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f nbuctfve Course in Englfsb
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
FOR
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS
BY
LARKIN DUNTON, LL. D.
Late Head-Master of Boston Normal School
AND
AUGUSTUS H. KELLEY, A.M.
Master of Lyman School, Boston
THOMPSON, BROWN & CO.
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
1904
-*/T ir^cx+.'s^
IKtVAKD COLLEGE UlffAr
6»FT OF
Copyright, 1901, 1902, 1904, by
JULIA A. DUNTON and AUGUSTUS H. KELLEY
JHfmpton #tess
Printers and Binders, Norwood, Mass.
U. S. A.
PREFACE
It has long been apparent to many teachers and stu-
dents of language that progress in learning to use good
English has been seriously retarded by the lack of a text
book on English grammar, simple enough to be easily
understood by pupils in the upper grades of grammar
schools, and at the same time sufficiently comprehensive
to embrace all the essentials of the structure of the
English sentence.
Appreciating the serious loss that has come to the
children who have been compelled to struggle in vain to
understand the intricacies of their mother tongue, when
presented in the hard logic of the common text book, and
knowing from long experience how interesting and inspir-
ing to children is the study of grammar when pursued
along right lines, the authors have given this book to the
public.
It is not a formal treatise on English grammar intended
for the adult, but rather a view of the subject from the
standpoint of the child.
The plan of the book is inductive, and the sentence is
recognized from the first as the unit of thought ; so that
the child is led by easy steps from the study of the simple
and .readily understood sentence to the mastery of the
IV PREFACE
more difficult and complex forms of the language, as
they are naturally used in sentences that express the
growing and enlarging thought.
The essentials of the best educational philosophy as
applied to the study of English, are embodied in the plan
of the Inductive Course in English ; and in no part of
the course is this philosophy more clearly shown than in
the inductive work of the grammar.
No discovery of new technical terms has been made by
the authors, nor have new names been invented to take
the places of the familiar terms that have heretofore
satisfied English scholars.
Although the underlying principles of grammar are
the same in all languages studied in our schools, it has
been considered unnecessary, as well as unwise, to intro-
duce terms from other languages, since the English lan-
guage is capable of expressing every phase of thought ;
nor has it been deemed wise to put into this book much
frequently found in text books on grammar, properly
belonging to the reader, the speller, and the dictionary.
The thanks of the authors are due to the wise counsel-
ors and able teachers who have given valuable suggestions
in the preparation of this book.
CONTENTS.
SECTION PAGE
I. Language — Oral and Written 1
II. The Sentence, kinds of illustrated 1
III. Subject and Predicate, use of shown 3
IV. Nouns, examples of, denned 5
V. Pronouns, examples of, defined 6
VI. Verbs, use of, illustrated, defined 7
VII. Adjectives, use of, illustrated, defined 8
VlU. Adverbs, use of, illustrated, defined 9
IX. Prepositions, use of, phrases defined 11
X. Conjunctions, use of, illustrated, defined 12
XI. Interjections, use of, illustrated, defined 14
XII. Parts of Speech, named 15
XHI. Phrases, use of, shown in sentences 15
XTV. Clauses, complex sentences, use of, defined .... 16
XV. Compound Sentences, use of, shown, defined .... 18
XVI. Kinds of Subjects and Predicates, defined 20
XVII. Verbs of Complete and Incomplete Predication, comple-
ments of verb 22
XVITT. Modifiers, kinds of 24
XIX. Simple and Complete Subjects 25
XX. Simple and Complete Predicates 26
XXI. Kinds of Sentences 27
XXII. The Simple Sentence 29
XXIIT. The Complex Sentence 29
XXIV. The Compound Sentence 30
XXV. Analysis of Simple Sentence 33
XXVI. Analysis of Complex Sentence 34
XXVTT. Analysis of Compound Sentence 85
XXVm. Classes of Nouns 36
XXIX. Properties of Nouns — Person 38
XXX. Number 40
v
VI
SECTION
XXXI.
xxxn.
xxxm.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
xxxvn.
xxxvin.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLHL
XLIV.
XLV.
XLVI.
XLVII.
XLVm.
XLIX.
L.
LI.
LH.
Lin.
LIV.
LV.
LVI.
LVH.
Lvm.
LIX.
LX.
LXI.
lxh.
Lxni.
LXIV.
LXV.
LXVI.
Lxvn.
LXVIII.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
How Plurals of Nouns are Formed 40
Gender 42
Case 44
Declension 49
Parsing Nouns 49
Personal Pronouns 52
Interrogative Pronouns 55
Relative Pronouns » 57
Adjective Pronouns 62
Parsing Pronouns 64
Kinds of Adjectives 65
Articles 67
Comparison of Adjectives 68
Regular Comparison 70
Irregular Comparison 71
Number of Adjectives 73
Parsing Adjectives 74
Transitive Verbs 75
Intransitive Verbs 76
Voice 78
Mode 79
Infinitive Mode 82
Present Participle 83 -
Past Participle 85
Perfect Participle 85
Tense 87
Forms of the Tenses 90
Person and Number 92
Regular and Irregular Verbs 94
Conjugation of the Verb 96
Conjugation of the Verb Have 97
Conjugation of the Verb Do 100
Conjugation of the Verb Be 101
Conjugation of the Regular Transitive Verb Love . 105
Formation of the Tenses Ill
Defective Verbs, use of, illustrated 115
Impersonal Verbs, use of, illustrated 116
Irregular Verbs, list of 117
CONTENTS.
VU
SECTION PAGE
LXIX. Parsing Verbs 125
LXX. Adverbs, kinds of, illustrated ; phrases, clauses . . 127
LXXI. Comparison of Adverbs 129
LXXIL Parsing the Adverb 132
LXXIII. Prepositions 132
LXXTV. List of Prepositions . , 135
LXXV. Parsing Prepositions 136
LXXVI. Coordinate Conjunctions 137
LXXVII. Subordinate Conjunctions 138
LXXVin. Correlative Conjunctions 140
LXXIX. Conjunctive Adverbs . . . . • 140
LXXX. Parsing Conjunctions 141
LXXXI. Interjections, use of, list of 142
LXXXH. Parsing Interjections 143
LXXXIII. Uses of Words, illustrated 144
LXXXIV. Syntax, laws of 146
LXXXV. The Simple Sentence, subject and predicate defined . 147
LXXXVI. The Complex Sentence, clauses 148
LXXXVIL The Compound Sentence, kinds of 148
LXXXVm. The Noun Clause, use of, defined 149
LXXXIX. The Adjective Clause, use of,. defined 150
XC. The Adverbial Clause, use of, defined 150
XCI. The Subject, simple and enlarged 151
XCII. The Predicate, simple and enlarged 155
XCIII. Meaning of Sentences 158
XCIV. The Elements of Sentences 161
XCV. Agreement of Verb with Subject, rules of ... . 161
XCVT. Agreement of Case 162
XCVII. Agreement of Adjective and Noun 164
XCVQI. Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent 165
XCIX. Agreement of Tenses — Clauses 166
C. Agreement of Modes and Tenses 167
CI. Government of object 167
CII. Arrangement or Order, rules of 167
CIII. Figurative Language 168
CIV. Punctuation 175
CV. Terminal Marks 176
CVI. The Period 176
Vlll
CONTENTS.
SECTION PAGH
CVII. The Interrogation Point 177
CVIII. The Exclamation Point 177
CIX. Other Marks of Punctuation, — comma, semicolon,
quotation marks, dash, parentheses 178
CX. Punctuation of the Simple Sentence 181
CXI. Punctuation of the Complex Sentence 182
CXII. Punctuation of the Compound Sentence .... 184
CXIII. Derivation of Modern English 185
CXIV. Stems and Roots 189
CXV. Prefixes 191
CXVI. Suffixes 197
CXVH. Selections for Analysis and Parsing 198
CXV 111. Sentences, and Selections from Literature .... 208
CXIX. Subject and Predicate 208
CXX. Verbs, and their Subjects 210
CXXI. Adjectives and their Nouns 212
CXXII. Adverbs and the Words they Modify 215
CXXIII. Phrases, Kinds and Uses 217
CXXIV. Clauses, Kinds and Uses 219
CXXV. Clauses, Kinds and Uses 220
CXXVI. Clauses, Adjective and Adverbial 221
CXXVII. Clauses, How Used 222
CXXVIII. Subjects, Predicates and Phrases 224
CXXIX. Clauses, How Used 226
CXXX. Kinds of Sentences, Phrases and Clauses .... 229
CXXXI. Uses of Nouns 237
CXXXII. Indirect Objects 239
CXXXm. Pronouns and their Antecedents 240
CXXXIV. Verbs, Transitive and Intransitive 241
CXXXV. Uses of Infinitives 242
CXXXVI. Participles, Kinds and Uses 244
CXXXVII. Choice Literary Selections 246
CXXXVIII. Eloquence of O'Connell 247
CXXXIX. From " The Deserted Village" 249
CXL. Extract from Webster's Bunker Hill Oration ... 251
CXLI. The Daffodils 251
CXLn. Tact and Talent 252
CXLHI. What Constitutes a State 254
CONTENTS.
IX
SECTION PAGE
CXLIV. The Footprints in tfee Sand 254
CXLV. From the Legend of Sleepy Hollow 255
CXLVI. Our Country 256
CXLVIL The Love of Country and of Home 257
CXLVIH. Fitz James and Ellen 258
>/
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
L — LANGUAGE. — ORAL AND WRITTEN.
Language is the means which people use to express*
their thoughts ; it is both oral and written.
Oral language is a combination of sounds used to express
thought.
The sounds used to express thought are grouped in
spoken words. A spoken word may be a single sound or
a group of sounds.
The sounds of oral language are represented by letters
to form written language. Words of oral language have
their, equivalent words in written language.
Single words, whether oral or written, express ideas.
Words must be properly grouped to express thought.
Written language is composed of written words, so com-
bined as to express thought.
The sole purpose of language is to express thought.
English Grammar helps to make known the correct
forms of our language.
II. — THE SENTENCE.
Good children obey their parents, expresses a thought
about children. A thought expressed by means of words,
either orally or in writing, is a sentence.
2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Notice how the thoughts are expressed in the following
sentences :
1. The book is on the table.
2. Have you read the book?
3. Bring me the book.
4. Give us this day our daily bread.
5. How grand the music was I
A sentence is an expression of a thought by means
of words.
The first sentence asserts or declares something about
the book, and is a declarative sentence.
A declarative sentence is a sentence that asserts or
declares something.
The second sentence asks a question about the book
and is an interrogative sentence.
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a
question.
The third sentence expresses a command ; the fourth,
a request or an entreaty. These are called imperative
sentences.
An imperative sentence is a sentence that expresses a
command, a request or an entreaty.
The fifth sentence expresses a strong feeling of pleas-
ure, and is called an exclamatory sentence.
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses
some strong feeling or emotion.
Tell which of the following sentences are declarative* in-
terrogative, imperative, or exclamatory :
1. The boys played in the street.
2. Have you seen your mother to-day ?
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. S
3. Study your lessons carefully.
4. How wonderfully we are made I
5. How did you enjoy your visit to Boston?
6. Be good, sweet child, and let who will be clever.
7. Milton was the author of " Paradise Lost."
8. Little children should always be polite to the aged.
9. The top of the mountain was outlined against the sky.
10. How sleep the brave that sink to rest
By all their country's wishes blest !
11. The sunlight tinges the tops of the distant hills with
gold.
12. The gray mist, rising from the sea, hides the ships from
our view.
13. Keep good company or none.
14. Behold, how good and how pleasant it is, for brethren
to dwell together in unity 1
Find in your reader three declarative sentences, three
interrogative sentences, three imperative sentences, and
three exclamatory sentences.
Write three sentences of each kind.
III. — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
Good children obey their parents.
In this sentence the words naming the things about
which we think are good children ; so we call good chil-
dren the subject of the sentence.
Are the horses here ?
In this sentence the words naming the things about
which we think are the horses ; so we call the horses the
subject of the sentence.
y
4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Study your lessons.
In this sentence, the word naming the person or per-
sons who are to do the studying does not appear. We
must think of a proper word for a subject to place before
the word study. We must understand what word would
make sense, if we decided to write the subject.
You study your lessons would make good sense, so we
say that the subject is you understood.
When the subject of a sentence is not expressed, we say
it is understood.
The subject of an imperative sentence is usually omitted.
The subject of a sentence is the word or words that
name the thing about which something is asserted.
In the sentence, Good children obey their parents, the
words obey their parents express what we think about
good children, so we call obey their parents the predicate
of the sentence.
The predicate of a sentence is the word or words that
express what is asserted about the thing named by the
subject.
The two essential parts of a sentence are the subject
and the predicate.
A subject combined with its predicate is called a
statement.
Point out the subject and the predicate in each of the
following sentences :
1. The nightingale sings sweetly.
2. Men are but children of a larger growth.
3. The morning air was filled with the music of the birds.
J
KOUtfS. O
4. Will you join me at twelve o'clock?
5. Call at my house on your way home.
6. The camel is called the ship of the desert
7. Learn to labor and to wait.
8. How blue the sky looks !
9. The seeds of the pine tree are hidden away in the pine
cone.
10. The greatest and sublimest power is often simple patience.
11. Deep in the wave is a coral grove.
12. The springing grass and the swelling buds give promise
of warmer weather.
IV. — NOUNS.
Study the following words. Think of the object or
quality for which each word stands : Boy, man, girl,
woman, father, mother, dog, cat, hen, duck, goose, robin,
swallow, horse, colt, cow, calf, tree, bush, grass, flower,
stone, iron, lead, gold, silver, love, patience, truth.
These words are the names of things or of qualities
about which we can think. Such words are called nounSe
A noun is a word used as a name.
A noun is a part of speech. ) -
Point out the nouns in each of the following sentences :
1. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.
2. The love of money is the root of all evil.
3. Gold and silver are precious metals.
4. Tall oaks from little acorns grow.
5. Daniel Webster was one of the ablest orators of his
time.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Make a list of the names of all the animals you can
recall; another list of the names of vegetables used for
food. Write five sentences about animals, and five about
vegetables, using names from the lists you have just made,
and underline the nouns in each sentence.
V. — PRONOUNS.
The teacher could say, " The teacher called John and
told John to bring the teacher John's book ; " but such
an expression would not be good English.
It would be better for the teacher to say, " 2" called
John and told him to bring me his book."
Here the words I and me are used instead of teacher, and
the words him and his are used instead of John and John's.
Such words as 7, me, him and his are called pronouns.
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
v A pronoun is a part of speech.
Point out the pronouns in each of the following sentences :
1. William, I will lend you my book.
2. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.
3. I saw him remove his coat.
4. The man brought me some of his fresh berries.
5. They called to see us in the morning.
6. Hail to thee, blithe spirit,
Bird thou never wert.
7. Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault.
8. I that speak to thee am he.
9. Jura answers, through her misty shroud,
Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud.
VERBS. 7
10. They are poor
That have lost nothing ; they are poorer far
Who, losing, have forgotten ; they are poorest
Of all who lose and wish they might forget
Write five sentences using pronouns instead of nouns,
and tell what the nouns are, whose places the pronouns
take. —~
VI. — VERBS.
^
We cannot express a thought with the parts of speech
which we have already studied.
The words apples good does not express a thought.
Apples are good expresses a thought about apples. ^
1. John fed the cat. 4. The children sleep.
2. The boy runs. 5. The dog barks.
3. The snowfalls.
In these sentences each of the words, fed 9 runs, falls,
sleep, and barks, asserts, or tells, something of the thing
named by the subject of the sentence in which it stands.
A word used to assert or tell something of the thing
named by the subject is called a verb. /
A word used to make an assertion is a verb. ^ </
A verb is a part of speech.
Point out the verbs in each of the following sentences :
1. The gentleman has gone home.
2. Flowers blossom in the spring.
3. Will you call at my house this evening?
4. Great rivers flow silently to the sea.
5. It is pleasant to walk in the fields.
6. Cows like to feed on sweet grass.
8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
7. Have you learned all your lessons ?
8. The glass may have been broken.
9. The miller has ground the corn.
10. Charity suffereth long and is kind ; charity vaunteth not
itself, is not puffed up, doth not behave itself unseemly.
11. He prayeth best who loveth best
All things both great and small ;
For the dear God who loveth us,
He made and loveth all.
12. How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.
Tell what you did before you came to school this morn-
ing. Underline all the verbs usdd in telling your story.
VII.— ADJECTIVES.
1. Little children like sweet fruit 2. They are beautiful.
In these sentences the words little and sweet are used to
tell the kinds of children and fruit mentioned. Beautiful
is used to describe they.
1. Mr. Smith has/trar horses. 2. Those books belong to me.
In these sentences the word four tells how many horses
Mr. Smith has; the word those points out particular books.
It is seen that these words, little, sweet, beautiful, four
and those are used to qualify or limit the meaning of the
nouns children, fruit, they, horses and books.
Words that qualify or limit the meaning of nouns and
pronouns are called adjectives.
An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the
meaning of a noun or pronoun.
An adjective is a part of speech.
ADVERBS. 9
Adjectives are said to modify the meaning of the nouns
and pronouns whose meanings they qualify or limit.
A modifier is a word or a group of words used to make
the meaning of another word more clear or definite.
Point out the adjectives in each of the following sentences
and tell the nouns which they modify :
1. Tall oaks from little acorns grow.
2. Beautiful hands are those that do
Work that is earnest, brave, and true,
Moment by moment the long day through.
8. All the pupils in the class were industrious.
4. The ripe grapes were sweet and delicious.
5. William is the fifth boy in the line.
6. I saw four men riding in an old wagon.
7. The first book on the top shelf is the new language book.
8. All through the long bright days of June
Its leaves grew green and fair.
Point out the adjectives in the first poem in your
readers.
Write five sentences using several adjectives in each.
VIII. — ADVERBS.
1. The bird flies swiftly.
2. John came to-day.
3. The man worked here.
In these sentences the word swiftly tells how the bird
flies ; to-day tells when John came, and here tells where
the man worked.
10 ENGLISH GKAMMAR.
A word used to show how, when, or where actions take
place, is said to modify the meaning of the action ex-
pressed by the verb.
Words used to modify the meaning of verbs are called
adverbs.
1. The boy was very sick. 2. The apples were perfectly ripe.
In these sentences the word very tells how sick the boy
was, and perfectly tells how ripe the apples were.
Very modifies the meaning of the adjective sick, and
perfectly modifies the meaning of the adjective ripe.
Words like very and perfectly used to modify the mean-
ing of adjectives are called adverbs.
1. Alice talked too fast. 2. Sow swiftly the dog runs.
In these sentences the word too calls attention to the word
fast, and shows that Alice talked Faster than'she ought.
How calls attention to the word swiftly, and indicates
that the dog was running at a very rapid rate. It has
the force of very. The words too and haw modify the
meaning~bf the adverbs fast and swiftly.
Words like too and how used to modify the meaning of
adverbs are also called adverbs.
An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a
verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
An adverb is a part of speech.
Point out in the following sentences the adverbs, and in*
dicate the verbs, adjectives, and adverbs which they severally
modify :
1. The farmer drove rapidly up the hill.
2. The sun was sinking slowly behind the trees.
PREPOSITIONS. 13-
3. Henceforth I will study more diligently.
4. The hall was very brilliantly illuminated.
5. She is almost always cheerful.
6. The mills of the Gods grind slowly, but they grind exceed-
ing small.
7. He was merely faint, not dead.
8. Men are fearfully and wonderfully made.
9. Man wants but little here below,
Nor wants that little long.
Write three sentences using adverbs to modify verbs,
three using adverbs to modify adjectives, and three using
adverbs to modify adverbs.
• Write three sentences telling when something happened,
three telling where, three telling how. Then write three
sentences telling how much you were pleased, sorry, or
injured by something that happened yesterday.
IX. PREPOSITIONS.
1. He is a man of learning.
2. Our friends over the seas still remember us.
f & The vessel was wrecked on the coast.
4. Your father works for you.
In these sentences the groups of words, of learning, over
the sects, on the coast, and for you modify the meaning of
the words man, friends, was wrecked, and works, with
which they are connected, like adjectives or adverbs.
Such groups of words are called phrases.
The first word in each phrase is called a preposition.
In these phrases learning is called the object of the
X
12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
preposition of y seas the object of the preposition over, coast
the object of the preposition on, and you the object of
the preposition for.
The noun or pronoun of a phrase is called the object of
the preposition.
Phrases used to modify nouns or pronouns are called
adjective phrases. Phrases used to modify verbs, adjec-
tives, or adverbs are called adverbial phrases.
A preposition is a word which shows the relation of its
object to some other word.
A preposition is a part of speech.
Point out the prepositions in thefolloiving sentences and tell
the object of each. Tell also what word each phrase modifies :
1. The shouts of the children had ceased.
2. We heard the bleating of the flock.
3. The boy shot an arrow into the air.
4. She wore a dress of many colors.
5. Men are Judged by the company they keep.
6. I walked through the woods at twilight.
7. Do not cry for spilled milk.
8. In the morning we shall start for New York.
Write five sentences using adjective phrases, five using
adverbial phrases.
X. — CONJUNCTIONS.
1. Her dress was black and white.
2. Send James or John to me.
8. We followed the trail over the mountain and across the
valley.
4. You will not learn urdess you study.
5. I will come because you need me.
CONJUNCTIONS. 13
In these sentences and connects the words black and
white ; or connects the words James and John ; and con-
nects the phrases over the mountain and across the valley ;
unless connects the statements you will not learn and you
study ; because connects the statements / will come and
you need me.
A word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses is
called a conjunction.
A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases,
or clauses.
A conjunction is a part of speech.
Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences and
tell the words, phrases, or clauses which each connects :
1. Time and tide wait for no man.
2. The dwarf stooped and plucked a lily that grew at his
feet.
3. He knocked heavily at the door, but no sound came from
within.
4. Do you start to-morrow or will you remain here until
Monday?
5. You will not fail, because you have determined to
succeed.
6. Spring has come, for the birds and the grass have re-
turned.
7. The advice will do him good, if he will heed it.
8. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.
9. The soldier must do as his commander orders.
10. Across the fields and into the woods they rushed.
11. For men may come and men may go,
But I go on forever.
7
J
14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
12. Will you see whether he has come ?
13. If you desire to learn you must study.
Write five sentences using conjunctions to connect
words, five using conjunctions to connect phrases, and
five using conjunctions to connect statements.
XI. — INTERJECTIONS.
1. Good! That lesson was well recited.
2. Hurrah ! Vacation is here.
3. Alas ! our dear friend is dead.
4. Oh ! how my head aches.
5. Hush ! you will wake the baby.
In these sentences the words good, hurrah, alas, oh and
hush express strong emotions, and are not grammatically
related to any other words in the sentences.
A word which expresses strong emotion and is not
grammatically related to any other word in a sentence is
called an interjection.
An interjection is a word which expresses strong feel-
ing, and is not grammatically related to any other word
in the sentence.
An interjection is a part of speech.
Write five sentences using an interjection in each.
XII. — PARTS OP SPEECH.
We have now briefly studied the kinds or classes of
words, called parts of speech, used by the English-
speaking people to express their thoughts.
We have seen by our study thus far that there are
eight parts of speech, or classes of words.
PHRASES. 15
The parts of speech are : the noun, the pronoun, the
verb, the adjective/ the adverb, the preposition, the
conjunction, and the interjection.
Tell the part of speech to which each word in the follow-
ing sentences belongs :
1. The boys rested under the shadow of a spreading elm.
2. You are still young enough to improve.
3. A little twig sometimes bears a large apple.
4. He wrongs himself who seeks to wrong another.
5. The man who sows his field trusts in God.
6. A lovelier flower was never seen on earth.
7. Nonsense ! Why will you talk so ?
8. The wise are generally in the minority.
9. When I awoke, the sun was shining in at my window.
10. Love, honor, and obey your parents.
11. Ah ! well-a-day I what evil looks
Had I from old and young !
XIII. — PHRASES.
To err is human. — Here the words to err stand as the
subject of the sentence, and are used as a name ; therefore
they are used as a noun.
The man of intelligence makes his influence felt. — Here
the words of intelligence are used to modify the meaning
of the noun man ; therefore they are used as an adjective.
The boy struck with force. — Here the words with force
are used to modify the meaning of the verb struck ; there-
fore they are used as an adverb.
A group of words used as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb is called a phrase.
V
16 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
A phrase is a group of words, not containing a subject
and predicate, which is used as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb.
Point out the phrases in the following sentences :
1. The church stood on the hill.
2. The bell in the tower called the people to church.
3. The bell of Atri was once tolled by a horse.
4. They stood on the bridge at midnight.
5. Here is your bowl of porridge, made from the last oatmeal
we have in the house.
6. The party entered the hall at eight o'clock.
7. The last rays of light were fading from the tops of the
distant hills.
8. She filled her shoes with fern-seed,
This foolish little Nell,
And in the summer sunshine
Went dancing down the dell.
9. To doze, to sleep, to dream, to wake, to play, to plan, and
to do, make up the sum of life.
XIV. — CLAUSES. — COMPLEX SENTENCES.
What he said was instructive. — Here the words what he
said name that of which we think; therefore they are
used as a subject, like a noun.
The scout reported what he had seen. — Here the words
what he had seen are used to tell what the scout reported,
and are used as an object, like a noun.
The boys toho are studious will learn. — Here the words
who are studious describe the noun boys ; therefore they
are used as an adjective.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 17
John stopped when you spoke. Here the words when
you spoke tell when John stopped, and limit the meaning
of the verb stopped ; therefore they are used as an adverb.
In these sentences each of the groups of words what he
said, what he had seen, who are studious, and when you
spoke, contains a subject and a predicate. They are used as
nouns, or as modifiers of words in the sentences like adjec-
tives or adverbs. Such groups of words are called clauses.
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and
a predicate, which is used like a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb.
Note. — The principal statement of a complex sentence is sometimes called
the principal clause.
Point out the clauses in the following sentences, and tell
whether they are used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
1. He did the work which was assigned him.
2. The chief signaled those who followed him to conceal
themselves at once.
3. When the time comes you will find him ready.
4. When winter came, the boys helped their father fell the
trees and haul the logs to the mill.
5. The largest trout were found in the deepest water.
6. He lives a noble life who always does his duty.
7. The man who earns more than he spends will never come
to want.
8. The bird chorus began when the first faint flush of dawn
appeared in the east.
9. When the summer sun is shining
And the sky is blue above,
Then you look at us and send us
Radiant smiles of joy and love.
18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Since a clause may be used as a noun, as an adjective,
or as an adverb, we have noun clauses, adjective clauses,
and adverbial clauses, according to their use.
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one
principal statement, modified by one or more clauses.
A clause is sometimes called a subordinate or dependent
r clause.
XV.— COMPOUND SENTENCES.
Peter read and / listened. Here we have two sentences,
each complete in itself, but united by the word and to
show that they are related in thought. Each of these
sentences, by itself is a simple sentence, but when the
two are combined as above, they form a compound
sentence.
It will be seen that Peter read does not modify / lis-
tened, neither does / listened modify Peter read. Each of
these parts of the sentence which is of equal importance
with the other part is called a coordinate sentence.
A compound sentence may have more than two coordinate
parts.
A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two
or more coordinate sentences.
Point out and name the coordinate sentences in each of
the following compound sentences. Prove to yourself that
each sentence is or is not compound.
1. The hand of the diligent maketh rich, but a fool and his
money are soon parted.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 19
2. The storm ceased, but the vessel was lost.
3. Thomas walked, Carl rode his wheel, and Edith rode in
the carriage with her father.
4. The hour for sailing had arrived, everything on board
was in trim condition, the anchor was weighed, and the huge
steamer started on her homeward journey.
5. The way was long, the wind was cold,
The minstrel was infirm and old.
6. Thick clouds of dust afar appeared,
And trampling steeds were faintly heard.
T. The air was mild, the wind was calm,
The stream was smooth, the dew was balm.
8. The castle gates were open flung,
The quivering drawbridge rocked and rung,
And echoed loud the flinty street
Beneath the courser's clattering feet
9. The lion perceiving this, made a prodigious leap, but the
dog was happily beyond his reach.
10. " It is true," said Sancho, " that I once did keep swine^
but I was only a boy then."
11. The pastor came ; his snowy locks
Hallowed his brow of thought and care ;
And calmly, as shepherds lead their flocks,
He led into the house of prayer.
12. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea.
13. Then shook the hills with thunder riven ;
Then rushed the steed to battle driven.
14. It is a beauteous evening, calm and free,
The holy time is quiet as a nun
Breathless with adoration ; tlie broad sun
Is sinking down in its tranquillity.
20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
We have now briefly studied the parts of sentences.
However much we may read or write, we shall find no
elements of sentences not already mentioned.
The parts of sentences are words, phrases, and
clauses.
The main parts of a compound sentence are coordinate
sentences.
We shall study these parts more fully as we proceed.
XVI. — KINDS OF SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES.
As we have already seen, every sentence contains a sub-
ject and a predicate.
The subject is the word, or words, that name the thing
about which something is asserted.
The predicate is the word, or words, that express what
is asserted about the thing named by the subject.
The subject of a sentence may be :
1. A noun ; as, Birds have feathers.
2. A pronoun; as, Tliey went home.
3. A phrase; as, To see the sun is pleasant.
4. A clause ; as, What he said was true.
The predicate of every sentence is a verb or contains a
verb ; for the verb, as we have seen, is the part of speech
which is used in making assertions.
Point out the subjects in the following sentences:
1. Truth crushed to earth will rise again.
2. Good books are worthy companions.
8. The love of money is the root of all evil.
4. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank.
KINDS OF SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES. 21
6. They are slaves who dare not be
In the right with two or three.
6. To be ready for storm is the duty of the sailor.
7. Whatever he did was misunderstood.
8. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals has
done much good by its teachings.
9. To pay his bills promptly is characteristic of an honest
man.
10. The messenger said that the news was received at eight
o'clock.
11. The result of the examination was not yet known.
12. All the talents and all the accomplishments developed by
liberty and civilization were now displayed.
13. There were seated around the queen the fair-haired
daughters of the house of Brunswick.
14. He had the stout heart which leads the forlorn hope
unhesitatingly.
15. To exercise power over another unlawfully is tyranny.
16. The rays of the evening sun came solemnly through the
painted windows above his head and fell in gorgeous colors
on the opposite wall,
17. That which is truly characteristic of man is known only
to God.
18. There, across the great rocky wharves, a wooden bridge
goes, carrying a path to the forest.
19. At every new question put to him this nephew burst into
a fresh roar of laughter.
20. By and by there was brought to me the fragrant tea, and
big masses of scorched and scorching toast.
21. At last a soft and solemn- breathing sound
Rose like a stream of rich distilled perfumes.
22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XVII. —VERBS OF COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE
PREDICATION.
1. The boy watt*. 2. The rain falls.
In these sentences each of the verbs walks and falls,
is of itself the complete predicate of the sentence.
Verbs which may be used as predicates, without the aid
of other words, are called verbs of complete predication.
1. The boy is sick. 3. The dog seems cross.
2. The man looks tired. 4. Hungry wolves are voracious.
Here the verbs is, look, seems, and are, require the use
of other words in order to form complete predicates.
Verbs which thus require the help of other words to form
predicates are called verbs of incomplete predication.
The words sick, tired, cross, and voracious are the com-
plements of the verbs with which they are used.
Words used with a verb of incomplete predication to com-
plete the predicate are called the complement of the verb.
1. We are happy. 2. Mary became a scholar.
Here, happy, the complement of the verb are, is an
adjective modifying we, the subject ; and scholar, the
complement of the verb became, is a noun meaning the
same as Mary, the subject.
Adjectives like happy, used to complete the predicate,
are called predicate adjectives.
Nouns like scholar, used to complete the predicate, are
called predicate nouns.
1. The cross dog bit me. 2> The cook cut the bread.
8. The hungry cat caught the mouse.
KINDS OF SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES. 23
In these sentences the word me tells whom the dog bit,
the word bread tells what the cook cut, and the word
mouse tells what the cat caught.
Me, bread, and mouse are the complements of the verbs
bit, cut, and caught, as they denote the things that
received the actions expressed by the verbs.
Nouns and pronouns used in this way are called the
objects of the verbs.
Thus it appears that there are two kinds of verbs of
incomplete predication :
1. Those whose complements are predicate adjectives
or predicate nouns.
2. Those whose complements are objects of the verb.
1. The dog was in the house.
2. He seems to be well.
3. I think you told the truth.
In these sentences, the phrases in the house and to be
well, and the clause you told the truth, are complements of
the verbs was, seems, and think.
It thus appears that not only adjectives, nouns, and
pronouns, but phrases and clauses, may be the comple-
ments of verbs of incomplete predication.
Point out the complements of the verbs in the following
sentences, and tell whether they are words, phrases, or clauses:
1. The book was interesting.
2. John was in the country.
3. The cloud seems to be moving.
4. The old blacksmith bought a horse.
5. Did you call me ?
24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
6. He wanted to make himself useful.
7. The girl tries to learn.
8. The apple tastes sweet.
9. He explained how the machine was made.
10. Straws show which way the wind blows.
Write two sentences using verbs of complete predica-
tion. Write five sentences using verbs of incomplete
predication ; use a predicate adjective, a predicate noun,
an object, a phrase, and a clause, as complements of the
verbs.
XVIII. — MODIFIERS.
1. The poor horse has a heavy load.
2. The train runs rapidly.
3. Admiral Dewey is a man of courage.
4. The time for play has passed.
5. What is the name of the book which you are reading f
6. While he was still speaking, several persons left the hall.
In the above sentences, the words poor and heavy qualify
or limit the meaning of the words horse and load; rapidly
limits runs ; of courage describes man ; for play modifies
or limits time ; which you are reading modifies or limits
hook ; while he was still speaking modifies or limits left.
What kind of modifiers are poor and heavy f
What kind of modifier is rapidly f
What kind of modifiers are of courage, and for play?
What kind of modifiers are which you are reading, and
while he was still speaking ?
How do these last two modifiers differ ?
We see from what has just been studied that the groups
MODIFIERS. 25
of words used as modifiers make either phrases or clauses.
(See modifier, p. 9.)
Modifiers may be either adjective or adverbial, accord-
ing to the kind of words modified.
Point out the modifiers in the following sentences, tell
what hind of modifiers they are> and the words that
they modify:
1. The old trees were covered with rough bark.
2. The flowers which we gathered were a delight to the eye.
3. When the wind blows, the cradle will rock.
4. We planted the trees where the soil was deep.
5. It is obvious why you did not come.
6. A swift little brook flowed over the pebbles.
7. I bought the book which you recommended.
8. In a clear winter night the stars shine like diamonds.
9. The roar of the lion was heard in the distance.
10. While the robbers were plundering, she set fire to the house.
Write three sentences having adjectives for modifiers
both in the subject and predicate, three having adjective
phrases, and three having adjective clauses.
Write three sentences having adverbs for modifiers,
three having adverbial phrases, and three having adver-
bial clauses.
Find all the adjective modifiers on some page of your
reader.
Write the words, phrases, and clauses used as adjective
modifiers, in separate columns. Do the same work for
the adverbial modifiers on the same page.
*
26 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
XIX. — SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECTS.
Many beautiful flowers grow in the woods. — In this
sentence the word flowers, without the modifying words
many and beautiful, is the name of that of which we
think ; and this word flowers is called the simple subject
of the sentence, or the subject of the predicate verb.
The word flowers, together with the words which mod-
ify it, is called the complete subject of the sentence.
Flowers is the simple subject of the sentence, and many
beautiful flowers is the complete subject.
The simple subject of a sentence, or the subject of the
predicate verb, is the noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause,
which, without modifiers, is the bare name of that of
which we think.
The complete subject of a sentence is the simple sub-
ject with all its modifiers.
XX.— SIMPLE AND COMPLETE PREDICATES.
Many beautiful flowers grow in the woods. — In this
sentence the predicate verb grow, without the modifying
phrase in the woods, tells us what flowers do. In the
icoods completes the thought by telling where the flowers
grow.
Grow is therefore the simple predicate, and grow in the
woods the complete predicate.
The simple predicate of a sentence is the predicate
verb without modifiers.
The complete predicate of a sentence is the predicate
verb with all its modifiers.
