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EX BIBLIOT'HECA

CAR. I. TABORI S

ENGLISH GEAMMAE.

■" lioKDOX t PUIXTED BY ■

SI'CTTISWOOUE AKD CO., SEW-STREET SQUARE
AKD PAnLlAMEST STREET

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

HISTOEICAL AND ANALYTICAL.

JOSEPH GOSTWICK,

AUTHOR OF 'BNGUSH POETS' AND 'GERMAN POETS'; THE HANDBOOKS
' GERMAN MTEKATURB' AND ' AMERICAN LITERATIIRK'; ETC. ETC.

LONDON :
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

1878.

PEEFACE

From the ninth century down to the present, one language
— English — has always been spoken by the people of our
land. To make this clear is the aim kept in view
throughout all the etymological sections of this hand-
book. For obvious reasons, Orthography and Orthoepy
are but briefly noticed.

The repetitions seen in the earlier sections on Etymo-
logy are traits belonging to the plan of the book. There
are readers who would first of all notice chiefly om*
modern forms and their classification. Others would
study the union of the old and the new. For the con-
venience of the former, an asterisk is here and there pre-
fixed to historical paragraphs that may be omitted, and
facts, already given in treating of old forms, are named
again where new forms are classified. In the Table of
Contents titles of elementary sections, and parts of
sections, are set in capitals. These parts of the work may
ibe viewed as a first course of lessons.

For the parts of speech, their old nomenclature is
mostly retained. Adjectives are sometimes called
* Participles,' because their stems are used in verbs, and
for the same reason certain Nouns are described as
'' Gerunds.' At the same time some errors of classifica-

12»9

VI PREFACE.

tion have been avoided, alterations in uses have been
noticed, and many words practically vague, as regards the
classes to which they belong, are here called ' Vague
Words' (pp. 276, 284).

Old Verbs are arranged in seven classes, and so as
to show their historical connection with earlier forms,
which- are more distinctly classified as regards their
changes of vowels (pp. 89-95, 121-30). New Verbs —
including those sometimes called ' irregular ' — are also
distinctly and historically classified (pp. 101-5, 132-36).

Secondary Derivatives, Compounds, Divisions of Sylla-
bles, Sources of Words and Alterations of their forms —
these are the subjects treated of in several later sections,,
where references are given to many useful books. All the
books, grammatical and lexicographical, to which the
writer is more or less indebted are named, and several
are named of which he knows nothing more than their
general characteristics.

Eeading is the first and the best way of studying
Syntax. Our best prose-writers are our teachers, and their
permanent usages are our rules. Still a grammarian may
render good service when he collects numerous examples,
and classifies them so that they may be readily found.
He may afterwards frame some rules, and these may
indeed be defective ; but there will be one good result of
the plan : the reader who may not like the rules will first
of all have tlie facts laid before him, and then will be
able to make rules for his own guidance. His knowledge
of the freedom allowed by usage will serve as a defence
against small criticism, and the observance of a few rules
will make his confidence secure.

Accordingly, throughout all the sections on Syntax,
the method pursued is inductive : examples precede rules^
and while these are comparatively few, those are very

PREFACE. VU

numerous — so numerous, indeed, that, if printed in a large
type, they would fill a volume of some considerable size.
Excepting only a few of the shortest excerpts, and some
specimens of familiar prose (mostly followed by Grj, these
examples have been selected, not from Grammars and
Dictionaries, but from writings belonging to our best
standard literature. They represent, therefore, the laws
of construction observed during the last three centuries,
and many excerpts from the writings of earlier times are
given. One of the writer's aims is to direct attention to
works in which Old English is made a special subject of
study. Here Modern English is predominant.

The nomenclature employed in Syntax is one that
might have been suggested by the words of an old author
— ' All things are as is their use.' For the most part this
nomenclature has already been employed in an excellent
English Grrammar.^ The limitation introducing the fact
here stated implies no wish to attenuate the force of words
in a confession of obligation. In classifying under their
common name, Adverbiais, a large number of words and
phrases — the latter including many translations of Latin
cases — the writer of this manual is supported, as he
believes, by the authority of clear definitions given in the
work referred to. At the same time it is right to add
that he alone is responsible for the details of that classifi-
cation given in pp. 230-32, 327-44, 354-62.

The Eules of Syntax are arranged in an order corre-
sponding with that of preceding observations and examples,
and the numbers of the paragraphs consisting mostly of
examples correspond with those prefixed to observations.
Accordingly, the facts on which each rule is based may be
readily found. The rule given (p. 373) for distinct uses

' English Chrammar ; including the Principles of Grammatical Analysis.
By C P. Mason, B.A., Fellow of University College, London.

Vlll PREFACE.

of that and which may be noticed here, and for other
•examples the reader may turn to the rules of concord for
Subjects and Verbs (pp. 373-74). There under each
rule is given at least one reference, while the number
that refers to observations points also to examples. Eefe-
rences are thus made more useful than rules. ' The Verb
agrees with the Subject in number and person.' There
are many apparent exceptions, and of these some have
been hastily condemned as bad grammar. Here, then,
as in other instances, the chief use of the rule is to direct
attention to examples and to certain formal or merely
apparent anomalies : in other words, the references are
more useful than the rule itself, which — left alone — might
leave room for doubt, or lead to error. Facts and rules
rarely agree together exactly.

The Rules of Syntax are followed by tabular forms for
analyses of sentences, and in later sections the following
subjects are noticed : — Parsing, Punctuation, Order, In-
versions, Ellipses. These sections, taken together, may
serve as an Introduction to Composition. Of Composition
itself only a few words are said, but these may possibly
lead to the study of books in which the subject is more
largely treated.

Verse is not Poetry ; but ideas and their appropriate
forms are closely united in the works of true poets ; and
as Poetry itself is a theme of large extent and variety, so
its true form — good versification — must have various and
harmonious changes, such as cannot be well shown in
mechanical tables of measures and accents. It does not
follow that, because one knows a little of Grrammar, he is
therefore able to describe well such versification as is found
in the poetry of Shakespeare, of Milton, of Coleridge.
Prosody has been viewed as a subject too extensive to be
treated of in this compendium.

PREFACE. IX

In connexion with observations on alterations in the
forms of words, some brief remarks are here and there
added respecting changes in meanings. Here, possibly,
the writer oversteps the boundary-line within which the
study of Grrammar should be confined. The motive has
been a wish to invite attention to historical studies of
languages regarded as expressions of culture. It is indeed
but little that is said here respecting the most interesting
of all the inquiries suggested by those studies. Whence
came our best descriptive words for our uses of ordinary
life? The question is readily answered (pp. 13, 178-80).
Whence our words relating to notions of law and govern-
ment ? The question, though not as easy as the former,
may still be answered without much difficulty. But
whence the higher meanings given to so many words of
which the primitive uses are almost forgotten ? Whence
their association with sentiments infinitely more to be
cared for than any culture of our intellectual faculties ?
That is a question to which historical studies of languages
may some day give a clear and authoritative reply. A
study more interesting than Grrammar may at least be
named here — the English Language in its union with
the History of England.

CONTENTS.

Titles of elementary or merely analytical sections, or parts of sections^
arc set in Eoman capitals.

INTRODUCTION.

First English — Old English — Modern English.

ORTHOGRAPHY: ORTHOEPY.

BKCnON

1. The Written Alphabet

2. The Spoken Alphabet ....

3. Faults of the Written Alphabet . •

4. Syllables. . . .

5. Accent . ...

6 Division of Syllables ....

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS

7. Intkoduction

8. Nouns .

9. Pronouns

10. Adjectttes

11. Veebs -

12. Adverbs : Forms

Uses

13. Prepositions : Forms

Uses .

14. Conjunctions : Forms

Uses .

15. Interjections

PAGK

19
20
23
24
24
26

27
32
34
39
44
46
49
51
53
55
56
62

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

INFLEXIONS.

SECTION

16. Introduction. Nouns. E.I.

17. NotTNS. M.E. ....

18. Pronouns. E.I.
Peonouns. M.E.

19. Adjectives. E.I., E.IL
Adjectives. M.E.

20. Verbs. E.I., E.II. .

21. Verbs. The Oi-d Conjugation. M.E.

22. The New Conjugation. M.E.

23. The Subjunctive Mood .

24. Extended Compound Conjugation

25. Iebegular Verbs. M.E.

26. Adverbs. E.I., E.IL
Adverbs. M.E.

DERIVATION.

27. Introduction

28. Noun Suffixes. English

29. Noun Suffixes. Eoman

30. Adjective Suffixes. English

31. Adjective Suffixes. Roman

32. Vbbbal Suffixes. Adverbial Suffixes

COMPOUND WORDS,

33. Introduction

34. Compound Nouns
36. Compound Adjectives

36. Compound Verbs

37. Prefixes. English .

38. Eoman and Gtreek Prefixes

39. Sources of English "Words .

40. Latin Compounds

41. Alterations of Words

42. Divisions of Syllables .

CONTENTS.

XlU

SYNTAX.

BBcrnoN

PAGE.

43.

iNTBODXrCTION. ThB ANALYSIS OF SenTKNCES

. 218

The Structure of Periods

. . 236

Prose Writers : 1366-1860

. 244

Ordinary Prose

. . 264

List of Prose Writers : 1300-1870

. 272

EXAMPLES.

44.

Subjects: Words ....

. . 275

Phrases ....

. 281

Clauses ....

. . 282

45.

Attributes : Words . . . .

. 283

Phrases . . • .

. . 29a

Clauses ....

. 292

46.

Verbs : Concords ....

. . 299

Moods ....

. 313

Tenses .....

. . 3ia

Complements , . ,

. 322

47.

Adverbials : Words . . . .

. . 327

Phrases ....

. 334

Clauses ....

. . 34a

48.

Objects: Words ....

. 344

Phrases ....

. . 35a

Clauses ....

. 353

49.

Prepositions: Sequences

. . 365

60.

Conjunctions: 'And'

. 362

Subordinative

. . 363

Co-ordinative

. 366

61.

Interjections . . .

RULES.

. .. 36a

62.

Introduction .....

. 371

63.

Subjects . . . ...

. . 371

64.

Attkibutes .....

. 372

65.

Verbs ......

. . 373

66.

Complements ....

. 376

XIV

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SECnON

57.
58.
50.

Adterbials

The Subjunctive Mood

Objects .

Words Indirectly Governed

Prepositions

conjunctiojns

Interjections

INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION

60. Tabular Forms of Analysis . • .

61. Parsing .

62. Punctuation .

63. Order . . . - .

64. Inversions .

65. Ellipses .

66. Composition .

I'AGK

376

377
378
379
381
382

382
304
400
412
416
419
422

CONCLUSION.

The English Language in its Union with the History of Englaiul.

VOCABULARIES.

I. . English, Latin .

English, Old French, Latin .
. English, Old French, Late Latin
English, Old French, Tentojiic
English, Greek .
II. Latin, English

Supine-Forms
Vowpl-Changes
III. Greek, English .

443

447

449

450

451

452

451

455

INDEX .

457

ENGLISH GEAMMAH.

INTEODUCTION. ^

Modern Englisli is a composite language, of wliicli the
main elements are English and Roman.

Nearly all the short words, well understood by the people,
are pure English.

The words by which men express most briefly and power-
fully their thoughts and feelings ; the common names of things
seen in the heavens and on the earth ; ' sun,* * moon,' * stars,'
' sunrise,' ' twilight,' * hills,' ' dales,' ' streams,' ' springs,'
'waterfalls;' the household words 'father,' 'mother,' 'brother,'
'sister,' 'kindred;' the words 'right,' 'true,' 'kind,' 'good,'
and others in which moral judgments are most readily uttered ;
' the words that go straight to men's heads and hearts : '
these are mostly English words.

Roman words, either borrowed immediately from the Latin,
or coming to us through the medium of Norman-French, supply
convenient forms of expression for the abstractions and gene-
ralizations of jurisprudence, politics, science, philosophy, art,
and criticism. To these departments (especially to science)
several words derived from Greek belong. The Roman element
supplies, moreover, many terms for which synonyms are found
in pure English ; hence the Composite Language is enriched,
with regard to both variety and harmony of expression.
1^'rom the union of the two vocabularies — English and Roman
— are derived the wealth and the versatility of Modem
f! English.

*Z ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The two elements of the language have not been com-
bined as two parts equal to each other in use and importance.
English supplies the best, as well as the most numerous,
words of our living vocabulary, and, moreover, prescribes
laws for the construction of sentences. Our Grammar is
English. We can write or sjpeah without any aid derived from
Roman words. On the other hand, to write or speak without
aid derived from English grammar and the English vocabulary
is impossible.

The use of Roman words may be limited by the rule of
'■ one or two in thirty, "* and we may still have the language
found in our Bible of the seventeenth century. In many of
the narrative parts of that version the few Roman words
found might, without any loss of truth or strength, be put
into English. In a word, wherever good Composite English
is spoken or written, pure English maintains its mastership.

Whence came the Oldest English ? When was it spread
as the language of Britain ? How did it become mixed with
many Boman words ? The history that answers these ques-
tions may here be given in outlines, and may be divided into
the following three periods : —

I. The time 450-1100, when the Oldest English, or Eirst
English (sometimes called ' Anglo-Saxon '), was spoken.

II. The time 1100-1558. Several transitional forms of
the language spoken during this period (including more than
four centuries) may here be collectively called Old English.
(The special names given to several transitional forms of the
language may be noticed in another place.)

III. The time extending from the Elizabethan age to the
present — the period in which Modern English has been pre-
valent in literature.

450-1100. About a hundred years after the birth of
Christ, the greater portion of that part of Britain now called
England was governed by a Roman army. It is believed
that, at that time, almost all the tribes dwelling in Great
Britain and Ireland belonged to the Keltic race, which had
spread itself over the West of Europe, and was divided into

INTRODUCTION. 6

two main branches — Gaelic and Bntish. The two main
branches of the Keltic languages then spoken in Great Britain
and Ireland, have been named respectively Oaelic and Gymraeg.
To the former branch belonged the Erse language, spoken by
the people of Ireland, and the Gaelic, spoken in the Highlands
of Scotland. The Gymraeg, spoken in old time in the
central and southern parts of Britain, is represented, in
modern times, by the Welsh language. Among the peoples
speaking these languages the Irish and the Scottish High-
landers maintained their independence, and in the land now
called England and Wales the tribes dwelling in the north
and in the extreme west were obstinate in the assertion of
their freedom.

The Roman conquest of Britain was made by force of
arms, and, apparently, was followed by no extensive culture,
moral or intellectual, of the subjugated people. Their lan-
guage, therefore, remained mostly separated from the Latin
spoken by the Romans at th(,^ir military stations, and by
some educated natives, whose subservience and intelligence
qualified them for holding appointments under the govern-
ment. Men of this class are described by Tacitus as servile
imitators of Roman manners, and as students of the Latin
language. ' It is reported,' says Martial, ' that Britannia now
sings our verses,' i.e. '■ natives of Britain now study Roman
poetry.' This was probably an exaggeration, but might have
some basis in facts. For the assertions of both Tacitus and
Martial are partly, though indirectly, confirmed by C^sar.
The British people, he teUs us, had schools governed by
studious men, and the recitation of verses was one of their
modes of teaching. These assertions are not contradicted
by a want of evidence to show that Roman culture was
transmitted by the natives of Britain to the invaders, who
came in great numbers soon after the island was deserted by
the Romans. The want of such evidence may be ascribed to
the means by which the invaders gained possession of the
soil, and to the relations which they afterwards held to the
subjugated or expelled natives.

B 2

4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The Keltic language of Britain, still living in the Cymraeg
tongue (called Welsh), contains many stems like those found
in Latin words ; but it is, nevertheless, clearly separated, on
one side, from languages based upon Latin ; on the other,
from languages called Teutonic. Of course it is not ignored
here that Latin, Keltic, and Teutonic tongues all belong to
the so-called Aryan stock of languages. The primitive union
of Aryan languages belongs to a time indefinitely more ancient
than that to which we here refer — the time a.d. 43-410. It
seems clear that, during the whole time of the Roman
dominion, the people of Britannia spoke mostly Keltic tongues,
and that some tribes in the south of the island spoke Cymraeg,
or dialects closely connected with it, such as the Cornish and
the Armorican. Such words as ' craig ' (for ' stan ') and ' caer *
(for ' hurg ') may indicate how widely the Cymraeg language
differed from English. A rocky district in Yorkshire was
called ' Craigvan ' (' the district of rocks ') by the Cymraeg
people, and was, afterwards, called ' Stanclif ' by the English
people. That district now retains both names. The pastoral
district called Craven almost exactly corresponds to the
wapentake called Staindiffe. In other parts of England hills
and rivers have retained their ancient Cymraeg names, as in
the examples ' Avon,^ ' Bon,'' ' Mendip,^ and ' PenyganV

About four hundred years after the Christian era, not
only the Roman province north of the Alps, but also Italy
and Rome itself, were disturbed by the incursions of migratory
tribes, who, as far as we know, had no collective name for
themselves. At a later time they called themselves ' the
people.' As long ago as a hundred years before the birth of
Christ two of these tribes marched from districts lying near
the Baltic, and attempted an invasion of Roman territory.
They not only marched but also fought separately, and were
defeated by Marius. About fifty years later other incursive
tribes, belonging to the migratory people of Central Europe,
were repelled by the bold genius of Cjisar. But the
lesson then taught was forgotten when Varus led Roman
legions to defeat and extermination in the forest-land of ' the

INTRODUCTION. 5

people ' beyond the Rhine. Henceforth the name Rome lost,
more and more, its power to terrify, and, in proportion with
the decline of Roman military power, the audacity of the
incnrsive peoples increased. Several of their tribes, here
and there, united their arms. The Saxon Union, or Federa-
tion, had its head-quarters on the Lower Elbe ; another
Federation (the Gothic) held possession of tracts of land
near the Black Sea, and of a district lying between the
Danube and the Dnieper. Driven hence by other incursive
tribes, the Goths first prayed for such aid as the falling
empire might afford, and afterwards rose in rebellion against
Rome. Incursions in Greece, Upper Italy, and Gaul followed,
and in 410 Rome itself was captured by Alaric. About the
same time the Roman army was called away from the province
Britannia, which was thus left destitute of protection, and
with no better government than several factions, or parties
(called states), could afford.

Left in these circumstances, the British islanders were ill
prepared to defend themselves against numerous invaders who,
soon afterwards, came over from the mainland. These in-
vaders belonged to the migratory Teutonic people, and one of
their languages was the Oldest English.

The general impulse of migration that had urged other
tribes southward, drove tribes from the north-west mainland
over the North Sea and to the coast of Britain. These in-
vaders came mostly from Schleswig, Friesland, Jutland, and
from districts lying near the Lower Elbe.

Some of their tribes had already made predatory incursions
on the coast of Britain, during the period of the Roman
dominion. Soon after the time when the island was deprived
of Roman protection, Teutonic invaders began to come more
frequently and in greater numbers ; but no sudden conquest of
Britannia was ever made.

Of all the invading people, the most victorious were the
men who called themselves Engle (= ' Englishmen '). Their
home on the mainland was Schleswig.

It seems, at least, probable that the whole tribe of the Engle

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

(the * Englishmen ') emigrated from their home in Schleswig
and camo to Britain in the course of about one hundred and
fifty years after a.d. 460.

During that period they spread themselves over the
greater part of the east coast extending from Suffolk to the
Frith of Forth. In the same time another invading tribe
gained possession of Essex and Sussex, while a third band
seized the Isle of Wight and some parts of Hampshire.

Englishmen and those who accompanied them (including
some Frisians) were the most powerful and successfal of all
the invading tribes.

In the time above defined, Englishmen and their followers
(including the men from Frieslaud) not only seized and held
possession of the length of coast above named, but also
spread themselves inland through Northamptonshire, and into
all the eight shires that form the boundary of that long tract
of land. These successful invaders called the conquered
territory 'Engla-land,' and tbeir language was afterwards
called ' the English Speech.' This was the language which
was written and spoken by Alfred.

This Oldest English of which we have any knowledge was
one of the several cognate Teutonic languages spoken, before
the fall of Rome and during the earlier Middle Ages, by the
migratory peoples of Central and Northern Europe. All their
languages, with their descendants, have been included under
the family name ' German ; ' but this name is specially used to
designate the language spoken by the people who now occupy
the greater part of Central Europe. It is better, therefore, to
include all the German languages under the family name
' Teutonic ' — a word derived from the name given by the
Romans to one of the tribes conquered by Maeius.

Of the mediaeval Teutonic languages these seven have left
some remains of their literature: — Gothic, English, Old
Saxon, Frisian, Icelandic, Old High German, and Middle High
German.

Some considerable parts have been preserved of a Gothic
translation of the Bible, made by Bishop Ulfilas, who lived

INTRODUCTION. 7

in the fourth century. That the Gothic language (of which
no direct descendant survives) was closely allied with the
Oldest English, might be easily shown by a reference to ' the
Lord's Prayer,' or to any chapter in the Gothic version of the
New Testament.

With respect to the antiquity of its hterature, English
stands next to Gothic. Our oldest epic poem, ' Beowulf ,' was
reconstructed and edited (most probably in England), some
time before the tenth century ; but the heathen ballads on
which it is founded belong to a time when the English people
lived on the mainland and knew nothing of Christianity.
^Beowulf is a story of marvellous strength and courage, put
forth especially in a battle with a fiery dragon. Some of the
more pleasing parts of the story indicate a love of music and
poetry, existing in times when fighting was the chief business
of life. To the later reconstruction of the story may be
ascribed some insertions containing expressions of Christian
sentiment.

The oldest work preserved in Old Saxon is a remarkable
epic poem, the ' Heliand ' (the ' Saviour '), founded on a har-
mony of the Gospels. It seems to have been written by a
poet who hardly knew more of Christianity than its history,
and who was, perhaps, assisted by a monastic teacher. To
show the relationship of English and Old Saxon the ' Heliand '
may be compared with ' Beowulf; ' or vnth the poems ascribed
to an English monk, Cj:dmon, who (it is believed) lived at
Whitby in the seventh century.

Old Saxon is now represented by its descendants : — Loio
German (a dialect), Flemish^ and the Dutch (spoken in
HoUand).

Old Frisian, another near relative to the English language,
is represented in literature only by a few legal documents,
which belong to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Modern
Frisian (spoken in Friesland) is still remarkably like Old
English.

The Icelandic language (or Old Norse), still surviving in
Iceland, is the parent of Danish and Swedish.

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

All the five languages, Gothic, English, Old Saxon, Frisian,
and Icelandic, are called Lower Teutonic, as distinct from two
mediaeval Teutonic languages called Old High German and
Middle High German. The former (including several dialects)
was written and spoken in Upper or South Germany, from
the eighth century to the time of the Crusades ; the latter
from the time of the Crusades to the Reformation. J^ew High
German is the name given to the language mostly employed in
German literature since the time when Luther's German
translation of the Bible was completed. These three lan-
guages have been called High German, with respect to certain
phonetic changes not found in the Lower Teutonic group of
languages, to which English belongs.

The whole of the Teutonic family is as remarkable for the
UJceness as for the diversity of the languages which it includes.
The likeness generally prevailing throughout the whole family
vocabulary of stem-words is, to a great extent, concealed
under the diversity of forms used for derivation and con-
struction, and is, moreover, disguised by various modes of
spelling.

So far First English has been described as a Teutonic
language. The next passage in its history must be very
briefly noticed here. It has been told that, in the time
450-600, the English and their followers made themselves
masters of the greater part of the island. How far was their
series of conquests attended by a banishment, or a flight of
the Cymraeg people ? Were the conquered tribes of some
districts treated as the slaves of the victorious invaders ?
Or, after contests in several localities, were the natives allowed
to retreat gradually westward ? How far did any inter-
mixture of the two languages, Cymraeg and English, take
place ? What proportionate part of Cymraeg words does Old
English contain ?

These are very difficult questions, and must be left to
excite further research. Theory, partly founded on history,
may serve, however, to indicate, some conclusions to which
inquiry may lead. It is admitted that, soon after the

INTRODUCTION. 9

Christian era, invaders, more energetic and united than the
natives of Britain, made incursions on the east coast, and
after the departure of the Roman forces, came in greater
numbers, subdued native tribes having no strong union, and
so spread themselves along the coast and in some midland
districts. Without accepting all that Gildas tells of exter-
minating TTarfare against the Britons, it may be admitted
that the invaders put to death many of the natives, and
treated others as slaves ; for slavery was a Teutonic institution
in those as in earlier times. In the Oldest English the
word wealh, meaning, at first, any foreign man, also denotes
* a slave,' and wylen denotes a woman who is a slave.

A speedy conquest of the whole island was impracticable.
The invaders and new settlers, having seized the best land
lyiitig near the east coast and in some more inland districts,
allowed the defeated people to retreat more and more
westward into Wilts, Devon, Cornwall, and Wales. In pro-
portion as the rule of the invaders was extended and con-
firmed, their language superseded the Cymraeg. This was,
however, long preserved in Cornwall, and it is still spoken
in Wales, i.e. the land of the Wealhas, or the people who
were first expelled and afterwards were described as
foreigners. There the Cymraeg people, abiding within their
own boundary, long maintained their independence, and
cherished in poetical forms recollections of old times.

Under such circumstances as have been noticed, the
more intelligent natives of South and West Britain might
well retain some traits of Roman culture, which they would
not — or rather could not — transmit to Teutonic invaders of
the land. Accordingly we have no sure evidence of any in-
terfusion of the two languages Cymraeg and First English,
or of any extensive transmission of Roman words through
the medium of the native tongue. Some Roman local names
were preserved — such as ' Colchester ' and ' Lincoln ' — and
some native names of places, hills, and rivers : — ' Daventry,'
' Lynn,' ' Craven ' (a rocky district), 'Penygant,' and 'Avon.*
Beside these local names, it seems probable that the settlers

10 ENaLISH aRAMMAR.

would borrow from the natives some words of frequent us&
— such as masters may learn from their servants, or slaves —
and that slaves might borrow some words from their masters*
vocabulary.

These are suppositions that must be further tested by
comparison of the two languages — Cymraeg and English — as
spoken in the oldest times of which we have any knowledge.
It is well known that the Cymraeg, as now spoken in Wales,
contains many words having stems like those found in Eng-
lish words. But this fact of likeness may be ascribed partly
to causes having no reference to any remote antiquity.

A likeness of stems found in Modern English and in tho
language still spoken in Wales, tells nothing of any mixture
of the two languages in the period of First English. In
every case where a likeness of stems is noticed, several ques-
tions must be well studied, before any theory can be founded
on the likeness. * Is that likeness more than may be as-
cribed to the common, remote origin of the two languages ? *
To take as examples the two words ' glyn ' and ' glen ' —
having the same meaning — our first questions must be :
' How old is the word ' glen ' in English ? ' and ' What is the
oldest date of glyn in Welsh ? ' Modern importations of words
from one tongue into the other have but slight interest,
since they cast no light on that obscure yet attractive part
of history, the English invasion of Britain. It may be added
that care should be taken, lest study should be expended
on likenesses that are merely accidental. As fragments of
various rocks are carried down by a stream, and are, by slow
degrees, worn, rounded, and made alike, so words coming
from various sources are, in the course of time, reduced to
likeness or identity of form. For example, ^ pert,'' in Modern
Welsh, is in form, as well as in use, like the English word
* pert,' which is the stem of the Latin word ' a-pert-us.*

With these mere hints respecting its interest and its
difficulty, we leave open the question — 'What proportionate
part of Cymraeg words does Old English contain ? ' [_8ee
§39.]

INTRODUCTION. 1 1

In the seventh century some knowledge of the Christian
Religion was spread among the English people. In the fol-
lowing hundred years the land was greatly disturbed by fac-
tions ; two of the more pacific rulers retired into convents ;
others made pilgrimages to Rome, and left their people with-
out government. Meanwhile, the general migratory move-
ment of the Teutonic peoples had not ended with the several
invasions of Britain in 450-600. Near the close of the eighth
century, bands of Northmen (called ' Danes ' ) made attacks
on the English coast. Their incursions were repeated in the
ninth century, and spread dismay over the land, until they
were for a time suppressed by Alfred.

Soon after his death, men coming from the shores of the
Baltic and the North Sea invaded England ; a series of battles
followed, and the tenth century closed with a massacre of
* the Danes.' It has been supposed that these circumstances
had a considerable effect in changing the language spoken
ia England ; but in the tenth century the abbot and bishop
JSlfric wrote ' in English ' (' that he might be understood
by the unlettered people ') a treatise ' On the Old and the
New Testament.'

In the early part of the next century the King of Den-
mark invaded England, and his son (Canute) ruled over the
land in 1018-36.

Still the language of the people remained English, and
in that language Canute's secular laws were written and
published; because they were intended to be understood
and to be held valid throughout all England — * ofer eall
Engla-land.'

After Canute's two sons had reigned in succession, the-
crown was given to Edward, the Confessor, who had been
educated in Normandy. He knew but little of the English
Language, and despised it, while he encouraged the use of
Norman-French at his Court, where Norman manners prevailed.
Edward's reign was followed by the defeat of the English at
the battle of Hastings.

1100-1558. — The Norman Conquest confirmed the innova-^

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

tion in language that had been prevalent at the English
Court during the reign of Edward, the Confessor. And the
same event gave greater freedom to the analytical tendency
that had, most probably, been active during the times of so-
called ' Danish ' invasions. The English Language, left mostly
to the care of the common people, lost, during the time 1100-
1250, many of the inflexions belonging to the Oldest English,
and changes in the order of words in sentences followed the
loss of inflexions.

Among the higher classes, English, for some time after the
Conquest, was treated with contempt. Among other classes it
was spoken with increasing neglect of its literary forms. The
process of reducing the language from the synthetic to the
analytic form, was accelerated by several results of the
Conquest. Erench minstrels lived in England during the
twelfth century, and Norman- French was established as the
language of the Court and of all the upper ranks of society.
Laws were promulgated in that language, and it was employed
in the universities, in courts of law, and in Parliamentary
records. The sons of gentlemen ' began their study of French
in the nursery,^ and afterwards were taught to translate Latin
into French.

Still the common people held fast their own language,
and, for a considerable space of time, it might be said truly
that two peoples, speaking two languages, were living apart
from each other in England. An old writer says : ' The
Normans could speak nothing but their own tongue, and
spoke French just as they did at home ; but the low people
held to their English.' He adds words to the efiect that
every man who would be esteemed respectable must study
French.

Then a long and quiet contest for the mastery took place
between the two languages, and English was victorious.

The loss of Normandy and the French wars of Edward III.
aided in leading to this result. It was late when victory was
formally proclaimed in high places. In 1349 boys ceased to
learn Latin by means of translation into French. In 1362

INTRODUCTION. IS

orders were issued by Parliament, that thenceforth pleadings
in the law courts should be conducted in English.

Meanwhile the language of the people had lost a great
part of its inflexions and of the syntactical laws belonging to
its early literature ; but its vocabulary was still rich in several
departments, and in others the aid afforded by Norman-French
was valuable.

The Englishman held fast his old names for all that he
knew of nature — such names as ' hill,' ' dale,' ' wood,' ' stream,'
' field,' and ' orchard ; ' the names of materials for every-day
use — ' loam,' ' earth,' ' sand,' ' stone,' ' wood ; ' the names of
many plants and trees — 'oak,' * grass,' 'alder,' 'beech,
'apple,' 'barley,' 'hawthorn,' and 'groundsel;' and many
names of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, reptiles, and insects. He
kept his own ready words for expressions of his sensations,
and transitions in nature were still described by such words
as ' blow,' ' shine,' ' flow,' ' slide,' ' glide,' ' rain,' and ' thunder.'
He had, moreover, a good store of old names for the furniture
of his house, and for implements used in farming, and not a
few belonging to navigation; such as 'ship,' 'boat,' 'raft,'
' oar,' ' sail,' ' mast,' ' helm,' ' rudder,' ' sound,' and ' sounding-
line.' From Norman-French he borrowed, in the course of
time, many terms belonging to architecture, armour, costume,
the chase, and warfare. The new tongue supplied, moreover,
some additions to the vocabulary of the larder. But English
was chiefly indebted to Norman-French for new words be-
longing to courts of law, or descriptive of feudal tenures, of
rank in society, and of offices held under Government.

Among the French words introduced soon after the Con-
quest several were originally Teutonic ; for example, nearly all
words beginning with ' gu ' were variations of Teutonic words
beginning with ' w;.'

In Grammar the old tongue maintained the mastery. We
may partly ascribe to the Conquest the subsequent preva-
lence of ' es ' as the suffix used to form the plurals of nouns.
But this 'es' represented 'as,' one of the plural suffixes in
the Oldest English. l,ts general use, as a substitute for other

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

forms, was one of tlie changes gradually made in the conrse
of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

These changes included also the following : — the article
lost both gender and case ; the several declensions of nouns
were reduced to one, and at last nouns lost all case-inflexions,
save the possessive. The verbal noun lost, in the nominative,
the suffix ' an,' and, in the dative, ' anne,' or ' enne ; ' the par-
ticipial suffix ' ende ' (or 'inde ') was changed into ' Inge ' and
*ing;' the prefix 'ge-' (or ' i-,' or 'y-'), used with verbs,
was more and more restrictively used as a prefix to the perfect
participle, and, at last, was used mostly as an archaism.

These and other changes, leading to a general disuse of
inflexions, were not made with equal speed in all the three
dialects of Old English : — the Northern, the Midland, and the
Southern. Of these the second was the most extensive, and,
in the sixteenth century, assumed the character of Standard
English.

Orm, one of the earliest writers in the Midland dialect,
was followed by Robert Manning (of Bourne, in Lincolnshire),
and, in the latter half of the fourteenth century, by Wtcliffb,
GowER, and Chaucer. One of the most important works of
the fourteenth century is ' The Vision of William, concerniag
Piers the Ploughman,' which was written by William Lang-
land, in the time 1362-99.

During the fifteenth century the course of transition in
the forms of the English Language was accelerated by the
introduction of printing. In the sixteenth century the lan-
guage of GowER was called obsolete, and a special glossary
was wanted for reading Chaucer.

