If the mind
wishes to think a thought, it begins with some idea
about which it can assert another idea ; as the idea,
stars. Then it thinks some attribute or group of
attributes; as the idea, twinkling. This does not
form a thought. To form a thought the mind
must in the third place assert a relation between
the idea, stars, and the idea, twinkling. Let us say
that, in this case, it asserts the relation, that the
idea, tzvinkling, belongs to the idea stars. This
gives it the thought. Stars are twinkling.

The mind performs all these activities so quickly
that we do not realize that it has taken these three
steps; but, when we analyze the thought carefully,
we see that the mind must perform these three acts

The Sentence as a Whole 13

or take these three steps every time it thinks a
thought. No thought can be formed by the mind
with fewer than these three elements:

1. An idea about which the mind asserts an-
other idea.

2. An idea which the mind asserts concerning
the first idea.

3. The relation between the two ideas.
What, then, is a thought or judgment? A

thought is a mental act in which the mind asserts
a relation between ideas; as, Snoiv is zvhite. The
thought is the mental act, Snozv is white.

What is an idea? An idea is a mental act
which may form an element or part of a thought,
such as is expressed in the sentence. Gold is valua-
ble. The idea is the mental act, gold or valuable
or is.

Exercise 2

Think of eight or ten things in your school room;
such as, pictures, flowers, and maps. Begin with
these ideas; think other ideas which your mind can
assert about these ideas; make the assertions, thus
forming thoughts.

Shozv hozu the mind has constructed the thoughts
expressed by the follozuing sentences by pointing out
the three steps in the thoughts:

1. Flowers arc blooming.

2. Grass is growing.

3. Birds are singing.

4. Streams are flowing. lij

14

An English Granunar

5. Coal is black.

6. Ice is cold.

7. Rain is falling.

8. Sugar is sweet.

9. Apples are ripe.
10. Pinks are fragrant.

10. The Thought and the Sentence Com-
pared. The differences between the thought and
the sentence brought out in the last two sections
are very important. They may be summed up as
follows :

The Thought.

1. The thought is a mental

act.

2. The thought is a group of

related ideas.

3. The thought is the end.

4. The thought is subjective,
inside, in the mind.

5. The thought cannot be
known through the
senses. We cannot see
it or hear it or touch it.

The Sentence.

1. The sentence is the ex-

pression of a mental act.

2. The sentence is a group

of related words.

3. The sentence is the means

or instrument, not the
end.

4. The sentence is objective,

outside, on the board or
in the book, or in the air
if spoken.

5. The sentence can be

known through the
senses. We can see it,
hear it and touch it.

II. The Elements of the Thought. From
what we have aheady learned about the thought,
we can see that every thought must contain three
elements. In the thought, The ants are busy, the

The Sentence as a Whole 15

mind begins with the idea, The anfs. That is the
idea about which it thinks or asserts another idea.
Then the mind thinks, in connection with it, the
idea, busy. It holds the two up together, as it were,
for comparison. Third, the mind sees the agree-
ment betw^een these ideas and asserts that the
idea, busy, belongs to the idea, TJie ants. This third
element is the relation between the first idea,
The ants, and the second idea, busy.

In the thought. Flowers bloom, we have these
same elements. The first idea is the idea. Flowers.
The second idea, which the mind holds up with this
idea for comparison, is the idea, bloom. The third
idea or element is that this idea, bloom, belongs to
or this act is performed by the idea. Flowers. The
mind cannot think a thought with fewer than these
three elements, and no thought can contain more
than these three elements.

Exercise 3

In the thoughts expressed by the following sen-
tences, point out the three elements:

1. Elephants are powerful.

2. Walking is pleasant.

3. Some books are interesting.

4. Men think.

5. Rain falls.

12. The Elements of the Thought. The

first idea in the thought, the idea with which the
mind begins, may be called the thought subject.

16 An English Grammar

The second idea in the thought, the idea which
the mind compares with the first idea, may be
called the thought predicate. The third idea in
the thought, the relation between the first and the
second ideas, may be called the thought relation.

The thought subject is the idea about which
the mind asserts another idea. In the thought.
The fog is rising, the thought subject is the idea,
The fog.

The thought predicate is the idea which the
mind asserts of the thought subject. In the
thought, The fog is rising, the thought predicate is
the idea, rising.

The thought relation is the relation which the
mind asserts between the thought subject and the
thought predicate. In the thought. The fog is ris-
ing, the thought relation is that the idea, rising, or
the thought predicate, belongs to the idea. The fog,
or the thought subject. This thought relation is
expressed by the word, is.

The mind does not always assert that the
thought predicate belongs to the thought subject.
It may assert that the thought predicate does not
belong to the thought subject ; as, This paper is not
clean. In this thought, the mind asserts that the
thought predicate, the idea, clean, does not belong
to the thought subject, the idea, This paper.

This fact gives us two kinds of thought rela-
tions ; one in which the mind asserts that the thought
predicate belongs to the thought subject and one in

The Sentence as a Whole IT

which the mind asserts that the thought predicate
does not belong to the thought subject. We call the
first a relation of agreement. We call the second
a relation of disagreement.

Exercise 4

In the thoughts expressed by the following sen-
tences, tell wJiicJi lias a relation of agreement and
which a relation of disagreement:

1. Iron is heavy.

2. My pencil is not long.

3. My pen is not good.

4. Jonathan was faithful to David.

5. The lesson was not difficult.

Write five sentences expressing relations of
agreement and h-ve zvJiich express relations of dis-
agreement.

The mind may see that the thought predicate is
a part or an attribute of the thought subject; as,
The man is charitable. The sun shines. Or it may
see that the thought subject is an individual or a
class of individuals, and that the thought predicate
is an individual or a class of individuals, and that
the attributes of the thought predicate belong to
the thought subject; as, Monroe was a statesman.
Violets are plants. These men arc natives. The Mis-
sissippi is the father of zvaters. When the mind as-
serts any of these relations between the thought
subject and the thought predicate, we call it a
relation of agreement.

18 An English Graimnar

But the mind may assert just the opposite of
this relation. It may assert that the thought pred-
icate does not belong to the thought subject or that
the attributes of the thought predicate do not be-
long to the thought subject; as, The man is not
charitable. The sun does not shine. Monroe was
not a statesman. Violets are not minerals. These
men are not natives. The Missouri is not the father
of zvaters.

When the mind asserts any of these relations
between the thought subject and the thought pred-
icate we call it a relation of disagreement.

13. The Thought Analyzed. We may then
analyze a thought or judgment as follows: Web-
ster, the statesman, zvas a great lawyer. The
thought is the mental act, Webster, the states-
man, zvas a great lazvyer, because it is a mental act
in which the mind asserts a relation between ideas.
The thought subject is the idea, Webster, the
statesman, because it is an idea about which the
mind asserts another idea. The thought predicate
is the idea, a great lawyer, because it is the idea
which the mind asserts of the thought subject. The
thought relation is one of agreement because the
attributes of the thought predicate belong to the
thought subject.

Exercise 5

Analyze the thoughts expressed by the follozving
sentences:

The Sentence as a Whole 19

1. The climate of California is mild.

2. The snow was melting from the mountains.

3. The flowers were springing up everywhere.

4. Chaucer was the father of English poetry.

5. Tobacco is harvested in the latter part of August.

6. We camped on Moosehead lake.

7. The boys rowed the boat down the stream.

8. The cave was very damp.

14. The Parts of the Sentence. We have
now seen that the thought ahvays consists of three
elements ; that the sentence is the instrument for
expressing- the thought ; that the instrument is al-
ways adapted to the work which it is to do; and
that the sentence is, therefore, adapted to the
thought. The sentence must then have three parts
corresponding to or expressing the three elements
of the thought. If you will refer to Section 10, you
will see that this is the only way in which the sen-
tence and the thought are alike. The thought has
three elements; the sentence has three parts.
This is the only way they can be alike.

That part of the sentence which corresponds to
or expresses the thought subject we call the sub-
ject of the sentence. That part of the sentence
which corresponds to or expresses the thought pred-
icate we call the predicate of the sentence. That
part of the sentence which corresponds to or ex-
presses the thought relation, we call the copula
of the sentence.

In the sentence, Dark clouds were overhead, the

20 An English Grammar

&'

subject of the sentence is the words, Da"k clouds,
because they express the thought subject. The
predicate of the sentence is the word, overhead, be-
cause it expresses the thought predicate. The cop-
ula of the sentence is the word, zuere, because it ex-
presses the thought relation.

15. The Parts of the Sentence Defined. We

may then form tlie following definitions:

1. The subject of the sentence is the word or
group of words which expresses the thought sub-
ject; as, in the sentence, Milk is zvhite, the subject
is the word. Milk.

2. The predicate is the word or group of
words which expresses the thought predicate;
as, in the sentence, Storms arc frightful, the predi-
cate is the word, fright fid.

3. The copula is the word or group of words
which expresses the thought relation; as, in the
sentence, The righteous man is exalted, the copula
is the word, is.

16. Why Every Sentence in the English Lan-
guage Must Have These Three Parts. Every
person who wishes to master the English sentence
should know, first of all, the following facts :

I. The verb, he, in all its forms, he, am, is, are,
art, was, wast, zvere, wert, and heen, is the only
pure verb in the English language.

Note: Section 16 may simply be carefully read at first. Tn con-
nection nith the study of the pure verb, return to it for more care-
ful consideration.

The Sentence as a Whole 21

2. We mean b}' saying it is the only .pure verb
that it is the only verb in the English language
which always expresses the thought relation and
never expresses anything else. The verb, he, with
its modifiers and auxiliaries, if it has any, is always
the copula of the sentence, and never anything else.
It and its modifiers are never a part of the predicate
of the sentence. At one time in the history of the
language, the verb, be, had the power to express an
attribute. It then meant exists. The sentence, God
is, at the time at which it was written, meant, God
exists. We do not so use this verb now. It has lost
all power to express an attribute, and has now come
to be used as a mere connective or copula between
the subject and the predicate. Whenever we find
any form of this verb in the sentence, then, we may
be sure that it, with its auxiliaries and modifiers,
if it has any, is the copula of the sentence.

3. Sometimes other verbs, such as, become,
grow, get, turn, remain, continue, stay, seem, ap-
pear, look, sound, smell, feel, stand, sit, go, and
move, are used in the sentence with the force of
a pure verb; as, TJie field looks green. The child
feels sick.

In such cases these verbs are the copulas of the
sentences. But these verbs are not always used in
this way.

4. Every other verb in the English language
may be expanded into some form of the verb, be,
and another word, usually the present participle,

22 An English Grammar

which expresses the attribute or thought predicate
or the principal part of the thought predicate; as,

1. They beg is equal to They are beggars or
They are begging.

2. They may zvrite is equal to They may be
zvriting .

J. He must go is equal to He must be going.

4. She does study is equal to She does be study-
ing.

5. We do insist is equal to We do be insisting.

6. The boy had gone is equal to The boy had
been going.

7. They have studied is equal to They have been
studying.

8. His brother zvill have departed is equal to His
brother will have been departing.

In the above sentences the part in black faced
type in each case is the copula. It is clear, there-
fore, that every sentence in the English language
not only may have three parts, but every sentence
must have, either actually in it or implied in it, these
three parts : subject, predicate, and copula.

To say that a sentence has three parts, however,
is not the same as to say it has three words in it.
Sometimes, as we have just seen, one word per-
forms two offices in the sentence. In the sentence,
They beg, the word, beg, expresses the thought re-
lation and the thought predicate. Thus it performs
two offices in the sentence, or stands for two parts
of the sentence. These two parts of the sentence

The Sentence as a Whole ^3

may be shown by expanding the word, beg, into its
equivalent expression, are beggars, or are begging.
Now the sentence has three visible or audible parts,
They are begging. A sentence may have only one
visible or audible part; as, March. Yet this sen-
tence contains three parts, for there is a subject un-
derstood, the w^ord, you. The sentence means, You
march. Then the word, march, performs two of-
fices. It expresses the thought relation and the
thought predicate and may be expanded into the
expression, be marching. The sentence, March,
then really means. You be marching, and in this we
have three visible or audible parts. No matter how
many or how few words a sentence may contain, it
is ahvays made up of three parts: subject, predi-
cate and copula.

Exercise 6

Analyze the thoughts expressed by the following
sentences, by giving the thought subject, the thought
predicate, and the thought relation of each, with
the reason in each case. Then analyze the sen-
fences by giving the subject, predicate, and copula
of each, zvifh a reason in each case. Let your lan-
guage in tJie analysis show clearly the distinction
betzveen the sentence and the thought.

To make this point clearer, let us analyze these
sentences:

Model for the Analysis of the Thought.

/. The King was silent.

The thought is the mental act, The King 7i'as

24

An English Grammar

silent, because it is a mental act in which the mind
asserts a relation between ideas. The thought subject is
the idea, The King, because it is the idea about which the
mind asserts another idea. The thought predicate is the
idea, silent, because it is the idea which the mind asserts of
the thought subject. The thought relation is one of
agreement because the thought predicate belongs to the
thought subject.

Model for the Analysis of the Sentence.

//. The King was silent.

The sentence is the group of words. The King
was silent, because it is a group of words which
expresses a thought. The subject of the sentence is the
words, The King, because they express the thought sub-
ject. The predicate is the word, silent, because it expresses
the thought predicate. The copula is the word, was, be-
cause it expresses the thought relation.

///. Colwiibns discovered America.

The sentence is the group of words, Columbus discov-
ered America, because it is a group of words which expresses
a thought. The subject of the sentence is the word, Colum-
bus, because it expresses the thought subject. The predicate
is the words, discovered America, because they express the
thought predicate. The copula is implied in the word, dis-
covered. If it were expanded, it would be was discovering.
The copula is then the word, zvas, because it expresses the
thought relation.

Sentences To Be Analyzed.

1. The Puritans were strict.

2. Coal is a mineral.

3. My uncle's farm is fertile.

The Sentence as a Whole 25

4. We enjoyed a moonlight sail.

5. Coasting is dangerous.

6. The natives enjoy climbing mountains.

7. A prairie fire is an impressive sight.

8. The village street leads past the church.

9. The Van Tassel homestead was not large.

10. A New England kitchen has a thrifty appearance.

Review

Read each sentence in the following paragraph
and tJiink the thougJit expressed by it. Give the
three elements of the thought. Give the three parts
of the sentence.

This was to be our visiting day. The next that came
was Mr. Burchell, who had been at the fair. He brought
my little ones a pennyworth of gingerbread each, which
my wife undertook to keep for them, and give them by
letters at a time. He brought my daughters also a couple
of boxes, in which they might keep wafers, snuff, patches,
or even money when they got it. My wife was unusually
fond of a weasel-skin purse as being the most lucky;
but this by the by.

— Goldsmith.

Tlic Second Section
Chapter III

CLASSES OF SENTENCES

17. On the Basis of their Meaning or Chief
Purpose. Sentences are used to awaken thoughts
in tlie mind. Whenever „you use a sentence, yoti
wish to produce some effect upon another mind.

Examine the following sentences to see if you
can state the chief purpose of each. What would
yoit expect to accomplish zvith them?

1. London is the largest city in the world.

2. Is London the largest city in the world?

3. Find the population of London for your next lesson.

4. What a large city London is !

1. The chief purpose of the first sentence is to
give information to the mind.

2. The chief purpose of the second sentence
is to obtain information from the mind.

3. The chief purpose of the third sentence is
to have the mind act, to cause it to do something.

4. The chief purpose of the fourth sentence
is to awaken emotion. It awakens the emotion
of surprise at the size of the city of London.

This difference in the chief purpose of sen-
tences gives us four classes on that basis. We
call the first a Declarative sentence; the second,

[263

Classes of Sentences 27

an Interrogative sentence; the third, an Impera-
tive sentence; and the fourth, an Exclamatory
sentence.

1 8. These Classes Defined. The four classes
of sentences may be defined as follows :

1. A Declarative sentence is a sentence whose
chief purpose is to give information; as, The first
mail zvas Adam.

2. An Interrogative * sentence is a sentence
whose chief purpose is to obtain information; as,
WJw zi'as the first woman?

3. An Imperative sentence is a sentence whose
chief purpose is to move the will; as, Read the first
stanrja of fJie poem.

4. An Exclamatory sentence is a sentence
whose chief purpose is to awaken emotion; as,
Alas! That zve should fail!

Exercise 7

Classify the follozving sentences on the basis of
tlieir chief purpose and give your reasons:

1. Constant dropping wears away stones.

2. Tom rowed with untired vigor, and with a different
speed from poor ^Maggie's. — Eliot.

3. Mercy, sir, how the folks will talk of it !

4. Men's evil manners live in brass, their virtues we
write in water.

5. Come, Rollo, let us take a walk.

6. Why was the French Revolution so bloody and de-
structive ?

28 An English Graimnar

7. Be clean, for the strength of the hunter is known
by the gloss of his hide. — Kipling.

8. Honey from out the quarreled hive I'll bring.

9. Lead us to some far-off sunny isle.

10. Where are you going, my pretty maid?

11. " The Dwarf asked, " Who is my master? "

12. Toussaint wrote to Napoleon, " Sire, I am a French
citizen ; have I ever broken a law ? "

13. Tell me what you like and I will tell you what you
are. — Ruskin.

14. " Think you, Abel," said Paul at last, " that the
storm drove thither ? "

15. The way was long, the wind was cold

The minstrel was infirm and old. — Scott.

Write five declarative sentences about facts in
history. Write five interrogative sentences asking
for information in geography. Write five impera-
tive sentences which may he used by the teacher.
Write "five exclamatory sentences which may be
used in climbing mountains, at a circus, at a base
ball game.

Exercise 8

19. Arrangement of the Sentence. Point out
the subject, predicate, and copula in each of the fol-
lowing sentences:

1. I am a poor man.

2. Who will help me?

3. Every man's task is his life preserver.

4. The devil can catch a lazy man with a bare hook.

5. When did the leopard ever change his spots?

6. Can one stop the current of a river?

Classes of Sentences 29

7. How beautiful is white-winged peace !

8. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of
him that bringeth glad tidings !

9. Great is Diana of the Ephesians.

10. Charity begins at home.

11. Am I required to go?

20. Arrangement Defined. In which kind
of sentence in the preceding list does the subject
usually come first, the copula next, and the predi-
cate last? Is this always true? Notice sentence 9.
In what kind of sentence does the copula sometimes
come first? Notice sentence 11. Does the predi-
cate of the sentence ever come first? Notice sen-
tence 8. Sum up your observations on the sen-
tences.

The arrangement of the sentence is the order
in which the parts occur in it; as. The Romans
conquered the zvorld. Is the room zvarm? Whose
hook have yon?

21. Kinds of Arrangements. In the sen-
tence, Poe was the father of the short story, what
is the order of the subject, predicate, and copula?
We call this natural or regular arrangement. In
what order are the subject, predicate, and copula
when a sentence is in its natural order?

In tlie sentence, Great was the fall of Rome, what
is the order of the subject, predicate, and copula-*
Does the copula ever come first in the sentence?
Illustrate. We call this arrangement of the sen-

30 An English Grammar

tence inverted arrangement. In what order are
the subject, predicate, and copula when a sentence
is inverted arrangement?

Natural or regular arrangement is that ar-
rangement in which the subject comes first in the
sentence, the copula next, and the predicate last;
as, David zvas the cJiainpion of Israel.

Inverted arrangement is any arrangement of
the parts of a sentence other than the natural; as,
Holy art thou, oh, Lord of Hosts!

Arrange the sentenees in the follozving extract
from "Evangeline" in their natnral order:

Fair was she to behold, that maiden of seventeen summers,
Black were her eyes as the berry that grows on the thorn

by the wayside.
Black, yet how softly they gleamed beneath the brown

shade of her tresses !
Sweet was her breath as the breath of kine that feed in the

meadow.
When in the harvest heat she bore to the reapers at noontide
Flagons of home-brewed ale, ah ! fair in sooth was the

maiden.
Fairer was she when, on Sunday morn, while the bell from

its turret
Sprinkled with holy sounds the air, as the priest with his

hyssop
Sprinkles the congregation, and scatters blessings among

them.
But a celestial brightness, a more ethereal beauty,
Shone on her face and encircled her form, when after

confession.

Classes of Sentences 31

Homeward serenely she walked with God's benediction

upon her.
When she had passed, it seemed like the ceasing of exquisite

music. — Longfellozi'.

Exercise g

Show zvliat the arrangement of each of the fol-
loiving sentences is, and notice the punctuation:

1. Thou shalt not steal.

2. Who killed Cock Robin?

3. Wait until you can see the whites of their eyes.

4. O what a rapturous cry !

5. Alas ! that thou shouldst die !

6. Oh, where shall rest be found!

7. Whom were you seeking?

8. Is the world round?

9. In the city, Wilfred was discontented.

10. The Puritan prostrated himself in the dust before his
Maker, but he set his foot on the neck of his king.

— Macaulay.

22. Punctuation and Capitalization. By ex-
amining- the sentences in the preceding lists, we
may note tlic following:

The first word of every sentence begins with
a capital letter.

The Declarative and Imperative sentences
close with the period (.).

The Interrogative sentence closes with the in-
terrogation point (?).

The Exclamatory sentence closes with the ex-
clamation point ( !) .

In the exclamatory sentence, wc often hr.ve a

32 An English Grammar

word which expresses emotion. It is called an
interjection. Point out the interjections in the
preceding list of sentences. Notice the punctuation
marks after the interjections.

1. When the interjection and the remainder of
the sentence unite closely to express the same
emotion, no mark of punctuation follows the in-
terjection ; as, Oh for a lodge in some vast wilder-
ness!

2. When the interjection and the remainder of
the sentence do not unite very closely to express
the same emotion, the interjection is followed by
the comma (,) ; as. Oh, how happy I am!

3. When the interjection expresses an emotion
different from the thought expressed by the re-
mainder of the sentence, the interjection should be
followed by an exclamation point ( !) ; as, Alas!
what a terrible accident!

Exercise 10

Punctuate and capitali::c the following sen-
tences, and give your reasons:

1. fie on him

2. the natives gathered around him

3. call the guard

4. oh that those lips had language

5. is the young man safe

6. oh for a kindly touch from that pure flame

7. oh what a fall was there my countrymen

8. the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak

9. alas what mortal terror we are in

Classes of Sentences 33

lo. where was Columbus born

ii. and hark how clear bold Chanticleer
warmed with the new wine of the year
tells all in his lusty crowing — Lowell.

12. give me of your bark O Birch-tree

Review and Work in Composition

TO THE FRINGED GENTIAN

Thou blossom bright with autumn dew,
And colored with the heaven's own blue,
That openest when the quiet light
Succeeds the keen and frosty night.

Thou comest not when violets lean

O'er wandering brooks and springs unseen,

Or columbines, in purple dressed,

Nod o'er the ground-bird's hidden nest.

Thou waitest late and com'st alone,
When woods are bare and birds are flown,
And frosts and shortening days portend
The aged year is near his end.

Then doth thy sweet and quiet eye
Look through its fringes to the sky,
Blue — blue — as if that sky let fall
A flower from its cerulean wall.

I would that tints, when I shall see

The hour of death draw near to me,

Hope blossoming within my heart.

May look to heaven as I depart. — Bryant.

Learn all you can about the fringed gentian
from the poem. What color is it? When does it

34 An English Grammar

bloom f Does it close at night and open in the
morning f Note lines three and four of the first
stanza. With zvhat other flozvers does the author
contrast it? How? What is the "ground-bird"?
With what is the year compared? Explain the
fourth stanza in your ozvn words. What is a "ceru-
lean zvall"? What zvish does the author express
in the last stanza?

Did yon ever see a fringed gentian? Learn all
you can about the flozvcr from sources other than
the poem.

Write one-page papers on one or tzvo of the fol-
lowing topics:

1. Why is the fringed gentian so highly prized?

2. The Gentian and its Spring rivals ; a comparison.

3. Glimpses of Spring and Antumn. (Enlarge some of
the scenes snggested hy the poem.)

4. The (ientian and the Poet's wish.

Chapter IV

CLASSES OF SENTENCES

23. On the Basis of Number and Relation of
the Thoughts Expressed, or the Form. Exam-
ine the folloiving sentences carefully. Tell how many
I h oughts each expresses. Gk'e tlie elements of each
ill ought. Give the parts of each sentence or clause.
When the sentence 'expresses more than one
thought, try to state the relation between the
thoughts. Is one tJi ought a part of the other? Is
it a part of the thought subject, or the thought
predicate, or the thought relation of the other; or is
neither thought a part of the other?

1. Washington, the father of his country, was our first
president.

2. Washington, who was the father of his country, was
our first president.

3. \V'ashii>gton was the father of his country, and he
was our first president.

We notice that the first of these sentences ex-
presses only a sing^le thought subject, a single
thought predicate, and a single thought relation
In other words, it expresses only one thought.
We call this kind of sentence a simple sentence.

The second sentence expresses two thought
[35]

36 An English Grammar

subjects, two thought predicates, and two thought
relations. In other words it expresses two
thoughts, l^he first thought is expressed by the
words, VVasJiington was our first president. Give
the elements of this thought and then the parts of
the clause. The second thought is expressed by
the words, IVJio zvas the father of his country.
Give the elements of this thought and then the parts
of the clause. We notice, however, that the second
thought is a part of the thought subject of the first
thought. Sometimes the second thought is a part
of the thought predicate or the thought relation of
the first thought. When a thought is a part of
one of the elements of another thought, we call it a
subordinate thought, or we say that the thoughts
expressed by such a sentence are of unequal rank.
The first thought expressed by this second sentence
we call a principal thought because it does not de-
pend upon or is not a part of any other thought.
We call this kind of a sentence a complex sen-
tence.

The third sentence in the list also expresses two
thoughts. The first thought is expressed by the
words, Washington was the father of his country.
Give the elements of this thought and then the parts
of the clause. The second thought is expressed
by the words, he zvas our first president. Give
the elements of this thought and then the parts of
the clause. In this particular it is like the second
sentence and dififers from the first sentence. It

Classes of Sentences '^7

differs from the second sentence, however, in that
neither one of these thoughts is a part of the other.
We say that they are independent thoughts or
thoughts of equal rank because neither one is de-
pendent upon or forms a part of the other. We
call this kind of a sentence a compound sentence.

24. Simple, Complex and Compound Sen-
tences Defined. From what we have said in the
last section, we may form the following definitions:

1. A simple sentence is a sentence which ex-
presses a single thought; as. Gold ij^litfcrs.

2. A Complex sentence is a sentence which
expresses one principal thought and one or more
subordinate thoughts; as, Gold, which is valua-
ble, glitters zvhen held in the sunlight.

3. A Compound sentence is a sentence which
expresses two or more independent thoughts of
equal rank; as, Gold glitters in the sunlight and
it is valuable.

25. The Clause Defined. We may also see
from the last two Sections that a clause is very much
like a sentence. It expresses a thought and like
the sentence it has a subject, predicate and copula.
But it is always a part of a sentence.

A clause is a group of words, composed of a
subject, predicate and copula, which is a part of
a sentence; as, The Charter Oak, which was
blown down in a storm, was an historic landmark.
This sentence contains two clauses. The first clause

38 An Enf:;Iish Graiinnar

is the words, The Charter Oak zvas an historic land-
mark. The second clause is the words, which zvas
bloivn dozvn in a storm.

Exercise ii

Take your dictionaries and find tJie literal mean-
ing of the zvords simple, complex and compound
as indicated in Section /. Z^ the literal meanings
of these zvords help yon to nndchstand these kinds of
sentences? IVhyf

Analyse the follozving thoughts and sentences
according to the follozving scheme:

Classify the sentences on the two kases .which we
have so far discovered, that is, on the basis of chief
purpose and the basis of the number and relation of
thoughts expressed, state the basis in each case and
give the reasons for your classification.

T. If the SENTENCE IS A SIMPLE SENTENCE:

(a) Give the elements of the thought expressed by it
zi'ith reasons for each.

(b) Give the parts of the sentence mith reasons for
each.

TT. If tttf sentence is complex:

(a) Gizr the elements of the entire thought zvith
reasons.

(b) Give the parts of the entire sentence with reasons.

(c) Give the zvords zviiich express the principal thought.

1. Give the elements of the principal thought.

2. Give the parts of the principal clause.

(d) Give the zuords zvkich express each subordinate
thought.

1. Give the elements of each subordinate thought.

2. Give the parts of each subordinate clause.

Classes of Sciitcuccs 39

TIT. If the sentence is compound:

(a) Give the words zvJiich express each independent
iho light.

1. Give tlie elements of each independent thought

with reasons.

2. Give the parts of each independent clause with

reasons.

(b) Give the words which express each subordinate
thought, if any.

1. Give the elements of each subordinate thought.

2. Give the parts of each subordinate clause.

1. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of
freedom.

2. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the
rapidity of vibration.

3. We can easily prove that the earth is a sphere.

4. They who are accompanied by noble thoughts are
never alone.

5. Blessed is the man who has nothing to say and who
ins-'sts upon not saying it.

6. William Cullen Bryant was born at Cummington,
Massachusetts, November 3, 1794.

7. The Embargo was published in Boston in 1809, and
was written when Bryant was only thirteen years old.

8. The Catskill Mountains have always been a region
full of fable. — Irving.

9. He was accustomed to tell his story to every stranger
that arrived at Mr. Doolittle's hotel. — Irving.

10. Rip's story was soon told for the whole twenty years
had been to him but as one night. — Irving.

ri. Many birds have different tones for various phases of
their emotions.

12. Song sometimes seems to have in it the element of
rejoicing in anticipation.

40 Ati English Grammar

13. There is a power whose care

Teaches thy way along that pathless coast.

— Bryant.

14. Vainly the fowler's eye

Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong.

— Bryant.

15. All that breathe will share thy destiny.

— Bryant.

16. I have heard that nothing gives an author so great
pleasure as to have his works respectfully quoted by other
learned authors. — Franklin.

17. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of
heaven, blossomed the lovely stars. — Longfellow.

18. This pleasure I have seldom enjoyed.

19. Example appeals not to our understanding alone,
but it awakens our passions likewise.

20. If thou didst ever thy dear father love, revenge his
foul and most unnatural murder. — Shakespeare.

21. The strength he gains is from the embrace he gives.

22. If you blow your neighbor's fire, do not complain if
the sparks fly in your face.

23. Do not measure other people in your half bushel.

24. There is no flock, however watched and tended,

But one dead lamb is there !
There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended,

But has one vacant chair ! — Longfellozv.

25. Thou lingering star, with lessening ray,

That lov'st to greet the early morn.
Again thou usherest in the day

My Mary from my soul was torn. — Burns.

i6. Lightly and brightly breaks away

The morning from her mantle gray.
^7. Softly sweet in Lydian measures,

Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures ;
War, he sung, is toil and trouble;

Classes of Scntoices "il

Honor but an empty bubble. — Dryden.

28. 'Tis an old maxim in the schools,
That flattery's the food of fools ;
Yet now and then your men of wit

Will condescend to take a bit. — Swift.

29. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches ; none
Are just alike, yet each believes his own. — Pope.

30. Love is the ladder on which we climb

To a likeness with God. — Pope.

31. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate,
All but the page prescribed, their present state.

—Pope.

32. Faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death.

Exercise ii-B

Notice the simple, complex and compound sen-
tences in the extract from Hawthorne's "My Visit
to Niagara", on page 68. How many do yon find
of each? How are they distributed through the
paragraph? What is the advantage of this variety
of sentences?

Paragraph I. Simple Sentence.

Rip entered the house. It was empty, forlorn and ap-
parently abandoned. The desolation overcame all of hi>
connubial fears. He called loudly for his wife and chil-
dren. The lonely chambers rang for a moment with his
voice. Then all again was silence. He hurried forth and
hastened to his old resort, the village inn. It, too, was
gone. —Irving.

Paragraph II. Complex Sentence.

As they descended, Rip every now and then heard long
rolling peals like distant thunder, that seemed to issue from

■^2 An English Grammar

a deep ravine, or rather cleft, between lofty rocks, toward
which their rugged path conducted. Supposing it to be the
muttering of one of those transient thunder-showers which
often take place in mountain heights, he proceeded.

— Irving.

Paragraph III. Compound Sentence.

They were dressed in quaint, outlandish fashion ; some
wore short doublets; others jerkins with long knives in their
belts; and most of them had enormous breeches of similar
style with those of the guide. Their visages, too, were
peculiar: one had a larg'e head, broad face, and small,
piggish eyes ; the face of another seemed tO' consist en-
tirely of nose, and was surmounted by a white sugar-loaf
hat, set off with a little red cock's tail.

— Irving.

Study the above paragraphs of simple, complex
and compound sentences. What effect on the mind
have the different forms of the sentence? Which
is most dramatic? Which is clear, hut sometimes
contains many thoughts? Which smooth and grace-
ful, hut involved?

Write a paragraph relating some experience of
your own. Write it first using all simple sentences.
Improve the smoothness by changing some of the
sentences to complex and some to compound sen-
tences. See that all three kinds are represented.

The Third Section
Chapter V

THOUGHT MATERIAL OR IDEAS

26. What We Have Learned. From the pre-
ceding chapters we know the nature of a thought
and the nature of a sentence. We know th;il
the sentence expresses the thought and that the
sentence takes different forms to make different
impressions upon the mind or to express different
thoughts. This gives us different kinds or classes
of sentences. \\q know that each thought is made
up of three elements and that each sentence con-
tains three parts, subject, predicate, and copula,
corresponding to or expressing the three elements
of the thought.

27. The Use of Words. We now find, how-
ever, that these organic parts of the sentence, the
subject, predicate, and copula, are made up of
smaller units which we call words. Subjects are
not all alike; predicates are not all alike; nor are
copulas all alike. We cannot understand words,
however, until we understand that which the word
expresses, the idea, just as we saw that in order
to understand the sentence, we must understand
the thought which it expresses. The word is
an inslrunient for expressing the idea jusL as the

[43J

44 An English Grammar

sentence is the instrument for expressing the
thought.

Examine the ideas expressed by the words in
the following sentence to see if they are all alike.
How do they differ? Notice how the mind uses
the ideas in constructing thoughts: Jefferson, the
author of the Constitution, was m great statesman.

In studying the ideas expressed by the words
in this sentence, you will notice that the mind can-
not use all of them in the same way in constructing
a thought. Take, for example, the idea expressed
by the word, Jefferson. You will notice that it is
an idea which may be made the subject of a thought.
We may think or affirm or assert another idea
of it. We may think, Jefferson is dead, or Jefferson
zvas independent in his thought.

We call such an idea an object of thought.
The ideas, author, Constitution and statesman are
also objects of thought because the mind may as-
sert other ideas of these.

There are no other ideas expressed in the sen-
tence about which the mind can assert another
idea. The mind cannot assert another idea about
the ideas the, of, zvas, a, and great. These are not
ideas which can be made subjects of thoughts.

Now if we think carefully about the idea
expressed by the word, great, we see that
it is an idea which always belongs to another
idea. We cannot find a great by itself. In this
case, the idea, great, belongs to the idea statesman.

Thought Material or Ideas 45

The ideas, the and a, are like the idea, great. These
are ideas by means of which the mind distinguishes
one idea from another. We call such ideas at-
tributes. How do you distinguish a chair from
a table, a knife from a pen?

If we take the idea expressed by the word, is,
we can easily see that it is not an object of thought,
because the mind cannot assert another idea of it;
nor is it an attribute because it does not belong to
any other idea. We cannot have an is pen or an is
knife. The idea, is, is merely the connection
which the mind sees to exist between the thought
subject, Jefferson, the author of the Constitution,
and the thought predicate, a great statesman. The
idea, of, is also an idea of relation. It is merely the
connection which the mind sees to exist between the
idea, author, and the idea. Constitution. If I hold
a book just above the table, the idea, above, is the
connection which my mind sees to exist between
the hook and the table. If I hold it under the table,
the idea, under, is the idea of connection which my
mind sees to exist between the two. If I place it
upon the table the idea, upon, is the connection, and
so on. We call these ideas ideas of relation. Find
ten ideas of relation expressed in the sentences in
Exercise lo.

28. Ideas Defined. An idea is any mental
activity simpler than a thought. An idea is any
component element of a thought; as, The sun is

46 All Eiwlish Grammar

i>'

ninety-tzvo million miles distant. Every word in
this sentence expresses an idea. Sometimes two or
more words express an idea, though in this case,
the idea is complex, composed of one principal idea
and other subordinate ideas belonging to it. The
words, TJie sun, in this sentence express such a
complex idea ; so do the words,^ ninety-tzvo million
miles distant.'

An object of thought is an idea about which
the mind can assert another idea; as, Snow is
composed of little crystals. The objects of thought
are the ideas, Snozv and crystals.

An attribute is an idea by which the mind dis-
tinguishes other ideas; as, The Mississippi, the
largest river in the United States, flows into the
Gulf of Mexico. The attributes are the ideas, The.
largest, and flozus.

An idea of relation is the connection which
the mind sees to exist between other ideas; as,
The scenery of the Rocky Mountains is unsur-
passed. The ideas of relation are the ideas, of and
is.

These are all the kinds of ideas which the mind
uses in constructing thoughts.

Exercise 12

Classify the ideas expressed by the zvords in the
following sentences, giving reasons:

Model: Elephants are poiverful animals. The idea
Elephants is an object of thought liecause it is an idea about

Thought Material or Ideas 47

which the mind can assert another idea. The idea arc is an
idea of relation, because it is the connection which the mind
sees to exist between other ideas. The idea pozuerftil is an
attribute because it is an idea by which the mind distin-
guishes another idea.

I. Find all the objects of thought expressed in
the following sentences, and give reasons:

1. This plant came from Palestine.

2. The people watched them in silence.

3. He of the rueful countenance answered without delay.

4. Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green,
That host with their banners at sunset were seen ;
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown.
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown.

— Byron.

II. Find all the attributes expressed in the fol-
lozving sentences, and tell zvhy they are attributes:

1. Truth crushed to earth will rise again.

2. The smooth glass is transparent.

3. The running stream murmurs sweetly.

4. The morns are meeker than they were,
The nuts are getting brown ;

The berry's cheek is plumper,
The rose is out of town.

5. The maple wears a gayer scarf,
The field a gayer gown.

Lest I should be old-fashioned,

I'll put a trinket on. — Dickinson.

III. Find all the ideas of relation expressed in
the folloiving sentences, and tell zvhy they are ideas
of relation:

^8 An English Grammar

1. The red sky is beautiful.

2. The rushing storm is frightful.

3. The sun is set ; the swallows are asleep ;
The bats are flitting past in the gray air ;

The slow, soft toads out of damp corners creep,
And evening's breath, wandering here and there
Over the quivering surface of the stream,
Wakes not one ripple from its- silent dream.

— Shelley.

IV. Classify the ideas expressed by the words
in the following sentences, and give reasons:

1. By fairy hands their knell is rung;
By forms unseen their dirge is sung;
There Honour comes, a pilgrim gray.
To bless the turf that wraps their clay;
And Freedom shall awhile repair
To dwell a weeping hermit there.

— Collins.
2. The Night is mother of the Day,
The Winter of the Spring,
And ever upon old Decay

The greenest mosses cling.
Behind the cloud the starlight lurks.

Through showers the sunbeams fall;
For God, who loveth all His works,
Hath left His Hope with all !

— Whittier.

Review and Work in Composition

Song of the Chattahoochee.

Out of the hills of Habersham,

Down the valleys of Hall,

I hurry amain to reach the plain,

Thought Material or Ideas 49

Run the rapid and leap the fall.
Split at the rock and together again,
Accept my bed, or narrow or wide.
And flee from folly on every side
With a lover's pain to attain the plain
Far from the hills of Habersham,
Far from the valleys of Hall.

All down the hills of Habersham,

All through the valleys of Hall,

The rushes cried, Abide, abide,

The wilful waterweeds held me thrall,

The laving laurel turned my tide.

The ferns and the fondling grass said Stay,

The dewberry dipped for to work delay,

And the little reeds sighed. Abide, abide.

Here in the hills of Habersham,

Here in the z'a'lleys of Hall.

High o'er the hills of Habersham,

Veiling the valleys of Hall,

The hickory told me manifold

Fair tales of shade, the poplars tall

Wrought me her shadowy self to hold.

The chestnuts, the oak, the walnut, the pine,

Overleaning with flickering meaning and sign.

Said, Pass not, so cold, these manifold

Deep shades of the hills of Habersham,

These glades in the valleys of Hall.

And oft in the hills of Habersham,

And oft in the valleys of TTall,

The white quartz shone, and the smooth brook-stone

Did bar me of passage with friendly brawl.

And many a luminous jewel lone

50 An English Grannnar

— Crystals clear or a-cloud with mist,

Ruby, garnet and amethyst —

Made lures with the lights of streaming stone

In the clefts of the hills of Habersham,

In the beds of the valleys of Hall.

But oh, not the hills of Habersham,

And oh, not the valleys of Hall

Avail : I am fain for to, water the plain.

Downward the voices of Duty call —

Downward, to toil and be mixed with the main,

The dry fields burn and the mills are to turn.

And a myriad flowers mortally yearn.

And the lordly main from beyond the plain,

Calls o'er the hills of Habersham,

Calls through the valleys of Hall.

— Lanier.

Do you like the poem? Why? Explain the
thought of it in your ozvn zvords. With zvhat dif-
ficulties does the stream meet in reaching "'the
main"? What human qualities does the stream
exhibit? What is the zvorl^ of the stream as ex-
pressed in the last stam^a? Does this poem contain
a lesson for people? Write one-page papers in
answer to tzvo or three of the aboz'e questions.

Chapter VI

WORDS

29. The Word Defined. Wq have seen in
the preceding- chapter that a word is the expression
of an idea. This is not an accurate definition, how-
ever, for sometimes a group of words expresses
an idea; as, Our friends started in the morning.
The expression, in the nwrning, expresses an idea
of time. Sometimes, too, a word expresses more
than one idea; as, The sun shines. The word,
siiines, expresses the thought relation and the
thought predicate. We can see that it expresses
two ideas, because it is equivalent to the ex-
pression, is shining. Here the word, is, expresses
one idea, and the word, shining, expresses another.
There are some words also which do not express
ideas, as we shall see' later on ; but for all practical
purposes we may say : A word is a symbol which
expresses an idea. This is its usual function.

30. Classes of Words. We have seen in the
preceding- chapter that there are three great classes
of ideas: objects of thought, attributes, and
ideas of relation. Since words are the instru-
ments to express ideas, just as sentences are the
instruments to express thoughts, we must have

[51]

52

An English Grammar

three great classes of words; one to express ob-
jects of thought, one to express attributes, and one
to express ideas of relation. In this sentence, The
stars are beautiful, the word, stars, expresses an
object of thought. In the sentence, He is my friend,
the words, he, my, and friend, express objects of
thought. We call such a word a substantive
word.

A substantive word is a word which expresses
an object of thought; as, Franklin zvrotc good
English.

In the sentence, TJie tall man zmlked rapidly
home, the words, the, fall, walked, and rapidly, ex-
press attributes. We call such words attributive
words.

An attributive word is a word which expresses
an attribute; as, The white roses are fragrant.

In the sentence, The zvater flo7vs through the
mill by the river, and it is turning the maehinery,
the words, through, by, and, and is, express ideas
of relation. We call such words relational words.

A relational word is a word which expresses
an idea of relation; as. The mill zvill never grind
with the water which is past.

Exercise 13

In the follozving sentences, point out the sub-
stantive, attributive, and relational zvords, giving
reasons for each:

I. The inventions of paper and the press have put an

Words o3

end to all these restraints ; they have made everyone a
writer, and enabled every mind to pour itself into print,
and diffuse itself over the whole intellectual world. The
consequences are alarming. The stream of literature has
swollen into torrent, augmented into a river, expanded
into a sea. — lining.

2. He may live without books, — what is knowledge but
grieving?
He may live without hope, — what is hope but deceiv-
ing?
He may live without love. — what is passion but pin-
ing?
But where is the man who can live without dining?

— Ozven Meredith.

31. Substantive Words: Nouns and Pro-
nouns. Examine the italicised substantive words
in the follozving sentences:

1. The knife is on the table.

2. The book is on the table.

3. The pen is on the table.

4. It is on the table.

When we use the substantive words, knife, book,
or pen, we know just what object is on the table be-
cause these words name the objects of thought
which they express. When we use the substantive
word, it, we are not sure just what object is on the
table. We know that some object is on the table,
for the word, it, expresses an object of thought, but
it might be the pen, the book, or the knife, or any
other object of thought, because the word, it, does
not name the object of thought which it expresses.

54 An English Grammar

&'

This (iilTereiice in the way in which substantive
words express objects of thought gives us two
classes of them, namel};, nouns and pronouns.

A noun is a substantive word which expresses
an object of thought by naming it; as, Senators
are elected by the legislature.

A pronoun is a substantive word which ex-
presses an object of thought without naming it ;
as, They arc elected for two years.

Exercise 14

Point out the nouns and pronouns in tlie follozv-
ing sentences. Give your reasons in each case:

1. Life, we've been long together;

Through pleasant and through cloudy weather.

2. 'Tis hard to part when friends are dear ;
Perhaps 'twill cost a sigh, a tear ;
Then steal away, give little warning ;

Choose thine own time;
Say not " goodnight,"
But in some brighter clime
Bid me " good-morning! ''

— Mrs. Barbauld.

3. You should never despair of truth.

4. They, themselves, welcomed us gladly.

5. I talk half the time to find out my own thoughts, as
a schoolboy turns his pockets inside out to see what is in
them. — Holmes.

32. Attribute Words : Adjectives, Attributive
Verbs, and Adverbs. In the sentence, The schol-
arly man is in demand to-day, the word, scholarly,
is an attributive word because it expresses an

Words 55

attribute. The attribute expressed by it belongs
to the object of thought expressed by the word,
maitj hence the word, scholarly, expresses an attri-
bute of an object of thought.

In the sentence, Truth triumphs in the end, the
word, triumphs, is an attributive word because it
expresses an attribute. The attribute expressed
by it belongs to the object of thought expressed
by the word, truth, hence the word, triumphs, ex-
presses an attribute of an object of thought.

We see, then, that in this particular, the word,
scholarly, and the word, triumphs, are just alike.
Each expresses an attribute of an object of thought.
But they differ in one feature also. The word,
triumphs, expresses a thought relation, that is,
the relation between thought subject and thought
predicate ; while the word, scholarly, does not. This
is the distinction between the two.

We call such words as the word, scholarly,
adjectives. We call such words as the word, tri-
umphs, attributive verbs.

An adjective is an attributive word which ex-
presses merely an attribute of an object of
thought; as, Grateful persons resemble fertile
■fields.

An attributive verb is an attributive word
which expresses an attribute of an object of
thought and also a thought relation; as, He car-
ried the palm.

\n the sentence. TJic clouds of adversity soon

Ob A71 LLHglis.ii Lrraiiunar

vanisli, the word, soon, is an attributive word be-
cause it expresses an attribute. The attribute ex-
pressed by it does not ])elong to an object of
thought, so it cannot be an adjective or an attrib-
utive verb. The attribute expressed by the w^ord,
soon, belongs to the attribute, expressed by the
word, vanishes, hence the word, soon, expresses
an attribute of an attribute. ^

In the sentence, Avarice is not a jezvel, the
word, not, is an attributive word because it ex-
presses an attribute. It does not express an at-
tribute of an object of thought, nor does it ex-
press an attribute of an attribute Hke the word,
soon. The word, not, expresses an attribute which
belongs to the idea of relation expressed by the
word, is, hence the w^ord, not, expresses an attri-
bute of an idea of relation.

If a word expresses an attribute of an attribute,
like the word, soon, or an attribute of an idea of re-
lation like the word, not, we call it an adverb.

An adverb is an attributive word which ex-
presses an attribute of an attribute, or an attri-
bute of an idea of relation; as, Trade, like a rest-
ive liorse, is not easily managed. The pen is per-
haps mightier tJian the szuord.

Exercise 15

Point out the adjectives, attributive verbs, and
adverbs in the follozving sentences. Give your rea-
sons in each case:

Words 57

1. Presence of mind is greatly promoted by absence of
body.

2. A great many children get on the wrong track because
the switch is misplaced.

3. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax.

4. And thrice the Saxon blade drank blood.

5. Ere long he reached the magnificent glacier of the
Rhone, a frozen cataract more than two thousand feet in
height, and many miles broad at its base. It fills the whole
valley between two mountains, running back to their sum-
mits. At the base it is arched, like a dome, and above
jagged and rough, and resembles a mass of crystals of a
pale emerald tint, mingled with white. — Longfellow.

6. Highways and cross paths are soon traversed ; and,
clambering down a crag, I find myself at the extremity of
a long beach. — HauHhoruc.

Find the attributive verbs in tJiis verse:

Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower,

And trimmed the lamps as the sun went down ;
And they looked at the squall, and they looked at the shower,
And the rack it came rolling up, ragged and brown ;
But men must work, and women must weep,
Though storms be sudden, and waters deep, -^

And the harbor bar be moaning.

— Kiiigsley.

Find the adjectives in the same verse.

33. Relational Words, Pure Verbs, Preposi-
tions, and Conjunctions: In the sentence, Gh^ss
is transparent, the word, is, is a relational word,
because it expresses an idea of relation. It expresses
the idea of relation between the thought subject.

58 A)i English Grammar

&*

Glass, and the thought predicate, transparent, and it
expresses nothing else. The attributive verb al-
ways expresses a thought relation too, but it always
expresses an attribute also. This word, is, and
other words like it, never express anything but the
thought relation. We call such words pure verbs.

A pure verb is a relational word which ex-
presses only a thought relation; as. Virtue is a
jczvcl. (Reread section i6 on page 20 carefully.)

Point ont the pure verbs in the second para-
graph of JVJiifc's " The 'Lunge" on page jji*.

In the sentence, Choate ivas one of the greatest
men of the age, the word, of, in each case is a
relational word because it expresses an idea of
relation. The first word, of, expresses an idea of
relation between the ideas, one and men; the sec-
ond word, of, expresses the relation between the
ideas, men and age. These are ideas of unequal
rank, that is, the one idea belongs to the other, or is
subordinate to the other. They are not of equal
importance in the thought. The idea, men, is sub-
ordinate to the idea, one; and the idea, age, is sub-
ordinate to the idea, men. We call a word that
expresses this subordinate relation between ideas
a preposition.

A preposition is a relational word which ex-
presses a relation between ideas of unequal rank;

as, TJic country zvas ivasted by tJie sword.

Words 59

Find five prepositions in the first paragraph of
" The 'Lunge" on page S3^-

There is one other kind of relational word. In
the sentence, Bread and milk is a. good food, the
word, and, is a relational word because it ex-
presses an idea of relation. It expresses the re-
lation between the ideas, bread and milk. These
ideas are of equal rank; that is, they are of equal
importance in the structure of the thought.
This is just the opposite of the kind of relation
expressed by the preposition.

In one way it is like the relation expressed by the
pure verb, for the thought relation which the
pure verb expresses is a relation between ideas of
equal rank. The thought subject and the thought
predicate are always ideas of equal rank as they
are both principal elements of the thought. But
the relation expressed by the pure verb, the thought
relation, is always an asserted relation; while the
relation expressed by the word, and, and other
words like it, is always an unasserted relation.
The mind does not assert the relation between the
ideas, bread and milk; but it always asserts the
thought relation or the relation between the thought
subject and the thought predicate.

This unasserted relation may exist between
tlioughts as well as between ideas; as, Tlie hedges
are white zvith May, but the wind carries traces of
March. Here the word, but, is the relational word

Go An Englisli Gramiiiar

rind it expresses an unasserted relation between two
■Jioughts of equal rank.

Sometimes this kind of word also expresses an
'Miasserted relation between thoughts of unequal
rank; as. Let my right hand forget her cunning
if / forget thee. Here the word, if, expresses an
unasserted relation between the^ thought, Let my
right hand far get her cunning and the thought, /
forget' thee.

We notice now that this kind of w^ord ex-
presses merely or only an unasserted relation be-
tween ideas or thoughts of equal rank, or between
thoughts of unequal rank. It does not express this
relation and in addition to it an object of chought,
as does t-he relative pronoun ; nor does it express
this idea of relation and in addition to it an attri-
bute, as does the conjunctive adverb, as we shall see
later on. These words have simply this relational
use and we call them conjunctions.

A conjunction is a relational word which ex-
presses only an unasserted relation between ideas
or thoughts of equal rank, or between thoughts
of unequal rank; as, The flag is red, zvJiite, and
blue. Truth is often crushed to earth or falsehood
coidd not succeed as she does. We zvaited until the
train arrived.