KINDS OF SENTENCES. 27
Point out the simple and the complete subject, and the
simple and the complete predicate in each of the following
sentences :
1. The tired little fellow fell asleep in his chair.
2. The noise of the passing trains disturbs the people living
on this street.
3. The busy farmer's boy works from early morning until late
at night.
4. The severe snow-storm delayed the trains for several
hours.
5. A row of beautiful elms lined the walk on either side.
6. The song of Hiawatha is greatly loved by children.
7. George Washington, the first president of the United
States, was called the Father of his Country.
8. The skillfully built nest of the oriole hung from the tip
of a branch of the lofty elm.
9. The shop of the village blacksmith stood under the
spreading chestnut-tree.
10. A small boy with a shovel was scraping the ice from the
board walk.
XXL— KINDS OF SENTENCES.
Study these sentences :
1. The smith was a mighty man.
2. The smithy stood under a spreading chestnut tree.
3. It was the smith's daughter who sang in the choir.
4. He was pleased when he heard her sing.
5. His hands were large and sinewy and the muscles of his
arms were strong.
6. He looked the whole world in the face, he feared not any
man, he owed not any man.
X
28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
7. My judgment approves this measure because it is just,
and my whole heart is in it.
8. Napoleon, who had been aroused by the tumult, hurried
to the spot ; and when the alarm seemed at an end, he retired
to his quarters.
It is seen that the first two sentences contain each one
subject and one predicate.
Such sentences are simple sentences.
Each of the sentences numbered 3 and 4 contains more
than one subject and more than one predicate, but only
one statement in each expresses an independent thought.
Who sang in the choir is an adjective clause and modi-
fies daughter.
When he heard her sing is an adverbial clause and
modifies was pleased.
Sentences which eontain a principal statement and a
clause or clauses, are complex sentences.
Each of the sentences numbered 5 and 6 contains more
than one statement. Each of these statements is inde-
pendent of the other. Sentences numbered 5 and 6 are
compound sentences.
In sentences numbered 7 and 8 we see other compound
sentences. We shall study such sentences later. Thus
it is seen that there are three kinds of sentences.
A simple sentence is a sentence that contains but one
subject and one predicate.
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one
principal statement and one or more clauses.
A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two
or more independent statements.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 29
The independent statements of a compound sentence
may be modified by clauses as in sentences 7 and 8.
XXII. — THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
1. The horses walked.
2. The large horses walked slowly.
3. The large horses with flowing manes walked slowly over
the bridge.
However much the subject or predicate, or both, may
be modified by words or phrases, the sentence is simple so
long as it contains no more than one subject and one
predicate.
1. John and Peter went home.
2. John went home and stayed there.
3. John and Peter went home and studied hard.
The first sentence is a simple sentence with a compound
subject. The second is a simple sentence with a com-
pound predicate. The third is a simple sentence with
both subject and predicate compound.
A simple sentence may have the subject or predicate or
both compound.
Write five simple sentences with compound subjects;
five with compound predicates.
XXIIL— THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
1. James rejoiced when he reached home, because he saw
his mother.
2. John, who has worked hard, is to be rewarded.
3. Though the road be rough and the distance great, he will
arrive early, as he promised.
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
In the first sentence, James rejoiced expresses the
principal thought and is modified by the clause when he
reached home, which tells the timejiajsjoiced, and by the
clause because he saw his mother, which tells the cause, or
why he rejoiced.
In the second sentence, John is to be rewarded ex-
presses the principal thought ; John is modified by the
adjective clause who has worked hard, which describes
John as the actor, — the one who worked hard.
In the third sentence he will arrive early expresses the
principal thought, and is modified by the clause as he
promised, which compares the time he will arrive with
the t ime hfi jromise d. ~ —
Will arrive is modified also by the clauses though the
road be rough and the distance be great, which both con-
cede or suppose that he will not arrive under such difficult
circumstances.
Write five complex sentences having the clause mod ify
the subject in each ; five having it modify the predicate in
each ; and three having a clause modify both subject and
predicate in each.
XXIV. — THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
The farmer worked hard, and his crops were excellent.
In the sentence written above, the farmer worked hard
is not subordinate to the rest of the sentence.
His crops were excellent is also not sub ordin ate to the
rest of the sentence.
It is seen that this sentence consists of two coordinate
statements.
£
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 31
In a compound sentence there may be several coordi-
nate statements.
Let us enlarge this compound sentence by adding a
clause to each statement and we shall have : The farmer
worked hard, which was his idea of duty, and his crops
were excellent, as he hoped they would be.
Any of the coordinate statements of a compound sen-
tence may be modified by one or more clauses, so that
the parts may be complex ; but the sentence is still
compound.
V
Tell what kind of a s entence each of the following is ; / N
point out the principal statements, and the clauses in
the complex sentences ; indicate the principal statements
and the clauses (if there are any) of the compound
sentences.
1. The warm rain makes the grass grow rapidly.
2. I now know by what means he succeeded.
3. Study diligently, and you will learn rapidly.
4. The world is made for happiness, but many people make
themselves miserable.
5. When spring returns, birds begin to build their nests.
6. It is the duty of government to protect persons and
property.
7. The man who is patient and persevering is likely to meet
with success.
8. Her. description was here suddenly interrupted by the
signal for assault, which was given by the blast of a shrill
bugle.
9. They throng again to the breach, and the pass is dis-
puted hand to hand and man to man 1
32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
10.. The boy has started from the bed
Of flowers, where he had laid his head.
11. He who ascends to mountain-tops shall find
The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow.
12. I fear thee, Ancient Mariner,
I fear thy skinny hand ;
And thou art long, and lank, and brown,
As is the ribbed sea-sand.
13. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,
There is a rapture on the lonely shore,
There is society where none intrudes,
By the deep sea, and music in its roar.
14. He prostrated himself in the dust before his Maker ; but
he set his foot on the neck of his king.
15. As soon as the beasts were loaded I mounted my camel,
and pressed forward.
16. When evening came I was still within the confines of
the desert, and my tent was pitched as usual, but one of my
Arabs stalked away rapidly towards the west without telling
me of the errand on which he was bent.
17. With fingers weary and worn,
With eyelids heavy and red,
A woman sat in unwomanly rags,
Plying her needle and thread.
18. His life was gentle ; and the elements
So mixed in him, that Nature might stand up
And say to all the world, " This was a man."
19. If thou art worn and hard beset
With sorrows that thou wouldst forget,
If thou wouldst read a lesson that will keep
Thy heart from fainting and thy soul from sleep,
Go to the woods and hills !
ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCE. 33
20. All the various kinds of interest which belong to the
near and to the distant, to the present and to the past, were
collected on one spot and in one hour.
21. Ring out the old, ring in the new ;
Ring happy bells, across the snow:
The year is going, let him go ;
Ring out the false, ring in the true.
Write three compound sentences having respectively
two, three, and four members.
Write three compound sentences where some or all of
the members are modified by clauses.
XXV. — ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Let us analyze the following simple sentence :
Milton, the author of Paradise Lost, was deeply versed
in ancient learning.
Milton, the author of Paradise Lost, is the subject.
Was deeply versed in ancient learning is the predi-
cate.
Milton is the principal ivord of the subject, and is modi-
fied by the appositiye author.
Author is modified by the adjective the yWhich is an
ai$icle, and by the adjective phrase of Paradise Lost.
WasiJuersed is the predicate verb, and is- modified by
the adverb deeply and by the adverbial phrase in ancient
learning.
J Learning is modified by the adjective ancient.
! We see from the analysis of this sentence . that to an-
alyze a simple sentence is to name :
<i
y
34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1. Its subject.
2. Its predicate.
3. The principal word of the subject wit h its
4. The modifiers of any other words in
5. Its predicate verb. «
6. The modifiers of its predicate verb.
7. The modifiers of any other words in its predicate.
XXVI. — ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCE.
Let us analyze the following complex sentence :
Bryant wrote Thanatopsis when he was a very young
man.
Bryant is the subject of the sentence.
Wrote Thanatopsis when he was a very young man is the
predicate.
The subject Bryant is unmodified.
Wrote is the predicate verb.
Wrote is modified by the object Thanatopsis and
by the adverbial clause when he was a very young
man.
When connects the clause with the principal state-
ment.
This sentence consists of the principal statement,
Bryant wrote Thanatopsis, and the clause when he was a
very young man.
We see then that to analyze a complex sentence is to
name :
1. The subject.
2. The predicate.
ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND^ ENTENCE. 35
3. The subject and its modifiers, if \ny .
4. The predicate and its modifier!, ii any.
5. If either subject or predicate is modified by a clause,
the kind of clause is to be named.
The analysis of the clause is like that of the simple
sentence.
XXVII. — ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCE.
Let us analyze the following sentence :
Spring has come and the air is filled with the songs of
birds. ,
This sentence consists of two coordinate statements. )-'
The first statement is Spring has corned The second is
the air is filled with the songs of birds. The statements
are connected by the conjunction and.
Each of the statements is simple, and should be ana-
lyzed like a simple sentence.
We see then that to analyze a compound sentence is to :
1. Name the different coordinate statements.
2. Name the connecting words if any, and tell what '/
they connect.
3. Analyze each coordinate statement and each clause,
if any, as though it were a simple sentence.
Analyze each of the following sentences according to the
models and directions given above :
1. A ramble in the fresh air restores the drooping spirits.
2. One man's meat is another man's poison.
36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. A man who wore ragged clothes has just passed down
the street.
4. The soldier was killed where the fight was fiercest
5. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
And all the air a solemn stillness holds.
6. I rose early this morning and studied my lesson before
breakfast.
7. The weary invalid begged that we would stay with him.
8. On the grassy bank stood a tall waving ash, sound to the
very core.
9. I slept and dreamed that life is Beauty ;
I woke and found that life is Duty.
10. Hail universal Lord ! be bounteous still
To give us only good ; and if the night
Have gathered aught of evil or concealed
Disperse it, as now light dispels the dark.
Find in your readers some stanzas of poetry that you
like and analyze them.
XXVIII. — CLASSES OF NOUNS.
We have already learned that such words as Lincoln,
Boston, hook, house, crowd, committee, justice, virtue
are nouns.
We notice that Lincoln and Boston differ from the
other names given by beginning with capitals. This is
because these words are the names of individuals, the one
of a particular person, the other of a particular place.
They are called proper nouns.
A proper noun is an individual name.
CLASSES OF NOUNS. 37
All the other names given above are used to represent
a ny of a c lass of things, and are therefore called common
nouns.
A common noun is a name common to all of a class.
When we look again at the list of words given above
we notice that the words crowd and committee are names
of groups or collections of objects.
A collective noun is a comm on noun that is the name V
of a group, or collection of objects! /
Such words as hook and house are the names of objects
that can be seen or touched and are sometimes called
concrete nouns. »
A concrete noun is the name of a materi^obj&ck
Some nouns like justice, virtue, love, kindness, are the
names of qualities shown by persons who possess them ;
others are the names of qualities that belong to otnects,
like shape, form, color, hardness, ductility ; others are the
names of states like, age, youth, health, sickness, torpor,
vivacit]i.
We think of such qualities or statfifiLJust as we do of *■ '' '
objects that appeal to the sight or to the touch.
The love of justice, virtue is its own reward, there's j \ t
nothing so kingly as kindness, and similar expressions / ip
are familiar to all.
Names used to express qualities or states a part
from the objects that possess them, are said to be used
abstractly.
A common noun that is the name of a quality or a
state is an abstract noun.
38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Tell the kind of each noun in the following sentences .
1. Boston is the largest city in New England.
2. Abraham Lincoln was one of the greatest men America
has produced.
3. Give me pen, ink, and paper and I'll write you a story
or a poem.
4. The crowd that greeted Admiral Dewey was very en-
thusiastic.
5. What does the Lord require of thee but to love justice
and to show mercy ?
6. Mercy and truth are met together, righteousness and
peace have kissed each other.
Write sentences using proper nouns, common nouns,
collective nouns, and abstract nouns, using only one or
two kinds of nouns in any sentence. Tell in each case
what kind of noun you have used.
XXIX.— PROPERTIES OF NOUNS — PERSON.
Let us study the meaning of the following sentences,
being careful to notice what persons the nouns indicate :
1. I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States,
believe in the honesty of the plain people.
2. James, you may name the history topics for to-day's
lesson.
3. Mary is the tallest girl in her class.
We see that the subject of the first sentence represents
Abraham Lincoln as the person speaking of the plain
people. The words, I 9 Abraham Lincoln, and President of
PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. — PERSON. 39
the United States are used in the same relation, and call
attention to the person speaking.
A noun or a pronoun used to represent a person or per-
sons as speaking or as addressing others in writing, is in
the first person.
In the second sentence James and you are used to show
us that some one is speaking to or addressing James.
A noun or a pronoun used to represent a person or
persons as spoken to or addressed is in the second person.
In the third sentence Mary is used to show the person
of whom something is said, Mary is therefore the person
spoken of.
A noun or a pronoun used to represent the person or
thing spoken of is in the third person.
Person is th e use or fo r™ nf -non*** and pronouns that \
indicates the speaker, the person spoken to or addressed,
or the person or thing spoken of.
Tell the person of each of the following nouns and
pronouns : —
1. Ye crags, and peaks, I'm with you once again,
I hold to you these hands of mine to show they still are
free.
2. Woodman, spare that tree !
Touch not a single' bough I
In youth it sheltered me,
And I'll protect it now.
Write sentences using nouns and pronouns in each of
the three persons.
40 ENGLISH GRAMHAB.
XXX. — NUMBER.
By studying the following nouns and pronouns we see
that different meanings are shown by the different forms
of the flflrrifi TKrarAa- boy, boys ; box, boxes; tree, trees;
chair, chairs ; fox, foxes ; man, men ; child, children ;
I, we ; h e, the y.
By using the words boy, box, tree, etc., we think of one
of each kind of the objects mentioned. When the words
boys, boxes, trees, etc., are used we think of more than
one of each kind of object mentioned.
When a single object of a kind is denoted by a word,
the word is said to be in the singular number.
When more than one object of a kind is denoted by
a word, the word is said to be in the plural number.
Number is the form of the noun or pronoun which
denotes one object or more than one.
Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural.
The singular number of a noun or pronoun is its form
to denote one object.
The plural number of a noun or pronoun is its form
to denote more than one object.
XXXI. — HOW PLURALS OF NOUNS ARE FORMED.
Notice how these nouns change to form the plural :
tree, trees ; road, roads ; horse, horses.
We see that the plural of these nouns is formed by
adding s to the singular. Most plurals are formed in
this way.
HOW PLURALS OF NOUNS ABE FORMED. 41
Church, churches ; glass, glasses ; pass, passes ; brush,
brushes ; lash, lashes ; box, boxes ; fox, foxes ; adz, adzes.
Nouns ending in ch soft, 8, sh, x or z, form the plural
by adding 68 to the singular.
Fly, flies ; spy, spies ; duty, duties ; country, countries ;
party, parties.
Singular nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant,
form the plural by changing the y to i and adding es.
Echo, echoes ; hero, heroes ; cargo, cargoes ; portico,
porticoes.
Some nouns ending in o form the plural by adding es
to the singular.
Shelf, shelves; knife, knives; half, halves; thief,
thieves ; wife, wives.
Some nouns ending in f or f e form the plural by chan-
ging the f or f e to ves.
Man, men; goose, geese; mouse, mice; tooth, teeth;
foot, feet.
Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel or
vowels of the word.
Ox, oxen ; child, children ; brother, brethren (of the
same society) .
A few nouns form the plural by adding en, with or
without other changes.
Some nouns taken unchanged from foreign languages
retain their plurals. A few of these nouns with their
plurals are given below :
genus, genera analysis, analyses
axis, axes crisis, crises
criterion, criteria ellipsis, ellipses
\*v*
I
\
42 ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
/ Scissors, tongs, shears, dregs, trousers, victuals, meas-
les. Some nouns are used only in the plural.
Deer, sheep, swine. A few nouns have the same form
in the singular and plural.
The Smiths, the Browns, the two Dr. Jafcksons. The
plural of proper nouns is generally formed regularly.
It is proper, however, to say the Miss Browns, or the
Misses Brown.
When names of substances, as iron, gold, sugar, etc., are
used in the plural, they mean different kinds of iron, gold,
sugar, etc. "
Fathers-in-law, brothers-in-law are compound nouns.
Compound nouns generally form the plural by adding the
sign of the plural to the principal word.
Handfuls, cupfuls, pailfuls, spoonfuls. Nouns ending
in f ul form the plural by adding the 8 at the end of the
word.
Dot your i's and cross your t's ; in 55 there are two 5's.
Letters, figures, and other signs are made plural by add-
ing an apostrophe and the letter s.
Write sentences using different forms of the plural
number.
XXXII. — GENDER.
1. General Chant captured Vicksburg.
2. Clara Barton cared for the wounded soldiers.
3. The harvest moon is very beautiful.
In these sentences we notice General Grant is the name
of a man, Clara Barton the name of a woman, the moon
is the name of something neither male nor female.
GENDER.
43
Nouns denoting that males are meant are masculine
nouns, or are said to be in the masculine gender.
Nouns denoting that females are meant are feminine
nouns, or are said to be in the feminine gender.
Nouns that denote either male or female or both male
and female are said to be in the common gender.
Nouns that denote neither male nor female are said to
be in the neater gender.
Gender is that property of the noun or pronoun that
distinguishes sex.
1. The uncle who had just arrived asked the manservant to
summon his niece and his three nephews.
2. He had brought them many beautiful gifts from their
grandfather, the duke, and from their grandmother, the duchess.
These sentences teach us that the gender of nouns is
shown in three ways :
1. By using different words for the masculine and
feminine.
boy
girl
son
daughter
brother
sister
uncle
aunt
father
mother
nephew
niece
gander
goose
lord
lady
horse
mare
king
queen
husband
wife
wizard
witch
>y using
different suffixes.
baron
baroness
duke
duchess
heir
heiress
governor
governess
host
hostess
master
mistress
lion
lioness
executor
executrix
abbott
abbess
testator
testatrix
X
44 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
3. By using different prefixes or words,
he-bear she-bear cock-sparrow hen-sparrow
he-goat she-goat Mr. Smith Mrs. Smith
man-servant maid-servant Mr. Jones Miss Jones
Write three sentences using each gender; other
sentences using the different ways of forming gender.
XXXIII. — CASE.
Observe the relation which the words in italics in the
following sentences bear to other words in the same sentence:
1. The wind blows from the sea.
2. His father's house is a beautiful mansion.
3. The Gordon Highlanders are brave soldiers.
4. We heard the distant train.
5. He prepared a home for his mother.
6. Milton, the author of Paradise Lost, was a friend of
Cromwell.
7. I thank you, my dear friend, for your great kindness.
8. The order having been given, we resumed our march.
A slight observation shows that there are several
relations which a noun or pronoun may bear to other
words in a sentence.
A careful study of the italicised words in the sentences
above shows that wind is the subject of the verb blows,
that father's shows a relation of ownership to the house,
that mansion is the predicate noun, the complement of
is, that soldiers is the complement of are, that train is
the object complement of the verb heard, that he is the
CASE. 45
object complement of the verb prepared, that mother is
the object of the preposition for, that author explains
Milton, that friend is used in address, and that order is
used as nominative absolute with having been given.
From our study of the relations of the noun in sen-
tences, we have seen that a noun may be used :
1. As the subject of a predicate verb :
The robins built their nest in the apple tree.
They carefully guard their young.
2. As a predicate noun or pronoun :
The knife is a handy tool.
I am he.
3. As a term of address :
John, will you please come here !
Mr. Speaker, I rise to a point of order. ,
4. As a nominative absolute : ' s *
The storm having ceased, we continued our journey.
He being alone, they entered unobserved.
5. As a possessive :
The author's work was done.
Their sleep is sweet.
6. As the object of a verb :
Edith wrote ajetter to her mother.
The boys aided him in his work.
Note. — A noun or a pronoun may be used as the indirect object, see page
239 for examples.
46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
7. As the object of a preposition :
Heavy clusters of grapes grew on the vine.
The children went to church with us.
8. As explanatory of another noun :
Abraham Lincoln, the martyr President, was once
a rail-splitter.
Longfellow the poet was born in Portland, Maine.
These uses are called cases, because they show the
relations, or cases, in which nouns and pronouns stand to
other words in sentences.
Case is that use, or form, of a noun or pronoun which
shows its relation to other words in a sentence.
There are three cases in English, the nominative, the
possessive, and the objective.
The nominative case is the use of a noun or form of a
pronoun as the subject of a predicate verb, as a predicate
noun or pronoun, as a term of address, or as an inde-
pendent element.
1. Horses draw carriages. 2. They will come to-morrow.
3. Washington was a great 4. It is she.
statesman. 5. Come, boys, be active.
6. My mother being sick, I hastened home.
7. She being asleep, they passed her unobserved.
Note. — When a noun is used as a term of address, it is in the nomina-
tive case by address ; when used as an independent element, it is in the nom-
inative absolute, because it is freed fro m its gramma tical relation to the
subject or the predicate of the Sentence.
The possessive case of a noun or pronoun is its form
to denote ownership or possession.
CASK. 47
1. John's book is on the table.
2. He had a pair of men's boots.
3. A boy's will is the wind's will.
4. He found the princess' purse.
5. For such is their majesties' pleasure.
6. These are not children's thoughts.
7. These oxen's horns are crooked.
8. He is my mother-in-law's lawyer.
9. Jones, Smith and Brown! s store is on Pine Street
10. They exhibited Burne Jones's and Millet's pictures.
A study of these sentences will show that :
1. The possessive case of a noun in the singular is
formed by adding an apostrophe (') and the letter s to
the nominative.
Note. — When too many hissing sounds would come together, the apos- //
trophe alone is added ; as, for conscience 1 sake ; the princess* hat ' <
2. The possessive case in the plural is formed by
adding the apostrophe only, if the nominative plural ends
in s.
3. But if the nominative plural does not end in s, the \
apostrophe and s are added.
4. In compound nouns the sign of the possessive case is
added to the last word only.
5. When two or more nouns denote joint possession, the
sign of the possessive is added to the last noun only.
6. But when two or more nouns denote separate posses-
sion, the sign of the possessive is added to each.
Note. — We have already seen that personal pronouns have different forms .
to represent the different cases.
o
48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1. The cat caught a mouse with her daws.
2. They camped at the foot of the mountain.
We see from these sentences that mouse is the object
which the cat caught, and is, therefore, in the objective
case ; that claws tells us the objects with which the cat
caught the mouse. Claws is therefore in the objective
case, and is the object of the preposition with.
For like reasons we see that foot is in the objective
case as the object of at, and that mountain is in the
objective case as the object of of.
The objective case of a noun is its use as the object of
a verb or of a preposition.
1. Webster, the orator and statesman, delivered the address.
2. I met Mr. Brown, the merchant, on the street.
/ In the first sentence orator and statesman are in the
' nominative case in apposition with Webster; in the second,
merchant is in the objective case in apposition with
Mr. Brown.
Apposition means placed brf the side of.
Orator, statesman, and merchant are called appositives,
as they are placed by the side of the words they ex-
plain.
Webster is called the subject of the appositives, orator
and statesman ; and Mr. Brown, the subject of the appooi-
tive merchant.
An appositive agrees with its subject in case.
When a noun is used to explain the meaning of another
noun, it is in the same case by apposition.
i, lA'
66U4^f, /
PARSING NOUNS.
49
XXXIV. — DECLENSION.
Let us examine the forms of the nouns boy, man, lady,
child, given below and thus learn their declension.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative.
boy
boys
man
men
Possessive.
boy's
boys'
man's
men's
Objective.
boy
boys
man
men
Nominative.
lady
ladies
child
children
Possessive.
lady's
ladies'
child's
children's
Objective.
lady
ladies
child
children
We see by the above d eclensio n of the words boy, man,
child and lady that nouns have two forms only for the
singular and two for the plural.
The nominative and objective singular, and the nomina-
tive and objective plural are alike in form in all nouns.
The possessive form of nouns is always indicated by
the apostrophe (').
XXXV. — PARSING NOUNS.
Let us see how the nouns in the following sentence are
used, and thus learn to parse them.
John's brother is a boy of intelligence. •
John's is a proper noun, third person, singular number,
masculine gender, possessive case, and modifies brother.
Brother is a common noun, concrete, third person, singu-
lar number, masculine gender, nominative case, and the
subject of is.
a
50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Boy is a common noun, concrete, third person, singu-
lar number, masculine gender, and predicate nominative
after is.
Intelligence is a common noun, abstract, third person,
singular number, neuter gender, objective case, and the
object of the preposition of.
To parse a noun tell :
1. Its class, — common or proper,
2. If common, whether concrete, collective, or abstract.
3. Its person, gender, number and case.
4. Its relation to other words in the sentence, whether
it is
a. The subject of a verb.
b. The predicate nominative after a verb.
c. The nominative by address.
d. The nominative absolute.
e. The object of a verb.
/. The object of a preposition.
g. A possessive, and what noun it modifies.
h. In apposition, in what case, and what noun it ex-
plains.
Tell the case of each of the following nouns and pronouns :
1. The flower wastes its sweetness on the desert air.
2. Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The deep unfathomed caves of ocean bear,
3. I wonder what the clover thinks,
Innocent friend of bobolinks.
PARSING. NOUNS. 51
4. The unwearied sun from day to day
Does his Creator's power display,
And publishes to every land
The works of an Almighty hand.
5. A horse ! a horse I my kingdom for a horse !
6. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul.
7. The people having withdrawn, they closed the church.
8. Can you number the stars in their courses?
Write two sentences with nouns in the nominative
case by direct address, two with nouns in the nomina-
tive case absolute, two with nouns in apposition, two
with nouns or pronouns in the possessive case, and two
with nouns or pronouns in the objective case.
Analyze the following sentences and parse the nouns:
1. Give the man a draught from the cool spring.
2. There was one clear, shining star, that used to come out
into the sky before the rest.
3. In every grove warbles the voice of love and pleasure.
4. We watched the sun as it sank behind the clouds in the
western sky.
5. The committee were not unanimous.
6. Green fields and forests were before us.
7. How many years have you lived in Cambridge?
8. Boys, will you assist me in decorating the schoolroom for
Washington's birthday?
9. These as they roll, Almighty Father, these
Are but the signals of thy mighty power.
10. The sun sinking behind the western hills,
All nature sinks to rest.
52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XXXVI. — PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
If James had asked James's father, James's father
would have allowed James to go nutting with James's
playmates.
No one thinks of using such awkward English in
talking or writing, as we have given in the sentence
above.
Instead of repeating the nouns so many times, we use
other words in their stead, and our sentence becomes :
If James had asked his father, he would have allowed
him to go nutting with his playmates.
The words his, he, and him used instead of the nouns
in the first sentence are called pronouns.
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
/ met James and told him that you would be in town
early.
In this sentence / represents the speaker, you repre-
sents the person addressed, and him represents the person
spoken of.
Such words as /, you, and him, are called personal
pronouns.
A personal pronoun is a pronoun whose form shows
whether it represents the speaker, the person addressed,
or the person or thing spoken of.
Personal pronouns are either simple ; as, I, you, they ;
or compound ; as, myself, yourself, itself.
The personal pronouns of the first person are the
simple pronoun / and the compound myself.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 53
I is declined as follows :
Singular Plural
Nominative. I we
Possessive. my, or mine our, or ours
Objective. me us
Note. — When a person speaks of himself and another, it is in accordance
with good usage to put the pronoun denoting himself last : as, John and I were
present.
The compound pronouns myself and ourselves have no
possessive forms, and are the same in the nominative and
objective cases.
1. I myself was present.
2. I fell and hurt myself
The personal pronouns of the second person are the
simple pronoun thou and you, and the compound pro-
nouns thyself and yourself
Thou and you are declined as follows :
Singular Plural
Nominative, thou or you y e, or
Possessive. thy, or thine your, or yours
Objective. " thee, or you ye, or you
1. You cannot recall your first blessings.
2. You, my countrymen, cannot shirk your responsibilities
as citizens.
You, your, and yours are now used when addressing
one person or more than one.
I
54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1. Thou art the God of our fathers.
2. Hallowed be thy name.
3. I would the great world grew like thee.
Thou is rarely used at the present time, except in the
worship of God, and in poetry.
1. Ye crags and peaks ! I'm with you once again.
2. Ye cannot serve God and Mammon.
Ye is now rarely used except in poetry and elevated
prose.
The personal pronouns of the third person are the
simple pronouns he, she, it, and the compound pronouns
himself, herself, and itself.
He, she, and it are declined as follows :
Singular Singular Singular Plural
Nominative, he she it they
Possessive, his her or hers its their or theirs
Objective. him her it them
1. It is best to think before speaking.
2. It often happens that we talk too much.
The pronoun it frequently stands for . a phrase or a
clause which follows it, as in the above sentences.
1. My book lies on your desk.
2. His name stands first on my list
The pronominal forms my, thy, his, Iter, its, our, your,
and their are used when they stand immediately before a
noun. """"
Write sentences showing the correct use of each of
these pronouns.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 55
1. Yours is the better form for general use, mine is better
for me.
2. I have your book, you have mine.
3. We have our friends, you have yours.
The forms mine, thine, ours, yours, and theirs, though /
possessive in form, are now used in the nominative and
objective cases when the noun is omitted.
In parsing a pronoun like yours, in the last example, it
is well to state that it is possessive in form, but used in the
objective case as the object of the verb have. It is really
a substitute for your friends.
In parsing such idiomatic expressions as " this book of
mine," " that horse of yours," it is best to parse of mine
and of yours as adjective phrases ; but mine and yours
may be parsed as pronouns, possessive in form, but in the
objective case and governed by the preposition of
XXXVII. — INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
1. Who came this morning?
2. Which do you prefer?
3. What does the man want?
In these sentences the pronouns who, which, and what
are used to ask questions and make the sentences inter-
rogative. Pronouns used for this purpose are called
interrogative pronouns.
An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a ques-
tion.
The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what.
V
56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Who t8 declined as follows :
Singular and Plural
Nominative. who
Possessive. wl
Objective. whom
Who refers only to persons an* to things personified.
Who usually asks for a person's/ n ame ; as, Who is that
man ? But, if the name is known, it often asks for some
description ; as, Who is Mr. Smith ?
Which is used either in the singular or the plural
numbef,^nd in either the nominative or objective case ;
Whose is used as its possessive form.
Which may stand for either persons or things ; but it
differs in meaning from who and what.
When I ask, " Who did this work?" or, " What do
you want?" I am presumed to know nothing of the
person, or thing about whom the inquiry is made. But if
I ask, " Which did this work ? " or " Which do you
want?" I am supposed to know more than one person
or thing of the class mentioned.
What is that to you ?
He promised to do what he could.
What is used in either the nominative or the objective
case.
The sentences, What is the man's name? What did
he say? What have you done to-day? show us that
the meaning of what may be singular or plural.
What has no possessive form or use. The meaning of
what depends upon the idea in the mind of the questioner.
^•« • 1A T
RELATIVE PRONOUHTS. 57
XXXVIIL— RELATIVE /PRONOUNS,
1. The lady, who was here to see you yesterday, called again
this morning.
2. Bring me the letters that lie oh the table.
3. Is this the train w hich leaves ipr New York at six o'clock?
^L l^ell me what you have re a
5. He used such materials as could be found.
In these sentences the words who, that, which, and
as, used to introduce the clauses which explain some word
that goes before them, are called relative pronouns.
The words lady, letters, train, and materials which these
pronouns explain are called antecedents.
A relative pronoun is one that relates to a preceding
noun or pronoun called the antecedent, and connects the
clause which it introduces to the antecedent
Notb. — Relative pronouns are sometimes called conjunctive pronouns,
because of their connecting force.
In the fourth sentence we find the word what used to
introduce a clause ; but we find no word for the clause
to explain.
The relative pronoun ivhat is peculiar in this respect ;
it has no antecedent, but fills the place of both antecedent
and relative pronoun.
In sentence number four we might change what,
putting the books that in its place. Our sentence would
then be made to read, Tell me the books that you have
read.
The relative pronouns are who, which, that, what, and
as.
I
Y
58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1. Whosoever will may come.
2. Whichever path you take, will lead you home.
3. Whatever comes, be patient
These sentences are samples to show the use of the
compounds of who, which,a,nd what.
The compounds of who, which, and what are whoever,
whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever.
Who and which are declined as follows :
Singular and Plural Singular and Plural
Nominative. who which
Possessive. whose whose
Objective. whom which
1. Who told you that?
2. That is all that was said.
3. He did what he could.
4. No one knew what became of him.
5. The men and the animals that are attached to the circus
reached the city at midnight
6. The books that you sent me are delightful.
7. The remark that I objected to ought not to have beeji
made.
8. She wore a bonnet the trimming of which suggested a
flower garden.
9. Our Father who art in heaven.
10. I know what you want
11. Whoever did it ought to be punished.
12. You shall have whichever you choose.
13. I will accept whatever you send.
14. I liked the book you gave me.
15. Whosoever will, may come.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 59
After a careful study of the relative pronouns in these
sentences, l earn the f ollowing:
1. That and what are used in the nominative and objec-
tive cases, but have no possessive form.
2. Who is used only for persons and for things personi-
fied; which for animals and things without life; and that
for persons, animals, and things.
3. That is generally used instead of who or which when
the antecedent means both persons and things.
4. That is preferable to who or which when the clause
that it introduces is merely restrictive.
5. Whose is used for persons, for lower animals, and
even for things without life. Modern writers seem to
prefer of tvhich to whose when the reference is to things
without life.
6. Which was formerly used for persons as well as for
animals and things, but it is now restricted in its use to
animals or things.
7. What has no antecedent expressed in the sentence, but
is itself equivalent to both antecedent and relative, and on
this account is called a compound relative. It usually
means that which, the thing which, or those which.
8. The compounds, whoever, whichever, whatever, whoso,
whosoever, and whatsoever have an indefinite, a general
meaning, and are used without an antecedent expressed.
Note. — The compounds ending in so and soever are rarely used in modern
English.
1. Who strives to help others, helps himself thereby.
2. Who lives honestly, lives nobly.
60 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
3. Who steals my purse, steals trash.
4. Who plants trees, loves others than himself.
In the above sentences the antecedent is omitted. The
personal pronoun he might be supplied in each case.
The relative pronoun when so used has the force of a
compound relative pronoun.
A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in per-
son, number and gender.
1. Vote with the party that is right.
2. From him who would borrow of thee turn not thou away.
3. We ought to make ourselves good scholars, which we cannot
do without hard study.
4. My mother was very hind to me, which made me love her
dearly.
We see from the above sentences that :
The antecedent of a relative pronoun may be a noun,
a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause.
1. He reads such books as he likes.
2. He receives as much money as he earns.
By a study of the above sentences we see that :
As is a relative pronoun when it follows such or same,
and generally when it follows as many or as much.
1. There is not one of us but commits errors.
2. There is not a man of them but longs for peace.
By a careful study of the above sentences we see that :
But has the force of a relative pronoun in certain sen-
tences where the principal clause has a negative force.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 61
Select ten sentences from your reader containing rela-
tive pronouns.
Try to find sentences that shall bring in all the relative
pronouns.
Write two sentences to illustrate each use of the rela-
tive pronouns given above.
Give the antecedent, and name the case of each relative
pronoun in the following sentences :
1. The general was a man who never expected defeat.
2. He found a small book containing a language that he did
not understand.
3. The west in which we found the little birds was made of
grass, horse-hair, and moss.
4. "We shall soon see about that," replied the officer
calmly.
5. Never travel with one who deserts you at the approach
of danger.
6. There was no one who could tell what caused the leak.
7. He made the most of such time as he could steal from
his sleep to read whatever books he was able to borrow.
8. The men and animals that live in the frigid zone require
food that contains a great deal of carbon.
9. An optimist is one who seeks to see only the best, and
who refuses to see what is bad.
10. He placed his hand kindly upon the head of the boy to
whom he was speaking, and asked him what he wanted.
11. No one ought to do that which his conscience does not
approve.
62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
XXXIX. — ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
1. Some men are wise and some are foolish.
In this sentence the word some is used both as an ad-
jective and as a pronoun.
Words used like some in the proposition some are foolish
are called adjective pronouns.
An adjective pronoun is an adjective used as a pro-
noun.
The adjective pronouns are :
1. Each, either, and neither, which relate to objects
taken singly.