1558. — Modern English is not divided from Old English
by any hard and precise line, but may be described as
assuming a definite form about the time when Elizabeth
began to reign. The poet Spenser may be classed with the
early writers of Modern English, for his archaic forms were
mostly chosen as harmonizing well with the tone of his
poetry. But it would be no great error if the period of
Modern English were defined so as to include Sir Thomas

INTRODUCTION. 15

More's writings, Ttnd ale's translation of the New Testcrni&nt,
and Ascham's ' Scholemaster.^

The most obvious distinctions of Kodern English are the
following : — the establishment of the latest Midland dialect as
Standard English ; greater regularity in Orthography, Syntax,
and Prosody ; the predominance of the new (or ' weak ')
conjugation of verbs ; the loss of many of the oldest English
words, and the introduction of numerous words derived
immediately from Latin.

The introduction of Latin compounds has gradually led to
the disuse of long compound words having English stems.
In the earliest times English writers freely made use of long
compound words belonging to several classes. After the
Norman Conquest, and when the two languages, English and
Old French, became more and more united, the convenience
and elegance of Roman compounds were appreciated, and
proportionately the formation of purely English compounds
for the expression of abstract and complex notions fell
gradually into disuse. But this change was by no means a
regular and continuous progression. Some writers were
mostly contented with the resources of their Old English
vocabulary ; others liked to display their knowledge of Old
(or Norman) French. Some were progressive, while others
were conservative, with respect to their choice of diction.
There existed, therefore (as an old author observes), such
diversities of speech, that Englishmen of the fourteenth cen-
tury might be described as divided rather than united by their
language. To the thirteenth century belong such words as
'adversity,' 'appurtenance,' 'continuance,' 'obedience,' and
' transmigration.' Some prose writings of the fourteenth cen-
tury have, when given with modern spelling, a considerablf)
likeness to our composite style of the present time. But to
the fourteenth century belong also such compounds as
*unworship* (= dishonour), ' agenstonden ^ (= stand against
= resist), and * again-hiyenge^ (= buying again = redemp-
tion) .

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries numerous

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Latin compounds were introduced. Though good English
prose was written bj several authors who lived during that
time, there was in others a preference of Latin compounds
that might be fairly called excessive. One of the lovers of
Old English, fearing that his own tongue might soon become
obsolete, wrote a tract for the purpose of showing that
English, unaided by Latin, could supply forms of expression
for all possible abstractor complex notions. His own practice
did not serve to recommend his theory ; for, instead of using
the word ' impervious,' he invented the cumbrous English
compound ' un- through- fare-som.'

The introduction of compound Latin words has not,,
however, superseded all classes of English compounds. Old
methods of forming compounds of one class are still retained
in Modern English. Such compounds as '■faint-hearted ' and
* high-minded ' belong to good English. The compound word
^ handbook^ is correct and, with respect to structure, corre-
sponds with the older word ' handiioorh,' which is not equi-
valent to ' handy work.' [See § 34.]

Of the advantages afforded by terms derived from Latin
and Greek, when properly used in the treatment of abstract
and scientific subjects, there can hardly exist a doubt. On
the other side, one unfavourable result of our composite
language, as spoken in the present time, is too important
to be left unnoticed. The Latin part of the language, as
abundantly used by lawyers, journalists, and politicians (and
by too many preachers), is not thoroughly understood by the
people. It is a mistake to suppose that any proportionately
great number of Englishmen know the precise meanings of
such words as 'abstract,' 'aggravate,' 'arbitrary,' 'ambi-
guity,' ' comprehensive,' ' concatenation,' ' impertinent,' ' in-
solent,' 'induction,' 'premisses,' and 'preposterous.'

One effect of a predominant Latinized diction, used by the
educated classes, is to place an intellectual barrier between
them and ' the other classes of society.' There are two reme-
dies for this evil : — Latin should not be used to say things
that can be better said in E^iglish, and the meanings of Latin

INTRODUCTION. 17

stems, etc., in all the derivatives and compounds generally
used, should be tanght in our schools, at least as carefully as
we teach English Spelling.

Modern English is the language generally spoken in
Great Britain, Ireland, the United States and British
America, Australia, Tasmania and South Africa, in several of
the West India Islands, and in some parts of New Zealand.
It is partly spoken in several of the islands of Polynesia, and
by some natives in certain districts of India.

Among the German people of Central Europe the study of
the English Language and its Literature has made great pro-
gress during the present century.

English and Roman words supply, as we have said, the
two main elements of our language ; but it contains also words
borrowed from the following languages : —

American-Indian.

Hindustani.

Arabic.

Icelandic (or Old Norse)

Chinese.

Italian.

Cymraeg (Old).

Malay.

Cymraeg (Modern, called Welsh).

Persian.

Dutch (spoken in Holland).

Portuguese.

French (Modern).

Spanish.

Greek (Ancient).

Turkish.

Hebrew.

Many names have been used in treating of English as
variously written in the several periods of its history. 'Anglo-
Saxon ' is a strange name for the First or Oldest English oi
the time 450-1100. The name ' Semi-Saxon ' has been given
to our language of the time 1050-1250. The name * Old Eng-
lish ' has been used, with a narrow meaning, to denote the
written language of the time 1250-1350, and writings of the
time 1350-1558 have been described as belonging to the period
of 'Middle English.' There is no good authority for these
subdivisions made in the long transitional period 1100-1558.
All that time may well be called the time of Second or Old
English, and may be generally described as a period of transi-
tion from synthetic to analytic forms.

In writing about English, too many special names have
C

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

been used, and they have served to make dim the trnth, that
in England, from the time of Alfred to the present, one lan-
guage has been always spoken hy the people.

Alfred, in the ninth century, Langland, in the fourteenth,
and BuNTAN, in the seventeenth — all wrote English.

In the following pages the abbreviation E.I. means First
English, or the Oldest EngHsh, of the time 450-1100. E.II.
means Second English, or Old EngHsh — including all the
transitional forms sometimes classified as belonging respec-
tively to the ' three periods' called ' Semi- Saxon,' ' Old Eng-
lish,' and * Middle English.' The abbreviation M.E. (for
Modern English) is used with reference to all forms accepted
as belonging to Standard EngHsh of the period extending
jfrom the Elizabethan age to the present time.

THE WRITTEN ALPHABET. 19

OETHOGKAPHY AND OETHOEPY.
1. THE WRITTEN ALPHABET.

Orthographt means correct writing, which includes
correct spelling. Orthoepy means correct pronunciation.

In Greek, drthbs = correct ; grapho = I write ; i'po = I speak.

In a work like the present, Orthography and Orthoepy mxist be briefly
noticed, as subjects too extensive for any concise treatment, and as defying
all attempts to reduce them to a series of rules.

The Modem English Alphabet, as written and printed,
contains only twenty-six letters : —

abed efghij

klmnopqrst

u V w X y z.

These twenty-six leti^ere are divided into two classes :
Vowels and Consonants.

The vowels a, e, i, o, u — as heard in the words ' ah,'
' met,' ' tin,' ' note,' ' rule ' — can be sounded without any
aid derived from other letters.

The letters w and y are called sem'i-vowels, but are
sometimes used as consonants.

When two vowels blend their sounds, and so produce
a third sound, this third sound is a diphthong. Ex, : —
ei (or ey) when sounded as in eye,
oi (or oy) „ „ boy,

exL (or ew) „ „ ewe,

ou (or ow) „ „ house.

These four are all the diphthongs found in English, There are no
diphthongs in the words pair, fear, weigh, sew, and glow. There are no
triphthongs in English. In the word beauty the sound of the three vowels
eau = the sound of the diphthong in new.

A Syllable is a sound produced by one impulse of
the voice. A vowel or a diphthong, either with or with-
out the aid of any other letter, can make a syllable.

Ex. : The first syllable in a-fiUd and in ashore is a.
0 2

20 ORTHOGRAPHT — ORTHOEPY.

A Consonant requires the aid of a vowel in order to
make a syllable.

*Pa' is a syllable; but p' represents merely a tight closing of the
lips.

The power of a letter must be distinguished from its naTne. Take the
word go. Let the sign A indicate the taking away of 0. Then g A can-
not be pronounced. "We may call it *jee.' That is its name. But that
does not express its power as used in the word go.

Consonants are divided into the following classes : —

Liquids : 1, m, n, r.

Labials: p, b, f, v, w.

Dentals : d, t, 1, n, j, s, z ; also the following letters, as somettTnes
iised: —

c, sounded as mface, or as in discern, or as in social; g, sounded as in
aem ; r, sounded as in rose.

G-TTTTUEALS : h, k, q, y ; also the following letters, as sometimes used : —

C, sounded as in call ; g, sounded as in go ; r, sounded as in work.

h is distinctly called the aspirate, and is otherwise called a weak
guttural.

Consonants have been thus classified with respect to the organs of
speech. In Latin, labium = lip ; dens = tooth ; guttur = throat. The four
letters 1, m, n, r, are called ' lAqnids' because their sounds readily unite
with others. The letters having whispering or hissing sounds (s, z, j, with
c and g, when used as dentals) are called ' Sibilants'

*2 THE SPOKEN ALPHABET.

The series of elementary sounds heard when English is
correctly spoken, contains twelve vowels, four diphthongs, jwe
labials, ten dentals, six gntturals, and/ot^r liquids. All these
forty-one sounds are heard when the following seventeen words
are correctly pronounced : — march, move, note, push, bud,
vain, fear, wall, size, treasure, joy, thing, than, cube, get,
house, yonder.

The preceding seventeen words contain the forty-one sounds
noticed in the following analysis : —

Four sounds of a are heard in the words * map,' ' ah ! '
*pale,' 'call.'

Two sounds of e are heard in ' met ' and ' feet.'
The sound of the vowel i is heard in ' tin..'
Three sounds of 0 are heard in 'not,' 'note,' ' move.'
Two sounds of U are heard in ' cup ' and ' pull.'
The sounds oifour dvphthongs are heard in the words ' eye,*
' boy,' ' ewe,' ' house.'

The sounds of the four liquid consonants are heard in the
words 'lane,' 'man,' 'name,' 'rose.'

THE SPOKEN ALPHABET.

The sounds of the five lahial consonants are heard, as
initials, in the words ' pin,' ' bee,' ' fan,' ' vain,' ' win.'

The sounds of two dentals, t and d, are heard, witliout
sibilation, in the words ' tin ' and ' din.'

The sounds of three sibilant dentals are heard as initials in
the words 'jest,' ' sin,' ' zeal.'

The shar'p sound of the asjpirated sibilant ch is heard in
' chest.' This sound is represented by the single letter c in
the Italian words ' violoncello ' and ' vermicelli.' The same
sound is represented by the single letter t in the word
' question.'

The sJiarj^ sound of the asjpirated sibilant sh is heard in
' shall.' This sound is represented by c in ' social ; ' by s in
* mansion ; ' by t in ' partial ; ' and by ch in ' charlatan.'

The flat sound of the aspirated sibilant zh is represented
by z in the word ' azure.' The same sound is represented by
« in ' usual,' ' measure,' ' pleasure,' and ' treasure.'

Two sounds of the aspirated dental th are heard in the
words ' thin ' and ' thine.' The former is called sharp and the
latter flat.

The sounds of five gutturals — g", k, y, n, and r — are heard
in the words ' go,' ' kind,' ' youth,' ' long,' ' work.' [n and r
have other sounds, and are therefore also classed with liquids.]

The sound of the aspirate (or weah guttural) h is heard in
*here!'

The results of the preceding analysis are concisely given
in the appended table.

In English the Spoken Alphabet contains : —

■ah,'
feet'

pale,' 'call'

move

note,
'pull'
' *boy,' 'ewe,' 'hour'

vain, * win

4 sounds of a in ' map,'

2 sounds of e in ' met,'
The sound of i in • tin '

3 sounds of 0 in ' not,'
2 sounds of U in * cup,'

4 diphthongs in ' eye,

4 liquids : 1, m, n, r .

5 labials in ' pin,' ' bee,* ' fan,'
2 dentals in ' tin ' and ' din ' ,

6 sibilant dentals in ' sin,' * zeal,' ' shall,' ' azure,'
2 lisping dental sounds : th in ' think ' and th in
5 gutturals in ' kind,' ' youth,' ' go,' * long,' ' work
The aspirate, h, op weak guttural .

Total

chest,
that

'jest

4
2
1
3
2
4
4
5
2
6
2
5
1

If the obscure sound of u in * cur ' must be counted, then
there are forty- two sounds in English.

Sharp and Flat Sounds. — Two consonants, one sharp, the

ORTHOGRAPHY — ORTHOEPY.

other flat, coming together, cannot be pronounced in one
syllable. Both must be sTiarjp or both must be flat. Hence
these three rules are deduced : —

a. — When a noun ends with ^flat consonant, the sound of
8, in the possessive case, is changed into the sound of z, as in
the example 'the stag's antlers.' The letter z is seldom
seen, but is often 'pronounced.

i. — The same change takes place in forming the plural of
a noun ending with a flat consonant. Ijx. : ' flags.' If we
pronounced the S sJiarj), we should say ''flax.''

c. — When a verb ends with a sharp consonant, the ending
ed, in the past, if contracted (as 'd), is pronounced as t.
Ex. : ' bless'd '= ' hlest ; ' ' cross'd '= ' crost.'

In the following table, the sharp sounds of consonants are placed in
contrast with the flat : —

Sharp,
p in pin
f „ fan

JjAHJ

JLL,S.

Flat,
b in bee
V „ vain

Dentaxs.

t „

tin

1
Slbilant Dentals.

}}

din

s „
sh „
ch „

sin

shall

chest

z
z

zeal
azure

jest

Lisping Sounds.

th „

think

GrUTTUEAIiS.

that

k „

kind

E.I. Vowels and Consonants.

Vowels. — Each of the short vowels — a, e, i, o, n, y — has a
corresponding long vowel.

Short.

Long.

as in * map '

as in 'ah'

'met; 'her'

'there'

' tin '

as ee in 'feet '

'not*

as in * note '

»>

'cwp; 'pull'

as 0 in * move '

y had, at first, a sound like n, but afterwards served as a
substitute for i.

THE WRITTEN ALPHABET. 23

Consonants. — The liquids — 1, m, n, r — are sounded as in
M.E.

Labials. — It seems probable that f, placed between vowels,
had in some words the sound of v in M.E. A half-consonant
sound of w (final) is supposed to have approached the sound
of V in M.E.

Dentals. — J? often represents sharp th (heard in ^ thin').
•8 often represents the flat th (heard in Hhine'). Of these
two forms for our modem th^ the first (])) serves mostly as an
initial; the second mostly as a mediate or a final letter.
Ex. : Jjencan (= ' to think ') ; mirS (= ' mirth '). But the two
letters are often used indifferently in E.I. MSS. A careless
way of writing J) gave rise to the use of ' 7/e ' as a substitute
for 'the.'

Gutturals. — c = k (as in ' hind ').

g, as an initial, is guttural, even before the vowels e and
i, as it still remains in * get ' and ' give.' When placed be-
tween any two of the vowels 8B, e, i, y, the guttui'al sound
of g is weakened, and approaches the sound of y in ' i/e.* A
weakened sound of g is in E.II. often represented by the
letter 5.

h initial is aspirated, as in * hand.'

eg in sound = guttural gg.

ch in E.II. takes the place of c in First English, and has
the dental sound of ch in ' church.'

In cs the C remains guttural.

cw = qu. Ex. : cwellan = ' to quell.'

sc = sk (as in ' askew ').

*3. FAULTS OF THE WRITTEN ALPHABET

There are only five vowels in the printed alphabet, but
the English Language has twelve distinct vowel-sounds.

More than twenty apparent diphthongs are used in writing
English, while the spoken language has only four true diph-
thongs.

The want of harmony between words written and words
spoken is as noticeable in the consonants as in the vowels.

Two consonants are often used to represent the sound of
one. Ex. : —

The sound of gh in laugh = f.

» S^ » ghost = g in go.

I, ph „ j>hial = f.

24 ORTHOGRAPHY — ORTHOEPT.

Two CONSONANTS are often placed together to represent a
pecnliar sound not expressed by a single letter. Ex. : —

ch, sounded as in chair.

sh ,, „ ship.

th „ „ thin.

th „ „ hither.

ng „ „ young.

X consists of two letters written as one, and is equivalent
to ks or to gz. In fox the x = ks. In exert the x = gz.

q has no sound distinct from that of k ; C, in many words,
is sounded as s, and in others as k. The soft (or dental)
sound of g in ' gem ' is the sound of j in 'jest.'

*4. SYLLABLES.

A syllable may consist of one vowel, or of one diphthong ;
or may be formed by connecting a vowel or a diphthong with
a consonant, or with several consonants. JSx. : ' a,' ' eye,'
^ am,' ' our,' ' land,' 'joint.'

In every case the syllable — either simple or complex in its
sound — is produced by one impulse of the voice.

The sounds of letters collected in a syllable are often
modified by their union. Ex. : s in ' flags ' is not pronounced
like s in ' stacks.' [See * 2, on ' Sharp and Flat Sounds.']

The following words are often used in writing of syllables
and accentuation : —

Monotone, one tone.

M6nosyllahle, a word of one syllable.

Dissyllable „ two syllables.

Trisyllable „ three ,,

Polysyllable . „ four or more syllables.

Penultimate, the second syllable, as counted from the end
of a word.

Antepenultimate, the third syllable, as counted from the
end of a word.

*5. ACCENT.

The stress laid on one syllable in a word, to give urdty to
the word, is called the Accent.

English contains, besides its store of original words, many
Roman words — some taken from Norman-French, and others
from Latin.

ACCENT. 25

OuE language, including these three classes of words, lias
also three modes of placing the accent.

These three modes maybe called the English, the Norman-
French, and the Latin.

All the three modes of placing the accent are still fairly represented in
the language, as pronounced in the nineteenth century ; but the English
mode prevails. By the use of accent unity is given to the elements of
which a word is made. Let the two words how and string be pronounced
in close succession, but in a sustained monotone. Then they cannot form
the word bowstring. It is the accent that makes the two words one.

In every word of two syllables, one syllable must be pro-
nounced with an accent. There must not be two accents in a
dissyllable.

The apparent exception in * farewell ! ' is hardly worth notice. True,
it is written as one word, but it is a sentence.

Another exception, ' A'-m6n,' is pronounced in a monotone.

The English principle of accentuation is to place the accent,
in all simple words, on the most important syllable, or the
stem, and this is generally the first syllable.

The following words may serve as a few examples taken from dis-
syllables : — father, mother, br6ther, sister, kindred, children, herdsman,
ploQghman, weaver, baker, miller, meadow, water, morning, sunset, wonder,
thunder, lightning, summer, winter, harvest, waggon, walking, riding, fish-
ing, hunting, fighting, weapon, rudder, saddle, friendship, wisdom, worship.
These are all words derived from the strong and graphic vocabulary used
in England before the Conquest.

In many words of two syllables the meaning may be
changed by moving the accent from the first to the second
syllable. Ex. : concert (noun) ; concert (verb).

Thus, a compound is a mixture, and when we mix materials we com-
pound them. A contrast implies a difference between two objects, and
when we place them, so as to show their difference, we contrast them.

The general tendency of the English language is to place
the accent on the first syllable of a dissyllable.

But many words derived from Norman-French, or from Latin, have the
accent on the final syllable. The following are a few examples : — address,
approve, austere, benign, delight, divine, excite, gazette, grotesque, impair,
incite, polite, possess, superb.

The general tendency of the English language is to place
the accent on the first syllable of a trisyllable, as in the
words : fellowship, follower, happiness, bdundary, capital,
dutiful, beautiful.

In Latin words of three syllables, when the penultimate

26 OETHOGKAPHY — ORTHOEPY.

syllable and the final are long, the penultimate has the acnte
accent, as in dixerunt.

When the pennltimate is short, and the final is long, the
acute accent falls upon the antepenultimate, as in dicerent.

In some words borrowed from Latin the English accentuation accords
with the Latin ; but in many other words the English departs from the
Latin accentuation, and places the accent on the first of three syllables.

The following words are examples of polysyllables having the accent on
the first syllable : — ceremony, literature, mercenary, parsimony, castigatory.

To facilitate pronunciation many polysyllables have a secondary accent,
which must be divided from the primary by the interposition of, at least,
one syllable.

In the following examples the primary accent is printed as if doubled : —
administrative, castigatory, heterogeneous, hypochondriacal, irascibility,
remiinerabflity.

Words ending in Ian, or ion, or lor, have the accent on the
preceding syllable ; as in barbarian, musician, physician, ad-
miration, coronation, opinion, inferior, superior. . . . The
same rule is followed in words ending in ious, eous, or lioiis.

Bx. : laborious, erroneous, impetuous.

Words having i-ty, or i-tude, or er-y, as the last two
syllables, have the accent on the antepemdtimate : — diversity,
beatitude, machinery.

*6. DIVISION OF SYLLABLES.

In writing the division of a word should be, as far as
possible, avoided.

Two vowels having distinct sounds may be separated : —
tri-al.

One consonant placed between two vowels may be con-
nected with the latter, if the former is long : — pa-per.

Two consonants placed between two vowels may be sepa-
rated : — man-ner.

Where two vowels are separated by three consonants, two
consonants may be connected with the latter vowel: —
doc-trine.

A compound word may be divided into its parts. Ex. : palm-tree.

The rule ' that prefixes and suffixes may be separated,' cannot be under-
stood until the student shall have acquired some knowledge of the structure
of words. The following are examples of this rule : — ' pre-fix,' ' post-pone,'

* mis-rule,' 'dark-ness,' ' improve-ment,' 'bond-age,' *refer-ence,' 'depart-
ure,' ' qual-ity,' ' na-tion,' ' fool-ish,' ' heark-en,' ' pun-ish,' ' depart-ed,'

• depart-ing.' [See % 41.]

CLASSIFICATION OP WOBDS. 2T

CLASSIFICATION OF WOKDS.

7. INTRODUCTION.

The second part of Grrammar is called Etymology,
and, when strictly defined, means discourse respecting
the original forms of words.

In Greek, logos = ' discourse ; ' etymon = * true origin of a word.*

Less strictly defined, Etymology is a part of Grammar
including three divisions.

Of these the first gives a Classification of Words
considered as parts of speech, or with respect to their
several uses in the construction of sentences. To the
second belongs the treatment of changes of form called
Inflexions. The third treats of the Derivation and the
Composition of Words.

In the present treatise all the sections 7-40 belong to
Etymology.

As words must be classified with respect to their several
uses in the construction of sentences, we must first know
what a sentence is.

Every Sentence like that to which the letter A is here
prefixed tells something.

A. — ' DayHght appears.'

Here ' daylight ' is a noun, or a name. A name of any-
thing that exists, or of which we have any notion, is in Gram-
mar called a noun. The word ' day ' is a noun, and ' light *
is a noun. When placed together, as they are in ' daylight,*
they make a compound word, which is also a noun.

The word ' appears ' is a verb, which tells something of
' daylight.' The verb is the word that tells, asserts, or declares
something.

A is a complete sentence, though it contains only two
words. It is a simple sentence, not because it is short, but
because it contains only one verb. The noun is called the suh-
jectj because it is the word of which the verb, chiefly and in
the first place, tells something.

Every sentence must contain a noun (or a word equiva-
lent to a noun), and must contain a verb. To each of these

28 CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

two parts of speecli a word may be added to define moro
closely the meaning.

B. — ' Clear daylight suddenly appears.'

We speak of ' daylight ' as of sfTinething having an inde-
pendent existence. The appearance must have a cause ; but
to this we do not refer when we simply use the word ' day-
light ' as a noun. We speak of it as having an independent
existence. But we do not, in the same way, employ the word

* clear.'

' Clear ' is an attributive word, belongs to ' daylight,' and
serves to define that noun.

Attributive words are called adjectives, because they are
placed beside nouns, and belong to nouns.

The word ' clear ' is an adjective, and ' bright ' is another
word of the same class.

' Suddenly ' defines the verb 'appears.' The verb tells that
an act takes place, and the word ' suddenly ' defines the man-
ner of the act. A word thus serving to define the act ex-
pressed by a verb is called an adverb.

An adverb may define an act with respect to jplace or to
time. But we may think of an act as extending to a certain
degree, as dependent on a cause, as done in a certain manner,
or as attended with certain circumstances. In any one of
these respects an adverb may define a verb. This is the chief
use of the adverb ; but it may serve also to define an adjective,
and one adverb may define another. Adverbs define the uses
of attributive words.

C. — ' Clear daylight bright-en-s the stream.'

The form in which the verb ' brightens ' is printed shows
that it contains an adjective — ' bright ' — and is therefore an
attributive word ; but it is more than that, for it tells or asserts
that an act takes place, and that the source or immediate
cause of the act is ' daylight.'

The verb ' brightens ' combines an attribute with an assertion,
and, in meaning, is equivalent to the two words 'makes bright.'

A verb that combines an attribute with an assertion is
called a concrete verb.

The abstract verb ' be ' is so called because it can assert
nothing more than existence. The words ' daylight is ' can tell
us nothing without the addition of an attributive word like

* clear.'

The importance of the distinction here made between the
the abstract verb be and all concrete verbs will be shown in
the ' Analysis of Sentences.'

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 29

A concrete verb is also called & predicative verb.

The two words ' appears ' and ' brightens' are both verbs ;
but in the two sentences A and C the verbs have, in one re-
spect, different uses. Each tells us that an act takes place ;
but the verb ' appears ' concludes a sentence and tells nothing
of any effect. The verb ' brightens ' may be used in the same
manner as when we say, ' The day brightens.' But it is not
so used in the sentence C, where the word ' stream ' follows.

The verb in C serves to express an act that passes on and
makes some change or transition in an object.

The word ' brightens ' is here called a transitive verb.
The verb ' appears ' is called intransitive.

The word ' the,' in its original meaning, is equivalent to-
' that,' and ' that ' may be used to define a noun, though not
with respect to any inherent quality.

The word ' stream ' — like the word ' daylight ' — is a noun ;
but these two nouns have distiuct uses in the sentence C.
The first noun denotes the source of the act by which a
change is made in the * stream,' denoted by the second noun.
The first noun is used as the Subject of the Sentence. The
second noun is used as the Object following a transitive verb.

D. — ' Clear daylight brightens the wind-ing stream.'

The form in which the adjective ' winding ' is here
printed shows that it belongs — with respect to its source — to
the verb ' wind ; but ' winding,' as used in D, is an attributive
word, serving to define the noun ' stream.'

Many words ending in ing are used sometimes as nouns
and sometimes as adjectives.

' Winding ' is here used as an adjective.

In numerous cases we have no single word by which we
can give to a noun the required definition. We therefore use
two or three words, of which one is called a preposition, and
two or three words placed together make a phrase.

E. — * Clear daylight brightens the winding stream in the
dale.*

The last three words in the sentence E make a phrase, and
' m ' is the preposition.

The word ' dale ' is a noun, and, with respect to its use, is
dependent on the preposition * in.' We therefore call ' dale,'
placed as we find it in E, a dependent noun. It serves neither
as the subject nor as the object, but as part of a prepositional
phrase J which is used to supply the want of a suitable adjective.
With respect to its formation, it is called prepositional, but>
with respect to its use, it is called an adjective phrase.

30 CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

Many prepositional phrases are used as adverbs.

F. — 'Daylight suddenly appears, and it brightens the
winding stream in the dale.'

The word it is a pronoun, and serves to prevent a repeti-
tion of the noun ' daylight.' ' A pronoun is a word used
instead of a noun.'

Two sentences — the first beginning with the noun ' day-
light,' the second with the pronoun — are connected by the
word ' and.' A word used to connect two sentences is called a
conjunction.

Both Nouns and Pronouns are called Substantive Words.
They denote things existing, or supposed to exist.

Adjectives and Adverbs are called Attributive Words.

The verb combines an attribute with an assertion. Ex. :
* bright-ens.'

The chief words are the Noun, the Pronoun, the Adjective,
and the Verb. The other parts of speech — the Adverb, the
Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection — are some-
times called Particles.

With the chief words — without the aid of Particles — we
can form sentences. C may serve as an example.

The elements of which sentences consist may be expanded
with respect to their forms. Several words may be used
instead of a noun, or instead of an adjective. But, with re-
spect to their several uses, the parts of a sentence — whatever
their forms may be — must serve as nouns, adjectives, verbs,
and adverbs.

In writing or speaking of separate words, or syllables, or
letters, they are treated as nouns.

Ex. : The word ' and ' serves to connect sentences, and
sometimes connects words.

ion serves as the ending of many nouns.

a is a vowel.

In the following notes on the parts of speech no attempt is
made to give complete definitions.

There are eight parts of speech : —

Noun.

Adverb.

Pronoun.

Preposition.

Adjective.

Conjunction.

Verb.

Interjection.

The first four are the Chief Words in Sentences ; the
others are called Particles.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 31

When English words are divided into mrie classes, the two
adjectives *an' (or *a') and *the' are placed apart from
other adjectives, and are called * Articles.'

A Noun is a word used as a name.

Any Noun may be made the Subject of a Sentence, No
Sentence can be made without the aid of a Noun or a
Pronoun.

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun.

Pronouns are too often and too carelessly used instead of
Nouns.

A word that in one place stands instead of a Noun may,
in another place, be used with a Noun, and is then called an
Adjective.

An Adjective is a word used to define a Noun.

An Adjective may be used to denote —

quaHty ; Ex. : ha/rd rocks
quantity „ much com
number „ jive bells

order ; Ex. : third class
identity „ this man
possession „ my watch

Some writers define Adjectives as words added to Nouns,
in order ' to denote their qualities.^

Other words that define Nouns — though not with respect
to their qualities — have been called ' Adjective- Pronouns,'
which (it is said) * are of a mixed nature.' One name may
be given to a word with respect to its origin, and another
with respect to its use in a sentence ; but the two names
should be kept apart. My — one of the words called ' Adjective-
Pronouns ' — is a form of mm, which in E.I. is a Pronoun ;
but in M.E. the word my is never ' used instead of a Noun.'
{See § 9.]

A Verb is a word that, when rightly placed in con-
nexion with a Noun or a Pronoun, tells something.

Every Concrete Verb (like 'brighten') tells something
that is distinct. The Abstract Verb be asserts nothing more
than existence.

An Adverb is a word used to define an act expressed
by a Verb.

This is the chief use of the Adverb; but it may also
serve to define an Adjective or an Adverb.

32 CLASSIFICATION OP WORDS.

A Preposition is a word placed before a Noun or a
Pronoun, to show its relation to some preceding word.

A Conjunction is a word that connects with each
other two sentences, or two phrases, or two words.

An Interjection is a word used to express some
emotion. Ex. : ' Oh ! '

Parsing shows the parts of speech of which a given
sentence consists.

In the simplest mode of Parsing, the words in a given
sentence are classified with respect to tlieir several uses. An
example is appended : —

Classify the words used in the following sentences : — ' The
clear light of sunrise shines over the ridge of the monntaia,
and brightens the ripphng streams in the valley. They glitter
in the radiance of the morning.'

Classification.

Nouns. — 'Light,' 'sunrise,' 'ridge,' 'mountain,' 'streams/
' valley,' ' radiance,' ' morning.' Peonoun. — ' They.'
Adjectives. — ' The,' ' clear,' ' rippling.'
Verbs. — ' Shines,' ' brightens,' ' glitter.'
Prepositions. — ' Of,' ' over,' ' in.'
Conjunction. — ' And.'

8. NOUNS.

The two main divisions of Nouns are called Concrete
and Abstract.

Concrete Nouns are names of real objects, including
persons, animals, plants, and things called inanimate.
Ex. : ' man,' ' sailor,' ' lion,' ' tree,' ' rose,' ' rock,' ' clay,'
' water.'

Abstract Nouns are names of general notions. Ex. i
'truth,' 'justice,' 'whiteness.'

Old English Nouns include a large number of concrete
nouns, and as almost all the pronouns and the particles in
our language and numerous adjectives and verbs belong to
Old Enghsh, we can write and speak of realities, or the
objects of sense, and generally of any common affairs of
Hfe, without using any words borrowed from Latin. The
following quotation, which does not contain one word bor-

NOUNS. 33

rowed from Latin or from Frencli, may be given as an ex-
ample : — ' The Englishman's herds, still grazing in his fields
and meadows, gave him milk and bntter, meat and wool ; the
herdsman watched them in the spring and summer; the
ploughman drew his furrows; the reaper plied his scythe,
piled up sheaves, and hauled his wheat, oats, and rye to the
bam.'

Abstract Nouns in Old English were sometimes formed by
the aid of the final syllables (or suffixes) dom, had, nes,
scipe, and others, of which modern forms are still used — ' dom,*
'hood,' 'ness,' 'ship,' etc. But in general our Old English
nouns are concrete, or serve as names of real objects, and
our more convenient forms of abstract nouns are borrowed
from Latin. [/See § 40.]

Concrete Nouns belong respectively to the following
classes : —

Proper Names, or names appropriated to individuals,
either persons or places : — ' Harold,' ' Hastings.'

Class Names, or names common to many objects
belonging to one kind : — ' rock,' ' tree,' ' river,' ' man.'

Collective Names, OY names of several or many objects,
collected and viewed as a whole : — ' crowd,' ' flock,'
' herd,' ' army.'

Names of Materials, or substances of which things
are made : — ' gold,' ' iron,' ' silver,' wool.'

Abstract Nouns belong respectively to the following
classes : —

Names of Qualities, viewed apart from substances
and existing only as notions : — ' youth,' ' beauty,' ' kind-
ness.'

Names of States, or modes of existence, and names of
periods : — ' rest,' ' life-time.'

Names of Actions, viewed apart from agents : —
' living,' ' growing,' ' growth.'

Verbal Nouns. — Many Verbal Nouns, or names of actions,
have in M.E. the ending ing, which takes the place of ende
and inde, or (in one dialect) ande, in E.I. and E.II. But
many words having the ending ing are commonly used as
adjectives. Nouns of this form are called Verbal Nouns,
and adjectives having the same form are called Verbal
Adjectives. Of the nouns ending in ing some represent

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

E.I. nouns formed from verbs, and having the ending ung
or ing. Whatever its origin may be, a M.E. word having the
ending ing is classified with respect to its uses in the con-
struction of sentences, and is called respectively a noun or an
adjective.

The following sentences contain examples of verbal
nouns : — ' Walking is good exercise.' ' He teaches writing.'

* You have won the prize for drawing.'