Find examples of these conjunctions in "Rohm
Flood and AUiu a Dale", on fagc lOj.

I. Fill the following blanks with relational

Words 61

words which express asserted relation between
ideas of equal rank, using a different word in each
case:

1. The lion the king of beasts.

2. The soldier- -an officer.

3. The bells clear.

4. The doctor here.

5. Our teachers surprised.

IT. Fill the following blanks with zvords zvhich
express only unasserted relation betiveen ideas of
equal rank:

1. Ten two are twelve.

2. The hardships of the voyage landing were num-
erous.

3. Mr. Hornung sells boots shoes.

4. The badge was yellow blue.

5. His sister is a gracious talented woman.

III. Fill the following blanks ivith words which
express only unasserted relation betzueen thoughts
of equal rank:

1. Then the rains descended the floods came.

2. Such a law i-s needed, this one is faulty.

3. You may sun* yourself on the deck read in the

cabin.

4. Improvement comes only with effort we must

all work.

5. The horse is beautiful he is unreliable.

T\^ Fill the follozving blanks with words which
express only unasserted relation between thoughts
of unequal rank:

62 An English Grammar

1. We shall wait the train arrives,

2. James cannot go the sun rises.

3. You will be successful- you persist.

4. You must rise early you will be ready.

5. Samuel will not come you invite him.

V. Fill the following blanks with words which
express relation betzueen ideas of unequal rank:

1. The snow' the mountains is beautiful.

2. The eagle's nest is built the crag.

3. The castle Blenheim stands the river's

brink.

4. The flag the battleship was destroyed.

Tell zvhat kind of relational zvord you have in-
serted in each group and zvhy.

Exercise 16

Classify the relational zvords in the following
sentences, giving reasons:

1. The legs of the table and of the chair were made of
walnut.

2. He spoke and they listened.

3. They listened but they could not hear.

4. They went because they could not help it.

5. If any one attempts to haul down the American flag,
shoot him on the spot.

6. They only knew that the earth was bright and the
sky was blue.

7. He will come before you have waited long.

8. You may have the book or the knife.

9. Grace and beauty is a desirable combination.

10. He was angry, otherwise he would have stayed.

11. He is very ill, yet he may live a week.

Words 63

12. He had left before I arrived.

13. We heard the poet and artist.

14. Man may err. but no one but a fool will persist in
error.

15. The wind grumbled and made itself miserable all last
night, and this morning it is still howling as ill-naturedly
as ever, and roaring and rumbling in the chimneys.

— Hawthorne.
16. " The rose is fairest when 'tis budding new,

And hope is brightest when it dawns from fears,
The rose is sweetest washed with morning dew.
And love is loveliest when embalmed in tears.

O wilding rose, whom fancy thus endears,
I bid your blossoms in my bonnet wave,

Emblem of love and hope through future years ! "
Thus spoke young Norman, heir of Armadave,
What time the sun arose on Vennachar's broad
wave. — Scott.

*34. Form Words: Interjections and Ex-
pletives. IV e have nozv discoi'ercd all the kinds of
ivords zvhich are absolutely essential in expressing
our fhougJifs. If zve examine the italicized words
in the follozving sentences, hozvever, zve shall see
that they cannot he classified a^ substantive, attri-
butive, or relational zvords:

1. Alas! that thou shouldst die!

2. Pshaw! I do not care a fig!

3. There is sunshine in my soul.

4. There are four boys in the class.

The italicized words do not express objects of

Note: Pupils should not spend much time on form words.

64 An English Gramniar

thought, attributes, nor ideas of relation. The
same thoughts or essentially the same thoughts
may be expressed by the sentences, if these italicized
words be omitted from them, thus:

1. That thou shouldst die!

2. I do not care a fig !

3. Sunshine is in my soul.

4. Four boys are in the class.

The words, alas and pshaw, seem to express
some vague kind of idea, which we call emotion
or feeling. The word, there, in both the sen-
tences, expresses no idea at all. The thought ex-
pressed by the sentence is just as complete without
it as it is with it. These words we call form
words.

A form word is a word which is not essential
to the expression of the thought; as,

Oh, that I had the wings of a dove !
IVell, what did he say?

We do not mean to say, however, that form
words are of no use in the sentence. They are
not essential in the expression of the thought,
but they do in some way improve the form of the
sentence or help to make the thought clearer or more
*'mphatic.

The form words like oJi, alas, pshazv, in the
sentences already given, express emotion or feel-
ing, and we call them interjections.

An Interjection is a form word which ex-

Words 65

presses emotion or feeling; as, Oh, that I could
find hiin!

Other form words do not express emotion or
feeling. Some of them simply introduce the sen-
tence or make it less abrupt ; as, Well, did you vote?

Others change the arrangement of the sentence,
making it smoother; as. There zvere giants in
those days.

If we omit the form word we must change the
arrangement of the sentence, thus: Giants zvere
in those days. This is not so smooth a sentence as
the other. It sounds awkward.

This kind of form words we call expletives.

An expletive is a form word which changes
the arrangement of the sentence, makes it less
abrupt or in some way improves its form; as,

1. Now, I do not believe a word of it.

2. There were five people present.

3. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods.

We can easily see, however, that these are not
important words.

Notice the use of form words in " A Selection
from Saul", on page 103.

35. Infinitives and Participles. We need to
notice here two other kinds of words. They are not
different in their uses, however, from nouns, adject-
ives, adverlis. and relational words. They are only
forms of the verb which have lost the asserting
power or the power of expressing a thought rela-

66 An English Grammar

tion and are used in the sentence with the force of
some other word; as,

1. The sun, shining in at the window, warmed the room.

2. We believe in the life to come.

3. They came to assist us.

4. To wander in the woods was his delight.

The word, shining, and the expressions, to come,
to assist, and to wander, are forms of the verbs,
shine, come, assist, and wander, but they do not ex-
press thought relations in these forms. The word,
shining, and the expression, to come, are used as
adjectives; the expression, fo a^^w^, is used as an
adverb; and the expression, to zvander, is used as a
substantive word, and is the principal part of the
subject of the sentence.

These w-ords and expressions are called infini-
tives and participles, but for the present, as we
are now dealing only with the uses of words, we
may simply call them nouns, adjectives, or ad-
verbs, according to their use. Later on we shall
take up these words and study them in detail.
We may here, however, easily formulate the fol-
lowing definitions:

An infinitive is the root form of the verb
which does not express a thought relation; as.
To walk rapidly is tiresome.

The to here is a form word, not a preposition,
as it usually is. It is a part of the infinitive. We
say the infinitive is the expression, to walk. The to
is called the sign of the infinitive.

Words ^'^

A participle is the derived form of the verb
which does not express a thought relation; as,
The man, wretched in his grief, could not be com-
forted. The flood of time is rolling on.

Exercise 17

Classify the words in the following sentences
lyito their smallest known classes. Give your rea-
son in each case:

r. Hiawatha thought that there was an old woman m
the moon.

2. The Httle boy asked many questions.

3. Nokomis answered his questions.

4. Rippling waters sang to him.

5. What is the water singing. Nokomis?

6. In the frosty winter nights, Hiawatha lay on his bed
of moss.

7. " The broad road of stars is the pathway of the
Indian shadows." said Nokomis.

8. These sounds lulled Hiawatha to sleep.

9. '■ I will sing you a cradle song," said Nokomis.
ro. In the wigwam it was dark.

ri. Now. Barabbas was a robber.

12. Well, what are you going to do about it?

13. Our business is to grow.

14. In the shipwreck of the state, trifles float and are
preserved : while everything valuable sinks to the bottom,
and is lost forever.

15. In peace, children bury their parents ; in war, parents
bury their children.

r6. If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase
his stores but to diminish his desires.

17. Words are the counters of wise men, and the money
of fools.

<^>^ An English Gram mar

18. A juggler is a wit in things, and a wit, a juggler
in words.

19. Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, but
does not relieve all the misery it creates.

20. Worth makes the man, the want of it the fellow.

21. And, balancing on a blackberry-briar,
The Cardinal sang with his heart on fire.

22. The poor and the rich, the weak and the strong, the
young and the old have one common ^Father.

23. Man, likfe the child, accepts the profifered boon,
And clasps the bauble, where he asked the moon.

— Pope.

24. Know then this truth, enough for man to know.
Virtue alone is happiness below. — Pope.

25. O summer day beside the joyous sea !
O summer day so wonderful and white.
So full of gladness and so full of pain !
Forever and forever shalt thou be

To some the gravestone of a dead delight,
To some the landmark of a new domain.

— Longfellozv.

26. Above and below me were the rapids, a river of im-
petuous snow, with here and tliere a dark rock amid its
whiteness, resisting all the physical fury, as any cold spirit
(lid the moral influences of the scene. On reaching Goal
Island, which separates the two great segments of the falls,
I chose the right-hand path, and followed it to the edge of
the American cascade. There, while the falling sheet was
yet invisible, I saw the vapor that never vanishes, and the
Eternal Rainbow of Niagara.

— From Hawthorne's " My Visit to Niagara."

Chapter VII

*THE PHRASE

36. The Phrase Defined. \A\^ have now dis-
covered all the kinds of words which we use in
expressing our ideas. We are now to see that
sometimes a numher of words unite to express a
single idea, or the group of words may have the
use of a single word in the sentence; as, TJic
speaker stood on the platform. In this sentence
the group of words, on the platform, expresses
the idea of place. My brother arrived in tJic
evening. In this sentence, the group of words,"!
in the evening, expresses the idea of time. These)
groups of words are used in the sentence with the
value of an adveiTS. A man of zvealth may do much'
good. The group of words, of zvealth, expresses
one idea and the expression is used in the sen-
tence with the value of an adjective.

We call such a group of words a phrase.

A phrase is a group of words, not having a
subject, predicate, or copula, which is used in the
sentence with the value of a single word; as,
To succeed in life is his desire.

* Note : Pupils need not dwell long npon classes of phrases on
the basis of the characteristic word.

[69I

70 Ail English Grammar

37. Classes of Phrases. In the sentence,
He came info the room. The group of words, into
the room, is a phrase. The characteristic word of
the phrase or the word that gives character or
name to the phrase is the preposition, into; hence
we call this kind of phrase a prepositional phrase.

In the sentence, William likes to visit his friends
frequently, the expression, to visit his friends fre-
quently, is a phrase. The characteristic word of
this phrase is the infinitive, to visit; hence we call
this kind of phrase an infinitive phrase.

In the sentence, The girl reading the hook is my
sister, the expression, reading the book, is a phrase.
The characteristic word of this phrase is the parti-
ciple, reading; hence we call this kind of phrase a
participial phrase.

In the sentence. The boy should have hurried,
the expression, should have hurried, is a phrase.
The characteristic word of this phrase is the verb ;
hence we call this kind of phrase a verbal phrase.

38. Phrases on the Basis of the Characteris-
tic Word Defined. We have seen now that we
have four kinds of phrases on basis of the char-
acteristic word, as follows :

1. A prepositional phrase is a phrase whose
characteristic word is a preposition; as, The pris-
oner stood before the judge.

2. An infinitive phrase is a phrase whose char-
acteristic word is an infinitive; as, To read Emer-
son requires concentration.

The Phrase 71

3. A participial phrase is a phrase whose char-
acteristic word is a participle; as, Reading Haw-
thorne is a delightful pastime.

4. A verbal phrase is a phrase whose charac-
teristic word is a verb; as, He had watched,
with a beating heart, the departure oflhe troops
under Diinwoodie. Harvey had been honest with
Jiis captors.

In the paragraph from Lord Macaulay, on page
TOi, point out the phrases on the basis of the char-
acteristic zvord.

39. Classes of Phrases on the Basis of Their
Use in the Sentence, i . In the sentence, Throwing
the hammer is good exercise, the expression,
throwing the hammer, is a participial phrase, on
the basis of the characteristic word. It is used
as the subject of the sentence, that is, with the value
of a substantive word; hence we call this kind of
phrase a substantive phrase.

2. In the sentence, He believed himself to be the
messenger of the Deity to the people of Athens, the
expression, of the Deity, is a prepositional phrase,
on the basis of the characteristic word. It is used
in the sentence as an adjective, that is, with the
value of an attributive word; hence we call this
kind of phrase an attributive phrase.

3. In the sentence, Cromzvell might have been
King, the expression, might have been, is a verbal

72 All English Gram mar

phrase, on the basis of the characteristic word. It
is used as the copula of the sentence, that is, with
the value of a relational word; hence we call this
kind of a phrase a relational phrase.

40. Phrases on the Basis of Their Use De-
fined. These may be defined as follows:

1. A substantive phrase is a phrase which is
used in the sentence with the value of a substan-
tive word; as, TJic Greeks sought to produce per-
fect form.

2. An attributive phrase is a phrase which is
used in the sentence with the value of an attribu-
tive word; b.s, Suddenly a man wading breast-high
through the water appeared.

3. A relational phrase is a phrase which is
used in the sentence with the value of a relational
.word; as. The Spaniards had been outwitted.

41. Classes of Attributive Phrases, i. If w^e
examine the phrases in the sentence, So confident
was lie in the concliision of the Council that he had
volunteered in the niorning to go thither alone,
we can see that attributive phrases are not all
alike. The expression, of the council, on the basis
of the characteristic word, is a prepositional phrase;
and on the basis of use, it is an attributive phrase.
It is used, however, with the value of an adjective ;
hence, on the basis of use, we can put it into a
smaller class than attributive. We call such an
attributive phrase an adjective phrase.

The Phrase 73

^': - f-

2. The expression, in the morning, is also a
prepositional phrase, on the basis of the character-
istic word; and on the basis of use, it is an attrib-
utive phrase. But it is used in the sentence with
the value of an adverb; hence we call this kind of
attributive phrase an adverbial phrase.

3. Again, if we notice the phrase, had volun-
teered, we can see that on the basis of the char-
acteristic word, it is a verbal phrase; and on the
basis of use, it is an attributive phrase. But it is
used in the sentence with the value of an attributive
verb. W'e call this kind of attributive phrase an
attributive verb-phrase.

On the same basis of use in the sentence, then,
we have the attributive phrase divided into the
adjective phrase, the adverbial phrase, and the
attributive verb-phrase.

42. Classes of Attributive Phrases Defined,
These may 1)c defmed as follows:

1. An adjective phrase is an attributive
phrase which is used in the sentence with the
value of an adjective; as, He took a house in the
neighborhood of his native town.

2. An adverbial phrase is an attributive
phrase which is used in the sentence with the
value of an adverb; as, Athene went to the land
of the Phoenicians.

3. An attributive verb-phrase is an attribu-
tive phrase which is used in the sentence with the

74 An English Grammar

value of an attributive verb; as, The old bell had
rung out joyfully on rnany occasions.

Exercise i8

Study the following sentences:

1. Read each phrase and tell why it is a phrase.

2. Classify it on the basis of its characteristic
word and give a reason.

3. Classify it, on the basis of use in the sentence,
into its smallest known class, and give a reason:

1. The State University of Minnesota is located in the
city of Minneapolis.

2. He has learned to love and obey his teacher.

3. The boy to be chosen must be intelligent to be useful.

4. He lives to assist his friends.

5. To lie willingly is base.

6. Walking the race was tiresome to the man wearing
the blue coat.

7. We coi.dd not cross, being unable to ford the river.

8. Being a member of the regiment, he passed unchal-
lenged.

9. The city of large dimensions sends the most goods to
foreign countries.

10. Caesar might have been King.

11. The traveler had walked many miles.

12. The child sat in the window.

13. The temperature of California is mild.

14. Like a spear of flame the cardinal flower
Burned out along the meadow. — Eddy.

15. Time is the warp of life.

Oh, tell the young, the gay, the fair,
To weave it well! — Marsden.

The Phrase 76

1 6. How sweet it was to draw near my own home after
living homeless in the world so long ! — Hazvthorne.

17. Sweet are the uses of adversity,
Which like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.

— Shakespeare.

18. The sufficiency of my merit is to know that my merit
is not sufficient. — St. Augustine.

19. There were tones in the voice that whispered then
you may hear to-day in a hundred men. — Holmes.

20. This then my creed, to do the best I can
And grant the same to every other man ;
So live that my attendant angel be
Not less the angel for his walk with me.

Review

111 the extract from Hazvthorne' s "My Visit to
Niagara", on page 68, find three phrases of each
kind on each basis.

Chapter VIII

MODIFIERS.

43. The Modifier Defined. Now that we set
clearl}^ all the different kinds of words, we are
able to see ho.w these words may be united in
forming subjects, predicates, and copulas.

Notice first that each italicized expression in the
following sentences is a word or group of words :

1. Milton, the poet, was blind.

2. Mary's book is soiled.

3. The white snow hurts my eyes.

4< The minister had lately come from the East.

The first italicized expression is a group of
words; the second, a word; the third, fourth, and
fifth are words; the sixth and last are groups of
words; and the seventh is a word.

Notice next that each italicized expression
changes the meaning of some other part of the
sentence. The first changes the meaning, or em-
phasizes the meaning of the word, Milton; the sec-
ond changes the meaning of the same word, Milton;
the third changes the meaning of the word, book,
so does the fourth; the fifth changes the meaning
of the word, snow; the sixth changes the meaning
nf the Avord. hurts, the seventh and eighth change
Ht^ meaning of the expression, had come.

f76]

THE DAY'S WORK
(See page 187)

DONE

Modifiers . 77

So far the italicized expressions are all alike.
Now notice one fundamental difference. The itali-
cized expressions, blind and soiled, express asserted
ideas. They are the predicates of the two sentences
in which they occur. All the other italicized ex-
pressions express unasserted ideas. This is the
distinguishing mark of a modifier. The predicate
is a principal part of the sentence, hence it can never
be a modifier or a subordinate part of the sentence
any more than the copula or subject can.

A modifier is a word or group of words which
changes the meaning of some other part of the
sentence, by expressing an unasserted idea; as.
It is a long lane fJiaf has no turning.

44. Kinds of Modifiers. If you will notice
the modifiers in the sentences under Section 43, you
will see that they do not all express the same kind
of idea. The first expresses an object of thought;
the second, Mary's, expresses an object of thought ;
the third, white, expresses an attribute; the fourth,
my eyes, expresses an object of thought; and the
last two express attributes. We may conclude from
this that all modifiers will express either objects
of thought or attributes.

The word which expresses an object of thought,
we have called a substantive word, and the modifier
which expresses an object of thought, we may call
a substantive modifier. For the same reason, we
may call a modifier which expresses an attribute an

T^ All English Grammar

attributive modifier. Thus, on the basis of the
kind of idea which the}' express, we may divide
all modifiers into two classes, substantive and at-
tributive.

A substantive modifier is a modifier which ex-
presses an object of thought; as, Arnold, the
traitor, was driven from I: is nafiz'e country.

An attributive modifier is a modifier which
expresses an attribute; as, The tall grass swayed
in the wind.

Exercise 19

/;/ the following sentences point out all the modi-
fiers and tell whether they are substantive or attrib-
utive. Give your reason in each case.

1. The great plains are good grazing districts.

2. The girl gave her mother a knowing look.

3. The squirrel chattered from the bough of the oak
tree.

-j. The rabbit came forth from the thicket and listened.

5. I have killed the famous roebuck.

6. He comes because he is entertained.

7. The man is charitable in his way.

8. The apple is very sweet.

9. The girl is often tardy.

10. The .stranger is charitable that he may receive praise.

11. The teacher is strict with her pupils.

12. The woman sells apples.

13. Conscience, our monitor, tells us when we are wrong.
■ 14. The boy's story' was pitiful.

15. Were I Midas, I Avould make nothing else but just
such golden days as these, over and over again, all the
year throughout. My best thoughts always come a little too

Modifiers Tl:*;

late. Why did I not tell you how old King Midas came to
America and changed the dusky autumn, such as it is in
other countries, into the burnished beauty which it here puts
on ? He gilded the leaves of the great volume of Nature.

— Hawthorne.
i6. Nobod}' knew how the fisherman brown,

With a look of despair that was half a frown,

Faced his fate on that furious night,

Faced the mad billows with hunger white.

Just within hail of a beacon light

That shone on a woman fair and trim,

Waiting for him. — Larcom.

45. The vSubstantive Modifier. Xoticc tlic
modifier in the sentence, Cicero, the orator, ar-
raigned Catiline. The modifier, the orator, is sub-
stantive, we notice first. In the second place it
changes the meaning of the substantive word,
Cicero. Tn the third place we notice that it ex-
presses the same object of thought as is expressed
by the word, Cicero, which it modifies, only it ex-
presses it in a dififerent way.

We call such a substantive modifier an apposi-
tive modifier.

An appositive modifier is a substantive modi-
fier which changes the meaning of a substantive
word by expressing the same object of thought
in a different way; as,

lliis Monument zvas Erected

In Memory of

PHILIP NOL/IXD,

Lieutenant in the Army of the United States.

80 An English Grammar

46. The Possessive Modifier. Now notice the
first modifier in the sentence, Wallace's book was
exceedingly popular.

We notice first that it is a substantive modi-
fier. Second, it changes the meaning of the sub-
stantive word, book. So far it is just like the ap-
positive modifier. But we notice now that it does
not express the same object of thought as is ex-
pressed by the word which it modifies. It changes
the meaning of the substantive word which it modi-
fies by expressing the idea of possession. It
shows who wrote the book.

We call such a substantive modifier a posses-
sive modifier.

A possessive modifier is a substantive modi-
fier which changes the meaning of a substantive
word by expressing an idea of possession; as,
Tlie man's mind was undeveloped.

47. Direct Objective Modifier. In the sen-
tence, The boy struck the ball, we see that the
modifier, the ball, is also substantive. Here, how-
ever, its resemblance to the appositive and the pos-
sessive modifiers ceases, for it changes the meaning
of the attributive word,^^n^c^.

We can sec also that the object of thought
expressed by the modifier, the ball, is directly af-
fected by the attribute expressed by the word.

Note: The word, frossessioii, is here used in a sense broad
enough to include ownership, authorship, origin, or kind.

Modifiers 81

struck, which it modifies. In other words, that ob-
ject of thonght is the direct receiver of the attri-
bute or the attribute g'oes out directly to that ob-
ject of thought. The object of thought expressed
by the modifier is the thing struck.

We call such a substantive modifier a direct
objective modifier. It always expresses the ob-
ject of thought which is struck, bought, zvritten,
given, and so forth ; as, The hoy shot the bird. The
direct objective modifier, flie bird, expresses the ob-
ject which was shot, or it expresses the direct re-
ceiver of the attribute, shooting.

A direct objective modifier is a substantive
modifier which changes the meaning of an attrib-
utive word by expressing the direct receiver of
the attribute; as, The girl brought the water.

Write five sentences containing direct objectiz^e
modifiers.

48. Indirect Objective Modifier. In the sen-
tence, Mary brought her mother a drink of water,
the direct objective modifier is the expression,
a drink of water. It expresses the object of
thought which was brought. The modifier, her
mother, is also substantive. It changes the mean-
ing of the attributive w^ord, brought. In both these
points it is like the direct objective modifier ; but it
does not express the object of thought which

82 An English Grammar

]\Iarv brought. The object of thought expressed
l)y the modifier, Jier mother, is not directly affected
by the attribute expressed by the word, brought.
Herein it differs from the direct objective modifier.

But the object of thought expressed by this
modifier, Jier mother, is affected by the attribute
expressed by the word, brought, which it modifies.
The attribute goes out directly to the object of
thought, a drink of water, 1)ut the result of that
comes to the other object of thought, her mother.
This object of thought receives the result of the
attri])ute. So that we may say that the object of
thought expressed by the modifier, her mother, is
indirectly affected by the attribute expressed by
the word, brought, which it modifies. The effect of
the attribute passes through the object of thought,
a drink of zvater, to the other o1:)ject of thought, her
mother. That is the reason why we say it is indi-
rectly aft'ected.

AVe call such a substantive modifier an indi-
rect objective modifier. It alw^ays expresses the
object of thought which receives the result of the
bityiug, selling, reading, writing, and so forth; as,
He sold his horse to William. The indirect object-
ive modifier, William, expresses the object which re-
ceives the result of the selling, or it expresses the
indirect receiver of the attribute of selling.

An indirect objective modifier is a substantive
modifier w^hich changes the meaning of an attrib-
utive word by expressing the indirect receiver of

Modifiers ^3

the attribute; as, The teacher gave the boy good
advice.

Write five sentences containing indirect object-
ive modifiers.

49. Adverbial Objective Modifiers. In the
sentence, Tlic party zvalkcd home, the word, home,
is a substantive modifier. It changes the meaning
of the attributive word, zvalked. So far it is just
Hke the direct and indirect objective modifier. But
the object of thought expressed by it is not in any
way affected by the attribute expressed by the word,
walked. Besides, this modifier, home, expresses the
idea of place. In the case of other modifiers of
this kind, we might find that they express time,
distance, extent, and so on. ^^"e call these ad-
verbial ideas l)ecause the\' are most frequently
expressed by the adverb or adverbial modifier.

In the sentence, Harrison was president four
years, it is easy to see that this modifier, four years,
is just like the word, home, in the sentence before,
in that it is substantive and expresses an adverbial
idea. It expresses the adverbial idea of time.
We note that it is not like the word, home, however,
in that it changes the meaning of the relational
word, was, instead of changing the meaning of an
attributive word, as the modifier, Jiomc, does.

We have here, then, a substantive modifier
which changes the meaning of an attributive
word or a relational w^ord and always expresses

84 All Enf^lisli Grammar

an adverbial idea. We call it an adverbial object-
ive modifier because it is somewhat like a direct
objective modifier and somewhat like an ad-
verbial modifier.

An adverbial objective modifier is a substan-
tive modifier which changes the meaning of an
attributive word or of a relational word by ex-
pressing an adverbial idea; as,

1. A lau,q-h is worth a hundred groans in any market.

2. The hird built her nest six inches above the door.

Bring to class five sen fences containing adverb-
ial objective modiiiers.

Exercise 20

/;/ the following sentences point out all the sub-
stantive modifiers, tell zvliat kind each is, and give a
reason :

1. The teacher gave the brightest pupil a reward.

2. The boy was tardy yesterday.

3. The river is a mile broad.

4. You should have come an hour sooner.

5. Mooween, the bear, is shy.

6. The wind blew the apples from the tree.

7. Orville's hand trembled as he held the cup.

8. His friend gave assistance to * Walter.

9. The man sought health.

10. Sunshine gives a plant strength.

11. Henry, the King, was absent.

*Note: The preposition is frequently used with the indirect
objective modifier; but it is not a part of the modifier. The indirect
objective modifier here is the word, " Walter," not the expression,
"to Walter."

Modifiers ■ . ^^

12. Love thine enemies.

13. Wellington's victory was decisive.

14. Everything came to him marked by Nature, Right
side up with care, and he kept it so. The world to him, as
to all of us, was like a medal, on the obverse of which is
stamped the image of Joy, and on the reverse that of Care.
He never took the foolish pains to look at the other side,
even if he knew of its existence. Lowell

15. And the cares that infest the day
Shall fold their tents like the Arabs,

And as silently steal away. Lon '^fellow

50. Attributive Modifiers. We have now to
notice that attributive modifiers are not all alike.
In the sentence, Quiet waters run deep, the modi-
fier, quiet, is an attributive modifier because it ex-
presses an attribute. The attribute expressed by it
belongs to the object of thought, waters. It, there-
fore, changes the meaning of the substantive word,
waters. The attribute expressed by it is not an as-
serted attrilmtc. We call such an attributive modi-
fier an adjective modifier„

An adjective modifier is an attributive modi-
fier which changes the meaning of a substantive
word by expressing an * unasserted attribute of
an object of thought; as, It is a long lane that has
no turning.

Give five examples of adjective modifiers.

*Note: The word, unasserted, is necessary in this definition to
distinguish the adjective modifier from the predicate adjective, which
is not a modifier and always expresses an asserted attribute; as
Sno'jv is white.

86 An English Grammar

51. Classes of Adjective Modifiers. Nor are
all adjective modifiers alike. In the sentence, The
cold ice hurts tiiy teeth, the adjective modifier, cold,
does not narrow the meaning- of the word, ice, which
it modifies, because there is no ice that is not cold.
The chief purpose of this adjective modifier is to
emphasize the attribute which it expresses. It sim-
pl}- makes prominent the attribute of the object of
thought, ice, \\hich does the hurting.

Sometimes the adjective modifier does narrow
the meaning- of the word it modifies to some extent,
but its chief purpose is still to emphasize the at-
tribute which it expresses; as, These are beautiful
days. Now. whenever the chief purpose of the ad-
jective modifier is to emphasize or call attention
to the attribute which it expresses, that is, when
that is the object for which the author of the sen-
tence has used it, we call it a descriptive adjective
modifier.

A descriptive adjective modifier is an adjective
modifier whose chief purpose is to emphasize the
attribute which it expresses ; as, His father is an
honest man.

52. Limiting Adjective Modifier. On the
other hand, many adjective modifiers are used in
some sentences to emphasize the attributes which
they express; as, My father is a large man; and in

Note : Pupils need not dwell long upon descriptive and limiting
adjective modifiers.

Modifiers ' • 87

other sentences to narrow the meaning of the words
which they modify; as, Large men arc wanted on
the police force.

Whenever the chief purpose of an adjective
modifier is to narrow the meaning of the word
w^hich it modifies, we call it a limiting adjective
modifier.

A limiting adjective modifier is an adjective
modifier whose chief purpose is to narrow the
meaning of the word which it modifies; as. These
men arc natives. Brave men do not run azvay in
battle.

Give five examples of limiting adjective modi-
fiers and five of descriptive. Point out two descrip-
tive and two limiting adjective modifiers in the ex-
tract from Hawthorne's ''My Visit to Niagara",
on page 68.

53. The Adverbial Modifier. In the sen-
tence, The colonies grew rapidly, the word, rapidly,
is an attributive modifier. It differs from the ad-
jective modifier, h()^\■cver, in that it changes the
meaning of the attributive word, grew. The attri-
bute expressed by the modifier, rapidly, belongs to
the attribute expressed by the word, grew. So that
this modifier expresses an attribute of an attribute.
Such an attri1)utive modifier we call an adverbial
modifier.

This is not the only kind of a word to which an
adverbial modifier can belong, however, as we shall

88 An English Grammar

see if we examine the sentence, The story is cer-
tainly a 11 07 'el. Here the word, certainly, changes
the meaning of the relational word, is. The at-
tribute expressed by it belongs to the idea of rela-
tion expressed by the word, is. So that this word,
certainly, expresses an attribute of an idea of re-
lation. AAV call this an adverbial modifier also.
An adverbial modifier is an attributive modi-
fier which changes the meaning of an attributive
word or of a relational word by expressing an at-
tribute of an attribute or an attribute of an idea
of relation; as.

The box soon returned.

Tlie story is perhaps a ivork of art.

Write three examples of adverbial modifiers
which belong to relational words and five zvhich be-
long to attributive zvords. Find Hve examples of
the adverbial modifier in JThife's " The 'Lunge,"
on page ? ?i'.

54. Adverbial Ideas. We do not divide the
adverbial modifier into classes, but we may easily see
that they do not all express the same kind of idea.

The most important adverbial ideas expressed
by the adverbial modifier are as follow'S:

1. Time; as, My father came in the morning.

2. Place; as. His sister lives in the country.

3. Frequency; as. The boy is often tardy.

4. Purpose ; as, They came to help us.

5. Degree; as, The horse is very black.

Modifiers S'^^

6. Negation; as, Tlie story is not true.

7. Doubt; as, The picture is perhaps fine art.

8. Necessity; as, The anszver is necessarily correct.

9. Certainty; as, He is surely right about it.

10. Condition; as, The boy will come if you wish it.

11. Cause; as, The flozvers are zmthered because the
sun is hot.

12. Reason; as. The flowers are zrithered for I saw
them.

13. Manner; as, My friend zvalks rapidly.

14. Concession; as, Though you try, you zcill fail.

15. Extent; as, The horse ran to the end of the lane.

16. Direction; as, The doves flezv eastward.

17. Accompaniment; as, The prisoner escaped with his
companions.

18. Instrumentality; as. The farmer cultivated his corn
with a hoe.

19. Exclusion ; as. The man is kind except to his horse.

20. Source; as. The stream flozvs from the mountain.

21. Agency; as. The people zverc represented by these
men.

22. Means; as, The bridge zvas built with the people's
money.

23. Duration; as, Sonic must zvatch while others weep.

Exercise 21

Poijif out all flic affributivc inodi/icr.s- in the fol-
lowing scufcuces. Tell ivhat kind of attributive
modifiers they arc and give your reasons. Give the
adverbial idea expressed by eacJi adverbial modifier:

1. Mfanwiiilc the firing continued on l)Oth sides, though
the Spaniards were eviilently weakening.

2. The child was good in school.

3. He comes, because he is entertained.

90 All Eiiglis/i Grammar

4. Still Gil stood l)y the port rail.

5. The apple is very sweet.

6. The shots frequently rattled above his head.

7. The boy seldom winced.

8. The stranger is charitable that he may receive praise.

9. The teacher is strict with his pupils.
10. The boy went with his mother.

1 1 Gil went with the officers to headquarters.

12. The cistern has been filled irom the spout.

13. He would not give up his secret even if they tortured
him.

14. The guard house was unlocked with the big key.

15. It is probably true.

16. The story is certainly interesting and perhaps true.

17. He traded with an Indian.

18. He built the house with his own money.

19. The demonstration is necessarily true.

20. The ground is not wet.

21. Roosevelt is at this time president.

22. When the shadows of evening fall, the sunbeams
fly away.

23. Make hay while the sun shines.

24. The buttercup comes early in the spring.

25. The party walked home.

26. The bird built her nest six inches above the door.

27. We stood upon the ragged rocks
When the long day was nearly done.

Chapter IX

THE ORGANIC PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

55. How They are Made Up. We have al-
ready learned that the organic parts of the sen-
tence are the subject, the predicate, and the copula.
Since we now know different kinds of words and
modifiers, we may understand how these organic
parts are made up.

In the sentence, Horses are animals, each part
consists of a single word. In the sentence, The
interesting story zvas certainly told in a pleasing
way, each part consists of more than one word.
We can see, however, that there is one principal
word in each part and that the other words belong
to or modify this principal word or some word be-
longing to it. For example, in this sentence, the
word, story, is the principal part of the subject.
It is modified by the word, the, a limiting adjective
modifier ; and by the word, interesting, a descriptive
adjective modifier.

The principal part of the predicate is the
word, told. It is modified by the expression, in a
pleasing ivay, an adverbial modifier, expressing
the adverbial idea of manner. The principal part
of this modifier is the w^ord, ivay. It is modified

92 An English Grauiniar

by the word, a, a limiting adjective modifier, and
by the word, pleasing, a descriptive adjective modi-
fier.

The principal part of the copula is the w^ord,
was. It is modified by the word, certainly, an ad-
verbial modifier expressing the adverbial idea of
certainty.

Thus we see that each organic part of the sen-
tence consists of a principal part and its subordi-
nate parts which are modifiers. The principal part
of the subject is always a noun or a pronoun or
some expression used substantively; as. Interesting
books zvere furnished. He, himself, spoke to me.

The principal part of the predicate ma}^ be
substantive; as, This man is an excellent lawyer;
or it may be attributive ; as. Birds sing sweetly. The
woman ivas very kind.

The principal part of the copula is alwavs a
relational word; as, The child is not zvell.

Exercise 22

In the following sentences point out the prin-
cipal zuord in each organic part and explain the
uses of the other words:

1. Tabby, the house cat, lay on a soft rug by the open
door.

2. There was a robin's nest in that tree.

3. The tail feathers of these birds were a dark brown.

4. Presently they would come flyini^- back to their leafy
home, bearing in their vellow bills some choice tidhit for
the little ones in the nest.

The Organic Parts of the Sentence 93

5. Suddenly she made a spring to seize the helpless
baby bird with her sharp claws.

56. Compound Subjects. Sometimes instead
of having one principal part or word in the sub-
ject, we have two or more; as, Bread and milk is
a good food.

We call this a compound subject. We must
be careful, however, to distinguish this kind of
sentence from a compound sentence; as, James
and Harry study.

This sentence does not contam a compound sub-
ject, but it is an abridged compound sentence. It
expresses two thoughts of equal rank for it means,
James studies and Harry studies; while the sen-
tence with the compound subject cannot be ex-
panded. It does not mean. Bread is a good food
and milk is a good food.

57. Compound Predicates. A\^e often have
two or more principal words in the predicate; as,
The Hag is red, white, and blue.

The expression, red, zvhite, and blue, is a com-
pound predicate. Tt does not mean, The flag is
red and tJie Hag is zvhite and the flag is bine. It
means that red, zvhite, and blue are the colors of the
flag.

This is entirely different from the sentence, The
violet is blue, beautiful, and fragrant.

This sentence means, The z'iolet is blue and the

94 An Englisli Gram mar

violet is beaiitiful and the violet is fragrant. It is
an abridged compound sentence.

Exercise 23

Tell which of the following sentences contain
compound subjects or predicates and which
are abridged compound sentences. Expand the
abridged compound sentences and show that the
others cannot be expanded :

1. Justice and Mercy are desirable qualities.

2. Health and wealth are desired by all.

3. Five and four are nine.

4. The Puritan and the Indian are fast passing.

5. Yellow and blue makes a pretty badge.

6. A desirable combination is elegance and ease.

7. The first sure symptom is love of ease and pleasure
felt at home.

8. His principle is justice and fairdealing.

9. The parrot talks and sings.

10. Mercy and truth have met in the way.

11. Pinks and roses are fragrant.

12. The sign is red and white.

13. Birds chirp and sing.

14. The moon and stars are shining.

15. The scholar and poet was also a Christian and
patriot.

Chapter X

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE '

58. Uses of Words in Simple Sentence. We

are now prepared to examine a number of simple
sentences in order to discover the following points :

I. The kind of words used in forming the sim-
ple sentence.

• 2. The exact use of each kind of word in the
simple sentence.

3. The modifiers which may belong to each
kind of word in the simple sentence.

We have seen in the last two Sections that there
are two kinds of simple sentence, the regular simple
sentence and the simple sentence with a compound
part.

A regular simple sentence is a simple sentence
which has only one principal word in each of its
principal parts; as, His son is now entering college.

A simple sentence with a compound part is a
simple sentence some principal part of which con-
tains two or more principal words; as, A combina-
tion much to be desired is health of body and beauty
of soul.

59. To find the kind of words in a simple sen-
tence. Tn working out the kinds of words found
in the simple sentence, their uses and modifiers
let us take the following steps :

[95]

96 All Eiiglis/i Gram mar

1. Classify the word in the smallest known
class; as, noun, adjective, pure verb, etc.

2. Give its exact use in the sentence ; as, sub-
ject, principal part of the subject, appositive modi-
fier, principal part of an appositive modifier, limit-
ing adjective modifier, etc.

3. Draw a conclusion with regard to the class
of words to which it belongs.

]\IODEL.

To make this clearer, let us take the sentence, I'lic ^/'i[
Indian rose from Iiis seat.

The word, the, is an adjective, h is used as a liniitiuij^
adjective modifier of the word, Indian. Therefore, an ad-
jective may be used as a limiting adjective modifier in the
simple sentence.

The word, big, is an adjective. It is used as a descrip-
tive adjective modifier of the word, Indian. Therefore, an
adjective may be used as a descriptive adjective modifier
in the simple sentence.

The word. Indian, is a noun, h is used as the principal
part of the suliject of the sentence. Therefore, a noun may
be used as tho principal part of the subject of a simple sen-
tence.

The word, rose, is an attributive verb. It is used as the
principal part of the predicate of the sentence. It also ex-
presses the thought relation. Therefore, an attributive verb
may be used as the principal part of the predicate of a sim-
ple sentence. It also expresses the thought relation.

The word, from, is a preposition. It is used as the rela-
tional word of the prepositional phrase, from his seat.
Therefore, a preposition may be used as the relational word
of a prepositional phrase in the simple sentence.

The word, his, is a pronoun. It is used as a possessive

TJic Simple Sentence 97

modifier of the word, scat, ihcrcfore, a pronoun may he
used as a possessive modifier in the simple sentence.

The word, scat, is a noun. It is used as the principal
word of the prepositional phrase, from his seat. Therefore,
a noun may be used as the principal part of a prepositional
phrase in the simple sentence.

Exercise 24

In the following sentences will he found ex-
amples of every kind of substantive zvord zvhich
niav be used in the simple sentence, every use which
each niav hair, and every kind of modifier zvhich
each may take. The last section makes clear to us
liozv zve may zvovk these points out. Take each
substantive zvord in each sentence and give the
foUozving points concerning it:

1. Classify the word in the smallest known class.

2. Give its exact use in the sentence.

3. Drazv a conclusion zvith regard to the class "•
of zvords to zvhich it belongs. (See Section 50.)

4. Give all the modifiers of these substantive
words.

1. Flowers are plants.

2. Good students are usually the best scholars.

3. Samuel's message was not appreciated.

4. The old man's head dropped upon his breast

5. The Lord loveth a cheerful giver.

6. Boys like apples.

7. The man gave books to the children.

8. Esther had given him a beautiful cup.

9. My brother was absent years.
10. She remained three days.

98 An English Grammar

11. James, close the door.

12. Winifred, what does she know about it?

13. Lee, a good man and great general, was fond of
children.

14. They started early.

15. He, himself, told me so.

16. This is he.

17. This is he of the rueful countenance.

18. They gave him full authority.

19. I told him, himself, of his mistake.

20. The children saw her.

21. We watched him, himself.

22. Their recommendations are strong.

23. Without me ye can do nothing.

24. The distance being a mile, we walked it.

25. You, I mean you.

26. He, what does he know about it?

27. I alone am left to tell the story.

28. They could always locate the ships in the densest
masses of smoke by these flashes.

29. A thousand gallant tars were waiting anxiously for
that signal.

30. The heavy masses of metal tore away corners of the
fort.

State clearly all the uses and modifiers of sub-
stantive words in the simple sentence. Write one
original example of each. Find examples of each
use, if you can, in "The Beggar Maid", on page

115-

Exercise 25

In the follozving sentences will be found exam-
ples of every kind of attributive zvord which may be
used in the simple sentence, every use zvhich they

Tlic Simple Sentence 99

may have, and every kind of modifier which they
may take. Give the following points concerning
each attributive zvord in the sentences below:

1. Classify the word in the smallest known class.

2. Tell its exact use in the sentence.

3. Draw a conclusion with regard to the class
of zvords to which it belongs. (See Section 59.)

4. Name all the modifiers of these attributive
zvords.

1. The large horse is doubtless exceedingly useful to
his owner.

2. The house stands just across the river.

3. The river is a mile broad.

4. The honest boy very promptly gave the man his
money.

5. The lesson should have been prepared an hour
sooner.

6. The river fell six inches.

7. The garden is beautiful.

8. Very weak things sometimes confound the mighty.

9. Horace Mann was kind to children.

State clearly all tJie uses and modifiers of at-
tributive words in the simple sentence. Write one
original example of each . Find an example of each
use in the extract from Hazvthorne's "My Visit to
Niagara," on page 68.

Exercise 26

Tn the following sentences zvill be found exam-
ples of every kind of relational zvord which may be
used in the simple sentence, every use which each

I'X* Ah Englis/i Granunar

may hare, and every kind of modifier which, each
may fake. Give the foUowing points concerning
each relational word in the sentences below:

1. Classify the word in the smallest knozvn class.

2. Tell its exact use in the sentence.

3. Drazv a conclusion witJi regard to the class
of 7Vords to whicJi if belongs. {See Section ^0.)

4. Name all the modiliers of these relational
words.

1. You are doubtless right.

2. The boy is devoted to his mother.

3. The tree stands just l:)elow the falls.

4. Harrison was president four years.

5. The boy lives two miles below the mill.

6. The teacher gave the book to Sarah.

7. Two and one are three.

8. The flower is red and white.

9. The arrow struck two inches below the center.

State clearly all the uses and modifiers of rela-
tional zvords in the simple sentence. Write one
original example of each. Find an example of each
use in the extract from Hazvf home's ''My Visit to
Niagara," on page 68.

Exercise 27

In the follozving sentences will he found exam-
ples of every kind of form word which can he used
in the simple sentence, and every use which it may
have. Give the follozving points concerning each
form zvord in the sentences helow:

The Simple Sentence 1^*1

1. Classify flu word in the smallest known class.

2. Give its exact use in the sentence.

3. Draw a conclusion with regard to the class
of 7vords to which it belongs. (See Section 50.)

1. Pooh ! I do not believe a word of it.

2. Alas ! what mortal terror we are in !

3. Well, did you vote?

4. Now, I am sure he must be joking.

5. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods.

6. There have always been people longing to tell bad
news.

7. There were three of us in the party.

8. There are ten boys in the class.

Review

Notice the eifect of the use of the short, simple
sentence in the following paragraph front Macaul-
ay's "Lord Clive". How many simple sentences
are found in the paragraph? With what kind does
it begin? With what kind does it close? Why?
Which kind is more dignified? Which is clearer?

During fifty days the siege went on. During fifty days
the young captain maintained the defence, with a firmness,
vigilance, and ability which would have done honor to the
oldest marshal in Europe. The breach, however, increased
day by day. The garrison began to feel the pressure of
hunger. Under such circumstances, any troops so scantily
provided with ofificers might have been expected to show
signs of insubordination ; and the danger was peculiarly
great in the force composed of men differing widely from
each other in extraction, color, language, manners, and
religion.

102 All English Grammar

Exercise 28

IVc should nozi' be able to give a complete ex-
planation of a simple sentence. Study the follow-
ing simple sentences and be able to give the follozv-
ing points concerning them:

1. Give the sentence.

2. The thought expressed by it.

3. The elements of the thought.

4. The parts of the sentence.

5. Classify the sentence upon two bases.

6. Classify the ideas expressed by the zuords.

7. Classify the ivords, into tlieir smallest known
classes.

8. Name the principal word in the subject,
predicate, and copula. Give all the uiodifiers.

9. Point out all the phrases, and classify them
upon each basis.

1. What kind of people first inhabited England?

2. The ship left at sunrise.

3. Forbid it, Almighty God! .

4. Sweet is the breath of morn.

5. There can be no natural desire of artificial good.

6. Why do you weave around you this thread of occu-
pation ?

7. How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds makes ill
deeds done !

8. After to-morrow is the bane of many a life.

9. Old John of Gaunt is grievous sick, my lord.

10. Give each of us his share.

11. To Thee we bow, Friend, Father, King of Kings!

Tlic Simple Sentence 103

12. Oh soul! be changed into small water drops.

13. Pride goeth before destruction.

14. Break, break, break,

On thy cold, gray stones, O Sea ! — Tennyson.

15. The meeting points the sacred hairs dissever
From her fair head forever and forever. — Pope.

16. Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne.
In ray less majesty, now stretches forth
Her leaden scepter, o'er a slumbering world.

— Young,
ly. Every man has within himself a continent of undis-
covered character. — Stephen.

18. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among.
Leaps the live thunder. — Byron.

19. And like the wings of sea-birds

Flash the white-caps of the sea. — Longfellow.

20. Marbles forget their message to mankind. — Holmes.

Work in Composition

TJic Rc7'icw

A SELECTION FROM " SAUL "

" Oh. our manhood's prime vigor ! No spirit feels waste,
Not a muscle is stopped in its playing nor sinew unbraced.
Oh, the wild joys of living! the leaping from rock up to

rock.
The strong rending of lioughs from the fir-tree, the cool

silver shock
Of the plunge in a pool's living water, the hunt of the

bear.
And the sultriness showing the lion is couched in his lair.
And the meal, the rich dates yellowed over with gold
dust, divine.

In4 //;/ n)iglish Grammar

And tlu' locust-llcsli steeped in the pitcher, the full drau.qht

<d' wine,
And the sleep in the tlried river-channel where hulrushes

tell
That the water was wont to "o warbling so softly and

well.
How good is man's life, the mere living! how fit to employ
All the heart and the soul and the senses forever in joy!

-^Robert Browning.

llih' song from " Saul" was sung by a sJicplicrd
box to a great king zvlw, because of his zvrong do-
ing, had lost all interest m life. He had fallen into
a stupor from zvhich no one could rouse him.

Read the poem and deterniine zvhy the young
musician chose this song to sing before the king.

What is the subject of the song? What joys of
"mere living" are named?

Choose an appropriate title for the selection.
JVrite a revieiv one paragraph long zvhich zvill so
characterise the poem that a person zvlio had nez'cr
read it zvould get a clear idea of its spirit, its sub-
ject, and the other means zvhich the author has used
to shozv his purpose.

A Title should .suggest the topic of a selection in
a few words. A Review aims to so describe a poem,
article or book that a clear idea of its character and
content is given.

Read your paper. Does your title express the
topic briefly? Haz'c you made your meaning clear?
Does your faragraph deal zvith one topic only?

The Simple Sentence 1^)5

Ha\'c \oit found your sentence endings? Have
you chosen the best possible ivords to express your
meaning^

All the words of a title should begin with cap-
ital letters except prepositions, articles and con-
junctions which should not begin with capitals,
unless used as the first word of the title.

The titles of books, poems, stories or pictures
should be inclosed with quotation marks when
used within a sentence.

ROBIN HOOD AND ALLIN A DALE.

Come listen to me. you gallants so free,
All \ou that love mirth for to hear.

And I will tell you of a bold outlaw,
That lived in Nottinefhamshire.

As Robin Hood in the forest stood.

All under the green-wood tree.
There he was aware of a brave young man.

As fine as fine might be.

The youngster was cloathed in scarlet red,

In scarlet fine and gay ;
And he did frisk it over the plain.

And chanted a roundelay.

As Robin Hood next morning stood.

Amongst the leaves so gay.
There did he espy the same young man

Come drooping along the way.

106 An Eiiglis/i GraiiDiiar

The scarlet he wore tlie day before,

It was clean cast away ;
i\.nd at every step he fetcht a sigh,

"Alack and a well a day !"

Then stepped forth brave Little John,

And Midge the miller's son,
Which made the young man bend his bow,

When as he see them come.

" Stand off, stand off," the young man said,
"What is your will with me?"

" You must come before our master straight,
Under yon green- wood tree."

And when he came bold Robin before,

Robin askt him courteousl}-,
" O hast thou any monev to spare

For my merry men and me?"

" I have no money," the \oung man said,

"But five shillings and a ring;
And that I have kept this seven long years.

To have it at my wedding.

■' Yesterday I should have married a maid.

But she is now from me tane.
And chosen to be an old knight's delight,

A\'herel)y my jioor heart is slain."

" ^^'hat is thy name?" tlien said Robin Hood,
" Come tell me, without an\' fail : "

" By the faith of mv bod-\-," then said the Nount
" Mv name it is Allin a Dale."

The Simple Sentence 1^'^

" What wilt thou give me." said Robin Hood,

" In ready gold or fee.
To help thee to thy true love again.

And deliver her unto thee?"

" I have no money," then quoth the young man,

" No ready gold nor fee,
But I will swear upon a book

Thy true servant for to be."

" How many miles is it to thy true love ?

Come tell me without any guile : "
" Bv the faith of my body." then said the young man,

" It is but five little mile."

Then Robin he hasted over the plain,

He did neither stint nor lin.
Until he came unto the church.

Where AUin should keep his wedding.

"What has thou here?" the bishop he said,

"I prithee now tell unto me:"
" I am a l)old harper," quoth Robin Hood,

" And the best in the north country."

" O welcome, O welcome," the bishop he said,

"That musick best pleaseth me:"
" You shall have no musick." quoth Robin Hood,

" Till the bride and the bridegroom I see."

With that came in a wealthy knight.

Which was both grave and old.
And after him a finikin lass.

Did shine like the glistering gold.

108 An English Grammar

" This is not a fit match,"' quoth hold Rohin Hood
" That you do seem to make here ;

For since we are come into the church.
The hride shall chusc her own dear."

Then Rohin 1 l(,)od put his horn to his mouth.

And hlew hlasts two or three ;
When four and twenty bowmen bold

Came leaping over the lee.

And when they came into the church -yard,

Marching all on a row.
The first man was Allin a Dale,

To give bold Robin his bow.

" This is thy true love," Robin he said,

" Young Allin, as I hear say :
And you shall be married at this same time.

Before we depart away."

" That shall not be," the bishop he said,

" For thy word shall not stand ;
They shall be three times askt in the church,

As the law is of our land."

Robin Hood pulld off the bishoji's coat.