1. Each carried an old flint lock.
2. Either will answer his purpose.
3. Neither came at the time appointed.
Each may refer to two or more than two.
Each refers to all the individuals of a class taken
separately.
Either means one of the two.
Neither means not one of the two.
2. This, these, that, those.
1. This was all that need be said.
2. These are all that we have.
3. That was all he could do.
4. Those came too late for the train.
When this and that or these and those are used in re-
ferring to two objects, this and these should refer to the
nearer, the last mentioned, or the present ; and that and
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 63
those to the more distant, the first mentioned, or the
absent.
3. One , none, some, any, aught, naught, other, several,
certain, all, few, and their various compounds.
1. One was taken, the other left.
2. None of his friends deserted him.
8. Some arrived before dawn.
4. If any had known him in his boyhood none now recog-
nized him.
5. Have ye aught to eat ?
6. All his efforts came to naught.
7. All started together, but several soon lagged behind.
8. Few will part where many meet
9. He did not meet any one.
10. Each one did his utmost to win the game.
11. Not though the soldiers knew some one had blundered.
Any one, each one, some one, and the like are equiva-
lent in their use to compounds of one.
1. He infused some of his enthusiasm into his companions.
2. Some were bright and some were dull.
Some is both singular and plural.
1. The sisters, Mary and Jane, love each other.
2. Classmates should respect the rights of one another.
Each other should be used in speaking of two only;
one another, in speaking of more than two.
Pronouns have the same properties as nouns; viz.,
person, number, gender, and case.
n
' ••■• ^
64 ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
XL. — PARSING PRONOUNS.: r*
Let its parse the pronouns in the following sentence:
John, you may take my dictionary, which you will find
in the library.
You is a personal pronoun, second person, singular num-
ber, masculine gender, to agree with its antecedent John,
nominative case, and the subject of the verb may ta ke.
Which is a relative pronoun, third person, singular
number, neuter gender, to agree with its antecedent
dictionary, and the object of the verb wtiJ^JMb.
We have seen that to parse a pronoun is to tell its
kind, person, number, and gender, its agreement with its
antecedent (if it has one) in person, number, and gender,
its case and whether it is the subject of a verb, or the
object of a verb or of a preposition.
Parse all the pronouns in the following sentences:
1. Jane brought her mother a rose, which grew in the
garden.
2. The man on whose help I relied was absent
3. He who is ready to work will succeed.
4. They exerted such energy as they could.
5. What cannot be cured must be endured.
6. The weapon with which he conquered was simple patience.
7. To be or not to be, that is the question.
8. By others' faults, wise men correct their own.
9. It was the owner himself who killed the dog that bit you.
10. How I have performed my task, let others judge.
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 65
Write sentences containing personal pronouns ; others
containing interrogative pronouns; others containing
relative pronouns, and still others containing adjective
pronouns.
Write sentences each containing two or more of these
classes of pronouns.
XLL — KINDS OF ADJECTIVES.
1. The warm days are here.
2. The longest days come in June.
3. Three feet make one yard.
4. Seven days make one week.
5. This boy will do your errand.
6. Those books belong to Mary.
7. That man is Mr. Johnson.
8. These skates are Frank's.
9. He had little love for work.
10. There was much work to be done.
11. Some people remember favors.
12. Any man is liable to make mistakes.
18. No word came from the steamer.
14. Please make more haste.
15. The less talk the more work.
16. He opened the book at the sixth chapter, the tenth para-
graph, the one hundred and eighth page.
17. The American, French, and English ambassadors are
safe.
The italicised words in the above sentences show how
different ideas of quality, quantity, and position may be
conveyed by the use of different adjectives.
66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a
pronoun.
Adjectives may be divided as above into :
1. Adjectives of quality, or descriptive adjectives,
which show what kind of a person or thing is meant.
1. Children like sweet apples.
2. She has an amiable disposition.
3. It is a beauteous evening, calm and clear.
2. Adjectives of quantity, which show how much or
how many of anything is meant.
1. He paid two hundred dollars for the horse.
2. Sixteen ounces make a pound.
3. Any man here can do a little work.
Adjectives like "two hundred" and "sixteen" are
sometimes called cardinal numerals.
3. Adjectives of position, which show what object is
meant.
1. Deborah occupies the fourth seat in the seventh row.
2. Yonder elm was planted by my grandfather
3. This house is older than yours.
Adjectives like " fourth " and " seventh " are sometimes
called ordinal numerals.
4. Proper adjectives, those derived from proper names.
An English custom, a French fashion, an American inven-
tion.
Which and what, usually used as interrogative or relative
pronouns, may be used as adjectives.
1. What book do you prefer ?
2. Which boy came late ?
3. He knew what value to place upon promises.
4. It was easy to see which boy led his class.
ABTICLES. \ 67
XLII. — ARTICLES. \
The adjectives an, a, and the 9 also called articles, are
used as follows :
A book, an apple, means any book or any apple, and
not a particular book or apple.
An or a is called the indefinite article because it indi-
cates any one of the things for which the noun stands.
A boy, a top, a horse, a bird, a pen, a house.
A is used before words beginning with a consonant
sound.
An hour, an instant, an order, an urgent request, an
evening, an honest man.
An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound.
Note. — The article an or a, meaning one, may be classed as an adjective
of quantity.
Note. — In such expressions as to go a hunting, a is not an article, but a
preposition.
Study these sentences :
1. The man bought a black and white horse.
2. The man bought a black and a white horse.
It is said of the man in the first sentence that he
bought one horse of two colors ; in the second that he
bought two horses, one black and the other white.
It will be seen that when two or more words refer to
the same person or thing, the indefinite article should be
used before the first only ; but when the words refer to
different persons or things, the article should be repeated
before each.
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
1. There stands the boy of whom you were speaking.
2. I met the Macdonalds last evening.
3. The French, the Spanish, the Ohio, the army.
The is called the definite article because it is used to
point out objects definitely.
1. The architect and builder called at my house.
2. The architect* and the builder called at my house.
In the first sentence the architect and builder are the
same person. In the second sentence the architect is
one person and the builder a different person.
A study of these sentences shows that when two or
more words refer to the same person or thing the definite
article should be used before the first only; but when
the words refer to different persons or things, the article
should be repeated before each.
1. The first and the second boy in the line.
2. The first and second boys in the line.
When two or more adjectives do not describe the same
thing, the definite article is repeated before each, if the
noun is in the singular ; but it is used with the first only
if the noun is in the plural.
In such expressions as, " The more you study, the more
you learn," the is not an article, but an adverb.
XLIII. — COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
Chalk is white, milk is whiter, snow is the whitest.
It will be noticed in the above statements that the white-
ness of chalk, milk, and snow are compared ; that the
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 69
milk has a greater degree of whiteness than the chalk,
and that the snow has the greatest degree of whiteness.
Here the adjectives white, whiter, and whitest vary in
form to express different degrees of the quality of white-
ness.
These three degrees are the positive, white; the com-
parative, whiter ; and the superlative, whitest
Tell the three degrees of comparison in the adjectives
in the following sentences :
1. My apple is large, Jane's is larger, and Mary's is the
largest.
2. The sky in Prance is blue, ours is bluer, and Italy's is
the bluest of all.
3. This book is pretty, yours is prettier, but my mother's is
the prettiest.
Comparison of adjectives is their use to express quality
in different degrees.
1. He is a wise man.
2. This is a sharp knife.
8. This is a large apple.
The positive degree of an adjective is its form to ex-
press a quality without indicating the degree of the quality.
1. He is a wiser man than his friend.
2. He is less prosperous than his neighbor.
3. That is a sharper knife than mine.
The comparative degree of an adjective is its form to
express a higher or a lower degree of a quality than is
expressed by the positive.
70
ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
1. He is the wisest man in the country.
2. This is the sharpest knife in the room.
3. You have the largest apple.
4. You should not be the least studious boy in the class.
The superlative degree of an adjective is its form to
express the highest or lowest degree of a quality.
There are three degrees of comparison, — the positive,
the comparative and the superlative.
XLIV. — REGULAR COMPARISON.
Observe these adjectives :
Positive. Comparative.
Superlative.
small smaller
smallest
bright brighter
brightest
fast faster
fastest
slow slower
slowest
able abler
ablest
dry drier
driest
happy happier
happiest
costly costlier
costliest
big bigger
biggest
red redder
reddest
beautiful more beautiful
most beautiful
cheerful more cheerful
most cheerful
bounteous more bounteous
most bounteous
We see that to express qualities above the positive degree
the forms of the adjectives are changed in several ways :
Small, smaller, smallest ; dry, drier, driest ; slow, slower >
slowest.
IRREGULAR COMPARISON.
71
1. Adjectives of one syllable generally add er to form
the comparative, and est to form the superlative.
Able, abler, ablest; happy, happier, happiest; polite,
politer, politest.
2. Adjectives of two syllables that end in le or y, or
that are accented on the second syllable, annex er to form
the comparative, and est to form the superlative.
Loyal, more loyal, most loyal ; important, more impor-
tant, most important.
3. Most other adjectives of two syllables and adjec-
tives of more than two syllables prefix more to form the
comparative, and most to form the superlative.
XLV. — IRREGULAR COMPARISON.
Some adjectives are compared irregularly. The follow-
ing list contains most of those thus compared :
.'*V;
Positive.
Comparative.
Superlative.
bad, ill, or evil
worse
worst
far
farther
farthest
fore
former
foremost, or first
further
furthest -~"
good
better
best
hind
hinder
hindermost
late
later, latter
latest, last
Jittle
less
least
.many
more
most
much
more
most
near
nearer
nearest, next
nether
nethermost
72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Pontine.
Comparative.
Superlative.
nigh
nigher
nighest, next
old
older, elder
oldest, eldest
outer
outmost, outermost
utter
utmost, uttermost
upper upmost, uppermost
An older brother, an older horse.
Older and oldest are used in speaking of both persons
and things.
My elder brother, my eldest sister.
Elder and eldest are used in speaking of persons only.
Minor 9 major , junior, senior, interior, exterior, posterior,
superior, inferior, ulterior, prior.
Some adjectives are used in the comparative only.
These adjectives are from the Latin and are in the com-
parative degree in that language.
1. My horse is less valuable than yours.
2. John's book is the least soiled of any in the class.
These sentences show that degrees below the positive
may be expressed by prefixing less or least to the posi-
tive.
1. James is the taller of the two brothers.
2. Mary is less able than her sister.
3. Mr. Peters is the tallest man in town.
4. John is the most diligent boy in the school
It is seen by these sentences that the comparative
degree of an adjective is used when only two persons or
things are compared, and the superlative is used when
more than two persons or things are compared.
NUMBER OF ADJECTIVES. 73
Everlasting, eternal, immortal, supreme, extreme, per-
Adjectives that express the highest degree of a quality
are not compared.
Write sentences using the following adjectives in the
positive, comparative and superlative degrees : bright,
late, early, wet, hot, friendly, capable, active, many, good.
Write sentences using these adjectives to express
degrees below the positive : rough, restless, civil, pic-
turesque, little, often.
Write five sentences comparing one thing with one
other, or comparing only two things. Write five sen-
tences comparing more than two things.
XLVL— NUMBER OF ADJECTIVES.
We say a good man, good men, a large horse, large horses.
Adjectives of quality in English do not have forms
to express number ; the same forms of the adjective being
used whether the noun is singular or plural.
Adjectives of quantity or position may express number
by their forms, as one man, many men ; this man, these
men ; each man, several men ; neither man, the first man,
the tenth man, few men.
When there is an idea of number expressed by the
adjective it agrees with the noun in number.
The following adjectives are singular : one, each, every,
either, neither, this, that, much, all, meaning the whole,
second, third, and all the ordinal numerals.
The following adjectives are plural : these, those, few,
74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
several, many, divers, sundry, all, meaning number, three,
four, Jive, and all the cardinal numerals above one.
One horse, two horses ; every horse, several horses, this
house, these houses, that dog, those dogs.
Adjectives of number must agree in this respect with
the nouns or pronouns whose meaning they limit.
XLVIL— PARSING ADJECTIVES.
Let us parse the adjectives in the following sentence :
1. The third house on the street is white.
The is an adjective, called the definite article, and
limits tRe meaning of house.
Third is an ordin al numera l adjective, and limits the
meaning of house.
The is an adjective, called the definite article, and
limits the meaning of street.
White is a descriptive adjective, of the positive degree
of comparison, and describes house. As white comes after
the verb is, and is used to complete the predicate, it is
called a predicate adjective.
In parsing an adjective, tell :
1. The class to which it belongs.
2. Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.
3. The noun or pronoun whose meaning it modifies.
4. If it is a predicate adjective.
Analyze the following sentences and parse all the
nouns, pronouns and adjectives :
1. The most beautiful flowers grow in the old forests.
2. Men are but children of a larger growth.
TRANSITIVE VERBS. 75
8. This was the noblest Roman of them all.
4. The greatest and sublimest power is often simple patience.
5. He used forcible but courteous language.
6. It was a bright, balmy morning.
7. A swift and limpid rivulet purled over the smooth pebbles.
8. Violets meek and jonquils sweet she chose.
9. " Come one, come all ! this rock shall fly
From its firm base as soon as I."
Sir Roderick marked — and in his eyes
Respect was mingled with surprise,
And the stem joy which warriors feel
In f oemen worthy of their steel.
Write several favorite stanzas of poetry, and underline
all the adjectives. Tell whether they express quality,
quantity, or position.
Write ten sentences, using adjectives of quality, quan-
tity, and position.
XLVIIL — TRANSITIVE VERBS.
James wrote the letter.
In this sentence, the act of writing is done by James.
The word letter shows what James wrote ; it is therefore
the object of the word wrote. The word letter must be
expressed to show what James wrote ; it is required to
complete the meaning of the verb wrote. Wrote is, there-
fore, a transitive verb.
. A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object to
complete its meaning.
All transitive verbs are verbs of incomplete predication.
V
76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Note. — The word transitive is derived from the Latin verb transire, which
means to pass over.
In this case the action of writing is passed over from
James to the letter and ends there.
1. Boys play ball.
2. The-earpenter builds houses.
3. The blacksmith shoes horses.
4. The baker makes bread.
5. Children love flowers.
Name the transitive verbs in the above sentences, and
give the object of each. Write five other sentences con-
taining transitive verbs.
XLIX. — INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
1. The child sleeps. 2. The wind blows. 3. The sun shines.
In these sentences, the states or actions denoted by the
verbs sleeps, blows, and shines are represented as remain-
ing with the subjects, child, wind, and sun, and not as
passing over to an object. Such verbs do not require
an object to complete the sense. They are called intransi-
tive verbs.
An intransitive verb is a verb that does not require
an object to complete the sense.
1. The cat purrs.
2. The canary sings sweetly. .
3. The horse runs.
4. The children laughed heartily,
5. The steamer sails at noon*
INTRANSITIVE VERBS, 77
Name the intransitive verbs in the above sentences.
Write five other sentences containing intransitive verbs.
There is nothing in the forms of verbs to indicate
whether they are transitive or intransitive. It is the
meaning of a verb which alone determines whether it is
transitive or intransitive.
Some verbs are used both as transitive and intransitive.
The following sentences illustrate this double use of the
verb.
1. The bird flies. 2. The boy flies his kite.
Give other sentences to illustrate this double use of
verbs.
In the sentence, The bird flies, the sense is complete.
Flies in this connection is a verb of complete predication.
The same is true of the following :
1. Fishes swim. 3. Horses run.
2. Dogs bark. 4. Children play.
Give other illustrations of sentences containing verbs
of complete predication.
Most intransitive verbs are verbs of complete predica-
tion.
1. It is J.
2. That is my brother.
3. Lead is heavy.
4. He is of noble birth.
5. It seems that he is a Frenchman.
In these sentences the intransitive verb is requires other
words to complete the predication.
Write five other sentences similar to those just given.
78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
L._ VOICE,
Study these pairs of sentences :
1. John read the book.
The book was read by John.
2. Dixon made the pencils.
The pencils were made by Dixon.
3. Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation.
The Emancipation Proclamation was written by Lincoln.
4. The electric car made that noise.
That noise was made by the electric car.
5* Mr. Shaw built this house.
This house was built by Mr. Shaw.
It will be seen in the first of each pair of sentences, that
the subject performs the action expressed by the verb,
or is the actor.
In the second sentence of each pair, the subject receives
the action expressed by the verb, or is the receiver of the
action.
This difference in the form of the verb showing whether
the subject is used as the actor or receiver of the action
is called voice.
Voice is that form of the verb which shows whether the
subject denotes the actor, or the receiver of the action.
1. The hunter caught a bear.
2. The carpenter built a house.
3. The horse eats the grass.
These sentences show that the subject of each verb is
the actor.
MODE, 79
The active voice is that form of the verb which shows
that the subject of the verb denotes the actor.
1. A bear was caught by the hunter.
2. A house was built by the carpenter.
3. The grass is eaten by the horse.
These sentences show that the subject of each verb is
represented as acted upon, that it is the receiver of the
action.
The passive voice is that form of the verb which
shows that the subject of the verb is represented as acted
upon, as the receiver of the action.
Since transitive verbs alone take objects, none except
transitive verbs have a passive voice.
Write five pairs of sentences showing the uses of verbs
both in the active and the passive voice.
LL — MODE.
1. John writes. 3. Come home.
2. Were he here I would answer him. 4. I wish to go.
In these sentences writes expresses a fact, were expresses
a supposition or a condition, would ansioer expresses an
inclination, come expresses a command or request, and to
go merely names an action.
The use or form of the verb that indicates the manner
of expressing an act or state is called mode.
Study these sentences to see whether the act or state is
expressed, as a fact, as a supposition, as a condition,
as an inclination, as a request, or merely as the name
of an action :
80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1. The thoughts of youth are long thoughts.
2. Will you come early ?
3. Take good aim ! Shoot straight !
4. Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down.
5. Joshua commanded the sun to stand still.
Four modes are found in these sentences.
Are, will come, shall he cast, and commanded, are in the
indicative mode.
The indicative mode is the use or form of the verb
that expresses a fact or asks a question.
Take and shoot are in the imperative mode.
The imperative mode is the use, or form, of the verb
that expresses a command or request.
The subject of the imperative mode is generally not
expressed, but understood. It is thou, you, or ye.
Fall, in sentence four, is in the subjunctive mode,
because it expresses a supposition and not a fact.
A verb in the subjunctive mode is usually introduced
by a conjunction expressing doubt or uncertainty. The
conjunctions if, though, unless, lest, except, and that, are
most frequently used for this purpose.
' 1. Had he been industrious he would now be prosperous.
2. Had the message reached him in time, the accident would
not have happened.
In these two sentences, the conjunctions are omitted ;
but the supposition is clear in both cases.
Had been and had reached are therefore in the subjunc-
tive mode.
Note. — Potential forms of may and can used with other verbs are some-
times called the Potential Mode.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 81
When, however, the conjunction is omitted, a part or the
whole of the verb is usually placed before the subject.
The subjunctive mode is the use or form of the verb
that expresses what is uncertain, wished for, intended to
result or conditionally untrue.
1. Study lest you fail.
2. Oh ! that he were here !
3. The judge decided that the man he imprisoned three
months.
4. Were he dead the world would be as well off.
A study of these sentences shows that the subjunctive
mode may express :
1. An uncertain future.
2. A wish.
8. An intended result.
4. A condition thought of as uncertain or untrue.
Point out the verbs in the subjunctive mode in the folloiv-
ing sentences, and tell what each expresses :
1. I would I were a bird.
2. Let him that standeth take heed lest he fall.
3. Thou shalt stone him with stones that he die.
4. If any member of this club absent himself he shall forfeit
ten cents.
5. If it rain I shall not come.
6. Though he lose his life, he will not lose his honor.
Write sentences giving examples of each of the four
conditions expressed by the subjunctive mode.
Select sentences from your reader containing verbs r
the subjunctive mode.
82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LTL — INFINITIVE MODE.
1. I am glad to see you.
2. The boys have gone to play ball.
3. The men have gone to work in the milL
4. It is best to speak ill of no one.
5. Arthur was ready to go at once.
The groups of words in the sentences above, (to) see,
(to) play, (to) work, (to) speak, and (to) go are called
simple infinitives.
The preposition to is generally placed before the infini-
tive ; but it is not really a part of the verb, and is gen-
erally omitted after the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let,
make, need, see, and some others.
The infinitive mode is that use or form of the verb by
which an action or state is merely named.
1. To study is to learn.
2. He desires to improve.
3. He seems to love his mother.
4. Food to eat was scarce.
5. He studied to learn his lesson.
6. I am glad to see you.
7. He knows when to speak.
A study of these sentences shows that the infinitive
may be used as,
1. The subject of a verb.
2. The object of a verb.
3. The complement of an intransitive verb.
4. The modifier of a noun.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE, 83
5. The modifier of a verb,
6. The modifier of an adjective.
7. The modifier of an adverb.
It thus appears that an infinitive may be used as a
noun, either in the nominative or objective case, as an
adjective, or as an adverb.
Tdl the mode of each of the verbs in the following senr
tences. Give the reason in each case.
1. And what is the shore where I stood to see
My boat sail down to the west ?
2. We lay down to sleep.
3. What would you do, were you to find the cabin empty ?
4. Preserve my soul, for I have trod
Thy ways, and love the just,
Save thy servant, O my God,
Who still in thee doth trust.
5. To bear, to nurse, to rear,
To watch,* and then to lose :
This have I done when God drew near
Among his own to choose.
6. If he is faithless to his trust, and has been praised amiss,
his sorrow will be the harder to endure.
Lm. — PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
1. The children heard the birds singing their morning songs.
2. They saw the farmer boy driving the cows to pasture.
3. The sheep, grazing in the pasture, stopped to look at them.
4. Even the daisies, growing by the roadside, seemed to nod
a good-morning to them.
84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Let. us study carefully the meaning of the words sing-
ing, driving, grazing, and growing, in the above sen-
tences.
Singing shows us that the birds were doing something,
and in this respect expresses action, yet it makes no asser-
tion about the birds. It also governs the direct object,
songs. Its force as a verb form is therefore very clear
to us.
Singing is also descriptive of the birds. It modified the
meaning of the birds by giving us a new idea about them.
In this respect it is like an adjective. We think of the
birds as singing.
J?orms of the verb that have also the force of adjec-
tives, are called participles.
A participle is a form of the verb that partakes also of
the nature of an adjective.
If we study the words driving, grazing, and growing in
the same way, we shall see that they express action, and
also modify the words with which they are connected, like
adjectives. We can think of the boy as driving, the sheep
as grazing ,and the daisies as growing. We know, there-
fore, that driving, grazing, and growing are participles.
We also notice that singing, driving, grazing, and grow-
ing show that the action expressed by them is present, is
still going on, at the time mentioned.
A present participle is a participle that expresses an
action or condition as still in progress.
1. Swimming is healthful exercise.
\ 2. Boys enjoy swimming.
In these sentences swimming is a verbal noun.
\
PAST AND PERFECT PARTICIPLES. 85
LIV. — PAST PARTICIPLE.
1. A tree, fallen across the track, delayed the train.
2. The traveler, blinded by the snow, lost his way.
3. The horses, frightened by the electric car, dashed up the
street.
In these sentences the words f alien, blinded, and fright-
ened make clear their verb force by showing us that some-
thing had happened to the tree, the traveler, and the horses.
Action must have taken place to produce states of being
fallen, blinded, or frightened.
We can also think of the fallen tree, the blinded trav-
eler, and the frightened horses.
We are sure, therefore, that fallen, blinded, and fright-
ened are participles, because they have the double force of
the verb and ot the adjective.
We not only see that action is expressed by these words,
but we see also that they express past action.
They are therefore past participles.
A past participle is a participle that represents an
action or state as completed.
LV. — PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
1. Saving delivered the message, he left immediately.
2. Having finished his work, Harry was ready for play.
3. The child, having found its mother, was again happy.
In the sentences above, the expressions having delivered,
having finished, and having found partake of the nature of
k **■->.
<
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. v (
11'' '"/(• , • ■' '
86
/j? *-_
the verb, as each expresses action, without making an
assertion, and each has a noun as its object.
Having delivered, in the first sentence, is descriptive of
he, and therefore has the force of an adjective.
Each of the expressions having finished and having
found, in the second and third sentences, has the force of
the verb and of the adjective. We see, therefore, that
they are participles.
We notice that the time when he left, the time when
Henry was ready for play, and the time when the child
was again happy follow immediately upon the delivery of
the message, upon the finishing of the work, and upon the
finding of the mother.
These participles express an action that is just finished
They are therefore perfect participles.
A perfect participle is a participle that expresses an
action or state as just finished.
Point out the different kinds of participles in the follow-
ing sentences, and tell what word each modifies :
1. Seeing the multitude, he went up into a mountain.
2. We saw the children playing in the fields.
3. The peers, robed in gold and ermine, were marshaled by
the heralds.
4. The people, excited by the eloquence of the orator, could
not restrain their emotion.
5. Seated at the open window, the white-haired grandmother,
bowed by her fourscore years, was watching for the face she
most loved.
6. Hastily lifting his hat, the major entered the carriage,
and was driven rapidly away.
ibfH' '■"*"'> H>
iUta^-
TENSE. 87
7. Having paid his admission fee, David was determined to
see the performance through.
8. The ladies in the galleries, unaccustomed to such displays
of eloquence, excited by the solemnity of the occasion, and
perhaps not unwilling to display their taste and sensibility,
were in a state of uncontrollable emotion.
9. Flag of the heroes who left us their glory,
Borne through their battlefield's thunder and flame,
Blazoned in song and illumined in story,
Wave o'er us all who inherit their fame I
10. Having freed ourselves from our oppressors, let us not
oppress others.
11. Flashed all their sabers bare,
Flashed as they turned in air,
Sabering the gunners there,
Charging an army, while
All the world wondered.
Plunged in the battery smoke
Right through the line they broke ;
Cossack and Russian
Reeled from the saber stroke
Shattered and sundered.
Then they rode back, but not,
Not the six hundred.
LVL — TENSE.
1. The sun is setting.
2. The sun is set. \
3. The sun will set at six o'clock.
The uses of the verb set in the above sentences show us
that the time of the setting of the sun is expressed as
*
88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
taking place at the present time, as having taken place
in time past, and as something that will take place in
I future time. This use of the verb to denote time is
j called the tense of the verb.
I Tense is the form of verbs that shows the divisions of
\ time to which actions or states are referred, and also the
1 completeness or incompleteness of such actions or states.
There are three primary divisions of time, present, past
and future.
The present tense of the indicative mode is used for
various purposes :
1. To express what is taking place at the present time :
I am reading my book.
They are playing tag.
2. To express what is customary:
People attend church on Sunday.
The sun rises in the morning.
3. To express what is always true :
Heat melts snow.
In Maine the winters are cold.
4. To express past or future events more vividly by
representing them as impajsdiately before the reader or
hearer : / "^- -.. . - -~
The guard never surrenders, it dies.
Where Caesar sits is the head of the table.
5. To express something of an author or his works as
though Tie were now living of speaEngT" —
iNSE.
TENSE. 89
Milton is sublime.
Tennyson says : " 'Tis better to have loved and lost
Than never to have loved at all."
The present tense is the f orm of a verb that simply
refers an act or state to the present time.
Write ten sentences using the present tense of the in-
dicative mode in each of the ways indicated above.
The present perfect tense of the indicative mode
expresses an action:
1. As just finished :
The boy has returned.
We have finished our lessons.
2. As finished in a portion of time that still continues :
I have read several books this year.
He has been to New York twice this month.
The present perfect tense is the form of a verb that
refers an act or state to the present time, and represents
it as completed.
The past tense is the form of a verb that represents
an act or state as completed at some point of past time.
I wrote you a letter last week.
Many citizens attended that meeting.
The past perfect tense is the form of a verb that refers
an act or state to past time and represents it as com-
pleted :
We had returned before he came.
The train had started when I reached the station.
90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
r^ !
■ [ .. " The future tense is the form of a verb that simply
' \ refers an act or state to future time :
I shall attend school next year.
You mil receive your just reward.
The future perfect tense is the form of a verb that
represents an act or state as completed at some point of
* future time:
The house, when done, will have cost much money.
I shall have been here three weeks next Saturday.
The tenses given above represent all the phases of time
expressed by the verb. We observe that there are six
tenses, the present, the present perfect, the past, the
past perfect, the future, and the future perfect
LVIL — FORMS OF THE TENSES.
The forms of a tense may be expressed in different ways.
There are three forms of tenses, the common, the pro-
gressive, and the emphatic.
Common Form :
1. The earth moves.
2. The boy studied.
The common form of tenses is expressed in the above
sentences.
Progressive Form :
1. I am writing.
2. I was reading when you came in.
TENSE. 91
The progressive form of tenses is expressed in the
above sentences, and represents an act or state as continu-
ing at the time referred to.
Emphatic Form :
1. I do work.
2. I did read an entire hour.
The emphatic form of tenses is expressed by the above
sentences, and expresses an act or state with positiveness.
Do or did help to make the emphatic forms of tenses.
1. I did not see you yesterday.
2. He did not arrive as we expected.
Do and did do not render negative propositions em-
phatic, but simply make them more exact by inclosing
the negative adverb within the parts of the verb.
1. Did you receive the book that I sent?
2. Know you the people ?
8. Rave you spoken with the gentleman ?
We see from the above sentences that a sentence may
be made interrogative by placing the verb or some part of
it before the subject.
Give the tenses of the verbs in the following sentences :
1. The governor is in town to-day, but he will leave to-night
at eight o'clock.
2. You are now where you stood fifty years ago this very
hour, with your brothers, and your neighbors, shoulder to shoul-
der, in the strife for your country.
3. Those who survived that day, and whose lives have been
prolonged to the present hour, are now around you.
92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. Some of them you have known in the trying scenes of
war.
5. And when you shall here have exchanged your embraces,
when you shall have once more pressed the hands which have
been so often extended to give succor in adversity, then look
abroad upon this lovely land which your young valor defended.
6. He had now entered the outskirts of the village.
7. There were rows of houses which he had never seen
before, and those which had been his familiar haunts had dis-
appeared.
8. Then all the people looked and saw that what the deep-
sighted poet said was true.
9. I hope you will enjoy your vacation.
10. We are reading Emerson's " Behavior," and find that it
will be all or more than we can master.
11. I do believe you, my boy ; for you have always shown an
honest, manly spirit.
12. Have the times so changed, that merit cannot win without
influence ?
LVIII.— PERSON AND NUMBER.
1. I am. 8. He is.
2. Thou art. 4. We are.
In these sentences the verbs am, art, is, and are are
said to agree with their subjects /, thou, he, and we. As
the subjects have person and number, the verbs agreeing
with them are also said to have person and number.
In what person and number is am in the first sentence?
art in the second sentence ? is in the third sentence ? are
in the fourth sentence ?
PERSON AND NUMBER. 93
Thus verbs are said to agree with their subjects in per-
son and number.
Note. —The form of the verb changes to agree with its subject in person
and number in only a few instances.
The verb be, when used either as a principal verb or as
an auxiliary, has these forms in the present indicative:
Singular. Plural.
I am. We are.
Thou art. You are.
He is. They are.
In the past indicative :
Singular. Plural.
I was. We were.
Thou wast. You were.
He was. They were.
The person and number of a verb are its forms to suit
the person and number of its subject.
A verb agrees with its subject in person and number ;
that is, it is singular or plural, and first, second, or third
person, according to the number and person of its subject.
Give the person and number of the verbs in the follow-
ing sentences :
1. I am monarch of all I survey.
2. You may go if you will, but I remain here.
3. Admiral Dewey's flagship, the Olympia, led the proces-
sion.
n
v
VW'
v>1
94
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. The time for action has come ; will you lose your oppor-
tunity now?
5. Men of thought and kien of action, clear the way.
6. What have you learned from your books that will help
you in life ?
7. I consent, sir, to this Constitution, because I expect no
better, and because I am not suA that it is not the best
8. You have in a common cause fought and triumphed
together.
9. Observe good faith and justice fyward all nations ; culti-
vate peace and harmony with all.
10. It was one of the bravest deeds I evfer witnessed.
11. Often there were five hundred negroek\to a single white
man, and yet through these dusky throngs ttje women and
children walked in safety, and the unprotected hoboes rested in
peace.
LIX. — REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. N
4
If we examine the different forms of certain verbs we
shall see certain marked differences.
The verb love, without the use of other verb forms, gives
love, loved, while the verb go gives go, went, gone.
We see that the forms of the verb love are formed
regularly from a single root, while the verb go has
an irregular formation for expressing its relations of
time.
As these two verbs oan fairly stan d as types of different
classes of verbs, we see that verbs are divided into two
classes, called regular and irre
>\
./
REGULAB AND IRREGULAR VERBS.
95
The following verbs are regular :
Present.
Past.
Past Participle.
atte^
attended
attended
bake
baked
baked
crave
craved
craved
grant
granted
granted
land
landed
landed
rig
rigged
rigged
tie
tied
tied
walk
walked
walked
i verbs are irregular:
Present.
Past.
Past Participle.
arise
arose
arisen
begin
began
begun
come
came
come
fall
fell
fallen
grow
grew
grown
lie
lay-
lain
see
saw
seen
write
wrote
written
A study of these forms will show that:
1. The verbs in the first list form their past tense and
past participle by adding d or ed to the present form of
the verb.
2. We see that the past tense and past participle
of the verbs in the second list are not formed by adding d
or ed to the present.
Note. — By some grammarians regular verbs are called weak verbs, and
irregular verbs are called strong verbs.
\
N
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LX. — CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
The conjugation of a verb is an orderly arrangement
of all its forms in its various modes, tenses, persons, and
numbers.
A principal verb is a verb that is not used in forming
the modes and tenses of other verbs.
The principal parts of a verb are the present indic-
ative or infinitive, the past tense of the indicative, and
the past participle, because some one of these parts is n,
found in each of its forms. /
A defective verb ~is a verb in which any one of the
principal parts is wanting. A redundant verb is one
which has two forms for any one of these parts.
An auxiliary verb is one which is used to help form
any mode or tense of another verb. The auxiliary verbs
are shall, will, have, be and do.
May and can are used both as principal and as auxiliary
verbs.
The past tense of shall is should, of will is would ; the
past of have is had, of may is might, of can is could.
LA verb, when used as an auxiliary, helps express the
eaning of the verb with which it is connected.
Will, as a principal verb, expresses choice or determina-
tion.
Shall and will are used in forming the future tenses of
verbs. Shall, when used with the pronoun of the first
person, expresses simple futurity ; in the second and third
persons it expresses authority.
>'
o
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. / 97
I
Will in the first person expresses determination ; in
the second and third persons it expresses only! futurity.
Will, meaning to choose or determine, is a^regjJatverb^
and is used in all the modes and tenses.
LXI. — CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE.
I
Principal Parts.
Prea.
Past.
Past Part.
Have.
Had.
Had.
INDICATIVE
MODE.
PRESENT TENSE
Singular.
Plural.
1.
I have.
1.
We have.
2.
Thoujia
BtT'
2.
You have.
8.
Heffas.
8.
They have.
7
J
We see but three forms of the verb in the present tense,
have, hast and has.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I had. 1. We had.
2. Thou hadst. 2. You had.
8. He"ha3. 8. They had.
We see that the past tense of the verb have gives us
two forms only, had and hadst.
FUTURE TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall have. 1. We shall have.
2. Thou wilt have. 2. You will have.
8. He wifl have. 3. They will have.
/
V
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Here we find three forms for expressing the future te^,
shall have in the first person and wilt have in the second
person singular and will have for the other forms. /This
form of the future is used merely to express future/time.
SECOND FORM OP FUTURE TENSE.
/
Singular.
I will have. 1.
Thou shalt have. 2.
He" shall have. 3.
Plural. /
We will haye.
You shall ^Jiave.
They shall have.
i
We find that shall and will have changed places in the
second form of the future tense. This/iorm of the future
is used to express determination.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
(Usually follows if, though, lest, that, etc.)
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. (If) I have. 1. (If) we have
thou hast. 2. (If) you have.
(If) he have. 3. (If) they have.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. (If) 1 had. 1. (If) we had.
2. (If) thou hadst. 2. (If) you had.
3. (If) he had. 3. (If) they had.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
2. Have (thou)
Plural.
2. Have (you or ye).
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 99
INFINITIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
(To) have. (To) have had.