' To write ' is a verbal noun. Ex. : ' He is learning to
write.'

Various Uses of one Word. — A word mostly used as
a noun may, without any change of form, be transferred to
another class.

The transfer may be permanent, or may be occasional.
Thus the noun ceap (= a bargain) is obsolete, and 'cheap'
is an adjective ; but such words as ' gold ' and ' silver ' may
be employed, sometimes as nouns, sometimes as adjectives.

Many words used as nouns are also used as verbs. Ex. :

* dawn,' ' hand,' ' land,' ' mind,' ' sail,' ' sound.'

A word mostly serving as a noun takes sometimes the
place of an adverb. Ex. : ' He went home.'

An abstract noun may be made concrete. Ex. : ' This is
a fine building ' (i.e. a house).

A proper noun may be made common. Ex. : ' He is not
•a Milton ' (i.e. a poet like Milton).

A common noun may become a proper noun. Ex. : ' The
Prince ' (of Wales being understood).

9. PRONOUNS.

* Pronouns are words of which the original forms belong
to E.I.

In some examples these forms have been changed more or
less, as the following table may show. Some variations of
forms belonging to E.II. are placed in curves.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E

ic (ich, I)

]>U (|)0U)

thou

J>e

}>e

thee

50 (ye, yee)

PRONOUNS.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

eow

eow (ow, yon)

you

lie

he (a)

hine

hine (him)

him

heo

heo (scho, she)

she

hire

hire (hir) ■

her

hit

hit (hyt)

pa (pei, thaie)

they .

min

min (mine)

rmne {my)

ure

ure (oure)

ov/r

)>iii

pin (pine)

thine {thy)

eower

euwer (yonre)

your

fara

pare (peire)

their

]>e pat)
hwa

pe (pat)

the, that

wha (who)

who

hwone

hwon (wham, whom)

whom

sum

sum (som)

some

feawe

feawe (fewe)

few

senig

senij (ani, oni)

any

aelc

ilk (elch, aech)

each

8Bg't$er

seit^er (ather, either)

either

nat5er

nather (neither)

neither

The general likeness of pronominal forms in E.I. and
M.E. is made evident by the table. But while the words re-
main, their uses have, in many instances, been changed. The
words 'mine' and 'thine' are still used as pronouns {ov instead
of nouns), but only to denote possession. The words ' like
thine ^ now mean 'like something belonging to thee,' as when
we say 'kindness like thine.^ But in E.I. the words pm
gelica = ' like thee,' or ' like thyself.'

In M.E. the words 'my,' 'thy,' 'her,' 'our,' and 'their'
are always used with nouns (or as adjectives), and for possessive
pronouns the words ' mine,' ' hers,' ' ours,' and ' theirs ' are
substituted.

In M.E. * who ' is used in asking questions ; but it is also
used as a relative pronoun, and often takes the place of the
older word pe (= ' that '), which in E.I. served as a demon-
strative pronoun, and also to supply the want of a distinct
relative form.

Variations of uses in Pronouns have arisen from the
vague nature of the words so named. While they are used
as substitutes for nouns, they serve also to some extent to
define nouns, though not with respect to quality. Pronouns,
like nouns, denote persons and things. But words used as

D 2

36 CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

Prononns (such as ' this ' and ' that ') are to some extent
like adjectives, and serve to define or point out nouns.

The position of some Pronouns, thus placed between twa
other parts of speech, has given rise to the name ' Adjective-
Peonouns,' which has been employed to indicate, at once, the
original forms and the modern uses of such words as 'my,*
' your,' and ' their.'

Some Pronouns have become more and more like nouns ;
others have been virtually transferred to the class of adjectives.
The general result of the process is that several words —
such as 'my,' 'thy,' 'her,' 'our,' 'your,' and 'their' — may
still be called pronouns,' if we are speaking of their origin
and their forms. But the same words, when considered with
reference to their uses, in the construction of sentences, must
be called Adjectives ; for they are always connected with
nouns, and serve to make more definite the meanings of
nouns. In the words 'your book,' ^your' tells nothing of
any quality belonging to the book, but serves, nevertheless,
to define or limit the meaning of the word ' book.' ' Your '
is, with respect to origin, a pronoun, but in M.E. is always
used as an adjective.

Pronouns are divided into six classes : —

Personal Pronouns are used instead of names of
persons. Ex. : ' he,' ' you,' ' they.'

Possessive Pronouns are used instead of names of
owners. Ex. : ' ours,' ' yours,' ' theirs.'

Demonstrative Pronouns point out persons, etc. Ex. :
'this,' 'that,' 'these,' 'those.'

Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking questions.
Ex.'. 'who? "which? "what?'

Relative Pronouns define preceding nouns and con-
nect sentences. Ex. : ' who,' ' which,' ' that.'

Indefinite Pronouns are more correctly described as
comparatively indefinite. Nearly all the words of this
class are used sometimes instead of nouns and sometimes
with nouns following. Ex. : ' some,' ' few,' ' each,' ' either,'
' neither.'

Personal Pronouns have forms appropriate to the
First Person — the person who is speaking of himself
alone, or of himself as one of two or more : — ' I,' ' me/
' we ' ' us,' ' myself,' ' ourselves.'

PRONOUNS. 37

The forms for the Second Person are appropriate to
the person or the persons spoken to : — ' thou,' ' thee,' ' ye,'
' you,' ' thyself,' ' yourselves.'

The forms for the Third Person are respectively used
in speaking of a person, or of two or more persons, or in
speaking of any object, or of several objects : — ' he,' ' him,'
' she," her," it,' 'they,' 'them,' 'himself,' 'herself,' 'it-
self,' ' themselves.'

It may for a moment seem incorrect to place * it ' with
personal pronouns ; but 'ifc' is often nsed to denote persons.
Ex. : ' It is J.' The nses of this pronoun ('^^) are extensive,
as will be shown in Syntax. ' It ' often denotes an unnamed
agent, or agency, as when we say ' It rains,' or ' It was
freezing last night.' In many sentences the pronoun ' it '
serves to introduce a noun. Ex. : ' It is the rain that makes
the grass grow.'

«
The compound personal pronouns — 'myself,' ' thyself,'

* himself — are formed by adding ' se^/' (an adjective in
E.I.) to a pronoun, in order to give more force to its
meaning, or to denote that the act expressed by a verb
takes effect on the agent. Ex. : ' He himself stepped
forward, and he defended himself.'

The word ^ self is frequently and correctly used as a
noun. Ex. : ' To thine own self be true ! ' (Shakespeaee.)

Possessive Pronouns have some forms (a) always
used instead of nouns, and others (h) sometimes used in-
stead of nouns.

Ex, (a) : ' hers,' ' ours,' ' yours,' ' theirs,' are used
instead of nouns.

Ex. (6) : ' mine,' ' thine,' his,' are sometimes used
instead of nouns, and are sometimes used with nouns.

The words ' my,' ' thy,' ' her,' ' our,' ' your,' ' their,'
are all modem forms of E.I. pronouns, but are now
always used with nouns. Any one of these words may
be followed by the adjective ' own,^ which gives emphasis
to the word denoting possession. The word ' its ' (which
did not exist in E.I.) is here classified with the forms

* my,' ' thy,' ' our,' etc.

38 CLASSIFICATION OP WORDS.

Demonstrative Pronouns have the forms ' this,' ' that,'
'these,' 'those,' which are used sometimes with nouns and
sometimes instead of nouns.

' Yon ' and ' yonder ' are used as adjectives (mostly by-
writers of verse). 'Yonder' may be used as an adverb.
Tn E.I. the form geond (= 'there' or 'throngh') served as
an adverb, and as a preposition ; but in E.II. the forms ' yone '
and ' yond ' are employed as adjectives, as ' yon ' and
' yonder ' are still used by modern authors, but mostly in
verse.

Interrogative Pronouns have forms used instead of
nouns, and others that may be used with nouns.
Ex. (a) : ' who ? ' ' whom ? ' ' whoever ? '
Ex. (b) ; ' whose ? ' ' which ? ' ' what ? '

' Whether^ (= which of two) is obsolete as an adjeetivd, but^-serves as a
pronoun, [See Matth. xxi. 31 ; xxiii, 19, and Acts i. 24.]

Eelative Pronouns have the forms ' who,' ' whose,'
'whom,' 'which,' 'that,' 'what.' The words 'as' and
' but ' are sometimes used with a relative meaning.

\Who.' The extensive use of this relative pronoun is
modern. The oldest relative pronoun is ' that.^ In M.E.
' who ' refers to persons ; ' which ' to animals and inanimate
objects ; ' that ' to both personal and impersonal names. These
distinct uses are modem.

' Whose,' the possessive form of ' who,' is followed by a
noun ; but is found without a noun following in the Bible.
(RoTTh. ix. 5.)

The rule, that ' whose ' must refer to persons, is not old,
and is not observed in poetry.

Ex. : ' groves, whose shadows.' (Shakespeare.)

' WJiich ' in E.II. is freely employed with reference to
persons, and is often preceded by the adjective ' the.'

' That,' serving often as a relative pronoun, has not yet
lost its original demonstrative meaning, but has often a defini-
tive and restrictive use, by which it is made distinct from
^who ' and from ' which.'

Ex. (a) : ' Here comes the man that will tell us the
truth.'

Ex. (6) : ' Here comes a native, who may give us aid.'

Ex. (c) : ' Here comes a native, and he may give us aid.'

In any sentence where the words ' and he ' may without

ADJECTIVES. 39

loss of meaning take the place of the relative pronoun, the
definitive use of ' that ' is not required.

E.I. had no distinct forms for relative pronouns. The
want was supplied in four ways : — 1 . By using with a relative
meaning the demonstrative pronoun se, seo, fat (= 'that').
2. By using alone the pronoun fe (= *that'). 3. By placing
}>e before a personal pronoun. 4. By placing J>e after a de-
monstrative pronoun.

' ^4s,' when it follows the word ' sucli,^ may have the use
of a relative pronoun. JSx. : ' such reading as was never read.'
(Pope.)

' But ' is sometimes used as in meaning equivalent to
'that' . . . 'not'

Ex. : ' There's not the smallest orb

But, in his motion, like an angel sings,' — SifAKESPEARE.

Here the construction ' but . . . sings ' = ' that does
not sing.'

' What ' is, in meaning, equivalent to ' that which.'

Indefinite Pronouns. — The following words, called ' in-
definite pronouns,' are used sometimes instead of nouns,
and sometimes with nouns following. In the latter case,
these words should be called adjectives.

' AH,' ' another,' ' any,' ' each,' ' either,' ' neither,*
' enough,' ' few,' ' many,' ' one,' ' several,' ' some,' ' such.'

' Other is mostly used as an adjective ; but * others ' may
take the place of a noun.

' Each other ' and ' one another ' are the forms placed after
verbs intended to denote reciprocal acts, or those acts in which
the agent and the object change places.

The following words, sometimes classed with 'inde-
finite pronouns,' are used as nouns, or instead of nouns : —
'aught' (or 'ought'), 'naught' (or 'nought'), 'none,'
' nobody,' ' nothing.'

10. ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives are words used to define Nouns with respect
to quality, quantity, number, order, identity, and posses-
sion.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

Some Adjectives are comparatively Indefinite. Ex. :
' several persons,' ' any person.'

The adjective ^several' is not definite like tlie numeral
adjective ^Jive.^

Qualities ascribed to natural objects are denoted by
such adjectives as 'hard,' 'hot,' 'cold,' 'bright,' ' swift.'

Qualities ascribed to persons are denoted by such
adjectives as 'generous,' 'truthful,' 'faithful.'

One adjective may serve to denote either a natural or a
moral quality. Ex. : ' hard,' ' cold,' ' firm,' ' steady,' ' good,'
*bad.'

Quantity, without any exact definition, is denoted by
such adjectives as ' much,' 'little,' ' more,' 'less.'

Numbers are denoted by the adjectives called Numeral,
which may be divided into three classes : Cardinal
Numerals, Ordinal Numerals, and Multiple Numerals.

Cardinal Numerals show how many objects are
named. Ex. : ' two roses,' 'fi,ve bells,' ' twenty men.'

* In the appended table many variations of form found in
E.II. are omitted.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

an, on, one

one

twegen (twa)

twein, twei, two

two (' twain '
is obsolete)

feower

))reo, J)re

three

fower, four

four

fif

fif, five

five

six

syxe, sexe

six

seofon

seoven, seven

seven

eahta

ehte, aght

eight

Tiigon

nihen, niene

nine

10.

ten

tene, ten

ten

11.

endlif

elleve, ellevene

eleven

12.

twelf

twelf, tweolve

twelve

13.

freotyne

))rettene

thirteen

14.

feowertyne

fourtene

fourteen

15.

fift^ne

fiffcene

fifteen

16.

sixtyne

sextene

sixteen

17.

seofontj-ne

seoventene

seventeen

18.

eahtat^ne

ahtene

eighteen

ADJECTIYES.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

19.

nigont^e

nejentene

mneteen

20.

twentig

twenti

twenty

30.

nitig

thretty

thirty

40.

feowertig

fowerti

forty

50.

fiftig

fifti

60.

sixtig

sixti

sixty

70.

seofontig

seoventi

seventy

80.

eahtatig

eisti

eighty

90.

nigontig

ninti

ninety

The words ' score,' ' hundred,' ' thousand,' are nouns ;
* million,' ' billion,' ' trillion,' etc., are nouns borrowed from
French.

The noun ' score ' takes s to make a plural form, when no
numeral precedes ; but, when following a numeral, ' score '
requires no change.

Ux. : ' You may count them hy scores.' ' Threescore years.'

Ordinal Numerals serve to show the order of parts
belonging to a series. Ex, : ' The fifth chapter in the
second book.'

English ordinal forms are mostly derived from the cardinal
by adding th, pronounced as in * thin.' ' Second ' is a word
borrowed from French.

In giving names to fractions (in arithmetic) ordinal
numerals serve as nouns. JSx. : ' Two thirds of three fourths
= one half.'

*In the appended table some variations found in E.II. are
omitted.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

fyrsta

firste

first

ot5er

ofer, seconde

second

}7ridda

])irde

third

feorda

fowrthe

fourth

fifta

fifte

fifth

sixta

sixte

sixth

seof6j5a

sevenfe (etc.)

seventh

eahtot^a

eghte, &itpe

eighth

nigo^a

ninj)e (etc.)

ninth

10.

teo8a

teon|)e, tenj^e

tenth

11.

endlyfta

endlefte, eleventhe

eleventh

12.

twelfta

tweolfte, twelfthe

twelfth

13.

]?re6tte6Sa

prettende (etc.)

thirteenth

CLASSIFICATION OF WOKDS.

E.I.

14.

feowerteoSa

15.

fifteoSa

16.

sixteoSa

17.

seofonte6«a

18.

eahtateoSa

19.

nigonteotSa

20.

twentugoSa

30.

JjrittigoSa

E.II.

M.E.

fourte]?e (etc.)

fourteenth

fifte|)e (etc.)

fifteenth

sixte|7e (etc.)

sixteenth

seventife

seventeenth

eightetethe

eighteenth

iieo5enteo]?e

nineteenth

twentij^e

twentieth

))ritti|7e

thirtieth

A Multiple Numeral serves to define a complex
whole, with respect to the number of its parts. (Ex. I.)

A Multiple Numeral may serre as an adverb to denote a
rate of increase. (Ex. II.)

Ex. (1.) : ' A threefold cord.' (II.); ' Other seeds brought
forth fruit . . . some sixty fold, some thirtyfold.'

A Multiple Numeral is formed by adding the syllable
fold to an English stem, or ble or pie to a Latin stem.
Ex. : 'twofold,' 'threefold,' 'double,' 'triple' (or 'treble'),
' fourfold,' ' quadruple.'

Identity is denoted by the demonstrative adjectives,
' this,' ' that,' ' these,' 'those,' and ' the.'

* This ' and ' that,' with their plural forms * these ' and
' those,' are often used to define nouns, and are also used as
Pronouns, or instead of nouns. The so-called ' definite article '
* the ' often serves as a weakened expression for * that,' and
when followed by the word ' same ' is clearly demonstrative.
The demonstrative adjectives ' yon ' and ' yonder ' are mostly
used in poetry.

The form of the ' definite article ' belongs to J?e, which in
E.I. served as a substitute for the demonstrative pronoun se.
The neuter form }>at was in E.II. used as a demonstrative
adjective.

Possession is denoted by the words ' my,' ' thy,' ' her,'
' its,' ' our,' ' your,' ' their,' which are always used with
nouns, and by ' mine,' ' thine,' and ' his,' which may be
used either as adjectives or as pronouns.

The adjective ' own ' following a possessive adjective
serves to strengthen its meaning.

Indefinite Adjectives. — Of the following words all —

ADJECTIVES. 43.

except two — may be used as pronouns: — 'all,' 'cm' (or
' a '), ' another,' ' any,' ' each,' ' either,' ' neither,' ' enough,'
' every ^^ ' few,' ' many,' ' several,' ' some,' ' such.'

The two words not used as pronouns are ' ati ' (or ' a ')
and ' every ^

* An ' (called * the indefinite article') is changed to 'a'
before a consonant, and before words apparently beginning
with the vowels o and w, but having the initial consonant
sounds of w and y. Ex. : ' a book,' ' a house,' * such a one,*
' a union.'

* An ' — identical with the E.I. numeral an (= one) — was
in E.II. sometimes reduced to the form o, while retaining its
original meaning. (Ex. I.)

In E.II. the word ' everich ' (* every,' etc.} was sometimes
used as a pronoun. (Ex. II.) In M.E. ' every ' is always
"used as an adjective. (Ex. III.)

Ex. 1. 'Of o wH' (= of one will). * Of o body' (= of
one body).

Ex. II. 'That every schuld an hundred knightes bring.'
(Chaucer.)

Ex. III. ' Every tree is refreshed by the rain.'

Verbal Adjectives. — Forms of verbs called Participles,
having the endings ing, ed, en, etc., are often used as
Adjectives, and are sometimes placed before nouns. Ex. :
' a persevering man,' ' furnished rooms,' ' well-bound
volumes,' ' a broken vow,' ' a forgotten promise.'

It is not said that any participle may be treated as an
adjective and placed before a noun. In placing participles,
respect must be paid to usage. We say ' the parcel was
brought ; ' ' the news was heard and believed.' But these par-
ticiples (printed in Italic) are seldom or never placed before
nouns.

It must not be supposed that all adjectives ending in ed
are verbal forms. In some compound words, nouns are con-
verted into adjectives by the addition of the ending ed. Ex. :

* high-minded,' ' open-hearted.'

Various Uses. — Some words that serve as adjectives
may, without any change of form, serve also as nouns.
Ex. : ' the English,' ' the Chinese,' ' the rich,' ' the poor,''

* the village green.'

44 CLASSIFICATION OF WOKDS.

Some adjectives are, by adding s, changed to nouns in
the plural number. Ex. : ' greens,' ' natives,' ' mortals.'

Some words often serving as adjectives serve also as
verbs. Ex, : ' level,' open,' ' warm.'

Some words are, without change of form, employed
either as adjectives or as adverbs. Ex. : ' late,' ' long,'
' still.'

11. VERBS.

A Verb has already been defined as a word that, when
rightly placed with a noun or pronoun, can tell, assert, or
declare something.

This general definition has no reference to the abstract
verb be. That must be considered apart from all other verbs,
which are sometimes called ' concrete,' because they can
assert something more than ' being ' or ' existence.' [/See
§46.]

An Intransitive Verb denotes an act that does not
pass on from the agent (or the cause), so as to affect an
object. Ex. : ' The tree falls.^ ' The man calls loudly.'
^ The boy sleeps.''

A Transitive Verb denotes a transition of force, which
may be real or supposed. Ex. : ' He felled the tree.'
' He spoke the word.'

A Passive Verb denotes that the subject of which we
speak receives or endures the effect of an act. Ex. : ' The
tree was felled.'

An Impersonal Verb ascribes an act to some unknown
or unnamed agent. Ex. : ' It rains.'

A Verb is used reflexively when it is placed between
a subject and an object, both denoting the same person
or thing. Ex. : ' He defended himself.'

A Verb denoting reciprocal action — in which subject
and object are supposed to change places — is followed by
the words ' each other,' or by ' one another.' Ex. : ' They
help each other.'

Various Uses. — A Verb usually called Intransitive, or
Transitive, or Passive, may, by exceptional use, be trans-
ferred from one class to another.

VERBS. 4:5r

A Yerb usually iNTRANsrnvE may be followed by an
object.

Ex.: *We have dreamed a dream.' (Gen. xl. 8.) 'Let
me die the death of the righteous.' (Numbers xxiii. 10.)
' Lighten mine eyes, lest I sleep the sleep of death.' (Ps. xiii. 3.)

In these examples the objects are called cognate, because
they are respectively like the predicates contained in the
verbs.

But objects not * cogriate ' often follow verbs called ' In-
transitive. Bx. : * I could weep away the life of care that I
have borne.' It is said of a ship, ' She walks the waters ; ' of
another, ' She sails the ocean ; ' and of another, ' She smms
the sea.' Examples of this kind are numerous.

The Intransitive is used with a reflective meaning. Ex. :
' Flee thee away ! ' ' Fare thee well ! '

The Intransitive is used with the meaning of the Passive.

Ex. : ' This ivorj feels smooth.' ' The table moves.' Fol-
lowed by a preposition, the Intransitive takes the form as well
as the meaning of the Passive. Ex. : * His recovery is not
despaired of.'

A Verb is called Impersonal when the action is ascribed
to an unknown or unnamed agent ; but the verb so called
may be connected with a personal subject.

Ex. : ' It rains.' ' Upon the wicked He shall rain snares,*^
etc.

A verb called Transitive may be used without any re-
ference to an object.

Ex. : ' Now I see.' (John ix. 25.)

The verb * see ' is used intransitively seven times in tho
chapter here referred to.

Numerous examples like the following are found in good
authors : — ' He stole a>wa.j.' ' He Iceeps aloof.' ' Streams v>rdt&
and form a river,'

The Passive Voice is sometimes used with a preposition,
where we might expect to find a transitive verb. Ex. : ' My
father was possessed of a small living in the Church.'
(Goldsmith.)

The Transitive is often used with a Passive meaning. Ex. :
' Here is a house to let' ' The book is hard to read.' * He
published a tract, but it did not sell.' ' This paragraph reads
badly.' ' There is much to admire in this picture.'

Examples of this class are numerous. Such forms of ex-
pression are as old as the English language.

PARTICLES.

*12. ADVERBS.— FORMS.

The original forms of Particles — including adverbs,
prepositions, and conjunctions — are mostly found in E.I.

* Adverbs have been formed from cases of adjectives and
nouns, from the pronouns he (= he) J>e (= that) and hwa?
{= who ?), and by means of composition.

The following are Adverbs of which the formation in E.I.
is not clearly known : —

E.I.

eft
feor

git

neah

nii

oft

wel

In E.I. many adverbs are formed by adding e, either to the
«tem of a simple adjective, or to a compound ending with itc
(= like). The ending lice, after passing through the forms
liche, lick, lye, ly, in E.II., is permanently changed to ly in
M.E., and gives to numerous adjectives, of Roman and of
English origin, an adverbial form.

Some words ending in ly are stiU used as adjectives — for
example, 'goodly,' 'lovely,' and 'manly' — and one form
serves often (especially in poetry) as an adjective and as an
adverb. In M.E. the adverbial form has sometimes a distinct
or special use, as the appended table shows. The special uses
of some words ending in ly are indicated by Italic type.

The sign — shows that a distinct adverbial form either does
not exist or is not preferred.

E.II.

M.E.

eft

aft (a nautical word)

fer

far

yet

nygh

nigh

now

oft

often

wel (etc.)

well

Adjective.

even

fain (' was fain ')

fast

hard

Adverb.

j close ('came close')

even (' he even "I
said,' etc.) j
fain (= gladly)
fast
hard (' rode hard ')

Distinct Adverb.

{' closely approach'
ing'

' evenly placed '

hardly

ADVERBS.

Adjective,
high

last <

late
short

still (= quiet) <

straight ('is the

gate')
fair
light
lond
plain
scarce
sore
sweet

Adverb.
high ( ' soars high ' )
last (' he came 1

last ') /

late ('came late')
short ('fell short')
still ('you stiin
trust,' etc.) J
straight (' went 1

straight ') j
fair
light
loud
plain
scarce
sore
sweet

Distinct Adverb,
highly

lastly (=' to con-
clude ')
' was lately here '
shortly (= soon)

straightly ( = strictly)

fairly

lightly

loudly

plainly

scarcely

sorely

sweetly

For all the words following ' straight,'' the use of a distinct
adverbial form seems preferable, though no special meaning
belongs to the ending ly.

The suffix ly makes adverbs of ordinal adjectives, and ce
makes adverbs of the numerals one, twoy three.

Ex.: 'firstly,' 'thirdly,' 'once,' 'twice,' 'thrice.'

Of several adverbs the original forms are cases of nouns in
E.I. But hardly a trace of the genitive case remains in M.E.,
except, perhaps, in the word ' needs,' and in the compounds
' sideways,' ' lengthways,' and ' now-a-days.'

The following are examples of adverbs that were originally
accusative cases of nouns in E.I. : — 'aye ' (= ever), ' cheap '
(from ceap, a bargain), ' north,' ' south,' ' east,' ' west,' ' back,*
* home.'

Pronominal Adverbs, of which several serve to define
actions with respect to place and time, have been formed from
the E.I. pronouns : — he (= he), the demonstrative Ipe (Fern.
seo, Neut. |>8et), and the interrogative hwa ? (= who ?)

The following belong to he : —

M.E.

E.I.

E.II.

hfer

her (here)

here

hider

hither

heonan

heonne (henne)

hence

The following belong to pe (= that) : —

PARTICLES.

E.I.

far

J)ider

]7aiian

Jeanne

}>us

E.II.

J)ar (pere)

))ider

jjanne

J?anne (fenne)

J)11S

The following belong to hwa : —

E.II.
hwar (hwer)
hwider (whedir)
whanne (whenne)
hwenne (etc.)
why ?
how ?

E.I.
hwar
hwider
hwanan
hwanne
hwt?
hil?

M.E.

there

thhther

thence

then (and than")

M.E.

where
whether
whence
when
why ?
how T

Compound Adverbs. — Of these many now obsolete are
found in E.II. Of those still employed some are formed by
connecting a noun with one of the prepositions in. the ap-
pended list.

Compound Adverbs,
ahed, abreast, away ; abaft,

aboard, ashore, astern
betimes
erewhile (inverted in whiles

ere)
forsooth
outdoors
overboard
perhaps
to-night, to-day

Prepositions.

a (for on)

be (for by)

ere

for

out

over

per (Latin)

Other compound adverbs are formed by connecting an
adjective with a, which in composition may represent either
on or of, and serves as the prefix placed before the numeral
an (= one) in anon. In along a takes the place of and in
andlong (a preposition).

Other compound adverbs are formed by connecting pro-
nominal adverbs with prepositions, as in the examples
'herein,' 'hereafter,' 'hitherto,' 'therein,' 'thereupon,' and
' wherefore.'

The apparently simple forms of the adverbs yes and not
are contracted compounds. Yes = ge-se, which = se ('it
may be ') strengthened by the prefix ge, which here = ' surely.'
Not is a contracted form of the words — ne-a-wiht or (in later

ADVERBS. 49

forms) ' noUa-whit.^ Hence, by elision and contraction, came
the form ^ na-wiht^ = ^ nawt^^ and finally = ^not' The old
word ' wiht ' had several vague meanings, of which one = ' any
living creature.''

' Yea ' is an emphatic form of a = ' a^/ ' = ©'^er. * Verily *
(= truly) is used in the New Testament, but is otherwise
obsolete. ' Forsooth ' (= for truth) was an earnest affirmative
in E.II., but is now used only in irony. ' No,' ' nay,^ * never ^
are (like * not ') compounds of ne, a particle which in E.I. was.
sometimes used alone, but was often strengthened by another
expression, and was followed by a second negative. It is un-
derstood that, in M.E., 'two negatives, having reference to
one verb, are useless,' or * destroy each other.' But there was.
no such rule in E.I.

ABVEEBS.—USES.

Adverbs serve chiefly to define the meanings of verbs,
and serve also to make more definite the meanings of
adjectives and adverbs.

Ex, : ' He never speaks falsely,^ His style is ' very
clear.' ' He writes very welV

Adverbs, classified with respect to their uses, have the
following names : —

Names.

Examples.

Adverbs of Quality

' earnestly,' ' truly,' wisely.'

Quantity

« greatly,' 'plentifully," wholly.'

Order

' firstly,' ' secondly,' ' thirdly.'

Place

'here,' 'there,' 'where,' 'ashore.*

Time

'now,' 'then,' 'lately.'

Affirmation

'yes," truly," surely.'

Negation

' no,' ' not,' ' never.'

• 55

Doubt

' perhaps,' ' possibly.'

The preceding talle is not given as complete. A complete
and logical Classification of Adverbs would he very extensive.

Many Adverbs, of which the original forms are adjec-
tives of quality and quantity, have the ending ly.

60 PAKTICLES.

Examples,

Adverbs of Quality : ' clearly,' ' obscurely,' ' swiftly,'
^ slowly.'

Adverbs of Quantity : ' greatly,' ' hardly,' ' nearly,'
^ wholly.'

Adverbs are formed by adding ly to words ending in
ing. Ex. : ' exceedingly.'

Of many adjectives ending in ly a few remain. Ex. :
' goodly,' ' manly,' ' lovely,' ' heavenly.' These words
should not be used as adverbs.

Some words ending in ly serve as adjectives and as
adverbs. Ex. : ' daily,' ' weekly,' ' monthly,' ' yearly.'

Several words not ending in ly serve, without any
change of form, as adjectives and as adverbs. Ex. :
' close,' ' hard,' ' last,' ' late,' ' long.'

In E.I. and partly in E.II. a final e served to make
adverbs distinct from adjectives ; but in M.E. the final e
mostly disappears, and thus the adjective and the adverb
have the same form, as the appended examples show : —

E.I. — deore, deope, efne, hearde, lange, rihte, stille.
M.E. — dear, deep, even, hard, long, right, still.

Adverbs derived from numeral adjectives serve to
denote —

Order. — Ex. : ' firstly,' ' secondly,' ' thirdly.'
Rates of Increase. — Ex. : ' threefold,' ' fourfold,'
' thirtyfold.'

Adverbs of Place may serve to denote —
Kest in a place. Ex. : ' here,' ' there,' ' where.'
Motion toward a place. Ex, : ' hither,' ' thither,' ' for-
ward.'

Motion from a place. Ex. : ' hence,' ' thence,' ' out,'
' away.'

Some Adverbs of Place have forms borrowed from
nouns. Ex. : ' north,' ' south,' ' east,' ' west,' ' back,'
' home.'

Particles often used as Prepositions serve also as Ad-
verbs of Place. Ex. : ' Come on ! '

PREPOSITIONS.

The particle, if placed before a noun to show its relation to
some preceding word, is called a preposition. Ex. : ' He stood
on the bridge.'

Several Compound Adverbs — formed by placing a

Preposition before a Noun — serve as Adverbs of Place.

Ex. : ' aboard,' ' ashore ' (a = on), ' overboard.'
Adverbs of Time may serve to denote —
The Present. Ex. : ' now,' ' to-day,' ' hitherto.'
The Past. Ex. : ' then,' ' yesterday,' ' lately,' ' of yore '

((= years ago).

The Future. Ex. : ' soon,' ' to-morrow,' ' hereafter,'

^ then.'

A Point of Time. Ex. : 'now,' 'then ' (Past or Future),

' soon.'

Duration. Ex. : ' still,' ' ever,' ' always,' ' aye.'
Repetition. Ex. : ' again,' ' often,' ' seldom,' ' daily.'
Adverbs of Affirmation have the forms — ' yes,' ' ay,'

■^ yea ' ' truly,' ' surely,' ' certainly,' ' indeed,' etc.

Adverbs of Negation have the forms — 'no,' 'nay,'

^ never,' 'not.'

*13. PREPOSITIONS.— FORMS.

13. Prepositions are divided, with respect to their forms,
into two classes — Simple and Gom/pound. Ex. : The word
' at ' is simple, but ' witJi-out ' is made of two words.

Among simple prepositions the following are called
original, because their derivation from other words in English
is not known : —

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

bi(by,be)-

for

frani

fram (from, fro)

from

in(i)

of (af)

of (af, o')

of (off, adverb)

on (an)

—

til (till)

till

to (too, adverb)

^f.i^

with

B 2

•

mth

PARTICLES.

le following are derivative prepositions : —

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

after

after (efter, etc.)

after

aer

ser (ar, or)

ere (in verse)

ofer

over

—

sin (sithens)

since

furh

pTirgh (forow)

through

under

Componnd Prepositions have the three forms — Prep.
Particle; Prep. + Noun; Prep. + Adjective.
The following are formed from Particles : —

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

abAtan

abuten

about

on-ufan

abuven (above)

above

beforan

beforen (before)

before

behindan

behinde

behind

beneotSan

bynethe

beneath

begeondan

bejonde

beyond

butan

buten (boute)

but (= except)

intS

into (intil)

into

—

J)urhut (thorgheout)

throughout

underneo^an

undernethe

underneath

—

onto (ontil)

unto (until)

nppan

upon (upo)

upon

wiSiiiTia,n

withinne

withi/n

wit^utan

withoute (etc.)

without

The following compounds are formed of particles and

nouns. In ' down ' the prefix a has been cast off: — '

E.I.

E.II.

U.£.

adilne

adoun (doun)

down

ongen

agein (ayenst)

against

on-middan

amidde (in middes)

amid {amidst)

gemang "1
on-mang j

imang (among)

among (amongst)

be-sidan

bi syde (bysydes)

beside (besides)

The follow]

Lng are compounds of particles and adjectives : —

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

andlong

endlang (alang)

along

—

of lah, alowe (adverbs)

below

bitweon

atwene, bitwene

between

betweox

atwix, betwix

betwixt

toweardes

. . wardes

toward (towards)

PREPOSITIONS. 53

Near serves as a preposition, as neah served in E.I.