And put it upon Little John ;
" By the faith of my body." then Robin said,

" This cloath does make thee a man."

When Little John went into the quire.

The people began for to laugh ;
He askt then seven times in the church.

Lest three times should not be enough.

The Simple Sen fence 1<»*^

"Who gives nie this maid?" then said Little John;

Quoth Rohin Hood. " That do I,
And he that tal\es lier from Alhn a Dale

Full dearly he shall her Iniy."

And thus having ende of this merry wedding.

The bride tookt like a <|ueen.
And so they returned to the merry green-wood,

Amongst the leaves so green.

Read "Robin Hood and AUin a Dale."

Whom is iJie story about/' JVhere is the seeiie:-^
llliat is the time? JVhat happens in tlie story/ I j
you like Robin Hood's character, tell K'hy. If you
like the zvay th.e story ends, tell zvhy. What then
would you say is the purpose or point of this poem/
Uliat means, that is, ivhat characters, scenes and
incidents, has the author employed to sliozv his pur-
pose/ Describe the characters. Tell the story brief-
ly. Gii'e your criticism of the poem.

Write a rez'iezv of " Robin Hood and AUin a
Dale/' Let your introductory paragraph introduce
the story by telling the purpose of the story, and the
means employed to shoze this purpose. The para-
graphs zvliich follozv should each take one topic in-
troduced in the first paragraph and enlarge upon it.
One paragraph should describe the setting, another
the characters, another tell Ihe story bricHv and an-
other giz'c your appreciatizr criticism of the poem.

Study the follozving rez'iezc of " Brer ITolf Says
Grace/' l-ind tJie topic of eacli paragraph. Which

110 All English Graiiuiiar

f^aragrapJis include the thought of the otJiers?
JJliich are merely e.vf'lunatory of some topie al-
ready suggested F

A REVIEW OV ■• BRER WOLF SAYS GRACE."
" Brer Wolf Says Grace " is one of the " Uncle
Remus " stories written in negro dialect by Joel Chandler
Harris. It tells about the ancient feud between Brer Wolf
and Brer Rabbit, and shows how a small creature with
brains can sometimes get ahead of a larger one who is not
so clever.

Brer Wolf and Brer Rabbit are both very entertain-
ing, but neither is to be wholly admired. Brer Rabbit is
lazy and mischievous, and sometimes cowardly and quite
unreliable. He is so foolhardy that he is often in trouble,
but one's sympathy is nevertheless with him. Although
he is smaller than the other creatures, he is so quick-witted
and clever that he gets ahead of them. Brer Wolf is
always very sure of himself ; in fact, he has such a good
opinion of himself that his downfalls seem amusing.

The way Brer Rabbit gets ahead of Brer Wolf in this
story is this. On his war home from a party, one day,
Brer Rabbit finds a basket full of greens in the middle of the
big road. He looks up the road and down the road and
sees no one coming, so creeps up to the basket and takes
a nibble and then a bite and then jumps into the basket
" kerblam," landing on old Brer Wolf hid in the bottom.
Brer Rabbit makes excuses and tries to escape, but Brer
Wolf has his prey and does not intend to kt him go. Brer
Rabbit resolves, if possible, to prevent his own " sacrifice "
and so begins to " blubber '" and to beg Brer Wolf to sac-
rifice him, if he has to do it at all, in the right way. Brer
Wolf asks how that is, and Brer Rabbit tells him to shut
his eyes and fold his hands and say grace. This Brer

The Simple Sentence 111

Wolf finally consents to do, and the minute Brer Wolf's
hands are off from him. Brer Rabbit loses no time, but
makes good his escape.

The story is full of odd expressions and clever inci-
dents. It is very entertaining.

The Relation of Paragraphs. Each para-
g-raph of a composition should deal with one topic
of the central thetne or purpose and should be so
related to every other paragraph that the point to
the composition is made clear. The introductory
j)aragraph of a review should prepare the reader's
mind for what is coming by giving a general idea.
The paragraphs immediately follow'ing should en-
large and explain the same. The final paragraph
should emphasize the general point of view by sum-
ming up the thought gf the other paragraphs or by
giving a general comment.

Indent the first line of each paragraph and
start a new paragraph with each change of top-
ic.

Chapter XI

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

60. Classes of Compound Sentence, just as
we have found that there are different kinds of
simple sentences, so we may see, by examining the
following, that there are different classes of com-
pound sentences :

1. All flesh is grass and all its glory fades.

2. My roof shall always shelter and protect you.

3. Pitt was the pilot who guided the ship of state through
a stormy sea and she weathered the storm.

1. We notice that in the first sentence there
are two thoughts expressed and that each ele-
ment, (thought subject, thought predicate, and
thought relation) of each thought is expressed
separately or by separate words. We call this
kind of compound sentence a regular compound
sentence.

2. In the second sentence, we have two co-
ordinate, independent thoughts expressed also;
thus, My roof shall always shelter you. My roof
shall alzvays protect you.

In these two thoughts, however, there are some
common elements or some ideas which are the same
in both. The ideas, my, roof, shall, always, and
you, are common to the thoughts.

[n2j

The Compound Sentence 113

In the sentence, My roof shall akvays shelter
and protect you, these common elements of the
thoughts are expressed but once. We call this
kind of sentence an abridged compound sentence.

3. The third sentence does not differ from the
other two except in the fact, that it expresses a
subordinate thought, who guided the ship of state
tJirough a stormy sea.

^ We call this kind of compound sentence a
compound-complex sentence because, while it is
compound, in that it expresses co-ordinate, inde-
pendent thou^c^-hts, it is also like a complex sentence,
in that it expresses a subordinate thought. The
compound-complex sentence may express more than
one subordinate thought.

61. The Regular Compound Sentence. This
would be defined as follows: A regular com-
pound sentence is a compound sentence in which
all the elements of all the thoughts are expressed
separately; as, IVilliam Penn was friendly to the
Indians and Pennsylrania was not molested by
them.

62. The Abridged Compound Sentence. Iliis
may be defined as follow^s: An abridged com-
pound sentence is a compound sentence in
which the common element or elements of the
thoughts are expressed but once; as, Harrison
was a lazvyer and a statesman.

63. The Compound-Complex Sentence. This

114 An English Grammar

&'

may be defined as follows: A compound- complex
sentence is a compound sentence which expresses
one or more subordinate thoughts; as, When we
zvere ready wc bci^an iJic zvork and zve did not rest
until it zvas completed.

Exercise 29

Tell zjuliat kind of compound sentence each of the
follozving is, and zvhy:

1. Beautiful things ennoble and refine the character.

2. Science awakens man's perceptions and language
quickens his judgment.

3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but foohsh words
stir up strife.

4. Hawthorne, who was a very sensitive man, shunned
a crowd, but he was fond of friends.

5. This way is easy, but the other is steep.

6. The windows of the soul admit Hght and resist
harmful influences.

7. He who would be served in his }'Outh and loves him-
self most knows no other king ; he is thoroughly selfish.

8. He worked hard to keep the wolf from the door but
he succeeded only partially.

9. I gained an insulated rock, and beheld a broad sheet
of brilliant and unbroken foam, not shooting in a curved
line from the top of the precipice, but falling headlong
down from height to depth. — Hawthorne.

10. The bridge was tremulous beneath me, and marked
the tremor of the solid earth. — Hawthorne.

11. The south wind searches for the flowers

Whose fragrance late he bore ;
And sighs to find them in the wood
And bv the stream no more. — Bryant.

The Compound Sentence 115

13. Tread softly and speak low;

For the old year lies a-dying'. — Tennyson.

Work in Composition

The Rci'iezv (Continued)

THE BEGGAR ^lAID

Her arms across her breast she laid :
She was more fair than words can say :
Barefooted came the beggar maid
Before the king Cophetua.
In robe and crown the king stept down.
To meet and greet her on her way :
" It is no wonder," said the lords,
" She is more beautiful than day."

As swims the moon in clouded skies.
She in her poor attire was seen :
One praised her ankles, one her eyes.
One her dark hair and lovesome mien.
So sweet a face, such angel grace.
In all the land had never been :
Cophetua sware a royal oath :
" This beggar maid shall be my queen ! "

— Alfred Tennyson.

Read "The Beggar Maid."

What zuas 'Tennyson's purpose in zvriting
this poem? What persons, places, time and occasion
has he used to shozv tJiis purpose? Describe the
chief character. Tell the story of the poem. If you
like the poem, tell zvJiy.

Outline a revieiv of the poem. J Chat zcill you

116 An Eiif^Jish Graiumar

I ell ill your infroducfory panv^raph.^ What i^nll be
the topics of some of the other paragraphs/ What
will you tell in the tiual paragraph? Write a review
of the poem.

In oufUuiiig a paper, decide what you zvant in
your introduction, and then see that the topics of
your other paragraphs are in some way explan-
atory of Tvhat has been suggested there.

Read your paper. Is it interesting? Are its
parts so related that they are smooth and easily un-
derstood?

THE HEIGHT OE THE RIDICULOUS

I wrote some lines once on a time
In wondrous merry mood.
And thought, as usual, men would say
They were exceeding good.

They were so queer, so \ery queer,
I laughed as I would die ;
Alheit, in the general way.
A sober man am I.

I called m\- servant, and he came:
How kind it was of him
To mind a slender man like me.
He of the mightv limb !

" These to the printer." I exclaimed,
And. in my humorous way.
I added (as a trifling jest).
" There'll be the devil to pay."

The Compound Sentence 117^

He took the paper, and T watched.
And saw him peep -within ;
At the first Hne he read, liis face
Was all npon the grin.

He read the next; the grin grew hroad.
And shot from ear to ear.
He read the third ; a chnckling noise
I now began to hear.

The fon.rth ; he broke into a roar ;
The fifth : his waistband split ;
The sixth : he bnrst five buttons ofif.
And tumbled in a fit.

Ten (la\s and nights, with sleepless eye,
I watched that wretched man.
And since. I never dare to write
As funny as I can.

— Oliver Wendell Holmes.

Read "The Height of the Ridiculous."

What kind of a poem is it? JVhat is the purpose
or point to the story? Hozv is this shown? If you
like the poem, tell why.

JVrite a rcvieiv one paragraph long of ''The
Height of the Ridiculous?' Tet the first sentence
characterize the poem by telling zvhat kind of a poem
it is. and its purpose. Let the others tell hozv
JInlmes accomplished his purpose, and made the
poem the kind of one it is.

Read the follozving paragraph called ''Caleb
Plummer and His Blind Daughter?' and notice hozv

118 An Eiiglisli Cm in mar

one sentence ij^krs the tofic of tlic paragrapJi and
iJie others are expUmatory of it.

CALEB PLUMMER AND HIS BLIND DAUGHTER.

" Caleb and his blind daughter were held together by a
close bond of love, and yet how different they were! He
was old and bent and careworn, living in a real world of
poverty and shabbiness. She was young and happy, living
in a dream world, a world created by her father that he
might spare her, in her blindness, all the hard facts of her
life. He was sad at heart, affecting a light step and merry
wavs to prevent her knowing the real state of things.
She. with a heart grateful to kind Providence, worked
busily with her delicate fingers, happy in her thoughts,
never dreaming of her father's sacrifices for her."

Read the verses from ''Saul" on page lo^.
Which is the topic sentence? JVhich are explana-
tory of the topic? Which are used for emphasis?

The Relation of Sentences in a Paragraph.

The sentences in a paragraph should be related in
the same manner as the paragraphs are related to
each other. Each paragraph should have its topic
sentence either expressed or understood, and the
other sentences should be used either to explain or
emphasize the thought contained in it.

Re-read your paper. Have you a topic sentence
which relates the other sentences in your para-
graph ?

64. Words Used in Forming the Compound
Sentence. We max easily see that all the kinds
of words used in forming the simple sentence are

The Compound Sentence 111^

also used in the compound sentence ; that they have
all the uses in the compound sentence which we
found them to have in the simple sentence ; and that
they have the same kinds of modifiers here as in the
simple sentence.

One question remains to be asked about these
words. Do any of these kinds of words have uses
in the compound sentence which they do not have in
the simple sentence? This is answered in the fol-
lowing sections.

65. Groups of Words Used in Forming the
Compound Sentence. In the simple sentence,
we found the phrase and in the compound sen-
tence we shall find all the classes of phrases, used
in all the different ways A\hich we discovered in the
simple sentence.

In addition to the phrase, we have in the com-
pound sentence the clause. (See Section 25.)
We now wish to know what kinds of clauses we
have and how they are used in the compound
sentence.

'■'66. The Clause.

The sentence, The river is deep since the heavy
rains fell hnt we can ford it, expresses three
thoughts, namely:

1. The river is deep.

2. Since the heavy rains fell.

3. We can ford it.

Note: Do not dwell upon the classes of clauses except on the
basis of use.

120 All English Graminar

Tliis sentence, llierefore, contains three clauses.
A group of words containing a subject, predicate,
and copula, which is used as a part of a sentence,
is a clause.

We also notice that the clauses, Tlie river is
deep and we can ford it, are of equal rank in the
sentence; while the clause, since flic heavy rains
fell, has no other clause of equal rank with it in
the sentence. We are looking at these clauses, then,
in relation to the other clauses in the sentence. On
the basis of relation of one clause to the other clauses
in the sentence, we have two kinds, co-ordinate
and individual.

67. Clauses on the Basis of the Relation of
One Clause to the Other Clauses in the Sentence
Defined. There are two kinds of clauses on this
basis:

1. A co-ordinate clause is a clause which is
used in a sentence containing another clause of
equal rank with it; as, The sun is bright but the
wind is cold.

2. An individual clause is a clause which is
used in a sentence containing no other clause of
equal rank with it; as, If we remain here, we
shall be ont of danger but zve cannot see the battle.

68. Clauses on the Basis of Use. The sen-
tence, / sec that yov. are in earnest but I cannot
assist you, contains three clauses; namely, i. /

The Compound Sentence 121

see. 2. that you are in earnest. 3. / cannot assist
you.

The clause, iliat yon are in earnest, is used in
the sentence with the value of a single word. It
is a direct objective modifier of the word, see. We
call such a clause a subordinate or dependent
clause.

The clauses, / see and / cannot assist you, are
not used in the sentence with the value of a single
word. No word can be used in a sentence as these
clauses are used in this sentence. We call such
clauses independent or principal clauses. When
such a clause is found in a compound sentence, as
in the above, we call it an independent clause; but
when it is found in a complex sentence; as, We
knew not zvJiat ivc should do, we call it a principal
clause.

69. Clauses on the Basis of Use Defined.
There are two kinds of clauses on this basis:

1. A subordinate or dependent clause is a
clause which is used in the sentence with the
value of a single word; as We are not sure when
we shall start, hut zve shall go early.

2. An independent or principal clause is a
clause which is not used in the sentence with the
value of a single word; as, Harry went quickly,
but he zvas too late. The law, which had never been
enforced, was repealed.

122 An English Grammar

70. Classes of Subordinate or Dependent
Clauses. The sentence, We knoiv that you will
come and when you arrive^ we shall be glad to sec
you, contains two subordinate or dependent clauses.
The first, that you will come, is used in the sentence
widi the value of a substantive word. It is a direct
objective modifier of the word, know. Since it is
used in the sentence with the value of a substantive
word, we call it a substantive clause.

A substantive clause is a subordinate or de-
pendent clause which is used in the sentence with
the value of a substantive word; as. He hopes
that you will succeed hut he is skeptical.

The second clause, when you arrive, is used in
the sentence with the value of an attributive word.
It is an adverbial modifier of the word, glad, ex-
pressing the adverbial idea of time. Since it is
used in the sentence with the value of an attributive
word, we call it an attributive clause. •

An attributive clause is a subordinate or de-
pendent clause which is used in the sentence with
the value of an attributive word; as, The hook.^
which was soiled, lay on the table, but it was not fit
for use.

71. Classes of the Attributive Clause. The

sentence, TJie boy zvho was wanted was in the or-
chard but he came zvJien his father called him,] con-
tains two attributive clauses, t. The hrst, zvho
was wanted, is used in the sentence with the value

The Coinpoujid Sentence 123

of an adjective. It modifies the word, hoy. Since
it is used with the value of an adjective, we call it
an adjective clause.

An adjective clause is an attributive clause
which is used in the sentence v^ith the value of an
adjective; as, TJie house which was destroyed by
fire, was a total loss hut it will he rehuilt.

2. The second clause, when his father called
him, is used in the sentence with the value of an
adverb. It is an adverbial modifier of the word,
came, expressing the adverbial idea of time. Since
it is used in the sentence with the value of an ad-
verb, \ve call it an adverbial clause.

An adverbial clause is an attributive clause
which is used in the sentence with the value of an
adverb; as, The night is dark because there is no
moon hilt the stars iiive some li^ht.

Exercise 30

Point out all the clauses in each of the following
sentences and classify them on the hasis of relation
of one clause to the others in the sentence and on
the hasis of use, giving your reasons:

1. The river is deep but we can ford it.

2. The person who knows when he should not speak is
wise, but few have learned this art.

3. The person who has access to i^ood books is fortu-
nate and he should take advantage of the opportunity to use
them.

4. The boy who is diligent and who obeys his superiors
will be respected ; he need not fear failure.

124 All English Grammar

5. When spring returns, the flowers bloom and the
birds sing.

6. Galileo believed that the earth was round and he
was right.

7. I know whom I have believed and I am persuaded
that he is able to save me.

8. The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world and
this is not strange.

9. The storm had subsided but the sea was still furious.

10. The subject must serve his prince and the prince
must serve his subject, because God commands it and
human laws require it.

11. Mortals that would follow me
Love Virtue ; she alone is free :

12. Or if Virtue feeble were,

Heav'n itself would stoop to her. — Milton.

72. The Members of a Compound Sentence,

In the sentence, / am anxious to accommodate you
hut I cannot grant your request, we have two inde-
pendent clauses of equal rank. The first clause is
the expression, / am anxious to accommodate you.
The second clause is the expression, / cannot grant
your request. The sentence is, therefore, compound
and these coordinate independent clauses are called
the members of the compound sentence. This
sentence has two members but a compound sentence
may have more than two members. If there
is a subordinate clause in a compound sentence,
makino- it compound-complex, the subordinate
clause is a part of the member to which it belongs.
The members of a compound sentence are the

The Compound Sentence 125

coordinate, independent clauses which compose
it; as. The historian gives us facts biit the writer
of literature presents truth.

73. Relations Existing between the Thoughts
Expressed by the Members of Compound Sen-
tences. If we examine the following sentences
carefully, we shall see that coordinate relations or
the relations between the thoughts expressed by
coordinate clauses are not all alike •

1. I awoke and I got up at once.

2. The bird was shot, or someone had struck it.

3. The sun was up, but it was hidden behind the clouds.

4. It is my duty, therefore I must do it.

74. Relation of Addition. In the first sen-
tence the thoughts expressed are in the same line
or of the same kind, and one is added to the other.
The thought, / azvoke, is in harmony with the
thought, / got up at once, and one is simply joined
to the other. We call this kind of a coordinate re-
lation a relation of addition.

A relation of addition is that coordinate rela-
tion which exists between thoughts, which are in
the same line, when one is added to the other; as,
Night dropped her sable curtain down and pinned
it with a star.

75. Conjunctions which Express the Relation
of Addition. Tlic typical conjunction to express
this relation of addition or the conjunction which

126 All Bnglish Grammar

is used most frequently to express it is the word,
and. Other conjunctions frequently used to express
this relation are as follows: also, besides, likewise,
moreover, furthermore, both — and, not only — but
also, so — also. These are called copulative con-
junctions.

76. Relation of Opposition. In the third sen-
tence in Section yT)^ we have a relation expressed by
the word bnt, which is just the opposite of the rela-
tion of addition. The thoughts are not in the same
line, that is, they are not alike or in harmony. The
thought, it zvas hidden behind the clouds, is adverse
to the thought, the sun was up. This kind of rela-
tion is called a relation of opposition.

A relation of opposition is that coordinate re-
lation which exists between thoughts when one is
in some way adverse to the other; as, A fool
speaks all his mind, but a zvisc man reserves some-
thing until hereafter.

77. Conjunctions which Express the Relation
of Opposition. The typical conjunction to ex-
press the relation of opposition is the word, but.
Other conjunctions frequently used to express this
relation are as follows : yet, nevertheless, however,
still, only, whereas, notzvith standing, but — yet,
while, albeit. These are called adversative con-
junctions.

78. Relation of Alternation. Sometimes the
mind is required to choose between the thoughts

The Compound Sentence 127

expressed by the members of the compound sen-
tence, as in the second sentence in Section 73. Here
the mind has presented to it the thought, the bird
zvas shot, and the thought, someone had struck it.
The mind cannot accept both thoughts ; it considers
them; accepts one; and rejects the other. Some-
times it rejects both ; as, It is not raining, nor is it
snowing.

We call this kind of relation a relation of al-
ternation.

A relation of alternation is that coordinate
relation which exists between thoughts when the
mind accepts one and rejects the other, or rejects
both of them; as, A king must zvin or he must for-
feit his crown forever. Fie is neither dishonest nor
iintrustzvorthy.

79. Conjunctions which Express the Relation
of Alternation. The t}'pical conjunction to ex-
press the relation of alternation is the word, or.
Other conjunctions frequently used to express this
relation are as follows: either — or, neither — nor,
nor, else, othcvzvisc. These are called alternative
conjunctions.

80. Relation of Conclusion. Tn the fourth
sentence in Section 73, we can see that one of the
thoughts expressed is an inference from the other.
The thought, / must do it, is an inference from the
thought, it is jiiv duty. W'c call this kind of rela-
tion the relation of conclusion.

128 An English Grmnmar

A relation of conclusion is that coordinate re-
lation which exists between thoughts when one
is an inference from the other; as. The man pays
his debts promptly, therefore, lie is honest.

8i. Conjunctions which Express the Relation
of Conclusion. The typical conjunction to ex-
press this relation is the word, therefore. Other
conjunctions frequently used to express this rela-
tion are as follows: hence, for, since, then, thus,
consequently, accordingly, so. These are called
causal conjunctions.

Exercise 31

Write compound sentences, using each of the
conjunctions in the preceding lists to express the
different kinds of relations zvhich may exist be-
tween the thoughts expressed by the members of
compound sentences.

Exercise 32

Study the sentences in this exercise and state
the follozving points:

1. Giz'e the members.

2. Give the relation existing betzueen the
thoughts.

3. Name the conjunctions zvhich express these
relations.

1. The man dies but his memory lives.

2. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be absti-
nent in old aee.

The Compound Sentence 120

3. The swallows are flying low, and we shall have
rain.

4. The truth has been made known, therefore you may
as well confess.

5. It is not necessar\- nor is it advisable.

6. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and
others have greatness thrust upon them.

7. Of thy unspoken word thou art master ; thy spoken
word is master of thee.

8. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous
words stir up anger.

9. A blind man is a poor man, and blind a poor man is ;
^or the former seeth no man, and the latter no man sees.

10. There was a fair maiden lived down by a mill —

Ferry me over the ferry,—
Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill.
When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still.

Her lips were as full as a cherry.

11. The splendor falls on castle walls

And snowy summits old in story ;
The long light shakes across the lakes,
And the wild cataract leaps in glory.

— Tennyson.

12. And now there came both mist and snow.
And it grew wondrous cold.

And ice mast-high came floating liy.
As green as emerald.

— Coleridge.

13. The day is done; and slowly from the scene
The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts.
And puts them back into his golden quiver,

— Lon^fellozv.

82. Uses of Words in the Compound Sen-
tence. \\q have already seen that the conjunc-

130 All English Grammar'

tion can have one use in the compound sentence
in addition to that which it has in the simple sen-
tence. In the simple sentence its only use is to
express relation between ideas of equal rank. In
the compound sentence it can express, (i) rela-
tion between thoughts of equal rank; as, The street
ivas muddy, but the men willingly marched through
it.

The conjunction may also express (2) relation
between thoughts of unequal rank in the com-
pound sentence; as, The facts were publisJied be-
cause it zvas impossible longer to suppress them,
hut they did not arouse the public.

The pronoun, in addition to the uses found for
it in the simple sentence, may in the compound sen-
tence express relation between thoughts of unequal
rank; as, The Czar, who was ignoran" of the zuishes
of his people, finally had to be told the truth; but
he did not have the moral courage to grant them
justice.

The adverb, in addition to the uses found for
it in the simple sentence, expresses in the compound
sentence also a relation between thoughts of unequal
rank; as. They were ready when the time came, hut
their assistance was not needed.

Aside from these additional uses words are
used in the compound sentence just as they are in
the simple sentence, and they take the same kinds
of modifiers.

The Compound Sentence 131

Work in Composition

Tiic Rci'icii' (Continued)

Read the extract from " Evangeline '\ P<^g^ 30.

What zvas the author's Purpose in zvriting this?
What has he told in order to accomplish this pur-
pose?

JJ^'rite a rcz'ieiv one paragraph long on the ex-
tract from " Evangeline?'

Read th.e foUozi'ing paragraph from "The Bi-
ography of a Ciri.zcly" and try to discover zi'hy it
does not sound zveJl.

" The Riography of a Grizzly " was written by Ernest
Thompson Seton. It is the story of a bear cub. His
mother was shot when he was a cub. He was left friend-
less and homeless. It shows how full of tragedy the life
of a wild creature may be. It shows how ill treatment will
make a bear morose and savage. It show's how even the
most ill-treated creature may respond to fair treatment
and become gentle and tame.

Tr\ different zvays of comhi)iing tlie sentences
and notice the effect.

Variety in Sentence Form. A sentence form
should suit the mood of the writing. In describing
a fire it is natural to use short, exclamatory sen-
tences. In descril^ing a peaceful twilight scene, the
sentence form is likely to be long and musical. The
ear, however, grows tired of one sentence form. A
variety is desirable for most purposes, therefore a

132 An English Gravimar

pajKT may sometimes be imi)rovecl liy combining the
short sentences. Read Exercise u-B, page 41.

Read your paper, asking yourself if there are anv
sentences in it ichich could he improved by being
combined.

Exercise 33

Study the, sentences in this exercise and state
the follozving points:

1. Give the members.

2. State the kind of relation existing betzvecn
the thoughts expressed by the members.

3. Point out the conjunction which expresses
this relation.

4. When the conjunction is not present, supply
an appropriate one.

5. Notice tJie punctuation betzveen. the members
and try to give reasons for it.

1. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter,
nor are they extremely hot in summer.

2. The man takes plenty of exercise ; he is well.

3. We must conquer our pa'ssions or they will con-
quer us.

4. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas ; hence
it must be raining.

5. Neither James nor John had his lesson.

6. Solomon was both learned and wise.

7. Though it is deep, yet it is clear.

8. I care not whether it rains or snows.

9. Clark's men waded through many swamps and
reached the settlement at Vincennes.

10. The house was built upon a rock; it did not fall.

The Compound Sentence 133

11. The prodigal robs his heirs: the miser robs him-
self.

12. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but
it should not be the web.

13. 1 was told to go, else I should remain.

14. Be industrious, otherwise you will come to grief.

15. Margaret Fuller, whom the waves buried, accom-
plished much good ; but she was taken away in the midst of
her usefulness.

16. Ignorance is the curse of God, knowledge the wings
with which we fly to heaven.

17. The conscious water saw its Lord and blushed.

18. The aspen heard them and she trembled.

19. There is much that is deciduous in books, but all
that gives them a title to rank as literature in the highest
sense is perennial.

20. I do not like to say it, but he has sometimes smoth-
ered the child-like simplicity of Chaucer under feather-beds
of verbiage.

21. In peace thou art the gale of spring; in war the
mountain storm.

22. O dark and cruel deep, reveal
The secret that thy waves conceal !
And ye wild sea-birds hither wheel
And tell it me !

23. He cast ofif his friends as a huntsman his pack,
For he knew when he pleased he could whistle them

back. — Goldsmith.

24. Zeal and duty are not slow,

But an occasion's forelock watchful wait.

— Shakespeare.
55. Earth felt the wound, and Nature from her seat,
Sighing, through all her works gave signs of woe.

— Milton.

134 An English Granuiiar

83. Punctuation of the Compound Sentence.
The members of a compound sentence may be sep-
arated by the comma; as, Crafty men contemn
studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use
them.

They may be separated by the semi-colon; as,
A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool to out-
shine others.

They may be separated by the colon ; as. When
a man has nothing good to say of his neighbor, he
does ivcll to he silent: fezv follozv this precept.

They may not need any punctuation between
them ; as, / zvas told to go or I should remain.

Punctuation is to make the meaning of the
sentence clear, and the tendency in modern Eng-
lish is to use as little of it as is absolutely necessary
to accomplish this result.

If we examine the four examples above, we can
see that punctuation is sometimes made necessary
in the compound sentence: (i) by the length of
the members, as in the third example; (2) by
the absence of the conjunction, as in the second;
(3) by interpunctuation, punctuation within the
members, as in the third; or (4) by the remote-
ness of the relation between the thoughts ex-
pressed by the members, as in the second. Every
time we punctuate a compound sentence, we
should think of these four points:

1. The length of the members.

2. The presence or absence of the conjunction.

The Compound Sentence 135

3. The closeness or remoteness of the relation between
the thoughts.

4. Interpunctuation.

Exercise 34

Study the following sentences and state:

1. The members.

2. The kind of relation existing hetzveen the
thoughts expressed by the members.

3. Gii'c tJic reasons for the punctuation.

1. No one ought to wound the feelings of another, nor
should one insult him.

2. Men are not judged by their looks, habits, and ap-
pearances; but they are judged by their lives.

3. A true friend will give counsel, but an evil-minded
person will deceive.

4. Stones grow ; plants grow ; animals grow, feel, and
live.

5. Avoid affectation ; it is a contemptible weakness.

6. Harbour no malice in thy heart; it will be a viper
in thy bosom.

7. The wise man considers what he wants ; the fool
what he abounds in.

8. The noblest prophets have been children ; thev prac-
tice no deception.

9. The mountains rise and circling oceans flow.

10. Themistocles was cautious, and he was also valiant;
but the wisdom of the serpent and the courage of the lion
could not prevail against destiny.

11. The hermit sat at the door of his cave and thought
upon the deep things of life.

12. He suffered, but his pangs are o'er;
Enjoyed, but his delights are fled;

13B All English Grammar

Had friends, his friends arc now no more ;
And foes, his foes are dead.

13. Swift to the breach his comrades fly;
" Make way for Hberty," they cry ;
And through the Austrian phalanx dart

As rushed the spears through Arnold's heart.

14. Leaves have their time to fall.

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath,
And stars to set ; but all.

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death !

— Hemans.

15. Turn, gentle Hermit of the Dale,
And guide my lonely way

To where your taper cheers the vale

With hospitable ray. — Goldsmith.

Exercise 35

Review and Work in Composition

In giving a complete analysis of a compound
sentence, or telling all that we have learned about
it, notice the following points:

1. Classify the sentence.

a. On the basis of chief purpose.

b. On the basis of the number and rela-

tion of the thoughts expressed.

2. Read the members.

J. State the kind of relation existing between
the thoughts expressed by the members.

4. Give the conjunctions.

5. Give the reasons for the punctuation.

The Compound Sentence 137

6. Analyze each rnemher.

a. Give the entire subject.

b. Give the entire predicate.

c. Give the entire copula.

d. Give the principal part of the subject

and all the modifiers.

e. Give same of predicate and copula.

. Analyze the sentences belozv, following the
above outline:

1. Apply yourselves to study; it will redound to your
honour.

2. Every man desires to live long, but no man would
be old.

3. So Heaven decrees : with Heaven who can contend ?

4. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses
of an enemy are deceitful.

5. A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope ; a
pretended patriot, he impoverished the country.

6. There are but few voices in the land but many echoes.

7. Any nobleness begins at once to refine a man's
features, any meanness or sensuality to imbrute them.

8. Few and short were the prayers we said.
And we spake not a word of sorrow ;

But we silently gazed on the face of the dead
And we bitterly thought of the morrow.

9. May I govern my passions with absolute sway,
And grow wiser and better as life wears away.

—Pope.

10. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray.

11. Upon her breast a sparkling cross she wore.
Which Jews might kiss and infidels adore;

138 An English Grammar

Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose,
Quick as her eyes and as unfixed as those :
Favors to none, to all she smiles extends ;
Oft she rejects, but never once oflFends. — Pof^e.

12. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall,
But at every gust the dead leaves fall,

— Lcngfellozv.

13. And as a hare, whom hounds and horns pursue.
Pants to the place from whence at first he flew,

I still had" hopes, my long vexations past.
Here to return, and die at home at last.

— Goldsmith.

14. Take her up tenderly,
Lift her with care,
Fashioned so slenderly,

Young, and so fair. — Hood.

15. Come as the winds come, when
Forests are rended ;

Come as the winds come, when

Navies are stranded. — Scott.

16. Alas, 'tis true I have gone here and there,
And made myself a motley to the view.

Gored mine own thoughts, sold cheap what is most
dear. — Shakespeare.

17. Fond fool! six feet of earth is all thy store,
And he that seeks for all shall have no more.

—Pope.

18. This is the state of man: today he puts forth
Tine tender leaves of hope ; tomorrow blossoms.
And bears his blushing honours thick upon him ;
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost.

— Shakespeare.
TQ. He is a freeman whom the truth makes free.

And all are slaves beside.
20. And neither the angels in heaven above,

The Compound Sentence 139

Nor the demons down under the sea,

Can ever dissever my soul from the soul

Of the beautiful Annabel Lee. — Poe.

21. Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops.

— Shakespeare.

22. This should have been a noble creature ; he
Hath all the energy which would have made
A goodly frame of glorious elements,

Had they been wisely mingled. — Shakespeare.

23. But look, the morn in russet mantle clad
Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill.

— Shakespeare.

24. See how the morning opes her golden gates
And takes her farewell of the glorious sun !

— Shakespeare.

25. I saw from the beach where the morn was shining,
A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on ;

I came when the sun o'er that beach was declining.
The bark was still there, but the waters were gone.

— Moore.

Work in Composition

The Rcz'iczc ( Coutiniicd)

Read the extract about " The Forest Primeval" ,
page /(V?.

Jlliat is portrayed JiereF What makes tlie poem
beautiful? Discuss its tJioui^Jit, the feeling^ that
comes over you iu readiug it aud the pictures sui^-
i^ested by it.

Outline a rei'iezv of " The 1' or est Priuieval " by
para 'graphs. U^rite a reviczv of the poem.

Word Study. One way of securing a pleas-

140 An English Grammar

&'

ing effect in an English paper is through a wise
choice and a correct use of words. Avoid slang,
commonplace words and affectations. For most
])urposes many is better than lots, angry than mad,
several than quite a few, and aftracfiz'e, interesting
or enjoyable than perfeetly lovely.

For the correction of common errors, master
exercises 67, 81, 92, 106, 117, 119.^

Notice the effect of unnecessarily repeating the
same word or words that are nearly alike.

The day will soon be here when we shall spend
a pleasant day together. This zvriter zvrites inter-
estingly.

Read your paper. Have you made a wise choice
of words f

Chapter XII

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

84. The Complex Sentence Defined. A com-
plex sentence is a sentence which expresses one
principal thought and one or more subordinate
thoughts; as, Gold, which is mined in Colorado, is
the most precious of metals.

85. Classes of the Complex Sentence. Phe
complex sentence, like the compound sentence, may
have all the elements of each thought expressed
separately; as, The book zdiich was torn was
thrown aside.

We call this kind of sentence a regular com-
plex sentence.

A regular complex sentence is a complex sen-
tence in which all the elements of each thought
are expressed separately; as, Joseph, who heard
the call, ran to the rescue.

We often have a complex sentence in which
some of the elements of some of the thoughts are
common and are expressed but once; as. His
brother is taller than he, which means, His brother
is taller than he [is tall].

This kind of complex sentence we call an
abridged complex sentence.

{1413

142 An English Grammar

An abridged complex sentence is a complex
sentence in which the common elements of the
thoughts are expressed but once; as, The rock is
higher than I, which means, Tlie rock is higher than
I [am high].

86. Words Used in the Complex Sentence.

The same kinds of words are used in the complex
sentence as we found in the compound, and they
have the same uses and modifiers. Phrases are also
the same as in the simple sentence and have the
same uses. We have now to learn the uses of
clauses in the complex sentence.

87. The Substantive Clause, Usual Form. In

the sentence, Weakness is your excuse.

The word, weakness, is the subject of the sen-
tence. We may substitute for it the following
clause: That you are weak. The sentence then
reads. That you are weak is your excuse.

The clause. That you are zveak, is used as the
subject of the sentence.

Exercise 36

Now study the sentences in this exercise in this
same way, noting the following points about each:

1. Read the italicized expression.

2. Give its exact use in the sentence.

J. Substitute a clause for the italicized ex-
pression, making the sentence complex.

The Complex Sentence ^^^

4. State the exact use of the clause which
you have substituted.

1. The result was the signing of tJie treaty.

2. They asked his presence.

^. This fact, the rotundity of the earth, is beUeved by
all. ^

4. There is some dispute about the real discoverer of
America.

5. We are desirous of yonr success.
t>. They insisted on your remaining.
7. We are not sure of his success.

88. The Uses of the Substantive Clause,
Usual Form, in the Complex Sentence. From a
careful study of the sentences above we should
see that the substantive clause, usual form, may
be tised in the following" wa}s in the complex
sentence •

1. As the subject of the sentence; as, That the
earth is round is not doubted.

2. As the predicate of the sentence; as, Their
demand zvas that we surrender.

3. As an appositive modifier; as, The truth, that
all men are created equal, is often expressed.

4. Principal part of a prepositional phrase; as.
Have birds any sense of why they sing ?

5. Direct objective modifier; as, JVe hoped that
you could come.

6. Indirect objective modifier ; as. He is not sure
that he will pass in his work.

7. Ad\'erbial objective modifier; as. We are very
sorry that you have failed.

1-44 An English Grammar

Exercise 37

Study the sentences in this exercise carefully and
note the follozving concerning them:
T. Read the principal clause.
2. Read the subordinate clause,
?. CAve the use of the subordinate clause.
4. Note and explain the punctuation.

*i. What you say is of little consequence.

2. My home is wherever I am happy.

3. I know not where they have laid him.

4. The fact, that it was done by him, is apparent.

5. He traded with what capital he had.

6. When letters were first used is not certainly known.

7. A peculiarity of English is that it has so many bor-
rowed words.

8. The fact, that mold is a plant, is interesting.

9. That stars are suns is the belief of astronomers.

10. Astronomers believe that stars are suns.

11. The belief of astronomers is that stars are suns.

12. The belief, that stars are suns, is held by astronomers.

13. That the caterpillar turns to a butterfly is a curious
fact.

14. The thought, that we are spinning around the sun
some twenty miles a second, almost makes one dizzy.

15. We are quite sorry that it is so.

16. He was afraid that he should fall.

17. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the
pole.

18. That we were unsuccessful was not our fault.

*Note: When the substantive clause is used as the subject of the
sentence, as in i and i8, or as the predicate of the sentence, as in 2
and 20. the principal clause is the entire sentence. In all other cases
the principal clause may be separated from the substantive clause.

The Complex Sentence 145

19. The cry, that the world is growing worse, comes
from a pessimist.

20. His request was that we should be present.

Exercise 38.

State all the uses of the substantive clause, usual
form. Write one original example of each use.

Notice the punctuation of the following sen-
tences:

1. The fact, that eternal vigilance is die price of good
English, cannot be too strongly impressed upon pupils in
grammar.

2. It was evident that the boy had failed.

3. Why me the stern usurper spared, I know not.

4. The story of Washington's hatchet, it is now be-
lieved, is untrue.

5. That money easily earned easily goes, goes without
saying.

89. Punctuation of the Substantive Clause,
Usual Form. By noticing the punctuation of the
sentences in the preceding" exercises, the following
principles for punctuating the substantive clause,
usual form, will be clear:

1. The substantive clause, usual form, used as
an appositive modifier is usually separated from
the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, The
fact, that he was honest, was doubted by no one.

The clause which is explanatory of the word, it,
however, is seldom set off by the comma; as. It is
true that the mistake could not ha7'c been a7'oided.

2. When the substantive clause, usual form,

!-!-♦> All English Grauiinar

is out of its natural order, it should be separated
from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as,
TJiat the stream couhi he forded, the general did not
doubt.

3. When the principal clause breaks up the
substantive clause, usual form, it should be sep-
arated from the rest of the sentence by the com-
ma; as, The subject of gramiuar, it is nozu thought,
should be taught inductively.

4. When a clause ends in a verb and is fol-
lowed by the same verb the two should be sep-
arated by the comma; ?iS,W hat ever is, is right.

90. Substantive Clause, Usual Form, Defined.
A substantive clause, usual form, is a substantive
clause in which the author of the sentence ex-
presses his own thought in his own words; as,
/ can see that you are in earnest.

91. The Direct Quotation. In the sentences
which follozv, zvork out carefully each of the folloiv-
ing points:

1. State tJie principal clause.

2. State the subordinate clause.

J. State the use of the subordinate clause.

4. Note and explain the punctuation.

5. How do these clauses differ from those in

the preceding lists f

I. " Mental power can never be gained from senseless
fiction," savs a certain writer.

The Complex Sentence 147

2. The peacock struts about saying, " What a fine tail
I have ! "

3. Socrates's greatest saying was, " Know thyself."

4. Shakespeare's metaphor, " Night's candles are
burned out," is one of the finest in literature.

5. The essence of all Webster's great speeches is this :
" Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable ! "

6. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and
the thief.

7. Hamlet's exclamation was. " What a piece of work
is man ! "

8. Cries of, " Long live the King! " rent the air.

9. " You will," h'e said, " be well satisfied with the
change."

10. A writer says, " I have heard more than one person
say, ' I am thankful.' "

11. I will ask of you, " What can you do? "

12. The me?sage ran thus: "England expects every
man to do his duty."

92. Uses of the Direct Quotation in the Com-
plex Sentence. We have seen in our study of the
preceding list of sentences that a direct quotation
may be used in the complex sentence in the follow-
ing ways:

T. Subject of the sentence; as, "Love thy neigh-
bor as thyself," is a precept not easily practiced.

2. Predicate of the sentence; as, The declaration
is, ''All men are created free and equal."

3. Appositive modifier; as, We do well to keep
in mind the adage, ''Procrastination is the thief of
time."

4. Direct objective modifier; as, Lincoln said,

148 An English Grammar

"The people are not akvays right hut they usually
■wobble right."

5. Principal ])art of a prepositional phrase; as,
The whole duty of man is expressed in, ''Do unto
others as you zvould have them do unto you."

Exercise 39

Rewrite the follozviug story in the form of a con-
versation, using direct quotations:

A wolf once swallowed a bone which stuck fast in his
throat. He begged his neighbor, the crane, to remove it for
him, promising her a great reward. This she willingly under-
took, and because her beak was long, she removed the bone
with ease. She asked for her reward, but the wolf only
laughed and said that having had her head within the
jaws of a wolf and safely out again was reward enough.

Write one original example of each use of the di-
rect quotation in. the complex sentence.

Imagine yourself to be purchasing some article
and invent the conversation that might take place
between yourself and the salesman, using the direct
quotation in its various forms.

Find all the direct quotations in " The Beggar
Maid", on page 11^. Give the exact use of each.
Account for the punctuation.

93. Punctuation of the Direct Quotation. By

observing- the punctuation in the list of sentences in

Section 91, we may state the following- principles:

I . A direct quotation should begin with a cap-

The Complex Sentence 149

ital and should be inclosed in quotation marks;

as, '' HifcJi your zuagon to a star," said Emerson.

2. A direct quotation, when not formally in-
troduced, should be separated from the rest of
the sentence by the comma; as, Franklin said, "A
man often pays too v.uich for his whistle."

3. A direct quotation, formally introduced,
should be separated from the rest of the sentence
by the colon; as, Holmes once used the following
language: ''Put not your trust in money, but put
your money in trust."

4. A direct quotation which is interrogative
or exclamatory should be followed by its appro-
priate mark; as, Charles Lamb, reading the epi-
taphs in a churchyard, inquired, " Where be all the
bad people buried?" " Give me liberty or give me
death]" exclaimed Patrick Henry.

5. A direct quotation within a direct quota-
tion should be inclosed in single quotation marks ;
as, The speaker said, "An old adage says, 'Experi-
ence is a hard teacher.'"

6. When a direct quotation is broken up by
another part of the sentence, each part of the di-
rect quotation should be inclosed in quotation
marks; as, "The Scotch," said Burns, "are a stub-
born people."

Exercise 40

Study the following sentences carefully and note
the follozving points:

\

150 " An English Grmnmar

1. Read the principal clause.

2. Read the subordinate clause.

J. Tell what kind of clause the subordinate
clause is.

4. Give the exact use of the subordinate

clause.

5. Give 'reasons for the capital letters and

punctuation.

1. This we know, that our future depends upon our
past.

2. The project, it is certain, will succeed.

3. He said, " The maxim, ' A fool and his money are
soon parted,' is many times exemplified."

4. In Wnllace's novel, " Ben Hur," may be found the
following words : " The Hindoo here drew a long sigh,
as he said, ' The enemy of man is man, my brother.' "

5. " The English." said Voltaire, " gain two hours a
day by clipping words."

6. " Gallop," gasped Joris, " for Aix is in sight ! "

7. The queen said repeatedly with a firm voice, " Into
thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit."

8. " You lazy fellow ! " cried Hercules, " how dare
you send for me till you have tried to do without me ! "

9. " Fly, Rebecca, for no human aid can avail you,"
said Ivanhoe.

10. Said the schoolmaster, " When asked about Esau,
the pupil said, ' Esau wrote a famous book of fables and
sold the copyright for a bottle of potash.' "

11. What teacher of rhetoric has not sympathized with
the delightful Portia in " The Merchant of Venice '' when
she says with a sigh, " If to do were as easy as to know
what were good to do, chapels had been churches and poor
men's cottages princes' palaces ! "

The Complex Sentence 151

12. " Truth gets well," says a certain writer, " oven
if she be run over by a locomotive."

13. The Mohammedans say, " God gave two-thirds of
all the beauty to Eve."

14. We daily verify the saying, " Man's extremity is
God's opportunit}"."

15. The principle involved in, "Resistance to tyrants is
obedience to God," was the seminal principle of the Amer-
ican Revolution.

16. The Ram's Horn says, " A self-made man likes to
boast of his job."

17. One historian says, " If we track Queen Elizabeth
through her tortuous mazes of lying and intrigue, the
sense of her greatness is almost lost in a sense of contempt."

94. Direct Quotation Defined. A direct quo-
tation is a substantive clause in which the author
of the sentence expresses the exact thought of
some other person in the exact words of that
other person; as, Some one has truly said, "He
that would govern others must first he master of
himself."

95. The Indirect Quotation. The indirect
quotation is also a kind of substantive clause.
What difference do you notice between the follow-

Direct quotation. "I," said the little man, "am
the King of the Golden River."

Indirect quotation. Tlic little man said that he
was the King of the Golden River.

Studv the following sentences carefully and
note the following points:

152 rUi English Grammar

1. The principal clause.

2. The subordinate clause.

J. TJie exact use of the subordinate clause.
4. The difference betzveen the subordinate

clauses and the other substantive clauses

already studied.

1. That we should be ready to march at dawn was the
command of the general.

2. The general's command was that we be ready to
march at dawn.

3. The command, that we be ready to march at dawn,
was given by the general.

4. The general commanded that we be ready to march
at dawn.

96. The Uses of the Indirect Quotation.

From the study of the preceding sentences we may
see that the indirect quotation can have the follow-
ing uses:

1. Subject of the sentence ; as, That we should
be prepared on all our lessons was the thought of
the teacher.

2. Predicate of the sentence; as, The teacher's
thought was that we should be prepared on all
our lessons.

3. Appositive modifier: as, The thought, that
we should be prepared on all our lessons, was ex-
pressed by the teacher.

4. Direct objective modifier; as, The teacher
said that we should be prepared on all our lessons.

97. The Indirect Quotation Defined. An in-

The Complex Sentence 153

direct quotation is a substantive clause in which
the author of the sentence expresses in his
own words the thought of some other person;
as, Grant said that he would fight it out on that
line if it took all summer.

The punctuation of the indirect quotation is the
same as that of the substantive clause, usual form.

Exercise 41

Study the following sentences earefully and
note the follozving points:

1. Read the principal clause.

2. Read the subordinate clause.

J. Tell wJiat kind of clause the subordinate
clause is.

4. Giz'c the exact use of the subordinate

clause.

5. Verify the punctuation.

1. The traveler said that he was weary.

2. The speaker said that protection was a failure.

3. Nathan Hale's only regret was that he had but one
life to give to his country.

4. That the greatest vice of American writing and speak-
ing is a .studied want of simplicity, was the thought of
Lowell.

5. Byron, seeing Moore eating an under-done beefsteak,
asked if he were not afraid of committmg murder after
such a meal.

6. That England expected every man to do his duty
was the word which was passed along the line.

7. Socrates said that men should know themselves.

154 All English Gmnniiar

98. The Adjective Clause. \\> have now dis-
covered all the kinds of substantive clauses used
in the complex sentence and we have seen all the
uses of such clauses. Other kinds of clauses are
found in the complex sentences, as we may see by
studying the following sentence: Mahomet, the
founder of the faitJi of Islam, was born in Mecca.

This is a simple sentence. The expression, the
founder of the faith of Islam, is an appositive modi-
fier of the word, Mahomet. It does not narrow or
restrict the meaning of the word, Mahomet. It
simply emphasizes an attribute of the object of
thought expressed by the word. We can change
the sentence into a complex sentence by making a
clause out of this appositive modifier. Mahomet,
who zvas the founder of the faith of Islam, zuas
born in Mecca.

The principal clause is the expression, Ma-
homet zvas born in Mecca. The subordinate clause
is the expression, zvlio zvas the founder of the faith
of Islam. It is used as a descriptive adjective modi-
fier of the word, Mahomet. Hence we call this
clause a descriptive adjective clause.

The word, who, has two uses in the sentence.

1. It is the subject of the subordinate clause.

2. It expresses the relation between the thought
expressed by the principal clause and the thought
expressed by the subordinate clause. We call this
word, zvho, the connective.

Sometimes the adjective clause is used as a lim-

The Complex Sentence 155

iting adjective modifier and then we call it a lim-
iting adjective clause; as, The boys who are tall
may pass info the next room.

Exercise 42

Study tJie following simple sentences carefully:

1. Give file exact use of each italicised ex-

pression.

2. State zvli ether the italicised expression

narrows the meaning of the word which
it modifies or simply makes prominent
an attribute of the object of thought ex-
pressed by it.
J. Expand each sentence into a complex sen-
tence.

4. State the principal clause.

5. State the' subordinate clause.

6. Give the exact use of the subordinate

clause.

7. Is if liiniting or descriptive?

8. Point out the connective and give all its

uses.

1. Sunderland's crime was never forgiven by James.

2. A man of good character will win respect.

3. The prisoner, stupefied -with terror, could not respond.

4. The army, conquered at Waterloo, was commanded
by Napoleon.

6. Solomon, the builder of the Temple, was the son of
David.

7. It was a sight to gladden the heart.

156 An English Grmnmar

8. Rice, largely consumed by the natives of Eastern
Asia, requires a damp soil.

9. Procrastination, the thief of time, is our worst enemy.
10. A selfish man, the ugliest thing upon which the

angels have to look, is a disgrace to humanity.

Exercise 43

Study the follozving sentences and state clearly:

1. The principal cla^tse.

2. The subordinate clause.

J. The exact use of the subordinate clause.

4. Is it limiting , or descriptive f

5. The connective and all its uses.

1. God rules the world, which he created.

2. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid.

3. The man who conquers selfishness gains in breadth
of character.

4. The evil that men do lives after them.

5. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which he
did thrice refuse.

6. My father, whom all loved, was fond of flowers.

7. The girl and the cat, that were in the room, were
having a frolic.

8. He purchased such books as were wanted.

9. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die.

10. There is not a man here but knows it.

11. There is no fireside but has one vacant chair.

12. As many as received him to them gave he power.

13. Such as I have, give I unto thee.

14. To him who in the love of nature holds communion
with her visible forms, she speaks a various language.

15. The lever which moves the world's mind is the
printing press.

The Complex Sentence 157

1 6. The Knights of the Round Table, who flourished
in the reign of King Arthur, were chivalrous and brave.

17. Margaret Fuller, whom the waves buried, was a
philanthropist.

18. The author whose poem was read was present.

19. The teacher whose example is good will be re-
spected by his pupils.

99. The Adjective Clause Defined. An ad-
jective clause is an attributive clause which is
used in the sentence with the value of an adjec-
tive; as. The horse, which was valuable, zvas lost in
the zvoods.