Participles.
Present. Past. Perfect.
Having Had Having had.
The verb have is used as a principal verb in all the
modes and tenses, and then means to possess.
When have is used as an auxiliary verb, it drops its
meaning of possession, and si mply helps make various
forms of other verbs.
The present tense of have is used in making the present
perfect tenses of other verbs :
I have written.
Its past tense is used in making the past perfect tenses :
I had written.
Its future tense helps form the future perfect tenses :
I shall have written.
Its present infinitive helps form the perfect infinitive,
as, to have written.
Its present participle helps form the perfect participles,
as, having written.
Note. — The pronoun you will be used in the second person singular in
the conjugation of the verbs that follow instead of thou, in accordance with
modern usage.
I
100
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LXIL— CONJUGATION OF THE VERB DO.
Principal Parts.
Present.
Do
Past.
Did
Past Part.
Done
INDICATIVE MODE.
JB
vp
X
Singular.
1. I do.
2. Yo u do.
8. He does
Singular.
1. I did.
You did.
He did.
PRESENT TENSE.
Plural.
1. We do.
2. You do.
8. They do.
PAST TENSE.
Plutal.
1. We did.
2. You did.
3. They did.
Caution. — The third person singular of the present
tense of do is does. In shor tening this intoih &_ negative,
use doesn't. Don't is the negative of do not.
Do is used as a principal verb in all the voices, modes,
and tenses.
As an auxiliary do is used with the present tense of
other verbs. .— — ^^
1. To make an emphatic form in the present and past
tenses :
I do study.
I did study.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 101
2. To make an interrogative form :
Bo you study?
3. To make a negative form.
I do not study.
LXIIL — CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE.
Principal Parts.
Pres. Past. Past Part.
Be. Was. Been.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I am. 1. We are.
2. You are. 2. You are.
3. He is. 8. They are.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have been. 1. We have been.
2. You have been. 2. You have been.
8. He has been. 8. They have been.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I was. 1. We were.
2. You were. 2. You were.
8. He was. 8. They were.
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. PlurdL
1. I had been. 1. We had bee
2. You had been. 2. Ton had been.
8. He had been. 8. They hacy been.
FUTURE TENSE. /
Singular.
Plural./
1. I shall be.
1. Weihall be.
2. You will be.
2. Yoh will be.
3. He will be.
3. TMey will be.
Or to express determination :
1. I will be.
1. AVe will be.
2. You shall be.
2,/You shall be.
8. He shall be.
af They shall be.
FUTURE PERFECT
/tense.
Singular. j
' Plural.
1. I shall have been. T.
We shall have been.
2. You will have been. 12.
You will have been.
8. He will have been. 18.
They will have been,
Or to express determinatioi
1. I will have been. / 1.
2. You shall have been. / 2.
8. He shall have been. / 8.
We will have been.
You shall have been.
They shall have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
(Usually follows if 1 though, lest, that, etc.)
As all the tenses are formed regularly, the first person singular only is
given for each tense.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
(If) I be.
CONJUGATION OP THE VERB BE. 103
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. (If) I have been.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. (If) I were.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. (If) 1 had been.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Notb. — The conjugation of the potential mode of the verb be is here given N
for the benefit of those who prefer to use this form. /
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may be. 1. We may be.
2. You may be. 2. You^ may be.
3. He may be. 3. They may be.
In the same way conjugate can he and must he.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may have been. 1. We may have been.
2. You may have been. 2. You may have been.
3. He may have been. 3. They may have been.
In the same way conjugate can have heen and must have
been.
PAST TENSE.
Singular: Plural.
1. I might be. 1. We might be.
2. You might be. 2. You might be.
3. He might be. 3. They might be.
104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
In the same way conjugate could be, would be, and
should be.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might have been. 1. We might have been.
2. You might have been. 2. You might have been.
3. He might have been. 3. They might have been.
In the same way conjugate could have been, would have
been, and should have been.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
2. Be (thou). 2. Be (you or ye).
INFINITIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
(To) be.
(To) have been.
Participles.
PRESENT.
PAST. PERFECT.
Being.
Been. Having been.
Be is used both as a principal verb and as an auxiliary.
When used as an auxiliary, it is combined with the pres-
ent participles of other verbs to make the progressive
forms of their tenses, and with their past participles to
make the tenses of their passive voices.
1. I am studying my lesson.
2. They were teaching Whittier's " Snow-Bound."
8. The house was built by the carpenter.
CONJUGATION OP THE VERB LOVE. 105
LXI V.— CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR TRANSI-
TIVE VERB LOVE.
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural
1. I love. 1. We love.
2. You love. 2. You love.
8. He loves. 3. They love.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. /
Singular. Plural. /
1. I have loved. 1. We have loveieu
2. You have loved. 2. You have teved.
3. He has loved. 3. They hay§ loved. I
PAST TENSE. /
Singular. Plural.
1. I loved. 1. We loved.
2. You loved. 2. >You loved.
3. He loved. 3; They loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. / Plural.
1. I had loved. / 1. We had loved.
2. You had lovecy 2. You had loved.
8. He had loved/ 3. They had loved.
^FUTURE TENSE.
Singular. J Plural.
1. I shall lo/e. 1. We shall love.
2. Y ou wil^ love. 2. You will love.
8. He wiU love. 8. They will love.
t
106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Or to express determination :
1. I will love. 1. We will love. ,
2. You shall love. 2. You shall love.
3. He shall love. 3. They shall love.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved.
2. You will have loved. 2. You will have loved.
3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved.
Or to express determination :
1. I will have loved. 1. We will have loved.
2. You shall have loved. 2. You shall have loved.
3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
(Usually follows if, though, lest, that, etc.)
The first person singular of elfth lense only is given. The other forms can
readily be supplied.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. (If) I love.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. ; . ' '_
Singular: (If) I have loved.
PAST TENSE
Singular. (If) I loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular* (If) I had loved.
CONJUGATION OF THE TEKB LOVE. 107
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural
2. Love (thou). 2. Love (you or ye).
INFINITIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE.
(To) love. (To) have loved.
Participles,
present. past. perfect.
Loving. Loved. Having loved.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. I am loved.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. I haye been loved.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. I was loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
i
Singular. I had been loved.
FUTURE TENSE.
Singular. I shall be love<J.
108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. I shall have been loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
(Usually follows if, though, lest, that, etc.)
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved.
2. If you be loved. 2. If you be loved.
3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. If I have been loved.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. If I were loved.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. If I had been loved.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural
2. Be (thou) loved. 2. Be (you or ye) loved.
INFINITIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
(To) be loved. (To) have been loved*
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE. 109
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT.
Being loved. Been loved. Having been loved.
PROGRESSIVE FORM.
INDICATIVE MODE.
The first person singular of each tense only is given here. All the other
forms can easily be formed from those given.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. I am loving.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. I have been loving.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. I was loving.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. I had been loving.
FUTURE TEN8E.
Singular. I shall be loving.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. I shall have been loving.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
(Usually follows if, though, lest, that, etc.)
110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
\ 1. (If) I be loving. 1. (If) we be loving.
/ \ 2. (If) you be loving. 2. (If) you be loving.
3. (If) he be loving. 3. (If) they be loving.
/
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. If I have been loving.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. If I were loving.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. If I had been loving.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. Be (thou) loving. 2. Be (ye or you) loving.
INFINITIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TEN8E.
(To) be loving. (To) have been loving.
Participles,
perfect. Having been loved.
EMPHATIC FORM.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. I do love.
PAST TENSE.
Singular. I did love.
FORMATION OF THE TENSES. Ill
LXV. — FORMATION OF THE TENSES.
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT.
I come. 1 walk. I go.
PRESENT PERFECT.
I have come. I have walked. I have gone.
PAST.
I came. I walked. I went.
PAST PERFECT.
I had come. 1 had walked. I had gone.
, FUTURE.
I shall come. I shall walk. J shall go.
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have I shall have I shall have
come. walked. gone.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT.
(If) I come. (If) I walk. (If) I go.
PRESENT PERFECT.
(If) I have come. (If) I have walked. (If) I have gone.
PAST.
(If) I came. (If) I walked. (If) I went.
PAST PERFECT.
(If) I had come. (If) I had walked. (If) I had gone.
112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT.
Come. Walk. Go.
PARTICIPLES.
PRE8ENT.
Coming. Walking. Going.
PAST.
Come. Walked. Went
PERFECT.
Having come. Haying walked. Having gone.
A study of these verbs shows the formation of the
various tenses in the different modes to be as follows :
ACTIVE VOICE.
1. The present tense is the simple form of tlie verb,
the same as the present infinitive :
I walk. I write.
2. The present perfect is have combined with the past
participle :
I have walked. I have written.
3. The past tense of a regular verb is formed by adding
ed or d to the present ; but if the verb is irregular, the
past tense must be learned from the table of irregular
verbs :
I walked. I wrote.
' FORMATION, OF THE TENSES. 113
/
/
/ 4. The past perfect tense is formed of had and the
,' past participle :
I had walked. I had written*
5. The fntnre tense is formed of shall in the first per-
V son, or will in the second and third persons, and the
present infinitive :
I shall walk. I shall write.
6. The fntnre perfect tense is formed of shall in the
first person, or ivill in the second and third persons, and
the present perfect infinitive :
I shall have walked. I shall have written.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
7. The present tense is the simple form of the verb :
If I walk. ' If I write.
8. The present perfect tense is formed of have and the
past participle :
If I have walked. If I have written.
The past tense of a regular verb is formed by adding
ed or d to the present ; but if the verb is irregular, the
past tense must be learned from the table of irregular
verbs :
If I walked. If I wrote.
The past perfect tense is formed of had and the past
participle :
If I had walked. If I had written.
Thus the tenses of the subjunctive mode are formed
like the corresponding tenses of the indicative.
114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
POTENTIAL MODE.
The present tense is formed of may, can, or must, and
the present infinitive :
I can walk. I can write.
The present perfect tense is formed of may, can, or
must and the present perfect infinitive :
I may have walked. I may have written.
The past tense is formed of might, could, would, or
should, and the present infinitive :
I might walk. I might write.
The past perfect tense is formed of might, could,
would, or should and the present perfect infinitive :
I might have walked. I might have written.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE
The imperative mode has only the present tense, and
this is the simple form of the verb :
Walk (thou). Write (thou).
PARTICIPLES.
The present participle is formed by adding ing to the
present ; as, walking, writing.
The past participle of a regular verb is formed by
adding d or ed to the present ; but if the verb is irregu-
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 115
lar, the past participle must be learned from the table of
irregular verbs ; as, walked, written.
The perfect participle is formed of having and the
past participle ; as, having walked, having written.
PASSIVE VOICE.
The tenses of the passive voice are made by adding the
perfect participle to the various forms of the verb to be :
I am loved. The letter is written.
PROGRESSIVE FORM.
The progressive form is made by adding the present
participle to the different tenses of the various modes of
the verb to be :
I am walking. I am writing.
EMPHATfe FORM.
The emphatic form is made by placing the present
and past forms of the auxiliary do before the present and
past tenses of the indicative mode :
I do try. I did study.
LXVL— DEFECTIVE VERBS.
A defective verb, as previously stated, is one that
lacks some of its principal parts.
Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective. For example,
can is used only in the present and past tenses.
116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Beware is defective ; it has no participles.
Ought is used only in the present and past tenses, and
has the same form in both. It is in the present tense
when followed by the present infinitive :
I ought to go.
It is in the past tense when followed by the present
perfect infinitive :
I ought to have gone.
Quoth is used only in the first and third persons singu-
lar of the past tense of the indicative mode, and only in
quaint or humorous language :
Quoth I. Quoth he.
It means said, and is now rarely used.
To wit, meaning to know, is now used only in the pres-
ent infinitive, in the sense of namdy, that is to say. The
form wot is f ound in old writers :
I wot. God wot.
LXVIL — IMPERSONAL VERBS.
In the statements, It rains ; it is cold ; it is growing
dark; it feels chilly, the subject it cannot be clearly
defined.
The meaning of the sentences is clear. We mean that
rain is falling, that the weather is cold, that darkness is
coming on. We have become so accustomed to use it
^
IRREGULAR VERBS. 117
in such cases as the above that the meaning is always
clear, yet we cannot find a word that it stands for. The
antecedent of it cannot be determined.
Verbs used with it in such cases are called impersonal
verba
An impersonal verb is one that has no determinate
subject . '
Sometimes the subject is not represented at all; as,
Methinks, meaning, it seems to me; lists, meaning, it
pleases me.
' — Hay may be called an impersonal verb in such expres-
sions as,
There were, *ay, a hundred persons present. [^
v -\r\
The meaning is that about a hundred persons were
present.
LXVIIL — IRREGULAR VERBS.
Thftj^pjng^t.imi nfm irregular v£tbjs just as easy as
that of^a regular verb, when the principal parts are
know n ; for the forms of the various modes, tenses, per-
sons, and numbers are made from the principal parts in
the same way. The following list of irregular verbs and
their principal parts is given for both reference and close
study. Verbs that have also a regular form are marked
R. As the present participle is always formed by add-
ing ing to the present tense, it is not printed in this
list.
11
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
Pre*.
Past.
Past Part.
abide
abode
abode
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awoke, R.
awaked
bake
baked
I baked
\ baken
be, am
was
been
bear (bring forth)
bore
bare
born
bear (to carry)
bore
bare
borne
beat
beat
( beaten
1 beat
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
behold
beheld
beheld
bend
bent, R.
bent, R-
bereave
bereft, R.
bereft, R.
beseech
besought
besought
bet
bet, R.
bet, R.
bid
bid, bade
bidden, bid
bind
bound
bound
bite
bite
bitten, bit
bleed
bled
bled
bless
blest, R.
blest, R.
blow
blew
blown
break
( broke
( brake
broken
breed
bred
bred
bring
brought
brought -
IRREGULAR VERBS.
119
Pre8.
Past.
Past Part. '
build
built, ft.
built, R.
burn
burnt, R.
burnt, R.
burst
burst
burst
buy
bought
bought
can
could
cast
cast
cast
catch
caught, ft.
caught, R.
chide
chid
( chidden
(chid
chosen
choose
chose
cleave (to split)
clove, ft.
cloven
cleft or clave
cleft
cleave (to adhere)
clave, ft.
cleaved
cling
clung
clung
clothe
clad, ft.
clad, r.
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
creep
crept
crept
crow
crew, E.
crowed
cut
cut
cut
dare
durst, R.
dared
deal
dealt
dealt, R.
dig
dug,R.
dug, R,
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
dream
dreamt, R.
dreamt, R.
dress
drest, R.
drest, R.
drink
drank
( drank
( drank
drive
drove
driven
dwell
dwelt, R.
dwelt, R.
120.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Fret.
Past.
Past Part.
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
flee
fled
fled
fling
flung
flung
%
flew
flown
forbear
forbore
forbore
forget
forgot
( forgotten
( forgot
forsake
forsook
forsaken
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got, gotten
gild
gilt,B.
gilt,B.
Jgu*
girt,B.
girt,B.
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grave
graved
graven, B.
grind
ground
ground
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung, B.
hung
have
had „_.
had
hear
heard
heard
( hove, B.
c hoven
heave
hove, b.
hew
hewed
hewn, b.
hide
hide
hidden, hid
hit
hit
hit
(held
hold
held
1 holden
LIST OP IRREGULAR VERBS.
121
Pres.
Past.
Past Part.
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
kneel
knelt, B.
knelt, B.
knit
knit, B.
knit, B.
know
knew
known
lade
laded
laden, b.
lay
laid, B.
laid, B.
lead
led
led
lean.
leant, B.
leant, B.
leap
leapt, B,
leapt, B.
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie (to recline)
lay
lain
light
lit, b.
lit,B.
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
may
might .
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
mow
mowed
mown, B,
pay
paid
paid
pen (to inclose)
pent, B.
pent, b.
plead
plead, b.
plead, B.
put
PUt ^
put
quit
quit, B.
quit, B.
rap
rapt, B.
rapt, K.
read
read
read
rend
rent
rent
rid
rid
rid
ride "
rode
ridden
122
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Pre*.
ring
rise
rive
run
saw
say
see
seek
seethe
sell
send
set
shake
shall
shape
shave
shear
shed
shine
shoe
shoot
show
shred
shrink
shut
sing
sink
Past.
| rang
X rung
rose
rived
ran
sawed
said
saw
sought
seethed
sold
sent
set
shook
should
shaped
shaved
sheared
shed
shone, R.
shod
shot
showed
shred, b.
(shrunk
shrank
shut
Csang
I sung
Ssunk
sank
Past Part.
rung
risen
riven, r,
run
sawn, R.
said
seen
sought
sodden, r.
sold
sent
set
shaken
shapen, R.
shaven, R.
shorn, R.
shed
shone, R.
shod
shot
shown, r.
shred, R.
shrunk
shrunken
shut
sung
sunk
LIST OF IRREGULAR YERB8.
123
Pre*.
Past.
Past Part.
sit
sat
sat.
slay
slew
slain
sleep
slept
slept
( slidden
(slid
slide
slid
sling
slung
slung
slink
slunk
slunk
slit
slit
slit, R.
smell
smelt, B.
smelled
( smitten
( smit
smite
smote
sow
sowed
sown, r.
speak
( spoke
C spake
spoken
speed
sped
sped
spell
spelt, R.
spelt, R.
spend
spent
spent
spill
spilt, R.
spilt, R.
spin
spun, span
spun
spit
spit, spat
spit
split
split
split
spoil
spoilt, R.
spoiled
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang
sprung
stand
stood
stood
stave
stove, R.
stove, R.
stay
staid, R.
staid, r.
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
strew
strewed
strown, R.
124
ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
Prea.
Past.
Past Part.
stride
strode
stridden
strike
8 truck
( struck
( stricken
string
strive
strung
strove
strung
striven
swear
( swore
( 8 ware
sworn
sweat
sweat, B.
sweat, B.
sweep
swell
swept
swelled
swept
swollen, B.
swim
( swam
I swum
swum
swing
take
swung
took
swung
taken
teach
tear
taught
tore, tare
taught
torn
tell
told
told
think
thrive
thought
I thrived
I throve
thought
thriven, B.
throw
threw
thrown
thrust
thrust
thrust
tread
trod
( trodden
\ trod
wake
woke, B.
woke
wax
waxed
waxen, B.
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove, b.
woven, B.
weep
wet
whet
wept
wet, b.
whet, B.
wept
wet, B.
whet, b.
PARSING VERBS.
Pvts.
Past.
Past Part
will
would
win
won
won
wind
wound, R.
wound
work
wrought, R.
wrought, R.
wring
wrung
wrung
write
wrote
written
125
LIX. — PARSING VERBS.
Let us parse the verb in the following sentence :
Robert caught a mouse in a trap.
Caught is a verb.
The principal parts are catch, caught, caught.
It is irregular, transitive, active voice, indicative mode,
past tense, third person, singular number, to agree with
the subject, Robert.
We see from the above that to parse a verb is to tell :
1. The principal parts.
2. Whether it is regular or irregular.
3. Whether it is transitive or intransitive.
4. The voice.
6. The mode.
6. The tense.
7. The person.
8. The number.
9. The subject with which it agrees-
126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Parse the verbs in the following sentences :
1. The boy sold his papers before noon.
2. The train left the station ten minutes before the party
arrived.
3. Any nation, however small, fighting for freedom, should
receive the sympathy of liberty loving people everywhere.
4. Laugh, and the world laughs with you ;
Weep, and you weep alone ;
For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth,
But has trouble enough of its own.
5. We were assured that the men would return to their
homes in a few days.
6. The woman stole behind Phoebe, and peeped from the
passage-way into the shop, to note how she would manage her
undertaking.
7. " Shoot, if you must, this old gray head,
But spare your country's flag," she said.
8. Rejoice, and men will seek you ;
Grieve, and they turn to go ;
They want full measure of all your pleasure,
But they do not need your woe.
9. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul,
As the swift seasons roll ;
Leave thy low-vaulted past;
Let each new temple, nobler than the last,
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast,
Till thou at length art free,
Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea. ,
Write sentences in which the verb changes its form to
agree with its subject in person and number. Write sen-
ADVERBS. 127
tences in the indicative mode ; in which the verb is in the
present perfect ttense ; in which it is in the past perfect
tense; in which it isin the future perfect tense.
Write sentences shoW the use of the infinitive.
Write sentences usin^ the present participle; others
using the past participle.
Write sentences in the Injunctive mode. Tell why
you think this is the correct mode to use in each case.
\X^^ LXX. — ADVERPS.
x 1. We shall start immediate
2. Henry will meet us to-morirjow.
vln these sentences immediately and tomorrow tell us
theStime of starting, and the time of meeting. They are
to the verbs shall start and will meet, to Npake their
meaning more definite. Thpyfl/nswfti* to thp foiftstioTia-
When w$J, you start f and, When will Henry meet you ?
Words like immediately and to-morrow a dded to. verbs
to denote the time of the action are calledT adverbs of
time.
Write five sentences containing adverbs of time.
1. I have ^lways lived here.
< . ~- 2. Everybody was happy there.
i\.v
In these sentences here tens where I have always lived,
and there tells where everybody \
Words like here and there that ihqdif y the meaning of a
128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
verb or an adjective, and denote the place where, are
called adverbs of place.
Write five sentences containing adverbs of place.
1. Mary studies her lessons carefully.
2. John skates very gracefully.
In these sentences carefully and gracefully tell the
maimer of studying, and of skating. They answer the
questions,
How does Mary study t How does John skate t
Words like carefully and gracefully, used to modify
verbs, and to tell how a thing is done, are called adverbs
of manner.
Write five sentences containing adverbs of manner.
1. He was quite overcome by the heat.
2. The cause of the delay is now fully known.
In these sentences quite and fully tell the degree or
extent to which he was overcome, and to what extent the
cause of the delay is known.
Words thus used to denote degree are called adverbs of
degree.
Write five sentences containing adverbs of degree.
1. Qf course you wilLbe present.
2. He labored in vain.
In these sentences of course modifies will be present by
making a future condition nearly certain, and in vain tells
how he labored.
COMPARISON OP ADVERBS. 129
Of course and in vain, and similar expressions, are
called adverbial phrases.
1. We should go where duty calls.
2. Be ready when he comes.
In the first sentence the clause where duty calls modi-
fies sliould go, and thus has the force of an adverb.
In the second sentence the clause when he comes modi-
fies ready, and thus has the force of an adverb.
Adverbs are words used to modify verbs, adjectives and
adverbs.
Adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses have the
same uses as adverbs.
LXXL — COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
1. Mr. Homer decided wisely.
2. Mr. Plympton decided more wisely.
3. The judge decided most wisely.
The above sentences show us that adverbs ending in ly
may be compared by prefixing more and most to the posi*
tive to form the comparative and the superlative.
This is generally true of adverbs ending in ly.
1. Fred started early.
2. Henry started earlier.
3. John started the earliest.
By a study of these sentences we see that some adverbs
are compared by adding the suffixes er and est to the posi-
tive to form the comparative and the superlative.
f
130
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
We learn from the adverbs already compared that
adverbs have three degrees of comparison, the positive!
the comparative, and the superlative.
Write sentences containing the adverbs earnestly, sweetly,
and often, in the positive, the comparative, and the super-
lative degrees.
Some adverbs are irregular in their comparison.
The following are illustrations.
ostoive.
far
Comparative.
farther
Superlative.
farthest
far
further
furthest
ill
worse
worst
late
later
last or latest
little
less
least
much
more
most
nigh or near
well
nearer
better
next
best
It is evident that some of these adverbial forms may be
used as other parts of speech.
We should ever bear in mind the fact that the use of a
word determines what part of speech it is.
Write sentences using as many of the above forms as
you can, both as adjectives and as adverbs.
' 1. The more you study, the more rapidly you will advance.
In this sentence we find the used not as an article, but
as an adverb.
1. There were giants in those days.
2. There came a voice from heaven.
3. There was a heavy fall of rain yesterday.
\ 1(1 \ PAIRING THE ADVERB. \ 131
In these sentences there is not an adverb oi, place, but
•ather an introductory adverb, used to introduce the
thought in each sentence. \
The use of there in these sentences allows the subject /
^'to follow the verb, and thus emphasizes the thought. r^
I saw the vessel when it entered the port.
i / In this sentence when modifies the meaning of entered, J
V and connects the clause with the principal statement. It /
k is therefore a conjunctive adverb. \
I A conjunctive adverb is an adverb used also as a j -
\conjunction. '
LXXIL — PARSING THE ADVERB.
Let us parse the adverbs in the following sentence :
The governor came to the meeting to-day and spoke remark-
ably well.
To-day is an adverb of time, and modifies the meaning
of came by telling us when the action took place.
Remarkably is an adverb of degree, and modifies the
meaning of well, by indicating a high degree of the quality
expressed by well.
Well is an adverb of manner, in the positive degree of
comparison, — well, better, best, — and modifies the
meaning of spoke by showing us the manner of speaking.
To parse an adverb tell :
1. To what class of adverbs it belongs.
132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. Its degree of comparison, and how compared (if it
admits of comparison).
3. The word whose meaning it modifies,
4. How it modifies the meaning.
Parse the adverbs in the following sentences:
1. The troops marched rapidly.
2. He is much wiser than he was formerly.
3. The seed grew up where it fell.
4. The more you study, the wiser you grow.
5. Whither I go ye cannot come.
6. Always speak the truth.
7. You have done well hitherto; do the same hereafter.
8. I will certainly support you always.
9. It will probably rain to-morrow.
LXXIIL — PREPOSITIONS.
1. The bear was caught in a steel trap.
2. He studied till noon.
3. He went by rail to the house of his father.
4. Some toil for glory, some for their fellow-men.
The words in, till, by, to, of, and for, in these sentences
are prepositions, and with the following nouns, form
phrases ; they also show certain relations between their
objects and the words which the phrases modify.
In the first sentence in shows a relation of place between
trap and was caught.
In the second sentence till shows a relation of time
between noon and studied.
PREPOSITIONS. 133
In the third sentence by shows a relation of means
between rail and went ; to, a relation of place between
house and went; of, a relation of possession between father
and house.
In the last sentence, the first for shows a relation of
purpose between glory and toil, the second for shows a
relation of purpose between fellow^nen and toil.
The most common relations shown by prepositions are,
place, time, means or agency, purpose or end, separation,
opposition, substitution, and possession.
A preposition is a word which, with the following
noun or pronoun, forms a phrase, and shows the relation
of its object to the word whose meaning the phrase
modifies.
Point out the prepositions and the phrases in the follow-
ing sentences, and name the kind of relation shown in each
case.
1. I spoke to him.
2. The dog saw John and James coming and barked at them.
8. He is a man of great wisdom.
4. Admiral Dewey came from the Philippines in the
Olympia.
5. The boys studied until they were tired out.
6. He gave his life for his country.
7. William Lloyd Garrison used all his influence against
slavery.
8. The weak man gives fair words instead of good deeds to
his country.
9. Every word that he speaks has been fiercely furnaced
In the blast of a life that has struggled in earnest.
134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
10. Heaven is not gained at a single bound i
But we build the ladder by which we rise
From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies,
And we mount to its summit round by round.
11. Fairer was she when, on Sunday morn, while the bell
from its turret
Sprinkled with holy sounds the air, as the priest with his
hyssop
Sprinkles the congregation, and scatters blessings upon
them,
Down the long street she passed, with her chaplet of
beads and her missal,
Wearing her Norman cap, and her kirtle of blue, and the
earrings
Brought in the olden time from France, and since, as an
heirloom,
Handed down from mother to child, through long gene-
rations.
By a study of these sentences we see that a preposition
generally precedes its object.
The following sentences show exceptions to this rule :
1. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among.
2. What did you come for?
3. Peter is the name that he answered to.
4. Your hasty speech I take no account of.
Some words, originally present participles, are now used
as prepositions ; as, considering, touching, regarding,
respecting, excepting.
Write sentences illustrating the use of each pf these
prepositions.
\
LIST OP PREPOSITIONS.
135
Sometimes two or more words are used together as a
preposition; as, according to, on account of, as to, as for,
from under. Prepositions made up in this way may be
called compound prepositions.
Write sentences using the above compound prepositions.
LXXIV. — LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.
Lost common
prepositions are :
^
beyond
since
aboard
but
till
about
by
to
above
concerning
toward
across
down
towards
after
during
through
against
ere
under
along
except
underneath
amid
excepting
until
amidst
for
unto
among
from
up
amongst
in
upon
around
into
with
at
notwithstanding
within
athwart
of
without
before
off
according to
behind
on
as to
below
over
contrary to
beneath
past
from beyond
beside
respecting
from out
besides
round
instead of
between
save
out of
betwixt
136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
, Write sentences containing prepositions that show rela-
tions of place, time, means, purpose, separation, opposition,
possession, and any other relations you may discover.
LXXV. — PARSING PREPOSITIONS.
Let us parse the prepositions in the following sentences :
1. I have not seen him since last January.
2. We rowed against the tide.
Since is a preposition, and shows the relation of time
between January and have seen.
Against is a preposition, and shows the relation of
opposition between tide and rowed.
To parse a preposition, tell ;
1. What part of speech it is.
2. What relation it shows between its object and some
other word in the sentence.
Parse the prepositions in the following sentences:
1. Let us go a fishing.
2. We dine about noon.
3. It is hard work to row against the tide.
4. They took up a collection for the poor.
5. The boys were allowed to play in the afternoon.
6. Take the load off the horse's back.
7. The water was pumped out of the well*
8. You should not act contrary to orders.
9. Those people came from beyond the seas.
r C/>
V*
CO-ORDIKATE COKJUNCTlONS. 137
10. A picture memory brings to me ;
I look across the years and see
Myself beside my mother's knee.
LXXVL — CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
1. Mary has returned, and John will return to-morrow.
2. Will you go in the carriage, or will you walk?
3. William the Silent was a man of few words, but his
deeds were most effective.
4. You sent for me, therefore I am here.
\
\ In these sentences the conjunctions are and, or, hut, and
\ therefore. They join the different parts of the sentences.
\f As the parts of the sentences joined by these conjunc-
I tions are of equal force, the conjunctions are called co-or-
I dinate conjunctions.
/ A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins co-ordinate
' elements of a sentence.
Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences, and
tell what they connect :
1. Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers and I linger on
the shore,
And the individual withers, but the world is more and
more.
2. Be it joy or be it sorrow,
Duty's call we will obey.
3. Let not the emphasis of hospitality be in bed and board,
but let truth and love and honesty and courtesy flow in all thy
deeds.
138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. There is no beautifier of complexion, or form, or behavior,
like the wish to scatter joy and not pain around us.
5. They stood, or sat, or reclined upon the grass, as seemed
good to each, with the departing sunshine falling obliquely
over them, and mingling its subdued cheerfulness with the
solemnity of a grove of ancient trees, beneath and amid the
boughs of which the golden days were constrained to pass.
LXXVIL — SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
1. Study hard that you may be wiser.
2. We shall not go if it rains.
3. Though all deny thee, yet will I not deny thee.
4. We ran fast for the bear was upon us.
5. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thou lovest thyself.
6. That he was afraid none will deny.
7. That he risked all for honor is true.
Observe that the conjunctions in these sentences con-
nect clauses with principal statements. They are there-
fore subordinate conjunctions.
Note just how each clause modifies its principal state-
ment. It is seen that the clause introduced by the con-
junction that, modifies study by telling the purpose. That
is therefore a subordinate conjunction expressing pur-
pose.
The clause introduced by if modifies shall go by express-
ing the condition. If is a subordinate conjunction ex-
pressing condition.
The clause beginning with though modifies loill deny by
showing a concession. Though is a subordinate conjunc-
tion of concession.
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 139
The clause beginning with for modifies ran by showing
the cause or reason. For is a subordinate conjunction of
cause.
The clause beginning with as modifies shcdt love by ex-
pressing a comparison. As is a subordinate conjunction
of comparison.
In sentences 6 and 7 that is used to introduce the noun
clauses.
The connective force of that will be seen by changing
the order of the sentences as follows :
1. None will deny that he was afraid.
2. It is true that he risked all for honor.
To change the order of the last sentence we must use
it to introduce the sentence.
That is often used to introduce a noun clause.
Subordinate conjunctions are conjunctions that con-
nect clauses with principal statements.
Point out the subordinate conjunctions in the following
sentences, and tell what they connect :
1. He is sure to learn because he studies hard.
2. The crops will fail unless we have rain soon.
3. The sailing party will start to-morrow at ten o'clock, if the
weather is fine.
4. Abraham Lincoln had no luxuries in his early life, for his
parents were very poor.
5. We cannot go in bathing until the water is warmer.
6. John has been out sailing every day since he bought his
new boat.
7. We must strive to succeed, for the idle deserve not success.
140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Write five sentences using a co-ordinate conjunction in
each sentence.
Write five sentences using a subordinate conjunction in
each sentence.
Write three sentences using that to introduce a noun
clause in each sentence.
LXXVIII. — CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
1. Give me neither poverty* nor riches.
2. Either take the money or let me have it.
3. Both the President and the Secretaryof State were absent.
4. Whether he will refuse or obey, I know not.
5. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.
Conjunctions often occur in pairs, as in these sentences.
The first conjunction of each pair seems to have no
power of connecting without its mate. Correlative con-
junctions are conjunctions used in pairs.
Write five sentences using correlative conjunctions in
each sentence.
LXXIX. — CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS.
1. When John came I was absent.
2. I know not where he dwells.
3. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows.
4. Louis watched the baby while his mother worked,
5. Children are happy whenever they do their best,
PARSING CONJUNCTIONS. 141
By a study of the above sentences, we see that the
italicized words are used to connect the clauses with the
principal statements. They also have an adverbial force.
Such words are called conjunctive adverbs.
A conjunctive adverb is a word used both as a con-J
junction and as an adverb.
Write five sentences using a conjunctive adverb in eacl
sentence.
LXXX.— PARSING CONJUNCTIONS.
Let us parse the conjunctions in the following sen-
tences :
1. Birds and flowers are things of beauty.
2. Since you desire it, I will come.
3. We needed a fire, became the weather was so cold.
And, in the first sentence, is a co-ordinate conjunction,
and connects flowers and birds.
Since, in the second sentence, is a subordinate conjunc-
tion, connecting the clause with the principal statement,
/ will come.
Because, in the third sentence, is a subordinate con-
junction, connecting the clause with the principal state-
ment, we needed a fire.
To parse conjunctions tell :
1. Whether they are co-ordinate, subordinate, or cor-
relative.
2. The words, phrases, or clauses, which they connect.
142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences:
1. I shall go to the mountains in July, but I shall return
to the seashore in August
2. The rain continued, still we remained in the country.
3. You have been industrious, hence you deserve success.
4. Many fail in business, because they are lacking in pru-
dence.
5. Unless I hear to the contrary, I will attend the confer-
ence.
6. Wise men study, that they may grow still wiser.
7. As you sow, so shall you also reap.
8. Weeds and briers grow in the field, because it is not well
cared for.
9. Time is more precious than gold and silver.
10. I will see whether he has come.
Parse the conjunctions in Bryant's Forest Hymn or
any equally difficult poem.
Write ten sentences using one or more conjunctions in
each.
Tell whether they are co-ordinate, subordinate or cor-
relative conjunctions.
LXXXI. — INTERJECTIONS.
Hurrah ! we have a holiday I
Alas ! How did it happen ?
Hush ! The baby is asleep.
In the above sentences we notice that the words hurrah,
alas and hush have no grammatical connection with the
sentences in which they occur. The meaning of these
INTERJECTIONS. 143
words is very plain. They call our attention very closely
to what follows, and indicate that the speaker in each
case is very much in earnest.
Such words as hurrah, alas, and hush, are called
interjections.
An interjection is a word used to express strong feel-
ing, and is not grammatically connected with any other
word in a sentence.
The most common interjections are :
ah
hark
oh
alas
hello
pshaw
bah
hush
see"
bravo
hurrah
tut
good
indeed
welcome
good-by
look
what
ha
.— -
LXXXIL — PARSING INTERJECTIONS.
Let us parse the interjections in the following sen-
tences :
1. Hush ! you will wake the baby.
2. Oh I how the poor man suffers from his wounds !
Hush is an interjection, and denotes a desire for
silence.
Oh is an interjection, and denotes the feeling of pity.