Among prepositions found in E.II., but now obsolete, may
be named * mid' (= vrith) and 'anent' (from E.I. , on efen),
of which the first meaning = opposite, and the second =
respecting. With the latter meaning, the word is still used in
Scotland.

Per (Latin) is used in commercial arithmetic.

Sans (Old French = without), though used by Shake-
speare, is obsolete.

Across now mostly takes the place of athwart^ from on
J>weorh, an adverb in E.I.

PEEPOSITIONS.— USES.

Prepositions are words placed before nouns and pro-
nouns, to show their relations to preceding words.

Fx. I. : ' We went into the field.' ' Into ' shows a
relation of 'field ' and ' wenV

Ex. II.: 'He is a man of honour.' '0/' shows a
relation of ' honour ' and ' man.''

Ex. III. : ' Sacred to the memory,' etc. ' To ' shows a
relation of ' memory ' and ' sacred.'

Prepositions, with nouns following, form jpJirases^ of which
some serve as adjectives, others as adverbs. Bx. I. : ' He
is a man of honour ' = *he is an honourable man.' Ex. II. :
* He writes with great care ' = ' he writes very carefully.^

Prepositions may serve to denote —
Place. Ex. : ' at the gate ; ' ' in the town.'
Time. Ex. : ' for a week ; ' ' on that day.'
Agency, etc. Ex. : ' made by M. ; ' ' written by N.'
Means, etc. Ex. : ' driven on by a gale ; ' ' cut with
a, sword.'

A Cause. Ex. : ' reproved for disobedience.'

A Purpose. Ex. : ' the Sabbath was made for man.'

Some Prepositions retain their primary meanings, and
serve mostly to denote relations of place. Ex. : * above,'
^ along,' 'around,' 'beneath,' 'beyond.'

Other Prepositions are versatile with respect to their
nses. A few examples are appended : —

54 PARTICLES.

At. — At the gate — call at a house — at a time appointed — at
least — at rest — at work — to aim at — to bark at— to glance at
— to set at nought — to arrive at — glad at heart — he laugha
at — he lives at Thorpe (a village).

After. — ' After six days ' — ' longing after immortality.'

About. — ' We walked about the town ' — ' about that time *
— ' about a foot long ' — ' tell us all about it.'

By. — ' He sat by the fire ' — ' the book was written by M.*
— * measure your wishes by your means ' — ' this colour is not
seen by candle-light.'

For. — For some time — provisions for a month — food for
children — the ship sailed for New York — we will wait for him
- — for your sake — we took him for a friend — sold for five
shillings — change for a crown — destined for-r-qualified for —
he longs for — we pray for — I will not answer for him — he
takes fruit for breakfast.

In. — In the field — in the space — in the course of time — in
that year — he lives in London — clothed in fine linen — rich in
minerals — set in order — included in the list — to bear in mind
— ^to confide in — have confidence in — it is not in his power —
he acts in defiance of — in vain — in memory of M.

Of. — He is a native of France — the home of — the court of
France — the works of Spenser — the expedition of Raleigh- —
his love of poetry — of course — on account of — ignorant of —
full of — out of fashion — beware of the men — repent of — ac-
cused of— made of — deprived of — a man of honour — I shall
think of you — tbe bravest of the brave.

On. — On this side of the case — on this theme (or subject)
— on your honour.

To. — It was given to M. — to buy corn — with regard to —
subject to — to his honour let it be said — ' sacred to the
memory' — ' when he came to himself — reduced to despair —
they burn the wood to charcoal.

Upon. — ' Meditate upon these things ' — ' they dwell upon
their own merit.'

With. — Mr. Smith was there with his sons — crowned with
a garland — with our swords we defend our homes — land
covered with thistles — an estate encumbered with debts —
enriched with — corresponding with — endowed with — we can-
not cope with him — fed with — replete with — ^blending with—
he sympathized with them.

Prepositions have been divided, with respect to their
forms, into two classes — Simple and Compound.

The following are Simple, and are also called Primi-

CONJUNCTIONS.

tive, because their derivation from other forms is not
clearly known : —' at,' ' by/ ' for,' ' from,' ' in,' ' on,' ' of,'
' till,' ' to,' ' up,' ' with.'

The following are compounds of particles : — ' above,
'about,' 'before,' 'behind,' 'beneath,' 'beyond,' 'but,'
' into,' ' throughout,' ' until,' ' upon,' ' within,' ' without.'

The following are compounds of particles and nouns : — •
' across,' ' against,' ' among,' ' beside \ov ' besides ').

The following are compounds of particles and adjec-
tives : — ' along,' ' amid,' ' around,' ' athwart,' ' below,' ' be-
tween,' ' toward ' (or ' towards ').

*14. CONJUNCTIONS.— FORMS.

Some Adrerbs and some Prepositions are used as
Conjunctions.

Words more di

stinctly serving to connect sentences are

here noticed ;

firstly, with respect to origin and composition.

Their forms

ire mostly found in E.I.

The sign + shows

that words haying

like forms in E.I. and M.E. have different

uses-

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

and

and (ant, an)

and

ser ]>e

er (ar, or)

ere (used in verse)

elles

else

gif

yef (if)

butan

wipouten

except

'ac,' 'oc'

hut

t>^las

leste (les)

lest

swa +

so (by so)

a«or

otSer (or)

bonne

f anne ()>an)

than

n^^ .

))ah (])oh, etc.)

though (or although^

j)^ hwlle

whiles

while (oT whilst)

ealswa

alswa (also, als)

also, as

hwil

the while

meamwhile

for ]?am ]>e

for (= because)

faet (pron.)

that (conj.)

that

—

by e cause \)&t

because

mara + ofer

moreover

na ]>e las

nafeles

nevertheless

—

therfore

therefore

PARTICLES.

E.I.

])aBrwitS
hwaSer

E.II.

therewitlial

less

whether (wher)

therewith

whether

Some Conjunctions (called correlati*be) consist of two
words placed apart, as in the examples appended. Of these
conjunctions, that may be described as going in pairs, several
were often employed in E.I. and E.II., and they are still used
in M.E.

E.I.
alswa + wel
bu . . . and
oSSe . . . ome
natSor . . . ne

E.II.

as (wel) as
ba . . . ant
oj^er ... or |

nother . . . nor f

M.E.

as (well) as
both . .
either . . . or
neither . . . nor

The repetition of ' what ' (in the form of ' what ' . . .
* what ') has been classed with correlative conjunctions. In
E.II. that form is used as = * partly ' . . . ' partly.'

Some conjunctions found in the literature of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries are now treated as obsolete. A few
examples are appended.

E.I.

eac

furt$or (ad/v.)

geltc + wise

E.II.

al-be that

and (= an = if)

ek (eke)

forther (furthermore)

howbe

wheras

iliche

M.E.

albeit (=^though)
an (= if)
eJce (=: also)
furthermore
howbeit (=
whereas
likewise

CONJUNCTIONS.— USES.

Conjunctions are words used to connect sentences.

Ex. : ' The sun shines and the rainbow appears.'

A sentence tells something and contains one verb.

A phrase consists of two or more words, but does not
contain a verb. Fx. : ' for a time ; ' ' in a place.'

The conjunction and serves to connect sentences, or
phrases, or words.

Ex, I. : ' The sun shines and the rainbow appears.'

Ex. II. : ' In the morning and in the evening my
voice shall be heard.'

CONJUNCTIONS. 57

Ex, III. : ' A mixture of blue and yellow makes
green.'

Conjunctions are divided into two classes, called Go-
ordinative and Subordinative,

Ex. 1st class : 'and,' 'or,' 'but,' 'yet, ' for.'

Ex, 2nd class: 'that,' 'as,' 'than,' 'because,' 'if,' 'un-
less,' 'though,' ' lest.'

Co-ORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

And serves to indicate a natural sequence, or a like-
ness of two assertions.

Ex, I. : ' Dense clouds were collected, and gloom was
spread over the dale.'

Ex, II. : 'A false witness shall not go unpunished,
and he that speaketh lies shall perish.'

No other conjunction has all the uses of and. The
following words serve here and there to take its place : —
* also,' ' besides,' ' farther,' ' meanwhile,' ' now,' ' even.'

Several words that in Second English might sometimes
take the place of * and ' are now almost, or quite, obsolete.

Ex. : ^ eke' (quite obsolete, = ' also'), 'further,' 'further-
more,''likewise,' 'moreover,' 'thereon,' 'thereupon, 'there-
withal.'

The Ordinal Adverbs — ' firstly,' ' secondly,' ' thirdly,'
etc. — serve to connect sentences, and to show the order in
which assertions, etc., are placed.

Or (often preceded by either and sometimes followed
by else) may serve to indicate that of two assertions one
must be true.

Ex. : ' Either Achilles must subdue his anger, or he
must see the defeat of the Grecian army.'

Nor, preceded by neither, or by not, indicates a two-
fold negation, or a forbidding of two things.

Ex. I. : ' Neither hath this man sinned, nor [have]
his parents [sinned].'

Ex. II. : ' Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them,
■nor serve them.'

But may serve to indicate a contrast, or may intro-

58 PARTICLES.

duce a limitation, or may strengthen a denial already-
expressed by ' not.'

Ex. I. : ' Wealth maketh many friends ; hut the poor
is separated from his neighbour.'

Ex. II. : ' In youth they loved each other ; hut their
friendship was not permanent.'

Ex. III. : ' Wisdom will not make us love disputation,
hut will show the vanity of our disputes.'

For (or therefore) is used when one sentence tells the
effect, and another tells the cause.

Ex. : ' The water flows rapidly here ; for the bed of
the river has a steep descent.'

In all the preceding examples the conjunctions are Go-
ordinative, and the sentences connected are Co-ordinate Sen-
tences. Each has an independent meaning. In the first of
the examples given to show the uses of ' hut,' the conjunction
may be omitted, and still the meaning of the second sentence
remains unchanged. This is not the case when sentences are
connected by 'if.' Ex.: 'You will wia if you persevere.'
Take away ' if and the second sentence is an assertion. But,
when following ' if the second sentence expresses a condition
of winning. The second sentence serves to limit or define the
meaning of the first, as the adverb ' perhaps ' may serve to
limit the assertion expressed by a verb. A sentence thus
serving, or making no independent assertion, is called Sub-
ordinate. The conjunctions by which Subordinate Sentences
are introduced are called Subordinative. It is convenient to
describe as Glauses all Subordinate Sentences.

The independent sentence to which a Clause belongs is
called the Principal Sentence.

When placed in connexion with a Principal Sentence, a
Clause may serve as a N"oun, or as an Adjective, or as an
Adverb.

Ex. I. 'I know that flatterers are often traitors.'
Ex. II. ' The man who acts honestly has peace of mind.'
Ex. III. ' He began to work when the day dawned.'
In Ex. I. the words in Italic form a Noun Clause, and
follow the verb, just as the words ' the fact ' might follow.
In Ex. II. the words in Italic form an Adjective Clause, and
qualify the noun ' man.' In Ex. III. the words in Italic form
an Adverbial Clause, and define the verb 'began,' as the
adverb ' early ' might define it.

CONJUNCTIONS. 59

In Ex. II. the Adjective Clause is introduced by the
Relative Pronoun ' who.' It must be noticed here that the
words more strictly called Conjunctions* are not the only
words employed to connect sentences. Adjective Clauses are
introduced by means of Relative Pronouns, and sometimes by
means of Adverbs. Adverbial Clauses are introduced by
words otherwise used as Adverbs or as Prepositions.

Simple Adverbs — i.e. adverbial expressions, each contained
in a single word — serve to define verbs with respect to place,
time, degree, cause, and manner. Adverbial Phrases are
formed by placing prepositions before nouns, and serve also
(but more extensively) to define verbs with respect to place,
time, degree, cause, and manner. Subordinative Conjunctions
— including words otherwise used as adverbs and as preposi-
tions— serve to introduce clauses by which definitions of
place, time, degree, cause, and manner are more completely
and more clearly expressed. The extended treatment of Sub-
ordinative Conjunctions belongs to the Analysis of Sentences ;
but a few examples of uses may here be appended.

Subordinative Conjunctions.

Where serves to introduce an adverbial clause of Place,.
that may answer the question ' where ? '

Ex. : ' He found the book where he left it.'

Wherever introduces a clause that may answer a ques-
tion beginning either with ' where ' or ' whither.'

Ex. : ' He will go wherever duty may call him.'

Before may introduce an adverbial clause of Time, and
may serve to indicate either the Past or the Future.

Ex, I. ; ' Before I was afflicted, I went astray.'

Ex. II. : ' Look before you leap.'

Ere — more frequently used in verse than in prose —
has the meaning of ' before,' or ' sooner than,' and may
have reference either to the Past or to the Future.

When mostly refers to a point of Time ; but may in-
troduce a conditional clause, as in Ex. II. and III.

Ex. I. ' You will come when the bell rings.'

Ex. II. ' Do you hope to win respect when you flatter
me?'

Ex. III. ' When the bell is cast, the form may be-
broken.'

€0 PARTICLES.

While (or ' whilst ') often introduces a clause express-
ing duration, but may sometimes refer especially to cir-
cumstances.

Ex. I. : ' While we are dreaming, time is passing away.'

JEx, II. : ' While you are making that noise, I have to
solve this problem.'

Until has reference to a point of time, and answers the
question ' how long ? '

Fx, : ' He stayed on the mountain until the sun ap-
peared.'

As (following 'as' or ' so') introduces a clause of limi-
tation, or of comparison.

Ex. I. : 'So far as I can see, there is no exception to
the rule.'

Ex. II. : ' He runs as fast as you can run.'

So (following ' as ') may introduce a clause defining a
proportionate increase or decrease.

Ex. : ' As the heat increases, so the mercury in the
thermometer rises.'

Than refers to a preceding comparative adjective or
adverb.

Ex. : ' He runs faster than I can run.'

When 'than' is immediately followed by a dependent pro-
noun, such as * me,' ' him,' or ' them,' some words have been
omitted. But we find in good authors ' whom ' placed next
to * than.' Dependent pronouns follow prepositions.

If introduces a conditional clause.
Ex. : ' If I have time, I will call upon you.'
If (following ' as ') introduces a clause of comparison.
Ex. : ' He looks 'asif^ he did not know us' {i.e. as
he might look if he did not know us).

' As though ' is found instead of ^asif,' where the meaning
is hke that of the given example.

* As ' may serve to indicate a ground or reason for a
following assertion.

Ex. : ' As I have not read the book, I shall not at-
tempt to describe it.'

Because (more distinct than ' for ') refers an effect to
its cause.

CONJUNCTIONS. 61

' The lake must be frozen, because the temperature-
has long been lower than twenty degrees.'

That may introduce a clause expressing a purpose, or
— following ' so ' — may indicate a manner of acting.

Ex, I. : ' The guide will go forward, that he may show
us the way.'

Ex, II. : ' He went away, so that his departure was
not noticed.'

' That ' is a versatile connective, and may introduce either
an adjective clause or a noun clause.

Ex. 1. — * Here is the man that will tell the truth.'
Ex. II. — ' We know that you wrote the letter.'

Though. A sentence preceded by a clause beginning
with 'though' (or 'although') serves to contradict a
sequence of cause and effect that might be expected.

Ex. : ' Though you cannot understand it, you must
admit that it is true.'

Lest introduces a clause expressing the opposite of a
wish or a purpose.

Ex. : * Lest our feet should step astray,

Protect and guide us in the way.'

In the Bible, lest^ following a command (or a warn-
ing), = 'that' . . . 'not,' or 'that' . . . 'no.'
Ex, I. : ' Take heed, that no man deceive you.'
Ex. II. : ' Take heed, lest any man deceive you.'
Unless (like ' except ') may introduce a conditional
clause.

Ex. I. : ' He will not be pardoned unless he repent.'
Ex, II. : ' Except these abide in the ship, ye cannot
be saved.'

Of the particles here noticed as subordinative con-
junctions, the following may, in other places, serve as
adverbs : — ' before,' ' so,' ' when,' ' where,' ' wherever.'
The words ' before ' and ' except ' are used as preposi-
tions.

Various Uses. — In parsing a sentence every particle
should be named with respect to its use in the sentence.
One particle — for example, 'but' — may serve in one

€2 PARTICLES.

place as an adverb, in another as a preposition, and in a
third place as a conjunction.

Ex. I. : ' Other joys are hut toys ' (' but ' = ' only ').

Ex, II. : ' All hut honour is lost ' (' but ' = ' except ').

Ex. III. : ' Mushrooms soon spring up, hut oaks grow
slowly.'

In Ex. I. ' hut ' is used as an adverb.

In Ex. II. ' hut ' is used as a preposition.

In Ex. III. ' hut ' connects two sentences.

The particle serving to define a verb, an adjective, or
an adverb is called an Adverb.

The particle placed before a noun (or a pronoun) to
show its relation is called a Preposition.

The particle that connects sentences is a Conjunction.

In many sentences the position of the adverb may be
changed.

Ex. I. : ' Sunshine now brightens the dale.'

Ex. II. : ' Sunshine brightens now the dale.'

Ex. III. : ' Now sunshine brightens the dale.'

The Preposition may be moved, if taken with its de-
pendent noun, but otherwise must not leave its place.

Ex. I. : 'In the morning the lark's song is heard.'

Ex. II. : ' The lark's song is heard in the morning.^

In many instances the Conjunction is immovable. If
it be moved, the following clause must also be moved.

Ex. I. : ' The water flows rapidly here ; for the bed of
the stream is steep.'

Ex. II. : 'If you persevere, you will win.'

Ex. III. : ' You will win, if you persevere.''

*15. INTERJECTIONS.

Simple vowels, syllables with no distinct meaning,
phrases, and some contracted sentences are found among
the expressions called Interjections.

E.I.

eala! (='ah!' *0!')
wa la wa ! 1

(= woe ! lo, woe !) J

E.II.

walaway !

alas! (O.F.)

ah ! oh ! (O.F.) a !

M.E.

well-a-day f

alas !
ah!

INTERJECTIONS. 63

Some interjections are contracted forms of words. Others
•may be accepted as sounds used instinctively to express
emotions. An extended notice of sucli words and sounds has
great interest in connexion with the history of culture.
There are found comparatively few interjections in E.I. litera-
ture, which was mostly written by churchmen, and by no
means represented the common talk of the people. In E.II.
interjections are, in some respects, too abundant. In many
examples, strange abbreviations, and other changes made in
sacred names, served to disguise irreverence. The use of
such expletives is well reproved in an old * Treatise on Peni-
tence,' of which a translation, called the ' Persones Tale,' is
ascribed to Chaucer.

Some sounds called interjections have vague or versatile
meanings — like those of ' 0 ! ' and ' ah ! ' Others have uses
that, in some degree, may be defined. Wonder is expressed
by ' 0 ho ! ' and sometimes by ' ah ! ' which serves also as an
expression of grief. Contempt may be expressed by ' pooh ! '
' psha ! ' or ' fadge ! ' This word is made classical by a
passage in Goldsmith. Disbelief is indicated by ' indeed ! '
and by ' forsooth ! * The latter, used formerly in serious
affirmation, = ' truly ! ' The word ' nay,' when used as an
interjection, means ' yea, and more than that ! ' The word
' why ' sometimes serves as an interjection expressing a
momentary hesitation.

Abhorrence may be expressed by means of such exclama-
tions as ' fie ! ' ' out ! ' and ' away ! ' The meaning of the last
is more distinctly given in the French ' avaunt ! ' which is
an altered form of the Latin ^ ab ante,'' and = *out of my
way!' For bidding silence 'hush!' 'hist!' and 'whist!'
are used. The Old French verb ' oyes! ' (=' hear ye ! ') belongs
to courts of law. In salutations the E.I. verb wilcumian
(= greet kindly) is still used in the form of ' welcome ! '( =
' hail ! '); but ' well-done ! ' is a compound word, of which the
first part is the adverb ' well.' Of exclamations serving to
excite action several are obsolete. The adverb ^yare' (=
' ready ' ), used as an interjection by Shakespeaee, belongs to
the stem gar, of which the uses in Teutonic languages are
extensive. The old cry for help ' harow I ' and the war-cry
* havoc ! ' are obsolete.

A farther analysis of exclamations might lead too far.
The cry of Chanticleer has sometimes served as an interjection.
The calls ' loo, loo ! ' and ' halloo ! ' — belonging to the chase —

INFLEXIONS.

and some calls addressed to animals — ' hayt ! ' * wo ! ' etc. —
might be classed with interjections.

Interjections have no syntax, or connexion with words in
a sentence. Where such connexion appears, a word has been
omitted. Ex. : * Woe is me ! ' = ' Woe is for we.'

INFLEXIONS.

*16. INTRODTICTION.— NOUNS. E.I.

When the form of a word is changed in order to show
a difference in its use, or its relation to another word,
the change is called inflexion. The several inflexions in-
dicating the various relations in which a noun may be
placed in a sentence are called case-endings. The ap-
pended table shows all the case-endings of the Latin noun
'puer^ a boy.

Noun. — Second Declension (Masculine).

Examples of Uses.
puer venit, tlie hoy is come
piieri caput, tJie hoy^s head

puero libmm dat, he gives a
iooh to the hoy

puerum laudat, he praises the

ioy
laudor a piiero, I am praised

hy the hoy

Nominative Case pii-er, a hoy
Genitive „ piier-i, of a

Dative „ piier-o, to a

hoy
Accusative (or
Ohjective)

Ahlative

puer-nm, a

Joy
puer-o, hy or
with a hoy

Plural.
Nominative Case piier-i, hoys
Genitive „ piier-oriim, of hoys

Dative „ piier-is, to hoys

Accusative „ puer-os, hoys
Ahlative „ puer-is, hy or with hoys

The general use of inflexions of case is to serve as substitutes for
prepositions. The English prepositions used in the example here given by
no means serve to represent all the uses of the several cases. When it is

INFLEXIONS. 65

said, ' this noun is in the Genitive' nothing definite is told ; for the Genitive
case in Latin (as in Greek) is used to express several distinct relations of
words, and the same remark may be applied to the other cases. But their
respective uses are not sufficiently extensive and precise to express all the
relations that may he expressed by prepositions. These particles were there-
fore used for many purposes in Latin, and for more in Greek, though both
these languages are called synthetic.

A language in -which separate particles are mostly used instead of in-
flexions is called analytical.

The general history of the Teutonic Languages is a story of transition
from the synthetic form to the analytic ; but in High German the process
has not been carried to such an extent as in English.

Our modern language is mostly analytic, but retains some ioflexions
•which may be described as saved from the ruin in which others were
involved. These vestiges of inflexions are found in the five parts of
speech — Notrx, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, and Adverb.

E.I., in several of the uses to which the cases of nouns are applied in
Syntax, agrees well with Latin. The Nominative is the case of the Subject
(or the name of the agent). The Genitive denotes possession, and has
several other uses (as in Latin). The Dative answers the question 'to
whomV and has some other uses. The Accusative (or ' Objective') is the
case that in sense immediately follows the verb transitive. Besides these
cases E.I. had an Instrumental, used to denote the means or the instrument
used in action.

Nouns in E.I. and E.II. — Nouns in E.I. may, with respect to their forms
of declension, be divided into more than two classes ; but all may be viewed
as variations of two declensions. These two declensions, found in the
Oldest English, are called the strong and the weak. The first (especially
as used for masculine nouns) has the greater number of inflexions to denote
the various relations in which a noun may stand with other words in a
sentence.

The second declension has fewer changes, and is therefore called weak,
with regard to inflexions. SHU'S is a masculine noun of the first or strong
declension, to which denu (feminine) and word (neuter) also belong.
Steorra is a masculine noun of the second or weak declension, in which the
three genders agree closely with one another in their inflexions.

E.I. Nouns. — First Declension.

Singular.
N. smi^, a smith
G. smiles, of a smith
D. smi^e, to or with—
Ace. ami's, a smith

N. denu, a dell
G. dene, of—
i>. dene, to or with —
Ace. dene, a dell

N. word, a word
G. wordes, of—
B. worde, to or with -
Ace. word, a word

Plural.
smi-Sas, smiths
smi'Sa, of smiths
smi-Sum, to or with-
smitSas, smiths

dena, dells
denen, of —
dennm, to or with —
dena, dells

word, words
worda, of —
wordum, to or with-
word, words

66 INFLEXIONS.

E.I. NoTTN. — Second Declension.

Singular. Plural.

N. steorra, a star

G. steorran, of —

D. steorran, to or with —

Ace. steorran, a star

steorran, stars
steorrena, of —
steorrum, to or with-
steorran, stars

It is evident that, in E.I., inflexions did not suffice to make clear all
ithe uses of nouns, as singular and plural, or all the relations that are now
indicated by position and by the use of the prepositions ' of,' ' to,' ' for,'

* by,' ' with,' and others.

In none of the forms above given has the accusative case a distinct
inflexion like U77i in the Latin second declension (masculine). Consequently,
prepositions are extensively used in E.I,, though not always in the places
where they would be used in Modern English. In ten verses taken from
the parable of the 'Prodigal Son ' (Luke xv. 11-21), Modern English has
iwenty-six prepositions, and E.I. has twenty-two. But in the Oldest
English, prepositions were followed by several cases — the Accusative, the
Dative, and the Genitive. Thus, by the aid of both cases and prepositions,
several relations of words for which we have now but one form had clearly
distinct forms.

When compared, not with Greek, but with Modern English, E.I. may
be called rich in inflexions.

During the long transitional period, when E.II. in many forms was
written, the general tendency of transition was to cast away the old
•inflexions.

In the most important of the dialects (the Midland) we find, as early as the
thirteenth century, the grammatical gender of nouns cast aside. Instead of
the several forms of the plural, es is the ordinary sign, though en (for the
older an) is still used in forming plurals, es is also used as the ordinary
suffix of the possessive case. These changes were confirmed in the time of
Chatjcee.

In Modern English the noun retains two inflexions, es for the posses-
sive case (as in smiles) is now changed to the contracted form 's. In the
days of Addison some educated men believed that the possessive 's was a
contraction of the adjective his. It was erroneously supposed that, in the
Oldest English, men wrote thus, — * the king his crown,' and then reduced
' his ' to the contracted form, seen in ' the king's crown.'

The grammarians of Addison's time never thought of one objection
to their etymology of 's. ' The queen her crown ' is not easily contracted
into 'the queen's crown,' if we take the 's for a contraction of the word

* his.^

Of the old endings for the plural, en (a substitute for an) still survives
in oxen, as well as in ' housen^ ' shoon^ and other words preserved in
dialects. The plural suffix en, which became obsolete in the Elizabethan
time, did not always represent the an of E.I., but was suffixed to some
nouns that in E.I. belonged to the first or strong declension. In E.I.
some plurals were formed by vowel-change. Ex. : f 6t, f et. The modern
forms 'feet,' 'geese,' 'men,' 'mice,' 'teeth,' represent E.I. plurals formed
by vowel-change.

It is an error to suppose that the plural s was introduced with Norman-
Prench about the time of the Conquest. The suffix es and its contracted

NOUNS. GENDER. 67

fonn, s, are clearly variations of as, the plural ending in E.I. for masculine
nouns of the first declension, of which smith (plural = smi^as) is an
example.

The Oldest English had graniTnatical genders, which were often marked
by the endings of nouns, as in the following examples : —

Masculine. — Nouns ending in a, ere, end, ing (patronymic), m,
had, dom, scipe. Ex.: gemana {community), writere {writer), Haelend
(Saviour), Finning {Finn's son), waestm {fruit), ))eowhad {serfdom), wisdom
(wisdom), fredndscipe {friendship).

Feminine. — Nouns ending in warn (collective), en (with exceptions), "S
(abstract), ing or ung (abstract), nes (abstract), and u. Ex. : bnhr-
w&ra {townsfolk), wjlen{ female slave), AxLgu.iS {virtue), Bce&wvLUg {contem-
plation), mildheortnes (mercy), denn {dell).

Netjteb. — Noims ending in em, lac, tl, and the diminutive suffixes
incle and en. Ex.: domern {sessions-house), wiflac {wedlock), setl {seat),
scipincle {skiff), cycen {chicken).

In the course of the thirteenth century words formerly masculine or
feminine were made neuter ; in others a confusion of genders is found.

In the Midland Dialect of the fourteenth century the genders of nouns
are mostly defined in accordance with the natural rule of Modern English.

17. NOUNS.— M.E.

Nouns in M.E. have inflexions to denote Gender^
2^umber, and Case,

In Modern English we have no grammatical genders.

In E.I. steorra (a star) is of the masculine gender ; denu (a * dell,' op
narrow valley, still called ' dene ' or ' dean ' in some names of places) is
feminine. These are grammatical genders. The distinction made between
them is not founded in nature.

Nouns are divided into three classes, called Genders : —
Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.

Some nouns have inflexions to distinguish the feminine
from the masculine gender.

Nouns used as distinctive names of males are called
Masculine.

Names of females are called Feminine.

Names of notions and things are called Neuter.

Distinctions of gender, in Modern English, are mostly founded in nature,
and are not borrowed either from First English or from Latin.

When persons are named, sex is often denoted by the
use of two different words which, in some instances,
belong to one stem.

F 2

INFLEXIONS.

Masculine.

Feminine.

Masculine.

Fsminine.

bachelor
boy

maid
girl

master

r matron or mis.
\ tress

bridegroom

bride

monk

nun

brother

sister

nephew

niece

earl

countess

papa

father
friar

mother
sister

sire "1
sir J

madam

gentleman

lady

sloven

slut

husband

wife

son

daughter

king

queen

tailor

seamstress

lad

lass

tutor

governess

lord

lady

uncle

aunt

man

woman

widower

widow

wizard

witch

Different words are used

to distinguish some animals

as male and female. Ex. : —

Masculine,

Feminine.

Masculine.

Feminine.

boar

SOW

gander

, ^oose

buck
bull

doe
cow

hart

f hind
\roe

bullock!
steer j

heifer

horse

mare

mallard

wild duck

cock

hen

milter

spawner

foall
colt/

filly

ram

ewe

ruff

reeve

hound 1
dog /

bitch

sire
stag

dam
hind

drake

duck

When gender is marked by a change of termination,
the suffix denoting the feminine is mostly ess, borrowed
from Latin and Norman-French.

Masculine.

Feminine.

Masculine.

Feminine.

abbot

abbess

giant

giantess

actor

actress

governor

governess

author

authoress

host

hostess

baron

baroness

hunter

huntress

count

countess

Jew

Jewess

deacon

deaconess

lion

lioness

duke

duchess

ogre

ogress

emperor

empress

marquess

marchioness

enchanter

enchantress

negro

negress

NOUNS. — GENDER.

Masculine.
peer
priest
prince
prior

Feminine.
peeress
priestess
princess
prioress

Masculine. Feminine.

shepherd shepherdess

sorcerer
tiger

sorceress
tigress

The following words, sometimes used, may still be

called foreign : —

Masculine.
beau

Feminine.
belle

Masculine. Feminine.

margrave margravine

signor signora

sultan sultana

€zar czanna

don donna

landgrave landgravine

ine serves as the feminine suffix in ' heroine,' and in
such proper names as ' Josephine ' and ' Pauline.'

The E.I. feminine ending en remains only in one word
— 'vixen' — and in 'spinster' we have the only example
left of star, another feminine ending in E.I.

The Latin feminine ending trix is seen in the words
^ executrix ' and ' testatrix,'

In some compounds the second word denotes gender.

Masculine.

Feminine.

gaffer (= godfather)

gammer (= godmother)

landlord

landlady

merman

mermaid

milkman

milkmaid

In E.I. the words carl (masculine) and cwen (feminine)
were sometimes used to denote gender in names of animals.
In M.E. such compounds as the following are used : —

Masculine
buck-rabbit
he-goat
peacock

Feminine.
doe-rabbit
she-goat
peahen

Many names of persons are, with respect to gender,
Common. The tendency in M.E. is to increase the number
of these words, of which the following are examples : —

child friend painter servant

cousin neighbour parent slave

enemy orphan poet teacher

70 INFLEXIONS.

The following are examples of masculine nouns having-
no corresponding feminine nouns : —

captain j^dge soldier

cliampion knight sqnire

fisherman parson swain

The following are examples of feminine nouns having
no corresponding masculine nouns : —

Amazon naiad shrew

muse nymph . siren

Of several nouns the gender is defined by reference to
mythology and poetry : —

Cyclops gnome naiad

fairy muse • sylph

Besides distinctions of gender founded in nature we find, in our uses of
pronouns, some distinctions made with regard to imaginative or poetical
notions of gender, and here and there also are found some slight traces of
grammatical gender in E.I., Old French, and Latin. A few examples of
poetical gender may be given. It is hardly necessary to add that these
cannot be placed under any rules. [The abbreviations M.for masculine and
F. for feminine may be used here.']

Among the names of the great forces and manifestations of nature we
find treated as masculine: — the sun, and the names of several planets
(' Mercury,' ' Mars,' * Jupiter,' ' Neptune ') ; but ' Venus ' and * the Earth '
are feminine ; the Moon ('queen of night'), Dawn ('Aurora'), 'Evening'
and 'Night,' ' Nature' and ' the World' (the l-ast as used by Sheixey), are
F. The stormy north- wind (' Boreas ') and the gentle ' Zephyr ' are
both M.

The sea and rivers are both M. and F. ' The river [Thames] glideth
at his own sweet will.' (Woedswoeth.) The same poet makes 'the Wharf *
and ' the Duddon ' M., though they are rivers of small extent. Of the four
seasons all may be M., but ' Spring ' is sometimes named as F. —

* So forth issew'd the seasons of the yeare :
First, lusty Spring . . .
And in his hand a javelin he did beare . . .
Then came the jolly Sommer . . .
And on his head a girlond well beseene
He wore . . .

Then came the Autumne, all in yellow clad . . .
Laden with fruits that made him laugh . . .
Lastly came Winter cloathM all in frize,
Chattering his teeth for cold that did him chill.'

Spensee.

Of trees the oak, cedar, and pine are M. Among flowers the rose, the
lily, and others are F.; but ' Poor Eobin,' ' Sweet William,' ' Old Man,' and
others are M. In zoology masculine or neuter pronouns generally follow

NOUNS. — GENDER. 71

names of reptiles and names of the larger quadrupeds. In the latter class
the two sexes have often distinct names, as in the examples ' lion,' ' lioness,'
' tiger,' ' tigress.' The ' hare,' the ' mouse,' and the ' mole ' are mostly
named as F.