100. The Descriptive Adjective Clause De-
fined. A descriptive adjective clause is an ad-
jective clause which is used as a descriptive ad-
jective modifier; as, Peniu who was straightfor-
ward in his dealings with men, never lost a friend.

10 1. The Limiting Adjective Clause Defined.
A limiting adjective clause is an adjective clause
which is used as a limiting adjective modifier; as,
Those pupils who have an average of eighty in the
work of the term may be excused from the Unal ex-
amination.

102. The Relative Pronoun in the Adjective
Clause. Tn the adjcclixc clauses so far studied,
the relative pronoun or connective has had one sub-
stantive tise and a relational use; 1)tit in the sen-

NoTE : Pupils need not dwell upon descriplhc and limiiing ad-
jective clauses.

15ii .-1)1 English Gram mar

tences which follow, wc shall notice that it has also
another snhstantive use.

103. Simple and Compound Relative Pro-
nouns. In the sentence, He wlio ivins may laiigJi,
the word, He, is the subject of the principal clause,
He may langh. The word, zvJio, is the subject of the
subordinate clause, zvJw wins, and it is also the con-
nective, expressing- the relation between the
thought expressed by the principal clause and the
thought expressed by the subordinate clause. We
see, then, that the expression. He who, has three
uses in the sentence. Two of them are substantive
uses and one is a relational use. Now if we sub-
stitute the word, zvhoever, for the expression, He
who, making the sentence read, Whoever zvins may
laiigli, the word. Whoever, will have these same
three uses. The word, JVJwever, is now the subject
of the principal clause, Wlwcz-er may laugh. It is
also the subject of the subordinate clause. Whoever
zvins. It also expresses the relation between the
thought expressed by the principal clause and the
thought expressed by the subordinate clause.

^^'hen the relative pronoun has only one sub-
stantive use and one relational use, we call it a
simple relative pronoun; but when it has two sub-
stantive uses and one relational use, as in this
sentence, we call it a compound relative pronoun.

The Complex Sentence 15i>

Exercise 44

Study the following sentences carefully and
state:

1. The principal clause.

2. The subordinate claiise.

J. TJie exact use of the subordinate clause.

4. The exact use of the italicized expression

as illustrated in Section 10^.

5. Substitute one word for the italicized ex-

pression.

6. TJie exact u.ses of the njord zvhich you

substitute.

1. He Zi'lio runs nia\- read.

2. The thing zvhich is right is safe.

3. He wants anything that he sees.

4. The person zehom falsehood pleases, truth ofifends.

5. Do the thing that is right.

6. The Lord cha?teneth any person -rehoin he loveth.

7. Any person whose property is injurt-d ma}' recover
damages.

8. The person zeho keepeth the law is a wise son.

9. Judge ye the thing zvhich I saw

10. The person zvho enters here should have a pure heart.

Exercise 45

Study the followiui^ sentences carefully and
give:

1. I'hc principal clause.

2. 'The subordinate clause.

^. 'The connective and all its uses.

ICO An English Grammar

4. The expanded expression for the con-
nective to sho7v more clearly its uses.

1. Whoever sees not the sun is blind.

2. He knows whomever he has once seen.

3. Whoso keepeth the law is a wise son.

4. Whatever he doeth shall prosper.

5. Whosoever liveth in this land must obey the laws.

6. Whosever. child you have wronged shall be avenged.

7. Whosesoever faults ye forget will be happy.

8. I will be satisfied with whomsoever you may appoint.

9. You may have whichever you want.

10. Whatsoever ye shall ask I will do.

1 1 . The child does whatever he pleases.

12. He will do what is right.

13. You may select whichsoever you desire.

14. What he says is true.

15. Turn to whosoever shall ask alms a sympathetic ear.

16. Into whatsoever ye shall enter, inquire who is
worthy.

17. Whoever studies will learn.

18. Whoever does no good does harm.

19. Whoever brings the treasure shall receive the re-
ward.

104. The Relative Pronoun Defined. A rela-
tive pronoun is a pronoun which has a relational
use in the sentence; as, Hazvthorne, who was a
timid man, shunned the public gase.

105. Classes of Relative Pronouns. We have
seen from our study of the preceding sentences
that on the basis of use, we have two classes of
relative pronouns, simple and compound.

The Complex Sentence 161

1 06. The Simple Relative Pronoun Defined.
A simple relative pronoun is a relative pronoun
which has only one substantive use; as, Burdette,
who was fond of a good story, had a fund of anec-
dotes.

107. List of Simple Relative Pronouns. The
following words are used as simple relative pro-
nouns: Who (with its other forms, zvhose and
whom), which, that, as, and but. These words are
not always relative pronouns. They are relative
pronouns only when they have a relational use in
the sentence.

The use of the words, hit, and as, as relative
pronouns is not very common. The word, but, is
a relative pronoun only when it expresses the rela-
tion between thoughts of unequal rank and is
equivalent in meaning to the words, that not; as,
There is not a man here but knows it, is equal to,
There is not a man here that docs not knozv it.

The word, as, is a relative pronoun only when
some such word as, such, many, or same is its
antecedent or a part of its antecedent; as, He
bought such books as were needed. These are the
same as zve have.

108. Kinds of Objects Expressed by Relative
Pronouns, i . The word, zvho, expresses persons or
personified things; as, The father, who was away
from home, zvas quickly summoned . The lion, who
had taken his seat on the throne, addressed his sub-
jects in diplomatic language,.

1^*^ An Eiii^lish Graiuinar

2. The word, ivJiicJi, expresses inanimate ob-
jects, lower animals, persons taken collectively, and
sometimes small children; as, Tlie house, which zvas
large, zvas burned, llie horse which zvas sold is
black. The crozvd, which zvas large, beeame noisy.
The child, which zvas in its cradle, zvas awake.

3. The word, that, may express inanimate ob-
jects, lower animals, persons, or any two or all of
these taken tooether; as, The guns that zvere near
zvere sei.ccd by the soldiers. The dogs that zve sazv
zvere zvell trained. The men that zve met zvere po-
lite. The men, dogs, and gnus that zve sazv at the
station zvere on their way West.

4. The words, as and but, may express the same
kinds of objects as the word, that.

109. The Compound Relative Pronoun De-
fined. A compound relative pronoun is a relative
pronoun which has two substantive uses in the
sentence; as. Whoever zvorks zvill succeed.

no. How the Compound Relative Pronouns
are Formed. I'he compound relative pronouns
are formed by adding the words, ez'cr, so, or soever,
to the following forms of the simple relative pro-
nouns: zvho, zvhose, zvhom and zvhich.

III. List of Compound Relative Pronouns.

This would give us the following list: whoever,
zvhoso, zvhosoever, zvhosever, zvhosesoever, zvhoni-
ever, zvhomsoever, whichever, zvhichsoezjer.

The Co)nple,v Sentence 1<>3

Of these fornis, only the following are niiicli
used in modern English. wJioevcr, zvhosever,
zvhomei'cr, and zvhichever.

112. The Word, What, The word, zvhaf, when
a relative pronoun, is always compound; as,
What ye seek ye shall -find.

To it may be added the words, ever, so, and so-
cver, to form other compound relative ])ronouns.
Of these, only the form, zvhafever, is much used in
modern English.

113. The Proper Use of the Forms of the
Word, Whoever* Whether we use whoever,
zvh.osei-^er, or ivhomever in expressing a thought, de-
pends upon the use of the word in the subordinate
clause. The form of the v^ord must agree with its
use in the subordinate clause; as, You may invite
whomever you choose. You may invite whoever
zvill come.

Exercise 46

Fill the follozi)ing blanks zjuith the proper form
of the compound relaiiz'c pronoun, whoever:

1. comes will be welcome.

2. you suggest will be selected.

3. He knows he has met.

4. The boy takes pencil he can.

5. The old lady asked she met.

6. The man put the question to appeared.

7. We like flatters us.

8. We welcomed came.

164 An English Grammar

g. reads much will be well informed.

10. I congratulate succeeds.

114, The Simple Conjunctive Adverb in the
Adjective Clause. We have found so far that the
connective in the adjective clause may be a simple
or a compound relative pronoun. We are now to
find that it may also have another kind of connective.

In the sentence, Youth is the time at wJiich the
seeds of character arc sozvn, the expression, at
which, in the adjective clause, at zuhich the seeds of
character are sown, has two uses. It is an adverbial
modifier of the word, sozvn, expressing the adverbial
idea of time. Then, the word, zvhich, is a relative
pronoun, which expresses the relation between the
thought expressed by the principal clause and the
thought expressed by the subordinate clause. The
expression, at zvhich, then, has one adverbial use
and one connective use.

We may substitute the word, zvhen, for the ex-
pression, at zvhich, making the sentence read. Youth
is the time zvhen the seeds of character are sown.
The word, zvhen, will then have the same two uses
as the expression, at zvhich. It is an adverbial
modifier of the word, sown, in the subordinate
clause, expressing the adverbial idea of time. It
also expresses the relation between the thought
expressed by the principal clause and the thought
expressed by the subordinate clause.

We call such a word a simple conjunctive ad-
verb.

The Complex Sentence 165

Exercise 47

Study the following sentences and give:

1. The principal clause.

2. The subordinate clause.

J. TJie exact use of the subordinate clause.

4. The exact uses of the italicised expres-

sion.

5. A zvord zvhich may be substituted for

the italicised expression.

6. The exact uses of the word substituted.

1. This is the place at zvhich the oranges are sold.

2. I saw the city in ivhich Longfellow lived.

3. The place to zvhich she fled is unknown.

4. I know a bank on zvhich the wild thyme grows.

5. You take the means by which I live.

6. This is the arrow zi'ith zvhich he killed Cock Robin.

7. This is the house from zvhich Arnold fled.

8. I know the place of zvhich you speak.

9. I do not like the platform on zvhich they stand.
10. The principle on zvhich he acts is unjust.

Exercise 48

Study the follozving sentences and give:

1. The principal clause.

2. The subordinate clause.

^. The use of the subordinate clause.
4. The connective word and all its uses.

1. We came unto the land whither thou sentcst us.

2. I have shaken off the regal thoughts wherewith I
reigned.

3. The play's the thing wherein I'll catch the con-
science of the king.

166 An Eiis^lish Gyajiniia)'

4. It was a time when men's hearts were tried.

5. The place where he fell is unknown.

6. He would g^ive the duke no reason why he followed
a losing suit.

7. Mark those laws whereby the universe is conducted.

8. A depot is a place where stores are kept,

9. A verb is a word whereby the chief action of the
mind is expressed,

10. The valley of Chamouni is a place where the traveler
loves to linger for days and even for weeks.

A conjunctive adverb is an adverb which has
a relational use; as, U'c came to a place where
the I'oads crosscil.

115. The Simple Conjunctive Adverb De-
fined. A simple conjunctive adverb is a conjunc-
tive adverb which has only one adverbial use; as,

Tin's is tJic place where 7ue zvere to meet.

116. Connectives of the Adjective Clause.

We have now found that the adjective clause may
have three kinds of connectives: the simple rela-
tive pronoun, the compound relative pronoun,
and the simple conjunctive adverb. It can have
no others. These connectives can never be used
in any other kind of clause.

117. List of Simple Conjunctive Adverbs.

The following" words may be used as simple con-
junctive adverbs but they are not always so used:
where. zvJien, zvherezvith, zvhereon, zvhence, zvhere-
by, zvhither, zvherein, zvhy, zvhilc, zvherefrom.

The Complex Sentence !♦>"

Exercise 49

Use each of the zvords in the preceding list as
simple conjunctive adverbs. Write your sentences.

118. Punctuation of Adjective Clause. The
descriptive adjective clause should be separated
from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as,

Harry, zvho thrciv the stone, did not knozv that it
had struck the zvindozv.

Work in Composition

Description
THE k.\(;lr

He clasps the eras;- with crooked hands ;
Close to the sun in lonely lands.
Rino^Vl with the azure world, he stands.

The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls :
He watches from his mountain walls.
And like a thunderbolt he falls.

— Alfred. Lord Tennyson.

I.

JVhat has Tennyson pictured here? Upon zvhat
does your interest centre/ What are the sur-
roundings/ I That is the general impression left,
upon yon?

Purpose of Description. A descrii)ti()n aims
to prescnl a picture to tlic mind.

Write a description of the scene suggested h\

168 An English Grammar

tJic poem. Xoficc flic feiise of the I'erb in the poem.
I \s-e the same.

Read your paper, asking yourself zvhetJier or
not \<ou have given a elear and definite pieture, sucli
a one as an artist eonld paint. Study your sentences
and words in order to improve them.

Cattle fed. ,

A shepherd watched his sheep.

Children played.

The car rattled.

The en,8,ine whistled.

A rohin sang".

What scf'ings do you tJiink of for tlie aboir ac-
tions^

Write a description one sentence long of any
of tJie above actions. Let your description sliozv
the time, place and occasion of tlie actions.

If the sentences in the poem called " The Eagle "
were stripped of their modifiers, they would read
like this: ''He clasps the crag". He stands. The
sea crawls. He watches. He falls." If this sen-
tence. "Near the little waterfall, darting hither and
thither among the trees, birds were flying," were
stripped of its modifiers, we w^ould have this sen-
tence: "Birds were flying." Notice how nnich can
be added to a sentence by its modifiers.

Read Chapter J^IJI, Sections 4^ to 4/, notiiig
hozv many ideas may be expressed by the modifiers
in a sentence.

Use of Modifiers in a Sentence. The mod-

The Complex Sentence l^^f*

ifiers in a sentence help largely to give the sentence
its picture quality.

Read xoiir descripfious. Hare you made clear
and interesting pictures? Have you kept them one
sentence long and not loosely joined independent
thoughts by and'^

11-

A Lonely Lighthouse.

A Gathering Storm.

A Flower Garden.

A Street Alusician.

Crossing the Prairie.

A Ball Game.

JVhat pictures are suggested by these topics?

J J' rite a description one sentence long on. any
one of the aboT'C topics. See that you ha%'e but one
main thought in the description atid that is kept
until the end of the sentence. See page 14^=, for
punctuation.

Variety in Sentence Arrangement. X'ariety
in the arrangement of the parts of a sentence is de-
sirable. One way of securing" variety is sometimes
to hold the main thought of a sentence until the
end. Example, "High in the Alps in a little cot-
tage near which were singing pines, little Heide
Ji'i'cd with her grandfather."

iig. The Adverbial Clause. Resides the sub-
stantive and the adjective clauses, we have yet an-
other kind of clause which is used in the complex

1 ' " An English Grammar

sentence, as we may notice by studying the sen-
tences which follow. In the sentence, Concentrate
your attention at the time at zvhich you study, the
expression, at the time, is an adverbial modifier of
the word, concentrate, expressing the adverbial
idea of time. The expression, at which, is an ad-
verbial modifier of the word, study, expressing the
adverbial idea of time. The word, zvhich, is a
simple relative pronoun, which expresses the rela-
tion between the thought expressed by the principal
clause and the thought expressed by the subordi-
nate clause. This expression, at the time at which,
then, has three uses. Two of them are adverbial
and one is a relational use.

We may substitute for this expression, the one
word, zvhen, making the sentence read, Concentrate
your attention ivlien. you study.

The principal clause is now the expression, Con-
centrate your attention. The subordinate clause is
the expression, zvhen yon study. It is an adverbial
modifier of the word, concentrate, expressing the
adverbial idea of time. This, then, is an adverbial
clause.

The connective is the word, when, and since it
takes the place of the expression, at the time at
which, in the other sentence, it must have the same
uses. It is an adverbial modifier of the word, con-
centrate, in the principal clause, exi:)ressing the ad-
verbial idea of tim.e. It is also an adverbial modifier
of the word, study, in the suljordinate clause, ex-

TJic Complex Sentence 171

pressing the adverbial idea of time. It also ex-
presses the relation between the thought ex-
pressed by the principal clause and the thought
expressed by the subordinate clause.

Exercise 50

Study the following sentences and give:

1. The exact uses of the italicized expres-

sions.

2. A zvord zvhich may he substituted for the

italicized expression.
?. The principal clause after the zvord is sub-
stituted.

4. The subordinate clause.

5. The kind of subordinate clause.

6. Its use.

7. The connective 01 the zvord substituted

and all its uses.

1. hnprove your moments during the time in ivhicJi you
are in school.

2. Swiftly olidc the hours at tJie time at xvhich the
heart is young.

3. Smooth runs the water at the place at ivhich the
brook is deep.

4. At the time at which he slept, she over him would
spread his mantle. \

5. He sleeps at the place at zdiich night overtakes him.

6. The boy does in the manner in which he pleases.

7. lie became humbler /// the degree in which he grew
wiser.

172 An English Grammar

8. Truth is strange in a degree in which fiction is not
strange.

9. In the manner in zv^hich the twig is bent the tree
is incHned.

10. At the time at zvhich Raleigh was launching paper
navies, Shakespeare was stretching his baby hands for the
moon.

'''120. The Compound Conjunctive Adverb
Defined. This kind of connective which we have
been substituting in the preceding sentences is
called a compound conjunctive adverb.

A compound conjunctive adverb is a con-
junctive adverb which has two adverbial uses; as,
TJie people stood when iJie king entered.

Exercise 51

Study the following sentences and give:
The principal clause.
The subordinate clause. ■
The kind of subordinate clause.
Its exact use.
The connective and all its uses.

1. Gather dewdrops while they sparkle.

2. Peace rules the day when reason rules the hour.

3. Master, I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest.

4. When Greeks joined Greeks, then began the tug of

war.

Note : The expressions most frequently used as compound con-
junctive adverbs are the following: when, where, while, as, whither,
whence, then — when, where — there, whenever, zvherever, zuhereso-
ever, whithersoever, and whensoever.

The Complex Sentence 173

5. Whitlier I go, ye cannot come.

6. When the heart beats no more, then the hfe ends.

7. In Britain tlie conqnered race became as barbarous
as the conquerors were.

8. Death itself is not so painful as is this sudden horror
and surprise.

9. He walked among us as an upright man.

10. The train started as we got aboard.

11. As heroes think, so thought the Bruce.

12. The earlier you rise the better your nerves will bear
study.

13. Pride may be pampered while the flesh grows lean.

14. They are better than we had expected.

15. Success will come when it is earnestly sought.

16. As the President passed, the children waved flags.

17. When the sun shines, the mist clears away.

18. As the soldiers marched by, the people waved flags.

19. W'hen the time comes, people will be surprised.

20. This man hoped when others despaired.

21. The people shouted when they sa.v the flag.

22. The ^.eart is brave when life is young.

23. Joy makes sunshine wherever he goes.

From your study of these sentences, make a
complete list of compound conjunctive adverbs.

121. The Pure Subordinate Conjunction. Tii

the sentence, / left before the sun rose, the principal
clause is the expression, / left. The subordinate
clause is the exprfession, before th.e sun rose. It is
an adverl)ial modilier of the word, left, hence it is
an adverbial clause.

The connective is the word, before: hut this
word has no adverbial use. No expanded expres-

174 An English Granimur

sion can be substituted for it. It has just the one
use ; namely, it expresses the relation between the
thought expressed by the j^rincipal clause and the
thought expressed by the subordinate clause. We
call such a connective a pure subordinate con-
junction.

Exercise 52

We must be careful to distinguish between the
pure subordinate conjunction, which always ex-
presses relation betzveen thoughts of unequal rank,
and the preposition, zvhich always expresses rela-
tion between ideas of unequal rank.

Study the following sentences and give:

1. The class of the sentence on basis of num-

ber and relation of thoughts expressed.

2. The principal clause.

J. The subordinate clause.

4. The connective, and state its exact use.

1. I came before your recess time.

2. I came before you had recess.

3. George Washington died after the accomplishment of
his great work.

4. George Washington died after his great work was
accomplished.

5. You should drink from the fountain of knowledge
ere your departure.

6. You should drink from the fountain of knowledge
ere you depart.

7. You may wait until the arrival of the train.

8. You may wait until the train arrives.

The Complex Sentence 175

122. The Pure Subordinate Conjunction De-
fined. A pure subordinate conjunction is a con-
junction which expresses the relation between
thoughts of unequal rank; as, If yoii ivish it, I will
retire.

Exercise 53

Study the following sentences and give:

1. The principal clause.

2. The subordinate clause.

5. The kind of subordinate clause.

4. The exact use of the subordinate clause.

5. The connective and all its uses.

I. He rushes to bailie as if he were summoned to a
banquet.

Explanation: If the senlence were expanded, it would read,
He rushes to battle as lie ivould rush if he were summoned to a
banquet. The principal clause is the expression, lie rushes to
battle. The subordinate clause is the expression, as he zvuiild rush
if he zccre summoned to a banquet. It is an adverbial clause, ex-
pressing the adverbial idea of manner. The connective is the
word, as, and it is a compound conjunctive adverb. It is an ad-
verbial modifier of the word rushes, in the principal clause and an
adverbial modifier of the expression, zvould rush, in the subordinate
clause, expressing the adverbial idea of manner. It also expresses
the relation between the thought expressed by the principal clause
and the thought expressed by the subordinate clause. There is
also a subordinate clause in the subfirdinate clause; namely, ;'/ he
were summoned to a banquet. It is an adverbial clause express-
ing the adverbial idea of condition. The connective is the word,
if, and it is a pure subordinate conjunction; that is, it has no
other use except to express the relation between the thought ex-
pressed by the principal clause, and the thought expressed by the
subordinate clause.

2. Our friends visited us as frequently as they could,

3. 1 will run as far as God has any "ground.

4. Oft as the mornini.c dawns should gratitude arise.

^'^'^ An English Grammar

5. Since you insist upon it, T consent.

6. His head ached so that he could hardly study.

7. The lesson was interesting for the children were
attentive.

8. Our fathers sought these shores in order that they
might escape from persecution.

9. In case that we are beaten, we shall retreat.
10. Cursed be I that I did so.

I I. Though you pav him, he will not serve you.

12. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy
England's freedom, it arrested its progress for a hundred
years.

13. Obey the law of nature lest thou become unnatural.

14. Whereas the Embargo Act injured the commerce
of America, it was repealed.

15. Except you travel by night. >ou will find the journey
unpleasant.

17. Unless you are competent seek no promotion.

18. Ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were
strangers in a strange land.

19. That is strange, notwithstanding he is your neighbor.

20. I must go whether the train goes or not.

21. Although the wound soon healed again, vet, as he
ran, he yelled for pain.

22. Milton almost requires a service to be played before
you enter upon him.

23. The waves of sound do not move so rapidh- as the
waves of light.

24. The more we know of ancient literature, the more
v.-e are struck with its modernness.

Note: The following expressions are those which are most
trequenlly used as pure subordinate conjunctions: before, after
since ere, lill, that, for, if, zvhcreas, so, save, except, 'unless
provided, seeing, zvhether, alt/ioiigh—yet, even— though, in order
that, m case that, etc.

The Complex Sentence 177

Exercise 54

A review of the complex and compound sen-
tences;

Analyze flic sentences helmv according to the
following form:

1. Classify tJic sentence on tzvo bases, stat-

ing the basis in each case.

2. Give the principal parts of it.

J. Give the principal zvord in each part and

all its modifiers.
4. Give the modifiers in the modifiers.

T. He who knows only liis own side of the case knows
little of that.

2. When we go forth in the morning, we lay a mould-
ing hand upon our destiny.

3. Knowledge and timber should not be used much
until they are seasoned.

4. Whoever seeks the good of others will himself be
blessed.

5. That man has been from time immemorial a right-
handed animal is beyond dispute.

6. If the conditions should be favorable, we may see
the comet.

7. A man who grumbles much prays little.

8. The smallest dcwdrop that lies on the meadow at
night has a star sleeping in its bosom.

9. Too many who have not learned to follow want to
lead.

10. Some people seem to think that whining is religion.

11. When an honest man stays away from the polls,
the devil votes.

178 An Eii<^Iish Graiunior

12. It generally takes a blockhead a good while to find
out what ails him.

13. One of the first signs of spring which one sees is a
crowd of boys playing marbles.

14. If our thoughts were written on our faces, how
quickly we would all hang our heads.

15. As the genuineness of a coin is made apparent by
the touch of an acid, so are the qualities of manhood
manifested by the test of trial.

16. The man who lives only for himself will not have
many mourners at his funeral.

17. Worth makes the man and want of it the fellow.

18. In one rude crash he struck the lyre, and swept
with hurried hand the strings.

19. Ulysses listened to the song of the Sirens, yet he
glided by without being seduced to their shore.

20. Still the wonder grew

That one small head could carry all he knew.

— Goldsmith.

21. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot.
O'er the grave where our hero was buried.

22. All seems infected that the infected spy,

As all looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. — Pope.

23. All are but parts of one stupendous whole
Whose body nature is, and God the soul. — Pope.

24. Much pleased was he to find.

That, though on pleasure she was bent.

She had a frugal mind. — Wordsivorth

25. Read from some humbler poet

Whose songs gushed from his heart,
As showers from the clouds of summer

Or tears from the eyelids start. — Longfellow.

26. A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich on forty poimds a year.

— Goldsmith.

The Complex Sentence 179

27. O, well for the fisherman's boy

That he shouts with his sister at play !
O, well for the sailor lad

That he sings in his boat on the bay!

— Tennyson.

28. You must wake and call me early, call me early,

mother dear :
To-morrow'll be the happiest time of all the glad

New Year;
Of all the glad New Year, mother, the maddest,
merriest day ;
For I'm to be Queen o' the May, mother, I'm to
be Queen o' the May. — Tennyson.

29. Jov comes, grief goes, we know not how ;
Everything is happy now.

Everything is upward striving ;

'Tis as easy now for the heart to be true

As for grass to be green or skies to be blue,

'Tis the natural way of living, — Loivcll

30. Where beams of warm imagination play
The memory's soft figures melt away.

31. He loved his art and freely spent himself.

Counting no cost, nor measuring his da\ s ;
Not turned asifle by misinterpreters

Nor halted for the sweet incense of ])raise.

— Jenkins.

123. Punctuation. We lia\e now discovered
most of the followin.c: principles of punclnation
and capitalization :

I. A declarative or imperative sentence
should begin with a capital and close with a pe-
riod; as, The sun shines brightly. Please bring
mc a book.

180 An English Grammar

2. An interrogative sentence should begin
with a capital and close with a question mark; as,

J Hint did you sayl^

3. An exclamatory sentence should begin
with a capital and close with an exclamation
point; as, O that my father would come!

4. Parenthetical expressions are usually sep-
arated from the rest of the sentence by the
comma; as. If is mind, after all, ivhich does the
work of the zvorld.

5. Strongly contrasted expressions should be

set off by the comma; as, Here, all is peace and
quietness ; there, all is turmoil and strife.

6. The punctuation of the interjection (See
Section 22).

7. The adverbial clause which expresses the
adverbial idea of condition is frequently set off
by the comma; as, // you zvoidd succeed in busi-
ness, be honest and industrious.

8. A phrase or clause out of its natural order
is usually set off by the comma; as, JVIien we
zvish to enjoy ourselves, we go down by the lake.

9. The punctuation of the compound sen-
tence. (See Section 83.)

10. A series of expressions in the same con-
struction should be separated by the comma; as,

Aristotle, Hamilton, Wheatley, and MeCosh are
high authorities in logic.

The Complex Sentence 181

11. When a series of expressions is arranged
in pairs, the pairs should be separated by the
comma; as, The poor and the rich, the weak and
tJie strong!;, the youn^^ and the old, have one connnon
Father.

12. The adjective clause. (Sec Section ii8.)

13. The appositive modifier is usually sep-
arated from the rest of the sentence by the
comma; as, Longfelloiv, tlie poet, lived in Cam-
bridge.

The appositive modi Tier of the pronoun, it, is not
usually so separated; as, It is not strange that zve
shonid have missed you.

14. The substantive clause. (See Sections
S9. 93 and ()7. )

15. Words used by way of direct address
should be separated from the rest of the sentence
by the comma; as, Shozv pity, Lord, O Lord, for-
give!

16. Initials and abbreviations should be fol-
lowed by the period; as, At tJie request of the Rt^
Rev. IV. IT. Hooker, D. D., the vote was taken.

17. Such words as, namely, to-ivit, and so
forth, should be preceded by the semicolon or the
comma, and followed by the comma; as, Greeee
Ji as given us tliree great historians; namely, Herod-
otus, Xenophon. and Thucydides.

18. A series of expressions in the same con-

182 An EnglisJi Gramuwr

struction, formally introduced, should be pre-
ceded by the colon; as, Pronominal adjectives are
divided into three classes: distributive, demonstra-
tive, and indefinite.

19. A clause which modifies each of a series
of expressions should be separated from the se-
ries by the comma; as, The horse and his rider,
that zvcrc so much admired , disappeared suddenly.

20. Ellipses may be indicated by the comma;

as, Arithmetic makes an accurate student; gram-
mar, a thoughtful student; history, a student with
a strong memory.

21. All proper names should begin with capi-
tals; as, Indianapolis is the capital of Indiana.

22. The first word in each line of poetry
should begin with a capital; as,

He does confess he feels himself distracted:
But from what cause, he will by no means
speak.

23. The words, I and O, should always be
capitals; as, // is I. O Harry, yon are a poke!

* Exercise 55

Which capitals in the folloiving quotation de-
note the beginning of nezv sentences f Which mark
only the beginning of a nezv line of poetry f

*Note: The teacher should u?e her judgment in drilling pupils.
Some classes need more exercises than others.

The Complex Sentence 183

This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the

hemlocks,
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in

the twilight,
Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic,
Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their

bosoms.
Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring

ocean
Speaks, and in accents disconsolate answers the wail of

the forest.
This is the forest primeval : but wliere are the hearts that

beneath it
Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the

voice of the huntsman ? — Longfellow.

Capitalize and punctuate the folloiving sen-
tences, gic'i)ig reasons. Write your zvork.

1. it is true after all that we do not think much

2. his passion however prevented his seeing the danger

3. the affair passed off to your satisfaction no doubt

4. nelson has at last got into the senate

5. he promised however to set about reform at once

6. however much he promised it was but little that
he performed

7. on the left were waving fields of grain on the right
was the river

8. why this is all wrong

9. Joseph who happened to be in the field at the time
saw the carriage approach and in an ecstasy of delight
hastened to meet it

10. if you are honest with yourself you will see that
you are wrong

11, the tree will not bear fruit in autumn unless it
blossoms in the spring

184 An English Grammar

12. plant in a man an earni'st jjnrposc and you awaken
in him a new power

13. give time to the study of nature whose laws are all
deeply interesting

14. those friends who in the native vigor of his powers
perceived the dawn of robertson's future eminence were
at length amply rewarded

15. he preaches most eloquently who leads the most
pious life

16. no thought can be just of which good sense is not
the ground work

17. there are men and women whose desire for knowl-
edge is never satisfied

18. modern engineering spans whole continents tunnels
alike mountains and rivers and dikes out old ocean himself

19. did god create for the poor a coarser earth a thin-
ner air a paler sky

20. whitney carpenter and sweet are high authorities
in grammar

21. the good and the bad the high and the low the
honest and the dishonest were huddled together

22. himself the greatest of agitators napoleon became
the most oppressive of tyrants

23. macaulay the historian was a master of style

24. the word poet meaning a maker a creator is de-
rived from the greek

25. the greatest poet among the ancients homer like
the greatest among the moderns milton was blind

26. the request was made by the rt rev j e walker dd

27. i beg leave sir to present my friend lord hargrave

28. henry please close the door

29. then came the guests the table being spread and sat
down to tlir feast

30. to obtain an education he was willing to make
sacrifices

The Complex Sentence 1^5

31. awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain respect

32. reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man
writing an exact man

33. semiramis built bab\loii dido cartilage and ronuilus
rome

34. someone justly remarks it is a great loss to lose an
affliction

35. Patrick benr_\- began bis great speech by saying it
is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope

36. as we perceived the shadow to have moved but did
not perceive its moving so our advances in learning con-
sisting of such minute steps are perceivable only by the
distance

2)7- so, sad and dark a history is scarcely to be found
in any work of fiction and we are little disposed to envy
the moralist who can read it without being softened

38. if we think of glory in the field of wisdom in the
cabinet of the purest patriotism of the highest integrity
public and private of morals without a stain of religious
feeling without intolerance and without extravagance the
august figure of Washington presents itself as the persona-
tion of all these

39. the temple is profaned the soldiers oath resounds in
the house of god the marble pavement is trampled by iron
hoofs horses neigh beside the altar

40. we have had three great speakers phillips webster
and hoar

41. attributive words are divided into three classes ad-
jectives adverbs attributive verbs

42. speaking of party pope makes this remark there
never was any party faction sect or cabal whatsoever in
which the most ignorant were not the most violent

43. can these words add vigor to your hearts yes they
can do it they have often done it

44. }cs my lords I am amazed at his lordship's speech

186 An English Grammar

&'

45. shall a man obtain the favor of heaven by impiety
by murder by falsehood by theft

46. o what a fair and ministering angel

47. ho trumpets sound a war note

48. Socrates said that he believed the soul to be im-
mortal

49. someone has said what an argument for prayer is
contained in the words our father whiqh art in heaven

50. trench says what a lesson the word diligence
contains

51. there is but one object says augustine gi eater than
the soul and that is its creator

52. let me make the ballads of the nation srid fletcher
and i care not who makes the laws

53. what do you think i will shave you for nothing
and give you a drink

54. to greece we are indebted for the three principal
orders of architecture the dorian the ionian and the Corinth-
ian

55. he who is his own lawyer is said to have a fool
for his client

56. 'tis not the whole of life to live
nor all of death to die

57. to honour god to benefit mankind

to serve with lofty gifts the lowly needs
of the poor race for which the god-man died
and do it all for love oh this is great

58. a still small voice spake unto me
thou art so full of misery

were it not better not to be

59. the lilies behold how we preach without words of
purity

60. and i will trust that he who heeds
the life that hides in mead and wold
who hangs yon alders crimson beads

The Complex Sentence 187

and stains these mosses green and gold
will still as he hath done incline
his gracious ear to me and mine

After the sentences in the preceding list are
punctuated, use them in reviewing any of the work
of the preceding chapters.

In about what proportion do these kinds of sen-
tences occur? Could the thought of either of these
selections be expressed exclusively in simple sen-
tences or in compound sentences, or in complex sen-
tences? What is the advantage in using all three
kinds ?

Work in Composition

Description (continued).
I.

What feeling do you get from looking at the
picture called "The Hay's Work Done," facing-
page j6. What is pictured.^ What season of the
year is suggested by it.' What time of day:^

J Trite a description of the picture.

The Four W's. Notice how in " The Eagle"
Mr. Tennyson has presented a picture by making-
clear zvhat he is talking about, the eagle: by naming

llic occasion, the eagle first zvatching and then
plunging: the place, the crag close to the sun in
lonely lands; the time, suggested by the position of
the .97/7?. \\'e see that four elements have been
named or suggested : the what, the wliere, the when

188 An English Grammar

and the why (the occasion). Tlicse are cahed the
four W's.

Read your paper. Hai'e you either expressed
or suggested t lie four W'sf

II.

Study tlie pieture ealled "In the Pasture," fac-
ing page /cV(V.

What iniprews^ioii does tJie pieture nu;/:e upon
yon? Name the four U"s.

Write a description of tJie picture a paragraph
long. Let the first sentence char act erirse the pict-
ure by giving tlie general impression lehich you re-
ceived from it, and the others name the four JV's.
Decide whether you zeant to describe the picture as
if you were now looking upon it, or as if you had
looked upon it in tlie past and then keep your verbs
all in. tlie same tense. For knowledge of tense see
section 266. page 208.

III.

Study the picture called ''The JJ^oods in JVin-
ter", facing page i.

The Four W's Suggested. The season of
the year, llie time of day. tlie ])lace, the ])eople and
the occasion may be sug'gested in a description.
Gail}' colored leaves 11 uttering- to the s.^Tound sul?-
g'est fall: burning- sand and oiaring sun suggest a
desert; a person riding a broomstick suggests a

IX riir: r.isrrRi-:

The Complex Sentence 189

witch, and some one running excitedly down a
street suggests that there is trouble somewhere.

Write a description of the picture. Try to sug-
gest some of the four IV's.

TJic Fourth Section.

Chapter 13

Parts of Speech

We have been studying sentences as wholes
and we have discovered the different classes of sen-
tences on the basis of their chief purpose and on the
basis of the number and relation of thoughts ex-
pressed. In studying the organic parts of sentences,
the subject, predicate and copula, we have learned
how all the different kinds of words which we have
in our language are used in these different kinds of
sentences and all the modifiers which belong to
them.

We are now to stud}^ these classes of words
more in detail. We have in the English language
more than two hundred thousand words; but, as
we have seen, we can arrange them all in a few
classes according to their uses in expressing
thought.

These classes of words which we have alreadv
discussed and defined are called parts of speech.

[190]

Chapter 14

The Noun

124. The Noun Defined. A noun is a sub-
stantive word which expresses an object of
thought by naming it;as. The gallant crew rowed
against a heavy sea.

125. Classes of Nouns. In the sentence, The
Wabash Hozvs south along the western boundary
of the state of Indiana, the nouns, state and Indiana,
express the same object of thought, but in differ-
ent ways. The noun, state, expresses the object of
thought by calHng attention to or emphasizing the
attributes' which it has in common with other ob-
jects of thought in that class; while the noun, In-
diana, expresses the object of thought by calling
attention to or emphasizing the attributes pe-
culiar to it. We call the first a common noun and
the second a proper noun.

126. Proper Noun Defined. A proper noun is
a noun which expresses an object of thought by
emphasizing the attributes peculiar to it; as, Min-
neapolis is a beautiful city.

127. Common Noun Defined. A common
noun is a noun which expresses an object of

[■90

192 ^ii English Grammar

thought by emphasizing the attributes which it
has in common with the members of its class; as,
The city is heavitifiil.

Exercise 56

Write seven proper noiins zvJiicJi are suggested
by the following common norins:^ river, book, girl,
tree, building," man, woman.

Write common nouns which are suggested by
the follozving proper nouns: Chicago, Iowa, Harry,
France, Monday, Mary, June.

Write ten sentences containing proper nouns
and ten contaiiiino; common nouns.

128. Classes of Common Nouns. Tn the sen-
tences. The horse is a useful animal. The school
zvas dismissed for a holiday. Iron is heavy. The
nouns, horse, school, and iron, are all common
nouns. The word, horse, however, expresses an
object of thought which is composed of individuals
thought together on the basis of their common at-
tributes; the noun, school, expresses an object of
thought made up of a number of individuals thought
together in space; while the noun, iron, expresses
an object of thought which is the material or sub-
stance out of which other things are made. This
difference in common nouns gives us three
classes: class nouns, collective nouns, and sub-
stance nouns.

129. Class Noun Defined. A class noun is a

The Noun li^3

common noun which expresses an object of
thought made up of individuals that are thought
together on the basis of their common attri-
butes ; or it may express one or more than one of
these individuals; as, The horse is a useful animal.
The horse is tied to the post. The horses are ir
the field.

130. The Collective Noun Defined. A collect-
ive noun is a common noun which expresses an
object of thought made up of a number of indi-
viduals thought together in space; as, The jury

zvas dismissed.

131. The Substance Noun Defined. A sub-
stance noun is a noun which expresses an object
of thought that is the material out of which other
things are made; as, The spoon was made of pew-
ter.

132. Other Classes of Nouns. The division
of nouns into common and proper is on the basis of
the kind of attributes emphasized. Nouns may be
divided on another basis. In the sentence, The city
zvas de.stroyed by fire, the noun, city, expresses an
object of thought which was first known by its at-
tributes. We call tliis a concrete noun.

In the sentence, Truth zvill triumph in the end,
the noun, trutJi, expresses an object of thought
which was first known as an attribute. We call
this an abstract noun.

194 /In Eii'^lisli Grammar

133. Concrete Noun Defined. A concrete
noun is a noun which expresses an object of
thought that was first known by its attributes;
as, llic money was stolen. New York is the me-
tropolis of the Ignited States.

134. Abstract Noun Defined. An abstract
noun is a noun which expresses an object of
thought that was first known as an attribute; as.

Justice is a virtue which inelndes many others.
Christian was on his way to the Holy City when
he met zvitJi Patience.

Exercise 57

In tJie follozving seutenees point out the nouns
and classify them into the smallest known classes
on each basis, stating the basis in each case.

1. The house is made of brick.

2. The cup and spoon were presents.

3. Iron is a useful metal.

4. The girl's cheeks were rosy.

5. The man placed his hand on the boy's head.

6. The boat turned on her side.

7. Such a banner was long- since waving over the portal
of the Province House.

8. Silver and gold have I none.

9. The odor of the flower was pleasant.

10. The articles were made of wood and iron,
ir. Do you like the flavor of the fruit?

12. Thunder and lightning are frightful.

13. "Another trump for the Lady Eleanore ! " he cried.

14. The man is six feet in height.

15. Truth is stranger than fiction.

The Noun n^-'>

16. The lad's goodness of heart atoned for his ughncss
of feature.

17. His absence is more to be desired than his presence.

18. Caesar's anger knew no bounds.

19. Which is greater, Martin Luther or Mohammed?

20. Ohver was on his way from Ludgate to Cornhill
when he met a group of bootblacks.

21. A troop of children gamboled on the green.

22. The family became uneasy.

23. The school consisted of a dozen children.

24. Jupiter is larger than Venus.

25. The fleet was overtaken in the Red Sea.

26. Friendship is not to be despised.

27. The herd came up to the house.

-8. Strength may be substituted for weakness.

29. But. even amid the darkness, his fair face

Ever turned eager toward the eternal light,
He saw the bright beams of the coming day

Far through tlie blackness of tli"enshrouding night.

— Jenkins.

30. Wounded and fallen, still he struggled on,

P.rave-heartcd, valiant to his latest breath :
With cvpress mourners came ; but, laurel-crowned,
Thev found him smiling in the arms of Death.

— Jenkins.

135. Properties of the Noun. Most words
change their form hy inflection, derivation, or
composition to express different shades of mean-
ing; as, man, man's, men.

These changes in the forms of words or in
their relations to their context to denote differ-
ent shades of meaning, we call properties.

136. Gender. Study the following sentences:

I'**' An English Grammar

1. Boys play ball.

2. The girls arc interested in their work.

3. The child is asleep.

4. The tree is blighted.

The noun, hoy.s, expresses an object of thought
of the male sex. The noun, girls, expresses an ob-
ject of thought of the female sex. The noun, child,
expresses an object of thought that has sex but
does not show which sex it is. The noun, tree, ex-
presses an object of thought that has no sex. Thus
we see that each word shows the relation between
the object of thought expressed by it and the idea
of sex. This property of nouns w^e call gender.

137. Gender Defined. Gender is that prop-
erty of the substantive word which shows the re-
lation which the object of thought expressed by
it bears to sex; as, man, woman, student, house.

138. Classes of Gender. We may see from
Section 136 that the object of thought expressed
by the noun may have four different relations to
sex; hence we have four classes of gender: mas-
culine, feminine, common, and neuter.

139. Masculine Gender Defined. Masculine
gender is that gender which shows that the ob-
ject of thought expressed by the substantive word

is of the male sex; as. His uncle 'ivas present.

140. Feminine Gender Defined. Feminine
gender is that gender which shows that the ob-
ject of thought expressed by the substantive word

The Noun 1*^"

is of the female sex; as. The boy's mother was
worried.

141. Common Gender Defined. Common
gender is that gender which shows that the ob-
ject of thought expressed by the substantive word
has sex, but does not show which sex it is; as,
TJie pupil zvas prompt.

142. Neuter Gender Defined. Neuter gender
is that gender which shows that the object of
thought 'expressed by the substantive word has
no sex; as, The problem was difficult.

143. Methods of Denoting Gender. Notice
the following words and give the gender of each:
Nephew, niece, he-bear, she-bear, host, hostess.

You will notice that sometimes we use differ-
ent words to express masculine and feminine gen-
der ; sometimes we merely change the ending of
the word, and sometimes wc prefix a gender
word. This gives us three ways of distinguish-
ing gender:

I. By the use of the suffix.

Learn to spell the folloiving gender words:
Masculine abbess Masculine Feminine

abbot Feminine host hostess

actor actress hunter huntress

administrator administratrix idolater idolatress

adventurer adventuress Jew Jewess

baron baroness lad lass

benefactor benefactress lion lioness

\9s

An English Grannnar

Masculine

feminine

Masculine

Feminine

count

countess

marquis

marchioness

czar

czarina

master

mistress

deacon

deaconess

patron

patroness

duke

duchess

preceptor

preceptress

emperor

empress

prince

princess

enchanter

enchantress

prophet

prophetess

executor

executrix

shepherd

shepherdess

^-iant

giantess

sorcerer

sorceress

god

goddess

sultan

sultana

heir

heiress

tiger

tigress

hero

heroine

waiter

waitress

2. By prefixing a gender word.

Learn to spell the zvords in the follozving list:

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

luill-elephant cow-elephant he-goat she-goat

cock-sparrow hen-sparrow man-servant maid-servant

he-bear she-bear pea-cock pea-hen

3. By the use of separate words.

Learn to spell the zvords in the follozving list:

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

bachelor spinster, maid monk nun

buck doe ram ewe

bullock heifer stag hind

drake duck wizard witch

gander goose husband wife

Exercise 58

Write the follozving zvords in tzvo columns. In
the first colinnn write tlie masculine form and in the
second the feniinine:

The Noun 11»0

Sister, niece, uncle, son, Mr., Charles, actor, ex-
ecutor, sorcerer, witch, duke, queen, husbanch
mother, widow, goose, nun, patron, prophet.

144. Irregularities in Gender. i. A noun
which is usually neuter gender niav become mas-
culine or feminine by personification, that is,
when the mind gives to the object expressed by it
the attributes of a person; as. The ship has lost her
rudder. The mcek-cyed morn appears mother of
dezvs. The sun in his glory appears. The moon
in her wane hides her face.

2. A noun usually common gender niay be-
come masculine or feminine gender wlien the
context, that is, the meaning of the sentence, in-
dicates the sex of the o1)icct of thought ; as, The fox
made her escape. The nightingale sings her song.
Tlic deer ran iinti! he dropped.

3. Nouns which are usually masculine gender
may become common gender when the context, or
the meaning of the sentence, shows tliat the ob-
ject of thouglit exi)resscd tluTcl)}' is made U]) ol
individuals of both sexes; as, Heirs arc often dis-
appointed. Ttic poets ()/" . hncrica shoiihi he hon-
ored.

4. A noun which is usually common gender may
l)ecome neuter gender \\hen the context shows that
tlie mind is not emphasizing the attri1)ute of sex
in Ihe ol)jcc1 of thought ex]:>ressed l)y it; as. The
child /// ils i^'cakucss is inaslcr (>f ah.

200 An English Grammar

145. Person. Study the nouns in the follow-
ing" sentences :

1. I, John, saw it in a dream.

2. I hope, Mary, that you will study diligently.

3. Friends should trust one another.

We can see that the noun, John, expresses a per-
son who is speaking; the noun; Mary, a person
who is spoken to; and the noun, friends, expresses
the persons or object of thouglit which is spoken
of. Each noun thus indicates or has indicated for
it by the context, the relation between the object
of thought and the speaker. This property of nouns
we call person.

146. Person Defined. Person is that prop-
erty of the substantive word which shows the re-
lation between the object of thought expressed
by it and the speaker; as, /, William, szccar if on
uiy honor. You, Arthur, may become a farmer.
Samuel is my cousin.

147. Classes of Person. We have seen in
Section 145 that the object of thought expressed
by the substantive word may bear three relations
to the speaker; namely, identity, person spoken
to, and person or object spoken of. We thus
have three classes of person, and we call them
first, second, and third.

148. First Person Defined. The first person
is that person which shows that the object of

The Noun 201

thought expressed by the substantive word is
the speaker; as, I, Walter, fake thee at thy zvord.

149. Second Person Defined. The second per-
son is that person which shows that the object
of thought expressed by the substantive word is
the object of thought addressed by the speaker;
as, Yoii, Thomas, look guilty.

150. Third Person Defined. The third per-
son is that person which shows that the object
of thought expressed by the substantive word is
the object of thought that is spoken of; as, Har-
old came early in the morning.

Exercise 59

Point out the nouns in the follozving sentences
and give the person of each. Notice that the noun
does not change form to denote person but that the
relation betzveen the object of thought expressed by
it and the speaker must be determined by the con-
text:

1. The lion is the king of beasts.

2. The heroine of the play appears only once.

3. You, Mr. Williams, may meet me in my office.

4. I, W. R. Merriam, declare it to be true.

5. I hope, Edward, that you will remember that char-
acter is more precious than gold.

6. Tears fall sometimes when hearts are least willing to
show grief.

7. You are the gentleman who so kindly assisted me.

151. Number. Stud}- the nouns in the fol-

^**^ An English Granuiiar

lowing sentences: JVe start for California in the
luorning. These states seceded from the Union.

Notice thai the noun, California, expresses a
single individual; wliije the noun, states, expresses
a number of indivicUials. This property of the
noun which indicates tlie numher of individuals ex-
pressed hy it, we call number.

152. Number Defined. Number is that prop-
erty of the substantive word which shows
whether the object of thought expressed by it is
one or more than one individual; as. The thief es-
caped. Thieves quarrel a in on g theuisehes.

153. Classes of Number. As we have seen
in Section 151, nouns always express one or more
than one individual, hence we can have but two
classes of number. We call them singular and
plural.

154. Singular Number Defined. Singular
number is that number which shows that the ob-
ject of thought expressed by the substantive
word is one individual; as. The horse was sold at
auction.

155. Plural Number Defined. Plural number
is that num.ber which shows that the object of
thought expressed by the substantive word is
more than one individual; as. The trees were
blozvn down by the storm.

156. Rules for the Formation of the Plural.

TJic Noun 203

Most nouns form the plural by adding s to
the singular; as, free, trees.

To this general rule, however, there are many
exceptions. The most important of these may be
indicated under the following special rules :

a. Last sound of singular. When the last
sound of the singular form does not unite well with
the sound of .9, es is added to the singular to form
the plural. . This forms an additional syllable, which
is pronounced; as, box, boxes.

b. Plural OF NOUNS ENDING IN 3'. Most nouns
ending in y preceded by a vowel simply add s; as,
valley, valleys.

Nouns ending in 3' preceded by a consonant,
change 3' to i and add es to form the plural ; as, lady,
ladies; city, cities.

Write the plurals of the following nouns: sky,
chimney, key, fly, penny, turkey.

c. Plural of nouns ending in 0. Nouns
ending in o preceded l)y a vowel form their plurals
regularly by adding .s-; as, folio, folios.

Nouns ending in 0 preceded by a consonant usu-
ally form their plurals by adding es to the singular ;
as, negro, negroes: hero, heroes: potato, potatoes.

The following words are exceptions to this rule:
banjo chromo halo octavo

solo burro contralto junto

piano stiletto canto duodecimo

lasso proviso Casino dynamo

memento quarto

204 An English Grammar

d. Nouns ending in / or fe. Nouns ending in
/ or fe usually change this ending to v and add es to
form their plurals ; as,

beef, beeves half, halves elf, elves knife, knives

life, lives calf, calves half, halves leaf, leaves

loaf, loaves self, selves wife, wiV^^y shelf, shelves

sheaf, sheaves thief, thieves wolf, wolves

e. Plurals" IN £-«. A few words form their
plurals by adding en to the singular; as, ox, oxen;
brother, brethren; child, children.

f. Internal changes in nouns to form the
PLURAL. A few nouns form their plurals by inter-
nal changes ; as,

foot, feet woman, women

louse, lice man, men

mouse, mice tooth, teeth
goose, geese

g. Plurals of letters, figures, and other
SYMBOLS. Letters, figures and other symbols
form their plurals by adding an apostrophe and
s to the singular; as, /, I's; t, fs; f, fs; 4, 4's.

h. Plurals of proper nouns. Proper nouns
form their plurals regularly by adding s to the sin-
gular; as, Mary, Marys; Nero, Neros.

Proper nouns preceded by titles; as, Mr. Crow,
Mrs. Crozv, Miss Crow, General Crow, form their
plural in two ways. \Ve may say, The Mr. Crows,
The Mrs. Crows, The Miss Crows, The General
Crows, or we may say : TJie Messrs. Crow, The Mes-
dames Crozv, The Misses Crow, The Generals Crow.