To parse an interjection tell :
1. What part of speech it is.
2. What kind of feeling it denotes.
144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Parse the interjections in the following sentences .
1. Ah I pity me.
2. The words are fine ; but as to the sense — bah\
3. What I are you back so soon ?
4. Hurrah ! may our country long be preserved.
5. Aha I so 1 have caught you.
6. Hark ! what noise is that ?
Write five sentences using different interjections.
LXXXm. — USES OF WORDS.
We have now studied all the parts of speech as used in
sentences, and have seen that use alone determines the
part of speech.
Let us examine the uses of words a little further.
1. The box is made of pine.
2. The odor of the pine forest is very sweet
3. In the hot and dusty city I pine for the fresh air of the
country.
We see that pine is used in these sentences as a noun,
as an adjective, and as a verb.
The adjective probably borrows more noun forms than
any other part of speech.
We see this illustrated frequently in adjectives derived
from names of materials, and especially in adjectives de-
yed from proper names, — proper adjectives.
We speak of the American flag, the English fleet, a
rencH p]ay, a German band, a Chinese junk, a Japanese
\
USES OF WORDS. 145
fan, the Italian opera, a Russian drosky, a Norwegian
fiord, a Swiss village, the Australian ballot, a Chicago
paper, a New York train, a Boston merchant, California
fruit, and New England weather.
These few examples show the ease with which proper
adjectives are formed. They can be multiplied indefi-
nitely.
Write ten sentences using a proper adjective in each.
Name the different parts of speech expressed by the
same word-form in each of the following sentences : —
1. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
2. Did you see him stone the birds?
3. The woodchuck hid in the stone wall.
4. Mr. Armstrong is a stone-mason.
5. Mr. Stone has a fine residence on Mt. Vernon Street.
6. The severe storm did much damage to the crops.
7. Unless the enemy surrender before six o'clock, we storm
the city.
8. The storm-bound vessels were delayed several days.
9. Harry was very proud of his first pair of storm boots.
10. The well from which they drew their water was thirty-
feet deep.
11. The well curb had a Chinese roof.
12. The horses showed that they had been well groomed.
13. The old man asked, " Is it well with thee ? " and he
answered, " It is well."
14. Pack as many stores as possible into that box.
15. The box is a shrub sometimes used as a border for gar-
dens or lawns.
16. They practice daily in the gymnasium, and row, box,
and play golf, tennis, and ball.
146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
r
17. The enraged negro gave his tormentor a severe box on
the ear.
18. He knew many nautical terms, and it was even believed
by his admirers that he could box the gompass.
19. The others entered the coach, but Mr. Dacey took a seat
on the box with the coachman.
LXXXIV SN YT AX.
Syntax is that part of grammar which teaches how
words are combined in sentences, and shows their agree-
ment, government, and arrangement.
Many of the principles of syntax have been illustrated
in the earlier part of this book, but a more complete state-
ment of its laws will follow.
We have already learned that :
1. A sentence is an expression of a thought by means
of words.
2. Sentences are either oral or written.
3. A thought may be expressed as :
(a) A statement.
(&) A question.
(c) A command or an entreaty.
(d) An exclamation.
In whatever form a sentence may appear it must always
1 j contain a subject and a predicate.
1 * Note. — The subject or the predicate may be understood.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
LXXXV. — THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
147
A simple sentence contains but one subject and one
predicate.
The subject of a sentence is the word or words that v
name the thing about which an assertion is made.
The predicate of a sentence is the word or words that^
assert something about the subject.
1. Boys play. - ■ —"A. Trees grow.
2. What has happened ? 5. They came.
3. Who knows ? 6. He speaks.
The simple sentence, when both the subject and predi-
cate are unmodified, consists of a noun or its equivalent,
and a finite verb.
A feeble old man, struggling along in his efforts to reach his
distant home, was hobbling over the icy sidewalk, at one time
almost falling to the ground, at another gaining decidedly in
his progress.
This sentence shows that both subject and predicate
may be modified to almost any extent and the sentence
still remain simple.
LXXXVL — THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
1. We think that we can touch the stars.
2. The apple of life, which another has found, is not ours.
3. Heaven seems to us in childhood as our own mother's
face.
4. We walked in the garden until our friends came.
148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
5. Life seems fair when we are young.
6. Life should seem fairest when old age comes with its
rest after work well done.
In each of these sentences we observe that either the
subject or the predicate is modified by a clause.
We observe that the clause in the first sentence is used
as the object of the verb think, and that the other clauses
are used as adjectives or as adverbs.
Sentences that contain one principal statement modi-
fied by one or more clauses are complex sentences.
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains a
principal statement and one or more clauses.
LXXXVIL — THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
1. I have been in the meadows all day, and I have gathered
there these beautiful flowers.
2. The ancient spirit is not dead ; old times are still breath-
ing ; there is still strength and dignity in life.
Each of these sentences contains two or more inde-
pendent statements. They are compound sentences.
A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two
or more independent statements.
We are borne into life — it is sweet, it is strange !
We lie on the knee of a mild Mystery,
Which smiles with a change.
A compound sentence may have any or all of its coor-
nate parts complex.
dinate parts complex
THE NOUN CLAUSE. 149
Tell what you did last evening, using five simple sen-
tences. Tell the same story, using complex sentences.
Tell it again using compound sentences.
LXXXVIIL— THE NOUN CLAUSE.
The noun clause, as its name implies, performs the office
of a noun. The following sentences will illustrate its use :
1. Whosoever will may come.
2. That wise men may err is certain.
3. Sow he succeeded is still a mystery.
4. Tell me what you intend to do.
5. We know that he is worthy of such a deed.
6. He believed that the time had come.
7. The Puritans were sincere in what they professed.
8. His desire was that he might succeed without effort.
9. Dreams are not what men are made of.
10. It is hoped that he has succeeded.
11. It is uncertain what changed his mind.
12. It is true that the way of the transgressor is hard.
13. The belief, that the child had been kidnapped, soon
prevailed.
The noun clause is used as :
1. A subject of a verb.
2. An object of a verb.
3. An object of a preposition.
4. A predicate noun.
5. The complement of a verb.
6. An appositive.
In all cases it performs the office of a noun.
150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LXXXIX. — THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
The adjective clause, as we have before seen, performs
the office of an adjective.
1. The man, who lives opposite, is the mayor of the city.
2. That is the place where Hawthorne wrote the "Blithedale
Romance"
3. He gave the book, which he had purchased, to his brother
John.
4. There shall not be left one stone upon another, that shall
not be thrown down.
It is evident from these sentences that the adjective
clause may modify a noun in any part of a sentence, either
in the subject or the predicate.
When a clause modifies a noun or its equivalent it is
an adjective clause.
XC — THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE.
1. The keeper lived where he could command a view of the
park.
2. There was no one at home when he called.
3. He sent to the husbandmen a servant that he might re-
ceive of the fruit of the vineyard.
4. Do ye not therefore err, because ye know not the scriptures f
5. He looked as though he were guilty.
6. The route was shorter than he had thought it.
7. To live in honor, though he met calumny from all y was his
ambition.
THE SUBJECT. 151
8. He was true to his convictions, so his neighbors called him
"Honest Abe."
9. The regiment charged so valiantly that the enemy were
routed.
These sentences show that the adverbial clause may
modify :
1. A verb.
2. An adjective.
3. An adverb.
An adverbial clause may perf onn all the offices of the
adverb.
We have seen that there are three kinds of clauses, the
noun clause, the adjective clause, and the adverbial
clause. There are no others.
A complex sentence always contains a clause.
A clause may be found in a compound sentence. A
member of a compound sentence may be complex.
Write five sentences containing noun clauses ; five con-
taining adjective clauses; and five containing adverbial
clauses, either in the subject or in the predicate, or in both.
XCL — THE SUBJECT.
The simplest subject of a sentence, either simple, com-
plex, or compound, is a noun or its equivalent, unmodified.
There are several equivalents for the noun. Study these
sentences for them :
1. The train has arrived.
2. They are coming.
152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
S. Some came early.
4. To eat satisfies hunger.
5. That he was kind makes his bravery more valuable.
It will be seen from these sentences that the subject of
a sentence may be
1. A noun.
2. A pronoun.
3. An adjective.
4. A phrase.
5. A clause.
To parse the subject, if it is a noun or pronoun or an
adjective used as a noun, state :
1.
The class.
2.
The person.
3.
The number.
4.
The gender.
5.
The case.
6.
The reason for the case
A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a finite verb
is in the nominative case.
In parsing the phrase, the adjective, or the clause,
used as a subject, state that it is used as a noun and is
the subject of the finite verb.
The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case.
Name the simple subject in each of the following sen-
tences. Tell whether it is a noun, or one of the equiva-
lents of a noun. If an equivalent of a noun, state which
one.
THE SUBJECT. 153
1. The roses are in full bloom.
2. They will return this evening.
3. The well need no physician.
4. Running is violent exercise.
5. To succeed requires constant effort
6. Who is the man across the street ?
7. That he was brave needs no proof.
8. Some must work to keep the wolf from the door.
9. Do you know the difficulties to be overcome ?
Write sentences using as the subject of the verb each
of the equivalents of the noun.
Tell which equivalent you have used in each sentence.
The subject of a simple sentence may be enlarged or
modified as will appear from an examination of the fol-
lowing sentences :
1. The wild waves beat upon the shore.
2. The songs of birds filled the air.
3. John's father gave him a watch.
4. My uncle gave me a bicycle.
5. Longfellow, the author of bo many beautiful poems suited
to childhood, was called the children's poet.
6. A desire to get rich makes many men industrious.
7. The farmers, having gathered a bountiful harvest, laughed
at the rigors of winter.
8. All who had finished their work were dismissed.
State what kind of modifier of the subject is used in
each of these sentences.
The subject of a simple sentence may be modified by :
1. An adjective : Six leaden balls on their errand sped.
2. A possessive noun : The nation's legends are dear to us.
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. A possessive pronoun : His words and his example are
our legacy.
4. An appositive: The daughter of Nokomis, his gentle
mother, died.
5. A phrase :
A song of joy rang in his ears.
Striving to strengthen the weak was his chosen work.
Footprints pointing towards a wigwam were a sign of
invitation.
6. A clause : Broken are the spells that hound you.
All words, phrases or clauses used to modify the subject
of a sentence have the force of adjectives.
A study of the italicized words in the sentences just
given will make clear the kind of modifier of each subject.
Study the subjects in the following sentences and give
the modifiers of each. Name the kind of modifier in each
sentence.
1. The noise of the workmen disturbed the invalid.
2. The most interesting part of the story remains to be told.
3. Their dog chased the farmer's sheep.
4. The commander's orders were to let no man enter the
lines.
5. The plan to study together was successful.
6. The officer of the day, Major Henry P. Whitney, had
seen service on many a battlefield.
7. The object of the journey was to give the tired merchant
entire change of scene and freedom from care.
8. An effort made for the happiness of others lifts us above
ourselves.
THE PREDICATE. 156
9. Trembling with fear, they reached the house.
10. The Golden Rule, which contains the very life and soul
of politeness, should guide all our acts.
. Write sentences using each kind of subject modifier.
Tell the kind of modifier used in each sentence.
.XCIL— THE PREDICATE.
The predicate of every sentence contains a verb ; for,
as we have seen, the verb is the part of speech used in
making assertions. The verb of a sentence is sometimes
called the predicate verb.
The predicate of a simple sentence may be :
1. A verb :
Dogs bark. Birds sing. Flowers bloom. Ducks swim.
2. A verb and its complement :
John lives in the city. Robins build nests in trees. Long-
fellow was called the children's poet.
We notice that besides the verb in the examples just
given other words are added to the verbs to complete the
sense.
The complement of a verb is that which is added to
the verb to complete its meaning.
The verbs that require a complement are verbs of in-
complete predication.
1. The tired camels may reach the spring.
2. The children love her.
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
3. We love Bailing by moonlight.
4. I propose to arrest every doer of wrong.
5. He knows that he will find them.
6. Who knows where the violets grow f
A study of these sentences shows that the complement
of a transitive verb may be :
1. A noun.
2. A pronoun.
3. A phrase.
4. A clause.
1. The governor is commander-in-chief of the armies of the
commonwealth.
2. It is he.
3. Slender and clear were his crystal spears.
4. The dark hall seems to gather all.
5. The image lay in its depths.
6. The book seems what I want.
7. He is here.
We see from the above sentences that the complement
of an intransitive verb may be :
1. A noun.
2. A pronoun.
3. An adjective.
4. A phrase.
5. A clause.
6. An adverb.
Write sentences using as the complement of transitive
verbs, a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, and a clause.
THE PREDICATE. 157
Write other sentences using as the complement of in-
transitive verbs, a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a phrase,
a clause, and an adverb.
The predicate of a sentence may be enlarged or modi-
fied by : —
1. An adverb :
1. The mist rose slowly.
2. The wind blew fiercely.
2. An adverbial phrase :
1. The river empties into the lake.
2. Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation with fear-
less independence.
3. The street was filled with a hurrying throng.
4. The farmer plans to make hay in pleasant weather.
5. He worked to win the prize.
6. He studied to master his profession.
7. The physicians did all in their power to prolong the life of
their distinguished patient.
3. A clause :
1. Go where glory waits thee.
2. Wait till the enemy comes near.
3. The good soldier fights that he may win.
It is evident that all the modifiers of the predicate are
adverbial in their nature.
In our treatment of the sentence, it has been our pur-
pose to make clear the two-fold nature of the sentence, —
the subject element, and the predicate element.
It will be seen that the modifiers of the subject partake
158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
of the nature of the adjective, and are adjective elements,
while all additions to the predicate are adverbial elements.
This simple division of the sentence, if borne in mind,
will make the most complicated sentences easy to under-
stand.
Study the following sentences so that you may be able
to give the predicate verb in each. Name also the kind
of modifier of each predicate verb.
1". The general bowed gracefully.
2. Mr. Smith was the tallest man of the party.
3. The apples this year are small and scarce.
4. Heaven is not gained at a single bound.
5. He tried his best to make everybody happy.
6. The boatman found several people on the island.
7. My spirit vainly tries to find some sure interpreter.
8. They crowned him long ago,
On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds,
With a diadem of snow.
Write sentences using as modifiers of the predicate, the
adverb, the adverbial phrase, and the adverbial clause.
XCIIL— MEANING OF SENTENCES.
We have learned that sentences are divided according
to their meaning into four kinds : the declarative, the in-
terrogative, the imperative, and the exclamatory ; but
we now wish to study their meaning more fully.
1. The declarative sentence states a fact in its most
direct form. Whether the subject or the predicate or
MEANING OF SENTENCES. 159
both are simple or modified, the declarative sentence is
the most direct form of statement.
1. Birds sing.
2. Birds sing sweetly.
3. Happy birds sing sweetly.
4. Happy birds sing sweetly in the early morning.
5. The happy birds of the forest sing sweetly in the early
morning. .
6. The happy birds, that live in the forest, sing sweetly,
when the first flush of dawn appears in the east
7. The birds that live in the forest are happy; they sing
sweetly when the first flush of dawn appears in the east
All the above sentences are declarative because they
state facts in the most direct form.
2. The interrogative sentence asks a question.
Whether the question is simple or direct, or complex and
involved, every sentence that asks a question is an in-
terrogative sentence.
1. Who are you?
2. Where is he?
3. Which way did she go ?
4. Did it ever seem possible that the United States would
carry war into the Philippines ?
5. Did you notice that the audience was restless, and that
the speaker seemed confused ?
The above sentences are interrogative because of their
meaning or purpose. Each asks a question.
3. The imperative sentence expresses a command, a
request, or an entreaty.
160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
However much the form of a sentence may vary, if a
command, a request, or an entreaty is expressed by the
sentence, it must be classed as imperative.
1. Close the door.
2. Come to-morrow.
3. Grant us thy peace.
4. Be just, though the heavens fall.
5. Capture that redoubt, if you would save the army.
6. Be honest in all your dealings ; be just before God and
man ; but above all, be true to yourself.
7. To thine own self be true, and it must follow as the night
the day, thou canst not then be false to any man.
These sentences are imperative, as the meaning ex-
pressed by each can be classed as a command, a request,
or an entreaty.
Note. — The subject of an imperative sentence is usually omitted. In the
sentence, John, close the door, John is independent of the sentence, and you,
not expressed, is the subject of the verb close. Expressed in full, the sentence
would read, John, you close the door.
4. The exclamatory sentence expresses some strong
feeling or emotion.
1. Leave me at once !
2. Touch me not!
3. Drive on! we are pursued!
4. Come to me, O ye children !
5. Rest, soldier, rest !
6. How beautiful the long mild twilight, which like a silver
clasp, unites to-day with yesterday !
7. How can we expect the fabric of government to stand if
vicious materials are daily wrought into its framework !
AGREEMENT. 161
Although some grammarians would classify such sen-
tences under the declarative, the interrogative, or the im-
perative, the fact that each clearly expresses strong
feeling, that would seem less forceful if placed in either
of the above classes, is a sufficient reason for giving them
a separate classification.
XCIV. — THE ELEMENTS OP SENTENCES.
From the previous study it will be seen that the ele-
ments of the sentence are the subject, predicate, words,
phrases, and clauses used as modifiers, and coordinate
sentences.
XCV. — AGREEMENT.
Agreement of verb with its subject.
1. I swim.
2. He swims.
3. They swim.
4. I do my work well.
5. He does his work well.
6. They do their work well.
7. I have a book.
8. He has a book.
9. They have books.
10. Patience and perseverance conquer difficulties.
11. Necessity or a love for work keeps him ever busy.
12. Neither his wife nor his child was saved.
13. The meeting was called to order by the chairman.
14. The assembly of my enemies brought me low.
162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Notice in these sentences the changes in Mm, do, and
have. It will be seen that the third person singular dif-
fers from the form of the verb in the other persons and
numbers.
In each person and number of all the modes and tenses
the verb takes the form that the subject requires.
The principles illustrated in these sentences are stated
in the following rules : —
1. A predicate verb agrees with its subject in person
and number.
2. When the predicate verb has two or more subjects
connected by and it agrees with them in the plural
number.
3. When a predicate verb has two or more subjects
connected by or or nor it agrees with them in the singu-
lar number.
4. When the subject is a collective noun denoting
several persons or things regarded as a whole, the verb
is in the singular number.
5. When the noun denotes a group of persons or things
regarded as individuals, the verb is in the plural number.
XC VI. — AGREEMENT OF CASE.
1. John has brought the books.
2. He got them at the bookstore.
3. Flora is sewing.
4. She loves to sew.
5. My father and I went to see the Dewey parade.
6. We enjoyed the occasion very much.
AGREEMENT OF CASE. 163
The noun or pronoun used as the subject of a predicate
verb is in the nominative case.
1. James, come here.
2. Herbert, take the third place.
3. Our Father, who art in Heaven.
4. Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me ?
5. Yea, Lord, thou knowest that I love thee.
The italicized nouns in the above sentences are said to
be used in direct address.
The noun used in direct address is in the nominative
case.
1. George Washington was the father of his country.
2. Abraham Lincoln was the emancipator of the slaves.
3. The boy who climbed the liberty-pole was Peter.
The noun or pronoun following an intransitive verb,
and meaning the same person or thing as the subject, as
in the above sentences, agrees with the subject in case.
A predicate noun used with a finite verb is in the
nominative case.
The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case : I
knew him to be the robber.
Here him is the subject of the infinitive and is in the
objective case. Robber is in the objective case to agree
with him.
1. Give the book to that tall boy, William Brown.
2. That young man, my brother, will take the package ioi
you.
3. John Bunyan, the author of Pilgrim's Progress, was a
writer of pure English.
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
In these sentences the nouns William Brown, brother,
and author are in the same case as the nouns they ex-
plain. William Brown, brother, and author are here said
to be appositives.
An appositive agrees with its subject in case.
Name the cases of the nouns in italics in the following
sentences, and apply the ride in each case.
1. — Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day
When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array!
2. Come back, come back, he cried in grief,
Across this stormy water;
And I'll forgive your Highland chief,
My daughter i O my daughter !
3. Washington was first in war, first in peace, and first in
the hearts of his countrymen.
4. Mr. Hardy, the artist, sailed for Europe yesterday.
Write sentences using predicate nouns both with finite
verbs and with infinitives ; write other sentences using
appositives and nouns in direct address.
Tell in each case which of these relations you have used.
XCVIL — AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.
1. This book is the one you sent for.
2. These books are what you wished.
3. This kind of thing cannot go on.
4. These kinds of grains are raised easily.
5. That kind of conduct destroys all discipline.
6. Those kinds of trees are ornamental.
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 165
It is easily seen that this and that are used with, nouns
in the singular, and these and those with nouns in the
plural number.
Avoid the common error of using these or those with a
singular noun.
Adjectives that express number agree with their
nouns in number.
Write sentences using this and that, these and those,
with kind, kinds, sort, sorts, sample, samples, lot and
lots. (See pages 73, 74.)
XC VIII. — AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND ANTE*
CEDENT.
Observe that the pronouns in italics agree in person,
number and gender with the nouns for which they stand.
1. I have bought you a book ; it is " Bird-Life," by Frank M.
Chapman.
2. I met a little cottage girl ; she was eight years old, she
said.
3. The boy stood on the burning deck
Whence all but him had fled.
4. Men may work hard all their lives, yet they may die poor,
because of their habits.
5. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again ;
I hold to you these hands to show they still are free.
6. Every one must do his own thinking on this subject.
7. I, who speak to you, am he.
8. The stone which the builders rejected is become the head
of the corner.
9. Take the books that interest you most.
166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
In these sentences it is easy to see the agreement of
the pronoun in person, number, and gender with its ante-
cedent, or the noun which it represents. This agree-
ment applies to aU pronouns. Carelessness in regard to
this agreement is responsible for many mistakes in the
use of English.
A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, num-
ber and gender.
Write sentences using pronouns of the first person, of
the second person, and the third person, using both singu-
lar and plural numbers.
Write sentences using relative pronouns. Tell in each
case the antecedent, and show that the pronoun agrees
with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.
XCIX. — AGREEMENT OF TENSES — CLAUSES.
Observe the tenses of the verbs in the clauses :
1. I will send you the keys, if I can find them.
2. T should sing, if you asked me.
3. I should have gone to the seashore with you, if I could
have arranged to leave my business.
4. If I had the money, I would lend it to you.
5. If I had owned the boat, I would have lent it to you
gladly.
It is apparent that the tenses of the verbs in these
clauses are governed by the tenses of the verbs in the
principal statements.
The verb in a clause should take the form required by
the tense of the verb in the principal statement
ARRANGEMENT OR ORDER 167
C AGREEMENT OF MODES AND TENSES.
1. They knew not that thence would come a better wisdom
than could be learned from books, and a better life than could be
molded on the defaced example of other lives.
2. Then the wind waves the branches; and the sun comes
out, and turns all these myriads of beads and drops to prisms,
that glow and flash with all manner of colored fires, which
change and change again with inconceivable rapidity, from blue
to red, from red to green, and green to gold.
Notice the agreement in mode and tense of the verbs
in italics. Verbs connected by coordinate conjunctions
usually agree in mode and tense.
CI. — GOVERNMENT.
We express the fact that the objective case follows
prepositions and transitive verbs by the following rules :
The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case.
The object of a preposition is in the objective case.
CIL — ARRANGEMENT, OR ORDER.
The student of good English must have observed that
there is a certain fairly well defined order of using words.
In general those words should be used, and that order
followed, which will best convey the thought of the
speaker or the writer. A few of the most common rules
of order are :
1. "That which comes first in time should be stated first.
2. The things thought of together should be closely
connected.
168 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
3. A subject precedes its predicate.
4. The modifiers of the subject immediately precede
or follow it.
5. The direct object follows the transitive verb.
6. The complement of a predicate follows the incom-
plete verb.
7. An adjective modifier is placed as near as possible
to the noun or pronoun it modifies.
8. An adverbial modifier should be placed as near as
possible to the word it modifies.
9. When two words are used correlatively each
should be followed by the same part of speech.
10. Prepositions should be placed as near as possible
to the words they govern.
11. Every pronoun should have a distinct antecedent.
Note. — The antecedent of the pronoun #, when used with impersonal verbs,
cannot always be determined.
In poetry and impassioned prose these rules of order
are often changed for effect.
Apply these rules of order to several of the best prose
selections with which you are acquainted.
CIIL — FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
That orbfcd maiden, with white fire laden,
Whom mortals call the moon,
Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor,
By the midnight breezes strewn ;
And wherever the beat of her unseen feet,
Which only the angels hear,
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 169
May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof
The stars peep behind her and peer;
And I laugh to see them whirl and flee,
Like a swarm of golden bees,
When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent,
Till the calm rivers, lakes, and seas,
Like strips of the sky fallen through me on high
Are paved with the moon and these.
Observe that in the first selection the author calls the
moon a maiden; speaks of her light as white fire ; thinks
of her as having /e^ ; of the sky as a tent; of the stars
as being like a swarm of bees ; of the rivers, lakes, and
seas as being like strips of the sky.
All these expressions are in figurative language. While
poets use these figures more than other writers, the
English language is full of expressions which in their
origin are figurative.
Try to see in the expressions in italics any differences in
the way of putting the figurative language. It will be
found that the moon is here represented as a person.
The figure used to represent inanimate objects as
though they were persons is called personification.
Try to find other objects in the stanza that are per-
sonified.
Find examples of personification in familiar poetry.
Think why the poet calls the moon that orbM maiden ;
why he speaks of her as with white fire laden ; why he
speaks of the heavens as a fleece4ike floor ; why he speaks
of the moon's motion as a movement of unseen feet ; why
the sky is called a tent; the broken clouds the woof.
170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
It is evident that the poet has here given expression to
the resemblances that he has seen with his poetical vision.
Observe that no word expresses the comparison or
likeness between the moon and a maiden ; it is left for
the reader to see for himself.
The figure which expresses an implied comparison is a
metaphor.
Try to find other metaphors in the stanza.
Farther on in the stanza observe that the author says
the stars are like a swarm of golden bees. See how this
figure differs from the metaphor. Here we see an ex-
pressed comparison.
A simile is an expressed comparison.
Find another simile in the stanza.
Personification, metaphor, and simile are most effec-
tively used by the poets.
Poets have the power of seeing resemblances that the
ordinary mind fails to see.
In using these figures in written or spoken language
care should be taken that the figure is impressive, ele-
vated, and in harmony with the thing with which it is
compared.
Study carefully the following sentences. Be sure that
you get their full meaning.
1. He giveth bread to the hungry.
2. Some village Hampden, that with dauntless breast
The little tyrant of his fields withstood ;
Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest ;
Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 171
3. Come, trip with me a measure.
4. A tyrant's power in rigor is expressed,
The father yearns in the true prince's breast.
These sentences illustrate another figure of speech.
Observe that bread, a particular kind of food, is put for
food in general. Hampden the individual is put for all
who withstand oppression ; Milton, for any singer ; Crom-
well, for any liberator ; measure, an attribute of a dance,
for a dance ; father, the concrete person, for the abstract
fatherly affection.
Synecdoche is the figure of speech that puts the species
for the genus, the genus for the species, the concrete
for the abstract, the abstract for the concrete, a defi-
nite for an indefinite number, a part for the whole, or
the whole for a part, the material for the thing made.
Find as many examples of synecdoche as you can, be-
fore beginning the study of the next figure of speech.
1. The ermine did not prevent the unrighteous judgment.
2. By the stroke of his pen Abraham Lincoln made manhood
free.
3. He keeps a good table.
4. Orray hairs should be honorable.
5. They have Moses and the prophets.
In this group of sentences ermine, the symbol of a
judge's office, is used for the office; stroke of his pen, for
what was written on the Emancipation Proclamation;
table, which contains the food, is used for the food itself ;
gray hairs, an effect of old age, for old age ; Moses, the
author of the Pentateuch, for the books.
Metonomy is the figure of speech which nuts the sign
172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
or the symbol for the thing signified, the instrument for
the agent, the container for the thing contained, the
effect for the cause, the author for his books.
1. He sacrificed home, happiness, life, for his country.
2. From the wreck of its elements it takes all at once a
new and livelier and disembarrassed form ; it arises, another, yet
the same, a noble, full-bodied, arrowy stream, which leaps rejoi-
cing over obstacles, and hastens toward a freer existence and a
final union in the boundless and infinite ocean.
In the first sentence we find the series of words, home,
happiness j life, — each more important than the pre-
ceding. In the second sentence we find the members
each more important than the one preceding. In the
first member the adjectives new, disembarrassed, livelier,
grow more important to the last ; so with noble, full-
bodied, arrowy ; the same is true of freer existence and
final union, and also of boundless and infinite.
Climax is the figure which uses words, phrases, or
statements in a series, with each word, phrase, or state-
ment more important than the preceding.
1. Men may come and men may go,
But I go on forever.
2. Favors to none, she smiles to all extends.
3. Gold cannot make a man happy; rags cannot make him
miserable.
Observe here that in each of the above sentences two
ideas or thoughts are put in strong contrast.
Antithesis is the figure which puts ideas or thoughts
in strong contrast.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 173
1. O my Country, my life's blood is thine !
2. Ye Crags ! and Peaks ! I'm with you once again.
3. Blow, blow, thou winter wind,
Thou art not so unkind
As man's ingratitude ;
Thy tooth is not so keen
Because thou art not seen.
In impassioned speech the person or thing spoken of as
present is said to be apostrophized.
Apostrophe is the figure which addresses a person
or thing in impassioned language.
The eight figures of speech here illustrated are the
most important and most used by authors to beautify
their writings and make their thoughts attractive and
forcible.
A knowledge of these figures helps one to understand
and enjoy the beauties of written language.
Find as many of these figures as you can in the follow-
ing extracts :
Hail to thee, blithe Spirit !
Bird thou never wert, .
That from heaven, or near it,
Pourest thy full heart
In profuse strains of unpremeditated art.
Higher still and higher
From the earth thou springest,
Like a cloud of fire
The deep blue thou wingest,
And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest.
174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
THE GLADNESS OP NATURE.
Is this a time to be cloudy and sad,
When our mother Nature laughs around,
When even the deep blue heavens look glad,
And gladness breathes from the blossoming ground ?
There are notes of joy from the hang-bird and wren,
And the gossip of swallows through all the sky ;
The ground-squirrel gaily chirps by his den,
And the wilding-bee hums merrily by.
The clouds are at play in the azure space,
And their shadows at play on the bright green vale,
And here they stretch to the frolic chase,
And there they roll on the easy gale.
There's a dance of leaves in that aspen bower ;
There's a titter of winds in that beechen tree ;
There's a smile on the fruit, and a smile on the flower,
And a laugh from the brook that runs to the sea.
And look at the broad-faced sun, how he smiles
On the dewy earth that smiles in his ray,
On the leaping waters and gay young isles, —
Ay, look, and he'll smile thy gloom away !
. . . Ay, but a spirit dwells
Within our land that long ago hath fled
Those ancient countries. Liberty ! 'Tis she
That paints with wonder all our woods and dells,
And with an aureole rings each mountain-head
And writes a morning freshness on the sea.
PUNCTUATION. 175
But knowledge to their eyes her ample page
Rich with the spoils of time did ne'er unroll,
Chill Penury repress'd their noble rage
And froze the genial current of the soul.
And, sir, it is no little thing to make
Mine eyes to sweat compassion.
It is well in our reading always to picture place or act.
To picture the person or thing described adds greatly to
the pleasure in reading beautiful descriptions, and in
reading of fine actions both the acts and the actors should
be imaged in the mind of the reader. Fine sentiments
and noble thoughts tend to ennoble the character that
pictures them. The figures of speech help greatly to
this full realization of what authors wish us to see, feel,
think, and do.
CIV. — PUNCTUATION.
1. O Rome ! my country ! city of the soul !
The orphans of the heart must turn to thee,
Lone mother of dead empires ! and control
In their shut breasts their petty misery.
2. Deep drank Lord Marmion of the wave,
And, as she stooped his brow to lave —
" Is it the hand of Clare," he said,
" Or injured Constance bathes my head ? "
The punctuation marks used in these selections help
one to understand the meaning. We observe that certain
176 ENGLISH GRALk
MAR.
marks indicate the ends of sentences while others are
used to separate the parts of sentences.
C V.— TERMINAL MARKS.
A study of English prose and poetry shows that three
different marks of punctuation are found at the ends of
sentences. They are :
1. The period (.)
2. The interrogation point (?)
3. The exclamation point (!)
One of these three terminal marks must be used at the
end of every sentence.
CVL — THE PERIOD.
The period is placed :
1. At the end of declarative and imperative sentences.
Mr. Benj. Brown ; Smith, Jones & Co. ; Enoch Green, M.D. ;
John Judson, D.D., LL.D. ; Trenton, N. J.
Observe that the period is used after each of these
abbreviations.
Notice the period after the headings, and after the fig-
ures used to number the sections, paragraphs, and sen-
tences in this book.
THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 177
2. After abbreviations, headings, and figures used to
number sections, paragraphs, and sentences.
O'er, doesn't, aren't.
The omission of a letter from the middle of a word is
indicated by the apostrophe (').
CVIL — THE INTERROGATION POINT.
The interrogation point is placed at the end of inter-
rogative sentences.
1. Art thou contented now ? 4. Where is he now?
2. What dost thou say? 5. Shall I try it?
3. What did he bring? 6. When did he come?
7. Will you come across ? " she asked.
8. From his window Olaf gazed,
And, amazed,
" Who are these strange people ? " said he.
The interrogation point is used after a question.
Should the question form part of the sentence it still
requires the interrogation point.
CVIII. — THE EXCLAMATION POINT.
The exclamation point is placed at the end of ex-
clamatory sentences.
1. Charge, Chester, charge !
The game's afoot ;
Follow your spirit ; and, upon this charge,
Cry — God for Harry ! England ! and Saint George !
178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. " Hark ! " said Olaf to his Scald,
Halfred the Bald,
" Listen to that song and learn it I
Half my kingdom would I give,
As I live,
If by such songs you would earn it ! "
These passages show that the exclamation point is
used :
1. At the end of every exclamatory sentence.
2. After an interjection.
3. After a phrase or clause containing an interjection.
4. After other words used with the force of inter-
jections.
Write five interrogative sentences; five exclamatory
sentences ; five sentences using abbreviations.
CIX. — OTHER MARKS OF PUNCTUATION.
1. Sir Launfal woke as from a swound : —
" The Grail in my castle here is found !
Hang my idle armor up on the wall,
Let it be the spider's banquet hall ;
He must be fenced with stronger mail
Who would seek and find the Holy Grail."
2. I love (and who does not love ?) the land of my birth.
Let us examine the punctuation marks that come with-
in the sentences in these selections, for they contain all
the marks ever used for separating the parts of a sentence.
PUNCTUATION. 179
After swound are the colon and the dash ; these are
sometimes used together as here, but oftener they are
used separately.
Beginning with the second verse and ending the stanza,
the words used by Sir Launfal are in quotation marks.
After watt is the comma, and after hall the semicolon.
In the last sentence the words and who does not love are
inclosed in parentheses. These are the punctuation marks
used to separate words, phrases, and clauses in sentences.
QUOTATION MARKS.
1. It was Thomas Carlyle who said, "Insincere speech,
truly, is the prime material of insincere action."
2. " Life is a quarry, out of which we are to mold and
chisel and complete a character," said Goethe.
These sentences show that quoted passages are usually-
preceded or followed by the comma.
3. Phillips Brooks spoke these words : " Obedience must be
the struggle of our life; obedience, not hard and forced, but
ready, loving, and spontaneous."
This sentence shows that a quoted passage, when for-
mally introduced, is preceded by the colon.
4. "The only failure a man ought to fear," says George
Eliot, " is failure in cleaving to the purpose he sees best."
This sentence shows that the divided quotation is
separated from the dividing statement by commas.
These sentences show the use of the quotation marks
and the proper punctuation of quoted passages.
180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
THE DASH.
1. The boy — oh ! where was he?
2. The meaning of life, of its happiness and its sorrows, of
its successes and disappointments, is this — that a man must be
fastened close to God, and live by the divine life made his own
by the close binding of the two together by faith and love.
3. The great Creator knows that each soul needs full de-
velopment — the flower and the gem, the rock and the iron —
or the whole being is incomplete.