Poetry prevails more in the names of birds. To the M. belong the
' eagle,' the ' redbreast,* and sometimes the ' owl : ' —

' This vagrant owl is playing here —
He^s at file top of his enjoyment.'

Wordsworth.

But Gray (in his * Elegy ') refers to the ' owl ' as F. The * sky-lark * is
named as M, and F. The ' cuckoo ' (mostly F.) is named by Chaucer as
both M. and F.

To the latter poetical gender belong mostly the ' nightingale ' ('Philo-
mel '), the ' lapwing,' the 'turtle,' and the ' dove ;' but there are exceptions : —

' Over his own sweet voice the stock-dove broods.'

Wordsworth.

Not only inanimate things in nature, but also the tools or implements-
commonly used in agriculture are talked of as belonging to the feminine
class. CoBBBTT says (in his 'English Grammar,' 1826): ' Our country
folks in Hampshire call almost everything he or sAe.' Of all habits of this
kind the sailor's, in talking of his ship (especially of a sailing-vessel), seems
the most general and permanent. It arises from the same instinct to whicli
poetry owes its birth. Of a sailing-vessel far out on the Pacific Ocean, and
driven along by a breeze, Wilson says : ' She walked the waters like a
thing of life.' Other poets have made classic the sailor's usage : — 'Down
with the topmast ; yare ! — lower, lower ; bring her to try with main-course.
Lay her a-hold, a-hold; set her two courses ; off to sea again ! Lay her
off! ' (Shakespeare.)

' Where lies the land to which yon ship must go ?
Fresh as a lark, mounting at break of day,
Festively she puts forth in trim array ;
Is she for tropic suns or polar snow ?
What boots the inquiry ? Neither friend nor foe
She cares for ; let her travel where she may.
She finds familiar names, a beaten way
Ever before her, and a wind to blow.'

Wordsworth.

Masculine names given to ships have no effect on the sailor's use of thfr
poetical feminine. The ' Bellerophon ' (' a man-of-war ') ' drops her anchor ; '
and of another ship, the ' Earl of Abergavenny,' it is said, ' She lay at
anchor off the Isle of Wight.'

The names of lands and nations are poetically feminine. Ex, : ' France,'"
'Holland,' 'Britain' (in Goldsmith's 'Traveller'). Germania is F., but
the German people (in their poetry) call Beutschland their Vaterland ( -=
Fatherland).

The names of human passions and emotions are followed by both M.
and F. pronouns. In a fine ode on • The Passions ' (written by Collins)
' Fear, bewildered, laid his hand ainid the chords ;' Anger rushed, ' his eyes
on fire ; ' wan Despair ' beguiled his grief ; ' Hope ' waved her golden hair; '
Kevenge ' threw down his sword ; ' Pity ' applied her soul-subduing voice ; *'

72 INFLEXIONS.

Melancholy ' poured through the mellow horn her pensive soul ; ' Cheerful-
ness ' flung her bow across her shoulders ; ' Joy ' addressed his hand to the
lively pipe,' As treated by Bunyan, Despair is M. and ' Diffidence is the
wife ' of ' Despair.' ' Enterprise ' is finely described as a bold youth (by
Woedsworth). Many names of ideas — including peace, liberty, victory —
are treated as F. Both ' fancy ' and ' imagination ' are described as F. by
WoRBSWOBTH, Gven when he writes in prose. Of * Domestic Peace ' Cole-
BiDGE writes : —

* In a cottaged vale she dwells,
Listening to the Sabbath- bells.'

Both ' Indolence ' and * Industry ' are treated as M. by Thomson.
' Contemplation,' ' Leisure,' and ' Laiighter,' are made M. by Milton, and
Collins makes ' Freedom ' masculine. Sackville makes ' sleep ' masculine.

' "Wisdom ' is personified as F. in the Bible {Proverbs viii.) All the arts
and sciences (if personified), ' Poetry,' and all the nine Muses are F.

Among the creatures of poetic imagination ' fairies ' are both M. and F.,
and have a king (* Oberon ') and a queen (' Titania '). ' Puck' and ' Ariel '
are M. Of goblins ' Eobin GoodfeUow ' (like the German Kobold) is M.
Among creatures called demons (in the evil sense of the word) the M.
prevails. ' Death ' is made M. and is described as ' a king ' (by Milton) ;
but ' Sin ' is the ' onother ' of ' Death.' In the oldest of English poems
('Beowulf') one of the 'monsters ' slain by the hero is called ' Grendel,'
-and a worse monster is called ' Grendel's mother.'

' Keligion,' as described by poets, is a matron. ' The Church ' is called
'a mother,' and 'Faith,' 'Hope,' and 'Love' (in union with 'Eeligion')
are all named as feminine. The following quotations are taken from
"Wordsworth : — ' Sacred Eeligion ! mother of form and fear.' ' Faith had
her arch.' 'Hope had her spire.' 'Love laid (the foundations of) her
towers.' ' The Mother Church in yon sequestered vale.'

Some amusing examples of gender poetically defined may be found in
Charles Lamb's essay — ' Eejoicings upon the New Year's coming of Age.'

Vestiges of grammatical gender are traced in some abstract Roman
nouns, when used in personification. ISTouns with the endings ' ry,' • ty,'
'tion,' 'ice,' * ance,' and 'ence,' are often treated as F. ; but exceptions
may be found, as we have already seen, in ' Industry ' and ' Indolence.'

Some English nouns with the endings 'ing,' ' ness,' and *tli' (which
are feminine suffixes in E.I.) are feminine, when used as names of per-
sonifications. But the word ' Wisdom,' with others, may show that no rule
can be prescribed for pqetical genders. ' Wisdom,' as already noticed, is
feminine in poetry, though ' dom ' is a masculine ending in E.I.

Nouns. Number. — There are two numbers — Singular
and Plural.

A noun in the Singular is the name oi one.

A noun in the Plural is the name of two or of more
than two.

The Plural is formed by adding ' s ' or ' es ' to the
singular.

This plural ' s ' belongs to the first or strong declension in the Oldest

NOUNS. NUMBER. 73

English. The word smi-S-as is the plural of ' smith.' The notion that
plural s was borrowed from Norman-French is erroneous. But it may be
true that in E.II. the general use of es, as the siiffix of the Plural, was
confirmed by its agreement with the Norman-French endings s and x.

Several Old English words change final f into ves
for the plural. Ex, : ' leaf,' ' leaves ; ' * thief,' ' thieves ; '
^ shelf,' ' shelves.'

But the plural of ' chief ' is ' chiefs.'

Several nouns ending in f, following oo, f, or r, form
their plurals by adding s. Ex. : ' roof/ ' roofs ; ' ' cliff,'
'cliffs;' ' dwarf," dwarfs.'

The plurals of ' wharf and * staff' are frequently written
as ' wharves ' and * staves.'

Final y after a vowel takes s, but after a consonant
changes to ies. Ex, : ' boys,' ' days,' ' keys ; ' but ' flies,'
' spies,' ' cities.'

Several foreign words ending in o add es to form their
plurals. Ex, : ' echoes,' ' mottoes,' ' negroes,' ' potatoes.'

' s ' only is added in ' cantos,' ' grottos,' and * mosqnitos,'
and to nouns ending in io or 00. Ex. : ' folios,' ' cuckoos.'

Some nouns have no plural forms. Ex. : ' tempe-
rance,' ' honesty,' ' fidelity.'

Other nouns have no singular forms. Ex, : ' bellows,'
* scissors,' ' means,' ' annals.' The words ' alms ' and
' eaves ' were singular in E.I. ; but are now treated as
plurals.

Some nouns have the same form for both the singular
and the plural. Ex, : ' deer,' ' grouse,' ' sheep,' ' salmon,'
' swine,' ' trout.'

Other nouns have two plural forms, for two distinct
uses.

Ex. : ' Penny ' has for the plural * pence,' to tell the
amount ; but ' pennies ' to refer to the distinct coins. ' These
four "pennies" are old coins, and are worth more than
" four-pence." ' ' " Dies " are used for coinage, but " dice "
for gambHng.' Men who are ' brothers ' by birth may be
called ' brethren,' as members of one society. Several kinds
of cloth may be collectively called ' cloths ; ' but ' clothes '

74 INFLEXIONS.

are garments. We use the word * peas ' with reference to-
number, but ' pease ' with reference to a Jcind of pulse.

The names of several sciences, or studies, have a plural
form with a collective meaning. Ex, : ' mathematics,*^
' physics,' ' ethics.'

Other collective names have only a singular form ; as,.
' cavalry ' and ' infantry.'

Many names of quantity and number are commonly
used without a plural sign. Ex. : * horse ' and ' foot ' (for
cavalry and infantry), 'pair,' 'brace,' 'dozen,' 'gross,' ' foot,^
' fathom,' ' sail.'

The following are examples of plural compound words t
— ' blackbirds,' ' courts-martial,' ' sons-in-law,' ' hangers-
on,' ' good-for-nothings,' ' handfuls of barley.'

In ' blackbirds ' the noun and the preceding adjective
make one word. When a particle or a phrase is appended
to a noun (as in ' hangers-on,' ' sons-in-law,' and ' good-for-
nothings ') the chief word takes the s. The word 'handfal"
is a firm compound, and therefore follows the rule for the^
plural. [See § 33.]

Proper names take ' s ' or ' es ' in the plural.

Or the plural sign is affixed to a descriptive term added
to a proper name. The following forms are established by
usage : — ' We met there the Browns and Smiths.' ' " Wright
Brothers " is the name of the firm.' ' Messrs. Brown and Co.*^
' Rylstone, the estate of the ISTortons, was in the midst of the
barony held by the Cliffords, and the Nortons often impounded
the Cliffords' deer.'

Particles, treated as nouns, have plural forms. Ex. :
' the ups and downs in this life : ' 'pros and cons ; ' ' ayes
and noesJ

's is sometimes used instead of s, to mark the plural of
a word seldom used as a noun. Ex : ' For once the O's and
Macs were in the right.' (Macaulay.)

s immediately following a sharp mute keeps the sound
of s in ' sea.' Ex. : ' stacks.'

NOUNS. — NUMBER.

75-

8 immediately following a flat mute has the sound of
z. Ex.: 'stags.'

The sound of z is heard also after vowels. Ex. : * rays/
' folios/ [See § 2.]

Some forms of the plural are vestiges of declension in
E.I., or of forms in E.II.

The forms 'feet,' 'geese,' 'men,' 'mice,' 'teeth,' represent E.I. plural a-
formed by vowel-change. Obsolete forms are set in Italic.

Plural

Singtdar.

Mural.

r brothers
\ brethren

honse

r houses
\ housen

children

louse

lice

r cows
\kine

man

men

mouse

mice

r eyes

\ eyen

feet

oxen

shoe

r shoes
\ shoon

yeese

tooth

teeth

r hose
\ hosen

woman

women

brother

child

cow

eye

foot
goose

hose

The plural ending en is a variation of E.I. an. Of E.II..

plurals in en only one (oxen) is now commonly used ; but in-
dialects we still find * eyen^^ ' hosen^^ * housen^^ ' peasen ' (for

* pease '), and ' shoon.*

Several foreign nouns retain their native forms in the
plural.

Ex. : Hebrew : — ' cherubim ' {jplwral of ' cherub ') ; ' sera-
phim' {pi. of 'seraph').

GreeK : — ' axes ' (pi. of ' axis ') ; ' bases ' {pi. of ' basis ');

* ellipses' {pi. of ' ellipsis ') ; 'phenomena' {pi. of 'pheno-
menon ').

Latin : — ' apparatus,' ' series ' (with singular and plural
alike) ; ' foci ' {pi. of ' focus ') ; ' memoranda ' {pi. of * memo-
randum ') ; ' arcana,' ' addenda,' ' data,' ' errata,' ' strata '
(all plurals of nouns ending in nm).

French : — ' beaux,' ' belles-lettres,' ' messieurs.'
Italian: — 'banditti' (gangsof thieves); 'dilettanti' (triflers
in art and literature) ; ' virtuosi ' (men who excel in artistic:
execution).

INFLEXIONS.

Some nouns have both foreign and English forms of
the plural.

Ex.

' dogma '
' index '
' genius '
' stamen '

^l. ' dogmata ' (and ' dogmas ')
„ ' indices ' (' indexes ')
„ * genii ' (geniuses ')
„ ' stamina ' (' stamens ')

In several instances the two forms of the plural have
distinct uses.

Ux. : The ' genii,' in fairy tales, are fabulous creatures ;
but great poets are called ' geniuses,' or ' men of genius.' We
speak of ' stamina ' with regard to a healthful constitution ;
but of the ' stamens ' in a flower. A book may have two or
three 'indexes;' but we speak of the 'indices' used in
algebra.

The following plural forms may be noticed here : —

alkaH
cargo
crisis

dryad

effluvium

fife

fish

genus

German

half

heathen

hypothesis
medium
motto
Mussulman

naiad

nebula

Plural.
alkalies
cargoes
crises

{dryades or
dryads
effluvia
fifes

fish or fishes
genera
Grermans
halves

{heathen
heathens
hypotheses
media
mottoes
Mussulmans

{naiades or
naiads
nebulae

negro

Norman

!N"orthman

oasis

parenthesis

potato

quarto

radius

soliloquy

species

summons

Turcoman

vertex

vortex

volcano

yeoman
youth

Plural.

negroes

Normans

ISTorthmen

oases

parentheses

potatoes

quartos

radii

soliloquies

species

summonses

Turcomans

vertices

vortices

volcanoes
r yeomen
\ yeomanry
f youths
\ youth

Nouns. Case. — The noun has only one inflexion — 's-
to denote case, or the relation of a noun with another word.

's is used mostly to denote possession. Ex. : ' John's
book.' But 's, as an inflexion of nouns of time, serves to
denote duration. Ex. : ' a week's holiday.' *

PRONOUNS.

When 's is added, the noun is in ' the possessive case.*
*s is a contraction of the old case-ending * es,' which had, in
E.I., uses far more extensive than those of the modem pos-
sessive 's.

The noun that should follow the possessive sign is
sometimes omitted. Ex. : ' St. Paul's ' means ' St. Paul's
Church.'

"When a noun ends with a sibilant, the s for the pos-
sessive is often omitted. Ex. : ' Mars' Hill ; ' ' for goodness'
sake.' Bnt in many similar cases the s, however harsh its
sound, is retained, as in * Chambers's Journal,' ' St. James's
Square.'

When the plural ends in ' s ' the apostrophe, or sign of
elision, alone marks the possessive case.

Ex. : ' The Nortons impounded the Cliffords' stray deer.'
's is added to other endings of the plural. Ex. : * the
children's toys.'

The 's is added to the last of two or more closely con-
nected nouns. Ex, : ' the tyrant Henry's power.'

's immediately following a sharp mute has the sound of
s in ' sea ;' 's after a flat mute has the sound of z. Ex. : ' the
goat's beard; ' 'the stag's antlers.' [See § 2.]

The sound of z follows vowels. Ex. : ' Gray's Elegy.'

*18. PRONOUNS.— E.I.

The FoBMS of Pronouns, in Modern English, belong to First English^
but so great are the alterations made in Uses, that it is impossible to give,
in all instances, M.E. forms correctly showing the uses of corresponding
forms in First English. The following are examples of alteration 3 —

M.E.

The words 'my,' *thy,* 'our,*^
and ' your ' are always placed as Ad-
jectives -with noxms following, and
• mine' and 'thine' are sometime*
so placed.

The words 'his,' 'her,' and
' their ' have uses like those of suus
and its inflexions in Latin.

Pronouns of the third person
have no plural forms representing
hi, h ra, and him.

E.I.

The forms min and |>in, lire and
edwer, as Genitive Cases, have uses
like those of Tnei, tui, nostri, and
vestri in Latin.

The forms his, hire, hira, and
>ara are Genitives, and have uses
like those of d-us, eorum, and illo-
rum in Latin.

Pronouns of the third person
have these plural forms : hi, hira,
and him.

INFLEXIONS.

E.I.

The plural forms, >a, >ara, and
J>ani are demonstrative.

Hwa is not a Eelative Pronoun.

The Interrogative hwset does
not serve as an Adjective.

Pronouns of the first and the
second person have a Dual Number.

M.E.

The plural forms, • they,' * theirs,*
and ' them ' are not demonstrative.

' Who ' is a Eelative and Inter-
rogative Pronoun.

The Interrogative * what ' serves
often as an Adjective.

There are no dual forms in
Modern English.

These examples may suflice to show the impossibily of giving such
modern forms as may indicate the several wses of Pronouns in First English.
The tables appended give E.I. Declensions of the Personal Pronouns, ic
( = I), >u ( = thou), lie ( = he), heo ( = she), hit ( = it) ; also the Declen-
sion of the Demonstrative Pronoun se or )je ( = that), and the forms be-
longing to the Interrogative hwa (= who?) To the E.I. Pronouns, he,
>e, and hwa, the forms of several Adverbs — such as ' here,' * there,' and
^ where '—belong. [See § 12.]

Singular

E.I. PEESONAL PEONOUNS.
1st Peeson.

'N. ic

G. min

D. me
.Acc.ra.Q (mec)

Plural W^^^^^^')
lus (usic)

Dual

wit

uncer

unc

unc (uncit)

2nd Peesox.

N. >u

B. >e
\Acc. \>e Oec)

Plural

edwer

BOW

.eow (edwic)

fgit

BuulVJ'''^''
^ I mcer

line (incit)

3ed Person.

Singular

Masculine.

'K he
a. his
I B. him
\Acc. hiue

Feminine.

hed

hire (heore)
hire (heore)
hi (hig, hire)

Neuter.

hit
his
him
hit

Of all Genders.

(hi (hig)

Plural \ ^'* (lieora)
riurat -i ^.^ (heo-^

(Hig)

him (heom)
I hi (hiff

THE DEMONSTEATIVE PEONOUN, se, sed,Jj8Bt(= that).

Masculine Feminine. Neuter. Of ail Genders.

(N. se (>e)
Singular \^-^ ^^

\Acc. >ane (>one)

sed

>8Bt

>8fere

>8BS

>^re

>am

jpaet

Plural \ ^^'* (*'*^*)
•^^^^^^ 1 >am O^m)

l>a

PRONOUNS. 79

THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN, hwa.

Masculine and Feminine. Neuter.

N. h wa 1

G. hW8B8l

D. hwam? (hwaem?)
Ace. hwonel (hwsene?)

hwaet?
hwsesi
hwaem 1
hwaet?

Possessive Adjectives, made from the genitive cases of personal pro-
nouns (of the first and second persons) are declined in E.I. after the form of
the strong declension. These adjectives (of -which the modern forms are
' my,' ' our,' * thy,' ' your,' ' her,' ' their ') are sometimes called ' Possessive
Pronouns.' The form ' his ' may still be used either with or instead of a
noun. The pronominal forms ours, yours, theirs, are not found in E.I. In
Old English the possessive ' his ' serves often as a substitute for the
possessive inflexion of a noun.

E.I. had no peculiar form for the Relative Pronoun. The indeclinable
demonstrative \>e was used as a relative, either alone or with another pro-
noun (personal or demonstrative). Hence we have the use of that as a
restrictive and definitive relative. In M.E. the uses of ' that ' and ' who '
have been confused.

' WTio,' the Relative Pronoun, is an altered form of the E.I. Interro-
gative, hwa. Of this pronoun hwilc ( = * which ') is a compound form.
' JVhat ' (from hwset, the neuter of hwa) has now mostly a meaning
equivalent to ' that which,' and may be used either as a pronoun or as an
adjective. The modern restriction of ' who,' as applied to persons, and of
' which,' as applied to inanimate objects, was unknown in old times. Poets,
for the sake of brevity and elegance, often use the form ' whose ' without
reference to persons, and this is historically correct.

E.I. has no Reflexive Pronoun to express an act reverted on the agent.
For this purpose the personal pronoun was used. Ex. : ' pset folc hit rests '
( = • The people rested themselves ') ; ' Turneth gin ( = sow) to me ' ( = ' Turn
yourselves to me '). Here the verb is used as reflexive, and the pronoun giu
(for edw) is in the accusative case following a transitive verb.

To give emphatic expression to a personal or a demonstrative pronoun
the adjective sylf (= 'self') is often used. Ex. : ' "We sylfe gehyrdon.'
( = « We ourselves heard '). But sylf is also treated as a noun in E.I., as we
find ' self treated by Chaucee and Shakespeake.

In E.II. the demonstrative adjective ^yond ' (or * yon£\ sometimes classed
with pronouns, was introduced. In E.I. the word geond was an adverb
and a preposition. The adjective ' same ' is still used to give emphasis to
a demonstrative. Its force is increased by combination in the word
* sdf-same.'

PEONOUNS.— M.E.

Pronouns of the following classes are more or less
inflected in M.E. : — Personal and Compound-Personal, De-
monstrative, Kelative, and Interrogative.

80 INFLEXIONS.

Excepting the Nominative — which serves as a Vocative in exclamations
— all cases of nouns and pronouns in E.I., as in other synthetic languages,
are called ' oblique.' In Modern English, names of oblique cases — except-
ing ' the Possessive ' — have mostly become so far vague that they do not
clearly denote uses. For this reason such names as * Genitive,' ' Dative,'
and 'Accusative' (or 'Objective'; are hardly noticed here in treating
modern forms, though it must be granted that vestiges of ' the Dative ' in
E.I. remain in some modern uses of pronouns. [^See §§ 47 and 49.]

Personal Pronouns of the first and second persons
have the following forms : —

1st Person. 2nd Person. 1st Person. 2nd Person.

lis

ye (or you)
you

' /,' the pronoun of the first person, and ' thou,'' of the
second person, have no inflexions with respect to gender.

In Modem English ' my,' ' thy,' ' our,' and ' your,' serve as adjectives,
but are not used as min, ]jin, ure, and eower were used for the Grenitiv&
in E.I.

Mine and thine are often used without nouns following.

Ex. : ' These books are mine.' Here ' mine ' is a possessive
pronoun. In poetry mine and thine (instead of my and thy)
are used with nouns. My and thy are pronouns with respect
to formation ; but are used with nouns, and not instead of
nouns.

' Me ' and ' thee ' follow verbs and prepositions. Ex. :

* He goes before me, and will guide me.*

The preposition ' to ' is often understood and not expressed before * me,*
as in the following examples : — ' methrnks ' ( = it seems to me), ' give me
the pen, " show me the book.' These are examples of ' the Dative Case ' in
E.I., which was represented hj ' me' without a preposition.

Old authors often use 'me' where we should now say 'for me.'
Ex. : ' Knock 7ne at this gate ; ' instead of, ' Knock for me.' This is
another use of the Dative Case, and is not unlike the familiar form of
request in ' Come, play us a tune.'

The personal pronoun ' thou,' is still found in poetry and in forms of
prayer, but has long been obsolete in conversation.

' Oui's ' and ' yours ' are used with reference to owners, but

* mills ' and ' thine ' are used with reference to one owner.
Ex. : * These books are ours ; ' ' those books are mine.'

' Us ' may represent either the object or the dative case, or
may foUow a preposition. Ex. I. : 'He led us.' II. ' He gave
us a lesson.' III. 'He will go with us.'

' You ' is placed as the subject, or as the object, or after a
preposition. Ex.: I. 'You write well.' II. 'He will guide
you.' III. ' He will go with you.'

PRONOUNS. 81

* Ye,' in Old English, was used for the subject, and * you *
for the object, or as a dependent nonn following a preposition.
Numerous examples of distinct uses for ' ye ' and ' you ' may
be found in the English Bible, \_8ee Matt, v., 11, 12 ; 21, 22 ;
33, 34]

These distinct uses of ^ye^ and ^you^ were mostly neg-
lected by dramatists of the Elizabethan age. They often
placed ' you ' as the subject and ^ye' as the object. In con-
versation the latter form is now obsolete.

The pronoun of the third person has, in the Singular,
the three forms : ' he ' (masculine), ' she ' (feminine), and
' it ' (neuter) ; but the Plural form, ' they,' serves for all
genders.

The forms ' he,' ' she,' and ' they ' serve as Subjects.

The forms ' him,' 'her,' and 'them ' serve as Objects,
and as dependent words following prepositions ; but ' it '
may serve as Subject, or as Object, or as a dependent
word following a preposition. \_See §§ 47 and 49.]

Some writers on grammar treat the forms ' his,' ' her,' * its,' and ' their '
as * Possessive Cases ' of ' he,' * she,' ' it,' and ' they.' By other writers
' his,' ' her,' * its,' and * their ' are called ' Possessive Pronouns.' These
names have reference to the stems to which the said forms belong. But,
when classified with respect to modern tcse, these forms may be treated as
adjectives. In order to show at once both their origin and their zcse, 'his,'

• her,' * its,' and ' their ' — like ' my,' * thy,' * our,' and * your ' — are sometimes
called Adjective-Pronouns. It is with reference to modem use that such
words as ' our,' ' your,' and ' their ' are here called adjectives, while ' ours,'

* yours,' and ' theirs ' are classed with possessive pronouns. A tabular
form can hardly show at once the historical relations and the syntactical
uses of all words called pronouns ; for some words that were pronouns in
E.I. serve as adjectives in M.E.

The following words are used with nouns, or as adjec-
tives : — ' my,' ' thy,' ' her,' ' its,' ' our,' ' your,' ' their.'

Possessive Pronouns, — The following words are used
instead of nouns, or as possessive pronouns : — ' mine,'
' thine,' ' his,' ' hers,' ' ours,' ' yours,' ' theirs.'

The possessive form ^his* may be used either vdth or
instead of a norni. Ex. : * That was his book.' ' That book
was his.*

Demfhonstrative Pronouns have the following forms for
the singular and the plural : —

82 INFLEXIONS.

Singular. Plural.

this these

that those

' F^Oj' the Eelative Pronoun, has the following forms
in both the singular and the plural : —

who whose whom

' Who' when employed as an Interrogative Prononn, has still the forms
* whose ' and ' whom.' Ex. : * Whose is the fault ? ' 'To whom shall we go ? '

' Whose ' mostly refers to persons, but in poetry may refer to inanimate
objects. Ex. : ' . . . brown groves whose shadow,' etc. (Shakespeabe.)
' A holy river, on whose banks are found sweet pastoral flowers.' (Wobds-

TVORTH.)

The Pronouns ' who ? ' ' whose ? ' ' whom ? ' ' which ? '
^ what ? ' and the compounds ' whoever ? ' ' whatever ? '
when used in asking questions, are called Interrogative.

The Indefinite Pronouns ' one,' ' another,' and ' other'
are used and inflected as nouns ; bub ' another ' ( = one
other) has no plural form.

* Teach me to feel another's woe,

To hide the fault I see ;
That mercy I to others show,
That mercy show to me.'

* One ' is often used as a noun. Ex. : ' One of these little ones, which
"believe in me.' (Matth. xviii. 6.) \^8ee § 44.]
' Enoiigh ' has no plural form.
The possessive forms ' eithers ' and ' eitheres ' are found in old authors.

Without the aid of inflexion, the indefinite pronouns
(' each other ' and ' one another '), when used without a
stop placed between them, and following a transitive verb,
serve to express a reciprocal action — an act in which the
agent and the object change places. Ex. : ' Love one
another.'

Compound Personal Pronouns have the following
forms for the singular and the plural : —

Singular.

myself

thyself

himself

herself

itself

Plural.
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
themselves
themselves

ADJECTIVES.

*19. ADJECTIVES.— E.I., E.II.

Adjectives in E.I. (as in Latin) agree with the nouns to ■which they
Tespectively belong in gender, number, and case. In Latin the noun puer, if
used in the genitive singular, must be changed to piten, and the adjective
bonus, if placed in concord with puerl, must be changed to boni. Like the
noun, the adjective is now of the masculine gender, singular number, and
genitive case. This likeness of form between the adjective and the noun
to which it refers is called ' Concord.^ In Modern English the reference of
the adjective is shown by its 'position, and not by a change of form.

In Latin the reference must be expressed in the form, and this rule
prevails mostly in E.I. But here concord of gender, number, and case is
not completely denoted by the second adjective, in constructions where
a demonstrative or possessive is prefixed to a qualifying adjective, as in
the following example : — 'Seo wees ]?8BS godan monnes gifu' ('It was the
gift of that good man '). Here the genitive case is marked by the demon-
strative J>8BS. The adjective godan has the form of the second, or weak,
declension ; also called De/wtYe, with respect to the use ot the Demonstrative.
In the following phrase an example is given of an adjective inflected accord-
ing to the first, or strong, declension ; otherwise called Indefinite : — * folc
heardes modes ' (' people of stubborn temper'). Here the neuter adjective
has the form of the genitive singular in the first, or strong, declension, and
this form shows that the adjective belongs to modes.

Adjectives in E.I. have inflexions, to mark more or less distinctly
gender, number, and case. The more distinctive inflexions belong to the
first, or ' strong,' declension, as the appended tables show.

ADJECTIVES.

E.I. 1st Declension

E.I. 2nd Declension.

Masculine. Feminine.

Neuter.

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter.

s^ ( blind 1 blind

blind

blinda

blinde i blinde

iJ blindes

blindre

blindes

blindan

1" blindum
<2 I blindne

blindre

blindum

blindan

blinde

blind

blindan

blinde

- Mas. Fern, and Neut.

^ ( blinde

blinde

blindu j

blindan

e J blindra

blindra

hlindena

^1 blindum

blindum

"^ I blinde

blinde

blindu

blindan

Besides inflexions to show concord, adjectives in E.I. have the endings
er and est for degrees of comparison.

The comparative suffix is er (ir, or, ur, ar). When placed in con-
cord with a noun, an adjective of the comparative degree belongs to the
second, or ' weak,' declension. For heard (hard) the comparative (if uncon-
tracted) would have these forms for the nominative case singular : —

Mas. Fern.

Neut.

heardera beardere

heardere

But these forms are mostly contracted.

Mas. Fern.

Neut.

heardra heardre

heardre

84 INFLEXIONS.

The superlative suffix is est (ist, ost).

"When placed in concord with a noun, the superlative may have either
the ' weak ' or the ' strong ' form of declension. The superlative of swi5
(strong) has these forms in the second, or weak, declension : —

Mas. Fern. Neut.

swi^esta swi^este swi^este

The corresponding forms for the superlative of Strang (strong) arft-
examples of contraction with modulation of the vowel : —

streugsta strengste strepgste

Vowel-changes are found in the comparison of other adjectives.
Ex.: Pos. Comp. Super.

aid, or eald (old) yldra yldesta

geong (young) gyngra gyngesta

lang (long) lengra lengsta

Several adjectives in E.I. have anomalous, and others have defective^
degrees of comparison.

Sa:. : Pos.

Comp.

Super.

forma (first)

fyrmesta (first)

mycel (much)

maera

msesta

yfel (bad)

wyrsa

wyrsesta

—

neara (nearer)

n^hsta (nexta)

In the first example (forma) a word already superlative takes a second
superlative, ending m-est, which, in the variation m-ost, looks like the
adverb * most.' The m here belongs to an older Grothic and English form
of the superlative — ma — found in hinduma ( = extreme, or last), and in
other words. The old superlative form, having been used as a positive, took
a suffix to make a new superlative. Thus to hindu-ma is related hindu-
m-isto, a word found in the Gothic version of the Gospels made by Ulfilas
in the fourth century. [See Matth. viii. 12.]

Possessive Adjectives, formed from the genitive cases of the personal
pronouns (of the first and second persons), are declined as adjectives having
the strong form of declension.

Ex. : *Ic fare to minum faeder ' (' I will go to my father ').

The possessive here given in the dative case is formed from the pro-
nominal genitive min (= the Latin mei).

Possessive Adjectives retained in the earlier times of E.II. some traces
of their original declension ; but when distinctive forms were efiaced, such
adjectives were made like genitive cases of personal pronouns. These
adjectives have consequently been mostly classified as 'possessive prO'
nouns' The name refers, however, to their origin and not to their use.

* Adjectives. E.II. — In Old English the two forms of E.I. for the
declension of adjectives fell into ruins before Chaucer's time.

One of the endings (e) was used as a substitute for others, served some-
times to mark the plural, and sometimes indicated the use of a qualifying
adjective with some preceding definitive word, which might be the or this,
or a possessive form. Examples of this definitive use of a final e may be
found in the opening lines of Chaxtcer's prologue to his ' Canterbury
Tales.'

This final e was, in the fourteenth century, sounded at the end of many

ADJECTIYES. — E.I., E.II. 85

•words. Without its sound many lines in Chaucee's verse would be de-
prived of harmony. The final e was elided before a vowel and before a
word beginning with h.

Traces of vowel-change in the comparison of adjectives were long
retained in Old English. An innovation was made by shortening, in com-
parison, the vowel of the positive. Thus depe (deep), used instead of
deop, had for the comparative and the superlative depper and deppest.
Many words were treated in the same manner by. Langland and other
writers of the fourteenth century. The inflexions er and est were freely
added to both English and Eoman words, and no distinctions were made
respecting euphony, or the length of words, or their terminations. The
analytical forms ' more ' and ' most ' were often used as substitutes for
inflexions, but without any observance of such rules as have been laid
down by modern grammarians. Double comparatives and superlatives
were, in Old English, freely employed in such forms as ' most clennest '
(for ' cleanest '), ' more unhappyery ' mx)st unkindest! Such forms were not
condenmed in Shakespeabe's time. One of the class is retained in the
Bible of the seventeenth century (Acts xxvi. 5), where we read of 'the
Tnost straitest sect ' of Pharisees.

In Modern English hardly any vestiges of the two declensions in E.I.
remain. There may, however, be a trace of the weak declension in our
phrase * the olden time,' and a trace of vowel-change in comparison remains
in ' old, elder, eldest' With these slight exceptions the adjective has now
no inflexion save the er and est for comparison. While these suffixes
are retained the analytical mode of indicating comparison, by using the
adverbs ' mx)re ' and ' most,' is also freely employed.

Kules intended to restrict the use of er and est are^ given in many
English Grammars, but are not generally obeyed. Soriie of the more
concise of these rules allow the use of suffixes with words of the following
classes : —

(1) Monosyllables ; (2) Dissyllables ending with le or y, preceded by
a Consonant.