The Noun iV^S

r

r e^

i. Plurals of compound nouns. Most com-
pound nouns form their plurals by adding the
proper sign of the plural to the principal or
sential part of the word, that is, to the part wl
is described by the rest of the phrase; as, ox-d
ox-carts; court -martial, courts-martial; aide-de-
camp, aides-de-camp.

When no single word' is principal or essential,
the sign of the plural is put at the end of the word ;
as, forget-me-not, forget-me-nots; spoonful, spoon-
fuls: cupful, cup fills.

There are a few compound nouns, the principal
words of which are difficult to determine, which add
the sign of the plural to both words; as, man-serv-
ant, men-servants : woman-servant, women-serv-
ants: knight-templar, knights-templars.

]. Singular and plural the same. Some
nouns have the same form in both singular and
plural; as, trout, sheep, cod, szvine, salmon, grouse,
deer.

Some nouns expressing num1)cr or measure
mav be used in the plural sense without change
of form, the plural meaning being sufficiently
indicated by the numerals; as, two yoke of oxen,
four pair of horses, five dozen eggs, four score
years, tzvo hundred-zveight of Hour.

157. Plurals with Different Meanings. Some
nouns have more than one plural foruL These plu-
ral forms, however, differ in meaning; as,

20(#

An English Graininar

fish, fishes (separate objects),
fish (collective) ;
brother, brothers (by birth),
£thren (of an organization) ;
dies (for coining or
stamping),
dice (for play) ;
shot, shots (explosions),
shot (balls) ;

UlUi

indices (in mathematics) ;
penny, pennies (coins),
pence (a sum of money) ;
genius, geniuses (bright

persons) ;
gemi (spirits) ;
cloth, cloths (of different

kinds) ,
clothes (garments).

index, indexes (of books),

158. Foreign Plurals. Some nouns of foreign
origin retain their foreign plurals. There is a
tendency, however, in modern English to form Eng-
lish plurals for these nouns; as,
alinnna (feminine), alumnae: curricula (foreign) ;
alumnus (masculine), alumni:
analysis, analyses;

genus, genera;
memorandum, memorand-
ums (English) ,
memoranda (foreign) ;
phenomenon, phenomena ;
seraph, seraphs (English),
seraphim (foreign) ;
stratum, strata;
tableau, tableaux.

bacterium, bacteria;
bandit, bandits (English),
banditti (foreign) ;
beau, beaus (English),
beaux (foreign) ;
cherub, cherubs (English),
cherubim (foreign) ;
curricxdum, curriculums
(English) ,

159. Nouns Plural in Form but Singular in
Meaning. Some nouns which are plural in form
are sin^-ular in meaning; as. United States, nezvs,
inathcinatics, gallows, auicuds, physics, and most
other words ending in ics. A\'ith each of these
words we use a singular verb; as, The itews is had.
Mathematics is difficult. Optics is a science.

The Noun

207

The words, athletics and politics, however, usu-
ally take the plural verb. Again, the following
nouns which look very much like these usually take
plural verbs: scissors, suds, tongs, proceedi^s.^
victuals, riches, trousers, vitals, dregs, pincers, nup-
tials, eaves, ashes, oats, assets. Such points in Eng-
lish are determined by usage and the student does
well to consult, in such cases, a large dictionary,
which is supposed to reflect good usage.

Exercise 60

Write the follozving nouns in tivo columns, the
singular in one and the plural in the other. Con-
sult your dictioviarics for the correct spelling of
inan\' zvords:

book

money

wife

knife

sin

strife

Hfe

fife

desk

cargo

negro

folio

church

quarto

trio

no

witness

men

ox

mice

olory

teeth

geese

P

sky

q

6

7

money

+

*

brother-in-law

court-martial

wagon-load

ox-cart

knight-templar

Miss Seward

Mr. Casad

Sir John

Sir Isaac Newl

Dr. Benson

Mrs. Smith

l)rother

die

fish

genius

index

])enny

pea

Sarah

nh

ah

calculus

arcanum

criterion

thesis

analysis

vinega'

hemp

darkness

oil

ashes

assets

bellows

clothes

scissors

shears

tongs

news

molasses

lungs

alms

208

An English Grammar

corps

mumps

measles

odds

riches

scries

suds

tidings

wages

ethics

politics

mathematics

optics

physics

pedagogics

sheep

4de€^
gross

couple

salmon

trout

hose

yoke

hiss

adz

sash

embryo

grotto

oratorio

buffalo

mosquito

tomato

potato

valley

chimney

money

duty

spy

cow

foot

bandit

cherub

formula

memorandum

focus

terminus

erratum

medium

axis

genus

automaton

hypothesis

basis

crisis

ellipsis

Mrs.

Mr.

eaves

custom

letter

number

pain

part

liberty

virtue

vices

head

attorney-general

belief

brief

bluff

cliff

staff

ditty

daisy

baby

buoy

turkey

berry

fairy

soliloquy

tray

Chinese

Japanese

for^et-me-

-not corral

aborigines

hose

1 60. Case. In Section 59 we found that the
notm may be used in the sentence in the follow-
ing different relations or ways. It may be used
as subject, predicate, in direct address, inde-
pendently, or as an appositive modifier of any
one of these. These uses or relations of the noun
to other words in the sentence are called the
nominative relation.

It may be used as a possessive modifier or in
apposition with it. These uses constitute the
possessive relation of the noun in the sentence.

The Noun 209

It may be used as direct objective modifier, in-
direct ol)jective modifier, adverbial objective modi-
fier, principal part of a prepositional phrase, sub-
ject or predicate-like element of a clausal phrase or
in apposition witli any one of these. These uses
constitute the objective relation.

i6i. Case Defined. Case is that property of a
substantive word which is the relation that the
substantive word bears to the other words in the
sentence.

162. Classes of Case. Since, as we have seen
in Section 160, all the uses of substantive words
in the sentence may be grouped into three kinds
of relations, substantive words have three cases:
nominative, possessive, and objective.

163. Nominative Case Defined. The nomina-
tive case is the case of the substantive word that
stands in a nominative relation in the sentence;
as. The truth zvas revealed.

164. The Possessive Case Defined. The pos-
sessive case is the case of the substantive word
that stands in a possessive relation in the sen-
tence; as, The king's time had come.

165. The Objective Case Defined. The ob-
jective case is the case of the substantive word
that stands in an objective relation in the sen-
tence; as, Th.e missionaries shozved the people how
to improve.

210 An Enf^lish Grammar

Exercise 6i

In the folhiiing sc 'fences point out the nouns,
give the case of each, and the reasons:

1. Blue Island is a town situated on a bluff, which
rises abruptly from a prairie.

2. Mrs. Squeers administered the brimstone and treacle
with a common wooden spoon which widened every young
gentleman's moutli considerably.

3. They scaled Mont Blanc, the great mountain.

4. Simple races, as savages, do not climb mountains;
their tops are sacred and mysterious tracts never visited by
them.

5. This house was Longfellow, the poet's, home.

6. James, the student, is a writer, a journalist.

7. You, a farmer, may be a scholar.

8. Children, be honest and true.

9. We spoke of Tennyson, the great poet.

10. Blaine died in Washington city, the capital of the
United States.

11. He gave me the book.

12. They walked ten miles, a long distance.

13. They wished him to study law.

14. James believed the man to be honest.

15. "Now, Heaven forgive me!" said Sir William
Howe to himself.

166. How Case is Denoted. Tn the Old Eno-
lish and Anglo-Saxon speech nouns had difTerent
forms for different cases. These case endings
have been gradually dropped until at present we
have only one relic of them remaining, the sign
of the possessive case. There is no diiTference in
the forms of the nominative and objective cases,

The Noun 211

but the possessive case may always be known by
the form of the word. The nominative and ob-
jective cases must always be told by the context
or meaning.

167. Possessive Case Forms. The possessive
forms of nouns in the singular number are made as
a rule by adding an apostrophe and .y ('s) to the sim-
ple form of the noun; as, The owrs nest is large.

If the addition of the s, however, makes an un-
pleasant hissing sound, it is omitted, but the apos-
trophe is retained ; as, Moses' law was given to the
children of Israel.

The tendency in modern English, however, is to
add the apostrophe and ^ to most nouns, even though
they end in s; as, Harris's logic is helpful to stu-
dents. Dickens's "David CopperHeld" is interest-
ing. Charles's reign was not successful.

The plural of nouns which end in s form the pos-
sessive case by adding the apostrophe alone; as,
Girls' hats are sold here.

If the plural does not end in s, the possessive is
formed as in the singular number by adding the
apostrophe and the .9 ('s) ; as, Children's toys may
be found within. The oxen's yokes were heavy.

The possessive case of compound nouns and
complex expressions used as nouns is formed by add-
ing the proper sign of the possessive to the end of
the expression; as, The captain of the Elbe's wife

212 An English Grammar

was absent. My sister-in-law's address is New
York.

When two or more persons possess a thing in
common, the sign of the possessive is attached to
the last name only ; as, Barnum and Bailey's circus
is still on the road.

Separate ownership is indicated by adding the
sign of the possessive to each name; as, Webster's
and Worcester's dictionaries are in the library.

The expression, Anybody else's request zvould
be denied, is better usage than the expression, Any-
body's else request zvould be denied, but on the
other hand we should always say, Whose else could
be granted? not, Who else's could be granted?

Exercise 62

Form the correct posscssives in the following
sentences:

1. The sailors life was in danger.

2. Childrens plays should be made a means of educat-
ing them.

3. Mens destinies are in their own hands.

4. Daniel Websters speeches are marvels of oratory.

5. The Bishop of Dublin palace was destroyed by fire.

6. Baker and Watsons store has been sold.

7. Webster and Worcester's dictionaries are much in
demand.

8. Her Majesty, Queen Victorias government, has been
much disturbed.

9. The captain of the Elbes wife was lost when the
vessel sank.

10. The knight templars costume was the most costly.

The Noun 213

11. My brother-in-laws house was destroyed by fire.

12. Do no wrong for conscience sake.

13. The princess oown sparkled with jewels.

14. She had taken them all into her great heart, — the
boys sorrows and the girls cares.

15. Mrs. Cass appearance gave life to the occasion.

16. Jonas Russ slate made the noise.

17. I had the money changed at Sloan the druggist.

18. His character stands out when you compare it with
his uncle Henry of Hanover.

19. I would not have taken anybody else word for it.

20. I have granted your request but not anybody else ;
who elses could I grant?

21. We frequently buy books at the shop of Mr. Horns
on the Circle.

22. In spite of the guards precautions, the prisoner
escaped.

23. James task was finished early.

24. Moses law was formal.

25. Frances share of the fortune was badly managed.

26. Xerxes army v.'as victorious.

27. The woman would accept neither her neighbors nor
the countys assistance.

28. Joris strength failed before he got to Aix.

29. I arranged for the money at Hill the banker.

168. Declension. To decline a notin is to o^ive
all its number and case forms as follows:

Singular Plural

Nominative, girl Nominative, girls

Possessive, girl's Possessive, girls*

Objective, girl Objective, girls

214 An English Grammar

Exercise 63

From the expressions ineloscd in marks of pa-
renthesis in each of the following sentences, select
the correct one, and give the reasons.

1. I had a full understanding of the (fact's signif-
icance, significance of the fact).

2. (Congress's act, the act of Congress) was approved
by the people.

3. (My zmfe's picture, picture by my wife) became
f imous.

4. He is a stranger (in the midst of us, in our midst).

5. Do not remain (on our account, on account of us).

6. He carried (a dice, die) in his vest pocket as a
mascot.

7. The millenium is yet a great (zuay, ways) off.

8. The news (zvas, were) received with a great demon-
stration.

9. (This, these) news created great consternation.

10. He rose to distinction between the twenty-fourth
and twenty-fifth (year, years) of his life.

11. Are you an (alumni, alumnus) of this school?

12. When I looked through the microscope I saw a
(bacterium, bacteria).

13. Do you approve the change in the (curricula, cur-
riculum) f

14. (This, these) scanty data (is, are) not sufficient.

15. Agassiz's (dictum, dicta) was, " Study the fish."

16. This (phenomenon, phenomena) was observed many
times.

17. Did you see the (harpist, harper)?

18. Do you expect a (rise, raise) in wages?

19. Is this the (person, party) in question?

20. We are not looking at the question from the same
(point of view, standpoint).

The Noun 215

Exercise 64

Indicate the nouns in the following sentences,
and note the foil 'wing points:

1. Classify the noun on the different bases,

stating the basis in each case.

2. Decline it.

J. Give its properties in the order in which
zve have worked them out.

1. Lowliness is young Ambition's ladder,
Whereto the climber-upward turns his face ;
But when he once attains the upmost round,
He straight unto the ladder turns his back,
Looks in the clouds, scorning the base degrees
By which he did ascend.

2. His power, like to a fangless lion.
May offer, but not hold.

3. This rudeness is a sauce to his good wit.
Which gives a man stomach to digest his words
With better appetite.

4. And why should Caesar be a tyrant then ?
Poor man ! I know he would not be a wolf
But that he sees the Romans are but slieep :
He were no lion, were not Romans hinds.

5. If we do not make our atonement well.
Our peace will, like a broken limb united,
Grow stronger for the breaking.

2i^ An English Grammar

Work in Composition

TJic Cliaracfcr Sketch

RATISBON
I.

You know, we French stormed Ratisbon

A mile or so away
On a little moimd, Napoleon

Stood on our storming dav :
With neck out-thrust, you fancy how,

Legs wide, arms locked behind,
As if to balance the prone brow

Oppressive with its mind.

11.

Just as perhaps he mused " My plans

That soar, to earth may fall.
Let once my army-leader Lannes

Waver at yonder wall " —
Out 'twixt the battery-smokes there flew

A rider, bound on bound
Full-galloping; nor bridle drew

L'ntil he reached the mound.

in.

Then ofi:' there flung in smiling joy,

And held himself erect
By just his horse's mane, a bov :

You hardly could suspect —
(So tight he kept his lips compressed,

Scarce any blood came through)
You looked twice ere you saw his breast

Was all but shot in two.

The Noun 217

IV.
" Well," cried he, " Emperor, by God's grace

We've got you Ratisbon !
The Marshal's in the market-place.

And you'll be there anon
To see your flag-bird flap his vans

Where I. to heart's desire.
Perched him!" The chief's eye flashed; his plans

Soared up again like fire.

V.

The chief's eye flashed : but presently

Softened itself, as sheathes
A film the mother-eagle's eye

When her bruised eaglet breathes.
" You're wounded ! " "' Nay." the soldier's pride

Touched to the quick, he said:
"I'm killed. Sire!" And his chief beside.

Smiling, the boy fell dead.

— Robert Brozvning.

Read the poem called "Ratisbon."

]Vho is the hero? Why is he a hero? Find ont
from the poem as much as yon can about him.

Write a character sketch one paragraph loiii^
giz'ing your idea of the hero's character, and the
reasons for your opinions.

The purpose of a character sketch is to portray
cliaracter.

//

Re-read " Ratisbon."

Tell the story briefly. What scene is suggested?

What is in the foreground? The background?

What is the condition of the atmosphere?

218 An E)iglis/i Gramiiiar

JVJiaf do yoii like about the poemf
Outline and write a revieiv of " Ratisbon."
Read your paper. Are your paragraphs prop-
erly related through an introductoi y paragraph?
Does eaeh of your paragraphs treat of one topic arid
one only? Criticise your paper in other ways.

Ill
Read the extract from "Evangeline?' on page

30.

What ivere some of the traits of Evangeline s
character? Hoiv does Longfellow make this plain
to you? Jl'liat comparisons come to your mind
which woidd suggest her beauty? Her modesty?
Her purity?

Write a descriptiz'e character sketch one para-
graph lojig showing Ez'angelinc's character. Use
at least one comparison of your ozcii.

Read your paper. Does it giz'e an idea of Evan-
geline's character? Is your comparison appropri-
ate?

IV.

Study the picture of " llic Gleaner?' facijii^ p(^^c
218.

What do you gain of her character from her
attitude? From the expression of her face?

Write a description of the picture which de-
scribes the gleaner's appearance and the impression
you get of her character. Use a comparison or two
if you can think of any that zvill help to make your
meaning clearer.

THE GLEAN liK

Chapter XV

THE PRONOUN

169. The Pronoun Defined. The sentence,
Harry hung Harry s hat on the rack when Harry
came into the house, is awkward and unnatural.
We would usually say, Harry hung his hat on the
rack when he came into the house.

These words, Jiis and lie, are called pronouns
because they express the object of thought, Harry,
without naming it.

A pronoun is a substantive word that ex-
presses an object of thought without naming it;
as, They wandered in the woods.

170. Classes of Pronouns. Study the follow-
ing sentences :

1. He is my friend.

2. What can you do?

3. He would not give the name of the person who be-
friended him.

In these sentences the words, he, what, you and
who, are pronouns because they express objects of
thought without naming them. They differ, how-
ever, in that the words, he and you, show by their
forms the relation between the objects of thought

[219]

220 An English Grammar

expressed by them and tlie speaker. The other
pronouns do not do this.

The word, what, expresses an object of thought
unknown and sought. Tn this particular it is
different from llie other two.

The pronoun, zvho, as we have already seen in
our study of the complex sentence^ expresses the re-
lation bctweeil thoughts of unequal rank. No one
of the other pronouns does this. These differ-
ences enable us to classify pronouns into three
classes: personal, interrogative, and relative.
\ I. The Personal Pronoun Defined. A per-
sonal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its
form the relation of the object of thought ex-
pressed by it to the speaker; as, They deceive
themselves.

2. The Interrogative Pronoun Defined. An
interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that ex-
presses an object of thought which is unknown
and sought; as, Who ivas the oldest jiianf

3. The Relative Pronoun Defined. A relative
pronoun is a pronoun that expresses relation; as.
This is the man who gave the leeture.

Exercise 64
Point out the pronouns in the following sen-
tences and tell whether they are personal, interroga-
tive or relative. Give a reason in each case:

1. I am a poor man myself and I can s\mpathize with
you.

2. Natlian said to him, " Thou art the man."

The Pronoun 221

3. He, himself, acknowledged his fault to nie.
-^ 4. The book which the child has is not worth reading.

5. The point was well stated by the child when he saw
it.

6. You who are blessed with plenty should be kina
to the poor.

7. They who sow in folly will reap in sorrow.

8. I will not pass from this room until they bear me to
the tomb of my forefathers.

9. "Take this, good Mistress Dudley," he added, pui-
ting a purse into her hands.

10. But Sir \\'illiam Howe, if he ever heard this legend,
had forgotten it.

IL We, ourselves, are at fault.

12. Who killed Cock Robin?

13. Our fathers, where are they?

14. Which did }0u enjoy more,tFiske or Ridpath?

171. Classes of Personal Pronouns. In the

sentence. He, Jniiisclf, fold uic the story, the pro-
nouns, he, and himself, rire hoth personal pronouns.
They differ, however, in form. The pronoun,
he, cannot he traced hack to a simpler form in the
Rni^^lish language, while the pronoun, himself, can
1)e traced l)ack to the words, ////// and self. This
difference in form gives tis two classes of per-
sonal pronouns; simple and compound.

172. Simple Personal Pronoun Defined. A
simple personal pronoun is a personal pronoun
which cannot be traced back to any simpler form
in our language; as, /, he, it.

173. Inflection. There is much more change
of form to indicate the properties in the pronoun

-22 An English Grammar

I ban in the noun. There are different forms of
the pronoun to indicate gender, number, person,
and case.

174. First Person. The forms of the first per-
son may be indicated as follows :

Singular Plural

Nominative, I Nominative, we

Possessii'c, my, mine Possessive, our, ours

Objective, me Objective, us

The plural forms of the first person do not ex-
press two or more speakers, but the speaker and
others for whom he speaks. Sometimes this plural
form of the first person is used by an editor, ruler,
or representative to avoid the use of the pronoun, /,
and to lend dignity to the expression; as, "We
feci sure that the people zvill not accept this policy,"
zvrote the editor.

175. Second Person. The forms of the sec-
ond person may be indicated as follows:

Singular Plural

Nominative, thou N ominative , you,ye

Possessive, thy, thine Possessive, your, yours

Objective, thee Objective, you

The pronoun, thoii, with its forms, is no longer
used in ordinary conversation, except by the "Quak-
ers " or Society of Friends. These forms are used
in poetry, in the Bible, in prayer, and in other sol-
emn forms of discourse. In modern English the
plural forms are used also for the singular.

There is no change in form in the simple per-

The Pronoun 223

sonal pronouns, first and second persons, to denote
gender, because the sex of the person speaking and
the person spoken to is usually known.

176. Third Person. The forms of the simple
personal pronoun, third person, may be indicated

as follows:

Masculine

Singular

Plural

Nominative,

Possessive,

Objective,

he
his
him

they

their, theirs
them

Feminine

Neuter

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

she

her, hers
her

they

their,

them

theirs

it
its

it

they

their, theirs

them

Exercise 65

Write sentences containing the different forms
of the simple personal pronouns, first, second, and
third person.

177. Possessive Forms. Some of the posses-
sive forms of the simple personal pronoun are used
substantively. They express both the possessor and
the thing possessed and are equivalent to a noun
modified by a possessive ; as,

1. This pencil is mine := This pencil is my pencil.

2. Yours is on the table =: Your pencil is on the table.

2*24 An English Grammar

178. Peculiarities of the Personal Pronoun.

1. There is no pronoun, third person, singular
number, common gender, in the EngHsh language.
Usage sanctions the use of the masculine form to
express this meaning; as, // any member of the
class has forgotten his pencil, he zvill please raise
his hand. In case we wish to be specific, we use he
or she, his or her.

2. The pronoun, it, is often used when it has no
definite antecedent ; as. It rains. This is called the
impersonal pronoun.

3. Such expressions as liis own. my own, your
own, and so forth, are emphatic forms, used for
emphasis and are taken as one word.

179. Pronouns or Adjectives. The possessive
forms of the personal pronouns are often classed
as adjectives. It seems more logical, however, to
class them as pronouns. The form, his, is only an-
other form of the word, he, and another form of the
same word is him. If the w^ords, he and him, are
called pronouns, there seems to be no good reason
for calling the form, his, an adjective. It is true
that the form, his, does always express an attribute
of an object of thought; but so also does the pos-
sessive form of the noun. No grammarian calls
the word, boy's, an adjective: yet there is just as
good reason for this as for calling his, hers, my,
and so forth, adjectives,

180. Compound Personal Pronoun Defined.

The Pronoun 225

A compound personal pronoun is a personal pro-
noun which can be traced to a simpler form in our
language; as, Tlicy injure only themselves.

i8i. How Formed. The compound personal
pronouns, singular, and plural, are formed by add-
ing the suffix, self, to the possessive, my, first per-
son ; thy and yoiw, second person ; and to the ob-
jectives, liim, her and it, third person. The plural
compound personal pronouns are formed by adding
the suffix, sehes, to the possessives, our, first per-
son ; your, second person ; and the objective, them,
third person.

TJie singular forms, then, are as follows:

myself himself

thyself herself

yourself itself

TJie plural forms are as follozvs:

ourselves themselves

yourselves

182. How Used. 'Ilie compound personal
pronouns may have the following uses :

1. They are used in a reflexive sense; as. The
boy hurt himself.

2. They are used for emphasis; as, Mary, her-
self, was present.

3. They are sometimes used in place of simple
personal pronouns: as, "Ourselves ivill see this
prisoner," thundered the king.

226 An English Graniniar

183. Peculiarity of the Compound Personal
Pronoun, llic compound personal pronouns
have no case forms. They are used only in the
nominative and objective relations.

Exercise 66

Fill tJie follozving blanks zvitJi the proper pro-
nouns:

^ I. Any one can come^ if — -^ — is invited.
V 2. Each must find -■" ^^ — book.

^i'-Mas-- everyone -found pencil ?

4. Every recitation carries with it own re-

sponsibihties.
^ 5. Every girl can succeed if is industrious.

6. Either Henry or W'ilHam will give you ^ as-
sistance.

7. Each person is requested to furnish favorite

dish.

8. Every man is serious in saner moments.

9. Soldier after soldier came carrying — musket

with . , ' ■ *.'

10. Each of the boys did well, at least in own

judgment.

11. Every one of the children succeeded, at least in
own way.

12. Whoever loves mother, should do

best to make life easy for .

13. Every brave soldier met death with unflinch-
ing bravery.

14. Whoso bridleth mouth, and keepeth

tongue from gossiping, saveth trouble.

15. Everybody believes life would have been

more of a success, if he had chosen some other callinsf.

The Pronoun 227

i6. Each child is requested to leave work on the

table.

17. Every man is expected to do duty.

18. Each pupil must obey teacher.

19. Every citizen owes a duty to country.

20. Most people do not love enemies.

184. Interrogative Pronoun. Read the fol-
lowing sentences:

1. Who is the man? 7. What do you want?

2. Who is the girl? 8. Which is she?

3. Who are these people 9. Which is theirs?

4. Whose is this? 10. Which are mine?

5. Whom did you call? 11. Which do you prefer?

6. What are those?

Notice that in each case the italicized pronoun
expresses an object of thought that is unknown
and sought. The words, who, ivhose, whom, ask
for the names of persons. The word, what,
asks for the names of things. The word, which,
asks for a selection from a group of persons or
things. We call such a pronoun an interrogative
pronoun.

185. Interrogative Pronoun Defined. An in-
terrogative pronoun is a pronoun which expresses
an object of thought that is unknown and
sought; as. Who called yoiif

186. Forms of the Interrogative Pronoun.

You will notice in the interrogative pronouns in
Section 184, that the word, zvho, is the only one

228 An English Grammar

which is decHned. The forms may be arranged as

follows :

Singular Plural

Nominative^ who Nominative, who

Possessive, whose Possessive, whose

Objective, whorn Objective, whom

These interrogative pronouns do not show by
their form the gender, person or number of the
substantive word. Only in the case of the word,
zvho, is the case indicated by the form of the inter-
rogative pronoun : as, Who is here? Whose book
have yoiif Whom do yon zvantf

187. Distinctions in Interrogative Pronouns.

Usually the word, zvho, asks for persons; the word,
what, asks for inanimate objects; the word, which,
is selective in its use, that is, it means that one is
to be distinguished from a number of persons or
inanimate objects; as, Which is the boyf Which
of the scenes do yon most admire? Which of the
hooks have you decided to choose? Sometimes the
word, what, refers to persons ; as, What is the man?
He is a lazvyer. In such cases, the word, what, asks
for the occupation in distinction from the word,
who, which asks for identity; as. Who is she? She
is Mrs. Tolliver.

Exercise 67

The mistake most commonly made with the in-
terrogative pronouns is in the use of the words.

The Fronoun 229

who and whom. ' The tendency in modern English
is to discard the word, whom, using the word, who,
in both the nominative and the objective relations.
Careful speakers avoid this and in serious discourse,
it is inexcusable.

Put in the following blanks the proper form oj
the pronoun, who, and give reasons:

I. do you see?

did you hear?

will you select?

did you ask?

do you tUink I am?

were you speaking to?

I am puzzled to send.

are you sending it to ?

do you think me to be?

I know to ask.

I do not see — — — he has given it to.

was speaking to you?

did you say wrote the letter?

do you think will get the nomination?

do you expect to invite next?

do you think it was asked me?

I do not know will go for me.

She is going to invite to her reception — I do not

2

3

4
5
6

7
8

9

10

II

12

13
14
15
16

17
18

know

19
20

should I see vesterdav but mv cousin?

I asked was wanted.

188. Uses of Interrogative Pronoun. Notice
the use of the interrogative pronoun in the follov/-
ing sentences : The speaker asked, "Who is Broek-
ton?" The speaker asked who Broekton was.

230 An English Grammar

In the first sentence the question is given in the
exact words of the speaker. In the second sentence
the original words of the speaker are changed, but
the same meaning is expressed. We call the first
a direct question; the second is called an indirect
question. A direct question may be a sentence in
itself; as, Who was Caniieldf

Or it may be a dependent clause; as, The man
asked, "What is protection?"

Indirect questions are always dependent clauses
implying inquiry, ignorance, doubt, knowledge, and
so forth; as, Harry surmised who lie zvas. Harry
found out zvho he was. Harry zvas ignorant of who
he zvas. Harry explained to ns zvho he zvas.

When the interrogative pronoun is used in a
direct question, it is said to have the direct use;
as. The leader said, ''Who zvill volunteer f"

When the interrogative pronoun is used in an
indirect question it is said to have an indirect use;
as, James asked '''"" who the man zvas.

Exercise 68

In the following sentences point out the inter-
rogative pronouns, and tell zvhether they have the
direct or the indirect use, and zvJiy:

1. Who was the discoverer of America?

2. Who were killed?

* Be careful to distinguish the interrogative pronoun in the
indirect question from the relative pronoun.

The Pronoun 231

3. Which are the boys in trouble?

4. Which is the Jew and which the merchant here?

5. I know who killed Cock Robin.

6. I will tell you what I will take.

7. What are these people?

8. I know which is the most valuable.

9. What is the man?

10. I see which will come next.

189. Relative Pronoun. Tn Sections 102-1 11
under the complex .sentence the relative pronoun
is discussed. Only a few additional points are
needed here.

A. Forms of the Relative Pronoun. We no-
tice that the word, ivJio, is the only relative pro-
noun which is declined. The forms of it may be
arranged as follows:

Singular Plural

Nominative, who Nominative, who

Possessive, whose Possessive, whose

Objective, whom Ohjective, whom

B. Distinction in Use. We are often told that
the relative pronoun, that, should always be used
in the limiting adjective clause and the relative pro-
nouns, zvlio and zvhich, should always be used in
descriptive adjective clauses, but this distinction is
not observed in good English. It is impossible to
use the word, that, after a preposition and its use
in the limiting adjective clause often produces a

232 An English Grammar

discii^reeable combination of sound; as, That man
that / saw today was a genius.

As a rule, euphony should dictate which of the
three relatives to use in any adjective clause.

C. Properties of the Relative Pronoun. The
gender, person, and number of the relative pronoun
are never indicated by its form. They must be de-
termined by its. antecedent ; as, / who speak unto
thee am he. He who was absent lost his chance.
She who caine this morning is my sister. They who
sow zvill reap.

The case of a relative pronoun, however, does
not depend upon its antecedent; but only in the
word, zvho, is it indicated by the form of the word.
The case of the other relative pronouns must be de-
termined as with the noun, by the context.

Since relative pronouns must agree with their
antecedents in number and person, the form of a
verb used with a relative must be the same as that
which would be used with its antecedent ; as, These
are the ladies who were expected. This is the lady
who zvas present.

Exercise 69

From the expressions inclosed w the marks of
parenthesis in each of the follozving sentences, select
the correct one:

I. He is one of the most popular authors that (has,
have) ever written novels.

The Pronoun 233

2. The house is one of those that (overlook, overlooks)
the valley.

3. This is one of the most valuable contributions that
(has, have) ever been made to science.

4. That is one of the last poems which (ivas, zvere)
written by Shelley.

5. It was one of the best shows that (has, have) ever
been seen here.

6. He is not the first person that (has, have) tried and
failed.

7. This is one of the worst boys that (is, are) now in
school.

8. One of the girl's many good qualities that (occur,
occurs) to me now is punctuality. ^

Exercise 70

Fill the follozviiig blanks zvifh the proper form
of the pronoun, who, and give your reasons.

1. He is a person I know can h& trusted.

2. He is a person I know to be trustworthy.

3. I saw a man I have no doubt was your friend.

4. We send only persons we can trust.

5. He entrusts his business to a man he thinks

will look after it.

6. A man came into the room -; we afterwards

learned was an actor.

7. We have found the child we thought had been

lost.

8. Then a tall actor appeared we all thought was

the best on the program.

D. Possessive Forms of Relative Pronouns.

We have the possessive form, zvhosc, which we
tisnally use to express the idea of possession with

2'S-i: An English Grammar

reference to persons; as, This is the chihi zvhose
hook zvas lost.

\\'hen we wish to express the idea of possession
with reference to inanimate objects or lower animals,
we usually use the prepositional phrase, of which.
Sometimes, however, this expression produces a
harsh, awkward, unnatural combination and in such
cases it is better to use the word, whose, even with
reference to inanimate objects or lower animals.
Euphony must be our guide in the use of the two
expressions.

Exercise 71

Fill the follozving blanks with the word, whose,
or the expression, of which, and give your reasons.

1. This is the gate ( hinges), (the liiiiges

■ ) were broken.

2. This is the tree ( bark), (the bark )

was stripped off by hghtning-.

3. These are the books ( pages), (the pages

) were torn out.

4. Here is the dog ( collar), (the collar )

was lost.

5. The reader asked for a book ( name), (the

name ) we had never heard.

6. That is the man ( hat) , (the hat ) was

lost.

7. There is another phase of education ( im-
portance), (tlie importance ) is paramount.

8. Through the window ( glass), (the glass

) was dirty, we saw the dim form of a man.

9. Beneath the dish ( cover), (the cover )

lay on the table, we found the money.

The Pronoun 235

10. By the side of the road (- dust), (the dust

) was deep we discovered cool water.

E. Relative Pronoun Omitted. The relative
pronoun is sometimes omitted; as, The knife
(zvhich) I left on the table zvas gone. The zvoman
(that or whom) you saw zvas my mother. It is
perseverance (that) enables a man to succeed.

190. Antecedent. The antecedent of a pro-
noun is a substantive expression which denotes
the same object of thought as the pronoun; as.
My brother, who was anxious to get home, left be-
fore I did.

igi. Parsing. We are now prepared to give
all that may be known about a pronoun. This is
sometimes called parsing. It would include:

1. Classifving a pronoun into the smallest known class.

2. Declining it.

3. Giving its antecedent.

4. Giving its gender.

5. Giving its number.

6. Giving its person.

7. Giving its construction.

8. Giving its case.

Note: Too much of this kind of work at one time is apt to be-
come monotonous, and mechanical. The pupils should be able, how-
ever, to answer any one of these questions whenever they are asked
to do so.

Exercise 72

Study the pronouns in the following sentences
and:

236 An English Grammar

1. Classify each into the smallest known

class.

2. Decline it.

J. Give its antecedent.

4. Give its gender.

5. Give its number.

6. Give its person.

7. Give its use in the sentence.

8. Give its case.

9. Tell liozv you determined these properties.
10. Explain any irregularity which you may

discover.

1. Each soldier drew his battle blade.

2. He liveth long who liveth well.

3. One's manners show one's breeding.

4. The person who doeth good hath his reward.

5. If any person in the audience objects, he will please
stand.

6. The poor widow lost her only son.

7. True to his flag, the soldier braved even death.

8. A pupil that is studious will learn.

9. He who runs may read.

10. He desired to pray, but it was denied him.

11. He has squandered his money, but he now regrets it.

12. You are here on time, Henry.

13. You are good children.

14. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the
Lord.

15. Thine ears have heard the joyful sound.

16. "We formerly thought differently, but now we have
changed our mind," wrote the editor.

17. Tt thundered as it seemed to me.

18. Come and trip it on the green.

The Pronoim 237

19. Well, then, Mistress Dudley, since you will needs
tarry, I give the Province House in charge to you.

20. Try to see yourself as others see you.

21. Let every pupil use his own book.

22. If anyone be found at fault, do unto him as you
would wish to be done by.

23. *You, he, and I were boys together.

24. A friend and I were talking the matter over.
. 25. Whoever comes will take your place.

26. I must do whatever seems best.

27. I will give you whatever is right.

28. They censure whomsoever I commend.

29. They knew not what it was.

30. I will call whomever you ask.

Exercise 73

From the expressions inclosed in the marks of
parenthesis, select the correct one, and give your
reasons:

1. {Its, it's) tower leaned.

2. Is that friend of (your's, yours) with you yet?

3. He was a man (as, zvho) could be depended upon.

4. He adopts the same rules in Sunday school {thai,
as) he adopts in his day school.

5. Such devices {zvhich, as) you have in mind are im-
portant.

6. He now thinks that foolish {zvhich, what) he once
thought wise.

7. {What, zjohatever) can the man want?

8. I cannot pay {the tzvo of, both of) them.

9. Oh, if it had only been {me, I.)

♦Note: Notice that when we use the personal pronouns in the
same sentence, the second person should come first, the third next,
and the first last.

288 An English Grammar

10. You and (I, nie) are invited.

11. Our father brought you and {I, me) a present.

12. Wretched people console themselves when they see
many who are quite as {bad, badly) off as (them, they).

13. Let (him, he) who made thee answer this.

14. You are somewhat taller than (mc, I).

15. There is no one that I like better than (he, him).

16. I am sure of its being (he, hiniy.

17. I do not mind (his, him) going out evenings.

18. He was associated with Longfellow and other poets
for (which, whom) America is noted.

19. (Who, whom) shall the party put forward?

20. Find out (zvho, zvhom) the hat belongs to.

21. (Who, whom) can that be?

22. I saw my friend (zuho, zvhom) I once thought would
succeed in business fail.

23. She lived with an aunt (zvho, zvhom) she said
treated her shamefully.

24. Then came another man (zvho, zvhom) they all de-
clared was the best of the performers.

25. Under this tree, (the bark of zvhich, whose bark)
is scarred in many places, Washington took command of the
army.

26. This is a point, (the consideration of zvhich, zvhose
consideration) has caused much trouble.

27. This is the tree (that, which) was struck by light-
ning.

28. To come so near to winning the prize, and then lose
it, I never could stand (it, that).

29. She is a better student than (either, any one) of her
three brothers.

30. (Either, any one) of the ten points is worth remem-
bering, but the (latter, last) is most essential.

31. (All, each) of the children took an apple.

The Pronoun 239

32. I am (the one, he, the person) who signalled the
train.

33. He o'cts Emerson's ideas, (the ones, those) that are
most essential, on first reading.

34. When (one, a person, we) (comes, come) to tliink
of it (he, one, ive) (takes, take) (one's, his, our) (life, lives)
in (one's, his, our) (hand, hands) every time (one, he, we)
(board, hoards) a train.

35. If anyone has lost baggage, the matter will be in-
vestigated for (you, him) free of charge.

36. Soldier after soldier took up the cry and added
(their, his) (voice, voices) to the mighty din.

37. Everyone was absorbed in (hi^ or her, his, their)
own pleasure, or was bitterly resenting the absence of the
pleasure (he or she, they, he) expected.

38. Everybody thought it right to extend (his, their)
sympathy.

39. I like to see each of them doing well, in (their, his)
own way at least.

40. Anybody can catch trout if (he. they) can find the
trout.

41. Everybody was there, if (he, they) could possibly
go.

42. He heard of a man whose life had been spent on the
water and (zvhose, his) record was good.

43. The undersigned is sorry to say that he took a hat
from the rack which is not (mine, his).

44. When I close my eyes I can see pictures like (the
ones, those) presented.

45. The two brothers love (one another, each other).

Exercise 74

Fill the follozving blanks zvifh the proper forms
of the ivord, whoever :

^*^ An English Grammar

1. The old man put the question to he met.

2. I am satisfied with you have selected.

3. I am ready to entertain rnay be sent.

4. The Lord loveth ■ doeth his will.

5. You must restore book you have taken.

6. Make yourself agreeable to you meet.

7. Tell the truth to asks it.

8. Contest the ground with ^ opposes you.

9. The lady iiiquired of ■ she saw.

10. The missionary preached to remained.

Chapter XVI

THE ADJECTIVE

192. The Adjective Defined. An adjective is
an attributive word which expresses an attribute
of an object of thought and does not express a
thought relation; as, Tlic green leaves tremble in
the wind.

193. Classes of Adjectives on the Basis of
Use. Study the following sentences:

1. The United States is large.

2. The small children play in the yard.

You will notice that the adjective, large, is used
in the predicate of the sentence ; while the adjective,
small, is used to modify the noun, children. This
difference in the use of adjectives gives us two
classes which we call predicate and modifying ad-
jectives.

194. Predicate Adjective Defined. A predi-
cate adjective is an adjective that expresses an as-
serted attribute; as. The hook is heavy.

195. Modifying Adjective Defined. A modi-
fying adjective is an adjective that expresses an
unasserted attribute; as, Fragrant flowers bloom
by the zvay.

[24ii

242 An English Grammar

Exercise 75

Study the adjectives in the following sentences
and classify them on the basis of use; give your
reasons:

1. These rude instruments were used by this savage
people.

2. All the government officials are -well paid.

3. The sun is 'bright.

4. Yonder pond contains fish.

5. The earth is round.

196. Classes of Adjectives on the Basis of
Chief Purpose. vStiidy the adjectives in the fol-
lowing sentences :

1. The white snow hurts my eyes.

2. White houses soon become dingy.

The word, white, is an adjective in each sentence,
but in the first sentence it simply emphasizes an at-
tribute of the object of thought, snow; it does not
narrow the meaning of the word, snow. In the sec-
ond sentence the adjective, white, narrows the mean-
ing of the word, houses. This difiference in the chief
purpose of the adjective gives us two classes:
descriptive and limiting.

197. Descriptive Adjective Defined. A de-
scriptive adjective is an adjective the chief pur-
pose of which is to emphasize the attribute which
it expresses; as, Cold ice is necessary in summer.

198. Limiting Adjective Defined. A limit-
ing adjective is an adjective the chief purpose of

The Adjective 243

which is to narrow the meaning of the substan-
tive word; as. This book is mine.

In Robert Browning's " Saul," on page 103,
notice the use which he makes of these classes
of adjectives. \\'hich class does he use more?
Why?

199. Classes of Limiting Adjectives. Study
the follow ing sentences :

1. These plants were blooming.

2. Thirty persons were present.

3. The child is ill.

The adjectJA-es, these, thirty and the, are all lim-
iting adjectives. They are not alike, however, be-
cause the adjective, these, may be used substan-
tively; as, These are mine.

The adjective, thirty, expresses number. The
adjective, the, simply makes definite the meaning of
the substantive w^ord, child. These differences in
limiting adjectives give us three classes: pronom-
inal, numeral, and articles.

200. Pronominal Adjective Defined. A pro-
nominal adjective is a limiting adjective which
may be used substantively; as, Thisw most beau-
tiful.

201. Classes of Pronominal Adjectives, In

the following sentences, note the difference in the
adjectives which they contain :

That flower is beautiful.

Which girl do you mean?

244 An English Granimar

Many people were killed.
Each boy does his best.

You will notice that the adjectives, that, which,
many, and each, are all pronominal adjectives be-
cause they may be used substantively. They are all
different, ho^^'ever, because the adjective, that, ex-
presses a relation between the object of thought,
expressed by the word, flower, which it modifies,
and the speaker; the adjective, zvhich, expresses an
attribute of the object of thought which is unknown
and sought; the adjective, many, expresses the
idea of number indefinitely; the adjective, each, ex-
presses the idea of separation or isolation. These
differences between pronominal adjectives enable
us to divide them into four classes ; demonstra-
tive, interrogative, quantitative, and distributive.

202. Demonstrative Adjective Defined. A
demonstrative adjective is a pronominal adjective
which show^s the relation betv^een the object of
thought expressed by a substantive word and the
speaker; as, That boy zvill succeed.

The demonstrative adjectives are: this, tliat,
these, those, yon, yonder.

203. Interrogative Adjective Defined. An
interrogative adjective is a pronominal adjective
which expresses an attribute of an object of
thought as unknown and sought; as. What

hook do you desire?

The Adjective -45

The interrogative adjectives are: which and
zvhat.

204. Quantitative Adjective Defined. A
quantitative adjective is a pronominal adjective
which expresses the attribute of number or quan-
tity indefinitely; as, Few people ivere present.

There are several of these ; much, many, all, fezu,
and some others.

205. Numeral Adjective Defined. A numeral
adjective is a limiting adjective which expresses
the attribute of number or order definitely; as,

Ten people zvere in the house.

206. Classes of Numeral Adjectives. Notice
the adjectives in the following sentences and see
how they differ:

1. Three hours had passed.

2. The third boy in the class is the best student.

3. A fourfold punishment was administered.

You will notice that the adjectives, three, third
and fourfold, are all numeral adjectives because
they express the attribute of number definitely.
They arc all different, however, because the ad-
jective, three, expresses the attribute of number
only; the adjective, third, expresses the order or
l)lace of a thing in a series; while the adjective,
fourfold, expresses or implies the idea of multipli-
cation. On account of these differences we divide
numeral adjectives into three classes: cardinal,
ordinal and multiplicative.

-•i^ An English Grammar

207. Cardinal Adjective Defined. A cardinal
adjective is a numeral adjective which merely ex-
presses number definitely; ns. Five l)irds sat on
the liml).

208. Ordinal Adjective Defined. An ordinal
adjective is a numeral adjective which expresses
the position or. order of a thing in a series; as,
Tlic second hoy from the cud of tJie rozv is my
brother.

209. Multiplicative Adjective Defined. A
multiplicative adjective is a numeral adjective
which implies the idea of multiplication; as, A

double Jwiisc zvas built.

210. Article Defined. An article is a kind of
limiting adjective used before a substantive word
to show whether it is to be taken in a definite or
indefinite sense; as, The boy appeared promptly.

211. Classes of Articles. Study the articles
in the followiiii^' sentences:

1. ("lO into tlie room and bring- me the book.

2. Go into the room and bring me a book.

^^■e can see that in the first sentence the article,
the, shows that the word, book, is to be taken m a
definite sense. The speaker and the person ad-
dressed 1ia\'c some particular 1)ook in mind, and the
article shows that it is this particular book that is
wanted. In the second sentence, the article, a,
shows that the word, book, is to he taken in an in-

The Adjective 247

definite sense. The speaker and the person ad-
dressed have no definite book in mind, but any book
will do. This dift'erence in articles gives lis two
classes : definite and indefinite.

212. Definite Article Defined. The definite
article is that article that shows that the substan-
tive word which it modifies should be taken in a
definite sense; as, The man zvas not present.

The article, tJie, is the only definite article in the
English language.

213. Indefinite Article Defined. The indefi-
nite article is that article which shows that the
substantive word which it modifies is to be taken
in an indefinite sense; as, A man came into the
room. An a.ve zvas lying in the path.

The articles, a and aji, are the only indefinite
articles in the English language.

Exercise 76

In the follozving sentences point out the adjec-
fiz'es and classify them:

1. On the basis of use.

2. On the basis of the chief purpose.

Put limiting adjectives into the smallest knouni
classes, and give your reasons.

1. The book was written by John Fiske.

2. This proposition is unreasonable.

3. Which way did he go?

4. What book do you most prefer?

9AS An English Grammar

5. I know which way the deer went.

6. Few ducks were seen by the sportsman.

7. Some money was earned by the boys.

8. The yellow chicken looked at the big frog inquir-
ingly.

9. Every man stood to his post.

10. Neither man was right, and yet I would not censure
either.

11. We were i-nterested in watching two large prairie
fires.

12. Fifty men were in line.

13. James is the third pupil in the row.

14. Washington was the first president of the United
States.

15. This is a fourfold punishment.

16. Let us make a double house.

17. The bright dewdrops were glistening on the leaves.

18. The white rose is beautiful.

19. He who dares stand for the right, though he stand
alone, is truly brave.

20. The river is a mile broad.

21. The girl is cruel to her pets.

22. A child's kiss
Set on thy sighing lips shall make thee glad ;

A poor man served by thee shall make thee rich,
A sick man helped by thee shall make thee strong;
Thou shalt be served thyself by every sense
Of service which thou renderest.

Wo rdszvo rth.

214. Pronominal Adjectives Called Pronouns.

Some grammarians prefer to call pronominal ad-
jectives, when they are used substantively, pro-
nouns; as, That is yours. These are mine.

This is not incorrect, hut it seems more logical

The Adjective 249

to keep the words in the same class, no matter
whether they are used substantively or attributively.
When they are used substantively, a substantive
word can always be supplied. Those are fine, is
equivalent to Those apples, books, flowers, and so
forth, are fine.

215. Singular and Plural Adjectives. The

only adjectives that have singular and plural forms
are the demonstrative adjectives, this and that. The
plural of the adjective, tJiat, is those, and the plural
of the adjective, this is these.

Be careful to use the adjectives, that and this,
with singular nouns, and those and tJiese with plu-
ral nouns; as,

1. I do not like that kind of book.

2. This sort of roses is short-lived.

3. These flowers are beautiful.

4. Those trees are green.

Exercise 77

Fill the following blanks zvitli the proper demon-
stratii'c adjectives:

1. I do not see kind of goods often.

2. We want no more of sort of lectures.

3. Where are you going with boxes of pens?

4. Giildren should avoid sort of games.

5. He combats classes of theories.

6. We dislike kind of weather.

7. He helps sort of people.

8. James likes kind of fruit.

250 An English Craiiintar

9. Children like kinds of games.

10. We fear kinds of animals.

I 1. I like sorts of s])orts.

216. Comparison. Notice how the adjectives
in the following- sentences are ahke and how they
differ :

1. My mother is tall.

2. My father is taller.

3. My brother is the tallest member of the family.

The adjectives, fall, taller, and tallest, express
the same attribute, but the adjective, tall, shows that
it has been compared merely with the mind's idea of
that attribute. The adjective, taller, shows that the
attribute expressed by it has been compared with the
same attribute in one other idea. The adjective,
tallest, shows that the attribute expressed by it has
been compared with the same attribute in two or
more other ideas. This pro])erty of the adjective
we call comparison.

217. Comparison Defined. Comparison is
that property of the adjective or adverb which
shows whether the attribute expressed by it has
been compared with the same attribute in another
idea or merely with the mind's idea of that attri-
bute.

218. Degrees of Comparison. The dilTerence
in adjectives noted in Section 216, that is, that
they express different degrees of the attribute,

The Adjective i^51

gives lis three degrees of comparison, positive,
comparative and superlative.

219. Positive Degree Defined. The positive
degree of comparison is that degree of compari-
son which shows that the attribute expressed by
the adjective or adverb has been compared merely
with the mind's idea of that attribute; as, Red
roses arc beautiful.

220. Comparative Degree Defined. The Com-
parative degree of comparison is that degree of
comparison which shows that the attribute ex-
pressed by the adjective or adverb has been com-
pared with the same attribute in one other idea ;
as, My broth, cr is taller tliau I.

221. Superlative Degree Defined. The super-
lative degree of comparison is that degree of com-
parison which shows that the attribute expressed
by the adjective or adverb has been compared
with the same attribute in two or more other
ideas; as. The largest boy in the room does the
poorest ivork.

222. When Used. i. The jiositive degree is
ahvays used when the attribute expressed bv the
adjective or adverl) has not 1)een compared with the
same attribute in any other idea; as, The blue ,s7v'v
is overhead.

2. Tlie comparative degree is always used when
tlie attribute expressed by the adjective or adverb

252 An English Graiunior

has been compared with the same attribute in one
other idea ; as, To be good is better than to be great.

3. The superlative degree is used when the at-
tribute expressed by the adjective or adverb has
been compared with the same attribute in at least
two other ideas ; as, He is the tallest boy in his class.

The words expressing the ideas in which the
attribute expressed by the adjective or adverb is
found are called the terms of the comparison.
\\'hen the attribute is compared in only two ideas
the latter term excludes the former; as, Gold is
brighter than any other metal.

When the attribute compared exists in more
than two other ideas the latter term must include
the former; as. Gold is the most valuable of metals.

223. Kinds of Comparison. \\'e may compare
in either of two ways. We may say, heavy, heavier,
heaviest, in which case, the positive degree expresses
the lowest degree of that attribute; and the com-
parative degree a higher degree of the attribute;
and the superlative degree the highest degree of the
attribute. But we may also say, heavy, less heavy,
least heavy, in which case the positive degree ex-
presses the highest degree, the comparative a lower
degree, and the superlative the lowest degree of
all. 11iis gi\-cs us two kinds of comparison: as-
cending and descending.

224. Ascending Comparison Defined. As-
cending comparison is that comparison in which

The Adjective -53

the positive degree of the word expresses the low-
est degree of the attribute; the comparative, a
higher degree of the attribute; and the superla-
tive, the highest degree of the attribute; as,

beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.

225. Descending Comparison Defined. De-
scending comparison is that comparison in which
the positive degree of the word expresses the
highest degree of the attribute; the comparative,
a lower degree of the attribute; and the superla-
tive, the lowest degree of the attribute; as, beau-
tiful, less beautiful, least beautiful.