4. To die, — to sleep !
To sleep ! perchance to dream ; ay, there's the rub.
5. Yet stay, O stay !
Go not so soon — I know not what I say —
Hear but my reasons — I am mad I fear.
A study of the five sentences just given shows that the
dash is used to indicate :
1. A sudden change or break in the thought.
2. A word, a phrase, or a clause used in apposition.
3. A parenthetical word, phrase, or clause.
4. A decided change in reading — for rhetorical effect.
PARENTHESES.
1. I will send him to a friend (if friend I have), who will
care for him.
2. Know then this truth (enough for man to know);
Virtue alone is happiness below.
It will be seen that parentheses are used to inclose
what might be omitted without destroying the sense, and
PUNCTUATION OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 181
that the other marks of punctuation are used as they
would be if the parts inclosed were omitted.
It should be stated that the dash and parentheses are
less used than formerly, and that it would be quite pos-
sible to use other marks in their places.
CX. — PUNCTUATION OP THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
1. The clear, noble, passionate appeal moved deeply the
whole audience.
2. The wise teacher directs his pupils calmly, affectionately,
but firmly.
3. Ships, towers, domes, theaters, and temples, lie open unto
the field and sky.
4. Lindens, elms, maples, and horse-chestnuts, formed a
thick shade for the whole street.
1. Three or more words of the same grammatical
construction when used in a series must be separated
by commas.
2. A comma must be placed after each of the three
or more subjects of a verb.
1. Joy and sorrow, sickness and health, love and hate, are
common to all men.
3. In a series of words in pairs, the pairs should be
separated by commas.
1. To Thee, Eternal Father, earth's whole frame
With loudest trumpets sounds immortal fame.
2. New Orleans, the queen of Southern commerce, was
closed by the blockade.
182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. There stood an unsold captive in the mart,
A gray-haired and majestical old man.
4. The mistress of the mansion came,
Mature of age, a graceful dame.
5. Peter the Hermit started the First Crusade.
By a careful study of these sentences we see how
appositives are punctuated.
4. An appositive accompanied by modifying words is
preceded and followed by a comma. If the appositive is
unmodified, and closely connected with what precedes, no
comma is required.
1. By holding the reins steadily, and by speaking gently,
he soon quieted the horse.
2. In brief, he decided in the negative.
3. To tell the truth, I could not come.
4. The old-fashioned dress of Aunt Nancy, sorrowful to
relate, shocked her city niece.
Study the sentences above for the punctuation of ad-
verbial phrases.
5. Adverbial phrases, if placed at the beginning of a
sentence or between the simple subject and the predicate
verb, are separated from the rest of the sentence by-
commas.
CXI. — PUNCTUATION OF THE COMPLEX
SENTENCE.
The rules for the punctuation of simple sentences apply-
equally to complex sentences.
1. The men who refuse to work should not be fed by charity.
2. Those who labor will win.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 183
3. Only those who have excelled shall enter the lists.
4. I gave the basket to the boy, who stood waiting for it at
the door.
5. Miss Carmen, who i% my friend since our schooldays, is to
sing this evening.
6. The stream, which was greatly swollen by recent rain, had
overflowed its banks.
Try to see the difference between the clauses in the
first three sentences and those in the last three. It is
clear that the meaning will be obscure if we omit the
clauses in the first three sentences. In the first sentence,
who refuse to work restricts the number of men who
should not be fed by charity. In the second sentence,
ivho labor restricts the number of those who will win.
In the third sentence, who have excelled restricts the num-
ber of those who shall enter the lists. All the clauses in
these sentences are therefore restrictive.
Restrictive clauses, unless long and involved, are not
separated from the words they modify by commas.
In the fourth, fifth, and sixth sentences the clauses are
not restrictive, but each adds a coordinate thought.
Each could be made a coordinate statement as follows :
1. I gave the basket to the boy ; he was waiting for it
at the door. 2. Miss Carmen is to sing this evening; she
has been my friend since our schooldays. 3. The river
has overflowed its banks ; it was swollen by recent rains.
Coordinate statements and non-restrictive clauses
are separated or marked off from the rest of the sentence
by commas.
184 ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
Write five sentences using restrictive clauses j five
using coordinate statements; five using non-restrictive
clauses.
1. Shall we, if we are not members, be admitted ?
2. Along with much error this statement, as I think, con-
tains some truth.
3. As I have already suggested, political systems are as
good as the state of society admits.
The above sentences show that adverbial clauses pre-
ceding or placed within principal statements are set off
by commas. If the adverbial clause follows the principal
statement and both are short, no comma is required.
4. While the acquisition of knowledge is made repugnant ;
while the pupil is never allowed the free exercise of his own
will ; while the teacher is the autocrat of the school, holding
the pupil under severe discipline ; there will be a tendency to
discontinue study when free from the coercion of parents and
teachers.
This sentence shows that coordinate clauses in a series
are separated from one another and from principal state-
ments by semicolons.
CXIL— PUNCTUATION OF THE COMPOUND
SENTENCE.
The principles of punctuation of simple and complex
sentences apply also to compound sentences.
1. The rain descended, the floods came, and the winds blew
and beat upon that house ; and it fell not ; for it was founded
upon a rock.
DERIVATION. 185
2. As the region now stands higher than before, the rivers
tend to wear down their valleys to the new level of the sea at
their mouths; the valley sides waste away; and thus the
valleys slowly become wider ; but the streams cannot wear the
valleys deeper than the sea at their mouths.
The sentences above show all the punctuation that is
peculiar to compound sentences.
Observe in the first sentence that the first three mem-
bers being short and closely connected are separated by
commas. The remaining members are separated by the
semicolon, because they are less closely connected.
In the second sentence as the comma is used to sepa-
rate the clause from the first statement the semicolon
is used to show the distinction between the principal
statements.
CXIIL — DERIVATION OF MODERN ENGLISH.
Think of the meaning of the words arranged below in
pairs.
give, present ; happiness, felicity ;
climb, ascend ; forefather, progenitor ;
go down, descend; bloom, flower;
mislead, deceive ; forerunner, precursor ;
stick, adhere ; drawback, obstacle ;
come back, return ; fellow-feeling, sympathy ;
sweat, perspire ; heavenly, celestial ;
free, deliver ; earthly, terrestrial ;
might, power ; motherly, maternal ;
gown, dress ; fatherly, paternal ;
sin, trespass ; brotherly, fraternal.
186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
These words show that the English language has more
than one word to express nearly or quite the same
idea. This is true because of the history of England and
of the English people.
Before England was conquered by William the Nor-
man, in the eleventh century, the language of England
was Anglo-Saxon. The Normans brought in their French,
a language derived from the Latin. The two chief ele-
ments of the language after the coming of the Normans
were therefore Anglo-Saxon and Latin.
These two languages were used side by side for a time ;
but each had its effect upon the other until early in the
fifteenth century, when the two languages had become
practically one. This language was, however, quite dif-
ferent from either of its original elements.
Languages change with use ; new elements are intro-
duced from time to time ; and words formerly used disap-
pear or change their meaning. This is especially true of
the English language.
Such pairs of words as ox, beef; calf, veal; sheep,
mutton ; . sweat, perspire, — show a slight difference of
meaning of the words in the same pair. Some of these
differences have come from the differences in occupa-
tion of the two peoples, — the Anglo-Saxons and the
Normans.
In the pairs of words used above the Anglo-Saxon
words are italicized; the French are in Roman type.
The Normans were the rich, the powerful, the titled ; the
Saxons tended the cattle, were the herdsmen, the farmers,
the laborers ; so we find Saxon words used for the cattle
DERIVATION. 187
the Saxon herdsmen tended, and the Norman words used
for the meat when it was served to the Norman lord.
Differences of this kind hold good throughout the lan-
guage. The words designating common things, like
plow, furrow, hearth and home, are Anglo-Saxon words ;
the words designating the rich and the things they
alone used, like chevalier, falcon, and castle, are the
words introduced by the Normans..
Yet in spite of the number of French words the Nor-
mans succeeded in introducing into the English, it is still
an Anglo-Saxon language. All the pronouns, most of the
conjunctions, and prepositions, are Anglo-Saxon. All the
irregular verbs, all nouns having irregular plurals, all ad-
jectives and adverbs irregularly compared, and in general
all words belonging to common every-day things or
thoughts, are Anglo-Saxon words.
It is quite possible to speak or to write well using only
Anglo-Saxon words. In fact, the best writers in English
use from seventy to ninety per cent of Anglo-Saxon
words. It would thus seem that while the Normans con-
quered the Saxons for the time being, the Saxons were
the true conquerors ; for the English people to-day, not
only in their language, but in their manners and customs,
in their thoughts, feelings, and actions, in short, in their
chief characteristics, are Anglo-Saxon. Every grammat-
ical form of the language is Anglo-Saxon. Our language
in its grammar, therefore, is Anglo-Saxon.
When the Normans were obliged to use an Anglo-Saxon
word to make the people understand what they wanted,
they did not trouble themselves about the ending or the
188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
inflection for person, number, gender, and case, but used
the word without regard to ending or inflection j and the
Saxons treated the Norman words in exactly the same way.
This is how it happens that we have so few inflections in
English.
While the Latin language is full of inflections and
endings, the English language of to-day is almost un-
infected. If it is remembered how few forms the English
has for its verbs, nouns, and adjectives, as compared with
other languages, it will be readily understood why the
English is sometimes called a grammarless language.
As the English language is capable of expressing every
shade of thought that can be expressed by other lan-
guages, and often has two or more words to choose from,
to convey the same idea, it will be seen that we have lost
nothing in losing our inflections, and have gained much
in richness and flexibility in our synonyms by absorption
from other languages.
The English-speaking people have never hesitated to
borrow a word from any language whenever it seemed
desirable or convenient. All our scientific and technical
terms are Latin or Greek.
Such words as man, boy, child, dog, bird, cow, house,
tree, stone, and book have their first or original meaning ;
they are primitive words, that is, they are not derived
from other words.
A primitive word is a word that is not derived from
another word.
Notice how the following words differ from the primi-
tive words just studied: inclose, enthrone, interfere, prefix,
ROOTS. 189
suffix, kindness, lovely, beautiful. These are derivative
words.
A derivative word is a, word that is derived from an-
other word.
The following words, man, child, herd, sheep, hen, barn,
well, rail, school, motor, and church are simple words.
A simple word is one not composed of other words.
Such words as mankind, childhood, herdsman, sheep-
fold, hencoop, barnyard, wellcurb, railroad, schoolhouse,
motorman, and churchyard are formed by joining other
words. They are compound words.
A compound word is one made by joining two or more
simple words.
CXIV. — ROOTS.
A study of the italicized parts of the words in the
sentences below will show that the same roots may be
made by different combinations to form words differing
in meaning.
1. We Qrscrib-ed the glory of the victory to the general.
2. He de-am'6-ed the view from the mountain.
3. They all in-am'J-ed their names in the register.
4. The physician pre-«m6-ed perfect rest for the patient.
5. The followers of Cromwell were pro-«m'6-ed.
6. I sub-«m'6-e for two magazines every year.
7. This is his image and super-smp-tion.
8. The /Smp-ture must be fulfilled.
We see that the root of these words just studied is scrib
or scrip. Its primitive meaning is write.
190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1. The wicked uncle ab-dwe-ted the children,
2. The man ad-dwc-es no evidence to prove his statement.
3. The discovery of gold in Alaska may con-dwo-e to its
development.
4. Will you TQ~duc-Q the fraction to its lowest terms?
5. I could not in-duo-e them to remain over night.
6. He opened the box and pro-diic-ed several small monkeys.
7. The farmer brought his pro-due-e to the market.
8. Will you intro-rfw^e me to your mother ?
9. I cannot d&duc-e the truth of the facts from your propo-
sition.
Due is the root of the words for study in these sen-
tences. Its primitive meaning is lead or bring out.
1. Fred ad-mit-s that he has not worked.
2. It is clear that the prisoner com-mii-ted the crime.
3. Will you jyer-mit me to bring my friend ?
4. Children should aub-rnit to the judgment of their
parents.
5. It is said that the muskrat e-rnit-s an odor of musk.
6. The fever is inter-ww£-tent.
7. Can you trano-mit a message over that wire ?
8. The teacher dis-mis-sed us early as she had pro-ww-ed.
9. We were re-wna-s in our duty, and so we had no inter-
ww-sion.
10. Will you give us per-mia-sion to take books from the
library to-day?
Mit or mis is the root of the words for study in these
sentences. The meaning of this root is send.
PREFIXES.
CXV.— PREFIXES.
191
Study carefully the following words: fold, enfold;
cede, precede, recede, mfercede ; ply, comply, supply, re-
ply. Notice how the syllables placed before or prefixed
to fold , cede j and ply modify the meaning of these words.
A prefix is a syllable added to a word at its beginning
to modify its meaning.
It is necessary to know the meanings of prefixes to
determine accurately the meanings of many words.
Study the words formed by writing the following Latin
prefixes with some of the roots already studied, and try
to understand the meaning of each prefix as here used.
1. Ab. Absent, absolve, abduct, abstract, abuse, avert. The
meaning of ab is from, away. It may take the forms a, ab, ab%.
2. Ad. Admit, adhere, accord, accept, accredit, affix, allure,
annex, appeal, aspire, ascend. The meaning of the prefix is to.
By assimilation it may take the form a, ac, af al, an, as.
3. Ante. Antecedent, antedate, anticipate. The meaning
of the prefix is before. It has the forms ante or anti.
4. Con. Confine, convert, coordinate, committee, collect,
compile, contain, connect, correspond. The prefix, assimilated
to co, col, cor, evidently means together.
5. Be. Descend, depart, decompose, deface. Be seems to
mean down, from.
6. Bi%, di, or dif Dissent, divide, differ, diffuse. The pre-
fix means separate.
7. Ex, e, or ef Exalt, expand, elect, evade, evolve, effect,
exceed. The meaning of the prefix is out of, from.
8. In. Invade, incline, illumine, illustrate, immerse, im-
192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
press, irradiate. The meaning of the prefix is in, into. In
inactive, incautious, illegal, irreligious, the meaning of in is
not. The forms il, im, ir are assimilated from in.
9. Ob. Occupy, offer, oppose, obtain. The meaning of the
prefix is in front of, against. The assimilation gives oc, of op.
10. Pre. Predict, prefer, precede, presuppose, prepay.
The meaning of pre in these words is before.
11. Pro. Proceed, proclaim, prolong, propose. The idea
of forward, before is clearly shown by pro in these words. The
forms por, pur are found in portray, portend, purchase, pursuit,
purpose. In pronoun and proconsul, pro means for.
12. Re. Recede, return, recast, recommend, reassert, re-
form. The meaning of re is back, again.
13. Sub. Sublet, subjoin, submarine, succeed, suffer, sug-
gest, summon, suppress, surprise, suspect Sub means under.
The words given show that it assimilates with c, f, g, m, p, r, s,
and becomes sue, suf, sug, sum, sup, sur, sus.
14. Trans. Transform, transfer, transitive. The prefix
means across.
15. Un, uni. Unanimous, universal, uniform. The mean-
ing seems to be one. In unsound, uneasy, unreal, etc., the
meaning is not.
These fifteen prefixes just studied are the Latin pre-
fixes most frequently used. We give below a few others
less common, together with words in which they are used :
bi or bis, meaning two or twice, bicycle, bilateral, bisect.
circum, " around, circumnavigate.
contra, «« against, contradict.
demi, «« half, demiquaver.
extra, tt beyond, extraordinary.
inter, intro, u between, among, interpose, introduce.
PREFIXES.
193
meaning ill,
maltreat.
71071,
<<
not,
nonsense.
pen, pent,
u
almost,
peninsula.
post,
u
after,
postpone.
retro,
u
backward,
retrospect.
se.
44
apart, away,
secede.
semi,
44
half,
semicircle.
sine,
44
without,
sinecure.
suiter,
it
below, under,
subterfuge.
super, sur,
44
above,
superscription, surname.
ultra,
44
beyond,
ultra radical.
vice,
44
instead of,
vice-gerent
Study the sentences on pages 189 and 190, and learn
how the meanings of the words having the roots scrib,
due, and mit are changed by the prefixes.
Find other words from these roots combined with
other prefixes.
Write ten sentences using in each some word or words
you have found with the root scrib or scrip; ten with
the root dice or duct ; and ten with the root mit or mis.
Study the following words from the root spir, to
breathe : —
We have in English aspire, to breathe, to desire ; aspi-
ration, meaning the pronunciation of a letter with a
strong emission of breath ; a second meaning is a strong
desire for something higher than we have, as though we
would breathe to ourselves something wished for ; aspi-
rate is a sound produced by the breath alone ; aspirer is
one who seeks earnestly.
Conspire, means to breathe together; to breathe to-
194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
gether may give the thought of speaking together, or of
having the same mind concerning some cause of action,
thus it may mean to unite for a purpose. It has come to
mean to unite for an evil purpose, to plot against author-
ity. Conspire, conspiracy, conspirator give us the under-
lying idea of plotting against another.
Expire, means to breathe out; to die is a secondary
meaning. Expiration is a breathing out, the end, the
termination. Expiratory means pertaining to the expi-
ration of air from the lungs.
Inspire is to breathe in. From this comes the meaning
to infuse or convey into the mind by a higher power.
The noun inspiration has the two meanings, a breathing
in and a higher or divine influence. Inspirer has only
the latter idea, one who inspires others to nobler thoughts
or aspirations. Inspiratory pertains to breathing only.
Perspire means to breathe through, to sweat. The
latter is the only present meaning of the word; but this
meaning comes from the idea of breathing through, and
thus it comes to mean to send the fluids of the body
through the pores of the skin.
Respire, to breathe again, has kept its original mean-
ing ; so respiration, the act of breathing, and respirator,
an instrument through which persons of weak lungs can
breathe ; respirable, fit to breathe, and respirator, serving
for respiration, have held the original meaning of the root.
Suspire, to breathe under, to breathe out from under,
to sigh ; suspiration, the act of sighing, a sigh ; suspiral,
a breathing-hole, have kept pretty close to the meaning
of the root and the prefix.
DERIVATION. 195
From the study of the changes in the meaning of such
a word as aspire, which has changed from to breathe to
into to earnestly desire something better than we have ; and
from inspire, which is changed from to breathe in into to
receive influence from the divine, — it is seen how easily
the language uses its words to express the highest
thoughts.
The idea in aspire was to breathe up to the Creator ;
in inspire, to have Him breathe His life into one, and so
tune one to highest thoughts and highest deeds.
The changes in the meaning of this word inspire show
how words can come to have a higher than the original
meaning.
Such a word as egregious, which means chosen from or
out of the flock, and formerly meant excellent, shows us
that the meanings of words can deteriorate. It is used
now in a bad sense only.
The root of a word, as we have seen, is the simplest form
to which endings or prefixes may be added. Stems are
roots slightly modified.
Most derivatives formed from Latin stems and prefixes
are either nouns, verbs or adjectives.
We give below a few Latin verb stems frequently used
in the formation of English words, and also one English
word derived for each stem.
The thoughtful student will be surprised to learn how
large a number of English words contain these stems.
Find as many of them as you can.
We give the verb forms from the Latin as found in the
Century Dictionary.
196
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LATIN.
ENGLISH.
audire
auditum
audience
auditor
capere (cept)
captum
capable, accept captive
formare
formatum
formal
formative
gradi
gressus
gradual
progress
mittere
missum
commit
mission
pendere
pensum
pendulum
pensive
ponere
positum
exponent
position
portare
portatum
portable
importation
prendere (prehendere) prensum
comprehend
apprehensive
regere
rectum
regulate
rectitude
scribere
scriptum
scribe
transcript
specere
spectum
species
spectacle
tenere
tentum
tenacious
intent
vertere
versum
invert
version
vocare
vocatum
vocal
vocation
There are many other Latin stems from which English
words are derived, and the study of these words, how
they are made, how changed both in form and in mean-
ing, is most interesting and profitable.
Besides the Latin there are many Greek stems and pre-
fixes which yield a large number of words.
Of the prefixes many have the form and meaning of
the Latin, as anti, ex, pro, di, dis.
Of the purely Greek prefixes, auto is much used; it
means self as seen in the following words : Autobiog-
raphy, automobile, automaton, autograph.
The Greek stem, graph, meaning write, we find in
photograph; telegraph, geography, and graphophone. Try
to find other words from this stem.
SUFFIXES. 197
The Greek stem, log, meaning word, is found in
catalog, dialog, geology, and in many other words which
you will readily recognize.
CXVL — SUFFIXES.
Try to think of words ending in ship, as friendship ;
in ling, as duckling ; ful, as beautiful ; less, as fearless ;
ly, as manly ; in some, as gladsome ; in ish, as boyish ; in
er or or, as flier, actor ; and in ent or ant, as student,
assistant. When you have thought of several words
formed with each suffix, think what the suffix means.
It is easy to find the force of a suffix by using it in
several words. Thus, ness in goodness, freshness, fine-
ness, greatness, means the state or quality of the adjec-
tive to which it is suffixed. In the ly that forms so many
adverbs we have the word like worn down by much use
to ly : cleverZy is cleYerlike ; goodly is goodlike.
Some of these suffixes are old Saxon inflections that
have been kept ; as the en in oxen and in children is an
old plural.
The th in truth, strength, wealth, is an old inflection.
In such words as wisdom, freedom, the dom is an old
Saxon word meaning judgment, so these words are old
compounds.
Use each of the above suffixes in at least two sentences.
The suffixes here used are only a few of the many that
are found in the language.
Make lists of prefixes and of suffixes as you find them
in new words.
198 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
In consulting the dictionary, form the habit of studying
the derivation of words. In this way you will soon come
to recognize the stems, the prefixes, and suffixes, derived
from the different languages.
Make lists of words using the stems and the prefixes
already given.
When you have made all the words you can from any
one stem, write ten sentences using one or more of the
words in each sentence.
CXVIL — SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND
PARSING.
1. Kindness is the golden chain by which society is bound
together.
2. If a man empties his purse into his head, no man can
take it away from him. An investment in knowledge always
pays the best interest.
3. A cheerful temper, joined with innocence, will make
beauty attractive, knowledge delightful, and wit goodnatured.
It will lighten sickness, poverty, and affliction ; convert igno-
rance into an amiable simplicity ; and render deformity itself
agreeable.
4. Education is a better safeguard of liberty than a stand-
ing army. If we retrench the wages of the schoolmaster, we
must raise those of the recruiting sergeant.
5. Men of the noblest dispositions think themselves happi-
est when others share their happiness with them.
6. Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to
any people.
7. That man is worthless who knows how to receive a f$YQr ?
but not how to return one.
SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 199
8. The world will little note nor long remember what we
say here, but it can never forget what they did here.
9. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
And all the air a solemn stillness holds.
10. We measure great men by their character, not by their
success.
11. Trust men, and they will be true .to you; treat them
greatly, and they will show themselves great.
12. Oh, it is excellent
To have a giant's strength, but it is tyrannous
To use it like a giant.
13. Men who see clearly how they ought to act when they
meet with obstacles, are invaluable helpers.
14. In the corner of a large field, and close to a swift-run-
ning brook, grew a great many wild flowers.
15. An old clock, that had stood for fifty years in a farm-
er's kitchen without giving its owner any cause of complaint,
early one summer's morning, before the family was stirring,
suddenly stopped.
16. One of the Americans who rendered the greatest ser-
vices to the liberty of their country was Dr. Benjamin Frank-
lin. He was born in Boston in 1706, and was the son of a
poor tallow chandler.
17. The most remarkable of all the attempts to people the
Western country, during the period just preceding the Revo-
lutionary War, was made by Colonel Daniel Boone of North
Carolina. He was a great hunter, and had rambled in the
forests of the "Mighty West" several years before he ven-
tured, in defiance of wild beasts, and still wilder men, to take
up his residence there.
18. When you have a number of duties to perform, always
do the most disagreeable one first.
200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
19. Having these powerful spirits obedient to his will,
Prospero could by their means command the winds, and the
waves of the sea.
20. In those times wrestling, which is only practiced now
by country clowns, was a favorite sport even in the courts of
princes, and before fair ladies and princesses.
21. The robbens hearing that he was a distressed man, and
being struck with his noble air and manly behavior, told him,
if he would live with them, and be their chief or captain, they
would put themselves under his command ; but that if he re-
fused to accept their offer, they would kill him.
22. The cocoanut trees are first sprouted by placing a lot
of nuts on the top of the ground a few inches apart After a
while each nut sends out a sprout from one of the little eyes
at its end. The sprout grows up into the air, and at the same
time a root shoots out of its base down into the ground.
23. Once upon a time, a thousand years ago, there dwelt
by the sea a little maid. Had I said in the sea, it would per-
haps have been as well, for such a spray sprite never danced
before at breaker's edge.
24. The rest of the family were at dinner. From the din-
ing-room windows they saw the great disk of the full moon
rising in the violet east, while the west was yet glowing with
sunset. The sea was full of rosy reflections ; across the waves
fell the long path of scattered silver radiance the moon sent
down ; a warm wind breathed gently from the land.
25. A little boy sat at his mother's knees, by the long
western window, looking out into the garden. It was autumn,
and the wind was sad ; and the golden elm leaves lay scattered
about among the grass and on the gravel path. The mother
was knitting a little stocking; her fingers moved the bright
needles, but her eyes were fixed on the clear evening sky.
SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 201
26. I see a happy little boy in the warm, fire-lighted room.
The wind blows cold, and here it is dark and lonely ; but that
little boy is warm and happy and safe at his mother's knees.
I nod to him, and he looks at me. I wonder if he knows how
happy he is I
27. Long years ago there were no mills where the farmer
could take his wheat and have it ground into flour, or where
he could take his corn and have it made into golden meal.
He had to crush his grain himself between two heavy stones,
or pound it with a heavy pestle.
28. We were in our winter camp on Port Royal Island.
It was a lovely November morning, soft and spring-like; the
mocking-birds were singing, and the cotton fields still white
with fleecy pods. Morning drill was over, the men were clean-
ing their guns, and singing very happily ; the officers were in
their tents, reading still more happily their letters just arrived
from home.
29. The river was dangerous for sailboats. Squalls, with-
out the slightest warning, were of frequent occurrence; scarcely
a year passed that six or seven persons were not drowned
under the very windows of the town, and these, oddly enough,
were generally sea captains, who either did not understand the
river, or lacked the skill to handle a small craft.
30. It took us an hour or two to transport our stores to the
spot selected for the encampment. Having pitched our tent,
using the five oars to support the canvas, we got out our lines
and went down the rocks seaward to fish. It was early for
dinners, but we were lucky enough to catch as nice a mess as
ever you saw. A cod for the chowder was not so easily secured.
At last Binny Wallace hauled in a plump little fellow crested
all over with flaky silver.
202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
31. The snow had begun in the gloaming,
And busily all the night
Had been heaping field and highway
With a silence deep and white.
Every pine and fir and hemlock
Wore ermine too dear for an earl ;
And the poorest twig on the elm tree
Was ringed inch deep with pearl.
82. In a short time other causes sprang up to bind the
Pilgrims with new cords to their chosen land. Children were
born, and the hopes of future generations arose, in the spot of
their new habitation.
The second generation found this the land of their nativity,
and saw that they were bound to its fortunes. They beheld
their fathers' "graves around them, and while they read the
memorials of their toils and labors, they rejoiced in the inheri-
tance which they found bequeathed to them.
33. When the mornings were colder, and the stove upstairs
smoked the wrong way, Baby was brought downstairs in a very
incomplete state of toilet, and finished her dressing by the great
fire.
After a very slow dressing she had a still slower breakfast
out of a tin cup of warm milk, of which she generally spilt a
good deal, as she had much to do in watching everybody who
came into the room. Then she would be placed on the floor
on our only piece of carpet, and the kittens would be brought
in for her to play with.
34. For flowers that bloom about our feet ;
For tender grass, so fresh and sweet ;
For song of bird and hum of bee ;
For all things fair we hear and see, —
Father in heaven, we thank thee !
SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 203
35. The every-day cares and duties, which men call drudg-
ery, are the weights and counterpoises of the clock of time,
giving its pendulum a true vibration, and its hands a regular
motion ; and when they cease to hang upon the wheels, the
pendulum no longer swings, the hands no longer move, the
clock stands still.
36. But Ernest turned sadly from the wrinkled shrewdness
of that sordid visage, and gazed up the valley, where, amid a
gathering mist, gilded by the last sunbeams, he could still dis-
tinguish those glorious features which had impressed them-
selves into his soul. Their aspect cheered him. What did the
benign lips seem to say ?
37. While Ernest had been growing up and growing old, a
bountiful Providence had granted a new poet to this earth.
He, likewise, was a native of the valley, but had spent the
greater part of his life at a distance from the romantic region,
pouring out his sweet music amid the bustle and din of cities.
38. Political eminence and professional fame fade away and
die with all things earthly. Nothing of character is really per-
manent but virtue and personal worth. These remain. What-
ever of excellence is wrought into the soul itself belongs to
both worlds. Real goodness does not attach itself merely to
this life : it points to another world. Political or professional
eminence cannot last forever ; but a conscience void of offense
before God and man is an inheritance for eternity.
39. If I am weak and you are strong,
Why then, why then
To you the braver deeds belong ;
And so again,
If you have gifts and I have none,
If I have shade -and you have sun,
204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Tis yours with freer hand to give,
'Tis yours with truer grace to live,
Than I who giftless, sunless stand,
With barren life and hand.
40. Work while it is called to-day, for you know not how
you may be hindered to-morrow.
41. Leisure is the time for doing something useful; this
leisure the diligent man will obtain, but the lazy man never.
42. He that riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce
overtake his business at night ; while Laziness travels so slowly
that Poverty soon overtakes him.
43. If you were a servant, would you not be ashamed that
a good master should catch you idle ?
44. The eye of the master will do more work than both his
hands.
45. Thus the old gentleman ended his harangue. The
people heard it, and approved the doctrine ; and immediately
practiced the contrary, just as if it had been a common sermon.
46. In some respects the animals excel us. The birds have
a longer sight, besides the advantage by their wings of a higher
observatory. A cow can bid her calf, by secret signal, probably
of the eye, to run away, or to lie down and hide itself. The
jockeys say of certain horses, that " they look over the whole
ground." The out-door life, and hunting, and labor give equal
vigor to the human eye. A farmer looks out at you as strong
as the horse ; his eye-beam is like the stroke of a staff. An
eye can threaten like a loaded leveled gun, or can insult like
hissing or kicking ; or, in its altered mood, by beams of kind-
ness, it can make the heart dance with joy.
47. All things bright and beautiful,
All creatures great and small,
All things wise and wonderful,
The Lord- God made them alL
SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 205
48. There lies at the other side of the Atlantic a beautiful
island, famous in story and in song. Its area is not so great as
that of the State of Louisiana, while its population is almost
half that of the Union. It has given to the world more than
its share of genius and of greatness.
It has been prolific in statesmen, warriors, and poets. Its
brave and generous sons have fought successfully all battles but
their own. In wit and humor it has no equal ; while its harp*
like its history, moves to tears by its sweet but melancholy
pathos.
49. Firmly builded with rafters of oak the house of the
farmer
Stood on the side of a hill commanding the sea ; and a
shady
Sycamore grew by the door, with a woodbine around it.
Rudely carved was the porch, with seats beneath ; and
a foot-path
Led through an orchard wide, and disappeared in the
meadow.
Under the sycamore tree were hives overhung by a
penthouse.
Farther down, on the slope of the hill, was the well with
its moss-grown
Bucket fastened with iron, and near it a trough for the
horses.
50. Truth, justice, and reason lose all their force and all
their luster when they are not accompanied by agreeable
manners.
51. Good nature is the very air of a good mind, the sign of
a large and generous soul, and the peculiar soil in which virtue
prospers.
52. We are ruined, not by what we really want, but >
206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
what we think we do ; therefore, never go abroad in search of
your wants ; if they be real wants, they will come home in
search of you ; for he that buys what he does not want will
soon want what he cannot buy.
53. My purse is very slim, and very few
The acres that I number ;
But I am seldom stupid, never blue ;
My riches are an honest heart and true,
And quiet slumber.
54. It is only through the morning gate of the beautiful
that you can penetrate into the realm of knowledge. That
which we feel here as beauty, we shall know one day as truth.
55. It may not be our lot to wield
The sickle in the ripened field ;
Nor ours to hear on summer eves
The reaper's song among the sheaves ;
Yet where our duty's task is wrought
In unison with God's great thought,
The near and future blend in one,
And whatsoe'er is willed is done.
56. There is nothing more to be esteemed than a manly
firmness and decision of character. I like the person who
knows his own mind and sticks to it ; who sees at once what is
to be done in given circumstances and does it.
57. A good man doubles the length of his existence; to
have lived so as to look back with pleasure on our past
existence, is to live twice.
58. When I call back to my mind the grandeur and beauty
of those almost uninhabited shores ; when I picture to myself
the dense and lofty summits of the forests that everywhere
spread along the hills, and overhang the margins of the streams ;
when I see that no longer any aborigines are found there, and
. SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 207
that the vast herds of deer, elk, and buffalo, which once pas-
tured on these hills and in these valleys, have ceased to exist ;
when I reflect that this grand portion of our Union is now
more or less covered with villages, farms, and towns, where the
din of hammers and machinery is constantly heard, — that the
woods are fast disappearing under the ax by day and the fire
by night, that hundreds of steamboats are plying to and fro
over the whole length of our majestic rivers ; when I remember
that these extraordinary changes have all taken place in the
short period of twenty years, — I pause, wonder, and, although
I know all to be true, can scarcely believe its reality.
59. Gentlemen, soldiers, comrades, the silken folds that twine
about us here, for all their soft and careless grace, are yet as
strong as hooks of steel ! They hold together a united people
and a great nation ; for realizing the truth at last — with no
wounds to be healed and no stings of defeat to remember —
the South says to the North, as simply and as truly as was said
three thousand years ago in the far away meadow on the shores
of the mystic sea : " Whither thou goest I will go, and where
thou lodgest I will lodge ; thy people shall be my people, and
thy Q-od my Grod"
60. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul,
As the swift seasons roll !
Leave thy low- vaulted past !
Let each new temple, nobler than the last,
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast,
Till thou at length art free,
Leaving thy out-grown shell by life's unresting sea !
208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
CXVIIL — SENTENCES, AND SELECTIONS FROM
LITERATURE.
In order that the vital connection between grammar
and literature may be made more complete, and thus
make a deeper impression upon the pupils, added sen-
tences, and selections from the best literature are given in
the following sections.
These sentences and selections are grouped under dif-
ferent headings to enable the teacher to enforce still
further with an abundance of illustrations, the principles
studied in their appropriate places in the grammar.
It is hoped that the illustrations here given will enable
the teacher to apply the principles of grammar to the
broader field of literature, until the children shall cher-
ish the study of grammar as one of the greatest aids to
the full understanding of the choicest literature.
CXIX. — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
Point out the subject and the predicate in each of the
following sentences :
1. The dog loves the child.
2. Does the child love the dog?
8. The hunter caught the hare.
4. Where does the hare live in winter?
5. What a timid little fellow the hare is !
6. The vessel was a magnificent five-master.
7. Who commanded the vessel?
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 209
8. The girl plays the piano well.
9. How the people crowd the station !
10. Why are so many people gathered here ?
11. They expect to see the President.
12. Take this message to the telegraph office.
13. How did James learn his lesson so well?
14. I bring fresh showers to thirsty flowers.
15. Let no guilty man escape.
16. The sun was sinking behind the western hills.
17. How can they draw water from so deep a well ?
18. What a splendid boat that is I
19. Yesterday we played a game of football.
20. I heard this story from the captain of the vessel.
21. How bright the fall flowers make the field look !
22. Mr. Longfellow wrote a story about an Indian boy.
23. Can you tell the name of the Indian boy ?
24. Down went the Cumberland !
25. Where did you find those beautiful violets?
26. Deep in the wave is a coral grove.
27. Tell me not in mournful numbers,
Life is but an empty droaro.
28. High upon the lonely mountain
The wild men watched and waited.
29. Where is the victory of the grave ?
What dust upon the spirit lies ?
God keeps the sacred life He gave, —
The prophet never dies !
80. Hazel nuts in yonder copse,
Hang their rich clusters down.