Another rule would forbid the use of an inflexion after any one of the
endings ain, al, ate, ed, ent, id, ing, ous ; also after compound words
made with ful, less, and some. This extensive rule is not generally accepted.
Inflexions are often added to words ending in ed, el, er, and ant, and
such words as ' handsomest,' ' pleasantest,' ' solidest,' are found in good
authors.

The law that prohibits the use of double comparison is often broken,
but in many cases the error is logical and not formal. Inflexions or
adverbs of comparison are used with words that are incapable of com-
parison. Ex. : ' the loneliest place,' 'the most unmeasured abuse,' * a most
interminable discourse,' ' perfectest joy,' and ' extremest pain.' To make
clear the error implied in such phrases the word ' inflnite ' may be named.
It is incapable of comparison, and its true meaning should prohibit its fre-
quent use as an adjective in the positive degree. For all ordinary purposes,
•the weaker word ' indefinite * might serve as a substitute for ' infinite*

86 INFLEXIONS.

ADJECTIVES.— M.E.

Adjectives used to denote quantity and quality have
three degrees of comparison — the Positive, the Compara-
tive, and the Superlative.

The Comparative and the Superlative are formed by
the inflexions er and est.

When an adjective ends in e the inflexions are reduced to-
r and st. Ex. : ' wide, wider, widest.'

A final y is changed to i before er and est. Ex. : ' heavy >
heavier, heaviest.'

Inflexions are added to words of one syllable, and ta
dissyllables ending like ' able ' or ' heavy,' or having tha
accent on the second syllable.

The words more and most are commonly used for the
comparative and the superlative of adjectives containing
two or more syllables. JEx. : —

Positive.
careful

Comparative.
more careful

Superlative.
most carefal

diligent
industrious

more diligent
more iadustrious

most diligent
most industrious

Rules for distinct uses of ' er ' and ' est,' and their sub-
stitutes ^more^ and ' 7nost,' are neither old nor well observed..
They have been mostly dictated by a care for euphony.
Milton uses ' sdlidest,' and longer words ending in ' est.
Such words as 'pleasanter' and 'handsomest' are common
enough.

Many adjectives are incapable of comparison. Fx..
' square.'

Double superlatives seem useless, but they are often found
m the works of good English writers. Ex. : ' chiefest,
' extremest.'

To express degrees of diminution the words ' less ' and
' least ' are employed. £x. : ' less severe,' ' least useful.'

To add strength to the Comparative, ' far ' and ' by far ''
are used, and the Superlative is aided by the phrase ' of all.*'
Ex. : ' the greatest of all wonders.'

VERBS. E.I., E.II.

The Latin comparative adjectives ^junior,' ^ senior,^ etc.,
are not followed by ' than.'

The following adjectives have irregular forms of com-
parison. Some words ending in ' most ' have arisen from
confusion of the adverb ' most ' with the old double super-
lative m-est, of which one variation = m-ost.

Positive.

Comparative.

Superlative.

bad

worse

worst

evil

worse

worst

far, feorr (adverb)
forS (adverb)

forme (E.II.)

farther
further

former

farthest
furthest

r foremost

t first

good

better
hinder

best
hindmost

worse

worst

—

inner

inmost

late
little

later (latter)
less (lesser)

latest (last)
least

many
much

mo (E.II.)
more

most
most

near

old

up (ad/verb)

ut, out (adverb)

nearer
older (elder)
upper
outer
utter

nearest (next)
oldest (eldest)
upmost (uppermost)
utmost (outermost)
utmost (uttermost)

' Many ' serves as an adjective and as a pronoun. There
is no etymological ground for calling ' more ' the comparative
of ' many ; ' but more and most are used with reference to
number as well as to quantity.

*20. VERBS.— E.I., E.II.

That part of a Verb that remains when inflexions are taken away is
called the Stem.

Inflexions of Verbs are changes of form, serving to denote changes of
Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.

Mood means manner or mode,
m, Tv,« :4.- « \ makes no assertion. Ex.: 'to write.'

ThelnSrve ^««1^^^«- ^. :' he writes.'

The Imperative f^oo^ of a verb- commands. Ex.: 'come!'

The Su^unctive I "^^l ^^PJf « ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^? ^^tnrity.

*' '' V ^ar.: 'if he cowie to-morrow.

Tense means time.

88 INFLEXIONS.

Two tenses — Present and Past — are denoted by inflexions.
Ex. : Present : ic onginiie = I begin.
Past : ic ongau = I began.

In E.I. the form of the Present is often used for the Future. Ex. : ' Ic
fare to minum feeder' = 'I go to my father ; ' but it mai/ mean, 'I will
go to my father.'

When no auxiliary (or helping) verb is used a tense is called Simple.

The verbs ' have ' and ' shall ' are sometimes called * auxiliaries,'
because they give aid in the formation of tenses.

Ex. : Future : ' I shall find.*
Perfect : ' I have found.'

These tenses are called Compound tenses.

Number.— A verb is used in the Singular when one person or thing is
the subject of which we speak, but in the Plural when we speak of more
than one. Ex. : ' he speaks ;' 'they speak.'

Persons. — In each number there are three persons.

1. I speak

2. Thou speakest

3. He speaks

The Infinitive Mood has no distinctions of Number and Person. The
forms in this Mood belong historically to verbs, and are therefore called
' verbal ;' but they tell nothing, and therefore cannot serve as verbs to give
union to the parts of a sentence.

The Conjugation of a Verb is a plan showing the several forms of one
Verb, when used with reference to variations of Mood, Tense, Number, and
Person. "When no helping verb is used the conjugation is Simple ; when
helping verbs (such as ' have ' and ' shall ') are used, the conjugation is
Compound.

There are two Conjugations formed without using any auxiliary verb.

I. The Old Conjugation, otherwise called ' Strong.'

II. The New Conjugation, otherwise called ' Weak.'

Old — Present : ic finde = I find.
Past : ic fand = I found.

New — Present : ic lisele = I heal.

Past: ic hael-de = Iheal-ed.

The Old Conjugation makes the Past by a change of the vowel.
The New Conjugation makes the Past by adding de.
There is another distinction. To form a Perfect tense we use ' have '
followed by a form called the ' Perfect Participle.'
Ex. : ic haebbe begunnen = I have begun.
ic hsebbe haeled = I have healed.

The Perfect Participle with ' had ' forms the tense called Pluperfect.
Ex. : ' ic hiaefde begunnen ' = I had begun.

Begunnen, a Perfect Participle of the Old Conjugation, ends in en.

Heeled, a Perfect Participle of the New Conjugation, ends in d.

The Old Conjugation in E.I. is, with respect to the changes made in
vowels, divided into eight classes of verbs. Seven are noticed here. The
eighth has hardly any representative in Modern English.

The seven classes in E.I. are in M.E. still represented more or less by

VERBS. — E.I., E.II. 89

Terbs of the classes to which < begin,' 'bear,' 'bid,' 'take,' 'drive,'
♦freeze,' and 'blow' belong; but the vowels, in the vnodern forms, do not
always correspond with those of the old verbs. Vowels are more changeable
than consonants.

For the piirpose of committing to memory the forms of modem strong
verbs, the classification here given has no great value ; but it will be found
usefal by all who would study the history of the English Language.

In the following table, the more characteristic changes of vowels in E.I.
are given, but several variations that cannot be concisely defined are
omitted. In the classes numbered 4th and 7th the Past has, in E.I., no
vowel-change to distinguish the Plural from the Singular ; but in the other
<;lasses the Plural in the Past has its distinct vowels.

Present Past Perfect Participle

(Abbreviation = Pr.) (Abb. = P.) (Abb. = P.P.)

1st Class. i a (P^. u) u

Ex.: beginne begauu (begunnon) begunnen

M.E. begin began begun

Here the vowel-change remains in M.E. ; but it does not serve to make
•distinct the Plural of the Past.

2nd Class. e (or i) a (PI. ae) o

Ex. : bere bar (baeron) boren

M.E. bear bare (or bore) bom

bear (carry) bore borne

The distinct forms of the Perfect Participle, as used to denote two mean-
ings of the verb, are modem.

3rd Class, e (or i) a (PI. sb) e (or i)

Ex. : bidde bad (baedou) bedeu

M.E. bid bade bidden (or bid)

4th Class. a 6 a

Ex. : tace toe tacen

M.E. take took taken

5th Class. i & (PI. i) 1

Jpjc. : drife draf (driifon) drifen

M.E. drive drove driven

The diphthong sound of long i (as * eye ') in * drive ' is modern. In the
E.I. form, drife, the sound of i = ee in ' feet.'

6th Class. e6 ea (PL u) o

Ex.: fredse freas (fruron) froren

M.E. freeze froze firozen

e6 and ea are diphthongs in E.I.

7th Class. 8, \ ^ /&

ek(etc.)J ^ \ea

Ex.: blawe bledw blawen

M.E. blow blew blown

It seems probable that in E.I. the aw in this verb and in others of the
7th class had a sound like that of ow in ' tower.'

E.I. and E.II. Verbs of the Old Conjugation, here arranged in seven

INFLEXIONS.

classes, are sometimes collectively given under the general title * Irregular
Verbs,' which means only that they are not inflected like the New Verbs
* praise ' and ' call.' Old Verbs thus given as ' Irregular ' are, moreover,
mixed with contracted and other forms of the New Conjugation — such as
' say,' ' pay,' * tell,' and • hear.'

A glance at the Old Verbs in the 1st, 4th, 5th, and 7th classes suffices
to show that they cannot be truly described as 'Irregular' in E.I., and, in
a later section, we shall see that in M.E. Old Verbs of the classes numbered
1st, 4th, 6th, and 7th still retain a considerable likeness to their original
forms in E.I. The forms of E.II. may be generally described as transi-
tional, and, in several verbs, are made perplexing by their great variety ;
for writers of E.II. maintained, with respect to spelling, unbounded freedom.

Signs and abbreviations found in the appended tables have the following
uses : —

Pr. = Present (1st Person Singular) Indicative. P. = Past (1st
Person S.) Indicative. P.Pl. = Past Plural Indicative. P.P. = Perfect
Participle. The dash ( — ) after the Past S. indicates that no vowel-change
takes place in the Past PI. The sign ... indicates that a verb, or a form,
is not found in E.I., or in E.II. For example, the verbs ' fling,' * thrive,*^
and ' crow ' are not found in E.I. The abbreviation etc. indicates that
several variations are found in E.II., or that some variation exists in E.I.

For the pronunciation of some E.I. letters see § 2. The final short e of
the Present {1st Person Singular) mag be sounded as e in the word ' met.''

Old Conjugation, E.I. and E.II. — 1st Class.

Pr.
M fginne
f4 \onginne

E.II. beginne

binde

clinge

dinge

drince

drinke

feohte

fehte

finde
finds

flinge

P.
gan
ongan

begonj

band

bound (etc.)

clang

dang

P.Pl.
gunnon
ongunnon

begunnen

bundon

bouuden

clungon

clongen

dongen

P.P.
gunnen
ongunnen

begonnen

bunden

bounden

clungen

dongen

M.E.

(begin)

(bind)

(wither)
(shrink)

(ding ( =
beat)

[This verb has still old forms in the Scottish dialect.]

drauc

dronk

feaht

fau3t

fand

fand\

fond/

flang (etc.)

druncon

drunken (etc.)

fuhten

foughten

fandon

funden

druncen

drunken

fohten

foghten

funden

founden

floungen

(drink)
{fight)
(find)

(fling)

VERBS. — B.I., E.II.

Pr.
grinde

grinde

P.
grand

grond

P.PI.
grundon

grunden

P.P.
grunden

grounden

M.E.

{grind)

melte

mealt
malt \
melted/

multon
molten

molten

{melt)

rings

rang

rongen

rungen

iring)

[Q^

lery: The conj

agation of hringan in E.I.?]

ryme
\eome

rinne

am
rann

ran {etc.)

urnon
runnon

runnen {etc)

urnen
runnen
runnen {etc.)

{nm)

scrince

schrinke

scranc

schrank

scruncon

schronken

scruncen

schrunken

{shrink)

since

Binke

sane

sank

suncon

sonken

suncen

sunken

{sink)

singe

sang

sungon

songen

sungen

{sing)

slince

slanc

sluncon

sluncen

{slink)

slinge

slang

slang {etc.)

slungon

slongen

slungen

slongen

{sling)

spinne

span

spunnon

sponnen

spunnen

sponnen

{spin)

springe

sprang

sprang (e^(?.)

sprungon

sprongen

sprungen

{spring)

stince

stinke

stanc

stank

stuncon

stonken

stuncen

stunken

{stink)

stinge

stang

stong {etc.)

stungon

stongen

stungen

{sting)

swelle

sweall

Bwal

swuUon

swollen

{swell)

swimme

swam

swummon

swummen

{swim)

Bwimme

sworn "\
swimmedj

swommen

swinge
swinge

swang

Bwong

swungon

8 won gen

swungen
swungen

{swing):

winde

wand

wond

wundon

w«»^on

wunden
wunden {etc.)

{windy

INFLEXIONS.

Pr.
winne

■winne

wringe
•wringe

bere

brece
breke

scere

schere

stele

swerie
swere

cnme

come

bidde
bidde

ete

gife

3ife {etc.)

gite

3ete

liege
ligge

P.
wan

wan : won

wrang

wrong

bar

bar {etc.)

brae

brak

scar

schar
scharde

stal
stal "1
stale/

swor

swoor

sware

cwam
com

cami
com/

bad

bad
bed

}

set

at : set {etc.)

3af {etc.)

geat

gat

lag

lay {^tc.)

P.PL
wunnon

wonnen

wrungon

wrungen

2nd Glass.
baeron

beren

brsecon

braken

scaeron

scheren

stselon

stelen

sworon

sworen 1
sweren /

camon {etc.)
comen

3rd Class.
bsedon

eeton

eton {etc.)

geafon
3aven (etc.)

geaton

geten {etc.)

leegon

laien {etc)

P.P.
wuniien

wunnen

wrungen

wrongen

boren

boren"]
born >
borne J

brocen

broken

scoren

schom

stolen

sworen

comen "1
cum J

beden

eten

eten {etc.)

gifen
3iven {etc.)

geten
goten 1
geten >
J

M.E.

{win)

{wring)
{hear)

{break)
{shear)

gotted_

legen

lain {etc.)

{swear)
{come)

{bid)

{eat)
(give)

{get)

{lie dotm)

YERBS. — B.I., B.II.

Pr.
seo

se (etc.)

P.
seah
sah {etc.)

P.PI.
sawon (etc.)
sawen (etc.)

P.P.
sewen {etc.)
seen {etc.)

M.E.

{see)

sitte
sitte

sat

sat : saet

saeton
seten

seten
seten

{sit)

spreco (etc.)

speke

sprac

spak (etc.)

spreecon

speken

sprecen {etc.)
spoken

{speak)

trede

trad

traedon

treden

{tread)

trede

trad: trod

traden {etc.)

troden "1
tredded/

—

wefe

waf

weefon

wefen

{weave)

were

waf

weven
4th Class.

woven

tace

take

toe

took 1
takede/

tacen

taken {etc.)

{take)

forsace

forsake

forsoc

forsok

—

forsacen

forsaken

{cUny)
{forsake)

grafo

grave

grof
grof \
graved/

—

grafen

graven

{engrave)

blade
lade

Mod

lod

—

hladen

laden

{lade)

sceace

schake

scoc

schok \
shaked/

—

scacen

schakeni
shaked /

{shake)

scape

Bchape

scop

schop

—

scapen
schapen \
shapid J

{shape)

scafe

schave

scof

sehof ^
schavedj

—

scafen

schaven

{shave)

stando

stonde

stod

stood,

standen

stonden

{stand)

wace

wake

w8c

wook

—

wacen

waken

{wake)

INFLEXIONS.

5th Class.

Pr.
drife

drive

draf

P.PI.
drifon

driven

F.P.
drifeu

driven

M.E.

{drive)

arise

aras

arisen

[{arise,
\ rise)

rise

ras : roos

risen : resin

risen

bide
bide

bad

bad {etc.)

bidon

biden

f {wait for,
\ endure)

[The modern form ' abide '

= stay.-]

bite

bat

biton

biten

{bite)

cide

chide

cad

chyd 1
chiddej

cidon
chidden \
chyd /

ciden
chidden \
chid /

{chide)

ride

rad

ridon

riden

{ride)

rive: rife

raf : rof

riven

{ri^e)

seine

schine

scan

schon

scinon

schinen

scinen

{shine)

slide

slyde

slad

slood

slidon

sliden

{slide)

smite

smat

smiton

smiten

{smite)

smite

smati
smotj

smiten {etc.)

smiten

—

stride
stride

strad
strad 1
strode J

stridon

striden

{stride)

strive

strof 1
strivedej

streven "1
striveden /

striven

{strive)

thrive

throf : thraf

thriven

{thrive)

write

wrat

writon

writen

{write)

-vrrite

wrat^
wrot >
writ J

writen

writen 1
wretenj

—

VERBS. — E.I., E.II.

6th CiASB.

Pr.
fredse

frese

P.
freas

fres \
frees/

P.Pl.
fruron

P.P.
froren

froren

M.E.
{freeze)

cedse

chese

ceas
cheas "1
ches J

curon

chosen "1
chesenj

coren

chosen

{choose)

ledse
lese

leas
les: lees

luron
luren : loren

7th Class.

loren

loren : lorn \
lost /

{lose)

l)lawe

blows

ble6w

blew {etc.)

—

blawen

blowen

{blow)

beate

bete

bedt

bet : bette

—

beaten

beten : bett

{beat)

cnawe

knowe {etc.)

cnedw

knew {etc.)

—

cnawen
knowen

{know)

^rowe

crew

—

crowen

{crow)

fealle

faUe

feoll
feol:fel(efc.)

—

feallen
fallen

{fall)

growe

gre6w

growide/

—

growen

{grow)

growe

—

growen

—

healde

holde {etc.)

heold

held {etc.)

—

healden

holden

{hold)

heawe

hewe

hedw

hew {etc.)

—

heawen

hewen {etc.)

{hew)

mawe

meow

—

mawen

{rrmo)

mowe

meow : mew

—

mowen

—

sawe

sedw

sawen

{BOW)

sowe

sew : sowide

—

so wen "1
sowid/

>rawe

throwe

>re6w

threw {etc.)

)>rawen

throwen

{throw)

As examples of E.II. verbs (of several
the following may be noticed : — bersten {burst),

having mam/ variations
eaten {eat)^ fehten {fight).

INFLEXIONS.

fleon {fiee), healden {hold), hebben {heave), laughen {laugh), liggen {lie-
down), rinnen {run), schawen {show).

Many * strong ' verbs in E.I. have, in the course of eight or nine centu-
ries, become obsolete, and many have been wholly or partly transferred to
the New Conjugation. Others have passed over from one class of the Old
to another. The following, belonging to the fourth class in E.I., belong
now to the New Conjugation : —

Pr.
bace
hebbe
weaxe

P.
boc
hof
weox

p.m.

P.P.
baceu
hafen
weazen

M.E.

bake

heave

wax {=grow)

The verb 'swear* soon passed over from the fourth to the second class.
Its forms in early times included the following : —

Pr.
swerie

P.
swor

P.PI.
sworon

P.P.
sworen "1
(swaren) j

M.E.

swear

These two verbs have been transferred from the fotcrth to the seventh
class : —

Pr.
drage
slahe

P.
dr6g
sldh

The following are

Pr.
cleofe
Aeoge
scedte
sed^e

P.
cleaf
fleah
sceat
sea«

P.PL

P.PI.
clufon
flngon
scuton
sudon

P.P.
dragen
slagen

P.P.
clofen
flogen
scoten
soden

M.E.

draw {= drag)

M.E.

cleave { = split)

fly {as a bird)

shoot

seeth { = boil)

The eighth class in E.I. may be called extinct, for it is but slightly
represented in the present tense of one verb — ' hang.' So far as this
retains the form ' hung ' (in P. and P.P.) it belongs to the first class of
Old Verbs ; but it is now treated mostly as a verb of the New Conjugation.
The E.I. forms of the eighth class are shown in the following examples : —

Pr.
fange

P.
f^ng
heng

P.PI.

P.P.

M.E

fangen

take

hangen

hang

Simple Forms of Conjugation. — It has already been noticed that when
no auxiliary, or helping, verb is used, the conjugation of a verb is called
Simple, and that when any auxiliary verb is used the conjugation is Com-
pound.

Ex. : * he wrote ' is a Simple tense, but ' he has written ' is a Compound
tense.

The treatment of the Compound Conjugation is postponed.

Verbs in E.I. had some peculiar forms used in the Subjunctive Mood,
but those forms are lost in M.E.

Of the forms of the Indicative that remain in M.E. three — marked
•with * in the appended table — are obsolete in conversation.

YERBS. — E.I., E.II.

The appended table gives, in E.I. and M.E., the simple forma of bindan
-a verb belonging to the Ist class of the Old Conjugation.
The Subjunctive Mood is omitted. [See § 23.]

INDICATIVE

MOOD.

E.I.

Present Tense. M.E.

Sinff.
Flur.

1.
2.

ic bind-e
i)U bind-est

he bind-et;

lUnd
* thou bindesf
f he binds or
\* bindeth

1.
2.
3.

we-|

ge ), bind-a-S

hij

we 1

ye [bind

theyj

Past.

Sinff.
Hut.

1.
2.
3.

ic band
l>u bund-e
he band

I bound
* thou bounds st
he bound

1.
2.
3.

wel

ge \ bnndon

hi]

we -1

ye V bound

they J

IMPEEATIVE MOOD.
Sing, bind (iiwcZ) | Plur. bind-E'S {bind)

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Noun, bind-an (to bind)
Gerund, (to) bind-anne (to

Imp. Part, bind-ende {binding)
Perf. Part, bund-en {bound)

E.II. gradually introduced changes in forms of conjugation, mostly
leading towards a general disuse of inflexions. In the Northern Dialect,
the ending es, or one of its variations (is and ys) took the place of est
in the 2nd person Singular, of eth in the 3rd person Singular, and of
a^ in all persons Plural of the Indicative Mood, Present Tense. In the
Midland Dialect en was used as a substitute for atS in First English, and
in the South Dialect a'S was represented by eth.

edest (or ed'st), used as the ending of the 2nd person Singular (Past),
belonged in E.I. to the New Conjugation ; but was sometimes afl&xed to
verbs of the Old Conjugation in E.II., and so produced some harshly-
sounding forms— such as ' hound' st.' The Northern Dialect cast off the 'st
in the 2nd person Singular (Past) of weak verbs.

In the Imperative Mood eth (with variations) was long retained as the
plural ending. Its loss leaves only one form in the Imperative Mood.

an, the ending of the Infinitive (or Verbal Noun), was changed to en ;
also to e.

anne (enne or ene), the ending of the Gerund — or the Verbal Noun
H ^

98 INFLEXIONS.

dependent on a preposition — was lost in the course of transitions made in
the fourteenth century.

In E.I. the form of the Gerund followed the particle to, and was used,
in the first place, to express a purpose. Ex. : * A sower went out to sow'
Here, to translate ' to sow ' into E.I., the Gerund to sawenne must be used.

The fwrm ending in anne, etc., was also used in E.I. to express (like the
Latin Gerundive) duty, destination and obligation. Ex. : ' He is a man
to he lovedJ ' This fact ought to be known.' Here the forms to lufienne
and to witanne would be used in E.I.

The form ending in anne, etc., was also used to follow a verb of vague
or defective meaning — for example, the verb ' begin.' Ex. : ' He began to
Jiee away.' 'He began to steal.' In E.I. the forms to fleonne and to
stelenne might be used in these sentences ; but the verb ' begin ' might
also be followed by the Infinitive. Ex. : • He ongan hi set >^re s^ laeran '
(' He began to teach them beside that lake '). ' His feeder ongan hyne
biddan ' (' His father began to entreat him').

The name ' Dative,' sometimes given to the Gerund, has reference to
its form (as following to), but does not describe its several uses.

The imperfect participle, having the suf&x ende, in the Midland Dialect,
with inde (Southern) and ande or and (mostly Northern), often changed
inde to inge and ing in the thirteenth century, and the substitution of
inge and ing for the older forms was confirmed in the fourteenth century,
though the older forms did not then disappear. Chaitceb speaks of men
who ' came in ' lej^and' {i.e. ' leaping ').

en, the ending for the Perfect Participle of the Old Conjugation, was
long retained in E.II., and still remains in such modern forms as ' driven,'
'forsaken,' 'frozen,' 'shaken,' 'taken,' and 'written;' and in the obsolete
or half-obsolete forms, 'baken,' 'graven,' ' smitten,' 'stricken,' and 'waxen.'

The process of weakening, contracting, and casting away the en of the
P.P. began early in E.II., but went on slowly. Some strong verbs were
made weak. In others the form of the P.P. was contracted, as in the ex-
ample ' sown,' used instead of ' sawen ' or ' sowen.' In other verbs the loss
of final n was followed by the loss of final e. Meanwhile vowel-change
for the Past Plural of verbs was gradually more and more neglected, and
consequently the Past and the P.P. of some verbs were made identical in
form, as in the example ' bound.' In the Elizabethan age the Past was
often used instead of the P.P., as by Shakespeare, in the words 'arose '
(for ' arisen '), ' drove ' (for ' driven '), ' smote ' (for ' smitten '), and
"wrote' (for 'written').

In M.E. the Past, in some verbs, retains the oldest vowel of the
Singular ; in others that of the Plural. In the examples ' bare ' and ' bore '
the vowels of the Past (Singular) and the P.P. are both retained. Some-
times the oldest vowel of the Singular (Past), though obsolete in conver-
sation, is retained in poetry. Ex.: 'brake' (for 'broke'), ' drave' (for
' drove'), and 'sprang' (for 'sprung') are found in Shakespeare, and in
other poets are found such old forms as ' sank ' and ' shrank,' used instead of
* sunk ' and ' shrunk.'

The first result of gradual decay in inflexions, during the long time
^hen various forms of E.II. were written, was to make a few endings—
mostly en, es, and e — serve for several distinct uses, en, for example,
was employed, in Midland dialects, as a verbal ending in the Plural of both
Present and Past (Indicative), in the Plural of the Subjunctive, in the Infini-
tive or Verbal Noun, and in the Perfect Participle, while it served, moreover,
to form the plural of some nouns. It was but natural that an ending of
-which the uses were so vague should at last be cast aside.

YERBS. — E.I., E.II.

In First English the prefix ge was placed before verbs, and sometimes
modified their meanings. In Old English this ge (softened in sound and
reduced to the form of y or i) served mostly as the prefix of the P.P., and,
without changing its meaning, made it distinct from the Past, when vowel-
changes had passed away. This prefix y or i — freely used by Chauceb in
the fourteenth century — was afterwards used as an archaism in poetry by
Sackviij^b, Spbnske, and by later authors. It is now altogether obsolete
in prose, and almost in verse, though ifc may be found here and there in
modem verse — for example, in Thomson's ' Castle of Indolence ' and in
Btron's ' Childe Harold.'

In Modern English the results of decay in verbal inflexions are these : —

"We have not one distinct form left for the Subjunctive Mood. It has
been supposed that ' wert ' (2nd person of the Singular, Past, in the conju-
gation of ' be') is a Subjunctive form; but it is often found in sentences
where the meaning is cleanly Indicative.

We have lost en, the ending of the Infinitive or Verbal Noun, anne, etc.,
in the Gerund, and en in many Perfect Participles.

In the Indicative Mood the endings est (Present) and ed'st (Past) are
retained in literature, but are obsolete in conversation, eth for the 3rd
person Singular (Present) belongs to archaic literature. The Plural has no
inflexions.

In the simple conjugation of a strong verb we have, therefore, only
seven or eight distinct forms — seven, if the verb is like ' bind '; eight, if,
like ' write,' it retains a distinct form of the P.P. Of these seven or eight
endings, three — est, ed'st, and eth — are obsolete in conversation.

In the simple conjugation of a weak verb we have only four distinct
forms, if we omit those obsolete in conversation.

The appended table of verbal forms in E.I., followed by the forms of
E.II. and M.E., will serve to convey some general notion of the process by
which our verlDal inflexions have been reduced to their present scanty
number.

OLD CONJUGATION.— INDICATIVE MOOD.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

1. ic bind-e

2. }>u bind-est

1. bind-e

2. bind-est (and -es, -is, or

-ys in Northern dia-

1. I bind

2. thou bindest

3. he bind.e«

1. we)

2. ge bind-a-S

3. b

1.
2.
3. ■

ind-eth or bint, and in

Northern dialects bind-

es (-is, -ys)

bind-eth, bind-e ; with

bind-es (-is, -ys) in

Northern dialects,

and bind-en in Mid-

^ land dialects

8. he binds

1. we )

2. yon bind

3. they

f8.
P

1. icband

2. ))ubnnd-e
8. he band

1. we [bundnn

2. ge \ or

3. hi (bnnd-on

1. t

2. I

3. b
1. )
2.
3.

and (bond)
6nd-e
and (bond)

bond-en, bond-e, bond,
bound

1. I bound

2. thou bound'st

3. he bound

1. we ]

2. you bound

3. they

100

[NFLEXIONS.

IMPEKATIVE MOOD.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

8vng. bind bind i
FVur. bind-a« bind-eth ; North, dial, bind-es |

bind
bind

INFINITIVE MOOD.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

Verbal Noun.

Gerund, (to)

Imp. Fart.

Perfect Fart.

bind-an
bind-anne

bind-ende

bund-en

bind-en, bind-e

(The form in anne was lost in

the fourteenth century)
bind-ende, bind-inde, bind-and,

binding
bond-en, bond-e, bond, bounden,

bound

(to) bind:
(to) bind'

binding

bound

The New Conjugation. E.I., E.II.— In First English the New Con^
jugation makes the Past by connecting the ending de with the stem of the-
verb. The Perfect Participle ends in ed or d.

Ex.

Pr.

hsel-e

p.
heel-de

p.p.
hael-ed (heal.)

In First English the Conjugation of weak verbs included two forms of
connecting the suffix with the stem. In the first form the connective
vowel was e (or i). The connective of the second form was 6.

Pr.

P.P.

'.: I. ner-i-e

ner-e-de

ner-ed (save)

II. luf-ig-e

luf-6-de

luf-6d {love)

III. h»l-e

liael-de

hael-ed (heal)

The third is an example of verbs in which the connective vowel e is
mostly omitted when the vowel of the stem is long. In luf-ig-e the g
(softened to a y sound) serves to keep distinct the two vowels i and e.

In Modern English the connective vowel 6 is lost, e remains, but is
mostly silent, save when it follows d or t.

The connective o was mostly changed to e in the earlier time of E.II.
The final e of the Past feU into disuse in the later development of Old
English,

The endings, est for the 2nd person Singular (Present) ; eth and S for
the 3rd person Singular (Present) ; an for the Infinitive ; ende, etc., for the
Present Participle ; and anne for the Gerund, are used in E.I., alike in the
two conjugations New and Old.

The ending edest, for the 2nd person Singular (Past), belonged
originally to the New Conjugation ; but in E.II. the same ending was some-
times aflfixed to verbs of the Old Conjugation.

The appended table shows two forms of the New Conjugation in E.I»
In both the Subjunctive Mood is omitted. [See § 23.]

VERBS. — ^B.1., B.II.

101

hsBlan = to heal.

Indicative Mood.

Present.
S. 1. ic hsBl-e

2. )>u hsBl-est

3. he Ii8el-et5
P. 1. we

2. fire Vhael-a-S

we "]
hi J

lufian = to love.
Indicative Mood.

S. 1.
2.

Present.
luf-ig-e
luf-ast
luf-a«

P. 1.
2
3

luf-i-aiS

-Sf.

1. ic hael-de

2. >u hsel-dest

3. he hael-de

1. we "1

2. ge I

3. hi J

hEel-dou

1.
2.
3.

Po^iJ.

luf-6-de

luf-o-dest

lnf-»-de

Inf-o-dun

or
luf-o-don

Imperative Mood.

8. hael
P. haBl-a«

Imperative Mood.

8. luf-a
P. luf-i-a«

iNFiNTnvE Mood.

Fi?r6aZ Noun.

Gerund,

Imp. Part.

P.P.

hael-an
hsel-enne
hael-ende
heel-ed

Infinitive Mood.

Verbal Noun, luf-i-an

Gerund, luf-i-enne

Imp. Part, luf-ig-ende

P.P. luf-od

In E.I. and E.ll. several weak verbs, by syncopation of stems and
suffixes, and by assimilation, were made more or less irregular in their con-
jugation. These are here classified mostly with reference to their forms in
Modern English. Some verbs, of which ' let ' is an example, have now only
•one form for the Present, the Past, and the Perfect Participle. The
original forms of the first six verbs following are not found in E.I., but are
found in Old English.

Inf.
casten

Pa^t.
caste : kestide {etc.)

P.P.

casten : cast

M.E
(cast)

costen

costed : coste

costed

(cost)

cutten

kottede : cutte

cut

(cut)

hurt«n

hirtide : hurte

hurt

(hurt)

pntten

putte

put

(put)

«cheden

schedde

sched

(shed)

102

INFLEXIONS.

Inf.
hreddan

redden

screadian

schreden

scyttan

schutten

settan

setten

spraedan

spreden

Past.
hredde

redde

screadode

schred

scytte

schette

sette

spradde

P.P,
hreded

rod

screadod

schrede

scytted

schet

seted : sett

set

spraeded

sprad .

M.E,

{rid)

{shut)
(set)

(spread)

Several verbs — represented by ' meet ' — have now no change for P. and
P.P. save a shortening of the vowel, which was long in E.I.

P. P.P. M.E.

(bleed)

Inf.
bledan

bledeu

bredan

breden

fedan

feden

h^dan

hiden

laedau

leden

metan

meten

riden

reden

spedau

speden

bledde

bredde

fedde

hydde

hidde

laedde

ledde

mette

redde

speddf

P.P.
bleded

bled

breded

bred

feded

fed

hyded

hid

Iseded

led : i-lad

meted

met

reded

red

sped

(breed)

(feed)

(hide)

(lead)

(meet)

(read)

(speed)

Some verbs — represented by ' keep,^ ^bend^ and ^ gird' — have mostly
Perfect Participles ending in t. Among them several (of which '^/rcJ' is
an example) retain also the regular P.P.