226. Methods of Comparison. Study the ad-
jectives in the following- sentences and note how
the comparative and superlative are formed in each
case:

1. Tall trees are easily blown over.

2. I am taller than my father.

3. The tallest boy in the room is a good student.

4. The boy is my brother.

5. To be is better than to seem.

6. This is the best way to solve the problem.

7. While she is the most strict mother I know, she is
also the most pleasant with her children.

8. This way is the longest.

9. The long pencil is lost.

In the word, fall, you will notice that the com-
parative is formed by adding the suffix, er, and the
superlative by adding the suffix, est. This method
of comparison we call inflection. The adjective,

254

An English Grammar

/^Icascnif, forms its comparative with the word, more,
and its superlative with the word, most. This
method of comparison we call composition. Wii ^ i
the adjective, good, we use the word, better, for tlu
comparative; and the word, best, for the superlative.
We call this method irregular.

Adjectives of one sylla1:)le and many adjectives
of two syllables are usually compared by inflection.
The tendency in modern English is to use this
method more and more. Longer adjectives, how-
ever, are usually compared by using the method of
composition. Euphony has much to do with de-
termining- the method of comparison.

Exercise 78

Compare tJie foUozving adjeetives and use them
eorreetly in sentences; consult your dictionary:

beautiful

pretty

handsome

awful

dreadful

lovely

few

less

healthy

healthful

much.

most

well

mad

angry

vexed

quite a

elegant

a large

a considerable

real

a orreat

opposite

contrary

those

drowned

227. Adjectives Not Compared. Some ad-
jectives express attributes that do not exist in dif-
ferent degrees : as, perfect, round, circular.

wStrictly speaking such adjectives cannot be com-
pared, but good usage sanctions the expressions,
most perfect, straight est, squarest, and so forth.

The Adjective 255

Exercise 79

State the meaning of each of the following
words when used as adjectives, comparing words
in the first colunm with those in the second when
such comparison will help to bring out the meaning
more clearly :

each

every

which

what

this

these

few

less

either

neither

a or an

the

that

those

each other
Exercise 80

one another

JVatcli carefully flic position of the zvord, only,
in all sentences. From the expressions inclosed in
the marks of parenthesis in each of the follozving
sentences select the correct one and give reasons.
Consult your dictionary for information:

1. The boy was permitted to go (everyzvhere, every-
zvheres).

2. My daughter may be described as (having a light
complexion, being light-complected).

3. We thus had more, not (less, fezver) friends.

4. One can hardly think of a man (more, better)
suited to the place.

5. The people had never seen a (costlier, more costlier)
equipage.

6. This is true of (most, almost) all of my friends.

7. Nobody was (like, likely) to see him.

8. The town was (quite, plenty) large enough.

9. There isn't a (sightlier. finer) place in town.
10. Do you like (this, these) sort of books?

256 An English Grammar

11. How do you like (that, those) kind of gowns?

12. This point is (easiest, most easily) seen.

13. My conscience feels (easily, easy).

14. The girl looked (prettily, pretty).

15. The teacher feels (bad, badly) to-day.

16. The party went (solid, solidly) for free trade.

17. She was not (only, alone) a true woman but a kind
friend also.

18. The boy (only) tried (only) three times.

19. That they use money is true of (both, each) party.

20. (Each, every) dog has his day.

21. (Each, every) day in the year should be the happiest
day.

22. We should avoid (many, much) of the baser
struggles.

23. He has caught (many, much) fish to-day.

24. Will (all, the whole) finance ministers, and uphol-
sterers and confectioners of modern Europe undertake in
joint stock company to make one shoeblack happy?

25. Of the states of the Union named, the (first four,
four first) are largest.

26. He says some very (aggravating, irritating) things.

27. In consequence of some very (aggravating, irritat-
ing) circumstances he was punished severely.

28. Statements like these seem hardlv (creditable, cred-
ible).

29. Here, too, Sydney Carton is an (exceptional, excep-
tionable) man.

30. I shall not go (further, farther).

31. Rice is a (healthy, healthful) food.

32. The scene from the window was (luxuriant, luxur-
ious).

33. The boy told a (pitiful, pitiable) story.

34. The spider spins a (subtile, subtle) web.

35. There is a (continuous, continual) hurry to be off.

The Adjective 257

36. The sky gradually became (cloudless, more and
more cloudless).

37. The shouts gradually became (more and more in-
audible, inaudible).

38. In this characteristic Coleridge is (unique, most
unique).

39. The vote was so (unanimous, so nearly unanimous)
that the crowd shouted.

40. We go about professing (total isolation, the totalest
isolation).

228. Parsing. In flic folloiving sentences point
out tJie adjectives.

1. Classify them into the smallest knozvn

classes on each basis, stating the basis
first.

2. Compare each adjective.

J. Give the exact use of each in the sentence.

1. Old Fezzi wig's face was wreathed with benevolent
smiles.

2. The round earth moves smoothly on its way.

3. These dangerous savages came near.

4. Rude noises came from the forest in the rear.

5. Many people do not hesitate to say harmful things.

6. Sydney Carton is one of the finest characters in
literature.

7. A singular verb should be used with the name of
the United States, because these separate states form one
union.

8. Modern Europe is on friendly terms with the Ameri-
cans.

9. The large window was entirely shattered by the ex-
plosion.

25fi An English Grmnmar

lo. Cloudy weather has a dampening effect upon the
spirits.

Notice the adjectives which Hazvthorne uses in
the extract from "My Visit to Niagara," on page
68. See if you can find one of each class of adjec-
tives in tJic selection. IVJiicJi occurs most fre-
quent lyf

Work in Composition

Narration
YOUNG LOCHINVAR

O Young Lochinvar has come out of the West,

Through all the wide Border his steed was the best ;

And save his good broadsword he weapon had none,

He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone.

So faithful in love and so dauntless in war.

There never was knight like the young Lochinvar !

He stayed not for brake, and he stopped not for stone,

He swam the Esk River where ford there was none ;

But ere he alighted at Netherby gate,

The bride had consented, the gallant came late :

For a laggard in love, and a dastard in war

Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Eochinvar.

So boldly he entered the Netherby Hall,

'Mong bridesmen, and kinsmen, and brothers, and all.

Then spake the bride's father, his hand on his sword, —

For the poor craven bridegroom said never a word, —

" O, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war.

Or to dance at our bridal, voung Lord Lochinvar?"

The Adjective 259

" I long- wooed }Our daughter, mv suit you denied :
Love swells like the Solway, but ebbs like its tide !
And now I am come, with this lost love of mine.
To lead but one measure, drink one cuj) of wine !
There be maidens in Scotland more lovely by far.
That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar."

The bride kissed the goblet : the knight took it up,
He quafifed off the wine and he threw down the cup !
She" looked down to blush and she looked up to sigh.
With a smile on her lips and a tear in her eye.
He took her soft hand, ere her mother could bar, —
"Now tread we a measure."' said young Lochinvar!

So stately his form, and so lovely her face.

That never a hall such a galliard did grace.

While lier mother did fret and her father did fume.

And the bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and plume.

And the bride-maidens whispered, " 'Twere better by far

To have matched our fair cousin with \oung Lochinvar."

One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear.

When they reached the hall door, and the charger stood

near.
So light to the croupe the fair lady he swung,
So light to the saddle before her he sprung,
" She is won ! we are gone, over bank, bush, and scaur ;
They'll have fleet steeds that follow ! " quoth young Loch-
invar.

There was mounting 'mong (iraemes of the Xetherby clan,
Fosters. Fenwicks and Musgraves, the\- rode and thev ran :
There was racing and chasing o'er Cannobie Lea,
rhit the lost bride of Netherbv ne'er did thev see !

2<»0 An English Grauiinar

So darin.q- in \o\w anrl so dauntless in war,
Have yc e'er heard of ,!,^allant like young Lochinvar?

— Sir Walter Scott.

I.

Read " J.ochinvar."

In wliaf difficulty does Lochiuvai' find himself F
Hozv does lie extricate himself from his difficultv
and win his f>ri,veF

Write the story of I^ochinvar's adventure as lie
might tell it himself, as his bride might tell if, as
the " poor crazrn bridegroom " or as one of tJie par-
ents might tell it. Be careful to keep your paper in
the first person throughout. For study of person
see page 200.

The purpose of story telling (narration) is to
show how certain lines of action lead to certain re-
sults.

//.

What scenes ivould you select as suitable for il-
lustrations of the poem? What titles ivould vou
give these illustrations F

Write a description of your favorite scene in the
poem of "Lochinvar," zvhich could be used by an
artist from which to illustrate the poem.

Read your Paper. Have you made your picture
so clear and definite that you yourself cotdd draw iff

The Adjective 261

What ditferencc do you find in tJie cJiaracters of
Lochinvar and his riz'alf JVIiat proofs can you find
for your opinions^

Write a comparison of the tzvo men. Let your
introduction he a statement of tlieir differences and
the follozving paragraphs a statement of hoiv these
differences iverc sJwwn.

IV.

U^rite a rez'iew of " Locliinvar." Let ^he first
paragraph characteri::e the poem, tlie second tell
about the chief characters, tlie tliird tell the stoi-y
briefly, in the third person, present tense, the fourth
describe your faz'orite scene and the fftJi giz'C your
reasons for liking the poem.

Interest in Story Telling. Xotice how the
story of l.ochinvar shows a knii^'ht in a difficuU sit-
uation and then proceeds to teh how through his
1)ravery and daring lie extricates himself. Notice
that the outcome of the story is not disclosed until
near the end. This keeps one interested. Notice
how nnich the conversation adds to the interest and
helps to ])ortray the characters of the people.

Write original stories on one of the follozving
topics, getting somebody into and then out of a dif-
iiculty. Add to the interest of your story bv haz'-
ing the characters talk for thcmselres. For the

2^2 ,^ii English Gram mar

piuictuatiou of direct quofatious, sec page i/g, sec-
fioii 12 j.

Afloat on a Raft.

How Mother Found Out that Tim Had Been
Swimmin£>'.

A Strange Mishap.

Why the Game Was Put Ol|'.

Chapter XVII

VERBS

229. The Verb Defined. Tn the following sen-
tences notice the words which express the thought
relation :

1. It is good to be here.

2. To find fault is easy.

3. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.

4. The fire was burning on the hearth.

5. The truth gradually came out.

The words, is, laid, was, and came, expressing
the thought relations are verbs. A verb is a word
which expresses a thought relation; as, TJie sena-
tor wanted to amend the motion.

In the sentence, He had spoken well, the thought
relation is not expressed by one word, but by the
expression, had spoken. Most grammarians call
this expression, had spoken, a verb. It does express
the thought relation, but it is not a word. When
two or more words perform the office of a single
word in a sentence, we have called such a group of
words a phrase, and it now seems simpler and
easier to call all groups of words which express
thought relations verb phrases instead of verbs.

[263!

204 An English Grammar

230. Principal Parts of Verbs. Study the
verbs and verb phrases in the following sentences :

1. The sun is ninety-two million miles away.

2. The soldier was without food for three days.

3. Tom Brown has heen in many escapades.

4. The general gave his order in a very loud tone.

5. The sun gives light and heat.

6. Leland Stanford has given a great deal of money to
found a university at Palo Alto.

The verbs, is, was, been, are not different verbs,
but only different forms of the same verb. This
is also true of the forms, give, gave, and given.
No matter whether we wish to express thought in
present time, past time or future time, to express
completed action, or incompleted action; or, indeed,
to express any shade or phase of thought whatever,
we must use some one of these three forms of the
verb. We call the three forms here illustrated in
these two verbs the principal parts of the verb.
The principal parts of a verb are those parts
which are necessary to express all shades of
meaning and phases of thought in sentences; as,
ride, rode, ridden.

231. Names of Principal Parts. You v^ill no-
tice that the form, is, or gives, expresses a thought
relation as a fact in the present time. We call this
form the present indicative.

On the other hand, zvas or ^^ave are used to

Verbs 265

express thought relations as a fact in past time.
We call this form the past indicative.

The forms, been and given, are always em-
ployed to express the thought when two periods of
time are used in locating the thought relation. We
call this the past or perfect participle.

232. Present Indicative Defined. The present
indicative is that principal part of a verb which
expresses a thought relation as a fact in the pres-
ent time; as, Tlie sun shines.

233. Past Indicative Defined. The past in-
dicative is that principal part of the verb which
expresses a thought relation as a fact in past
time; as, TJie man rode rapidly.

234. Past Participle, or Perfect Participle De-
fined. The past or perfect participle is that prin-
cipal part of the verb which is always used with
an auxiliary to express a thought relation, as a
fact, in a period of time beginning in the past, ex-
tending up to and including the moment of speak-
ing; as. She has sung her song.

For all practical purposes it is accurate enough
to say that the present indicative is that form of the
verb which expresses a thought relation in the
present time; the past indicative is that form
of the verb which expresses a thought relation in
past time; and the past or perfect participle is
that form of the verb which we use with such words
as has, have, had, and the forms of the word, be.

266 An English Grammar

&•

Exercise 8i

In the follozviiig sentences point out the verbs
and give their principal parts:

1. The minister frequently quotes from the Tahnud.

2. Not to know me argues yourself unknown.

3. The tree fell across the road.

4. The child merely wants his rights.

5. Sleep is refreshing.

6. The boy can swim like a duck.

7. The wind blew fiercely.

8. The task wearied the class.

9. The sun shines through the window.
10. He rose at break of day.

235. Classes of Verbs. Study the verbs in the
following sentences :

1. The tree is old.

2. The rain falls in torrents.

It is easy to see from our work with the classes
of words that the verb, is, in the first sentence ex-
presses only the thought relation; while the verb,
falls, expresses the thought relation and an attribute
of the object of thought, rain. This difference in
the meaning or kind of idea expressed by verbs gives
us two classes; pure and attributive.

236. Pure Verb Defined. A pure verb is a
verb that expresses only the thought relation; as,

The boy is tall.

237. Attributive Verb Defined. An attribu-
tive verb is a verb which expresses an attribute of

Verbs 267

an object of thought and also a thought relation ;
as, The boy studies diligently.

238. Classes of Attributive Verbs. Study tlie
verbs in the following sentences, classify them on
the basis of the kind of idea expressed, and note the
nature of the attribute expressed by the attributive
verl)s:

1. James struck the ball.

2. The flowers bloom.

You will notice that the attribute expressed Iw
the word, stritek, is put forth by the object of
thought expressed by the word, James, and that it
passes over to or goes out to or affects the object
of thought expressed by the word, ball. In other
words, the object of thought expressed by the word,
ball, received the attribute expressed by the word,
struck. Tlie attribute expressed by this verb is of
such a nature that it requires an object of thought
upon which it may terminate. We cannot think
of striking without striking something, or selling
without selling something, or buying without buy-
ing something'.

Now tlie attribute expressed 1)}' the verb, bloom,
in the second sentence is not of such a nature as to
require an object of thouglit upon which it may
terminate. The attriljulc docs not go out from the
thought subject to some other object of thought.
When we think of blooming, we do not think of
blooming anything, or when we think of walking

268 An English Grammar

we do not think of zvaiking anything, or when we
think of talkmg we do not think of talking anything.
The attributes expressed by these verbs are dififer-
ent in their nature. This makes us call the at-
tributive verb, struck, a transitive verb, and the
attributive verb, bloom, an intransitive verb.

239. Transitive Verb Defined. A transitive
verb is an attributive verb which expresses an at-
tribute of such a nature as to require an object of
thought upon which it may terminate; as, The
boy brought Jiis htncJi.

It is not necessary that this object of thought
upon which the attribute terminates be expressed.
We may have a transitive verb which does not take
a direct objective modifier; as, / will buy zvith yon.

240. Intransitive Verb Defined. An intransi-
tive verb is an attributive verb which expresses an
attribute of such a nature as to require no object
of thought upon which it may terminate; as, He
travels by rail.

Exercise 82

In the following sentences point out the verbs,
classifying them on the basis of the kind of idea
expressed, and then classify the attributive verbs as
transitive or intransitive:

1. Hitch your wagon to a star.

2. Fulton invented the steamboat.

3. The robin picked up the crumbs after hopping in at
the window.

Verbs 269

4. We heard a higlily instructive lecture.

5. We walked along the fragrant lanes.

6. We talked of pleasant times in olden da}s.

7. We journeyed through the iields together.

8. John Anderson, my jo, John,
We clamb the hills together ;
And mony a canty day, John,
We've had wi' ane anither :

Now we maun totter down, John,

But hand in hand we'll go ;

An' sleep thegither at the foot,

John Anderson, my jo. — Burns.

241. Classes of Verbs on the Basis of How
the Past Indicative and Perfect Participle are
Formed. Give the principal parts of the verbs in
the following sentences: Mary zvrote a letter. The
girl walked in the afternoon.

You will notice that the verb, ivalk, forms its
past indicative and perfect participle by adding ed
to the present indicative; as, walk, walked, walked.

In the sentence. We heard the rain, the verb,
heard, forms its past tense, and past or perfect par-
ticiple by adding d to the present indicative ; as, hear,
heard, heard.

The verb, zvrite, does not form its past indica-
tive and past or perfect participle by adding either
d or ed to the present indicative. In forming the
past indicative^'-and past or perfect participle of this
verb, there is an internal change in the word. This
difference in the wav in which verbs form their

270 All English Grammar

principal parts gives rise to two classes of . irbs :
regular and irregular.

242. Regular Verb Defined. A regular verb
is a verb which forms its past indicative and past
or perfect participle by adding d or ed to the pres-
ent indicative ; as, talk, talked, talked.

243. Irregular Verb Defined. An irregular
verb is a verb which does not form its past indica-
tive and past or perfect participle by adding d or
ed to the present indicative; as, ride, rode, ridden.

244. Irregular Verbs Difficult. The regular
verbs are as a rule easily mastered ; but the irregular
verbs must be carefully studied. You will need to
know two things concerning irregular verbs:

1. You must know their principal parts. These
nuist be thoroughly learned by practicing with
right forms. There is no way of reasoning out the
forms of irregular verbs; there is no principle
which will guide you in their formation. The prin-
cipal parts of irregular verbs, especially those in
common use, must simply be learned.

2. You nnist then learn to use the principal
parts of these verbs correctly. It is one thing to
know that the princi]:)al parts of the verb, cat, are
eat, ate, eaten, and quite another thing to know
when to use the forni, ate, and the fomi, eaten. \N&
may say, in general, that we use t^Bform, eat, or
the present indicative of the verb ^'^en we wish to
express an act in the present time; we use the

Verbs

271

form, ate, or the past indicative of any \Trb, when
we wish to express an act in the past time; and
we use the form, eaten, or the past or perfect parti-
ciple of any verb with an auxih'ary to express an
act occurring in a period of time beginning in the
past and continuing up to and including the present
time, or in other words, when we use it with such
words as has, have, or any such word which is used
with the past or perfect participle to form a verb
phrase. This, however, is only a general principle
which will in part guide us in the use of the prin-
cipal parts of verbs.

Exercise 83

The follozuiiig is a list of tJie principal parts of
the most important irregular verbs. Use these
again and again in sentences until you are sure you
knozv then.

Present

Past

Past or Peri-ect Par'

begin

began

begun

burst

burst

burst

blow

blev^

blown

break

broke

broken

come

came

come

do

did

done

drive

drove

driven

eat

ate

eaten

fly

flew

flown

freeze

froze

frozen

forget

forgot

forgotten

get

got

got or gotten

give

gave

given

OTO

An English Grammar

Present

. Past

Past

OR Perfi£ct Participle

go

went

gone

know

kni'w

known

lay (to

place)

laid

laid

lie (to

recline)

lay

lain

prove

proved

proved

fnot proven)

know

knew

known

ride

rode

ridden

rise

rose

risen

run

ran

run

see

saw

seen

set (to

put, or

set

set

to

place)

sit (to

rest)

sat

sat

shake

shook

shaken

show

showed

shown,

showed

speak

spoke'

spoken

slay

slew

slain

steal

stole

stolen

take

took

taken

draw

drew

drawn

wake

waked,

woke

waked.

woke

Note: Some of these verbs have other forms in the past or
perfect participle, but they are old or not in good usage. These
are the forms which should be fixed.

Exercise 84

The following is a list of the principal parts of
irregular verbs not in quite such common use as
those in the preceding list. They should, however,
be thoroughly mastered.

In some cases regular verbs have been put into
the list because tJiey have old irregular forms which

Verbs

273

arc not

nozv use

^d, or because

they arc sometimes

confused

' zvifh irregular verbs.

Present

Past Past (

3R Perfect Participle

abjde

abode

abode

awake

awoke

awaked • 'S:^/-»'t«-

bear (bring forth)

bore

born

bear (can

-y)

bore

borne

Jjeat ^

beat

beaten

--^nd

bent

bent

bereave

bereft

bereft, bereaved

beseech

besought

besought

bet

bet

bet

bid (comuiand)

bade

bidden

bid (offer money)

bid

bid

bind

bound

bound

bite

bit

bitten

bleed

bled

bled

bjend

blended

blended, blent

BreeTt

bred

bred

bring

brought

brought

build^

built

built. IwtWecT

buy"

bought

bought

rc\T\

could
cast

cast

cast

catch

caught

caught

chide

chid

chidden

choose

chose

chosen

cleave (to

adhere)

cleaved

cleaved

cleave (to

split)

clove, cleft

cleft, cloven

cling

clung

clung

clothe

clothed, clad

clothed, clad

-e-e^r- ^

cost

cost

cost

creep

crept

crept

crow

crowed, crew

crowed

cut

cut

cut

274

An English Grammar

Present

Past Past ok Perfect Participle

d.--^

^.-^ream

dared, durst
dug, digged
dreamed, dreamt

dared

dug, digged

dreamed, dreamt

drink
"dweir

drank
dwelt

drunk
dwelt

dress

dressed, drest

dressed, drest

,4raw

drew

. drawn

^all

fell

fallen

feed

fed

fed

feel

felt

felt

fight
find

fought
found

fought
found

fiee

fled .

fled

fling

flung
flew

flung
flown

/^ forsake

forsook

forsaken

freeze

froze

frozen

^ freight

freighted

freighted, fraught

yforbear

.-■^get'

forbore

forborne

got

gjidedrgilt
-g4ftlTed, "gill

got

gtWedr-^

gipdedy-gtrt

^grind

gave
ground

given
ground

grow

grew

grown

hang (to suspend)
hang (to execute)
; have
lieave

hung

hanged

had

hung

hanged

had

liove, heaved

hove, heaved

^ide

hid

hidden

^ hold

held

held

Tiit

hit

hit

liurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

Verbs

275

Present
kneel

^.

knit

-fifi

lade

^ight

Past Past or Perfect Participle

knelt, kneeled
knitted, knit
laden
lighted, lit

knelt, kneeled
knitted, knit
laded
lighted,

lit

/>rplose
1 ^\make

lost

lost

made

made

may

might

mean

meant

meant

meet

met

met

mot''

.ft41-oll1-

pay

paid

paid

^' JD lit

put

])Ut

quit

quitted.

quit

quitted, quit

read

read

read

-Feave

r-eft. reaved

ueft. reaved •

jr^fTtr

F€«^ed.

rerrt

i-"endetl. rerrt-

;. ri^

rid

rid

^^^^ive

rived

riven, rived

say

said

said

seek

sought

sought

^sefjite (intransitive 1 <?eethed

seethed

/

seethed,

sod

seethed, sodden

sell

sold

sold

shed

shed

shed

shoe

shod

shod

shme

shone

shone

shred

shredded, shred

shredded, shred

shrink

shrank

shrunk

shrive

shrove

shriven

slay

shot
slew

shot
slain

sing

sang

sung

270

An English Graiinnar

PuiiSENT

- sink

' ' sleep

smell

slide

sling

smite
se\v

"^spfe^d
speed
spell
spend
spill
spin
spjt
• split

n 'spring*

stand

/>(> ' r

stay
swear
s^ick
sting
strow
stride
strike
string
,striye
'^ sweat,
swell
swing
^ swim
te' tear

^>

Past

Past

OR Perfect Participle

sank

sunk

slept

slept

smelt

smelt

slid

slid, slidden

slung

slung

slunk

slunk

smote

' smitten

sewed

sewed

spread

spread

sped

sped

spelled,

spelt

spelled, spelt

spent

spent

spilled.

spilt

spilled, spilt

spun

spun

spit

spit

split

split

spoiled,

spoilt

spoiled, spoilt

sprang

sprung

stood

stood

staved,

stove

staved, stove

stayed,

staid

stayed, staid

swore

swore

stuck

stuck

stung

stung

strew

strewn

strode

stridden

struck

struck, stricken

strung

strung

strove

striven

sweat

sweat

swelled

swelled, swollen

swung

swung

swam

swum

tore

torn

Verbs

277

A^ Present

Past

Past or Perfect Participle

'Veil

told

told

\teach

taught

taught

think

thought

thought

tj^mr

tl«=e>Ye

thrived, throve;

thrust

thrust

thrust [thriven

thread

tlireaded

threaded

tread

trod

trodden

wiBeed^

wax€d7-"vvan^5rT

wear

wore

worn

wea|ve

wove

woven

weep

wept

wept

wend

wended

wended

wet

wet

wet

will

would

win

won

won

wind

wound

wound

wcine:

wrung

wrung

Note: ^^any verbs which used to fonn their principal parts ir-
regularl}' have now regular forms and the tendency in modern
English is to use the regular forms of irregular verbs rather than
the old irregular forms ; as,

proved is better than proven
knitted is bettor than knit
heaved is belter than hoz>e
dived is better than dove

245. Devices for Fixing the Use of the Princi-
pal Parts of Irregular Verbs. All the devices pos-
sible should be utilized for fixing the uses of the
principal parts of irregular verbs. The following
exercises \\\\\ illustrate some of the devices that
may be employed :

Exercise 85

Be able to fill the follozuing blanks zvith any ap-

^^^ An English Grammar

propriate verb from the preceding list; omit the
zvord, it, from the formula when substituting an
intransitive verb:

1. I it now.

2. I it a week ago.

3. I have it lately.

4- He it now.

5- He a week ago.

6. He has it lately.

7. They may today.

8. They yesterday.

9. They had before \ou came.

Exercise 86

Fdl the following blanks zuith the proper forms
of speak and write:

1. She very well

2. You have too soon.

3. I should have sooner.

4- Have they to you?

5. Has James to you about it ?

6. Who said you had about it?

Exercise 87

Fdl the follozving blanks with the proper forms
of do:

I- I as I was told.

2. My work is .

3. Who the mischief?

4. The boy has his work well.

5. Who said I that?

6. Sarah it iiersclf.

7. Mary her example.

Verbs 279

Exercise 88

Insert ill these blanks the proper forms of the
verb, choose:

1. I the blue pencil.

2. Americans freedom of thought.

3. I to go ashore.

4. Henry was first.

5. My sister herself the goods.

6. He should have been .

7. Will you first?

Exercise 89

Fill these blanks with the proper forms of the
verbs, raise and rise:

1. He from the chair.

2. I have as early as five.

3. He that would thrive must by five.

4. Have you the window?

5. Have you from your chair?

6. What makes the bread ?

7. Yeast the bread.

8. The sun at six.

9. The river has a great deal.

10. I saw the sun this morning.

11. I cannot this window.

12. The sun at five this morning.

13. The sun has .

14. I wish you would from the floor.

Exercise 90

/;/ the foUozving sentences, fill the blanks with

^^^^ An English Grammar

the proper forms of the verbs, lie, lay, sit, teach,
learn, seem, appear, love, like:

1. The boy up straight.

2. I have up long- enough.

3- the lamp on the table and bv me.

4. James for his picture to-day.

5. I can my lesson.

6. Will you T- — — me to write? '

7. How long will it take you to me?

8. I cannot my lesson.

9. Will you me to skate ?

10. Do not ask me to you.

11. You will not me to swim.

12. He down to rest.

13. He the book down.

14. He had down to rest.

15. He had the book down.

16. I will down to rest.

17. I will my pen down.

18. A man is on the porch.

19. James is out tomato plants.

20. The sun is just .

21. I am still.

22. She is near the window.

2T,. The sun looks red.

24. Belle is under a tree in the yard.

25. She is to be satisfied.

26. The dress to be new.

27. The day fine.

28. Did she to be contented?

29. It to be red.

30. How did he to be?

31. The man to be well pleased.

2)2. I hope you will well.

Verbs 2!S1

33. I can well if I wish to.

34. The storm to be passing over.

35. The sun between the clouds.

36. I my brother.

37. The boy his sister.

38. Do you oranges?

39. The child its parents.

40. I his appearance very much.

41. Do you amusements?

42. They Nat Goodwin.

Exercise 91

Other devices requiring the pupils to use the
different forms of irregular verbs in sentences
should be inz'Cnted ; as, The teacher rising from her
chair, may say:

"What do I do, Kate?
Kate: "You rise from your chair."
Teacher: "What did I do, Tom?"
Tom: "You rose from your chair."
Teacher: "What have I done, Ned?"
Ned: "You have risen from your chair."

The teacher then breaks a piece of chalk, or
zvrites on the board, or cJwoscs a book, or speaks
loudly, and asks the same questions. The exercise
may be continued at zvill.

*246. Classes of Verbs on Basis of Peculiari-
ties. \A\^ have now cla.ssificd verbs on the basis
of the kind of idea expressed by them and on the ba-
sis of how they form iheir past indicative and past

* NoTK : F'npils ncfd not dwell npi>ii Section .z^C).

282 An English Grammar

or perfect participle. We are now to see that there
are certain other classes of verbs on the basis of
peculiar attributes. These are not really logical
divisions because the classes into which we divide
the verbs do not include all verbs. The division
into these classes, however, helps to emphasize cer-
tain essential attributes of these verbs.

Examine the verbs in the follozving sentences.
Classify these verbs on the bases previously worked
out and then notice hozv they differ from the classes
of verbs on these bases:

1. It rains.

2. Let US live tlie life of the righteous.

3. He dreams of me.

4. One ought to do his best.

5. The child hurt himself.

6. The fairies made the poor hut a palace.

7. I can follow the reasoning.

a. In the first sentence, the verb, rains, has the
word, it, for its subject. If we are asked what the
word, it, means in this sentence, it is difficult to tell.
We may mean the cloud rains or nature rains, it is
indefinite. A verb which has a subject like this is
called an impersonal or unipersonal verb.

b. In the second sentence, the verb, live, takes the
direct objective modifier, the life of the righteous.
The principal word of this direct objective modifier,
life expresses an abstract object of thought which
is formed from the attribute expressed by the verb.
live. Such a verb is called a cognate verb, and the

Verbs 283

expression, the life of the righteous, in this sen-
tence may be called a cognate direct objective
modifier.

c. In the third sentence the verb, dreams, has
more than one form for its past indicative and past
or perfect participle. The principal parts are:
dreaui, dreamed or dreamt, dreamed or dreamt. We
call such a verb a redundant verb.

d. In the fourth sentence, the verb, ought, has
only one of the princi])al parts ; namely, the present
indicative. The past indicative and the past or per-
fect participle are wanting. A\'e call such a verb a
defective verb.

e. In the fifth sentence, the verb, hurt, takes a
direct objective modifier, the expression, himself,
which expresses the same object of thought as the
subject of the verb. Such a verb is called a re-
flexive verb.

f. In the sixth sentence, the verb, made, is modi-
fied by a direct objective modifier, the poor hut a
palace. The principal word in the direct objective
modifier, hiit, is modified by the expression, a pal-
ace, an appositive modifier, and this expression at
ihe same time supplements the meaning of the verb,
made. This kind of verb we call a factitive or
causative verb. The direct objective modifier in
such cases ma\' be called a factitive direct ob-
jective modifier.

0-. In the seventh sentence, the verb, can, does
not express the thought relation in itself. It sim-

284 An English Gramma?

l)ly helps the verb, follozv, to express the thought
relation. A verb which does this we call an aux-
iliary verb.

247. Impersonal or Unipersonal Verb De-
fined. An impersonal or unipersonal verb is a
verb v^hich has for its subject the pronoun, itt
when it expresses no definite object of thought,
but only helps to show that some action or proc-
ess is going on; as, It lightened as it seemed to me.

248. Cognate Verb Defined. A cognate verb
is a verb which takes a direct objective modifier,
the abstract object of thought expressed by which
is formed from the attribute expressed by the
verb; as, He prayed a prayer for deliverance.

249. Redundant Verb Defined. A redundant
verb is a verb which has more than one form for
some one or more of its principal parts; as, This
boy forsook his mother.

250. Defective Verb Defined. A defective
verb is a verb which is wanting in some one or
more of its principal parts; as, So mote it he.
Many of the auxiliary verbs are defective.

251. Reflexive Verb Defined. A reflexive verb
is a verb which takes a direct objective modifier,
the object of thought expressed by which is iden-
tical with the thought subject; as, / hurt myself.

252. Factitive or Causative Verb Defined. A
factitive or causative verb is a verb the meaning
of which is supplemented by some expression in

Verbs 285

its direct objective modifier; as. They made tlic
zvalk lei'cl.

The word, level, in the direct objective modifier
supplements the meaning- of the verb, made.

253. Auxiliary Verb Defined. An auxiliary
verb is a verb which helps another verb to ex-
press a thought relation; as. / will assist you.

Exercise 92

In the foUowiii<i sentences point nut the verbs
and classify them on the basis of

1. Kind of idea expressed.

2. Hoiv they form their past indicati-c'c and past
or perfect participle.

?. Find one example of each kind of verb on the
basis of their peculiarity.

1. "It snows!" cries the schoolbo}-.

2. It rains the livelong cla\', and mournful is the house.

3. They die the death of the righteous.

4. I have fought a good fight ; I have finished the
faith. .

5. He blew a blast ujjon tlic winding horn.

6. I will run as far as God has any ground.

7. You call me unbeliever, cut-throat, dog.
And spit upon my Jewish gaberdine.

And all for use of that which is mine own.

— Shalzespearc.

8. I will buy with you, sell with }Ou, talk with you,
walk with you, and so following, but I will not eat with you.
drink with you, nor pray with you. — Shatzespcarc.

9. If T forget thee, O Jerusalem, let m\- right hanrl
forget her cunning.

2S6 An English Grammar

10. I will never leave thee, nor forsake thee.

11. I may nc\cr see you again.

12. I may neither choose whom 1 would nor refuse
whom I dislike. — Shakespeare.

13. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot choose one
nor refuse none? — Shakespeare.

14. " By my troth," quoth he, " you're a bold man."

15. It must not be.

16. One ought to love his neighbor as himself.

17. Every one ow'es himself an education.

18. He forces himself to be generous.

19. The cargo made the boat sink.

20. The traveler walked himself weary.

21. The singer sang her throat hoarse.

22. The lightning struck him dead.

23. He has told the story many times.

24. This above all : to thine own self be true,
And it must follow, as the night the day.
Thou canst not then be false to any man.

— Shakespeare.

25. Child, thou wilt not leave thy mother so?

26. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy
neighbor.

27. We do reject the offer.

28. What should such fellows as 1 do crawling be'tween
earth and heaven ? — Shakespeare.

29. He does confess he feels himself distracted ;

But from what cause, he will by no means speak.

— Shakespeare.
Exercise 93

The words, may and can, are often confused.
The word, may, expresses permission or possibiHty.
The word, can, expresses power or abiHty. He may
take my book, means I give him permission to take

Verbs 287

my book. He can fake my book, means he has the
power or authority or abiHty to take my book.

Fill the follozving blanks with the auxiliaries,
may or can :

1 . I ask a question ?

2. I start yet to-night.

3. Please, I take your book?

4. The boy — do better work.

- 5. How far you ride?

6. The eagle carry off a child.

7. you see where you are going?

8. You take a walk.

9. '■ — stars be suns?

10. How you bear to leave?

11. How we know them?

1 2. Where w c meet you ?

13. The child walk.

14. The pu])il solve the ])roblem.

15. You — draw pictures.

16. Where the good he olitained?

254. Uses of Shall and Will. Tlic auxiliaries,
shall and zvill, arc also often used incorrectly. We
may say, in p^eneral, that we use the auxiliary, shall,
with the (irst person and zvill with the second and
third persons to denote simple futurity; as. / shall
be there. Yon zvill be there. He zvill be there. We
use the auxiliary, zvill, with the first ])erson and the
auxiliary, shall, with the second and third persons,
to denote futurity accompanied by determination on
the part of the speaker; as, / zvill go, You shall go,
He shall go.

^■'^S An English Grammar

It pupils will hold in mind lliis one ]:)rinciple
with regard to shall and zuill,, most of the errors
in the use of these words in principal clauses may be
avoided.

Exercise 94

Fill the followini^ blanks ivifhtJie proper forms
of shall or will :

1. He speak in the evening.

2. you go with us?

3. You have your own way.

4. We go in spite of you.

5. We vote early.

7. They go, if they can.

8. She not be allowed to go home alone.

9. You have gone before we arrive.

10. We be avenged.

11. If you see him, you find him busy.

12. you dine with us to-morrow?

13. I read awhile.

14. I see him?

15. I read to you?

16. You have your money to-morrow.

17. He be punished for it.

18. I be happy to accept.

19. I die ere I obey him.

255, Mode. Tn the following sentences notice
the relation between the thought expressed by the
sentence and the fact or real relation in the external
world, that is, notice :

I. Whether the thought expressed by the sen-

Verbs 289

tence corresponds to a reality or fact in the external
world ;

2. Whether there is some doubt in the mind con-
cerning- whether it corresponds to a fact or reality
or not;

3. AMiether the thought is a mere supposition
and there is no fact or reality in the external world
corresponding- to it ;

4. Finally, whether the thought in the mind cor-
responds to the fact or reality in the external world
on account of necessity in external circumstances or
will outside of that of the actor :

1. We visited the exposition.

2. If the bird finds the crumbs, it will eat them.

3. If my father were here, it would be different.

4. Bring me the book.

5. You must study your lesson.

6. The answer must be wrong.

In the first sentence, it is easy to see that the re-
lation expressed by the verb, visited, corresponds to
an actual relation in the external world or the
thought expressed by the sentence corresponds to a
fact in the external world. This relation between
the thought expressed by the sentence and the fact
in the .external world gives rise to that property of
the verb which we call mode.

The mind is not sure whether the thought ex-
pressed by the clause, // the bird finds the crumbs,
in the second sentence, corresponds to a fact in the
external world or not. The bird mav find the crumbs

290 An English Grammar

or it may not find the crumbs and the mind is in
doubt as to which relation will exist. The relation
between the thought expressed by the clause, // my
father iverc here, and the fact in the external world
is not in doubt. The thought expressed by this
clause does not correspond to a fact in the external
world and the mind knows it. We may say that the
thought is a mere supposition and there is no fact
in the external world corresponding to it. It is the
same as if we said, Suppose my father zvere here, or
Let us imagine that my father is here.

The thought expressed by the fourth sentence,
Bring me the book, corresponds to a fact in the ex-
ternal world on account of will power outside of
the actor. When one person says to another, Bring
me the book, he means that his will is to be exerted
upon the other to have that act performed. The
same is true in the fifth sentence, You must study.
The person who uses this sentence means that his
will is to be exerted upon the person addressed in
order to have this act performed. The sentence,
The anszver must be wrong, is slightly dififerent
from the last two. We mean when we use this ex-
pression that conditions or external circumstances
are such that the answer could not possibly be any-
thing but wrong. It is wrong on account of neces-
sity in external circumstances.

256. Mode Defined. Mode is that property
of the verb which shows the relation between the

Verbs 291

thought expressed by the sentence or clause and
the fact in the external world.

257. The Three Modes. In Section 261. we
have seen that four relations may exist between
the thoutrht expressed by tlie sentence and the fact
or reality in the external world:

1. The thoiio-ht expressed by the sentence may
correspond to a reality or fact in the external world
and the mind may know it : as Franklin was a phil-
osopJwr.

2. The tbought expressed by the sentence may
or may not correspond to a reahty or fact in the
external world and the mind may be in doubt about
it; that is. tbere is a doubtful mind concerning an
actual relation; as, // it be raining, I must remain.

3. Tbe thought expressed by the sentence may
be merely a supposition and there may be no reality
or fact in the external world corresponding to it
and the mind may know it; as. If wc were wealthy,
zve could enjoy many pleasures.

4. The thought expressed by the sentence may
correspond to a fact or reality in the external world
on account of will power outside of that of the actor
or necessity in external circumstances; as, Sing nie
a merry lay, m\ lads. Tht demonstration must be
true.

The first relation indicated here is expressed
!)}• the indicative; the second and third, by the
subjunctive; the fourth by the imperative.

202 An English Grammar

t,'

258. Indicative Mode Defined. The indica-
tive mode is that mode which shows that the
thought expressed by the sentence or clause cor-
responds to a fact or reality in the external world ;

as. iVapoIcoii was defeated at Waterloo.

259. Subjunctive Mode Defined. The sub-
junctive mode is that mode which shows that
there is some doubt in the mind as to whether the
thought expressed by the sentence or clause cor-
responds to a reality or fact in the external world,
or it shows that the thought expressed by the sen-
tence or clause is only a supposition and there is
no fact in the external world to correspond to it ;
as, // my brother be present, I can not find him. If
my brother were present, he zvould come to me.

260. Imperative Mode Defined. Imperative
mode is that mode which shows that the thought
expressed by the sentence or clause corresponds
to a reality or fact in the external world on ac-
count of necessity in external circumstances or
will power outside of that of the actor; as, Close
the door. The end must have come.

261. Potential Mode. Some grammarians
give four modes; namely, indicative, subjunctive,
potential, and imperative. There is no serious
ol)jection to this division, but it does not seem to be
necessary, as all relations between thoughts and real
relations in the external world may be classified un-
der the indicative, subjunctive and imperative. The

Verbs 2 'J 3

forms often called potential mode may be classed
easily under the other three.

262. Uses of Indicative Mode. The indicative
mode is b}- far the most common form of the verb
because it expresses a fact, or what the- mind
thinks to be a fact. It is also used in asking ques-
tions of fact. We must not get the idea that every
sentence which expresses a dotibt or thought con-
trary to the fact is in the subjunctive mode. These
ideas are often expressed by other words than the
verb in the sentence. If we have the subjtinctive
mode the verb itself must express this idea of doubt
or uncertainty. In the sentence, Perhaps I shall go,
the mind is not sure of the thought, but the doubt is
expressed by the word, perhaps, and not by the
verb. In the sentence, My brother is not at home,
we have the idea of negation expressed, but it is ex-
pressed by the word, not, and not the verb.

263. Remains of Subjunctive Mode.

We have almost lost the subjunctive mode from the Eng-
lish language. John Earle, in his " English Prose, Its
Elements, History, and Usage," says. " Some people seem
to think that the subjunctive mode is as good as lost, that
it is doomed and that its retention is hopeless. * * * If
we lose the subjunctive verb, it will certainly be a grievous
impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its
value in giving variation to diction — and T make bold to
assert that the writer who helps to keep it up deserves public
gratitude."

However much we may regret the loss of the subjunctive
and however much we may wish to help to perpetuate its

:^i*-i An English Grammar

use, the fact remains that it is gradually passing out of gen-
eral use. Scarcely any modern English writer takes the
pains to say, // // rain, and // he come. Nearly every one
uses the indicative forms, //' it rains, and //" he comes, to
express the subjunctive meaning.

It is perfectly natural that the subjunctive mode should
pass from the English language because there are so few
strictly subjunctive forms in the English language. The
verb, be, has the. most subjunctive forms. The following
table will illustrate the difference between the indicative and
subjunctive forms of the verb, be:

Present

Past

Ind.

Sub.

Ind.

Sub.

I am

If I be

1 was

If I were

Thou art

If thou be

Thou wast

If thou wert

He is

If he be

He was

If he were

We are

If we be

We were

If we were

You are

If you be

You were

If you were

They are

If they be

They were

If they were

Here are nine forms of the subjunctive which differ from
the indicative. All the other forms of the verb, be, are the
same in the indicative and the subjunctive. This is the sum
and substance of the subjunctive mode forms in the English
language. This much of it should certainly be preserved, but
it is useless to try to keep up the distinction with attributive
verbs because there are only two separate subjunctive forms
among attributive verbs. The second and third person sin-
gular have no personal endings in the subjunctive, as the
followino- table will show :

Present

Past

Ind.

Sub.

Ind. Sub.

I write

If I write

I wrote If I wrote

Thou writest

If thou icrite

Thou wrotest If thou wrote

He writes

If he zvrite

He wrote If he wrote

Sometimes the subjunctive meaning is expressed by
means of auxiliaries forming with the principal part of the
verl:) a verb nhrase ; as.

Verbs 295

r. Help me so to live that I may honor thee.

2. I wish that you may prosper.

3. I was afraid lest he might fall.

4. It would be better if he should come now.

We must not get the idea, however, that every verb
phrase which contains the word, )}iay, would, should, and so
on, is subjunctive mode. These same auxiUaries may be
used in verb phrases when the thought expressed by the
sentence corresponds to a fact or reahty in the external
world ; as,

T. I may take his book.

2. You should have your lesson.

3. The boy zvould not obey the teacher.

264. Uses of Subjunctive Mode. The sub-
junctive mode is almost the opposite of the in-
dicative. The indicative is the fact mode; it ex-
presses what is. The subjunctive is the mode of
uncertainty or doubt in the speaker's mind. The
most common ideas expressed by the verb in the
subjunctive mode may be summed up as follows:

1. Supposition contrary to the fact or which the
mind knows to be untrue or unlikely ; as, // you were
ill his place, you would not disappoint us.

2. A conclusion which is based upon one of these
suppositions contrary to the fact; as, // my mother
had known about the affair, .s7/(7 would have been
uneasy.

3. The idea of possibiHty; as, / hoped that he
might reach the city in time.

4. The idea of purpose ; as, Help inc to knoiv thy
way that I may walk in the light.

5. A wish; as, Oh that my fatJicr were here!

296 An English Grammar

6. Prayer or supplication; as, May tJiy will be
done oil earth as it is in heaven.

Note: The subjunctive mode has other uses in subordinate
clauses, especially conditional clauses, but it is thought best not to
go into detail with children in the grades.

265. Suggestions on the Imperative Mode.

The imperative mode expresses commands, entreat-
ies, or admonitions addressed to the person spoken
to. It is therefore used only in the second person
and the root form of the verb is used in both singu-
lar and plural number ; as, Be industrious. Have no
fear.

It may be distinguished from the present indica-
tive, as a rule, by the fact that the subject is usually
omitted; as, Bring me the hook.

Wishes concerning persons or things spoken of
are in the subjunctive mode; as. Long live the King.
May he have a safe voyage.

These are not commands or entreaties addressed
to the person spoken to and must not be confused
with imperative forms.

The verb, let, is usually in the imperative mode ;
as, Let thy conduct be beyond reproach. Let not
ambition mock their use fid toil. Let us be glad.
Let us conquer or die.

But the verb, let, may be in the indicative mode;
as, The child let the bird escape. The boy did not
let the man punish his dog.

Verbs 297

Exercise 95

In the following sentences point out the verbs
and explain the mode of each, giving your reasons:

1. I can see the towers of London.

2. Here the spriiii^- of fresh water bubbles from the rock.

3. The mill will never grind with the water that is past.

4. The pen is mightier than the sword.

5. His work, in many respects, is very imperfect.

6. Slovenliness and indelicacy of character generally
go together.

7. When thy friend is denounced openly and boldly,
espouse his cause.

8. Plutarch calls lying the vice of slaves.

9. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern
what is just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report.

10. If he has been here, I have not seen him.

11. If he were here, I should like to meet him.

12. If thou hadst conquered, the world would have
mourned.

13. If thou be brave, I will conduct thee through this
wilderness.

14. Were it not for leaving thee, my child, I could die
happy.

15. He may study his lessons.

16. If thou hadst said him nay, it had been sin.

17. It must be true.

18. Give me your hand.

19. Let this spirit dominate my life.

20. Thou shalt not steal.

21. Turn, gentle shepherd, rest awhile upon this mossy
bank.

22. My soul to-day is far away,
Sailing the Vesuvian bay.

^D

298 An English Grammar

23. If 't were done when "t is done, then 't were well,
It were done quickly. — Shakespeare.

24. Down, slave, behold the governor !
Down, Down ! and beg for mercy.
Be good sweet maid, and let who will be clever ;
Do noble things, not dream them all day long;
And so make life, death, and that vast forever
One grand sweet song. , — Kingsley.

26. Almost I am moved to laughter at that passion
Which once could sway and thrill me to the bone.
Terrible when we laugh at what we loved.

— Phillips.
2y. And he shall charm and smooth, and breathe and
bless,
The roaring of war shall cease upon the air.
Falling of tears and all the voices of sorrow.
And he shall take the terror from the grave.

—Phillips.

266. Tense. Study the verbs in the follozving
sentences:

1. The wind blows.

2. The wind blew.

3. The wind will blow.

4. The wind has blown.

5. The w^ind had blown.

The verb, bloivs, in the first sentence, expresses
the thoug-ht relation in present time. The verb,
blew, in the second sentence, expresses the thought
relation in the past lime. The verb phrase, will
blozv, in the third sentence, expresses the thought
relation in the future time. The verb phrase. Jias
blown, in the fourth sentence, expresses the thought

Verbs -299

relation in a period of time beginning in the past,
extending up to, and including the moment of
speaking. The verb phrase, had bloivn, in the fifth
sentence, expresses the thought relation in a period
of past time previous to another period of past time.
The verb phrase, will have blown, in the sixth sen-
tence, expresses a thought relation in a period of fu-
ture time previous to another period of future time.
This property of the verb here indicated we call
tense.

267. Tense Defined. Tense is that property
of the verb which shows us the period of time in
which the thought relation is located.

268. Classes of Tense, l-'rom Section j66 we
can see that the thought relation may be located
in any one of six periods of time. All time is
naturally divided into three general periods.

1. The time previous to the moment of speak-
ing is called past lime.

2. A certain indefinite period of time, sometimes
a moment, sometimes an hour, a day, a century, cen-
tering around the moment of speaking, we call the
present time.

3. Time which is to follow the present, we call
^he future. Bv the combination and division of
these general periods of time, we have the six
periods mentioned in Section 266. Some verbs
show that the thought relation is located in some
one of these three general periods of time. They

300

An English Grammar

use only one period of time in locating the
thought relation. We call the tenses of these
verbs absolute tenses.

\^ou will notice thai the verb phrases in Section
266 each use two periods of time in locating the
thought relation. The verb phrase, has blown, uses
the past and present; the verb phrase, had blown,
uses two periods of past time; the verb phrase, will
hair blcnvii, uses two periods of future time in lo-
cating the thought relation. These tenses which
employ, two periods of time in locating the time of
the thought relation, we call relative tenses.

The periods of time in which thought relations
mav be located by verbs or verb phrases may be in-
dicated as follows:

A period of time beginning in the past, extending up to, and
including the moment of speaking.

]

Past

Pre

sent

Future

<

X

X

X

A period of past time previous A period of future time prc-

to another period of past time. vious to another period of future

time.

269. Absolute Tense Defined. An absolute
tense is a tense that uses only one period of time

Verbs 301

in locating the thought relation in time; as, TJie
free fell to the ground.

270. Relative Tense Defined. A relative tense
is a tense which uses two periods of time in locat-
ing the time of the thought relation expressed by
the verb; as, He had come fo :'isif us.

271. Classes of Absolute Tenses. It is easy to
see from Section 268 that, since there are three
periods of time in which absolute tenses may lo-
cate thought relations, we must have three abso-
lute tenses. We call them present, past, and fu-
ture.

272. Present Tense Defined. The present
tense is that absolute tense which locates the
thought relation expressed by the verb in the
present time; as, TJie lambs play in the pasture.

273. Past Tense Defined. The past tense is
that absolute tense which locates the thought re-
lation expressed by the verb in past time; as,
The hoy fell from the horse.

274. Future Tense Defined. The future tense
is that absolute tense which locates the thought
relation expressed by the verb or verb phrase in
the future tim.e; as. My sister will visit us.

275. Classes of Relative Tense. We may also
see from Section 268 that any relative tense uses
two periods of time in indicating the time of the
thought relation. It uses the present and past, or

302 An English Grammar

_two periods of past time or two periods of future
time. This gives us three kinds of relative tenses.
\Ve call them present perfect, past perfect, and
future perfect.

276. The Present Perfect Tense Defined. The
present perfect tense is that relative tense which
locates the thought relation expressed by the verb
phrase in a period of time beginning in the past,
extending up to, and including the moment of
speaking; as He has invited iis freq^iently_^,

277. Past Perfect Tense Defined. The past
perfect tense is that relative tense which locates
the thought relation expressed by the verb phrase
in a period of past time previous to another pe-
riod of past time; as, JJ^e had recited ojtr lesson
by Jiooii time. "'^

278. Future Perfect Tense Defined. The fu-
ture perfect tense is that relative tense which lo-
cates the thought relation in a period of future
time previous to another period of future time;
as, / shall have started before you arrive.