31. With work and play and laughter too
We'll spend our holiday I
210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
32. How fiercely the wind blows !
33. Where shall we find shelter from the coming storm ?
34. Drive on as rapidly as possible.
35. Look out for that sharp turn at the foot of the hill.
36. What a vivid flash of lightning that was !
37. Hold the horses in going down this steep hill.
38. How very dark it is after each flash of lightning !
39. Do you see that dark line of woods just across the
bridge ?
40. Just in the edge of those woods stands a large farm-
house.
41. Do you think we can reach the farmhouse before the
storm breaks upon us?
42. What a terrible storm this threatens to be !
43. Drive the horses directly into the barn, for the storm is
upon us.
44. How very grateful wu ought to be for this friendly
shelter I
CXX. — VERBS AND THEIR SUBJECTS.
Point out the verbs in the following sentences^ and name
the subject of each :
1. Idleness is the mother of vice.
2. The road at the left leads to the village.
3. The house on the hill belongs to Mr. Austin.
4. Sharpen your pencils carefully.
5. Men usually read the papers in the morning.
6. Mary picked four quarts of strawberries.
7. Arteries are tubes which carry blood from the heart.
8. Do you feel comfortable ? You look tired.
9. The Athletics won the ball game yesterday.
VERBS AND THEIR SUBJECTS. 211
10. How many crews will row on the river to-morrow?
11. We can get a good view of the city from this hill.
12. Frank will spend the summer at the seashore.
13. Guess how much I paid for my new bat.
14. Intense fogs prevail near Nova Scotia.
15. Fred has learned to ride on horseback.
16. Will you take me to the circus to-morrow?
17. Mr. Thomas lives at 321 Pine street.
18. How sweetly the birds sing I
19. Somewhat back from the village street
Stands the old-fashioned country seat.
20. The blossoms drifted at our feet,
The orchard birds sang clear.
21. " I will abide on thy left side,
And keep the bridge with thee."
22. Then none was for a party ;
Then all were for the state ;
Then the great man helped the poor,
And the poor man loved the great ;
Then lands were fairly portioned ;
Then spoils were fairly sold ,•
The Romans were like brothers
In the brave days of old.
28. Men begin to look at the signs of the weather. It is
long since much rain fell. The ground is a little dry, and the
road is very dusty. The garden bakes. . Transplanted trees
are thirsty. Wheels are shrinking, and tires are looking
dangerous. Men speculate on the clouds ; they begin to calcu-
late how long it will be, if no rain falls, before the potatoes
will suffer ; the oats, the corn, the grass, — everything.
212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
CXXL — ADJECTIVES AND THEIR NOUNS.
Paint out the adjectives in the following sentences, and
tell the nouns which they modify :
1. The tall foxglove bows his pink head.
2. The east is bright with morning light.
3. The merry horn wakes up the dewy morn.
4. The old town never saw a prettier sight.
5. A pretty gray squirrel once lived in this old elm tree.
6. The speckled trout live in the quiet, shady brooks.
7. The little brown buds began to grow large in the warm
spring sunshine.
8. He was very kind and generous to all, especially to old
people.
9. Every child was afraid of this strange sight.
10. Three brilliant flashes lighted up the dull gray sky.
11. The little boys in the next house have seven beautiful
pigeons.
12. The old apple tree standing on yon high hill was planted
by my grandfather.
13. In olden times brave soldiers fought their fierce enemies
with long spears.
14. We had a merry time last week in the green cornfields.
15. An early breakfast was ready for the first comers.
16. The most perfect gentleman always respects the feelings
of others.
17. These heavy engines draw the freight trains.
18. Our sweetest songs are those
That tell of saddest thoughts.
19. From our low, unsteady seat in the light canoes it was
impossible to see far into the dense forest that lined the quiet
ADJECTIVES AND THEIR NOUNS. 213
shores of the lake ; but two pairs of flashing eyes, like glowing
red hot coals, told us where the tiger cats thought themselves
concealed.
20. Flowers expand their light and soul-like wings
Teaching us by most persuasive reasons.
21. Twelve fiery tongues flashed straight and red,
Six leaden balls on their errand sped.
22. The ceaseless rain is falling fast,
And yonder gilded vane,
Immovable for three days past,
Points to the misty main.
23. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought,
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought,
Our hearts in glad surprise,
To higher levels rise.
24. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow followed free ;
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.
25. By day, a warmer-hearted blue
Stoops softly to that topmost swell ;
Its thread-like windings seem a clew
To gracious climes where all is well.
26. In happy homes he saw the light
Of household fires gleam warm and bright.
27. My life is cold and dark and dreary,
It rains, and the wind is never weary.
28. Then most musical and solemn,
Bringing back the olden times,
With their strange unearthly changes,
Rang the melancholy chimes.
214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
29. I have read in some old marvellous tale,
Some legend strange and vague,
That a midnight host of spectres pale
Beleaguered the walls of Prague.
30. O ! Young Lochinvar is come out of the west,
Through all the wide borders his steed is the best,
And save his good broad-sword, he weapon had none,
And he rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone.
So faithful in love and so dauntless in war,
There never was knight like the young Lochinvar.
31. " Stand, Bayard, stand ! " — the steed obeyed
With arching neck and bended head,
And glancing eye, and quivering ear,
As if he loved his lord to hear.
No foot Fitz-James in stirrup stayed,
No grasp upon the saddle laid,
But wreathed his left hand in the mane,
And lightly bounded from the plain,
Turned on the horse his armed heel,
And stirred his courage with the steel.
Bounded the fiery steed in air,
The rider sat erect and fair.
32. How often have I paused on every charm,
The shelter'd cot, the cultivated farm,
The never-failing brook, the busy mill,
The decent church that topt the neighboring hill,
The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade,
For talking age and whispering lovers made !
ADVERBS AND THE WORDS THEY MODIFY. 215
CXX1L — ADVERBS, AND THE WORDS THEY
MODIFY.
Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, and
indicate the words which they modify :
1. He answered readily.
2. The train starts now.
3. John saw him yesterday.
4. She wrote very well.
5. Presently the door opened.
6. You cannot fail to-day.
7. She is hardly awake.
8. Gently the breezes sigh.
9. He bore it most patiently.
10. The heroes toiled manfully.
11. Sometimes upon the rocks they leaned.
12. Let us turn hitherward our bark.
13. The flower that smiles to-day to-morrow dies.
14. He awoke suddenly from a sound sleep.
15. They picked their way carefully through the thick under-
growth.
16. Softly she approached the sleeping child.
17. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
18. His hands were uncommonly large.
19. The winter had been unusually severe.
20. As the night was intensely cold the driver had suffered
severely.
21. The storm ceased almost as suddenly as it had begun,
yet the waves still dashed furiously against the vessel.
216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
22. They were completely caught, and bo gave the required
information.
23. This time he longed for the next crash, which happily
never came off.
24. Hardy was now wanted to explain how it came about.
25. Suddenly roused by the glare of light, the terrified birds
fluttered helplessly among the branches, and many fell before
we began to use the sticks.
26. The literature of the world is in a very deep sense the
direct and most beautiful outcome of its life.
27. Extracts from Shakespeare once thoroughly committed
to memory are never forgotten.
28. Flowers will bloom over and over again in poems as in the
summer fields, to the end of time, always old and always new,
29. Suddenly with rushing wings they rose high in the air
and were quickly out of sight.
30. It will be remembered that Henry VII. had wisely kept
out of war whenever it was possible.
31. Other structures may fitly testify our veneration for
him ; this, this alone, can adequately illustrate his services to
mankind.
32. Solemnly, mournfully,
Dealing its dole,
The Curfew Bell
Is beginning to toll.
33. It was only a tiny seed,
Carelessly brushed aside ;
But it grew in time to a noxious weed,
And spread its poison wide.
34. Suddenly all the sky is hid
As with the shutting of a lid.
PHRASES, KINDS AND USES. 217
85. One by one the great drops are falling,
Doubtful and slow ;
Down the pane they are crookedly crawling,
And the wind breathes low.
36. Thus far the woeful tale was heard,
When something in the thicket stirred.
Give me thy carabine, — I'll show
An art that thou wilt gladly know,
How thou inay'st safely quell a foe.
CXXIIL — PHRASES, KINDS AND USES.
Paint out the phrases in the following sentences , and tell
what kind they are, and what they modify :
1. He sat by the roadside.
2. I stood on the bridge at midnight.
3. The door of the schoolroom remained open.
4. Ernest had in his pocket a piece of cheese.
5. Insects live on the leaf of this plant.
6. Our good housekeeper had prepared for us a dish of
crabs.
7. I fastened one end of a beam to the trunk of a tree,
about four or five feet from the ground.
8. We had brought from the wreck a box of fireworks in-
tended for signals.
9. At length the hour for shutting up the counting-house
arrived.
10. A pale young man was sitting by the table, and near
him a young girl with a profusion of light hair falling over
her face.
218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
11. In a humble room, in one of the poorer streets of London,
a fatherless French boy sat humming by the bedside of his sick
mother.
12. It sprang from the lowlands of dark green hills, covered
with pines as with a robe.
13. Suddenly the notes of the deep-laboring organ burst
upon the ear, falling with doubled and redoubled intensity,
and rolling, as it were, huge billows of sound.
14. A broad ray of light fell into the garret, and showed
the workman, with an unfinished shoe upon his lap, pausing in
his labor.
15. The palm trees rise without a branch, tall, slender, and
graceful, from the warm, generous earth, and spread into beau-
tiful crowns of fans.
16. The music having ceased, Sancho now sat down to
dinner in a chair of state, placed at the upper end of the table.
17. Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient Greenwich pen-
sioners, wheezing by the firesides of their wards; fog in the
stem and bowl of the afternoon pipe of the wrathful skipper,
down in the close cabin; fog cruelly pinching the toes and
fingers of the shivering little 'prentice boy on deck.
18. At the stern sat Hiawatha,
With his fishing line of cedar,
In his plumes the breeze of morning
Played as in the hemlock branches ;
On the bows, with tail erected,
Sat the squirrel, Adjidaumo ;
In his fur the breeze of morning
Played as in the prairie grasses.
19. They say that in his prime,
Ere the pruning knife of Time
Cut him down,
CLAUSES^ KINDS AND USES. 219
Not a better man was found
By the crier on his round
Through the town.
20. In the hush of expectation, in the awe and trepidation
Of the dread approaching moment, we are well-nigh
breathless all ;
Though the rotten bars are failing on the rickety belfry
railing,
We are crowding up against them like the waves against
the wall.
CXXIV. — CLAUSES, KINDS AND USES.
Point out the clauses in the following sentences, and tell
what word is modified by each clause. Tell the kinds of
clauses.
1. He who will not strive will not thrive.
2. It was the time when lilies blow.
3. This is the house that Jack built.
4. I remember the house where I was born.
5. Do you know the man who owns this coat?
6. He jests at scars who never felt a wound.
7. Thanks for the lesson thou hast taught.
8. Show us the place where it happened.
9. For the soul is dead that slumbers,
And things are not what they seem.
10. I feel the freshness of the streams,
That, crossed by shades and sunny gleams,
Water the green land of dreams,
The holy land of song.
220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
11. When the warm sun, that brings
Seedtime and harvest, has returned again,
'Tis sweet to visit the still wood, where springs
The first flower of the plain.
12. The purple finch,
That on wild cherry and red cedar feeds,
A winter bird, comes with its plaintive whistle.
13. There is a quiet spirit in these woods,
That dwells where'er the gentle south-wind blows.
14. And the currents that came from the ocean
Seemed to lift and bear them away.
15. A flood of thoughts came o'er me
That filled my eyes with tears.
16. How canst thou walk in these streets, who hast trod the
green turf of the prairies ?
How canst thou breathe this air, who hast breathed the
sweet air of the mountains ?
CXXV. — CLAUSES, KINDS AND USES.
Point out the clauses in the following sentences, and tell
ivhat word is modified by each clause. How do these
clauses differ from those in Section CXXIV. f
1. The book was where I left it.
2. The kite lies where it fell.
3. The boy ate the cake while he waited.
4. You can have the book when we meet again.
5. His heart was so full that he could not speak.
6. It cannot sing, for its voice is harsh.
7. Her eyes brightened as she saw the oranges.
8. Place the glass so that the light shines on it.
CLAUSES, ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBIAL. 221
9. The child was afraid when they went through the
tunnel.
10. Tell the boys to stay till I come.
11. Wherever you go you will be recognized.
12. Henry will fail, because he does not study.
13. The duck went where it could swim.
14. The man writes so that we cannot read it.
15. He was so tired that he could hardly stand.
16. Go where glory waits thee.
17. Uncle George met them when he was in London.
18. He raised the flag that some one might see it.
19. His honesty is not so loose or easy,
That a ruffling wind could blow it away.
20. If you plague the dog, he will bite you.
21. When we go to grandmother's we are guests.
22. The blackbird has fled
Where the hazels afford him a shade.
Where the woods fence off the northern blast,
The season smiles.
23. O, had I the wings of a dove,
How soon would I taste you again.
24. Careless their merits or their faults to scan,
His pity gave e'er charity began.
CXXVL— CLAUSES, ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBIAL.
Select the adjective and the adverbial clauses in these sen-
tences, and tell what each clause modifies :
1. Look into the garden where the grass is green.
2. Weary and long is the way which she has taken.
3. The battle which raged all day ceased with the evening
222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. While my brothers slumber sweetly, I have climbed the
window seat.
5. The royal prerogative for which he long had suffered was
sacred in his eyes.
6. Breathes there a man with soul so dead,
Who never to himself ha^h said,
" This is my own, my native land I "
7. But the scene amidst which we stand does not permit
us to confine our thoughts or our sympathies to those fearless
spirits who hazarded or lost their lives on this consecrated spot.
8. I must confess the brightness of the weather, the cheer-
fulness of everything around me, the chiding of the hounds,
which was returned upon us in a double echo from two neigh-
boring hills, with the hollowing of the sportsmen, and the
sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most lively pleas-
ure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was innocent.
9. There is a little village on the north coast of Scotland
where all the men are fishermen. When they come home with
their loads of fish, the women go down to the beach to meet
the boats, and then carry the baskets filled with fish to the
carts which are waiting higher up on the shore.
10. And that night, when the poor old woman knelt down
in her humble home, the prayer that she said was, " God be
kind to that noble boy, and bless him in every time of need."
CXXVIL— CLAUSES, HOW USED.
Tell how each clause in the folloioing sentences is used:
1. Who said it is unknown?
2. That the story is true was evident.
3. That all were lost was soon reported.
4. That you may be happy is our earnest wish.
CLAUSES, HOW USED. 223
5. That one must not speak aloud is the rule of the school.
6. Where the ball is cannot be discovered.
7. The idea that he could not do it was ridiculous.
8. We knew that they had left.
9. Tell the gentleman what you have done.
10. They saw immediately that the boy was helpless.
11. That the rope broke was now apparent.
12. The brakeman told us what he knew of the accident.
13. That the children are safe is now assured.
14. George knows that his father has come.
15. That you were with them is quite certain.
16. I cannot now decide what to do for them.
17. That you should stay is the wish of all.
18. Many learn by sad experience that the way of the trans-
gressor is hard.
19. That they would come was well known.
20. You will see that the case does not fail.
21. That the box was empty on its arrival was his opinion.
22. That its rhymes are alternate throughout is evidence of
its author.
23. Then would my spirit fear
To say I so have loved.
24. Where you have hid the jewels will be discovered soon.
25. The whole nation learned with dismay that the Emperor
had surrendered.
26. What we can do in the circumstances is now the impor-
tant question.
27. The shepherd modestly replied,
44 1 ne'er the paths of learning tried."
28. That he should refuse your first offer is natural.
29. That the sagacious animal was sensible of the insult
was soon discovered.
224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
30. That he has succeeded thus far inspires us with hope.
31. So little we guess that a light, light word,
At times may be more than praying.
32. Tell me what brings you to Rome at such perilous times.
CXXVIIL — SUBJECTS, PREDICATES, AND PHRASES.
Point out the subjects, the predicates, and the phrases in
the following sentences. Tell whether each phrase is used
as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
1. A railroad train was rushing along at almost lightning
2. Suddenly a locomotive dashed into sight right ahead.
3. In an instant there was a collision.
4. A great battle was going on.
5. Column after column had been precipitated, for eight
hours, against the enemy posted on the ridge of a hill.
6. The summer sun was sinking to the west
7. Reinforcements for the obstinate defenders were already
in sight.
8. It was necessary to carry the position with one final
charge.
9. A powerful corps had been summoned from across the
country.
10. The great conqueror, confident of its arrival, formed his
reserve into an attacking column.
11. A leading firm in commercial circles had long struggled
against bankruptcy.
12. It had large sums of money in California.
13. Heavy remittances were expected from the agent by
every steamer.
SUBJECTS, PREDJCATES, AND PHRASES. 225
14. The steamer arrived on the day for settlement without
bringing the needed gold.
15. The negligent agent had failed to forward the money on
time.
16. An honorable firm had failed because of the carelessness
of a trusted financial agent.
17. The ravine was overshadowed by fig trees, vines, and
myrtles, and the outer towers and walls of the fortress.
18. At length the soldier halted at a remote and ruined
tower, apparently intended to guard a Moorish aqueduct.
19. The next morning he repaired boldly to the mansion of
the priest, no longer a poor, strolling student, thrumming his
way with a guitar.
20. Prince John stepped from his royal seat to view more
nearly the persons of these chosen yeomen.
21. One by one the archers, stepping f orward, delivered their
shafts yeomenlike and bravely.
22. To the best archer a prize was to be awarded, being a
bugle horn, mounted in silver, and a silken baldric richly orna-
mented with a medallion of St. Hubert, the patron saint of
sylvan sport.
23. Later in the evening, not far from nine o'clock, several
young men passed by the Town House, on their way down
King Street.
24. The sentinel was still at his post in front of the Custom
House, pacing to and fro with his musket on his shoulder.
25. Other soldiers, hearing the noise and tumult, ran hastily
from the barracks to assist their comrades.
26. At the same time, many of the townspeople rushing
into King Street by various avenues, gathered in a crowd round
about the Custom House.
27. Arriving at the sentinel's post, Captain Preston drew up
226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
his men in a semicircle with their faces to the crowd and their
rear to the Custom House.
28. Up to this very moment, the angry feelings between
England and America might have been pacified.
29. The perils shared, the victories won in the old French
War, with their comrades from beyond the sea, were unfor-
gotten yet.
30. Far in the Northern land,
By the wild Baltic's strand,
I, with my childish hand,
Tamed the gerfalcon.
31. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn,
The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed,
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn,
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed.
32. But knowledge to their eyes her ample page
Rich with the spoils of time did ne'er unroll.
33. The elder was a man about five and fifty, tall and lean,
with a wiry frame, dark grizzled hair, and a shaven face.
34. But always afterwards, on occasions of ceremony, he
wore that quaint old French sword of the commodore's.
CXXIX. — CLAUSES, HOW USED.
Point out the clauses in the following sentences, and
tell whether they are used as nouns, as adjectives, or as
adverbs :
1. We heard the wind that round the gables roared.
2. A score of years had come and gone
Since the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth stone.
CLAUSES, HOW USED. 227
3. I will not do this unless you will help me.
4. What you said to me decided me to continue.
5. I found that my tent had been blown down.
6. The story is that he fled to escape punishment.
7. If a sinner repents, treat him kindly.
8. I doubt whether he can finish the work.
9. He taught us to feel sympathy for those who are suffer-
ing.
10. Mary has a rose which grew in her garden.
11. The wonder is that one head can contain so much.
12. Do not tell him where the boys are hidden.
13. If you speak gently you will sooner gain your end.
14. Those books that lie on the table must be carried to the
library to-morrow.
15. As they approached the top of the hill they saw the
Indians approaching.
16. A gun was fired over the grave where the hero was
buried.
17. The thought that he might be killed alarmed his
friends.
18. He who speaks distinctly will be easily understood.
19. We learned that these Indians had never before seen a
white man.
20. They had provisions which were brought down the
river in canoes.
21. John Smith was the man who saved the Jamestown
colonists from starvation.
22. His parents died when he was quite young.
23. When the storm arose they were several miles off shore
in a small catboat.
24. No one suspected that he was an enemy.
25. It was the largest audience I ever saw.
228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
26. Before reinforcements could be sent the battle was lost.
27. If you are willing I will accept the offer.
28. When his money was gone his friends left him.
29. We were all sorry that you did not come.
30. As he is quite young he prefers to go to school.
31. The regiment of cavalry which had been sent for was
now seen rapidly approaching.
32. While the sun was rising the brothers started for the
field together.
33. I asked where the boy lived.
34. His father left him considerable money which he soon
spent.
35. Columbus became a sailor when he was fourteen years
old.
36. They landed upon an island which they called San Sal-
vador.
37. Before Columbus made his voyage the people of Europe
knew nothing of America.
38. I was afraid that they might not return.
39. If you wish to be strong and brave, resist temptation.
40. The fault of all governments is that they meddle too
much with private affairs.
41. He who has light in his soul will enjoy bright days.
42. Education while it improves the mind makes its pos-
sessor happier.
43. He was a man who never shirked his duty.
44. I never wished that it might be otherwise.
45. We were so tired that we could not sleep.
46. If spring produced no blossoms, autumn would have no
fruits.
47. When you fail to do your full duty, never charge your
lack of success to chance or fate.
KINDS OF SENTENCES, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES. 229
CXXX. — KINDS OF SENTENCES, PHRASES, AND
CLAUSES.
Tell which of the following sentences are complex or com-
pound. Point out the phrases and clauses in these sentences,
and tell the use of each :
1. The crew thought that their passenger was a criminal.
2. How long the Indians had been in America is not known.
3. Speak so that we can hear you.
4. The winter is over and gone ; the warm south wind has
melted them and they are now running away, joyous and free,
down the hillside, and through the meadows.
5. Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handle that fits
them all.
6. The man who cannot govern himself is a slave.
7. He paid more than the goods were worth, but he thought
he had made a good bargain.
8. Often I think of the beautiful town
Which is seated by the sea.
9. Inside the door, on the sanded floor,
Light, airy footsteps glide,
And a maiden fair with flaxen hair,
Kneels by the old man's side.
10. While the robbers were busy with the plunder, she set
fire to the house.
11. After the horse was stolen, he locked the stable door.
12. At length the general with loud voice ordered the ser-
geant to take off the cover, and the eyes of all were turned at
once to the mysterious dish.
13. The war which began at Fort Sumter, lasted through
four sad years.
230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
14. When the Civil War broke out, Jackson was commander
of the First Virginia Brigade.
15. At a hint from the general, all left the tent, and the en-
raptured father remained with his dear boy.
16. That the earth moves round the sun was unknown in
ancient times.
17. Roger Williams talked so boldly that the magistrates
sentenced him to be banished.
18. When these states began to be settled, the country was
a wilderness.
19. They were dressed in their gayest apparel, and the
Indian lords vied with one another in the display of costly
ornaments and jewels on their persons.
20. When the people gathered for worship, their muskets
were stacked at the door.
21. When he saw that these heights were not strongly
guarded, he believed that he could capture the town.
22. The English statesmen said that America was growing
too fast.
23. How an acorn becomes an oak is a mystery, but it is
only one of a thousand.
24. If you would make your blows count, strike while the
iron is hot.
25. The French officer who visited the mother of Washing-
ton said, " No wonder the Americans have such a leader."
26. Three days previous there was a general fast, and no fire
was allowed to be lighted in the dwellings.
27. Gold was said by the people to be the tears of the sun,
and every part of the interior of the temple glowed with bur-
nished plates and studs of the precious metal.
28. In like manner, three more assaults were repulsed, and ere
sunset the enemy had lost forty-five men in killed and wounded.
KINDS OF SENTENCES, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES. 231
29. The inhabitants in their ignorance had gradually aban-
doned their hopes of release, but they spumed the summons
to surrender.
30. The words of the stout burgomaster inspired a new
courage in the hearts of those who heard him, and a shout
of applause and defiance arose from the famishing but en-
thusiastic crowd.
31. In the center of the stage was a splendid canopy,
decorated with the arms of Burgundy, beneath which were
placed three gilded armchairs.
32. The first fortress was thus seized, dismantled, set on
fire and passed, and a few strokes of the oars brought the
whole fleet close to Lammen.
33. Among the peasantry assembled at the feast were two
who had neither danced nor seated themselves at the long table
where all were welcome.
34. The most profound silence reigned in those awful sol-
itudes, which was interrupted only by the cry of the deer which
came to their lairs in that unfrequented spot
35. Their position would still have enabled them, with firm-
ness, to frustrate the enterprise of the patriots, but the hand of
God, which had sent the ocean and the tempest to the deliver-
ance of Leyden, had struck her enemies with terror likewise.
36. The lights which had been seen moving during the
night were the lanterns of the retreating Spaniards, and the
boy who was now waving his triumphant signal from the bat-
tlements had alone witnessed the spectacle.
37. Elizabeth looked at the young man, who accompanied
this act of devoted courtesy with a profound reverence, and
with a blush that overspread his whole countenance.
38. The young cavalier was guided to the waterside by the
pensioner, who showed him considerable respect He ushered
232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
him into one of the royal wherries which lay ready to attend
the queen's barge, which was already proceeding up the river.
39. It did not take the partridge long to find out how
sweet its buds were, and every winter eve she flew, and still
flies, from the wood to pluck them, much to the farmers' sorrow.
40. John tried again and again, and at last his efforts were
crowned with success.
41. The rain fell steadily for hours, and at last the thirsty
earth seemed glad.
42. Mr. Spencer especially loved song birds, and the birds
seemed to know this, for many built nests in the trees about
his home.
43. Joe's father gave him a small piece of land to plant for
himself ; and Joe was so much pleased to have a garden of his
own, that his became one of the best gardens in the village.
44. This was uttered in a tone and with a gesture which
made Lord Sussex's friends who were within easy hearing
tremble.
45. Beyond the Nubian and scarce visible from without,
lay the huge dog, which might be termed his brother slave,
and which, as if he felt awed by being transferred to a royal
owner, was crouched close to the side of the mute.
46. The door of Scrooge's counting-house was open, that
he might keep his eye upon his clerk, who in a dismal little
cell beyond, a sort of tank, was copying letters.
47. When anything that was read or related displeased
him, he was observed to smoke his pipe vehemently, and to
send forth short, frequent, and angry puffs ; but when pleased
he would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly, and emit it
in light and placid clouds.
48. The neighbors stared when they heard it; some were
seen to wink at each other, and put their tongues in their
KINDS OF SENTENCES, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES. 233
cheeks; and the self-important man in the cocked hat, who
when the alarm was over, had returned to the field, screwed
down the corners of his mouth and shook his head, — upon
which there was a general shaking of the head throughout the
49. Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of
liberty, and in such a country as that we possess, are invincible
by any force which our enemy can send against us.
50. Not as the conqueror comes,
They the true hearted came.
Not with roll of stirring drums,
Nor the trumpet that sings of fame.
51. We cherish every memorial of these worthy ancestors ;
we admire their daring enterprise; we teach our children to
venerate their piety; and we are justly proud of being de-
scended from men who have set the world the example of
founding civil institutions on the great and united principles
of human freedom and human knowledge.
52. A new spirit of enterprise and industry begins to pre-
vail; all the great interests of society receive a salutary im-
pulse; and the progress of information not only testifies to
an improved condition, but of itself constitutes the highest
and most essential improvement
63. Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the Basin
of Minas,
Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of Grand-
Pre,
Dwelt on his goodly acres ; and with him, directing his
household,
Gentle Evangeline lived, his child and the pride of the
village.
234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
54. I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils ;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
55. Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the milky way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay.
56. For oft when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude.
57. It matters little where I was born,
Whether my parents were rich or poor;
Whether they shrank at the cold world's scorn,
Or walked in the pride of wealth secure ;
But whether I live an honest man,
And hold my integrity firm in my clutch,
I tell you, my brother, as I am
It matters much.
58. Very little sweet have I,
Wealth and station have passed me by ;
But something sweet in my life I hold
That I would not exchange for place or gold.
59. Of old sat Freedom on the heights,
The thunders breaking at her feet ;
Above her shook the starry lights ;
She heard the torrents meet.
KINDS OF SENTENCES, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES. 235
60. There in her place she did rejoice,
Self-gather'd in her prophet mind,
But fragments of her mighty voice
Came rolling on the wind.
61. Our band is few, but true and tried,
Our leader frank and bold ;
The British soldier trembles
When Marion's name is told.
62. Our fortress is the good greenwood,
Our tent the cypress tree ;
We know the forest round us
As the seamen know the sea.
63. We know its walls of thorny vines,
.Its glades of reedy grass,
Its safe and silent islands
Within the dark morass.
64. The breaking waves dashed high
On a stern and rock-bound coast,
And the woods against a stormy sky
Their giant branches tossed ;
65. And the heavy night hung dark
The hills and waters o'er,
When a band of exiles moored their bark
On the wild New England shore.
66. Large blue silk flags were flying from the windows of
the Town Arms Inn, and bills were posted in every sash, inti-
mating in gigantic letters, that the honorable Samuel Slumkey's
Committee sat there daily.
67. A crowd of idlers was assembled in the road, looking at
a hoarse man in the balcony, who was apparently talking him-
self very red in the face in Mr. Slumkey's behalf, but the force
236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
and point of whose arguments were somewhat impaired by the
perpetual beating of four large drums which Mr, Fitkin's com-
mittee had stationed at the street corner.
68. There was a busy little man beside him, though, who
took off his hat at intervals and motioned the people to cheer,
which they regularly did, most enthusiastically ; and as the red-
faced man went on talking till he was redder in the face than
ever, it seemed to answer his purpose quite as well as if any.
body had heard him.
69. There was a roaring in the wind all night ;
The rain came heavily and fell in floods ;
But now the sun is rising calm and bright,
The birds are singing in the distant woods ;
Over his own sweet voice the stock-dpve broods ;
The jay makes answer as the magpie chatters ;
And all the air is filled with pleasant noise of waters.
70. All things that love the sun are out of doors ;
The sky rejoices in the morning's birth ;
The grass is bright with raindrops ; on the moors
The hare is running races in her mirth,
And with her feet she from the plashy earth
Raises a mist, that, glittering in the sun,
Runs with her all the way, wherever she doth run.
71. And what is so rare as a day in June ?
Then, if ever, come perfect days ;
Then Heaven tries the earth if it be in tune,
And over it softly her warm ear lays ;
Whether we look, or whether we listen,
We hear life murmur or see it glisten ;
Every clod feels a stir of might,
An instinct within it that reaches and towers,
USES OF NOUNS. 237
And, groping blindly above it for light,
Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers ;
The flush of life may well be seen
Thrilling back over hills and valleys ;
The cowslip startles in meadows green,
The buttercup catches the sun in its chalice,
And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean
To be some happy creature's palace.
CXXXL — USES OF NOUNS.
Uses of nouns and pronouns as subjects, predicate nouns,
objects, etc.
1. Our Country, we love thee.
2. Mahomet was an Arabian.
3. My friends ! alas, I have no friends.
4. Are you a friend of Caesar ?
5. O, Robert I do not go !
6. I, Daniel, saw a vision.
7. Hail, Macbeth, thou shalt be king.
8. There came to this country a Jewish banker.
9. Dr. Green, the physician in the next street, is a member
of our temperance society.
10. Fire ! Call the engines.
11. Kind neighbors, I bid you welcome.
12. At the door on summer evenings,
Sat the little Hiawatha.
13. You idle creatures, get you home !
14. Alas ! my noble boy, that thou shouldst die !
15. Mr. President, permit me to say a word in explanation.
16. Go, my countrymen, to your several homes !
238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
17. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again.
18. O sacred forms, how proud you look !
How high you lift your heads into the sky I
19. These are Thy glorious works, Parent of Good.
20. Harry was a favorite with the constable, who was a
thorough old gentleman.
21. The men who sat on the other side were the blacksmith,
the wheelwright, and the other artisans of the place.
22. I always told you that he was our man.
23. The proctor was a gentlemanly, straightforward looking
man of about thirty.
24. Every man is the architect of his own fortune.
25. My ornaments are fruits, my garments leaves,
Woven like cloth of gold and crimson dyed.
26. I am the mother of all dear delights ;
1 am the fairest daughter of the year.
27. I am the Emperor whose name 1 bear.
28. I am the virgin, and my vestal flame
Burns less intently than the lion's rage ;
Sheaves are my only garlands, and I claim
The golden harvests as my heritage.
29. My songs are carols sung at every shrine.
30. Art is the child of Nature.
81. This city, walled and thickly set,
The glittering mosque, the minaret,
Is Cairo, in whose gay bazaars
The dreaming traveller first inhales
The perfume of Arabian gales. I
32. He is the poet of the dawn who wrote the Canterbury
Tales. i
33. For ye are the living poems, '
And all the rest are dead.
INDIRECT OBJECTS. 239
34. He was a short, square built old fellow, with thick,
bushy hair, and a grizzled beard.
35. The roar of forests, and of waterfalls, the rushing of
mighty winds, the songs of birds, and the hum of insects are
the voices of Nature.
36. His life was the soul of honor, his speech the tongue of
truth.
37. This is the ship of pearl, which poets feign
Sails the unshadowed main.
38. Rip's sole domestic adherent was his dog Wolf, who was
as much henpecked as his master.
39. ' A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener
with constant use.
40. The great error in Rip's constitution was an insuperable
aversion to all kinds of labor.
41. I have observed that he was a simple, good-natured man ;
he was, moreover, a kind neighbor, and an obedient, henpecked
husband.
42. The rocks presented a high, impenetrable wall, over
which the torrent came tumbling in a sheet of feathery foam.
43. Peter was the most ancient inhabitant of the village.
44. Listen, my children, and you shall hear
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere.
45. Daniel Webster, the eminent lawyer, the brilliant orator,
and the renowned statesman, was the great defender of the
Constitution.
OXXXIL— INDIRECT OBJECTS.
Nouns or pronouns used as indirect objects.
1. He will give you a fair trial.
2. Send me your report at once.
240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
8. Helen's father bought her a new book.
4. The general told us a very interesting story.
5. John sold Henry his new kite.
6. Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard, to get her
poor dog a bone.
7. Annie's mother gave her a new croquet set for a birth-
day present.
8. They plan to teach the children beautiful poems in all
the schools.
9. The children brought their teacher some fresh flowers
from the fields.
10. Walter's father bought him a new catboat
11. Mrs. Moore gave Edith's friends a lawn party last week.
12. The fisherman brought us fresh fish twice a week.
13. The trapper told the boys a very interesting bear story.
CXXXIIL — PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENTS.
Give the antecedent, and name the case of each pronoun in
the following sentences :
1. I read the book that you lent me.
2. I do not know whose pen I have.
3. The man to whom I wrote answered my letter.
4. Men who do wrong deserve trouble.
5. The kind words which you have spoken please me.
6. Those who seek me shall find me.
7. Happy is the man who finds wisdom.
8. He is a man whom everybody respects.
9. Answer the questions which I ask.
10. I cannot hear what you say.
11. The Nile is a river which overflows its banks.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 241
12. The rose that all are praising is not the rose for me.
13. I met a man who owed me money.
14. I bought the horse that I liked.
15. The bird that sings so sweetly is a lark.
16. The ships which the Spaniards used on the Pacific were
usually built on the spot.
17. The ship which belonged to Drake himself was no larger
than a yacht.
CXXXIV. — TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
Point out the verbs in the following sentences, and tell
whether they are transitive or intransitive :
1. Put the pens in the box.
2. The arrow hit the mark.
3. The rain fell in torrents.
4. Night was coming on.
5. Always speak the truth.
6. Bankers lend money at six per cent.
7. You can bend small wire easily.
8. The birds are singing in the trees.
9. The American flag was flying at the topmast.
10. Mr. Adams sold us a mowing machine.
11. The rich man's son inherits lands.
12. He sold milk at seven cents a quart
13. The boys of this school wore straw hats with red and
black bands.
14. The sun was breaking through the clouds.
15. The tired farmer walked slowly home.
16. She rode down the avenue of the primeval woods.
17. The rank thistle nodded in the wind, and the wild fox
dug his hole unscared.
242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
18. Alcohol weakens the muscles and inflames the nerves.
19. A white-haired man sat on a low bench, making shoes.
20. As we opened the door a broad ray of light fell into the
garret
21. We drove into the great gateway of the inn, glad of a
rest from our journey.