Inf
aligbtan
lighten

bendan

benden

P.
alihte

hghte: lit

bende

bende "1
bente f

P.P.
alighted

lit

bended

bent

H.E.

(alight)

(bend)

VERBS. — E.I., B.II.

103

P.P.

M.E.

bildide : bilde

builded

ihuUd)

oepte

kepte

ceped

kept

{keep)

deelde

deledel
delte /

daeled

deled \
delt /

(deal)

dremde

dremede

dremed

( = rejoict
(= dream

felde

felede : felte

feled

(feel)

gyldede

gilte

gylded

gilt

{gild)

gyrde

girde

gyrded

girt

{gird)

knelede \
knelte /

—

{kneel)

IflBfde

levede \
lefte /

laefed

left

{leave)

Iffinde

lened\
lente /

Isened

lent

{lend)

msende

maende

msened

ment

{mean)

reafode

reafde

reafod

reft

{bereave)

slep : slepte

aslopen

{deep)

swipode

Bweped

swipod

sweped

{sweep)

wende

wente

wended

went

{wend)

wep : wepte

wopen

{weep)

104

INFLEXIONS.

Two verbs — ' sell ' and ' tell ' — have long 6 instead of ea in the Past of
E.I. The change vras made in E.II.

Inf.
syllan

sellen

tellan

tellen

sealde

soldo

}

tealde
tealde 1
talde \
tolde J

P.P.

seald

sold

teled

told

M.E.

{sold)

(tell)

In ' clothe' (P. clad) contraction has taken place, and the sound of ^
has, by assimilation, been changed to that of d. In ' make' (P. 'made ') a
guttural c with the connecting vowel 6 is lost.

The E.II. contractions and other variations of 'habben' (P. 'hadde,'
etc.) are numerous.

Inf.
cla'Sian

clathen

habban
habben |
haven >{etc.)
han J

macian

maken

P.
claiSode

cladde

hafde
havede "^
hevede >{etc.)
hadde J

macode

makede

P.P.
cladod

clad

hafed

haved \
had /

macod

made

M.E.

(clothe)

(have)

(make)

In the Past of ' shoe ' and 'flee syncopation takes place, with a vowel-
change from long to short.

The transition from ssegde to saede, for the Past of secgan (to say) is
explained by a reference to the E.I. alphabet. Guttural g, in some posi-
tions, had a softened sound like that of y.

sceoian

shoen

seggan

sayen ^(etc.)
sayn J

scode

shode

saidel
seide/

P.P.
scod

shoed : shode
shod

said "1
seid J

.E.

(say)

In several verbs the stem-vowel has been changed to ou (in ' teach ' to
au) for P. and P.P. ' Work ' retains, in M.E., the regular form, besides
the P. and P.P. * wrought'

VERBS. — E.I., E.II.

105

Inf.
l)ringan
bringen 1
brengen J

bycgan

biggen 1
buyen J

brohte
brofite 1
broughtej

P.P.
broht
brought 1
broght /

M.E.

ilyring)

bohte
bouhte 1
boghte /

Koht
bou3t\
boht /

{buy)

s6hte \
souhtej

soht 1
sought J

{^Jc)

III

taeht
taught \
taht J

{teach)

>eahte
)>ohte 1
t>ouhte/

J>oht

>ought\
>oht /

{think)

worhte

worht

{work)

wrohte 1
wroughtej

i-worht "1
wroht >
wrought J

—

teecan

techen

j^encan
Menken

wyrcan

wirken

The appended table partly shows the process by which weak verbs have
passed, through transitional forms, into the forms now accepted as belonging
to Modem English.

NEW CONJUGATION.— INDICATIVE MOOD.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

'8. 1. ic hsBl-e

2. >u hael-est

3. he h8Bl-e«

P. 1. we -]

2. ge Ihsel-aS

3. hi J

1. h

2. h

3. h

1.
2.
3. <

el-e

el-est(-es, -is, -ys)

el-eth (-es, -is, -ys)

hel-eth, hel-e ; in
Midland dialects,
hel-en ; in North-
ern, hel-es (-is,

L -ys)

1. I heal

2. thou heal-est

3. he heals or heal-

eth

1. we ~j

2. you yheal

3. they J

(8. 1. ic hflBl-de
2. ^u hsel-dest
•«J 3. he hsel-de
4^ 1 P. 1. we 1

1. hel-e-de, hel-e-d

2. hel-e-dest

3. hel-e-de, hel-e-d

1. I heal-e-d

2. thou heal-e-dst

3. he heal-e-d

\- Ihel-e-den, hel-e-de,
I J hel-e-d

1. we ^

2. you \-heal-e-d

3. they J

MPERATIVE MOOD.

E.I.

E.II. M.E.

8. hsBl 1
P. hsBl-a-S 1

hel-
hel-

eth ; North, dial, hel-

1 heal
es 1 heal

[06

INFLEXIONS.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

Ferbal Noun.

Gerund, (to)

Imp. Part.

Perfect Part.

heel-an
hael-enne

lisel-eiide

hsel-ed

hel-en, hel-e

(The form in enne was lost in

the fourteenth century)
hel-ende, hel-inde, hel-and,

hel-ing
hel-ed

(to) heal
(to) heal

heal-ing

heal-ed

The general result of decay in verbal inflexions is that in M.E. the
Simple Conjugation is brief. On the other hand Compound Forms of Con-
jugation hare hardly any bounds ; for besides the auxiliaries ' have, ' shall/
and ' will ' others may be used. Ex. : * do,' ' may,' ' can,' ' must,' and ' go.^
The poverty of our Simple Conjugation is shown in the appended tables.

The Simple Conjugation of ' write ' (a strong verb having the greatest
number of inflexions) includes only eight distinct forms, and of these three
(here printed in Italic) are seldom used. In all the places left blank the
form ' write ' is used.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

Sing. 1. I — I Plur. we —

2. thou writest ye (you) —

3. he writes (writeth) i they —

Past.

1. I wrote we

2. thou wrotest ye (you)

3. he wrote they

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

}

wrote

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Noun, (to) write
Imperfect Participle, writing
Perfect Participle, written

The Simple Conjugation of the weak verb ' call,^ having the ending ed
for both the Past and the Past Participle, is briefly indicated in the following
tabular form. One sign ( — ) indicates the form of the verb in the first
person Singular of the Present, and another sign („.) indicates the form
of the Past and the Perfect Participle. The pronouns, ' I,' ' thou,' * he '
(singular), and 'we,' 'you,' 'they' (plural), are indicated by the numbers
1, 2, 3.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.
Sing. 1.

— est
— s

Plur. 1.
2.
3,

Past.

...'St

YBRBS, E.I., E.II.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.

107

Infinitivh Mood, (to) — ; Imperfect Participle, — ing.
Perfect Participle, . . .

For Compound Conjugation in E.I. the verbs bedn, weor'8an, and
habban are used with Participles ; sculan, sometimes serving to indicate a
future time, conveys also a notion of obligation.

Bedn and weor'San {to become) are used with Participles in the Passive
Voice.

The Imperfect Participle is used with bedn, etc., to denote progressive
action, as in ic eom spreceude ( = I am speaking).

The Perfect Participle with habbe forms a Perfect, and with hafd&
forms a Pluperfect Tense, but the simple Past is often used instead of the
Pluperfect.

All these forms of Compound Conjugation were continued in E.IL, and
the use of * schal ' ( = sceal in E.I.) for the Future was greatly extended.
The auxiliary ' habben ' has, in Old English, many variations, of which
only a few are given in the appended table.

habban ( = have)

E.I.

E.II.

M.E.

. (8. 1. habbe

habbe, hafe, have

have

1 1 2. hafst

habbest, hafest, havest, hast

hast

E 1 3. hafa-S

habbeth

has, hat

•^ I P. habba-S

habbeth, hafeth, haveth, hath

have

iS. 1. hafde

hafde, hadde, hefde {etc.)

had

^- J 2. hafdest
1 j 3. hafde

haddest, hevedest {etc.)

hadJst

hevede {etc.)

had

I P. hafdon

heveden {etc.)

had

Verbal Noun, habban

habben, hafen, haven, ban

to have

Gerund, to habbenne

to habben e

to have

Imp. P. habbende

havande {etc.), hevinge

having

P.P. hafed

haved, had

had

* Irregular Verbs.— E.I. , E.II.

Verbs belonging neither to the Old Conjugation nor to the New are
called Irregular (or Anomalous). Some have forms of the Past now used
in the Present Tense, and are defective in the number of Tenses. The
Irregular Verbs, of which some E.II. forms are given in the appended
tables, have in E.II. many variations that are here omitted. Words
remaining in M.E. are printed in Italic. E.II. forms are printed in Roman.
The boldest type indicates the words belonging to E.I.

The forms of bedn belong to three sterns, and may here be distributed
in two tables.

am ( = am)

Pr. Past.

8. 1.

<im

wses

eart

were

Inf. wegan

wses

Imp. P. wesende

are

were

P.P. gewesen

108

INFLEXIONS.

8. 1.
2.

Pr.

beo : be

bist

beth

beoth : smden

Pr,

s. 1.

dest

ded

don

beon (= be)

Past,

do {= do)

Past,
did
didest
did
ded : diden

Inf. beon
Imp. P, beende
PJP. bin

Inf.

Imp.

P.P.

P. doinge

don

S. 1.
2.
3.

Pr.

ga :go

gast

gas : goth

gangan— go (=5ro)

Past.
yode

gang : gon

eode : yede
■ (3rd p.)
eode : yude P.P. gon : ago

With respect to ' a^o' and many other words, it should be noticed that,
while the form is retained, the use of the word is changed.

Inf
Imp. P.

gan : gon
goinge

8. 1.

3.
P.

Pr.

wende
wendist
(wends)
wenden

wendan (^z= to go)

Past.

went
wentest

wenten

Inf
P.P.

wenden

went

In E.II. the forms used to give the tenses of ' go ' belong to three
stems. The form * wends ' still belongs to poetry. In Old English, as in
Modern, wew^ serves as the Past of ^0. The forms 'go,' 'gon,' etc., come
from the E.I. verb gangan. The forms 'yode,' etc., come from 'eode,' a
weak verb, distinct from both gangan and wendan.

can (= can)

Con now = to study. The old meanings of the Infinitive were • to be
€ible, ' ' to know.' In M.E. the Indicative forms assert power or ability.

Pr. Past.

8. 1.

3.
P.

can

canst : (
can
connen

Inf

cuthe
cuthest
cuthe
couden

Cunning ' had formerly the meaning of ' being able.'

con (= study)
P. cunning ( = sly)

VERBS.— E.I., E.II.

dar( =

: dare = venture)

Pt.

Past.

dar

darst : dare
dar : dare
durren

dorste
dorstest
dorste
dorsten

Inf.

daren {etc^
daurmg ( = hold)
done

seal ( = owe)

Pr.

Past.

seal

scalt : slial

seal

sculen

sculde
sculdest
sculde
sculden

Inf

sculan

109

8, 1.

3.
P.

This verb (sculan) aflTords a remarkable instance of slow decay, or dimi-
nution, in the meaning of a word. Sceal is historically a past tense of
skila, and in meaning = ' I have killed some man, and therefore must now
pay the penalty.' The word still conveys a notion of obligation, especially
when the modern past form, ' should,^ is used in the second person.
Ex. : ' You should pay your debts.'

mow ( = am able)

Pr.

Past.

8. 1.

3.
P.

mow

myght : maist

mai

mowen

mohte
mihtest
mihte
muhten

wille (= w

ill, the a

Pr.

Past.

8. 1.

3.
P.

wille

wilt : will
wille
wolen

wolde
woldest
wolde
wolden

Inf. mowe
P.P. might

Inf.

willan

The independent verb • to will ' ( = to the phrase * to have a will,' or =
to * bequeath by will ') is a weak verb, and is regular in its conjugation. It
is seldom used. [8e€. New Test., John xvii. 24.]

owe ( = ought)

8. 1.

Pr.

owe
owest
ah : ought
owen

Past.

ouhte
oughtest
ahte {etc.)
ouhten

Inf. owen
Imp. P. owinge
P.P. ought

DIALECTS. — VARIATIONS.

must ( = must)

Pr. Past.

S, 1.

3.
P.

mot

most : mote

mot

moten

moste
mostest
moste
mosten

Inf.

Of this verb M.E. retains only one form
the Present Tense.

motan

' must,' now used mostly in

weor'San ( = become)

P. 1.

2.
3.
P.

Pr.
weor^e
wyrst

wyr'S, worth
weor^a-S

Past.
wear^
wurde
wear's, wserd
wurdon

Inf.
P.P.

weor'San
geworden

This verb was used with participles in the Passive Voice of verbs
in E.I.

* Worth ' is used with the meaning of ' be to' in ' woe worth the day ! '

* E.II. DIALECTS.— VARIATIONS.

Of Variations in Old English Verbal Forms a very large majority are
nothing more than so many modes of spelling. Other variations — more
important — represent three dialects. Of these the Sonthern was spoken
in divisions of England lying south of the Thames, The Midland was
spoken in Norfolk, Suffolk, Lincolnshire, and the Midland shires, and —
farther north — was partly altered by contact with other modes of speech.
Thus and — a participle ending of the Northern Dialect — is found here and
there in the Midland. Some divisions may be made in the Midland Dia-
lect, but of variations the East Midland is so far the most important that
it may be called 'the Midland.' The Northern Dialect was spoken in
Middle and Eastern districts lying north of the Humber, and in the Low-
lands of Scotland. Characteristic Verbal Endings are given in the tables
appended, which are not intended to show variations, such as are found in
each of the three dialects.

SOUTHEEN DIALECT.

Present.
PI

est
eth

eth

{Indicative.)
1.
2.
3.

de(d)

dest

de(d)

Past.
PL

Imperative Mood.
Sing, e | PI. eth (e)

Imp.

Participles.
inde, ing |

2. Uen(de,d)

Perf ed

The prefix i (or y) often serves to make the Perfect Participle distinct
irom the Past Tense,

WORDS ENDING IN ing.

Ill

^ing. 1.
2.
3.

est

eth

MIDLAND DIALECT.

Fl 1.
2
3

;}

{Indicative.)
vn^. 1.
2.
3.

Past.
PI

Imperative Mood.
Sing, e | PI. eth (e)

de(d)

dest

de(d)

Participles

den (de, d)

Imp. ende, and, ing Per/, ed

In the Midland, as in the Southern Dialect, the prefix i (or y) often
serves to make the Perfect Participle distinct from the Past Tense.

■Sitig. 2
3

18 (es)

NOKTHERN DIALECT.

Present. (Indicative.)

PI. 2.-1

Past.

S.J

is (es)

Imperative Mood.
— 1 PL es

Sing. 1.) PI. l.^

2. Ut (ed) 2. Ut (ed)
3.J 3.J

Participles.
Imp. and, ing | Per/, it (ed)

WORDS ENDING IN ing.

The ending ing served as a substitute for inde in the Southern Dialect,
ende in the Midland, and ande (or and) in the Northern.

FmsT English had two uses for the concrete suffix ing, which served to
form words mostly used as concrete nouns, and others used here and there
as adjectives. "With this suffix used in forming concrete nouns — such as
cyn-ing (king) — 1 was sometimes connected, as in h^re-1-ing (hireling).
A distinct and abstract suffix, ung (or ing), served with verbal stems to
form abstract nouns, such as endung. In the Class of concrete nouns in
ing, the connexion of 1 with ing had not always a diminutive meaning.
In some examples the suffix ing seems to make no difference in the mean-
ing of the stem. Thus, ' lording ' in some places = ' lord.'

In Old English the uses of words having the suffix ing were extended.
They served, as participles, connected with verbs, and denoting such con-
tinuous acts as were expressed by older participle forms ending in inde,
ende, and and. And as words ending in inde, etc., might be used either as
participles or as adjectives, so later forms of participles (ending in ing)
were also employed as adjectives. Meanwhile ing served also as an end-
ing of abstract and of concrete nouns.

The following are examples of the two uses to which participle forms
having the endings inde, ende, and and were applied in E.II.

Participles. — 'The thief is comynde.' 'He was gangende.' 'We er
here lyffand ' (living). Adjectives. — ' Biscopes singende.' ' Folc (here)
woniende ' (people dwelling here). ' Damysels wanderand by spring
wells.' ' A ganand (suitable) servant.'

Old English words in ing have therefore versatile uses. They may —
but not without respect to their meanings — represent First English concrete
-and abstract nouns ending in ing and ung, or may serve as participles
•and adjectives. All these four uses belong to our modern forms in ing.

112 DIALECTS. VARIATIONS.

The following are Old English examples of words in ing serving as
participles : —

' A pore wydow . . . was duellyug in a pore cotage.' * We were entry-
ing at a townes ende.' * Syngynge he was or flowtynge all the day.' ' Con-
science was coming.' * Conscience was chiding.'

The following are examples of words ending in ing, and serving as
nouns : — ' Our birthe here es begynnyng of the dede that es our endyng.'
' Styntyd is the mornyng ' (The mourning is ended). ' At the last a
changing befell.'

The following are examples of Old English words ending in ing and
serving as adjectives : — ' Mid (with) barninge golde.' ' A worthy weed, well
closing ' ( = A good coat, well fitting), ' Business, that cunning creature,
can soon bring him there.' ' The balmie dew, through birning drouth, he
dryis.'

In the Northern Dialect the verbal form ending in ing was, in nu-
merous examples, treated as a noun, and words ending in and served mostly
as participles and adjectives. But to the same dialect belong three of the
examples here given of adjectives included among forms ending in ing.
These forms were not always employed as nouns in the Northern Dialect.

In the appended excerpts from writings in the three dialects of E.II.
forms that are found following verbs, and serving to make complete asser-
tions, are called 'Participles.' In Syntax these forms are classified with
others called ' Complements of the Predicate.' [See § 46.]

EXAMPLES OF E.II. VEEBAL FOKMS.

Present and Past {Indicative) Sinp., 2nd Person.

Present. Past.

Southern Dialect. Jju ha vest. Jju haddest.

Midland „ }>u seyest. >u lovedest.

Northern „ >ou spendis. >ou crowned. |>ou had.

Present and Past PI. (1st and 3rd Persons.)

Present. Past.

Southern Dialect. We habbeth. We hadden.

„ „ Men knoweth it. Men liveden.

Midland „ We loven. We walked in the feldes.

„ „ Some sayen. Thay preyeden ( = prayed).

Northern „ Now we win. We keepit him.

„ „ Men sayis. They keepit him.

Imperative (Plural).

Southern. Walketh (ye) !— Stondeth ! ( = Stand !)
Midland. Walketh !— Stondeth !

Northern. Erely gyf yhe ! — Wepes namore ! — Gives timpan ! (Bring a
timbrel !) Blawes (in) heme ! (Blow the trumpet !)

Imperfect Participles.

Southern. Weepynd — berninde ( = burning) — barninge ( = burning).
Midland. Walkende — lepand ( = leaping) — singinge.
Northern. Burnand ( = burning) — coming — following.

VARIATIONS.

iia

Perfect Participles.

Sovihem. Heled — loved — arayed — i-cristned — y-blissed.

Midland. Wounded — oflFendid — y-buried — bl essy d — blessed.

Northern. Displeasit ( = displeased) — delayit ( = delayed).

As modern forms in ing may serve (a) as nouns, {b) as participles, and
(c) as adjectives preceding nouns, so some (a) may be defined by adjectives,
some (6) may be followed by nouns serving as objects, and some (c) may —
like adjectives — be defined more closely by connexion with adverbs.

The general tendency of the language in the time when Old English
was written was to increase greatly the number of verbs belonging to the
New Conjugation, to which nearly all the verbs borrowed from Old French
were transferred. The verb ' strive ' (of which the stem is Teutonic}
represents the Old French verb estriver, but is conjugated as a verb
belonging to the fifth class of the Old Conjugation. Some verbs were
gradually and permanently transferred from the Old Conjugation to the
New ; but there remained such old forms of verbs as are given in the list
appended.

Old Forms of Verbs that have been mostly transferred to the
New Conjugation.

Old Forms of P. and P.P. are given, with numbers denoting classes of
the Old Conjugation to which the old forms belong. The form given for
the Present belongs to Modern English.

ache
bake
bow
brew

burst

Pr.

cleave

creep

delve

dread

fare

flee

float

fold

fret

glide

gnaw

grave

gripe

hang

heave

help

knead

laugh

leap

let {permit)

P.P.

—

bok

baken

bea5

bowen

brew

browen

barst(e^c.)

borsten")
(etc.) 1

carf

corven

clef

cloven

crep

cropen

dalf

dolven

dred

adrad

for

faren

fleih

flowen

flet

floten

felde

folden

ftat

freten

glad

gUden

gnew

gnawen

grof

graven

grap

gripen

heng

hongen

hof

hoven

heaf

haven

halp

holpen

—

kneden

hlo

lawhen

lep

lopen

let

laten

Pr.
lie (speak)
falsely)]
lock
lose
melt
mete
reap
rive
row
seethe
shape
shoot
shove
sleep
slit
starve
swell
thrive
walk
wan-p
wash

weep

weigh

wreak

wreathe

yell

yield

P.P.

leh

lowen

lek

loken

leas

loren

malt

molten

mat

meten

repen
riven

reow

rowen

seth

soden

schoop
schot

shapen
schoten

schef

schoven

slep
slat

i-slepen
sliten

starf

storven

swol

swollen

throf

thriven

welk

i-walken

wearp
wosch

worpen
waschen

wox

waxen

wep

bi-wopen

way
wrak

weyen
wroken

wrae'5

writhen

Sal
yald

SoUen
golden

114

DIALECTS. YAKIATIONS.

An attempted transfer of verbs from the Old Conjugation to the New
failed in some instances, and occasionally new or weak inflexions were
given to verbs that still retained their strong inflexions.

New Forms of Verbs still wholly or partly belonging to the
Old Conjugation.

In the list appended, new forms of P. and P.P. found in Old English are
given, with numbers denoting classes of the Old Conjugation to which the
verbs belong. The form given for the Present belongs to Modern Engish.

Pr.

draw

grow

heljp

know

lose

ring

run

shake

shine

P.P.

Cl.

Pr.

drawede

—

7 :

SOW

growide
helpede
knowide

helpid

7
1

strew "1
strow J
strive

loste

lost

swell

ringede
rennede

—

1
1 i

swim
take

shakide

tear

shapide
shinde

shapid

5 1

tread
wax

P.
sowide
strewede
strowide
strivede
swellyd
swymmed
takede
terede
tredede
wexide

P.P.
sowid
strewed
strowed

teared
wexid

Obsolete Verbs.

Of Old English verbs called obsolete a considerable number may still
be found in dialects of the North of England and in the Lowlands dialect
of Scotland, which is erroneously treated as a 'language' distinct from
English. These verbs, and others now forgotten, mostly denote physical
actions and transitions in nature, or serve to express the common passions
of men. The following are a few examples of obsolete verbs : — ' agrise '
(dread), ' belimpe ' (happen), 'beorge ' (protect), ' chine' (split), 'dreoge'
(mourn), * fremme ' (act well), ' for-slouthe,' or, in its later form, 'foreslow'
(lose by sloth), ' grete ' (mourn), ' greythe ' (make ready), ' hele ' (conceal),

* lake ' (leap ; or play), ' loute ' (stoop), ' fese,' or ' pheese ' (scare ; drive
away), ' rowte ' (snore), ' snithe ' (cut), ' stise ' (ascend), ' swice' (deceive),
'the' (thrive), 'thole' fsuffer), 'threpe' (call; or scold), 'thwinge'
(constrain), ' twinne ' (separate), ' weorthe ' (become). For some meanings
the old vocabulary had words almost synonymous. The general meaning
of the verbs ' to fail ' and ' to decay ' belongs to the old words ' blinne,'
or ' linne ' (cease), ' clinge ' (wither), ' swele ' (waste away), ' swelte '
(faint; die), and 'sweorce' (grow faint). The general meaning of the
verbs ' to seize ' and ' to take ' belongs to the old words ' fo ' (or ' fonge '),
' gripe,' ' hente,' ' lacche,' and ' nime.' It may be noticed here that
smooth, modern versions of some old writings convey false impressions of
life in the Middle Ages. Our study of English words may serve to correct
some historical errors. Of harsh manners in olden times our language
bears witness. In words of strife and warfare the old vocabulary was
wealthy, and contained, besides some verbs not obsolete, the following : —
"flite' (strive), ' grimme' (rage), 'hnate' (knock), ' reave' and ' strude'
frob), 'schende' (ruin), and ' wrece' (wreak ; avenge). The verbs 'sace,'

* ■wige,' and * winne ' all mean ' to fight,' and the meaning of * to destroy *
IB expressed by ' cwele ' (whence ' quell'), ' drepe,' and • spille.'

THE MIDLAND DIALECT. 115

Gradual Prevalence of the Midland Dialect.

In Scotland, during the time 1350-1650, transitions in language were
made more slowly than in the Midland districts of England, and words
borrowed from the Old Northern (or Icelandic) tongue were long re-
tained in the Old English dialect spoken in the Lowlands of Scotland. In
some forms of declension and conjugation, and in a considerable part of its
vocabulary, that dialect has individuality. But many words not found in
writers of Southern First English might exist in the popular English tongue
of the oldest time, for Old Northern was cognate with First English. The
so-called Old Scottish ' Language ' is merely one of the three dialects of
English. In the fourteenth century the difference made between the
Northern and the Southern Dialects was already so great that men who spoke
the latter could hardly understand well the former. In the later part of
the fifteenth century, and in the earlier part of the sixteenth, transition in
the speech of the more central parts of England was accelerated by the
introduction of printing, and at the close of the sixteenth century special
glossaries were required by readers of books written in Langland's time.
In the hundred years that passed away between that period and Spenser's
time, the relations of the three dialects were changed. The Northern was
left least altered. In Scotland educated men, who could write Latin, spoke
Old English, such as seemed uncouth and ' out of use ' to men living within
sixty miles of London, or in the South and West of England, The Southern
Dialect retreated and belonged mostly to the West. Meanwhile the Mid-
land— greatly altered in the course of the hundred years — assumed the
character and the position of Standard English, and was spoken in London
and its surrounding districts.

Variations in Old English — such as have been noticed — are indeed
manifold; but they do not make our language, as written in the later
mediaeval period, a tongue separate, on one side, from First English, and,
on the other, from Modern English. * In England, from the time of JElfric
to the present, one tongue has been always spoken by the people.' To
support this assertion the following facts may be noticed.

tElpric, a bishop who lived in the tenth century, wrote (as he tells us) a
a book ' on engliscre spreece' — i.e. in the English speech. In the next hun-
dred years Canute's secular laws were written, and were proclaimed * on
englisc,' in order that they might be understood and held valid ' ofer eall
Engla-land ' — that is to say, throughout all England. It is clear, then, that
* the Danes ' had not suppressed the language of the people, and if rude
and cruel invaders could not do that, it was not likely it would be done by
the Normans, who were (comparatively speaking) civilized and educated
men.

After the Conquest — as before— when Latin words and phrases were
used, in sermons addressed to the people, translations were introduced by
phrases such as are seen in the following examples : — ' Bimitte nobis dehita
nostra — haet is, on englisc, Forgif iis ure gyltas ;' ' Observa diem sabbatl —
J>et is, on englis,' etc. It seems clear that after the Conquest men called .
the speech of JElfric and bijS' predecessors English; for Latamon, who
lived in the twelfth century, speaks of ' >a Englisca hoc' that was written by
the venerable Beda, who lived in the eighth century. Orm, who wrote in
the thirteenth century a harmony of the Gospels, described his own work as
turning 'intill Ennglissli ' the holy doctrine of God's word. This writer
had his own rule for spelling; he always doubled the consonant following a
short VQwel. In the fourteenth century Chatjcer, though he employed

116 DIALECTS. — VARIATIONS.

many French -words, wrote (as Spenser tells us) good English, and in the
fifteenth century several -writers of English verse lived in Scotland, as ■we'
are told by Dunbab, their follower, -who, in the early part of the sixteenth
century, -wrote good English poetry. Chaucer, -when he speaks of diver-
sity in modes of -writing, still calls the language spoken throughout
England ' our tongue.' Trevisa, who -wrote English in 1387, complained
that pronounciation was so far discordant in various districts that Southern
men could not understand the speech of Northern men. Still the three
' languages ' of which he writes were but three dialects of English. Put-
TBNHAM (in his 'Art of English Poetry,' 1589) tells the poets (or 'makers ')
who were his cotemporaries that in their choice of diction they must,
neither follow such old authors as Langland and Chaucer, nor imitate
Northern modes of speech ; but at the same time he confesses that Northern
men spoke purer English than was spoken in and near London. A Scottish
writer of the sixteenth century tells us that ' Inglis men and Scottis men '
can never agree, though ' thai be nychtbours ' (neighbours) ' and of ane

Of some -writers who lived in the seventeenth century it might be said,
they strove to bury their o-wn speech under an accumulation of Latin com-
pounds ; but English was still the language of the people, and its strength
was shown in the authorized version of the Bible. To display the wealth
of his native tongue, a writer named Fairfax published, in 1674, a book
of which the aim was to exclude nearly all words borrowed from Latin.
In later times good authors have written so as to unite the two elements
of our composite language. At the present time, the notion of treating
modern forms -without reference to old forms may be called obsolete. Our
' household words ' and our construction of sentences are closely connected
with Old English.

Such variations as belong to one language are, in appended examples,
placed in contrast with differences that separate one language from another.
It is obvious that, in the excerpts following the number 3, there are no
differences such as are seen when those examples are compared -with Latin,
Italian, and Cymraeg excerpts foUo-wing the numbers 4, 5, and 6. It is
also ob-vious that Gothic, Old High Oerman, and First English are closely
related Teutonic languages, and do not differ from one another as they
differ from Eoman and from Keltic languages.

1. Gothic. 4th century. Vairthai vilja theins, sv6 in himina, jah

M.E. Words. Become will thine, as in heaven, also
ana airthai. Lausei una af thamma ubilin. Oif uns himma daga, etc.
on earth. Ee-lease us from that e-vil. Give us this day, etc.

2. Old High Qerman. 8th century. Uuerdhe uuilleo thin sama so

M.E. Words. Become will thine same as
in himile endi in erthu. Arlosi unsih fona ubile. Gib uns hiutu, etc.
in heaven also in earth. Ee-lease us from evil. Give us to-day, etc.

3. English. 9th century.

„ 14th century.

,, 19th century.
SW& (so) swa (as) on heofenum

as in hevene.

aa in heaven.

Geweor^e J)in willa on

eor'San

Be thi wille don in

erthe

Be thy will done in

earth

1. Alys us of yfele.

De-lyver us from yvel.

Ee-lease us from evil.

OLD CONJUGATION. — M.E. 117

4. Latin. Fiat voluntas tua sicut in ccelo et in terra.
M.E. Words. Be done will thy as in heaven also in earth.

5. Italian. La tua volunta sia fatta in terra come in cielo.
M.E. Words. — thy will be done in earth as in heaven.

6. Cymraeg. Bydded dy ewyllys ar y ddaear megis y mae
M.E. Words. (Let) be thy will on the earth as (it) is

yn y nefoedd. G wared ni rhag drwg. Dyro i ni heddyw, etc.
in the heaven. Re-lease us from evil. Give to us to-day, etc.

Of the stems seen in the excerpts from First English only one (wear's)
is obsolete in our English of the present time, and that stem may be found
here and there in Modern English literature.

21. THE OLD CONJUGATION.— M.E.

[For the use of learners who do not study Old English, some definitions
^already given in *20 are rej^eated in § 21.]

Verbs, when called Intransitive and Transitive, are
•classified with respect to meaning. Verbs, when classi-
fied with reference to forms, are called Old and New, or
Irregular and Defective. Inflexions of Verbs are changes
of form serving to denote changes in Mood, Tense,
Number, and Person. That part of a Verb that remains
Tvhen inflexions are taken away is called the Stem.

Mood means manner or mode.

When a Verb is named without any assertion, or any
•expression of a wish or a supposition, the Verb is used
in the Infinitive Mood.

Ex, : ' (to) write.' The particle ' to ' is here called
** the sign of the Infinitive Mood,' and does not retain the
force of the preposition ' to,''

For the purposes of making assertions, expressing
negation and asking questions the Indicative Mood is
employed. Ex, : * He writes.' ' He fears no foe.' « Do
you say that ? '

The Imperative Mood expresses a command or a
jequest. Ex. : ' Come ! '

The Subjunctive Mood serves generally to express
notions that imply contingency or possibility. When
both doubt and futurity are implied, the Subjunctive
Mood, or manner of speaking, may be used.

118 INFLEXIONS.

Ex, : ' If he come to-morrow, I shall see him.'

But many writers and speakers -would say ' if he comes.'' [See § 68.]
The Subjunctive Mood has no peculiar inflexion. When we write (in
the Subjunctive Mood) such a sentence as ' if he were here,' we do not use
a peculiar form for the Subjunctive. One of the forms of the Indicative
Plural is here used in the Singular, in order to denote the difference be-
tween a supposition and an assertion.

The Verbs ' have,' ' shall,' ' will,' and ' be ' are called
Auxiliary Verbs, because they give aid in the Conjugation
of other Verbs.

Tense means time. The Present, the Past, and the
Future are the three chief divisions of time.

The Verb has inflexions to make the Past distinct
from the Present. Ex, : Pr. ' he writes ;' Past, ' he wrote.'
Pr. ' he commands ; ' Past, ' he commanded.'

By the aid of Auxiliary (or Helping) Verbs ('shall,^
' will,' and ' have ') other distinctions are made, so that at
least six Tenses may be enumerated : — •

Present, he writes. | Perfect, he has written.

Past, he wrote.
Future (Imp.) he will write.

Pluperfect, he had written »
Future {Per.) he will have
written.

The Perfect speaks of the Past -vvith a reference to the Present. ' I
wrote the letter ' (Past), ' and now I have written it ' (Perfect.) The Plu-
perfect refers to a point of time as antecedent to another in the Past.
Ex. : ' I had written my note before the arrival of the mail.' The Future
Perfect refers to a point of time as antecedent to another in the Future.
Ex. : ' I shall have ended my work before they come to-morrow.'