Exercise 96

In the follozving sentences give the tense of each
verb or verb phrase and the reasons. Tell whether
the verb or verb phrase locates the thought relation
in the present time, past time, or future time; and
show Jiow many periods of time are used in locating
the thou gilt relation:

Verbs 303

1. The leaves tremble in the wind.

2. The sun is shining brightly.

3. Columbus discovered America in 1492.

4. We saw General Grant.

5. We shall attend the World's Fair.

6. He would stand still in the midst of silence and
beauty.

7. Feelest thou not, O world, the earthquake of his
chariot thundering up Olympus?

8. My sister was gathering flowers.

9. Be aye sticking in a tree, Jack ; it'll be growing
while ye're sleeping.

10. I have cautioned you frequently. _

11. Wilford had roused him to reply.

12. When I shall have brought them to the land, then
will they turn to other gods.

13. I have sung my song.

14. I had sung one song before you arrived^.

15. I shall have sung the song before you arrive.

16. By slow degrees the whole truth has come out.

17. Matilda had taken her accustomed place in the
window seat. "

18. I shall have seen all the wonders, when I write to
you.

19. Plans and elevations of their palace have been made
for them, and are now being engraved for the public.

20. How sleep the brave, who sink to rest
By all their country's wishes blessed.

Note: Pupils sliouid pass mrr tlie classes of tenses rapidly.

279. Uses of Tense Forms. The ])resent tense
forms do not always express thought relations in
present time nor do the past tense forms always ex-
press relations in past time. Sometimes the context
of the verb or verb phrase shows that the tense form

304 An English Grammar

of the verb or verl) ])hrase and the time of the
thought relation do not correspond:

1. The present tense form may have the foli^ow-
iNG uses :

a. To express a thought relation in present time ; as,
Tlic boy sees his dog.

This is the usual use of the present form.

b. To express, a universal thought relation true at all
times ; as. The earth is round.

I c. To express an habitual thought relation ; as, The man
-J sells goods.

d. To express a thought relation in future time ; as,
My sister visits her friends next zveek.

e. To express a thought relation which has existed in
the past or will exist in the future as if it were existing in
the present time ; as, They pack themselves into the small
room. Patrick Henry arises, trembling with agitation.
The words fall thick and fast from his lips. This is called
the historical present tense.

2. The past tense form may have the following
uses:

a. To express a thought relation in time wholly past;
as. The boy threw the stone into tJie pond.

This is the regular use of the past tense form.
j b. To express an habitual relation in past time ; as,
-' He taught in this school many years.

I c. To express a thought relation in the future time; as,
^ // he should be gone 7vhen yoii come, leave a message.

d. To express a thought relation in the present time ; as,
If my brother were present he zvonld join us.

3. The future tense form may have the following
uses:

a. To express a thought relation in future time; as,
The president will stop in our city.

Verbs 305

This is the regular use of the future tense form.
b. To express an habitual relation in the present time ;
as, Hr will sit here on the veranda by the hour.

4. The present perfect tense form may have the
following uses :

a. To express a thought relation in a period of time bt^
ginning in the past, extending up to and including the
moment of s])eaking ; as, 77//.s- tnan has written much that
IS excellent.

This is the regular use of the present perfect tense
form.

b. To express a thought relation in the future time ; as.
The man shall not depart until J have seen /;//;/. /^

5. The past perfect tense form may have the fol-
lowing use:

a. To express a thought relation in a period of past
time previous to another period of past time ; as. He had
recited his lesson before zve entered the room.

6. The future perfect tense form may have the
following use :

a. To express a thought relation in a period of future
time previous to another period of future time ; as, He will
have sung before zve arrive.

Exercise 97

Gk'e the tense form of each verb or verb phrase
in the following sentences. State the time in which
the thought relation is seen to exist:

1. He hears his daughter's voice.

2. Mgn is mortal.

3. The man travels for Hermand and Knox.

'^"♦^» An English Grammar

4. My brother goes to New York to-morrow on busi-
ness.

5. They cross the river ; they fire the town ; they form
under cover of the smoke; they advance up the hill; they
are driven back.

6. I can see the nation gathering her forces for the
mighty struggle ; they put forth one mighty effort and the
end comes.

7. The little birds sang gayly in the trees.

8. He li\ed in this little hamlet for many years.

9. If I should be there, you would be surprised.

10. If my sister were here she would enjoy the lecture.

11. The teachers will go to Denver the coming summer.

12. He will wander in the woods day after day.

13. Milton has given us Comus.

14. The hour shall not strike till T have gained my
point.

15. He had written a poem before this book appeared.

16. If I had walked rapidly, I should have overtaken
you.

17. At the close of this year, I shall have finished my
course.

18. The truth itself is not believed
From one who often has deceived.

19. The poor little hedgehog uncurled itself and dared
to breathe aloud.

20. " I am the princess of Saxe-Royal." she said to him,
with a benignant smile ; " and you have got through that
minuet very fairly.''

280. Voice. Notice in the following sen-
tences, whether the attribute expressed by the verb
is exerted by the thought subject and directed away

rcrbs 307

from it or is exerted by some other object of thought
and directed toward, exerted upon, or actually en-
dured by the thought subject:

1. The carpenter saws the board.

2. The board was sawed by the carpenter.

3. The farmer plows the field.

4. The field was plow^ed by the farmer.

a. In the first sentence the verb, sazvs, ex])resses
an attribute that is exerted or put forth by the
thought subject, fJw carpenter, and is directed
toward or exerted tipon the object of thotight, flic
board.

The same thing is true in the third sentence.
The attribute expressed by the verb, plows, is ex-
erted by the thought subject, fJic farmer, and is di-
rected away from it and exerted upon the object
of thought, fJie field.

b. In the second sentence tlie attribute expressed
by the verb phrase, zvas sawed, is not exerted by the
thought subject, tJie board. It is exerted by the ob-
ject of thought, the carpenter, and is directed
toward, exerted upon, or actually endured by the
thought subject, tJie board.

The same thing is true in the fourth sentence.
The attribttte expressed by the verb phrase, zuas
ploived, is not exerted by the thought subject, the
field, and directed away from it, but it is exerted by
the object of thought, the fanner, and directed
toward, exerted upon, or actually endured by the
thought subject, the field. The propert}' of the verb

308 A)i English Grauunar

ov verb phrase which indicates this to us we call
voice.

281. Voice Defined. It is clear from what has
been said in Section 280, that voice can belono-
only to attril)utive verbs. Voice is that property
of the attributive verb w^hich shows whether the
attribute expressed by it is exerted by the thought
subject and directed away from it, or is exerted by
some other object of thought and directed
toward, exerted upon, or actually endured by the
thought subject.

282. Classes of Voice. Tt is also clear from
what has been said in Section 280, that voice is of
two kinds. We call them active and passive.

283. Active Voice Defined. Active voice is
that voice which shows that the attribute ex-
pressed by the verb is exerted or put forth by the
thought subject and is directed away from it; as,

The boy broke fJic pitcher. The boys tramped
fhrongJi file woods.

284. Passive Voice Defined. The passive
voice is that voice which shows that the attribute
expressed by the verb is exerted by an object of
thought other than the thought subject and is di-
rected toward, exerted upon, or actually endured
by the thought subject; as, The kite was torn by
the wind. TJie cat was worried by the dog.

Verbs 309

Exercise 98

In flic follozving sentences fell ■wliicJi verbs or
verb phrases are active voice and zvhich passive and
tvhy:

1. The boy ate the apple.

2. The children climbed the hill.

3. The box was sent by my uncle.

4. The tree was blown down by the wind.

5. The girl talks rapidly.

6. The party walked over the hills.

7. The house was struck by lightning.

8. The stream flows from the mountain.

9. The mill is turned by the water.
10. The eagle carried off the child.

285. How the Passive Voice is Formed. The

passive voice is formed l\v the union of some form
of the verb, be, with tlie past or ])erfect ]xirticiple of
an attributive verb; as, Tlie cozv was milked by the
maid. The i^irl is helped b\' her uncle. The child
has been found /n' the scarchincr party.

Not every combination of tlie verb, be, with a
i:)ast or perfect participle of an attributive verl),
however, f^ives us the passive voice. The forms of
the verb, be, unite with the past or perfect partici-
ple of the attri])Utive \'erb to form tlie ])assivc voice
onlv when the participle denotes actual endurance
of the attribute expressed b}- it on the part of the
thous^ht subject. The attriljule expressed by the
participle must be exerted l)y some object of thou.o^ht
other than the thought subject and directed toward,

310 An English Gromniar

exerted upon, or actually endured by the thought
subject ; as, TJie runner was fatigued by his exer-
tions.

In this sentence we have the passive voice be-
cause the attribute expressed by the participle, fa-
tigued, is put forth by the object of thought, exer-
tions, and directed toward, exerted upon, or actually
endured by the thought subject, the runner.

When the past participle combined with the verb,
be, denotes merely a condition as a result of action,
when it expresses a mere state, its combination with
the verb, be, does not form the passive voice; as,
The runner was fatigued.

*286. Classes of Active Voice. In the sen-
tence. The child Jiiirt Jiiniself, the verb, hurt, while
it is active in form, is really passive in meaning, be-
cause the object of thought, himself, which receives
the attribute expressed by the verb, is the same as
the thought subject. Tn the sentence, Tlie boy threzv
the ball, the verb, threzv, is active in form and also
in meaning. We may say then we have two classes
of active voice:

a. Active in form and meaning; as. The zvind
destroyed the building.

b. Active in form and passive in meaning; as,
Every one owes himself an education.

287. Classes of Passive Voice. Tn the sen-
tence. The free was bhwn down by the zvind, the

Xote: Pass quickly over Sections 286-28S.

Verbs 311

verb phrase, was hlozvn, is passive voice. It is pas-
sive in form and passive in meaning.

In the sentence, I'he train was zvrecked, the verb
phrase, was zvrecked, is passive in form, but the at-
tribute expressed by the participle, zvrecked, is not
exerted by some other object of thought upon the
thought subject or actually endured by it. This
shows that the phrase is not passive in meaning. It
has no voice. The verb phrase, zvas wrecked, has
no voice any more than has the expression, zvas
dusty, in the sentence, TJie train zvas dusty. Thus
we may say that we have two classes of expressions
that look like passive voice :

a. Passive in form and meaning; as. The zvin-
dozv was broken by the ball. This is passive voice.

b. Passive in form Init no voice in meaning; as,
The boy was devoted to his zvork. This is not pas-
sive voice.

288. Forms that are not Passive. We ma\
see from Section 287 chat there are some forms
that look like passive voice and may be easily mis-
taken for the ])assive voice, which are not passive
voice. The following combinations cannot gi\'e us
passive voice:

a. An adjective in the predicate with a pure verb
does not constitute the passive voice; as. The horse
was tired.

b. A substantive word in the ])rc(licate with a

312 All Englis/i Grammar

pure verb does not constitute the passive voice; as,
It was pure stubborness on the part of the driver.

c. When there is a past participle in the predi-
cate with a pure verb the passive voice may exist
but not necessarily. It is passive voice then only
when the perfect participle denotes that the attri-
bute expressed by it is exerted upon the thought
subject by some other object of thought or that the
attribute expressed by the past participle is actually
endured by the thought subject: as, The train was
wrecked by tramps. The Held was plowed by the
fanner.

The verb phrases, was wrecked and was plowed,
are both passive voice. In the sentences, The train
was wrecked, Tlie Held was plowed, however, the
same verb phrases are not passive voice at all. The
past participles, wrecked and plozved, here merely
express the condition of tlie train and the field.

Exercise 99

In the follozving sentences point out the verbs
and verb phrases and shozv zvh ether they are active
Z'oice, passive voice, or no I'oicc at all:

1. The bird sings in the tree.

2. The flowers bloom by the brook.

3. The boy bought a knife.

4. The wind blew the nuts from the tree.

5. The rider was thrown by the horse.

6. The cistern was filled by the man.

7. The man was weary.

8. Her motlier was anxious.

yerbs 313

9. The paper was mutilated.

10. The book had been badly torn when I found it.

11. Great is the sun and wide he goes
Through empty heaven without repose :
And in the blue and gleaming days

More thick than rain he showers his rays,

— Stevenson.

12. The wind blows, the sun shines, the birds sing loud,
The blue sky is flecked with fleecy dappled cloud,
Over earth's rejoicing fields the children dance and

sing,
And the frogs pipe in showers, "It is Spring! It
is Spring ! "

— Thaxter.

Exercise 100

In the following sentences point out the verbs or
verb phrases and show wJi ether they are active or
passive voice. Change the verbs or verb phrases in
the active voice to the passive voice, if you can, and
those in the passive voice to the active voice. Shoiv
clearly what 7'erbs or verb phrases have no voice
and why:

1. The engine draws the train.

2. The story has been told by many writers.

3. England had taxed the colonies unjustly.

4. Marco Polo tells us strange stories.

5. The Mississippi was discovered by DeSoto in 1541.

6. The prudent neither waste time nor money.

7. Paris was besieged by the Prussians in 1871.

8. Every Patriot will defend the flag.

9. Our friends came last week.

TO. We were entertained in royal style.

II. The singer was fatigued by his exertions.

314 An English Grammar

12. The traveler was weary.

13. The minister was fatigued.

14. I go where duty calls me.

15. The soldier was sleepy and tired.

Exercise loi

Write two sentences illustrating the active voice
and two ilhistrafing the passive voice.

Exercise 102

In the follozuing sentences, state whether the
verbs or verb phrases are active or passive or no
voice:

1. Where shall we dine to-day?

2. Frequently the exordium is too long, and the perora-
tion interminable.

3. The mother loves her child.

4. The speaker corrected himself.

5. The train was wrecked at midnight.

6. The slave was devoted to his master.

7. If she hate me, then believe.
She shall die ere I will grieve.

8. He that complies against his will
Is of the same opinion still.

9. I held it truth, with him who sings
To one clear harp in divers tones,
That men may rise on stepping-stones,
Of their dead selves to higher things.

10. One having moved from his cla_\' tenement
Was passing softh- in a rapture sweet
Through the new country of the st)ul. and came
Upon a sudden radiance of hlooin

Verbs 315

He stood before it wrapped in reverie,
Till some one touched him, sa\ing-, " It is yours."

—Buffs.

289, Person and Number. Study the follow-
ing sentences and notice the relation between the
form of the verb and the person and number of the
subject:

1. I see the hills of Jordan.

2. He sees the host advancing.

3. They see the outcome of the scheme.

4. You see how well we have succeeded.

5. Thou seest his wants.

Some of the subjects in these sentences are first
person, some second, some third; some of the sub-
jects are singular and some of them are plural.
We have the same verb in each sentence. The
verb changes its form in some instances to corre-
spond or harmonize or agree with its subject. These
changes in the form of the verb to mark its agree-
ment with its subject, we call person and number.
Person and number are thus not in any true sense
properties of the verb, because this verb, see, means
the same in all these sentences. The change in the
form of the word does not denote a change in its
meaning, as is the case in a true property.

290. Person and Number Defined. Person
and number are the changes which the form of
the verb undergoes to mark its agreement with
its subject. The subject is said to govern the

316 An English Grammar

verb, which means simply that the verb accommo-
dates itself in form to the form of the subject.

291. Changes in Form to Denote Person and
Number. The changes which take place in the
verb to denote person and number may be indi-
cated as follows:

First Person : ■ I write, was, know, stand, go.
Second Person: Thou write^^, \\2iSt, know^^y^ standf?^^
gotst.

Third Person: He write.? or wnitth, is, knowj", or
know eth, stand.?, or standi//?, goes, or goetli.

We can see from this table that the following
changes are made in the verb to mark its agreement
with its subject:

a. To change from first to second person :

t is added to some verbs ; as, / zvas, thou wast.
st is added to some verbs ; as, / zirite, thou zvritest.
or est is added to some verbs ; as, / knozu, thou
knotvest.

b. To change from first person to third person :

1. Add .y to some verbs; as, / stand, He stands.

2. Add es to some verbs ; as, / go, He goes.

3. Add th to some verbs ; as, / zvrite, he zmiteth.

4. Add eth to some verbs ; as, / stand, he standeth.

The terminations, si, th, eth, est, and t, survive
in the English language only in the Bible, in prayer,
in poetry, and in the solemn style of writing.

Therefore, except in the verb, he, which has dif-
ferent forms: as, am, are, zuas, zvere, and so forth,
the only changes in the English language to denote

Verbs 317

person and number are the terminations, s and es;
as, / know, He knozvs; I go, lie goes.

Exercise 103

In the follozuing sentences note the relation be-
tween the verb and its subject in each case. Tell
zvhether the subject is singular or plural and whether
the verb is singidar or plural:

1. I know that my Redeemer liveth,

2. He knows where the wild flowers grow.

3. They know where the wild flowers grow.

4. The scissors are dull.

5. Evil news rides post, while good news waits.

6. The tongs are hot.

7. The sheep was fast in the fence.

8. The sheep were driven to the pond and washed.

9. The school was dismissed for the holidays.

10. The school were not all present.

11. Henry, William, and Charles, were kings.

12. The boy or his father is at fault.

13. Each man, woman, and child was given a prize.

14. Every boy and every girl is expected to be obedient.

15. The officers and not the private were at fault.

16. The children, or the servant, or I am to blame.

17. Red, white, and blue makes a pretty flag.

18. Grace and beauty is a desirable combination.

19. " Paint me as I am," said Cromwell.

20. " You are excused," said the teacher, in a pleasant
voice.

21. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free.

22. Thou art a pretty fellow !

23. The storm was dreadful along the Atlantic coast.

24. The islands were beautiful as we sailed in and out
among them.

318 An English Granimar

25. 'Tis as easy as lying.

26. Thou standest on the threshold of life.

27. Thou waitest for the coming of thy mate.

28. Thou pretty child, why weepest thou?

29. He praycth best who loveth best

All things, both great and small. — Whittier.

30. I dare do all that may become a man ;

Who dares do more is none. - — Shakespeare.

292. From the study of the sentences in the
preceding- list we may formulate the following
principles with regard to the agreement of verbs
with their subjects :

1. A singular subject requires a singular verb;
as. The hoy recognizes his friends.

2. A plural subject requires a plural verb; as,

The boys are eager to start.

3. If a subject be plural in form and singular
in meaning, usage determines the form of the
verb ; sometimes it is singular and sometimes it is
plural; as, TJie nezvs is encouraging. The ashes
are zvJiite.

4. If a subject be singular in form and either
singular or plural in meaning, the verb is singular
or plural according to the meaning of the subject;

as, The deer was shot by the hunter. The deer
were found in large numbers in this forest.

5. If the subject be plural in form but either
singular or plural in meaning, the verb is plural ;

as, The tongs are hot.

Verbs 319

6. When the subject is a collective noun, it
takes a singular verb if the collection be thought
of as a whole; as, TJie family was surprised.

It takes a plural verb if the mind dwells upon
the individuals of the collection ; as, The family were
divided in their opinions with regard to the enter-
prise.

7. The compound subject or abridged com-
pound sentence :

a. Parts which are singular but which are taken
collectively; that is, connected by and or some copu-
lative conjunction, take a plural verb; as, James,
William, and Alary are good students.

b. Parts which are singular and are taken sep-
arately; that is, connected by or or nor, or if pre-
ceded by each, every or no, though connected by
and, take a singular verb; as. The father, mother, or
son is coming in the morning. Each student and
each teacher is to have a vacation. Every man,
zvoman, and child was to he ready to move.

c. If the parts of the subject be emphatically
distinguished, the verb must agree with the em-
phatic part ; as. TJic father and not the children was
to blame.

d. If the parts differ in person and number and
are taken separately, the verb agrees with the part
nearest to it; as. The zvoman or the men were at
fault.

e. Parts which are singular and joined by copu-

3-^* An English Grammar

lative conjunctions, if taken together as one thing,
require a sino-ular verb ; as, Bread and butter is good
food.

8. Titles of books, though plural in form, are
singular in meaning and should have a singular
verb; as, "Gulliver's Travels'' was zvritten by
Szvift.

g. The pronoun, you, always takes a plural
verb even when it is singular in meaning; as,
Mary, you were at fault.

10. Sometimes a singular noun takes a plural
meaning from the distinguishing adjectives
which modify it; as, Mental, moral, and physical
education were required from the first.

11. The pronoun, I, always takes the plural
form of the attributive verb ; as, / know it, I see it.
It takes the singular form of the pure verb, how-
ever; as, / am in earnest. 1 was absent.

Exercise 104

Construct sentences illustrating each of the prin-
ciples stated in Section 2Q2.

Exercise 105

Fill the follozving blanks zvith the proper forms
of suitable verbs:

1. Either of you able to do it.

2. Each of the pupils — studied the lesson.

3. Neither of the prisoners guilty of the

charge.

4. No one of the animals dangerous.

Verbs 321

5. Neither of them ten years old.

6. No one of the men escaped.

7. Every man, woman, and child lost.

8. Neither of the boats injured.

9. The ashes hght.

10. Oats a good price.

11. The molasses fine.

12. The news bad.

13. Politics his delight.

14. The deer pursued by the hunter.

15. Truth and Mercy met in the way.

16. Righteousness and Peace kissed each other.

17. The lion and the lamb lain down together.

18. Elegance and ease a combination which

pleases.

293. The Strong Verb. A strong verb is a
verb which forms its past indicative and perfect
participle by some internal change; as, break,
broke, broken. Most of the irregular verbs are
strong verbs. Sometimes these are called old verbs.

294. The Weak Verb. A weak verb is a verb
which forms its past indicative and perfect parti-
ciple by adding d or edto the present indicative;

as, call, called, called. The weak verbs are for the
most part regular verbs. Sometimes they are called
new verbs.

295. Conjugation. It is often convenient to
have the different forms of the verb arranged in
the regular order. This is called the conjugation
of the verb. Conjugation is the regular arrange-
ment of all the forms of the verb throughout the

322

An English Grammar

different voices, modes, tenses, persons, and num-
bers.

'^' 296. Conjunction of the Verb, be. The pure

verb, be, is conjugated as follows:
Principal Parts

Present Indicaiive. be. Past Indicative, was.

Perfect Participle, been.
Indicative Mode
Present Tense
Plural
We are.
(Thou art.) You are.
They are.

Past Tense

Plural
We were.
Yon were.
(Thou zvast or wert.)
He was.

Singular

1. I am.

2. You are.

3. He is.

Singular

1. I was.

2. You were

Singular
i; If I be.

2. If you be.

3. I he be.

(If thou be.)

Singular
If I were.
If you were.

(If thou 7vert.)
If he were.

They were.
Subjunctive Mode

Present Tense
Plural

If we be.
If yon be.
If they be.

Past Tense

Plural

f If we

If you .

If they

*Note: Do not have pupils commit to memory the conjugation

of verbs. These are for reference.

. fNoTE : Blanks in the subjunctive show where it is like the in-
dicative.

Verbs 323

Indicative Mode

Future Tense

Singular Plural

I.

I shall be. We shall be.

2.

You will be. You will be.

(Thou wilt be.)

3-

He will be. They will be.

Subjunctive Mode

Future Tense

Singular Plural

J _

If T Tf wr

-->

Ail , J 1 \VC ■ ,
It T011 It iri^tl

— ■

ii _\ULi . xi yuu ,

f'lf thou zvill be.)

3-

Tf hn Tf fl,^,-

ii lie . 11 int V .
Indicative Mode

Present Perfect Tense

Singular Plural

I.

1 have been. We have been.

o

You have been. (Thou hast been.) You have been.

3-

He lias been. Thev have been

Note: Usually the subjunctive is given only in the four tenses-
present, past, present perfect, and past perfect. Here it is given in
all the tenses so that the pupil may compare it with the indicative.

Subjunctive Mode

Present Perfect Tense
Singular Plural

1. if 1 . If we .

2. If you . (If thou have been.) If you .

3. If he have been. Tf they

Indicative Mode
Past Perfect Tense
Singular Plural

1. I had been. We had been.

2. You had been. (Thou hadst been.) ^'ou had been.

3. He had been. They had bet-n.

324 An English Grammar

Subjunctive Mode

Past Perfect Tense
Singular Plural

I. If I . If Nve-

2. If you . (If thou had been.) If you .

3. If he . If they .

Indicative Mode

> Future Perfeet Tense
Singular Plural

1. I shall have been. We shall have been.

2. You will have been. You will have been.

(Thou -unit have been.)

3. He will have been. They will have been.

Subjunctive Mode

Future Perfect Tense
Singular Plural

1. If 1 . If we .

2. If you . If you .

(If thou zvill have been.) If they .

3. If he .

Imperative Mode
Be.

Infinitives
Present. Perfect.

To be. To have been.

Participles

Present. Perfect.

Being. Having been.

297. Conjugation of the Verb, telL

Principal Parts

Present hidicatwe, tell. Past Indicathe, told.

Perfect Participle, told.

"erbs

'62o

Singular

1. I tell.

2. You tell. (Thou tellest.)

3. He tells.

Active Voice
Indicative Mode

Present Tense

Singular
If I

Subjunctive Mode

Present Tense

If you .

(If thou tell.)
If he tell.

Singular

1. I told.

2. You told.

(Thou toldst.)

3. He told.

Singular
I. If I .

Indicative. Mode

Past Tense

Past Tense

2. If you .

(If thou told.)

3. If he .

Plural
We tell.
You tell.
They tell.

Plural
If we —

If you-

If thev-

Plura:
We told.
You told.

They told.

Plural

If we

If you

If thev-

Indicative Mode

Future Tense

Singular tuiure 1 ensc PK,ral

1. I shall tell. We shall tell.

2. You will tell. (Thou zvilt tell.) They will tell.

3. He will tell. You will tell.

Subjunctive Mode

Singular Future Tense

I. If I .

2 If you . (If thou will tell.) If you

3. If he . If they

Plural
If we

326 An English Grammar

Indicative Mode

Present Perfect Tense

Singular Plural

1 . I have told. We have told.

2. You have told. You have told.

(Thou hast told.)
•^ He has told. Thev have told.

Subjunctive Mode

Present Perfect Tense

Singular Plural

I.

If I . If we

2.

If you . (If thou have told.) If you .

3-

If he have told. If they .

Indicative Mode

Past Perfect Tense

Singular Plural

1.

1 had told. We had told.

2.

You liad told. You had told.

(Then hadst told.)

3-

He had told. They had told.

Subjunctive Mode

Past Perfect Tense

Singular Plural

I.

If I . If we

2.
1.

If you . (If thou had told.) If you .

If he . If thev .

Indicative Mode

Future Perfect Tense
Singular Plural

1. I shall have told. We shall have told.

2. ^'ou will have told. You will have told.

(Thou unit have told.)

3. He will have told. They will have told.

Singular
I. If I

Verbs

Subjunctive Mode

Future Perfect Tense
Plural

If we .

If vou ,

32Z

2. If you .

(If thou will have told.)

3. If he If they —

Imperative Mode
Tell.

Present.
To tell.

Present.
Telling.

Singular

1. I am told.

2. You are told.

(Thou art told.)
X. He is told.

Singular

1. I was told.

2. You were told.

(Thou wast told.)

3. He was told.

Infinitives

Perfect.
To have told.

Participles

Perfect.
Having told.

Passive Voice

Indicative Mode

Present Tense
Plural

We are told.
You are told.

They are told.

Past Tense

Plural
We were told.
You were told.

Thev were told.

^^^ An English Grammar

Subjunctive Mode

Present Tense
Singular Plural

1. If I be told. If we be told.

2. If you be told. If you be told.

(If thou be told.)

3. If he be told. If they be told.

Past Tense
Singular • Plural

1. If 1 were told. If we

2. If you . If you '-,

(If thou were told.)

3. If he were told. If they .

Indicative Mode

Future Tense
Singular Plural

1. I shall be told. We shall be told.

2. You will be told. You will be told.

{Thou wilt be told.)

3. He will be told. They will be told.

Subjunctive Mode

Future Tense
Singular Plural

1. If I . Tf ^g

2. If you . If you .

(If thou will be told.)

3. If he . jf th^y

Indicative Mode

Present Perfect Tense
Singular Plural

1. 1 have been told. We have been told.

2. You have been told. You have been told.

(Thou hast been told.)

3. He has been told. They have been told.

Verbs 329

Subjunctive Mode

Present Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
I If I . If we .

2. If you . If you .

df thou have been told.)

3. If he have been told. If they .

Indicative Mode

Past Perfect Tense

Singular Plural

1. I had been told. We had been told.

2. You had been told. You had been told.

(Thou hadst been told.)

3. He had been told. The\- had been told.

Subjunctive Mode

Past Perfect Tense
Singular Plural

1. If i . If we .

2. If you . If you .

(If thou had been told.)

3. If he . If they .

Indicative Mode

Future Perfect Tense
Singular Plural

1. I shall have been told. We shall have been told.

2. You will have been told. \'ou will have been told.

(Thou zvilt hai'e been told.)

3. He will have been told. They will have been told.

Subjunctive Mode

Future Perfect Tense
Singular Plural
I. If I . \i we .

If you . If }0U-

flf thou will have been told. )
If he . If ihcv-

330 An English Grammar

Imperative Mode

Be told.
Infinitives
Present. Perfect.

To be told. To have been told.

Participles

Present. • Perfect.

Being' told. Having been told.

'■'298, Synopsis. Sometimes when we wish
to indicate the different forms of a verb, without
giving a complete conjugation, we give all the
forms in a single person and number. It does not
matter what person or number we take. The
synopsis of a verb is the regular arrangement of
all its forms in all its voices, modes, tenses, in a
single person and number.

299. Formes of Verbs. Tn the conjugation in
Sections 2(;6, and 297, the simple form of the verb
is used. We have, however, other forms of the
verb, and verbs may be conjugated with these
forms :

1. The simple form of the verb is the root
form ; as, / write.

2. The progressive form of the verb is that
form which expresses the attribute or the relation
in a state of continuance ; as, / was walking.

3. The emphatic form of the verb is that form

* Note: Pass over Sections 298 and Jgg quickly.

Verbs 331

which emphasizes the attribute or relation expressed
by it; as, / do study.

4. The interrogative form of the verb is that
form of the verb which is used in asking questions;
as, Did you write?

5. The negative form of the verb is that form
of the verb which expresses a thought relation of
disagreement ; as, I am not going.

You will notice that a form of a verb is fre-
quently not a verb, because it does not express a
thought relation. The progressive form of the verb
is never a verb, because it does not express a thought
relation.

The participle and the infinitive are forms of
the verb l)ut they are not verbs.

300. The Verb Phrase. A verb is a w^ord.
Frequently, however, that which is expressed by
the verb is expressed by a group of words; as,
/ can learn. The expression, can learn, in this sen-
tence expresses the thought predicate and the
thought relation. These two elements of the
thought are often expressed by the verb; as. The
sun shines.

Since the two words, caji learn, in the first sen-
tence, do just what the one word, shines, does in
the second sentence, wc call them a verb phrase.
The verl) phrase is ahvays made up of a principal
verb and one or more auxiliary verl)s: as. He will
write, He should have studied, She would have
suffered.

332 An English Grammar

In parsing the verb phrase, it is better to breal<
it up into the principal part and its auxiharies.
Parse the principal verb as you would any other
verb and then s^ive the uses of the auxiliaries.

Work in Composition

TJie Story
THE 'LUNGE

Dick and I traveled in a fifteen-foot wooden canoe,
with food, dufifel, tent, and Dence, the black-and-white
setter dog. As a consequence we were pretty well down
toward the water line, for we had not realized that a
wooden canoe would carry so little weight for its length
in comparison with a birch-bark. A good heav\- sea we
could ride — with proper management and a little bailing ;
but sloppy waves kept us busy.

Deuce did not like it at all. He was a dog old in the
wisdom of experience. It had taken him just twenty min-
utes to learn all about canoes. After a single tentative trial
he jumped lightl>- to the ver\- center of his place, with the
lithe caution of a cat. Then if the water happened to be
smooth, he would sit gravely on his haunches, or would
rest his chin on the gunwale to contemplate the passing
landscape. But in rough weather he crouched directly-
over the keel, his nose between his paws, and tried not to
dodge when the cold water dashed in on him. Deuce was
a true woodsman in that respect. Discomfort he always
bore with equanimity, and he must often have been verv
cold and very cramped.

For just over a week we liad been traveling in open
water, and the elements had not been kind to us at all.
We had crept up under rock-cliff points*; had weathered the
rips of white water to shelter on the other side; had

Verbs 333

struggled across open spaces where each wave was singly
a problem to fail in whose solution meant instant swamp-
ing; had bailed, and schemed, and figured, and carried,
and tried again, and succeeded with about two cui)fuls to
spare, until we as well as Deuce had grown a little tired of
it. For the lust of travel was on us.

All this morning we had been bucking a strong north
wind. Fortunately the shelter of a string of islands had
given us smooth water enough, but the heavy gusts some-
times stopped us as eiTfectually as though we had butted
solid land. Now about noon we came to the last island,
and looked out on a five-mile stretch of tuiubling seas.
We landed the canoe and mounted a high rock.

" Can't make it like this," said 1. " I'll take the outfit
over and land it. and come back for you and the dog. Let's
see that chart."

We hid behind a rock and spread out the map.

" Four miles," measured Dick. " It's going to be a
terror."

We looked at each other vaguely, suddenly tired,

" We can't camp here — at this time of day," ol^jectcd
Dick, to our unspoken thoughts.

And then the map gave him an inspiration. " Here's
a little river," ruminated Dick, " that goes to a little lake,
and then there's another little river that flows from the
lake, and comes out about ten miles above here."

" It's a good thirty miles," 1 objected.

"What of it?" asked Dick, calmly.

So the fever-lust of travel broke. We turned to the
right behind the last island, searched out the reed-grown
opening to the stream, and paddled serenely and philo-
sophically against the current. Deuce sat up and yawned
with a mighty satisfaction.

We had been bending our heads to the demon of wind ;
our ears had been filled wi<;h his shoutings, our eyes blinded

334 ' An English Graimnar

with tears, our lirealli caught away from us, our muscles
strung to the fiercest endeavor. Suddenly we found our-
selves between the ranks of tall forest trees, bathed in a
warm sunliohl, ojiding like a feather from one grassy bend
to another of llie laziest little stream that ever hesitated
as to which wax* the grasses of its bed should float. As
for the wind, it was lost somewhere away up high, where
we could hear it niuttering to itself about something.

The woods leaned over the fringe of bushes cool and
green and silent. Occasional!}- ihrough tiny openings we
caught instant impressions of straight column-trunks and
transparent shadows. Miniature grass marshes jutted out
from bends of the little river. We idled along as with a
homelv rustic companion, through the aloofness of patrician
multitudes.

Every bend offered us chaining surprises. Sometimes
a muskrat swam hastily in a pointed furrow of ripple ;
vanishing wings, barely sensed in the flash, left us staring ;
stealthv withdrawals of creatures, whose presence we real-
ized only in the fact of those withdrawals, snared our eager
interest ; porcupines rattled and rustled importantly and
regally from the water's edge to the woods ; herons, ravens,
an occasional duck, croaked away at our approach : thrice
we surprised eagles, once a tassel-eared Canada lynx. Or,
if all else lacked, we still experienced the little thrill of
pleased novelty over the disclosure of a group of silvery
birches on a knoll ; a magnificent white pine towering over
the beech and ma]:>le forest ; the unexpected aisle of a long,
straight stretch of the little river.

Deuce approved thoroughly. He stretched himself,
yawned and shook off the water, and glanced at me open-
mouthed with doggy good-nature, and set himself to ac-
(|uiring a conscientious olfactory knowledge of both banks
of the river. I do not doubt he knew a great deal more
about it than we did. Porcupines aroused his especial en-

Verbs 335

thusiasni. Incidental!)', t\\o clays later he returned to camp
after an expedition of his own. bristling- as to the face
with that animal's barbed weapons. Thenceforward his
interest waned.

We ascended the charming little river two or three
miles. At a sharp bend to the east a huge sheet of rock
sloped from a round grass knoll sparsely planted with
birches directly down into a pool. Two or three tree-trunks
jammed directly opposite had formed a sort of half dam
imder which the water lay dark. A tiny grass meadow
forty feet in diameter narrowed the stream to half its
width.

We landed. Dick seated himself on the shelving rock.
I put my fish-rod together. Deuce disappeared.

Deuce always disappeared whenever w^e landed. With
nose down, hind-quarters well tucked under him, ears fly-
ing, he quartered the forest at high speed, investigating
every nook and cranny of it for the radius of a (|uartcr of
a mile. When he had quite satisfied himself that we were
safe for the moment, he would return to the fire, where he
would lie, six inches of pink tongue vibrating with breath-
lessness, beautiful in the consciousness of virtue. Dick
generally sat on a rock and thought. I generally fished.

After a time Deuce returned. I gave up flies, spoons,
phantom minnows, artificial frogs, and cra\fish. As Dick
continued to sit on the rock and think, we both joined
him. The sun was very warm and grateful, and I am sure
we both acquired an added respect for Dick's judgment.

Just when it happened neither of us was afterwards
able to decide. Perhaps Deuce knew. But suddenly, as
often a figure appears in a cinematograph, the diminutive
meadow thirty feet away contained two deer. They stood
knee-deep in the grass, wagging their little tails in im-
patience of the flies.

"Look 'a there!" stammered Dick aloud.

336 All English Grammar

Deuce sat up on his haunches.

I started for my camera.

Tl'.e deer cHd not seem to he in the sHghtest degree
alarmed. They pointed four big ears in our direction, ate
a few leisurely mouthfuls of grass, sauntered to the stream
for a drink of water, wagged their little tails some more
and quietly faded out into the cool shadows of the forest.

An hour later we ran out into reedsj and so to the lake.
It was a pretty lake, forest-girt. Across the distance we
made out a moving object which shortly resolved itself into
a birch canoe. The canoe proved to contain an Indian, an
Indian boy of about ten years, a black dog. and a bundle.
When within a few rods of each other we ceased paddling
and drifted by with the momentum. The Indian was a
fine-looking man about forty, his hair bound with a red
fillet, his feet incased in silk-worked moccasins, but other-
wise dressed in white men's garments. He smoked a short
pipe, and contemplated us gravely.

" Bo' jou', bo' jou'," we called in the usual double-
barreled North Country salutation.

" Bo' jou', bo' jou'." he replied.

" Kee-gons ? " we inquired as to the fishing in the lake.

" Ah-hah," he assented.

We drifted by each other without further speech. When
the decent distance of etiquette separated us, we resumed
our paddles.

I produced a young cable terminated by a tremendous
spoon and solid brass snell as thick as a telegraph wire.
We had laid in this formidable implement in hopes of a
big muscallunge. It had been trailed for days at a time.
We had become used to its vibration, which actually seemed
to communicate itself to every fibre of the light canoe.
Every once in a while we would stop with a jerk that
would nearly snap our heads ofif. Then we would know
we had hooked the American continent. We had become

P'erbs 337

used to that also. It generally happened when we at-
tempted a little burst of speed. So when the canoe brought
up so violently that all our tinware rolled on Deuce, Dick
was merely disgusted.

" There she goes again," he grumbled. " You've
liooked Canada."

Canada held quiescent for about three seconds. Then
it started due south.

"Suffering serpents!" shrieked Dick.

" Paddle ! " yelled I.

It was most interesting. All 1 had to do was to hang
on and try to stay in the boat. Dick paddled and fumed
and splashed water and got more excited. Canada dragged
us bodily backward.

Then Canada changed his mind and started in our
direction. I was plenty busy taking in slack, so I did not
notice Dick. Dick was absolutely demented. His mind
automatically reacted in the direction of paddling. He
paddled, blindly, frantically. Canada came surging in, his
mouth open, his wicked eyes flaming, a tremendous indis-
tinct body lashing foam. Dick glanced over his shoulder,
and let out a frantic howl.

" You've got a sea serpent ! " he shrieked.

I turned to fumble for the pistol. We were heading
directly for a log stranded on shore, and about ten feet
from us.

" Dick ! " I yelled in warning.

He thrust his paddle out forward just in time. The
stout maple bent and cracked. The canoe hit with a bump
that threw us forward. I returned to the young cable. It
came in limp and slack.

We looked at each other sadly.

" No use," sighed Dick at last. " They've never in-
vented the words and we'd upset if we kicked the dog."

I had the end of the line in my hands.

338 An English Grammar

" Look here! " T cried. That thick l)rass wire liad been
as cleanly bitten through as though it had been cut with
clippers. " He must have caught sight of you," said I.

Dick lifted up his voice in lamentation. " You had
four feet of him out of water," he wailed, " and there was
a lot more."

" Tf you had kept cool," said I, severely. " we shouldn't
have lost him. You don't want to get rattled in an emer-
gency. There's no sense in it."

" What were you going to do with that? " asked Dick,
pointing to where I had laid the pistol.

" I was going to shoot him in the head." I replied, with
dignitv. " It's the best way to land them."

Dick laughed disagreeably. I looked down. At my
side lay our largest iron spoon.

We skirted the left-hand side of the lake in silence.
Far out from shore the water was ruffled where the wind
swept down, but with us it was as still and calm as the
forest trees that looked over into it. After a time we
turned short to the left, through a very narrow passage be-
tween two marshy shores, and so, after a sharp bend of a
few hundred feet, came into the other river.

This was a wide stream, smoothly hurrying, without
rapids or tumult. The forest had drawn to either side to
let us pass. Here were the wilder reaches after the inti-
macies of the little river. Across stretches of marsh we
could see an occasional great blue heron standing mid-leg
deep. Long strings of ducks struggled quacking from in-
visible pools. The faint marsh odors saluted our nostrils
from a point where the lily-pads flashed broadly, ruffling
in the wind. We dropped out the smaller spoon and mas-
terfully landed a five-pound pickerel. Even Deuce
brightened. He cared nothing for raw fish, but he knew
their possibilities. Towards evening we entered the hilly
country, and so at the last turned to the left into a sand

Verbs 339

cove where grew maples and liirclies in l)eaiitiful park
order under a hill. There we ])itched camp, and, as the
flies lacked, huilt a friendship-fire ahout which to fore-
gather when the day was done.

Dick still vocally regretted the muscallunge as the
largest fish since Jonah, so L told him of my big bear.

One day, late in the summer, I was engaged in pack-
ing some supplies along an old fur trail north of Lake
Superior. I had accomplished one pack-load, and with
empty straps was returning to the cache for another. The
trail at one point emerged into and crossed an open park
some hundreds of feet in diameter, in wliich the grass
grew to the height of ihe knee. When 1 was about half
way across a black bear arose to his hind legs not ten feet
from me, and remarked, 14^ oof! in a loud tone of voice.
Xow, if a man were to say ■li'oof! to you unexpectedly,
even in the formality of an Italian garden or the accus-
tomedness of a city street, you would.be somewhat startled.
So I went to camp. There I told them about the bear. I
tried to be conservative in my description, because I did
not wish to be accused of exaggeration. My impression
of the animal was that he and a spruce-tree that grew
near enough for ready comparison were approximately of
the same stature. We returned to the grass park. After
some difficulty we found a clear footprint. It was a little
larger than that made by a good-sized coon.

" So, you see," I admonished, didactically, " that
'lunge probably was not so large as you thought."

" It may have been a Chinese bear," said Dick, dream-
ily— " a Chinese lady bear, of high degree."

I gave him up. — Stewart Edward White.

I.

Read " 77/ r ' ljiui!:c."
Outline and i^'rifc a rci'iciv.

340 An English Grammar

Criticise your reviezv in as many ivays as pos-
sible. Criticise the paragraphs, the sentences and
the choice of ivords.

II.

What to your mind, is the most interesting in-
cident of the story of ''The ' Lunge" F What scene
is the most picturesque t

Write a paper describing your favorite incideut
or one describing your favorite scene.

Read your paper and criticise it in as many zvays
as possible.

III.

What things are told of Deuce in the story of
''The 'Lnn^c" which make him seem like a real
dog?

One of the greatest story writers once said,
"Talent consists in looking at what you are going
to wTite of long enough and attentively enough to
discover in it something that has not been seen and
reported by some one else."

Observe closely the zvays of some dog of your
acquaintance. Write your observations.

IV.
Imagine yourself enjoying some of the experi-
ences reported in the story of "The 'Lunge."
Write a letter home, telling of your imaginary ex-
periences. Keep it dignified and give enough detail
in describing the camp and the manner of life in it
so that your experiences zvill have an air of reality
about them.

Chapter XVIII

THE ADVERB

301. The Adverb Defined. An adverb is an
attributive word which expresses an attribute of
an attribute or an attribute of an idea of rela-
tion; as, He came here. He is probably zvell.

Little need be said of the adverb in addition to
what has been given under the classes of words,
modifiers, and connectives in the complex sentence.

302. Classes of Adverbs on Basis of the Kind
of Idea to which the Attribute Expressed by it
Belongs. Notice the adverbs in the following
sentences:

She sang sweetly.

He is not well.

You will notice that the attribute expressed by
the adverb, sweetly, belongs to the attribute ex-
pressed by the word, sang. We call this kind of
an adverb a regular adverb.

In the second sentence you will notice that the
attribute expressed by the adverb, not, belongs to
the idea of relation expressed by the word, is. We
call this kind of adverb a modal adverb.

303. Regular Adverb Defined. A regular ad-

[341]

342 An English Grcnnmar

verb is an adverb which expresses an attribute of
an attribute; as, Walter rides rapidly.

304. Modal Adverb Defined. A modal ad-
verb is an adverb which expresses an attribute
of an idea of relation ; You are perhaps somewhat
alike. Henry is almost oz'er the ocean.

305. Classes of Adverbs on Basis of Use. You

will notice the adverbs in the following sentences:

1. The man runs rapidly.

2. The story is probably true.

3. This is the house where Longfellow lived.

4. Where are you going?

The adverb, rapidly, in the first sentence, merely
expresses an attribute of an attribute. The adverb,
probably, in the second sentence merely expresses
an attribute of the idea of relation. An adverb
that does this we call a pure adverb. The adverb,
zvhere, in the third sentence in addition to express-
ing an attribute of an attribute expresses a relation
between thoughts of unequal rank. We call an ad-
verb of this kind a conjunctive adverb. For the
conjunctive adverb, its classes, uses, and definitions,
see the complex sentence. Sections 114, 115, 117
and 1 19-120.

The adverb, where, in the fourth sentence, in
addition to expressing an attribute of an attribute,
shows that this attribute is unknown and sought.
We call such an adverb an interrogati\e adverb.

306. Pure Adverb Defined. A pure adverb is

The Adverb 343

an adverb which merely expresses an attribute of
an attribute or an attribute of an idea of relation ;

as, The stream flows rapidly. My brother is surely
present.

307. Interrogative Adverb Defined. An in-
terrogative adverb is an adverb which expresses
an attribute of an attribute or an attribute of an
idea of relation as unknown and sought; as,
When did your father leave?

Exercise 106

In the following sentences point out the adverbs,
classify them on basis of the kind of idea to which
the attribute expressed by them belongs, and on the
basis of use. Compare them zvhcn they can be
compared, give the exact use of each iu the sen-
tencc, and tell zvliat adverbial idea is expressed by
each. Reviezv the adverbial ideas which may be
expressed by the adi'crbial modifier, Section 5^. and
see if all these adverbial ideas may be ca' pressed by
the adverb:

1. The mountain streams flow rapidly.

2. The sentence is undoubtedly a just one.

3. The girl is exceedingly lonesome.

4. The vessel was wrecked when it was almost over
the ocean.

5. We shall meet there.

6. The method is slow at first, but will rapidly grow-
easier.

7. Occasionally written exercises should be substituted

34:4: An English Grammar

for the oral, when the teacher wishes to test the progress
of the class.

8. I shall be glad to see you whenever you may stop.

9. I saw the place where the World's Fair buildings
are to stand.

10. The young man was greatly respected in the town
where he was born.

11. No spot on earth, do I love more sincerely,
Than old Virginia, the place where I was born.

12. He speaks most sincerely when in private conversa-
tion.

13. I sincerely hope for your success.

14. The prisoner begged hard for mercy.

15. The boy :<tudies harder than his sister.

16. It rained hardest just after we started.

17. Now will we deal worse with thee than with them.

18. He is much taller than I.

19. He is more polite than his brother.

20. He is the most industrious boy in school.

21. The soul lives on forever.

22. We shall no doubt meet often hereafter.

23. I cannot believe otherwise.

24. The lady was greatly distressed by the news.
-25. When shall we three meet again?

26. Where do the people congregate?

27. I know why you have come.

28. I see how you made the mistake.

29. I can tell why the sun appears to rise and set.

30. This she said with so much decision that she evi-
dently considered it a condensed but complete answer.
" Imitation ? " repeated August, timidly, not understanding.

— De La Rame.

Chapter XIX

THE INFINITIVE

308. The Infinitive Defined. In the sentence.
To live is not simply to exist, the expressions, to
live and to exist, are forms of the verb, but they
do not express thought relations. The words, live
and exist, are the root forms of the verbs. This
form of the verb, which is usually preceded by the
sign, to, we call the infinitive.

The infinitive is the root form of the verb
which does not express a thought relation; as,
To err is human.

The sign, to, which usually precedes this form of the
verb, was not originally a part of the infinitive. In the
Anglo-Saxon and old English it was not used with the in-
finitive except when it was in the dative case, where it had
a real prepositional value. But when the case endings were
dropped so that the dative case could not be known by its
ending, the preposition, to, caused confusion because it was
indiscriminately used with all cases and thus lost its prepo-
sitional value and became a mere sign.

In a very few instances the sign, to, seems to retain its
prepositional use ; as, This af^ple is not fit to eat, is equal to
This apple is not tit for eating. There is a time to zvork, is
equal to There is a time for zvorking.

Even in such cases, however, the prepositional force is
practically lost, and the sign is no7V considered and described
as a part of the infinitive.

r345l

346 An English Grammar

It is evident that the sign, to. is not an essential part of
the infinitive because it is frequently omitted :

1. After a few verbs, such as, dare, help, need, please,
go; as. He dared not leave the place. Go find your master.

2. In certain pecuHar elliptical constructions ; as, You
had better go home. He icould rather die than do it.
We had as zvell yield at once as struggle.

3. After the word, but, following a negative ; as She
cannot but grieve for him. They do naught but idle about.

4. After a verb which takes a direct objective modifier,
the principal part of which is modified by an infinitive ; as,
/ sazv him do it. We heard her sing.

5. Sometimes when the infinitive is used as the predicate-
like element of a clausal phrase ; as, Let not ambition mock
then- useful toil.

Note: The infinitive may be defined on the basis of its use
as Whitney and other good grammarians do. The definition on this
basis is perhaps more in accordance with the origin of the language
but it makes the infinitive much more difficult and it is thought that
the gain is not sufficient to outweigh the disadvantages. If we
define the infinitive on basis of use, we have infinitives in ing, par-
ticiples in ing, and abstract nouns in ing. This is confusing, especial-
ly to the beginner. On the basis of form or origin as we have
defined it, all infinitives are root forms of the verb and all de-
rived forms of the verb are participles. This is a much easier dis-
tinction for the beginner to make, and it matters not what we call a
word so long as we see its exact use in expressing the thought.

Exercise 107

Make sentences of your ozvn containing these
infimtives and intinitiz'e phrases: To stand, to sur-
prise, to go, to pass, to put, to tell, to speak, to do,
to be omitted, to zvonder, to notice, to he suited, to
have been taken, to be expected, to fit, to have been
fitted, to hai'e stolen, to attain, to be deplored, to
be sent, to luv'i'c been eaten.

The Infinitive 347

309. Substantive Uses of the Infinitive, i.
In the sentence, To study is tiresome, the infinitive,
to study, is used as the subject of the sentence. An
infinitive may be used as the subject of the sen-
tence; as. To run swiftly is a good exercise.

2. In the sentence, To see is to believe, the in-
finitive, to believe, is used as the predicate of the
sentence. An infinitive may be used as the predi-
cate of the sentence; as. To lie is to break the law.

3. In the sentence. My friend is about to depart,
the infinitive, to depart, is used as the principal part
of the prepositional phrase, about to depart. The
infinitive may be used as the principal part of
a prepositional phrase; as. The vessel is about to
sink.

4. In the sentence, / zvaiit to go, the infinitive,
to go, is used as the direct objective modifier of the
verb, want. The infinitive may be used as the
direct objective modifier; as. He zvisJies to leave
soon.

5. In the sentence, It is easy to talk, the infini-
tive, to talk, is used as an appositive modifier of the
pronoun, it. An infinitive may be used as an
appositive modifier ; as, He has formed the heroic
resolution to defend the fozver against the enemy.
It is hard to solve the problems.