22. A well scoured deal table extended along one side of
the kitchen.
23. The fishermen caught a boatload of mackerel, which
they sold in the village.
24. When he spoke the acorn fell out of his mouth and
rolled down the roof.
25. Then she looked back and wondered at him as the force
of the torrent grew stronger.
26. I chatter over stony ways,
In little sharps and trebles,
I bubble into eddying bays,
I babble on the pebbles.
27. Labor with what zeal we will,
Something still remains undone,
Something uncompleted still,
Waits the rising of the sun.
CXXXV. — USES OF INFINITIVES.
Tell how the infinitives in the following sentences are
used :
1. John began to do his examples.
2. I want some paper to cut into circles.
3. He went to call help.
4. I will try to improve my writing.
USES OF INFINITIVES. 243
5. To try hard is usually to succeed.
6. I need a girl to copy records.
7. The lady came to work in the store.
8. To play is the desire of all healthy children,
9. To scratch comes natural to the mother hen.
10. To speak the truth is the duty of every one.
11. Mr. Carpenter plans to enlarge his house.
12. He intends to go to New York to-morrow.
13. Fanny did not wait to hear the last words.
14. To fish is great fun for most boys.
15. The old woman was afraid to venture across the crowded
street.
16. To help others is the best way to become happy.
17. I want to hire a boy who is willing to work.
18. He could not stop to talk longer as he had to do an errand.
19. He hastened to overtake his friends who were going to
see the ball game.
20. He tries hard to do what he is told.
21. The children used to say that the fairies must be very
good housemaids to keep their floors so clean.
22. To throw the lasso well requires great skill.
23. He was obliged to hide himself in a thick wood.
24. He tried to earn what he could to help support his
mother.
25. Few people know that it is harder to keep quiet than it
is to speak.
26. To pick cotton under a hot sun is indeed hard work.
27. He it was who taught him later
How to make his bows and arrows,
How to make the bows of ash-tree.
28. The North not only had to attack, but also to hold the
places which were taken, to make their victories decisive.
!
I
I
244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
29, Theirs not to make reply,
Theirs not to reason why, !
Theirs but to do and die.
Into the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
80. How dull it is to pause, to make an end,
To rust unbunrished, not to shine in use !
CXXXVL — PARTICIPLES, KINDS AND USES.
Point out the participles in the following sentences, and
tell whether they are present, past, or perfect participles,
and name the words which they modify :
1. I saw James writing with a gold pen.
2. We heard the children coming home from school.
3. John found a small apple tree growing by the roadside.
4. Mary does not like leaving home.
5. We found the ladies dressing for a party.
6. I heard you speaking of your friend.
7. I read a story of a hero, written long ago.
8. He showed me a rough diamond brought from Brazil.
9. They saw Theodore entering the woods just before dark.
10. Trees covered with blossoms filled the air with their odors.
11. While running across the field, Mary fell over a stone
and broke her arm.
12. We found blackberries in profusion, growing on very
high bushes.
13. While at Mt Vernon I saw a letter written by Wash-
ington.
14. He had evidently left his office in a great hurry, for we
found his papers scattered over his desk, and his safe unlocked.
PARTICIPLES, KINDS AND USES. 246
15. The children, picking berries in the field, found a hornets'
nest built in an old straw hat.
16. Having made preparations for our fishing trip, we re-
tired early, hoping to start for the brook at three o'clock in
the morning.
17. Seeming to be asleep, the fox watched his chance, and
soon ran across the field, carrying the goose in his mouth.
18. I found a bird's nest built in a bush near the door of the
old ice-house.
19. Returning from school, John lost his report, having
dropped it in the river as he was leaning over the rail of the
bridge.
20. Promoted for his bravery, he became captain.
21. The enemy, routed at all points, gave up the contest.
22. She sent me a letter written from the seashore.
23. I bought a picture painted by Reubens.
24. The mountain seen from the city was covered with mist.
25. The telegram sent me from Mount Desert was never
received.
26. Anything brought from the war interests us.
27. The houses have roofs shaped like domes.
28. A bell repeated several times announces a fire drill.
29. We saw a company of veterans scarred in many a battle.
30. Bees laden with honey were hastening to their hives.
31. Having returned from her journey, Mary entered school.
32. Having deceived his friends, he was no longer trusted.
33. Mr. Brown, having bought a farm, moved into the
country.
34. Having lighted a lamp, they searched for the lost key.
35. Having enlisted in the army, the men must be ready for
active service.
246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
CXXXVIL — CHOICE LITERARY SELECTIONS.
In order that the principles of grammar, illustrated by
the study of the sentences and the short selections from
literature already given in this book, may be made more
general in their application, and the value of grammar as
an aid to the interpretation of literature may be empha-
sized, several longer selections of recognized merit are
added.
It is of great value to the young student to understand
how words, phrases, and clauses increase the power of ex-
pression, and add to the strength and beauty of sentences.
Such understanding is augmented by a right application
of the principles of grammar to literary selections such as
are here given.
Whoever makes such selections his own in the ways
herein indicated has a literary fund that will produce
greater wealth in the broader field of literature.
In the study of these selections it should be the aim
of the teacher to prove that the most important office of
grammar for the young student is its use in making clear
the vital relations which exist between grammar and lit-
erature, — to show that grammar helps to understand
literature.
When the true relations of grammar to literature are
appreciated, the love for the study of grammar is no
longer in doubt, its place as a favorite study is already
established, and its value to the student correspondingly
increased.
ELOQUENCE OF O'CONNELL. 247
These principles of grammar applied to the study of
poetical selections are of great value in making their
meaning clear.
The beauties of poetry can never be fully appreciated
until the grammatical constructions, as herein outlined,
are somewhat familiar to the pupils.
Each teacher will use these selections for the kind of
study best suited to develop the power of the class. The
theme for study may be the real merit of short sentences
easily understood ; the more involved thought of long sen-
tences, requiring considerable study ; the value of a single
paragraph by itself, or in its relation to other paragraphs
in the selection; the grouping of sentences or of para-
graphs; or a selection as a whole. In every case the
unity of the sentence should be made prominent. Al-
though some of the most beautiful sentences in our
language are long, and somewhat involved, it must be
borne in mind that young writers seldom have occasion to
use sentences of great length.
CXXXVIIL — ELOQUENCE OP O'CONNELL.
Broadly considered, O'ConnelTs eloquence has never
been equalled in modern times, certainly not in English
speech. Do you think I am partial ? I will vouch John
Randolph of Roanoke, himself an orator of no mean level.
Hearing O'Connell, he exclaimed : " This is the man,
these are the lips, the most eloquent that speak the
English tongue in my day ! " I think he was right. T
248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
remember the solemnity of Webster, the grace of Everett,
the rhetoric of Choate ; I know the eloquence that lay in
the iron logic of Calhoun; I have melted beneath the
magnetism of Sergeant S. Prentiss of Mississippi, who
wielded a power few men ever had ; it has been my for-
tune to sit at the feet of the great speakers of the English
tongue on the other side of the ocean ; but I think all of
them together never surpassed, and no one of them ever
equalled, O'Connell.
Nature intended him for our Demosthenes. Never,
since the great Greek, has she sent forth any one so lav-
ishly gifted for his work as a tribune of the people. In
the first place, he had a magnificent presence, impressive
in bearing, massive, like that of Jupiter. Webster him-
self hardly outdid him in the majesty of his proportions.
To be sure, he had not Webster's craggy face and precipice
of brow, nor his eyes glowing like anthracite coal. Nor
had he the lion roar of Mirabeau. But his presence filled
the eye, A small O'Connell would hardly have been an
O'Connell at all. So it was with O'Connell ; there was
something majestic in his presence before he spoke, and he
added to it what Webster had not, but Clay might have
lent, grace. Lithe as a boy, at seventy, every attitude a
picture, every gesture a grace, he was still all nature,
nothing but nature seemed to speak all over him. With
the slightest possible Irish brogue, he would tell a story,
while all Exeter Hall shook with laughter. The next
moment, tears in his voice like a Scotch song, five thou-
sand men wept.
Wendell Phillips,
FROM "THE DESERTED VILLAGE." 249
CXXXIX. — FROM "THE DESERTED VILLAGE,
Sweet Auburn ! loveliest village of the plain, ♦
Where health and plenty cheer'd the laboring swain,
Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid,
And parting summer's lingering blooms delay'd ;
Dear lovely bowers of innocence and ease,
Seats of my youth, when every sport could please,
How often have I loiter'd o'er thy green,
Where humble happiness endear'd each scene !
How often have I paus'd on every charm,
The shelter'd cot, the cultivated farm,
The never-failing brook, the busy mill,
The decent church that topt the neighboring hill,
The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade,
For talking age and whispering lovers made !
How often have I blest the coming day,
When toil remitting lent its turn to play,
And all the village train, from labor free,
Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree ;
While many a pastime circled in the shade,
The young contending as the old survey'd ;
And many a gambol frolick'd o'er the ground,
And sleights of art and feats of strength went round ;
And still, as each repeated pleasure tir'd,
Succeeding sports the mirthful band inspir'd ;
The dancing pair that simply sought renown,
By holding out, to tire each other down ;
The swain mistrustless of his smutted face,
While secret laughter titter'd round the place ;
The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love,
250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The matron's glance that would those looks reprove :
These were thy charms, sweet village ! sports like these,
With sweet succession, taught e'en toil to please ;
These round thy bowers their cheerful influence shed,
These were thy charms, — but all these charms are fled.
Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the plain !
Thy sports are fled, and all thy charms withdrawn ;
Amidst thy bowers the tyrant's hand is seen,
And desolation saddens all thy green ;
One only master grasps the whole domain,
And half a tillage stints thy smiling plain.
No more thy glassy brook reflects the day,
But choked with sedges works its weedy way ;
Along thy glades, a solitary guest,
The hollow-sounding bittern guards its nest ;
Amidst thy desert-walks the lapwing flies,
And tires their echoes with unvaried cries.
Sunk are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all,
And the long grass o'ertops the mouldering wall ;
And, trembling, shrinking from the spoiler's hand,
Par, far away thy children leave the land.
Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey,
Where wealth accumulates, and men decay ;
Princes and lords may flourish, or may fade ;
A breath can make them, as a breath has made ;
But a bold peasantry, their country's pride,
When once destroy'd, can never be supplied.
Oliver Goldsmith.
daniel Webster's bunker hill oration. 251
CXL. — EXTRACT FROM DANIEL WEBSTER'S
BUNKER HILL ORATION.
" Venerable Men ! you have come down to us from a
former generation. Heaven has bounteously lengthened
out your lives, that you might behold this joyous day.
You are now where you stood fifty years ago, this very
hour, with your brothers and your neighbors, shoulder to
shoulder, in the strife for your country. Behold, how
altered ! The same heavens are indeed over your heads ;
the same ocean rolls at your feet; but all else how
changed ! You hear now no roar of hostile cannon, you
see no mixed volumes of smoke and flame rising from
burning Charlestown. The ground strewed with the dead
and dying; the impetuous charge; the steady and success-
ful repulse; the loud call to repeated assault; the sum-
moning of all that is manly to repeated resistance; a
thousand bosoms freely and fearlessly bared in an instant
to whatever of terror there may be in war and death, —
all these you have witnessed, but you witness them no
more. All is peace."
CXLL — THE DAFFODILS.
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils ;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the Milky Way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay ;
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.
The waves beside them danced ; but they
Outdid the sparkling waves in glee.
A poet could not but be gay
In such a jocund company.
I gazed — and gazed — but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought ;
For oft when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude ;
And then my heart with pleasure fills
And dances with the daffodils !
William Wordsworth.
CXLIL — TACT AND TALENT.
Talent is something, but tact is everything. Talent is
serious, sober, grave, and respectable. Tact is aU that,
and more too. It is not a sixth sense, but it is the life of
all the five. It is the open eye, the quick ear, the judg-
ing taste, the keen smell, the lively touch. It is the
interpreter of all riddles, the surmounter of all difficulties,
the remover of all obstacles. It is useful in all places and
TACT AND TALENT. 253
at all times. It is useful in solitude, for it shows a man
his way into the world. It is useful in society, for it
shows him his way through the world.
Talent is power, tact is skill ; talent is weight, tact is
momentum. Talent knows what to do, tact knows how
to do it; talent makes a man respectable, tact will make
him respected; talent is wealth, tact is ready money. For
all the practical purposes of life, tact carries against
talent, ten to one.
Talent makes the world wonder that it gets on -no
faster, tact excites astonishment that it gets on so fast.
And the secret is that it has no weight to carry; it makes
no false steps; it hits the right nail on the head; it loses
no time ; it takes all hints, and by keeping its eye on the
weathercook is ready to take advantage of every wind
that blows. Take them into the church. Talent has
always something worth hearing, tact is sure of abundance
of hearers; talent may obtain a living, tact will make
one ; talent gets a good name, tact a great one ; talent
convinces, tact converts ; talent is an honor to the profes-
sion, tact gains honor from the profession.
Take them into court. Talent feels its weight, tact
finds its way ; talent commands, tact is obeyed ; talent is
honored with approbation, tact is blessed by preferment.
Place them in the senate. Talent has the ear of the
house, but tact wins its heart and has its votes ; talent is
fit for employment, but tact is fitted for it, it has all the
air of commonplace, and all the forces and power of
genius.
From "London Atlas."
254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
CXLIIL — WHAT CONSTITUTES A STATE.
What constitutes a state ?
Not high-raised battlements or labored mound,
Thick wall or moated gate ;
Not cities proud, with spires and turrets crowned;
Not bays and broad-arm ports,
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride ;
Not starred and spangled courts,
Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride.
No ! Men — high-minded men.
With powers as far above dull brutes endued,
In forest, brake, or den,
As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude ;
Men who their duties know,
But know their rights, and, knowing, dare maintain ;
Prevent the long-aimed blow,
And crush the tyrant while they rend the chain.
These constitute* a state ;
And sovereign law, that state's collected will,
O'er thrones and globes elate
Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill.
Sir William Jones.
CXLIV. — THE FOOTPRINT IN THE SAND.
From "Robinson Crusoe."
It happened, one day, about noon, going towards my
boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a
man's naked foot on the shore, which was very plain to
"the legend of sleepy hollow." 255
be seen in the sand. I stood like one thunderstruck, or
as if I had seen an apparition. I listened, I looked around
me, I could hear nothing, nor see anything. I went up to
a rising ground to look farther. I went up the shore, and
down the shore, but it was all one ; I could see no other
impression but that one. I went to it again to see if
there were any more, and to observe if it might not be my
fancy; but there was no room for that, for there was
exactly the very print of a foot — toes, heel, and every
part of a foot. How it came thither I knew not, nor
could in the least imagine. But, after innumerable flut-
tering thoughts, like a man perfectly confused and out of
myself, I came home to my fortification, not feeling, as we
say, the ground I went on, but terrified to the last degree,
looking behind me at every two or three steps, mistaking
every bush and tree, and fancying every stump at a dis-
tance to be a man.
Daniel Defoe.
CXLV. — FROM "THE LEGEND OF SLEEPY
HOLLOW."
Hard by the farmhouse was a vast barn, that might
have served for a church; every window and crevice of
which seemed bursting forth with the treasures of the
farm; the flail was busily resounding within it from
morning to night; swallows and martins skimmed twit-
tering about the eaves ; and rows of pigeons, some with
one eye turned up, as if watching the weather, some with
their heads under their wings, or buried in their bosoms.
256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
and others swelling, and cooing, and bowing about their
dames, were enjoying the sunshine on the roof. Sleek,
unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abun-
dance of their pens; whence sallied forth, now and then,
troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air. A stately
squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining pond,
convoying whole fleets of ducks; regiments of turkeys
were gobbling through the farm-yard, and guinea-fowls
fretting about it, like ill-tempered housewives, with their
peevish, discontented cry. Before the barn-door strutted
the gallant cock, that, pattern of a husband, a warrior, and
a fine gentleman, clapping his burnished wings, and crow-
ing in the pride and gladness of his heart — sometimes
tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously
calling his ever-hungry family of wives and children to
enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered.
Washington Irving.
CXLVL — OUR COUNTRY.
We cannot honor our country with too deep a reverence ;
we cannot love her with an affection too pure and fervent ;
we cannot serve her with an energy of purpose or a faith-
fulness of zeal too steadfast and ardent. And what is our
country ? It is not the East, with her hills and her val-
leys, with her countless sails and the rocky ramparts of
her shores. It is not the North, with her thousand vil-
lages, and her harvestrhome, with her frontiers of the
lake and the ocean. It is not the West, with her forest-
THE LOVE OF COUNTRY AND OF HOME. 257
sea and her inland isles,' with her luxuriant expanses,
clothed in the verdant corn, with her beautiful Ohio and
her majestic Missouri. Nor is it yet the South, opulent
in the mimic snow of the cotton, in the rich plantations of
the rustling cane, and in the golden robes of the rice-field.
What are these but the sister families of one greater, better,
holier family — Our Country?
Thomas Smith Grimk£
CXLVIL — THE LOVE OF COUNTRY AND
OF HOME.
There is a land, of every land the pride,
Beloved by Heaven o'er all the world beside ;
Where brighter suns dispense serener light,
And milder moons imparadise the night ;
A land of beauty, virtue, valor, truth,
Time-tutored age, and love-exalted youth.
The wandering mariner, whose eye explores
The wealthiest isles, the most enchanting shores,
Views not a realm so bountiful and fair,
Nor breathes the spirit of a purer air ;
In every clime, the magnet of his soul,
Touched by remembrance, trembles to that pole ;
For in this land of Heaven's peculiar grace,
The heritage of Nature's noblest race,
There is a spot of earth supremely blest,
A dearer, sweeter spot than all the rest,
Where man, creation's tyrant, casts aside
His sword and sceptre, pageantry and pride,
258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
While, in his softened looks, benignly blend
The sire, the son, the husband, brother, friend.
Here woman reigns ; the mother, daughter, wife,
Strews with fresh flowers the narrow way of life !
In the clear heaven of her delightful eye,
An angel-guard of loves and graces lie ;
Around her knees domestic duties meet,
And fireside pleasures gambol at her feet.
Where shall that land, that spot of earth be found ?
Art thou a man ? — a patriot ? — look around !
O I thou shalt find, howe'er thy footsteps roam,
That land thy country ', and that spot thy home !
James Montgomery.
CXLVIIL — FITZ JAMES AND ELLEN.
From "Lady op the Lake."
On his bold visage middle age
Had slightly press'd its signet sage,
Yet had not quench'd the open truth
And fiery vehemence of youth ;
Forward and frolic glee was there,
The will to do, the soul to dare,
The sparkling glance, soon blown to fire,
Of hasty love, or headlong ire.
His limbs were cast in manly mould,
For hardy sports or contest bold ;
And though in peaceful garb array'd,
And weaponless, except his blade,
His stately mien as well implied
FITZ JAMES AND ELLEN. 259
A high-born heart, a martial pride,
As if a baron's crest lie wore,
And sheathed in armor trode the shore.
Slighting the petty need he show'd,
He told of his benighted road ;
His ready speech flow'd fair and free,
In phrase of gentlest courtesy ;
Yet seem'd that tone, and gesture bland,
Less used to sue than to command.
A while the maid the stranger eyed,
And, reassured, at length replied,
That Highland halls were open still
To wilder'd wanderers of the hill.
" Nor think you. unexpected come
To yon lone isle, our desert home ;
Before the heath had lost the dew,
This morn, a couch waa pull'd for you ;
On yonder mountain's purple head
Have ptarmigan and heath-cock bled,
And our broad nets have swept the mere,
To furnish forth your evening cheer."
" Now, by the rood, my lovely maid,
Your courtesy has err'd," he said ;
" No right have I to claim, misplaced,
The welcome of expected guest.
A wanderer, here by fortune tost,
My way my friends, my courser lost,
I ne'er before, believe me, fair,
Have ever drawn your mountain air,
Till on this lake's romantic strand,
I found a fay in fairy land !"
260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
44 1 well believe," the maid replied,
As her light skiff approach'd the side, —
" I well believe, that ne'er before
Your foot has trod Loch Katrine's shore ;
But yet, as far as yesternight,
Old Allan-bane foretold your plight, —
A grey-haired sire, whose eye intent
Was on the vision'd future bent
He saw your steed, a dappled gray,
Lie dead beneath the birchen way;
Painted exact your form and mien,
Your hunting suit of Lincoln green,
That tassell'd horn so gaily gilt,
That falchion's crooked blade and hilt,
That cap with heron plumage trim,
And yon two hounds so dark and grim.
He bade that all should ready be,
To grace a guest of fair degree ;
But light I held his prophecy,
And deem'd it was my father's horn,
Whose echoes o'er the lake were borne."
Sir Walter Scott.
INDEX.
A 9 and an,
indefinite article, 67
Abstract nouns,
defined, 37
use of, illustrated, 37
Active voice,
defined, 79
of transitive verbs, 78, 79
tense forms of, 105, 107-114
Address,
nominative by, 50
note on, 46
term of, 45
Adjectives,
agreement of, 164, 165, 212
articles, a, an, the, 67, 68
as modifiers, 24, 25, 62, 63.
clauses as, 16-18, 24, 25, 28, 30, 150,
151, 154
comparison of, 68, 69, 70
irregular, 71-73
regular, 70, 71
defined, 8
kinds of, 65-67, 73, 74
number of, 8, 9, 62-66, 73, 74, 164,
165
parsing, 74
phrases as, 12, 15, 16, 24, 25, 33, 154
predicate, 22-25, 74.
proper, 65, 66, 144, 145
Adverbs, 9, 10
clauses as, 17, 24, 25, 127, 129, 150,
151
Adverbs,
comparison of, 129, 130
conjunctive, 131, 140
defined, 10
exercises in use of, 10, 11, 15, 16,
127-132, 215
kinds of, 9, 10, 127, 140
modifying,
adjectives, 10
adverbs, 10
verbs, 10
of degree, 128
of place, 128
of time, 127
parsing, 131, 182
phrases as, 15, 16, 23, 24, 25, 129
Agreement
of adjective and noun, 60, 74, 164,
165
of antecedent and pronoun, 165, 166
of apposition and subject, 164
of case, 162, 163
of modes, 167
of subject and verb, 92, 93, 125, 161
of tenses, 166, 167
rules of, 162
Analysis,
of simple sentence, 33
of complex sentence, 34
of compound sentence, 35
selections for, 4, 5, 18, 19, 20, 21,
27, 31-33, 35-6, 51, 74-5, 126,
145-6, 174, 19&-207
261
262
INDEX.
Antecedent,
agreement of, 60, 04, 165
exercises in use of, 61, 64
may be, 60
of relative pronoun, 57
omitted, 59, 60
of it, 54
of what, 57, 50
of whoever, whichever, whatever,
whoso, whosoever, whatsoever, 50
Appositives,
agreement of, 48, 163, 164
case of, 48, 163, 164
meaning of, 48
Apostrophe, 173
Arrangement,
of adjective modifier, 168
of adverbial modifier, 168
of complement of predicate, 168
of modifiers of subject, 168
of modifiers, 168
of object, 168
of prepositions, 168
of thought, 167
of words, 167
Articles, 67
definite, 67, 68
indefinite, 67
As,
conjunction, 188, 139
relative pronoun, 57, 60
Auxiliary verbs,
be, 96, 101-104
conjugation of, 97-104
can, 96
do, 100, 101
defined, 96
have, 96-99
may, 96
shall, 96, 97
will, i/6, 97
use of, 96
Be,
auxiliary verb, 96, 101-104
But,
coordinate conjunction, 137
relative pronoun, 60
Can,
auxiliary verb, 96
Case,
agreement of, 162-164
nominative, 44-46, 151, 152, 162,
163
objective, 44-46, 48, 163
of appositives, 48, 164
possessive, 44-47
Clauses, 17
adjective, 16-18, 29-31, 147, 148,
150, 154, 221
adverbial, 17, 18, 2&-31, 34, 147,
148, 150, 151, 167, 221
how used, 219, 220, 222, 226, 229
noun, 16-18, 147-149
non-restrictive, 183
restrictive, 183
Complete predicate,
of verbs, 22
Complex sentence, 18, 28, 29, 30, 147
analysis of, 34
punctuation of, 182
Climax, 172
Collective noun, 37
Colon, 179
Comma, 179, 181, 184
Common noun, 37
Comparison,
of adjectives, 68, 71
of adverbs, 129, 130
Compound sentence, 18, 28, 30, 31-33
analysis of, 35
kinds of, 148
punctuation of, 184
Compound words, 189
INDEX.
263
Concrete noun, 37
Conjugation,
defined, 96
Conjugation of,
6c, 101,
can, 96
do, 100
have, 97
love, 105
may, 96
emphatic forms, 100, 110, 115
interrogative forms, 101
progressive forms, 109, 110, 115
shall, 96
will, 96
Conjunctions,
coordinate, 137, 138
correlative, 140
parsing, 141
subordinate, 138-140
use of, illustrated, 12, 137-140, 142
Conjunctive,
adverb, 140
adverb defined, 141
use of, illustrated, 140, 141
pronoun (note), 57
Coordinate conjunctions, 137, 138
defined, 137
use of, illustrated, 137, 138
Dash,
use of, illustrated, 180
Declarative sentence,
* defined, 2
use of, shown, 158, 159
Declension of,
nouns, 49
interrogative pronoun, 56
personal pronouns, 53, 54
relative pronouns, 58
Defective verbs,
auxiliary, 115
Defective verbs,
defined, 96
beware, 116
caught, 116
quoth, 116
to wit, 116
•Definite article,
the, 68
Derivative words, 188, 189
Dictionary,
use of, 198
Do,
auxiliary verb, 100
doesn't, 100
don't, 100
Each,
adjective pronoun, 62
each one, 63
each other, 63
Either,
adjective pronoun, 62
Either — or,
correlative conjunctions, 140
Elder, 72
Elements of sentences, 161
Emphatic,
forms of the verb, 100, 110, 115
English grammar,
defined, 1
Exclamatory sentence,
classification of, 161
defined, 2
examples of, 2, 3
meaning of, 158, 160
Feminine gender,
defined, 43
illustrated by word forms, 42, 43, 44
First,
the first, 68
use of , 68
264
INDEX.
Future,
perfect tense, 90, 102, 106
tense, 88, 90, 97, 102, 106
Gender,
defined, 43
common, 43
feminine, 43, 44
masculine, 43, 44
neuter, 43
illustrated by word forms, 42, 43, 44
Government,
of object, 167
Grammar, English
defined, 1
Greek,
prefixes, 196
stems, 196
scientific terms, 188
technical terms, 188
Have,
as auxiliary, 99
conjugation of, 97
He,
personal pronoun, 52, 64
Her, hers,
personal pronoun, 64
I,
personal pronoun, 62
compound of, 53
declension of, 68
H,
as subordinate conjunction, 138
with subjunctive mode, 80, 98, 102,
106, 108
Imperative,
mode defined, 80
sentence, 2, 168-160
subject of, 4, 80
Impersonal verbs,
defined, 117
Impersonal verbs,
use of, illustrated, 116, 117
Incomplete predication,
of verbs, 22
kinds of, 23, 166, 166, 157
Indefinite articles,
a and a», 67
Indicative mode,
defined, 80
use of, illustrated, 79, 80
Infinitive,
mode defined, 82
as subject, 82
as object, 82
as complement of verb, 82
as modifier of noun, 82
as modifier of verb, 83
as modifier of adjective, 83
as modifier of adverb, 83
simple, 82
tenses of, 104, 107, 108, 110
uses of, 83, 99, 114, 242
Interjection,
defined, 14
use of, illustrated, 14
parsing, 143, 144
Interrogation point, 176, 177
Interrogative,
pronoun, defined, 66
use of, 66, 66
sentence, defined, 2
meaning of, 168, 169
Intransitive verbs,
defined, 76
complete, 76, 77
incomplete, 76, 77
use of, illustrated, 76, 77
Irregular comparison,
of adjectives, 71, 72
of adverbs, 130
Irregular verbs, 94, 96
list of, 117, 118, 125
IKDEX.
265
It, inflection of, 54
personal pronoun, 64
use of, 64
with impersonal verbs, 116, 117
Language,
figurative, 168, 176
oral, defined, 1
written, defined, 1
Latin,
prefixes, 191, 192, 193
stems, 189, 190, 196
terms, scientific, 188
terms, technical, 188
May,
auxiliary verb, 96
in potential mode, 103
Metaphor, 170
Mode,
defined, 79
kinds of, 80
Imperative, 80
Indicative, 80
Infinitive, 82, 83
Potential, 103
Subjunctive, 80, 81
Modifiers,
adjective as, QQ
adverbs as, 10, 127-129
clauses as, 17, 160, 161
defined, 9
kinds of, 24, 25
phrases as, 16
predicate, 26, 166, 166, 167
subject, 26, 153, 164
Neither,
adjective pronoun, 62
neither— nor, correlative conjunc-
tions, 140
Nominative case,
as subject, 45
as predicate, 45
as term of address, 45
as nominative absolute, 45
defined, 46
forms of, in nouns, 49
forms of, in personal pronouns, 53,
64
forms of, in interrogative pronouns,
66
forms of, in relative pronouns, 58
Nor,
neither — nor, correlative conjunc-
tions, 140
Nouns, 5,
abstract, 37
classes of, 36
collective, 37
common, 37
concrete, 37
declension of, 49
parsing, 49, 60
proper, 36
uses of, 45, 46, 237-239
verbal, 84
Number, 40
adjectives agreeing with nouns in,
73, 74, 164, 165
plural of nouns, 40
plural of nouns, how formed, 40-42
plural of pronouns, 63, 64, 66, 68
singular of nouns, 40
singular of pronouns, 63, 64, 66, 58
verbs agreeing with subjects in, 162
Object,
government of, 167
indirect, 45, 239
of preposition, 11, 12, 133, 167
of transitive verb, 75, 167
Objective case, 48
266
INDEX.
Objective case,
examples of, 48
infinitive, as, 82, 83
of interrogative pronouns, 56
of personal pronouns, 63, 64
of relative pronouns, 68
subject of infinitive, 163
One,
adjective pronoun, 63
any one, 63
each one, 63
one another, 63
some one, 63
Or,
coordinate conjunction, 137
either — or, correlative conjunctions,
140
Order (see Arrangement, 167, 168)
Ought,
defective verb, 116
Parentheses,
use of, 178-180
Parsing,
adjectives, 74
adverbs, 131, 132
conjunctions, 141
interjections, 143
nouns, 49
prepositions, 136
pronouns, 64
verb, 125
Participles, 83, 85
kinds of, 244
uses of, 244
Parts of speech, 15
Passive voice,
conjugation of love in, 107
defined, 79
how formed, 115
use of, illustrated, 78, 79
Past perfect tense,
conjugation of verb in, 102, 104, 105
defined, 89
how formed, 113, 114
use of, illustrated, 89
Past tense,
conjugation of verb in, 100, 106, 107
defined, 89
how formed, 113, 114
use of, illustrated, 88
Period, 176
Person,
-defined, 39
of nouns, 38, 39
of pronouns, 52-64
of verbs, 92, 93
Personal pronouns,
compound, 53
declension of, 53, 54
parsing, 64
use of, illustrated, 52-65
Personification,
denned, 169
examples of, 173, 174
Phrases,
adjective, 12, 15, 16, 24, 25, 33,
164
adverbial, 12, 15, 16, 23, 25, 129
as parts of sentences, 20
as subject, 152
complements of incomplete verbs,
23
kinds of, 217, 229, 237
noun, 15
uses of, 24, 25, 154, 217, 229, 237
Plural,
see Number, 40-42, 53, 64, 66, 68
Positive degree,
see Comparison, 69, 129
Possessive,
see Case, 44, 46, 47
Potential mode, 103
INDEX.
267
Predicate,
adjective, 74, 156
complete, 26
defined, 4, 20, 147
enlarged, 157
predicate noun, 45
simple, 26, 155
verb, agreement of, 162
Prefixes,
defined, 191
Latin, 191-193
Greek, 196
Prepositions,
compound, 135
defined, 12, 133
list of, 135
in phrases, 11, 132
object of, 167
parsing, 136
Present perfect tense,
conjugation of verbs in, 101, 103, 105
defined, 89
how formed, 113, 114
use of, illustrated, 89
Present tense,
conjugation of verbs in, 97, 98, 100,
101, 103, 105
defined, 89
expresses, 88
Principal,
parts of the verb, 96
proposition, 34, 35, 148
verb, 96
Pronouns, 6, 62-58
adjectives, 62
agreement of, 165
antecedents of, 64, 57, 59-61, 64-165,
240
conjunctive (note), 57
declensions of, 53, 64, 56, 68
interrogative, 55
parsing, 64
Pronouns
personal, 52
relative, 67
Proper nouns,
defined, 36
explained, 36
Punctuation,
explained, 175
marks of, 175-180
of simple sentence, 181, 182
of complex sentence, 182-184
of compound sentence, 184, 185
Quality,
adjectives of, 66
Quantity, '
adjectives of, 66
Quotations,
punctuation of direct, 179
Regular verbs, 94, 95
conjugation of, 105
Relative pronouns, 57
agreement of, 60, 165
compounds, 69
declined, 58
explained, 67
rules for use of, 59
Roots, 189
Selections from literature, 208, 246
Sentences, 2
analysis of, 33, 34, 35
kinds of, 229-237
declarative, 2, 158, 159
exclamatory, 2, 158, 160
imperative, 2, 158-160
interrogative, 2, 158, 159
complex, 29, 34, 147
compound, 30, 31-33, 35, 148
simple, 2, 29, 33, 147
268
INDEX.
Sentences,
punctuation of , 181-184
Shall,
auxiliary verb, 96
use of, 96
Simile, 170
Simple sentence,
(see Sentences, 2, 29, 33, 181)
Statements,
defined, 4
in Complex Sentences, 18, 28
in Compound Sentences, 28, 29, 36
kinds of, 17, 28, 30, 31
Stems, 195
Subject, 4, 20; 147
and predicate, 208, 224
clause as, 16
compound, 29
phrase as, 15
simple and complete, 26
Subjunctive mode,
conjugation of, 98, 106
defined, 81
may express, 80, 81
Subordinate conjunctions,
defined, 139
explained, 188, 139
Suffixes, 197
Superlative degree,
(see Comparison, 68-70, 129)
Synecdoche, 171
Syntax,
defined, 146
laws of, 146
Tenses, 87
agreement of, 166, 167
conjugation of, 97-112
defined, 88
formation of, 112-115
future, 88, 90
future perfect, 90
Tenses,
past, 89
past perfect, 89
present, 89
present perfect, 89
That,'
adjective pronoun, 62
cases of, 59
relative pronoun, 57
subordinate conjunction, 138
use of, 59, 139
The,
definite article, 68
use of, as adverb, 68
This,
adjective pronoun, 62
use of, 62
Thou,
declined, 68
personal pronoun, 53, 54
use of, 54
To,
preposition with infinitive, 82
Transitive verbs,
conjugation of, 105
defined, 75
explained, 75, 76
voice of, 78, 79
Verbs, 7
auxiliary, 96
emphatic forms of, 110, 115
complements of, 166
conjugation of, 96-1 10
defective, 116
impersonal, 116
intransitive, 76, 241
irregular, 96
irregular, list of, 117
parsing, 125
progressive forms of, 109, 13 &
transitive, 75, 241
INDEX.
269
Verbs,
regular, 94, 95, 105 ,
Voice,
denned, 78
active, 79 .,
passive, 79
What,
antecedent of, 57, 59
compounds of, 58, 59
interrogative pronoun, 55, 56
relative pronoun, 57
uses of, 55, 56, 59
Which,
compounds of, 58
declined, 58
interrogative pronoun, 55, 56
relative pronoun, 57
uses of, 55, 56, 59
Who,
antecedent of, 60
compounds of, 58
Who,
declined, 56, 58
interrogative pronoun, 55, 56
relative pronoun, 58
uses of, 55, 56, 59
Words,
compound, 189
derivative, 189
kinds of, Anglo-Saxon, French,
Latin, Greek, 185-189
prefixes of, 191
primitive, 188
simple, 189
spoken, 1
stems of, 189, 195-197
suffixes of, 197
uses of, 144
written, 1
You,
declined, 63
personal pronoun, 53
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Understanding 9/11