6. In the sentence. The boy is certain to succeed,
the infinitive, to succeed, is the indirect objective
modifier of the adjective, certain. An infinitive may

348 An English Grammar

be used as indirect objective modifier; as, The girl
is sure to win.

7. In the sentence, To tell the tntth, I do not
care, the infinitive, to tell, is used independently. An
infinitive may be used independently; as. To speak
figuratively, the lion is the king of beasts.

Note i : The independent use of the infinitive is very much like
the adverbial use and may always be resolved into one. In the
sentence, The lion, to speak figuratively, is the king of beasts, the
infinitive phrase, to speak figuratively, is equivalent to the clause,
if we speak figuratively, which is an adverbial clause, expressing
the adverbial idea of condition. The infinitive used independently
can always be changed into an adverbial clause expressing some
adverbial idea.

2. The infinitive used as an appositive modifier, is rare except
in sentences beginning with the pronoun, it; as. It takes two to
make a bargain.

3. Whitney says that the infinitive may be used as an adverbial
objective modifier, but he gives it this use because he defines the
infinitive as the form of the verb which is used substantively. The
infinitive often expresses an adverbial idea; as He failed to appear.

Of course if we say that it is substantive, it_ would be an ad-
verbial objective modifier. As we have defined it on the basis of
origin or form, however, it may have an attributive use as well as
a substantive use. When it expresses an adverbial idea,_ it has an
attributive use. Where Whitney, according to his definition, calls
the infinitive an adverbial objective modifier, we, according to our
definition, will call it an adverbial modifier.

310. Attributive Uses of Infinitives, i. In

the sentence, Time to come is called future time, the
infinitive, to come, is used as an adjective modifier
of the word, time. An infinitive may be used as an
adjective modifier; as, The boy to be chosen must
be tall.

2. In the sentence, The children are to sing, the
infinitive, to sing, is used as a predicate adjective.

The InHnitive 349

An infinitive ma}^ be used as a predicate adjective;
as, We are to have a jolly time.

3. In the sentence, IVe live to do our duty, the
infinitive, to do, is used as the adverbial modifier of
the verb, li'i'e, expressing the adverbial idea of pur-
pose ; an infinitive may be used as an adverbial modi-
fier; as, Tliey came to assist ^is.

4. In the sentence, TJiey zvish him to teach, the
infinitive, to teach, is used as the predicate-like ele-
ment of the clausal phrase, him to teach. An infini-
tive may be used as the predicate-like element of
a clausal phrase; as. We zvisli Charles to go to
school.

Note: A clausal phrase is a group of words having a subject-
like element, a predicate-like element, and a copula-like element,
which does not express a thought relation. It looks like a clause
but is merely a phrase because it does not express a thought rela-
tion. It can always be expanded into a clause w'ithout changing
the meaning of the original sentence in which it occurs. This is
the final test of the clausal phrase. In the sentence, JVe wished
William to be a teacher, the expression, William to be a teacher,
is a clausal phrase because it has a subject-like element, the word,
William; a predicate-like element, the word, teacher; and a copula-
like element, the infinitive, to be. It may be expanded into the
clause, that IVilliam be a teacher withoiU changing the meaning of
the original sentence in which it occurs.

This construction is often confused with the construction in the
sentence. They made Victoria queen.

The expression, Victoria queen, is not a clausal phrase with the
copula-like element, to be, understood. It cannot be expanded into
a clause without changing the meaning of the original sentence.
This expression, Victoria queen, is a factitive direct objective modi-
fier of the verb, made. The word, Victoria, is the principal part
of the factitive direct objective modifier and it is modified by the
word, queen, an appositive modifier, which at the same time sup-
plements the meaning of the verb, made. We may turn the word,
queen, around and take it into the verb expressing the thought,
thus : They crowned Victoria. The word, crozuned, in the sentence
expresses what is expressed in the other sentence, by the words,

350 An English Grammar

made and queen. There is never anything like this in the clausal
phrase. Other examples of the factitive objective modifier are the
following: They made the stick straight, is equal to They straight-
ened tlie stick.

The Uglitiiiiig struck the man dead, is equal to The lightning
killed the man.

There is still another construction which looks very much like
both these yet is different from them. In the sentence, They saw
him fall, the expression, him fall, is not a clausal phrase because it
cannot be changed into a clause expressing the same thought as the
original sentence. It is not a factitive direct objective modifier be-
cause the seeing has nothing to do with the falling. The infinitive,
fall, does not supplement the meaning of the verb, sazv. This ex-
pression is simply a direct objective modifier of the verb, sazv. The
principal part of the direct objective modifier is the word, him, and
it is modified by the infinitive, fall, an adjective modifier. Other
examples of this same construction are found in the following sen-
tences : ]Vc heard liim sing. We felt the bridge give.

311. Relational Uses of the Infinitive. We

see from the discussion of the clausal phrase that
the infinitive may have a relational use. It may be
used as a copula-like element of a clausal phrase.
In the sentence, / know him to he a man, the infini-
tive, to he, is used as the copula-like element of the
clausal phrase, him to he a man.

2. In the sentence, The hoy grew to be useful,
we seem to have two predicates. The words, grew
and useful, both express attributes which are
thought of in relation to the thought subject, the
hoy. The sentence is almost equivalent to the com-
pound sentence, llie hoy grezv and lie was useful.

In this case, the word, useful, becomes a real
predicate, and the word, ivas, which takes the place
of the infinitive, to he, is the real copula. We call
the expression, grew to be useful, a double predi-
cate. The word, grew, expresses a thought rela-

The Infinitive 351

tion and may be expanded into the words zvas grow-
ing. The infinitive, to be, is i copula-Hke element
for the second part of the double predicate, useful,
because it does not express a thought relation but
stands in the place of a word that would express
a thought relation, if the sentence were expanded
into a compound sentence. An infinitive may be
used as a copula-like element with the second part
of a double predicate ; as. TJie people grezv to be
barbarous.

3. Tn the sentence. The cJiildren are to be happy,
the infinitive, to be, seems to have almost the force
of the future tense auxiliary, zvill. The sentence
means about the same as, Tlie children will be happy.
An infinitive ma}^ be "used as a future tense
auxiliary; as, Man never is but alzvays to be blessed.

Exercise 108

In the follozving sentences point out each infini-
tive, tell zvhat form it has, and give its exact use
in the sentence:

1. Their business is to depreciate human nature, and
to consider it under its worst appearances.

2. I remained a long time considering the number of
things connected with this marvelous bridge, and to see
people falling just at the time when they seemed to be en-
joying themselves.

3. All efforts to restore life were fruitless.

4. As was the historian, so were the auditors, given to
asking questions, apt to believe on slight evidence.

5. The end of writing is to instruct.

352 An English Grammar

6. What cause withholds you then to mourn for him?

7. To earn is to have.

8. Read not to contradict and confute.

9. I find the perfection of the Greek language to lie
largely in the absence of every exclusive or unconditional
rule.

10. A man can tind more reasons to do as he wishes
than to do as he ought.

11. "What is a- Caucus-race? " said Alice; not that she
much wanted to know, but the Dodo had paused as if it
thought that somebody ought to speak, and no one else
seemed inclined to say anything.

12. To tell you the truth, my errand is not so much to
buy as to borrow.

13. The winter climate of Venice is still so sharp as to
make foreigners regret the generous fires and warmly built
houses of the North.

14. The way to be original is to be healthy.

15. To learn obeying is the fundamental art of govern-
ing.

16. The reward of a good sentence is to have written it.

17. The idea of a man's interviewing himself is rather
odd, to be sure.

18. There is nothing to be done but to turn 'round
and hoe back to the other end.

19. To forget Homer, to cease to be concerned and
even curious about Homer, is to make a fatal step towards
a new barbarism.

312. Substantive Modifiers of the Infinitive.

I. In the sentence, To skate, moving gracefully
over the ice, is a pleasant pastime, the expression,
moving gracefully over the ice, is the appositive
modifier of the infinitive, to skate. An infinitive
mav sometimes take an appositive modifier; as, To

The Infinitive 353

breathe, drawing air into the lungs, is necessary
to life.

2. In the sentence, To read good books is proHt-
ahle, the expression, good hooks, is the direct
objective modifier of the infinitive, to read. An
infinitive may take a direct objective modifier; as,
He likes to visit his friends.

3. In the sentence, The girl wishes to give her
friends hooks, the expression, her friends, is the in-
direct objective modifier of the infinitive, to give.
An infinitive may take an indirect objective modi-
fier; as. The hoy wishes to write to you.

4. In the sentence, To walk a mile is good exer-
cise, the expression, a mile, is the adverbial object-
ive modifier of the infinitive, to zvalk. An infini-
tive may take an adverbial objective modifier; as,
He was asked to sfcak five minutes.

313. Attributive Modifier of Infinitive. In
the sentence. To spend money recklessly is criminal,
the word, recklessly, is an adverbial modifier of the
infinitive, to spend, expressing the adverbial idea of
manner. An infinitive may take an adverbial
modifier; as. To laugh boisterously is a mark of an
ill-hred person.

We may see from this discussion of the modi-
fiers of the infinitive that, even when it is used sub-
stantively, it retains its verbal nature because it
takes the modifiers of a verb.

314. Forms of Infinitives. The forms of the

354 An English Grammar

infinitive of the verb, sell, may be shown in the fol-
lowing manner. They illustrate the forms of the
infinitive of any verb.

1. Active.

a. Present; as, To sell.

b. Perfect; as, To have sold.

2. Passive.

a. Present; as, To he sold.

b. Perfect ; as, To have been sold.

Exercise log

In flic following sentences point out each iniini-
iive, tell what form it is and give its exact use in the
sentence. Giz>e its modifiers if it has any:

1. To be good is to be great.

2. To forgive is to be charitable.

3. The noblest revenge is to forgive.

4. My friend is about to depart.

5. All desire to live long but no one would be old.

6. It is easy to disagree with a friend.

7. The lion, to speak figuratively, is the king of beasts.

8. My child is anxious to go to school.

9. My friend failed to appear.

10. We believe in the life to come.

11. Time to come is called future time.

12. The school is to enjoy a holiday.

13. The people are to trust their leaders.

14. We eat to live and do not live to eat.

15. I know him to be a man.

16. They made William king.

17. The boy grew to be useful.

18. To learn a lesson accurately is difficult

19. I love to read good books.

The InHnitive 355

20. He loves to send presents to his friends.

21. To stud}-, exercismg your mind, is excellent Irainmg.

22. To die, sleeping always, is not much to be dreaded.

23. Man never is but always to be blessed.

24. To err is human.

25. To obey is to enjoy.

26. He loves to play.

2y. He is trying to learn.

28. To spend money recklessly is criminal.

29. To report a speech correctly is difficult.

30. I study to learn.

31. They bade him depart.

32. I saw him falter.

33. I hope to see you.

34. I intended to call for you.

35. He expected to see you yesterday.

36. To do justice and judgment is more acceptable than
sacrifice.

37. It IS our duty to try, and our determination to suc-
ceed.

38. They had dared to think for themselves.

39. Flee from the wrath to come.

40. I heard him declaim.

41. He went to see the World's Fair.

42. The gods are hard to reconcile.

43. The rain threatening to fall, we left early.

44. He told me when to come.

45. They tried to cheat, rob and murder him.

46. I come not here to talk.

47. In sooth, deceit maketh no mortal gay.

48. It is better to fight for the good than to rail at the
ill.

4Q. Let the great world sp:n forever down the ringing
grooves of change.

50. 1 saw along the winter snow a spectral column pour.

Chapter XX

THE PARTICIPLE

315. The Participle Defined. In the sentence,
The girl, sitting by the zvindow, is my sister, the
word, sitting, is a derived form of the verb but it
does not express a thought relation. We call such
a form of the verb a participle. A participle is
the derived form of the verb which does not ex-
press a thought relation; as. The pitcher, broken
at the fountain, eannot he restored.

All derived forms of the verb which do not express
thought relations will, according to this definition, be
classed as participles. Some grammarians distinguish be-
tween what we have called the substantive participle (but
they call the infinitive ending in ing or gerund), and the
participle proper, the form used as an adjective, holding
that the gerund has a different origin in the development
of the language. This is probably true. It is probable
that the gerund or substantive participle (the infinitive
ending in ing), has been formed from the Anglo-Saxon
infinitive in an. This at a later period became en. The
termination, en, was afterwards changed to ing, an end-
mg borrowed from the Anglo-Saxon verbal noun. While
the participle proper is derived from the participle in
the Anglo-Saxon and generally ends in ed. But when
the form ends in ing, it is so difficult to distinguish the
gerund or infinitive in mg, from the participle proper or
adjective used as a noun, that the two may be considered
together and both called participles. There is no advantage

[356]

The Participle 357

to be gained in the study of modern English in trying to
maintain the distinctions in the origin of these forms.

We call all derived forms of the verb, then, participles.
The only difificulty the pupil will now have, according to
this definition, will be in distinguishing between verbal or
abstract nouns and participles in ing, used substantively.
This distinction is difficult to make because it is a dis-
tinction in meaning and not in form. The verbal or ab-
stract noun is wholly substantive in meaning and nature. It
expresses an object of thought which was at one time an at-
tribute expressed by a verb, but it does not take the modi-
fiers which belong to a verb. Some examples will make
the distinction clear; as, Reading, writing, and spelling are
taught in the public schools.

The words, reading, mn-iting, and spelling, in this sen-
tence are clear examples of abstract or verbal nouns. They
will not take adverbial or direct objective modifiers, or any
of the modifiers of the verb. This shov.'s that they do not
retain their verbal nature, although they may be derived
from verbs.

1. The boy reading the story book is my brother.

2. The girl, writing the letter, is ten years old.

3. The child, spelling the words of the signs, cannot
read.

In these sentences the words, reading, zvriting, and
spelling, are participles, but they are used as adjectives.
Such participles are easily distinguished from abstract or
verbal nouns.

1. Reading the story was entertainment enough for
Harry.

2. Writing rapidly is tiresome.

3. Spelling long words rapidlx is difiicull.

Tn these sentences the words reading, ivriting. and
spelling, are used substantively and they arc participles.
They are used in the sentences with tlie value of substan-

ooS A>i Ji)tii^lisli (I'raiiiinar

five words, but at the same time the\- retain their verbal
nature because each one oi ihem makes us think luore of
an act than of an object ol' tliought or a process; antl they
each take some of the moditiers ol the verb. Fhe dis-
tinction between the pariieii'ile which is used substantivel}
and the alistract ov \eilial noun iiui\. in this wav. he easil\
seen.

Exercise no

Select all flic partici'l^lcs from flic follozviiig scii-
fciiccs: fell 'ivliy they arc f^arfici/^lcs. atnl ^i^/Vv the
rcrbs from zclnch tlicy arc derived:

I. Alter strngi^hnt;' for some time in the deep water,
he sank to rise no more.

_\ The blessed work oi helping; the world forward
happily does not wait to be done h\ perfect men.

^^ Tie was two weeks learning: to use his dippers.

4. riiey are winnh learnui::;.

5. riie river was swollen wUh the long' rains.
•6. Mrs. L'ratchit made the QTav\- hissing' hot.

7. His writing- has little commercial xaluc, requiring
too much time in execution.

S. Knowing' that T have no right to sjH^ik here. 1 ask
your leave.

9. The fog' came pourmg m at every chink aiul key-
hole.

10. Night coming- on, they broke their prison bars and
escaped, only to be recaptured before niorning.

316. Substantive Uses of the Participle, i . I n
the sentence. JJ\il}x'iiig raf^idly is good exercise, the
participle, zcalkiiig. is used as the subject of the sen-
tence. A participle may be used as the subject o\
a sentence: ;is. Writing letters is hard. The loving
arc the daring.

The Participle -^59

2. In the sentence, Boxing vigorously is not
fighting, the participle, fighting, is used as the predi-
cate of the sentence. A participle may be used as
the predicate of a sentence; as, Painting is not
daubing a canvas with color.

3. In the sentence. He heard the rapid running
of the water, the word, running, is a participle. It
is used as the direct objective modifier of the verb.
heard. A participle may be used as a direct
objective modifier ; as, IVe saw tlie wrestling on
the lazi'u.

4. In the sentence, My brother is certain of suc-
ceeding in his enterprise, the word, succeeding, is
a participle. It is used as the indirect objective
modifier of the adjective, certain. A participle may
be used as an indirect objective modifier; as,
The boy is desirous of learning rapidly.

5. In the sentence, IV e learn to do by doing, the
word, doing, is a participle. It is used as the prin-
cipal part of the prepositional phrase. A participle
may be used as the principal part of a prepo-
sitional phrase ; as. By running rapidly we caught
the train. There arc hut three ways of living; by
working, by stealing, or by begging. — Proude.

G. In the sentence, That exercise, running rap-
idly, requires endurance, the word, running, is a
partici])le. It is used as an appositive modifier of
the word, exercise. A participle may be used as an

360 Afi English Grammar

&*

appositive modifier; as, That event, hurling the
discus, is dangerous.

7. In the sentence, The master being away, the
work was neglected, the expression, the master
being azvay, is said to be used independently. We
can easily see, however, as was pointed out under
the independent use of the infinitive, Section 309,
that this expression may be changed into an ad-
verbial modifier. The sentence really means, the work
was neglected because the master zvas azvay. If
we take it this way, the expression, the master being
away, is a clausal phrase. This seems a more rea-
sonable way to deal with this construction. How-
ever, most grammarians give the participle and the
infinitive an independent or absolute use; as.
Speaking figuratively, the man is a wolf in sheep's
clothing.

317. Attributive Uses of the Participle, i. In

the sentence, The boy leaving the doors open be-
hind him, rushed througJi the house, the word,
leaving, is a participle. It is used as an adjective
modifier of the noun, boy. A participle may be used
as an adjective modifier; as. The prisoner, stupefied
with terror, could not respond.

2. In the sentence, The plants were growing,
the word, growing, is a participle. It is used as
the predicate of the sentence. A participle may be
used as the predicate of a sentence; as. The stream
was flowing.

The Participle 361

3. In the sentence, The child grew interested in
the story, the word, interested, is a participle. It
is used as the second part of the double predicate,
grezu interested in the story. A participle may be
used as the second part of a double predicate; as,
The man became imbued zvith the idea. (See
double predicate under the infinitive, Section ^11.

4. In the sentence, The rain came dashing down,
the word, dashing, is a participle. It seems here
to partake of the nature of an adjective expressing
an attribute of the object of thought, rain (it was
a dashing rain) ; and also of the nature of an adverb
expressing an attribute of the attribute expressed
by the word, came, the manner of the "coming."
Such a participle may be said to have an adjective-
adverb use. A participle may be used as an ad-
jective-adverb; as. The hail came pelting against
the zvindow.

5. This adjective-adverb use seems sometimes
to shade off into almost a pure adverbial use; as,
The horse came trotting dozvn the road. The par-
ticiple, trotting, here seems to express almost
wholly the manner of coming. A participle may be
used as an adverb; as. The boy went tearing
through the zvheat.

318. Relational Uses of the Participle. In the
sentence, llie train being late, we did not start, the
word, being, is a participle. The group of words,
the train being late, is a clausal phrase and the par-

362 An English Grammar

ticiple, being, is the copula-like element of it. The
sentence means, IVe did not start because the train
zuas late. A participle may be used as the copula-
like element of a clausal phrase; as, My uncle
being ready, zve left immediately.

In the sentence, He stood, being hesitating in
his manner, thq word, being, is a' participle. It is
used as the copula-like element with the second part
of the double predicate, Jiesitating in his manner.
A participle may be used as the copula-like element
with the second part of the double predicate; as,
He waited, (being) absorbed in thought. The par-
ticiple is the word, being, understood. These ex-
pressions, being hesitating in his manner, and ab-
sorbed in thought, are often called adjective modi-
fiers of the subject.

Exercise iii

Illustrate as many uses of the participle as you
can, by constructing sentences containing these par-
ticiples and participial phrases: making, disguis-
ing, zvearing, rejoicing, finishing, being zvhipped,
having been lost, being found, szvaying, rocking,
plunging, being told, haz'ing been seen, having been
rising, hazing been zvalking, having zvalked, lost,
szvollen, steeped, fumbling, squealing, being made.

319. Substantive Modifiers of the Participle.

I. In the sentence, Spelling rapidly, naming the

letters of a zvord, is difficult, the expression, naming

The Participle 363

tlie letters of a zvord, is an appositive modifier of
the ])articiple, spelling. The participle may take an
appositive modifier; as, Writing neatly, forming
the letters which compose words, /^^ not an easy
task.

The participle does not often take an appositive
modifier.

2. In the sentence, JVe did not like his singing,
the word, his, is a possessive modifier of the par-
ticiple, singing. A participle may take a possessive
modifier; as, Tom's rolling the ball made us neri'-
ons.

3. In the sentence, The boy is bringing the ear-
riage, the expression, the carriage, is the direct ob-
jective modifier of tlie participle, bringing. A par-
ticiple ma}' take a direct objective modifier; as,
The boy playing the cornet is the leader of the band.

.4. In the sentence, !V riling to the boy, he said,
"go quickly", the expression, the boy, is the indi-
rect objective modifier of the participle, zvrifing. A
participle may take an indirect objective modifier;
as, Giz'inz the reins to the driver, he dismounted
from the carriage.

5. In the sentence, Walking the mile zvas tire-
some, the expression, the mile, is an adverbial ob-
lective modifier of the participle, zvalking. A par-
ticiple may take an adverbial objective modifier;
as, We zvere zvaiting fifteen minutes.

320. Attributive Modifier of Participle. 1. In

364 An Englis/i Graniniar

the sentence, Thinking rapidly requires presence of
mind, the word, rapidly, is an adverbial modifier of
the participle, thinking. A participle may take an
adverbial modifier; as, The child, reading aloud,
was heard all over the house.

321. Forms of Participles. The forms of the
participle from the verb, see, may be indicated as
follows. They will illustrate the participial forms
of any verb :

1. Active.

a. Present; as, Seeing.

b. Perfect; as. Having seen.

2. Passive.

a. Present: as, Being seen.

b. Perfect; as. Having been seen.

Exercise 112

III the folhnving sentences point out each iniini-
tive and participle, tell what form each is, give its
exact use in the sentence and all its modifiers:

1. Thoughts shut up, want air.

And spoil Hke bales unopened to the sun.

— Young.

2. Let us be content in work,

To do the thing we can, and not presume
To fret because it's little.

3. One day with life and heart.

Is more than time enough to find a world.

4. Needful auxiliaries are our friends, to give
To social man true relish of himself.

5. Learn well to know how much need not be known,
And what that knowledge which impairs your sense.

The Participle 365

6. Let him not violate kind nature's laws,
But own man born to live as well as die.

7. The blood more stirs

To rouse a lion than to start a hare.

8. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend.

— Taylor.

9. It is the curse of kings to be attended

By slaves that take their humors for a warrant.
To break within the bloody house of life,
And on the winking of authority.
To understand a law.
10. Have you sons! Look in the next fierce brawl
To see them die. Have ye fair daughters? Look
To see them live, torn from your arms, distained.
Dishonored, and if ye dare call, for justice
Be answered bv the lash.

Chapter XXI

THE PREPOSITION

322. Preposition Defined. A preposition is a
relational word which expresses a relation be-
tween ideas of unequal rank; as, The president
lives in JJ\isJiiiigfon.

323. Uses of Preposition. In the sentence,
IVe rise early in the morning, the preposition, in,
is the relational word of the prepositional phrase,
in the morning. In the sentence, She wrote to her
mother, the preposition, to, expresses the relation
between the object of thought expressed by the in-
direct objective modifier, her mother, and the at-
tribute expressed by the verb, zvrote. The expres-
sion, to Jier mother, is not a prepositional phrase as
is the expression, in the morning, in the first sen-
tence.

The preposition alwavs has one of these two
uses :

1. It is the relational word of a preposit'onal
phrase; as, JVho works in the morning?

2. It expresses the relation between the ob-
ject of thnu,2;ht expressed by an indirect objective
modifier and the attribute expressed by the word

[366]

The Preposition 367

which it modifies; as, Slic gave assistance to tJic
needy.

324. Modifiers of the Preposition. As we

liave already seen under die simple sentence, Sec-
tion 58, the preposition may take the following-
modifiers :

1. The adverbial; as, Tiie Jiouse stands just
aeross the rirer.

2. The adverbial objective; as, The boy lives
two miles helo2V the city.

Exercise 113

In tJie follozving sentences point out each prepo-
sition, give its exact use, and all its modifiers:

1. He was brave on the field of battle.

2. He triumphed in his death.

3. The boy is very popular with his playmates. •

4. Samuel offered his seat to the lady.

5. The teacher gave the book to Sarah.

6. The slave was very grateful to his master.

7. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.

8. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.

9. Good deeds return to bless him who does them.
10. To waste in youth is to want in old age.

325. Object of Prepositions. The substantive
expression, following" a preposition, is usually called
"the object of the preposition." It is easy to see,
however, that a preposition cannot have an object,
that is, a direct or indirect objccti\e modi Tier l)e-
cause it always expresses an idea of relation.

368 An English Grammar

is'

Words which take direct or indirect objective
modifiers must express attributes. The expres-
sion, *' object of a ])repositi()n," is, therefore, mis-
leading. The substantive exi)ressions following
prepositions are in the objective case, but this is
because when any such expressions having dif-
ferent case forms are used after prepositions, the
objective form is always used. The substantive
expression which follows the preposition is the
principal part of a prepositional phrase or else
it is an indirect objective modifier.

Exercise 114

Prepositions are small words but they are very
important in onr language because they have many
idiomatic uses. Most of these can be learned only
by noticing the usage of good speakers and writers.
Try to make the proper distinction betzveen at and
in, to and with, in and to, from and with, in and
into, in and within, on and upon.

From the expressions inclosed in the marks of
parent lie sis in each of the follozving sentences select
the correct one:

1. The vessel will arrive (zvithin, inside) of two weeks.

2. He did not remember (saying, of saying) that the
thief was tall.

3. She replied. " not that I (remember, remember of),"

4. Is your father (at, to) home?

5. The greatest masters of critical learning differ
(among, from, zvith) one another.

6. They danced (round, around) the pole.

The Preposition 369

7. He was not successful, as a rule, (■zi'ith, at) narra-
tive.

8. There was the old man in the forest (back of, be-
hind) the barn.

9. (Behind, back of) his falsehood, there is a truth.

10. I have no decided preference (betzcecn, among)
these five authors.

11. There is some trouble (among, betzveen) the teach-
er and his pupils.

12. She made a resolution (ivith, bcticccn) every
mouthful, never to say one word to that magpie again.

13. He interfered with her sister's attachment (to, for)
Mr. Bingley.

14. The old clock on the stairs frightened us (by, in)
striking two.

15. Judged (from, by) this fstandpoint. point of ineiv)
he was wanting.

16. He put the water (in, ivithin) reach of the dog.

17. He went (in, into) the house.

18. He was thrown (into, in) the mud.

19. This merging of self (into, in) mankind is noble.

20. Put money (in, into) thy purse.

21. This discovery I made as soon as I was fairly (in,
into) the room.

22. " Paracelsus "' shows Browning's clever insight
(into, of) man.

22,. \'o\\ have an advantage (of, oz'cr) me in that you
know my name.

24. The difference (in, of) character ^betzi'cen, of) the
two men f affected, effected) their writings.

25. There is no use fin. of) my trying to get ready.

26. The remainder of his wages (is, are) deposited (on,
to ) his credit.

27. A lady who did not belong to some church would
be looked (on, at) askance.

370 An Etiglish Grammar

28. The vessel was blown (on, onto) the rocks.

29. This was brought about {by, through) the services
of friends.

30. His longer poems are of a very different stamp
(than, from) his shorter ones.

31. Wordsworth's "" Skylark " is altogether different
(to, from) Shelley's.

32. A difference arose (betzveen, among) the two in
their correspondence (zvith, to) each other.

33. Your decision accords (to, zvith) mine.

34. Gladstone set out (for, to) London.

35. The vessel sank far out (at, to) sea.

36. I believe (on, to) the contrary that Washington was
the greatest of good men, and best of great men.

37. Byron's " Farewell " was written after his separa-
tion (from, zvith) his wife.

38. He was accompanied (by, zvith) his wife.

39. I differ (from, zvith) you.

40. We parted (from, zvith) him at the corner.

41. He was fully alive to the advantages of foreign
methods (as zvell as to the necessity of using them, as zvell
as the necessity of using them).

42. I wrote (to him. him) in May.

43. I went to Chicago and (from thence, thence) to St.
Louis.

44. They (pondered, pondered over) the question.

45. One calamity (follows, follozvs after) another.

46. The teacher (examined, examined into) the subject
f^arefuUy.

Chapter XXII

THE CONJUNCTIOX

326. Conjunction Defined. A conjunction is a
relational word which expresses an unasserted re-
lation between ideas or thoughts of equal rank or
thoughts of unequal rank; as. Two and three are
five. The day is briL!;hf and the ivind is fresJi. TJiey
came though zee did not expect them.

327. Classes of Conjunctions. It is clear from
the definition and from the work on the compound
and complex sentences that conjunctions are of two
classes :

1. A conjunction which expresses a relation
hetween ideas or thouc;"hts of ef|ual rank is called
a co-ordinate conjunction; as. Bread and milk is
good food. TrutJi is migJify and // zvill prevail.

2. A conjunction may express relation be-
tween tliou.Q;bts of unequal rank. This is called a
subordinate conjunction; as, They walked zvifh
us until the train left.

328. Correlative Conjunctions. Two words
often perform, tbe office of a single conjunction;
the first of the pair indicating that something will
presently be added. We call such pairs of words

[3711

372 An English Grammar

correlative conjunctions; as. The man zvas neither
Jwuesf nor efficient. Both JVilliam and Thomas
ivere present.

329. Phrasal Conjunctions. Sometimes a
group of more llian two words has the force of a
single conjunction in the sentence; as, He came in
order that he might assist ris. In case that ive are
defeated we shall retreat.

Such expressions may be called phrasal con-
junctions.

Exercise 115

In the follozving sentences point out each con-
junction, classify it, give its exact use in the sen-
tence, and notice zvhetJier or not the conjunction has
modifiers:

1. Truth makes man free, but error binds him in end-
less chains.

2. Sincerity and modesty are essential to good char-
acter.

3. The blue and white flower is a pansy.

4. Goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of
my life.

5. I shall not proceed for danger lurks in my course.

6. I will have the heart of him if he forfeit.

7. I know that you will be pleased with my friend.

8. I see that you are disappointed in the book.

9. Bread and butter is palatable food.

10. I shall be sure to see you for I live in the town.

11. Swearing is neither profitable nor pleasant.

12. You will have to study or you will get behind your
class.

The Conjunction 373

13. I have seen other people make the same mistake,
therefore I warn you.

14. Cunning may succeed for a time, but in the end
murder will out.

15. I oft delivered from his forfeitures

Many that have at times made moan to me ;
Therefore he hates me.

Exercise 116

Be careful to select the correct conjunctions to
express your nieanin^^. From the expressions in-
closed in the marks of parenthesis in each of the fol-
lozi'ing sentences, select the correct one and give
reasons:

1. I am not sure (as, that) cither my brother or my
friend can help you.

2. Then (as, likcj all rich men do, he appealed to the
public.

3. They were told not to leave (unless, ivithont) they
were sent for.

4. Then these same sisters of mercy are batliing a hot
heail for, and ) 1)inding' a broken limb.

5. At that time he was going (and, or) coming twice
a day.

6. Wy father is a wise (hut, and) cautious man.

7. (Since, as) \ou are going my way, I might as well
ride.

8. I loved Lincoln (as. because ) he was a true man.

9. T consider him a superior man in (both, all) in-
tellect, feeling, and courage.

10. They regret (how, that) they left school.

11. They told us (hoiv, that) they had just visited
Switzerland and (how, that) they had thought of boarding
the Kibe.

374 All Engiis/i Gram mar

12. (Though, if) science has made mncli progress, there
arc still many problems.

13. I am sure that it was neither my father (or, nor)
my mother.

14. The book was neither so interesting (or, nor) so
helpful as we had hoped to find it.

15. I have no word from the vessel (or, nor) do I ex-
pect any to-day.

16. (Though alone in the Jiouse. I z>.'as alone in the
house but) I was not frightened.

17. He looked at me curiously (as if, as though) he
knew me.

18. \'ery soon, (though, hoicever) , the sun appeared.

19. I smiled and tried to make myself agreeable (zvhen,
though) my head was almost bursting.

20. (While, zvhen) walking out this morning, I found
several white anemones,

21. To learn the subjects is a dit^cult task, (z^'hile,
but) to teach them is much more difficult.

22. She was under the large tree in the yard, (zvhile,
and) beside her was her book.

Work in Composition

THE REA'ENGE

I.

At Flores in the Azores Sir Richard Grenville lay.

And a pinnace, like a flutter'd bird, came flying from far
away :

" Spanish ships of war at sea ! We have sighted fifty-
three ! "

Then sware Lord Thomas Howard : " 'Fore God, I am no
coward ;

The Conjunction '^T5

But T cannot meet them here, for mv ships are out of g'ear,
And the half mv men are sick. I must fly. but follow quick.
We are six ships of the line ; can we fight with fifty-three? "

IT.

Then spake Sir Richard Crcnville : " I know \ou are no cow-
ard ;

You fly them for a moment to fioht with them again.

But I've ninety meri and more that are lying sick ashore.

I should count myself the coward if I left them, my Lord
Howard.

To these Inquisition dogs and the devildoms of Spain."

III.

So Lord Howard passed awa\' with five ships of war that

day.
Till he melted like a cioud in the silent summer heaven ;
But Sir Richard Ijore in hand all his sick men from flic land
\'ery carefully and slow.
Men of Bideford in Devon,
And we laid them on the ballast down below ;
I'or we brought them all aboard,
Anrl they blest him in their pain, that they were not left to

Spain.
To the thumbscrew and the stake, for the glory of the Lord.

TV.
He had onlv a hundred seamen to work flie ^^bip and to fight.
And he sailed away from Mores till the Spaniard came in

sight.
With his huge sca-castles heaving upon the weather bow.
" Shall we fight or shall we fly?
Good Sir Ricliard. tell us now.
For to fight is but to die!

3't) All English Grammar

There'll be little of us left by the time this sun be set."
And Sir Richard said again : " We be all good English men.
Let us bang these dogs of Seville, the children of the devil,
For 1 never turned my back upon Don or devil yet."

V.

Sir Richard spoke, and he laughed, and we roar'd a hurrah,
and so

The little Revenge ran on sheer into the heart of the foe,

With her hundred fighters on deck, and her ninety sick be-
low ;

For half of the fleet to the right and half to the left were
seen.

And the little Revenge ran on thro' the long sea-lane be-
tween.

VL
Thousands of their soldiers iook'd down from their decks

and laughed.
Thousands of their seamen made mock at the mad little

craft
Running on and on, till delay'd
By their mountain-like San Philip that, of fifteen hundred

tons.
And up-shadowing high above us, with her vawning tiers

of guns.
Took the iireath from our sails, and we stay'd.

VIL
And while now the great San Philip hung above us like a

cloud
Whence the thunder-bolt will fall
Long and louvd.
Four galleons drew awav

Tlic Conjunction 377

From the Spanish fleet that day.

And two upon the larboard and two upon the starboard lay,

And the battle-thunder broke from them all.

VIII.
But anon the great Sar. Philip she bethought herself and

went.
Having that w ithin her womb that had left her ill-content ;
And the rest they came aboard us and they fought us hand

to liand.
For a dozen tunes the\" came with their pikes and mus-

queteers,
And a dozen times we shook 'em ofl:' as a dog that shakes his

ears
When he leaps from the water to the land.

IX.

And the sun went down, and the stars came out far over the
summer sea,

But never a moment ceased the fight of the one and the fif-
ty-three.

Ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-built gal-
lecjns came.

Ship after ship, the whole night long, with her battle thun-
der and flame :

Ship nfter ship, the whole night long, drew back with her
dead and her shame.

For some were sunk and many were shattered, and so could
fight us no more —

God of battles, was ever a battle like this in the world be-
fore ?

X.

For he said. " l*'ight on ! Fight on ! "
Tho' his vessel was all but a wreck ;

378 An Englis/i Grammar

And it chanced tliat, when half of the short summer night

was gone,
With a grisly wound to be dressed he had left the deck,
But a bullet struck him that was dressing it suddenly dead,
And himself he was wounded again in the side and the

head.
And he said, " Fight on ! Fight on ! "

XI.
And the night went down and the sun smiled out far over

the summer sea,
And the Spanish fleet, with broken sides, lay round us all in

a ring ;
But they dared not touch us again, for they fear'd that we

still could sting,
So they watch'd what the end would be.
And we had not fought them in vain,
But in perilous plight were we,
Seeing forty of our poor hundred were slain,
And half of the rest of us maimed for life
Jn the crash of the cannonades and the desperate strife:
And the sick men down in the hold were most of them stark

and cold.
And the pikes Vv'ere all broken or bent, and the powder was

all of it spent ;
And the masts and the rigging were lying over the side ;
But Sir Richard cried in his English pride,
" We have fought such a fight for a day and a night
As may never be fought again !
We have won great glory, my men !
And a day less or more
At sea or ashore.
We die — does it matter when ?
Sink me the ship. ]\Iaster Gimner — sink her, split her in

twain !
Fall into the hands of God, not into the hands of Spain ! "

The Conjunction 379

XII.

And the gunner said, " Ay, ay," but the seamen made reply:

" We have children, we have wives.

And the Lord hath spared our lives.

We will make the Spaniard promise, if we yield, to let us

go;
We shall live to fight again and to strike another blow."
And the lion lay there dying, and they yielded to the foe.

XIII.

And the stately Spanish men to their flag-ship bore him

then,
Where they laid him by the mast, old Sir Richard caught at

last.
And they praised him to his face with their courtly foreign

grace :
But he rose upon their decks and he cried :
■■ I have fought for Queen and I-'aith like a valiant man and

true ;
1 have only done my duty as a man is bound to do :
With a joyful spirit I. Sir Richard (jrenville, die!"
And he fell upon their decks and he died.

XIV.
And they stared at the dead that had been so valiant and

true,
And had holdcn the power and glory of Spain so cheap
j^hat he dared her with one little ship and his English few ;
Was he devil or man ? He was devil for aught they knew.
lUit they sank his l>ody with honor down into the deep.
And they mann'd the Revenge with a swarthier alien crew,
And away she sailed with her loss and long'd for her own ;
When a wind from the lands they had ruin'd awoke from

sleep,

380 All Eiiglisli Grainiiiar

And the water began to heave and the weather to moan,

And or ever that evening- ended a great gale blew.

And a wave like the wave that is raised by an earthquake,

grew,
1^ill it smote on their hulls and their sails and their masts

and their flags.
And the whole sea plunged and fell on the shot-shatter'd

navy of Spain.
And the little Revenge herself went down bv the island

crags
To be lost evermore in the main.

— Alfred Tennyson.

L

'Read "The Revenger

About zvJiaf is the poem written? Between
-cvhom did the battle take place? When? Where?
Who are the main charaeters in the poem? JVhaf
are the main incidents? IVhat means has been used
to make the story dramatic and z'i'c'id?

Write the story briefly, telling some of the story
through conversation.

11.

JVhat noble traits of character did Sir Richard
Grenville have? Which did he show zvhen he sazv
the enemy approaching? Which in the midst of the
fight? JVhich zvhen honored? Hozv did the enemy
regard him? Hozv did his ozvn men regard him?
What zvas the strongest proof of his real nobility of
character?

TJic Conjunction 381

Write a character sketch one paragraph long of
Sir Richard Grenville. Let the first sentence of your
paragraph give a general idea of his character and
in the others discuss it more fully. Give proofs for
all the statements which you make.

III.

What names could he given to some of the scenes
and incidents in "The Revenge?"

Picture to yourself some scene or incident men-
tioned in the poem and describe it fully, putting in
enough detail to gii'C a clear idea of it.

IV.

What is the purpose of " The Revenge"? How
has the author shown liis purpose? JJliat impress-
es you most in reading the poem? What do you like
about the poem?

Outline and write a review of " The Revenge?'
See that each paragraph of your reviezv deals with
but one topic and that the paragraphs are related.

The Index

The references are to section numbers

A.

Abridged complex sentence, 85.

Abridged compound sentence, 56,
60. 62.

.\l)-olute tense, 269; classes of, 271.

.■\bstract noun, 134.

Active voice, 283; classes of, 286.

Adjective, 32, 192; classes of on ba-
sis of chief purpose, 196.

Adjective clause, 71, 98, 99; con-
nectives of, 116; punctuation of,
118, relative pronoun in the, 102.

.\djective modifiers, classe- of, 51.

Adjectives, not compared, 227; on
basis of use. 193; singular and
plural, 215.

A.djective phrase,- 41, 42.

Adverbial clause, 71, 119; ideas.
54; modifier, 53; objective modi-
fier defined, 49: phrase, 41, 42.

Adverb defined, :i2. 301.

.-\(lvcrbs, classe- of on basis of kind
of idea to which the attribute
expressed, belongs, 302 ; classes
of on basis of use. .305.

.\dversative conjunctions, 77.

.Alternative conjunctions, 79.

AnaK'"=is of the sentence, model for,
16.'

-Vnalysis of the thought, model for,

16.
Antecedent, 190.
-\ppositive modifier, 45.
-Arrangement defined, 20; kinds of

21 ; natural inverted, 21.
Article, 210; classes 'of, 211.
Ascending comparison, 224.
-Attribute defined, 28.
Attribute modifier defined, 44.
Attribute words, 32; classes of, 238,
-Attributive clause, 70; classes of

71.
-Attributive modifier defined, 50; oi

infinitive, 313.
-Attributive phrase, 39, 40; classes

of, 41, 42.
Attributive uses of the infinitive. 310.
.Attriliutive verb, 32, 237; classes of,

230.
-Attributive verb phrase. 41, 42.
Attributive word, defined, 30.
Auxiliary verb, 246. 253.

C.

Ca])itaIization, 22.
Cardinal .'idjcclive. 207.
Case. 1C)0. 161; classes of. 162; how
denoted. 166.

(382)

The Index

383

ausal conjunction, 81.
ausative verb, 246, 252.
hanges in form to denote person
and number, 291.
las.'^ noun=, 129.

lasses of adjective modifiers, 51.
lause. The, 66: classified on basis
of the relation of one clause to
the other clauses in the sentence,
67; classified on basis of use, 68;
defined. 25.
Dgnate verb, 246. 248.
ollective noun. 130.
ommon gender. 141.
3mmon noun, 127; classes of, 128.
omparison. 216, 217; degrees of,
218; kinds of. 223; methods of,
226.

omparative degree. 220. 222
3mplex sentence. 84; abridged, 85;
classes of. 85; defined, 24; regu-
lar, 85 ; words used in. 86.
omposition. 22, 28, 59, 63, 81, 82.
83, 118. 120, 122, 123, 134. 159,
168. 183, 189. 191. 213. 227. 253,
265. 278. 279. 288, 300, 307, 314.
321. 329.

ompound. compound - complex

sentence, 60, 63.

ompound conjunctive adverb. 120.
ompound pergonal pronouns, 180;
how formed. 181; how used, 182;
peculiarity of. 183.
ompound predicates. 57.
ompound relative pronoun. 103,
109; how formed. 110; list of
111.

Compound sentence, 56; abridged,
60; classes of. 60; defined, 24;
groups of words used in forming
the. 65 ; members of. 72 ; punctua-
tion of, 83; regular, 60; relation
between thoughts expressed by
members of, 12>\ uses of words in
the, 82; words used in forming
the. 64.

Compound subject, 56.

Concrete noun, 132, 133.

Conjugation, 295; defined, Z2>.

Conjunction, defined, 326.

Co-ordinate clause, 67.

Co-ordinate conjunction, 327.

Copula defined. 15 ; the principal
part of. 55.

Copulative conjunction. 75.

Correlative conjunction, 328.

D.

Declarative sentence defined, 18.

Declension, 168.

Defective verb, 246, 250.

Definite article, 212.

Definition, marks of. 2.

Dcmonsti'ative adjective, 202.

Descending comparison, 225.

Descriptive adjective. 197.

Descriptive adjective clause. 98, 100.

Descriptive adjective modifier de-
fined, 51.

Devices for fixing use of principal
l)arts of irregular verbs. 245.

Direct objccti\e modifier defined,
47.

384

The Index

Direct quotation, 91, 94; punctua-
tion, 93 ; uses of in the complex
sentence, 92.

Distinguishing mark of grammar, 4.

E.

Elements of the thought 11, 12.
l-'xclamator}- sentence defined, 18.
Expletive defined, 34.

Factitive verb, 246, 252.
I'eminine gender, 140.
l-'irst person, 148, 174.
I-"orms not passive, 288.
Forms of verbs, 299.
I'orm words, 34.
I^iture perfect tense, 278.
I'uturc tense, 274.

Gender, 136, 137; classes of, 138;

irregularities in, 144; methods of

denoting, 143.
Grammar defined, 5.
Grammar, distinguishing mark of,

4; place in the language group, 3.

I

Ideas defined, 9, 28.
Idea of relation defined, 28.
Imperative mode, 257, 260; sugges-
tion on, 255.
Imperative sentence defined, 18.
Impersonal verb, 246, 247.
Indefinite article, 213.
Independent clause, 69.
Indicative mode, 257, 258.

Indicative mode, uses of, 262.

Indirect objective modifier detinec
48.

Indirect quotation, 95, 97; uses o
%.

Individual clause, 67.

Infinitive, 308; attributive modifie
of, 313 ; attributive uses of, 310
defined,' 35; substantive modifie
of, 312; substantive uses of, 309
forms of, 314; relational uses o
311.

Infinitive phrase, il , 38.

Inflection, 173.

Interjection, 34.

Interrogative adjective, 203; ac
verb, 307; pronoun, 170, 184, 185
distinction in, 187 ; forms o
186; uses in, 188.

Interrogative sentence defined, 1<

Intransitive verb, 240.

Inverted arrangement, 21.

Irregular verb, 243; difficult, 244.

K

Kinds of arrangements, 21.

Language studies, classes of, 6

definition of, 6; outline of, 6.
Limiting adjective defined, 198

classes of, 199.
Limiting adjective clause, 98, 101

199.
Limiting adjective modifier definec

52.
Literal meaning of words, 1.

The Index

385

M

Marks of a good definition, 2.

Masculine gender, 139.

Modal adverb, 304.

Mode, 255, 256.

Model for the analysi.^ of the sen-
tence, 16; for analysis of the
thought, 16.

Modifier, defined, 43; kind of. 44.

Modifying adjective. 195.

Multiplicative adjective, 209.

N

Natural arrangement, 21.
Neuter gender, 142.
Nominative case, 163.
Noun, 124; classes of, 125; defined,

31 ; plural in form but singular

in meaning, 159; properties of.

135.
Number, 151, 152, 289, 290; classes

of, 153.
Numeral adjective, 205; classe of,

206.

Objective case, 165.

Object of thought defined, 28.

Ordinal objective. 208.

P

Parsing, 191, 228.

Participle, 315; attributive uses of,

317; attributive modifier of, 320;

defined, 35 ; forms of, 321 ; phrase,

yi , 38; relational uses of, 318;

substantive modifiers of, 319; sub-

stative use- of 316.

Parts of speech, 123.

Parts of the sentence, 14; defined,
15.

Passive voice, 284; classes of, 287;
hov.- formed, 285.

I'ast indicative, 233.

I^ist participle, 234.

Past perfect tense, 277.

Past tense. 273.

Personal pronoun, 170; classes of,
171; peculiarities of, 178.

Person, 145, 146, 289, 290; classes
of, 147.

Phrase, 36; classes of, })1 \ on basis
of characteristic word, 38; on ba-
sis of their use in sentence, 39.

Phrasal conjunctions, 329.

Place of grammar in the language
group, 3.

Plural adjectives, 215.

Plurals foreign, 158.

Plural number, 155; rules for for-
mation of, 156; with different
meanings, 157.

Positive degree, 219, 222.

Possessive case. 164; forms, 167,
177.

Possessive modifier defined, 46.

Potential mode, 261.

Predicate adjective, 194.

Predicate defined, 15.

Predicate, the principal part of, 55.

Prepositional phrase, Zl , 38.

Preposition, 322 ; defined, 2>2> ; modi-
fiers of, 324; object of, 325; uses
of, 323.

Present indicative, 232.

386

The Index

Present perfect tense, 276.

Present tense, 272.

Principal parts, names of, 231.

Principal parts of irregular verb,
244.

Pronominal adjectives, 200; called
pronouns, 214; classes of, 201.

Pronoun, 169; defined, 31; classes
of, 170; or adjectives, 179.

Proper noun, 126.

Properties of noun, 135.

Punctuat'ion, rules of, 123; and cap-
italization, 22.

Pure adverb, 306.

Pure subordinate conjunction, 121,
122.

Pure verb, 16, 236; defined, 33.

Quantitative adjective. 204.

R

Redundant verb, 246, 249.

Reflexive verb, 246, 251.

Regular, adverb, 303; arrangement,
21 ; complex sentence, 85 ; com-
pound sentence, 60, 61 ; verb, 242.

Relational pbrase. 39, 40, uses of
the infinitive, 311; words, 33;
word defined, 30.

Relation of addition, 74; of agree-
ment, 12; of alternation, 78; of
conclusion. 80; of disagreement,
12; of opposition, 76.

Relative pronoun, 104, 108,170,189;
classes of, 105 ; distinctions in use.

189; forms of, 189; in the adjec-
tive clause, 102; kinds of objects
expressed by, 108; omitted, 189;
possessive form of, 189; proper-
ties of, 189.

Relative tense, 270; classes of, 275.

Review, 16, 22, 28, 59, 63, 82,
83, 102, 118, 120, 122, 123, 134,
159, 168', 183, 190, 191, 215, 228,
253, 265, 278. 288, 300, 307, 314.
321, 329.

Scheme for study of a selection, 59.

Second person, 149, 175.

Sentence, classes of, 17, 23 ; classi-
fied on basis of their meaning, 17 ;
defined, 7 ; on basis of number and
relation of thoughts expressed,
22) ; the arrangement of, 19 ; the
organic parts of, 55 ; why it must
have three parts, 16.

Shall and Will, uses of, 254.

Simple conjunctive adverb, 114.
115; list of, 117.

Simple personal pronoun, 172.

Simple relative pronoun, 103. 106;
list of. 107.

Simple sentence, uses of words in.
58 ; defined, 24 ; model of analy-
sis. 59; to find kinds of words in.
59.

Singular adjective, 215.

Singular number, 154.

Strong verbs, 293.

Subject defined, 15; principal part
of 55, agreement with verb. 292.

The Index

387

Subordinate clause, 69; classes of,
70.

Subordinate conjunction, ZTi .

Substance noun, 131.

Substantive clauses, 70; usual form.
87, 90; punctuation of, 89; the
uses of in the complex sentence,
88.

Substantive moditier defined, 45 ; of
the infinitive, 312.

Substantive phrase, 39, 40.

Substantive uses of the inlinitive,
309.

Substantive words. 31 ; defined. 30.

Subjunctive mode, 257, 259; re-
mains of, 263 ; uses of. 264.

Superlative degree, 221, 222.

Synopsis, 298.

Tense, 266, 267; classes of, 268; uses

of forms, 279.
Third person, 150, 176.
Thought analyzed, 13.
Thought and the subject. 8.
TlK>ught and sentence compared.

10; defined, 9; elements of, 11:

material or ideas, 26; predicate,
12; relation, 12; subject, 12.
Transitive verb. 239.

\'orb.^9; au.xiliary, 236, 246. 252,
IIZ; agreement with subject 292;
be, conjugation of, 295; causa-
tive, 246; classes of, 235; classes
of on basis of how the past
indicative and perfect participle
;:re formed, 241 ; classes of on basis
of peculiarities, 246; cognate, 246.
248; defective. 246, 250; factitive.
246, 252; impersonal. 246, 247;
phrase. 300; principal parts of.
230; pure, 16, 236; redundant.
246, 249; reflexive. 246, 251; reg-
ular, 242; icU, conjugation of,
297. he, conjugation of, 296.

Voice, 280, 281 ; classes of. 282.

W

Weak verb. 294.

W'liat. the word. 112.

W'lioever. proper use of form of.

113.
Words, classes of. 30; defined. 29;

literal meaning of. 1 ; use of, 27.

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