Three Tenses — the Present, the Past, and the Future Imperfect — have
reference to an unfinished action. Three — the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and
the Future Perfect — have reference to a finished action. The two Tenses
having reference to future time are sometimes named respectively the First
Future and the Second.

The Verb is in the Singular when one person or thing
is the subject of which we speak, but in the Plural when
we speak of more than one. In each Number there are
three Persons.

Fie.: 1st. 'I speak;' 2nd. 'thou speakest ; ' Srd. 'he

The Plural has no inflexions of Person.
Ex. : ' we write ; ' ' yon write ; ' ' they write.'

OLD CONJUGATION. — M.E. 119

The Conjugation of a Verb is a plan showing several
forms serving to denote variations of Mood, Tense, Number,
and Person.

When no Auxiliary (or Helping) Verbs are used, the
Conjugation is Simple.

Ex. : ' wrote ' is a part of the Simple Conjugation.

When Auxiliary Verbs are used, the Conjugation is
Compound.

Ex.: ^has written' is a part of the Compound Conjuga-
tion.

' Writing ' and ' written ' are called Participles. While
{like Verbs) they denote action, they may be used as
Adjectives.

' Writing ' may serve here as an example of Participles
called ' Imperfect.' ' Writing ' is used, with Helping
Verbs, to express continuous action — Present, Past, or
Future.

Present. I am writing.
Fast. I was writing.
1st Future. I shall be writing.

' Written ' (a Perfect Participle) is used to form, with
Helping Verbs, the three following Compound Tenses : —

PERFECT.

Singular. Plural.

1. I have n we "]

3. he has J

you V have written

they J

PLUPERFECT.

1. I had 1 I we 1

2. thou hadst > written you >had written

3. he had J they J

FUTURE PERFECT.

ill -]
wilt V
iU J

1. I shall

2. thou wilt ^have written
8. he wiU

we shall "^

you will >have written

they will J

120 INFLEXIONS.

In Modern English — as in First English and in Old
English — Verbs have two Conjugations — the Old and the
ITew.

In some Grammars the two forms of Conjugation are respectively called
' Strong ' ( = Old) and * Weak ' ( = New). In other Grammars the New
Conjugation is called ' Eegular,' and the Old is called ' Irregular.'

In the Old Conjugation the Past Tense is expressed by
the change of a vowel.

In the New Conjugation the Past Tense has the suffix
^ d,' representing de in First English.

Old. New.

Present. I write. I love.

Fast. I wrote. I loved.

The Perfect Participle is the form used with ' have '
in the Tense called ' the Perfect.'

I have written Old.

I have loved New.

The Perfect Participle of the Old Conjugation does
not end in d.

The old suffix en, for the Perfect Participle of the Old Conjugation, has
been dropped in many instances ; but remains in the Participle ' written.'
Here, however, the modern tendency to drop the suffix en is indicated.
We read, in the English Bible (of the seventeenth century), ' What I have
written I have written,' but a modern author says, in verse, ' What is writ
is writ'

The Perfect Participle of the New Conjugation ends
in d.

In pronunciation, and in one mode of spelling, this d is in some verbs
changed to t. [See *2.]

A few Verbs belonging neither to the Old nor to the
New Conjugation are called Irregular.

The three forms of a Verb chosen to indicate its Con-
jugation are those found in the 1st Person Singular of the
Present Tense, the Past, and the Perfect.

Present. Past. Perfect.

Old. I write I I wrote I I have written.

New. I love i I loved I have loved.

OLD CONJUGATION. — M.E.

121

The second form is that which may be used with the adverb • yester-
<iay.' The third form is that which follows ' have'

Ex. : ' I wrote yesterday.' — ' I have written.'

Forms respectively appropriate to the three persons are, in the Singular,
partly made distinct by these personal endings: — est (or, in verse, 'st) for
the second person, and es or s (with eth or th) for the third person of the
Present. In the Past the first and the third person are in form alike ; but
est or 'st, added to the tense-ending ed, makes for the second person of
verbs in the New Conjugation the ending ed'st. The person-endings est,
s, and eth are used alike in the two conjugations ; but eth is archaic or
poetical in literature, and is obsolete in conversation. The Plural has no
endings showing distinctions of person.

In the following table the Simple forms of Conjugation — i.e. the changes
Tnade without the aid of Helping Verbs — are given in the two Conjugations,
Old and New.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Old Conjugation.
Fresent S. I know

PI.

Pasts.

PI.

thou know-est
lie know-s
we "I

you > know
they J

I knew

thou knew-est

he knew

we 1

you >knew

they J

New Conjugation.
I call

thou call-est
he call-s
we "1
you > call
they J

I call-ed
thou call-edst
he call-ed
we 1

you > call-ed
they J

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

8. and PI. know j call

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Noun.
Invp. Part.
Per. Pa/rt.

(to) know
know-ing
known

(to) call

call-ing
call-ed

Old Verbs arranged in Seven Classes.

Old or Strong Verbs in First English are, with respect to vowel-
changes in P. and P.P. forms, arranged in Eight Classes. In Modern
English remains of vowel-changes are found, more or less, in Seven Classes
of Old Verbs, but the Eighth Class does not exist. \_Sce *20.] When com-

122

INFLEXIONS.

pared with their original forms, modern strong verbs — such as 'bind/
' bear,' ' bid,' ' take,' ' drive,' ' freeze,' and ' blow ' — may at once be called
like and unlike. To tell the whole story of transitional forms belonging to
the time when Old English was written, many pages would be required.
For example, more than thirty words would be wanted to show all the
forms used respectively for the P. and the P.P. of ' burst ' before the time
when this verb lost its vowel-changes and its participle ending en. In
other instances, old forms have in the course of ages been so much altered,
that some writers on G-rammar now divide all English verbs into two
classes, called * Eegular ' and ' Irregular,' and, including in the latter class
all old verbs, treat of them without any reference to their historical con-
nexion. This simple method of treatment has in its favour one practical
consideration. For learning by rote a list of Old Verbs, the variety of
vowel-changes in their modern forms makes impossible such classification
as might afford aid to memory. This fact is made evident in the appended
table, which may be compared with the table of vowel-changes for Old
Verbs in E.I. [See ^20.]

Vowels in Modern Forms of Old Verbs.

Class.

Present.

Past.

Perfect Participle.

1st

i, e, a, u

u, a, ou, 0

U, OU, 0

2nd

ea, 0

0, a

3rd

i, e, ea, ee

a, 0

i, 0, ea, ai, ee

4th

00, 0, a

a, 00, 0

5th

0, i, a, u

i, 0, u

6th

ee, ea, oo

7th

ew, ow, a, 0, y,1
aw, ay, ea /

ew, ow, e, ea

few, ow, e, a,
\ aw, ea, ai

It is therefore granted that, in the slight task of committing to memory
P. and P.P. forms of ninety-six strong verbs more or less current in
Modern English, we find no help in their historical classification. But it
may nevertheless afford means of ready reference to their Oldest English
forms, and may thus serve to make clear the sources of unusual forms and
of some archaic words here and there occurring, not only in old writings
and in spoken dialects, but also in works belonging to standard modern
literature. In the First Class, for example, the old Past forms ' shrank,'
' span,' ' sprang,' ' stang' and ' swang ' are made clear by reference to verbs
belonging to the First Class in First English. And it will be as readily
seen that the forms 'hare' 'brake,' ' sware,' and 'tare' represent Past
forms (Singular) in verbs of the Second Class ; that ' spake ' is an old Past
form of the Third Class ; that the perfect participles ' graven,' ' skapen,'
and ' shaven ' belong to the Fourth ; that the Past forms ' drave ' and
' strave' like the P.P. form ' stricken' agree with old and regular forms of
the Fifth Class ; that the words 'cloven,' 'forlorn,' 'frore,' and ' shotten' —
all found in modern literature — belong to old verbs of the Sixth Class, and
that the perfect participles ' holden' ' up-holden' and ' with-holden,' belong
to the Seventh. It is true, however, that the student will here and
there find modern forms of old verbs that cannot be readily defined and
associated. For in living tongues, as in nature, there occur such transi-
tions and unions as render exact classification impossible. Some forms of
the verb ' bid,' for example, have arisen from confusion of two verbs —
biddan (' to require ') and beddan (' to command '). Other examples of

OLD CONJUGATION.— M.E. 12^

difl&culty are seen in the verbs * break,' * come,' and * beat.' The following
verbs— treated as old with respect to some P.P. forms— have also weak
forms of perfect participles, and therefore belong to the Old Conjugation
and to the New.

engrave (and grave) I mow I shave [ sow

hew I shape | shear I wake (awake)

Of these, as of some other verbs, weak forms, ending in ed, become, as
years roll on, more and more prevalent, while older forms, ending in en,
fade away, so gradually that the time when they become obsolete cannot
be defined. The facts already noticed make it evident that no plan of
classification can serve always to place together corresponding forms and,
at the same time, to connect together verbs that historically belong to one
class. In the First Class modern forms for the P. and the P.P. of * begin,'
' ring,' * sing,' and ' sink ' correspond well with original forms of the Past
(Plural) and the P.P. ; but in the Past Singular the true forms — ' began,'
' rang, ' sang,' and ' sank ' — are often neglected, and en has been dropped
in the Perfect Participle. G-reater alterations are seen in the Third Class.
In the Pourth o, the original vowel of the Past, remains in one form
(' woke '), and its modern substitute oo is seen in ' forsook,' ' shook,' ' stood,'
and ' took.' But the verbs ' engrave,' ' grave,' ' shape,' and * shave ' have
weak forms in the Past, as in the P.P. Their older forms — 'grove,'
' shope ' (or ' shoop '), * graven,' and ' shaven ' — belong to the Fourth Class of
Old Verbs. In the Fifth Class a, the original vowel of the Past (Singular),
is here and there seen in such words as ' drave,' * smate,' and * strave' but
0 and i, in this class, mostly serve as substitutes for a. Of the Sixth
Class hardly more than two verbs can be called modern. In the Seventli
Class ' mow ' and ' sow ' retain their places only with respect to their P.P.
forms ' mown ' and ' sown.' These observations may serve to indicate, at
once, both the uses and the natural defects of historical classification.

The abbreviation Pr. is used for the Present, 1st person Singular ; P.
for the Past, and P.P. for the Perfect Participle. Such variations as are
still current are set within curves ; but obsolete forms and some having onli/
special uses are set in Italic and within brackets.

The First Class of Old Verbs includes those which in
E.I. had, in the Past, S. a, PL n, and had u in the Perfect
Participle. Of these changes vestiges remain in M.E.
forms. The vowel in the Present, 1 (e), is changed to u
(a, ou, o) in the Past, and to u (ou, o) in the Perfect Par-
ticiple.

In the First Class the less altered forms have a in P. andu in P.P.
Of the forms more altered five have ou in P. and PP., and one verb ('win')
has 0. The verbs ' melt * and ' swell ' are now mostly treated as weak
verbs, and for ' hang ' both strong and weak forms are used — sometimes
with and often without respect to the two meanings of the verb. Its
original forms are these : — Pr. hange, P. heng, P.P. hangen. The vowels
— Pr. a, P. e, and P.P. a — are characteristics that in E.I. belonged to the
Eighth Class of Strong Verbs, which is not represented in Modern English.
[See *20.]

124

INFLEXIONS.

begin
bind

began (begun)
bound

P.P.
begun

bound [lounden]

The old verb gin, used by Shakespeaee and Milton, is not a contracted
form of ' begin,' but is the stem to which the compound ' be-gin ' belongs.
In this instance the prefix be makes no difference of meaning. Layamon,
a writer who lived in the twelfth century, thus employs the stem-verb as
in meaning equivalent to the compound: — 'Summe heo gunnen urnen;
summe heo gunnen lepen ; summe heo gunnen sceoten ' (' Some they began
to run ; some they began to leap ; some they began to shoot ').

The old P.P. ' hounden ' is now an adjective, and in meaning = bound
by duty or in law. In the words, * That ship is bound for Plymouth,'
the meaning of the P.P. 'bound' (= made ready) reminds us of 'boun,'
which, in the Scottish Dialect = ready. In Icelandic the verb bua^make
ready.

Pr.
cling
dig
drink

clung

dug (digged)

drank (drunk)

P.P.
clung

dug (digged)
drunk [drunken']

The P.P. ' drunken ' is used as an adjective. In M.E. literature we
find ' d^ank' here and there treated as a P.P. This is historically incorrect.

Pr. P. P.P.

fight fought fought

find found found

fling flung flung

griud ground ground

hang hung (hanged) hung (hanged)

The verb ' hang ' ( = strangle) has ' hanged ' for P. and P.P., but distinct
uses of the verb are not always marked by distinct forms.

Pr. P. P.P.

melt I melted | melted [moltenl

The P.P. 'Tnolten ' is used as an adjective. * They . . . worshipped the
molten image ' (Ps. cvi. 19, C.P. version). The verb ' smelt' (= melt ore)
belongs to the New Conjugation.

Pr. P.

rmg

run

shrink

rang (rung)

ran

shrunk [shranh']

P.P.
rung
run
shrunk \_s7irunhen']

The verb ' shrive ' (to hear a confession and to absolve) has the forms :
P. ' shrove,' ' shrived : ' P.P. ' shriven.' This verb is almost obsolete.

Pr.
sing
sink

P.
sang (sung)
sank (sunk)

P.P.

sung

sunk (sunken)

The P. I*. ' sunken ' is used as an adjective preceding nouns.

OLD CONJUGATION. M.E.

•125

Pr.
sling
slink
spin
spring
stick
sting
stink
string

The P.P.

slung

slunk l^slamk']

P.P.
slung
slunk

spun [^span]
sprung \_sprang']
stuck

spun

sprung

stuck

stung \_stang']
stunk [s^aw^]
strung

stung
stunk
strung [strmged']

stringed ' is used as a-n adjective in Ps. cl. 4.

P. P.P.

I swelled [swaV] \ swelled (swollen)

The P.P. • swollen ' is used as an adjective preceding nouns.

Pr. P. P.P,

Pr.
swell

swim
swing

swam (swum)
swung [^swang']

swum
swung

The forms ' sprang,^ ' swang,' and others like them, are historically-
correct, in the Past (Singular), and are found in good writers of M.E.

Pr.
win
wind (up)

P.
won
wound

P.P.
won
wound

The verbs ' to wind ' (a horn) and ' to wind* (as a stream) are both used
as wfw, but not without exceptional cases. In Scott's * Lady of the Lake '
we read, ' his horn he wound.' (First Canto, xvii.)

Pr.
wring

wrung (wringed)

P.P.
wrung

The Second Class includes a few verbs which — except-
ing ' come ' — have ea in the Present, o (a) in the Past, and
0 in the Perfect Participle.

In the Second Class the less altered forms have a in P. and o in P.P.
Present forms in this class end in liquid sounds — excepting ' break,' which
originally belonged to the Third Class. The verb • shear ' has both weak
and strong forms. In ' come ' the vowel of the Present must be treated as
an exception.

Pr.

bear

p.
I bore [hare]

P.P.
I bom (borne)

' A child is born.' • The weight is borne.' The distinction here indi-
cated is modern. For the compounds 'forbear' and 'overbear' the P.P.
forms are ' forborne ' and ' overborne.'

Pr.
break

P.
broke \hrake]

P.P.
broken (broke)

126-

INFLEXIONS.

Pr.
come

P.P.

came

I come

The compounds ' become ' and ' overcome ' are like * come ' in their P.
and P.P. forms.

Pr. P. P.P.

shear sheared [shore] I shorn (sheared)

steal stole [stale] , stolen

swear swore [sware] \ sworn .

The old P. form ' sware' is found in Ps. xcv. 11.

Pr. P. P.P.

tear I tore [^are] | torn

wear | wore | worn

The Third Class includes verbs that have been greatly-
altered with respect to the vowels of their P. and P.P.
forms.

The less altered verbs have i (e, ea) in Pr., a (o) in P., and i (ea, o) in
P.P. To other verbs belong respectively the vowels ea in P. and a (ai, ee)
in P.P.

Pr.

bid

p.
bad-e (bid)

P.p.
bidden (bid)

The verb ' bid ' (to offer a price) has no change for P. or P.P.
compound '.forbid' is like the stem-verb in P. and P.P. forms.

Th(

Pr.

eat

P.
ate
eat
got [gat]

P.P.

eaten
(eat)
got [gotten]

The compounds 'beget' and 'forget'' are like the stem-verb in their P.
and P.P. forms. The P.P. * forgotten ' is not obsolete.

P.P.

Pr.
give I gave I given

The compound * forgive ' is like the stem-verb in P. and P.P. forms.

■Pr.
lie

I lay

P.P.

I lain

This intransitive verb should be distinguished irom the transitive and
weak verb ' lay,' which has ' laid ' for both P. and P.P.

Pr.
see
sit

speak
tread
weave

P.P.

saw

sat (sate)
spoke [spa^e]
trod

wove

seen

sat (sate)
spoken (spoke)
trodden (trod)
woven

OLD CONJUGATION. — M.E. 127

The Fourth Class includes verbs that have a in the
Present, oo (o, a) in the Past, and mostly a in the Perfect
Participle.

The less altered verbs of the Fourth Class have a in Pr., oo in P., and
a in P.P. The more altered verbs have a in P., and mostly have weak
forms of P. and P.P.

Pr. P. P.P'

take I took taken

engrave I engraved ) engrsiYed [engraven]

This compound ' engrave,' like the stem- verb 'grave' (which is com-
paratively rarely employed), is mostly treated as a verb belonging to the
New Conjugation. For the P.P. 'graven' see Job xix. 24.

Pr. P. P.P.

forsake | forsook | forsaken

In First English the verb sacan = to fight, and for-sacan = to oppose
and to deny. Hence apparently comes the word ' sackless ' ( = inoffensive),
in the Swaledale dialect.

Pr. P. P.P.

grave I graved I graved [graven]

lade I laded I laden

The P.P. form ' loaden ' has arisen from a confusion of the two verbs
" lade ' and * load,' which have the same meaning, but are historically distinct.

Pr. P. P.P.

shake
shape
shave
stand

shook
shaped
shaved
stood

shaken

shaped [shofpen]
shaved [sliaven]
stood

In Modern English the compound ' understand ' is like the stem-verb in
P. and P.P. forms. In Old English are found the P.P. forms ' under-
standen' and 'understand!

Pr.

P.P.

stave

staved [stove]

\ staved [siove]

wake

woke (waked)

1 waked

The meanings of this verb, and of its compound — awake, P. awoke
(awaked), P.P. awaked — are transitive and intransitive. Both the old and
the new forms of this verb are founded in First English. The Past * woke '
is found in good authors.

The Fifth Class includes verbs that have i (long) in
the Present, o (i, u) in the Past, and i (o, u) in the Perfect
Participle.

The long i in the Present has, in M.E., the diphthong sound of • eye.'

128

INFLEXIONS.

The old vowel in the Past S. is a, which here and there appears in modern
literature — for example, in the word ' drave,' found in Shakespeare.

Pr. P. P.P.

drive | drove [drme] driven

abide | abode abode [aUdden]

hyde' (= to wait for), with the P.
P. P.P.

In E.II. we have the simple verb
forms ' bod ' and ' hode.^

Pr.

arise

arose

arisen

bite

bit

bitten (bit)

cliide

chid

chidden (chid)

hide

hid

hidden (hid)

ride

rode

ridden (rode)

rise

rose

risen

rive

rived

riven

shine

shone

shone [shined]

slide

slid \_slode'\

slidden (slid)

smite

smote

smitten [smifj

stride

strode

stridden Istrid']

strike

struck

struck \^stricJcen']

strive

sLrove [^strave]

striven [strovel

The verb

'sir

ive ' is not found in E.I. In (

)ld English are found both

weak and strong

P. forms of this verb. So

the obsolete verb 'fpie'

(= come to an

i en

d ' has for P. forms both 'fyr

£d' and 'fonJ These are

rare instances

verbs borrowed from French a

nd having strong forms of

conjugation.

Pr,

P.P.

thrive

throve (thrived)

thriven

write

wrote [wrif]

written [wrW]

The Sixth Class includes verbs that have ee (ea, oo)
in the Present, and o in the Past and the Perfect Parti-
ciple.

Some verbs belonging to this class have become obsolete ; others have
been mostly or entirely transferred to the New Conjugation, and of some
forms of the Sixth Class in E.II. only such vestiges remain as are seen in
the words ' cloven,' ' forlorn,' ' frore,' and * shotten.' The following are
verbs of the Sixth Class in E.II. : —

Pr.

PJ'.

M.E.

cleve
leose
sethe
scheote

claf {pi. cloven)
leas {pi. loren)
seth {pi. suden)
schot {pi. schoten)

cloven

lorn

soden

schot (schoten)

cleave
lose
seethe
shoot

The forms ' cloven ' and ' shotten ' are still used as adjectives. The

OLD CONJUGATION. — M.E.

129

"word ' forlorn ' ( = ' for-loren ' = utterly lost) is an alteration of an old
P.P. belonging to a compound of ' leose.' The word ' frore,' used by
Milton as an adverb, is a shortened form of ' froren ' ( = frozen), an old
P.P. of ' freose ' (= freeze).

There are only three verbs now remaining in the Sixth Class — ' freeze,*
* chose,' and ' heave ' (intransitive). The last has a strong Past, used as in
the example 'The ship hove in sight.' The P.P. hoven (or hove), which
has a passive meaning (= inflated, distended), is heard only in dialects.
[See * 20.]

Pr.

freeze

choose
heave (m^r.)

froze

chose
hove

P.P.
frozen

chosen

The Seventh Class includes several verbs that have ow
(ew) in the three forms Present, Past, and Perfect Paiti-
ciple.

In forms of the more altered verbs belonging to this class the Present
has the vowels a, o, y, and ay ; the Past has e and ea ; the Perfect Participle
has e, a, ea, and ai. In the oldest Teutonic forms of some verbs in this
class the initial sound of the stem is doubled in the Past, as in the Grothic
Past form hai-hald ( = held). This reduplication in the Past led to assimi-
lation and contraction. By this process vowel-changes in verbs like ' hold*
are made clear. For evidence we refer to the Gothic language, to which
First English is closely related. Several verbs of the Seventh Class have
both weak and strong P.P. forms.

Pr.

blow

crow
draw
fall

P.
blew

crew [crowed"]

drew

fell

P.P.
blown

crowed, crown \_crowen']

drawn

fallen

The compound 'befall' (= to happen) has the forms — P. befell, P.P.
befallen.

Pr.

fly (as a
bird)

P.P.

flew

flown

lish, the forms of the two verbs

Flee,' a Strong verb in E.I., has now the contracted forms of the Weak
Conjugation :— P. 'fled,' P.P. 'fled.' In Modern English, as in Old Eng-

fly ' and ' flee ' are often confused,

P.P.
I grown

hewed (hewn)
I held [Jiolden]

The P.P. Jwldm is found in Acts ii. 24. The P. Participles upholden
and withhclden are obsolete. Beholden means ' obliged,' or ' bound by duty.*

Pr.

grow
hew

grew
hewed

hold

held

130

know

mow

show

slay

sow

strew

strow

throw

Pr.
beat

'Beat,' a partly exceptional verb, is placed here, because its oldest
forms belong to the Seventh Class of Old Verbs in First English.

]

[NFLEXIONS.

P,P.

knew

known

mowed

mowed (mown)

showed

(shewed)

shown (shewed J

slew

slain

sowed

sowed (sown)

strewed

strewn "I
strown J

strowed

threw

thrown

P.P.

beat

beaten (beat)

COMPOUND CONJUGATION.

To form the First Future Tense of the Compound
Conjugation, we add to the Helping Verbs of that Tense
the Infinitive without the sign ' to.' With the Helping-
Verbs of other Compound Tenses in the Indicative Mood,
and for the Compound forms of the Infinitive Mood, we
use the Perfect Participle. When the Verb tells us that
the Subject acts, the Verb is used in the Active Voice.

The appended table gives forms and constructions required for trans-
lating into English the six Tenses in the Indicative Mood of a Latin Verb
— Present, Past, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Imperfect, Future Perfect.

OLD CONJUaATION— (^c^^i;e Voice).

know

Any of the verbs 'bind,' 'come,' 'drive,' 'find,' 'give,'
' see,' ' strive,' ' take,' ' write,' may be used, instead of ' know,*
for exercises.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.
S. I know

thou knowest
he knows
Fl. we 1

yon >know
they J

Past.
8. I knew

thon knewest
he knew
PI. we -)

you > knew
they J

NEW CONJUGATION. — ^M.B.

131

Perfect.

I have
thou hast
he has
we have
you have
they have

known

Future.

Fl.

I shall
thou wilt
he wiU
we shall
you will
they will

^know

Pluperfect.
I had ^
thou hadst
he had
we had
you had
they had

h known

Future Perfect
I shall 1
thou wilt I
he will
we shall
you will
they will

IMPERATIVE MOOD,
know

J- have known

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Nouns.
(to) know
(to) have known
knowing

Participles (or Verbal Adjectives).
Imperf. knowing
Perf. IcQOwn
Comp. Perf. having known

22. THE NEW CONJUGATION.— M.E.

The New Conjugation includes verbs belonging to the
following classes : —

(a) English verbs which, in the oldest known time,
were conjugated with de as the ending of the Past Tense,
and d as the ending of the Perfect Participle.

(6) English verbs which have been transferred from the
Old Conjugation to the New. Ex. : ' climb,' ' fare,' ' glide.'

The verb ' strive ' seems to be an exception. It belongs to the French
estriver ; but its earlier form (streben) is Teutonic, though no representa-
tive is found in E.I.

d or ed is added to the stem to form the Past Tense.

Ex. : Past, ' it move-d ; ' ' we depart-ed.'

132 INFLEXIONS.

ed, after the dentals d and t, is a distinct syllable.
Ex, : ' ended,' ' parted.'

d keeps its own sound when the verb ends in a flat
mute or in a vowel. Ex. : ' believ'd,' ' sooth'd,' ' prais'd.'
\ATien the verb ends in a sharp mute d takes the sound
oft. Ex,: 'kept.'

Several modes of connecting the inflection d with the verb
are seen in the Past forms of the following verbs : — ' praise,'
' part,' ' carry,' ' remit,' ' rob.'

' Praise ' takes the suffix d in the Past — ' praised.' ' Part '
requires ed to form the Past — 'parted.'

' Carry' changes y to i, and adds ed in the Past — ' carried.'
' Remit ' doubles the final letter, and adds ed in the Past —
' remitted.'

Monosyllables ending in a single, short consonant, pre-
ceded by a single, short Towel, double the consonant, and
add ed in the Past. Ex. : ' rob,' robbed.'

Variations in the Forms of the New Conjugation are
mostly made by contraction and assimilation. \_See § 2,
' Sharp and Flat Sounds.']

Contraction means ' a drawing together ' of syllables, so as to shorten
the pronunciation of a word. The Past of ' stop ' is ' stopp-ed,' which may
be pronounced in two syllables, so as to keep the flat sound of d. But when
the vowel e is dropped, and p and d come together, one must be made like
the other — i.e. both must be sounded sharp or flat. If the sharp mute
prevail, we have the pronunciation heard in ' stopt.'' This natural process
is called ' assimilation.' Contraction introduces assimilation, and assimila-
tion often leads to a change of spelling. Hence we have such forms of the
P. and P.P. as * dropt,' ' stopt,' ' whipt,' ' blest,' ' past.' Nothing is said
here to defend this mode of spelling.

Vakiations of Forms in the New Conjugation are
mostly represented by the following words : — ' let,' ' meet,'
'lend,' 'build,' 'sell,' 'clothe,' 'keep,' 'pay,' 'bless,'
'buy.'

Present. Past. Perfect Participle.

let I let I let

The following verbs, placed here with ' let,' have only
one form for the Present, the Past, and the Perfect
Participle : —

' Bid ' (to offer a price), * cast ' ' cost,' ' cut,' ' hit,' ' hurt,'
'put,' 'rid,' 'set,' 'shed,' 'shred,' 'shut,' ' sht,' ' split,''
* spread,' ' thrust.'

NEW CONJUGATION.— M.E.

133

In the following lists some words still used more or less are placed within
curves. Obsolete words and others seldom heard, or having only special
uses, arc set in Italic and placed within brackets. Old forms of contracted
verbs are given in * 20.

A second class is represented by the verb ' meet,' which
has in its sound no change except the shortening of the
vowel.

I'.P.
met

bled

bred

fed

led

lit (lighted =

kindled)
read

slid (slidden)
shot [^shotterb]

Pr.

meet

mgt

bleed

blM

breed

bred

feed

fed

lead

led

light

lit (lighted)

read

slide

slid

shoot

shot

speed

sped

In popular use the prepositional verb * light on ' ( = meet by chance)
has for P. and P.P. ' lit on ; ' but the compound ' alight ' ( = dismount) has

* alighted.' The stem liht ( = not heavy) is distinct from leoht ( = bright),
and from the Latin stem in ' deliter ' (Old French), to -which belongs ' delight '
(in E.II. 'delit'). By the •wear and tear' of time words belonging to
several stems are often reduced to a formal identity.

Another class of verbs consists of such as cast off the
stem consonant d and have t as the ending of the P.
and the P.P. This class may be represented by the verb

Pr.

lend

bend

blend

rend

send

spend

[wend']

' Wend ' (= to go, or to turn) is found, with its Past ' wended,' in
poetry ; but the form * went ' serves now as the Past of the verb ' go.*

• Shend' (= to ruin, or to disgrace), of which the P.P. is fomnd in M.E.,
has the forms P. shent, P.P. s^t.

P.P,

lent

Ignt

bent (bended)

blended [Uenie']

blended (blent)

rent

sent

spent

went

—

134

INFLEXIONS.

Several forms of contraction are included in the
following classification.

The verbs ' build ' and ' gild ' have hardly lost their complete forms for
P. and P.P., but contracted forms of ' build ' are generally employed.

Pr.

build

I built

Wisdom hath huilded her house.'

Pr.
gild
gird

P.
gilt (gilded)
girt (girded)

P.P.
I built [huilded]

(Pboveebs ix. 1.)

P.P.
gilt (gilded)
girt (girded)

Thus shall ye eat it, with your loins girded.' (Ex. xii. 11.)

Pr.

sell

tell

s5ld

told

P.P.

sold

told

In the precedmg two verbs ea (in E.I.) has been changed to long 6.
Pr. P. P.P.

clothe

Lave

make

clothed (clad)

had

made

clothed (clad)

had

made

Contractions and other variations of ' have ' are numerous in E.II. In
the form ' clad,' the P. and P.P. of * clothe,' th has by assimilation been
changed to d. In ' made ' we have a contraction of the old form ' makede.'

Pr.

keep

bereave

[reave]

kept

bereft (bereaved)

[rm

P.P.

kept

bereft (bereaved)

reft

' I am bereaved,' (Gen. xliii. 14.) ' Howe'e

r bereft.' (Wordswobth,)

Pr.
cleave
creep
deal

cleft [clave]

crept

dealt

P.P.
cleft [cloven]
crept
dealt [dealed]

Pr. P.
dream | dreamt (dreamed) |

P.P.
dreamt (dreamed)

' We dreamed a dream,' (Gen. xli. 11.)

* They dreamt,' (Wobds.)

Pr.
feel
kneel
lean

P.
felt

knelt (kneeled)
leant (leaned)

P.P.
felt

knelt (kneeled)
leant (leaned)

* And e'en his

failings lean'd to virtue's side.

(Goldsmith.)

NEW CONJUGATION. — M.E.

135

P.P.

left

lost [forlorn']
meant

P.P.
slept
swept
wept

The verbs classified with ' keep ' shorten the vowel and take t instead
of d, but in some instances retain the d and the connective e.

The foUowiiig are examples of monosyllables changing
y to i before d : —

Pr.
leave
lose

P.
left
lost

mean

meant

Pr.
sleep
sweep
weep

P.
slept
swept
wept 1

Pr.

pay

lay (to put "I
down) J

P.P.

paid

laid

paid
laid

This transitive verb ' lay ' must be kept distinct from the intransitive
lie ' ( = to lie down), of which the three forms are—

Pr.
lie

Pr.
say
stay

lay

P.
said
stayed (staid)

P.P.
lain [lien]

P.P.
said
stayed (staid)

The verbs * cry ' and * try ' follow the general rule that y preceded by a
consonant is changed to i before ed. ' Staid ' serves as an adjective.

In 'flee' and
flexion = d.

shoe ' the final e is cast off", and the in-

Pr.
flee
shoe

P.P.

fled
shod

In the P. and the P.P. of ' hear ' the connective vowel e is omitted.

Pr.
hear

I heard

heard

P.P.

The verb ' bless ' in one of its P.P. forms represents
a class of verbs mostly pronounced as contracted and
ending in t, and sometimes written as they are pro-
nounced.

Pr.

bless

P.
blessed

P.P.
blessed (blest)

186

INFLEXIONS.

Other P.P. of this class are sometimes written as follows : — ' burnt,'
' crost,' ' dwelt,' ' learnt,' ' past,' ' smelt,' ' spelt,' * spilt,' ' tost,' ' whipt.'
Nothing is said here to defend this mode of spelling.

The following list of deviations from the rule of the New
Conjugation contains several verbs not included in the pre-
ceding classes. [See * 20.]

Pr.

P.P.

beseech

besought

bet (to wager)

bet (betted)

bring

brought

burst

burst (bursted)

buy

bought

catch

caught

distract

distracted

distracted [distraugJit]

freight

freighted

freighted [fraught]

fret

fretted

fretted [fret, fretten]

hang

hanged (hung)

hide

hid

hid (hidden)

knit

knit (knitted)

leap

leapt (leaped)

lift

lifted [lift]

lifted

load

loaded

loaded (laden)

pen (to shut up)

penned

pent

quit

quitted

quitted (qnit)

reach

reached [raugW]

reached [raught]

seek

sought

teach

taught

think

thought

wed

wedded

wedded [ived]

wet

wet (wetted)

work

worked [wrought]

Of the old yerb 'wone' (= to dwell) the contracted P.P. 'wont'
{ = habit) serves as a noun ; but the form * wonted,' used as a P.P., is found
in M.E.

Alterations of P. and P.P. are old in the verbs ' bring' (brought) ;
' buy ' (bought) ; ' catch ' (caught) ; ' seek ' (sought) ; ' teach ' (taught) ;
' think ' (thought). In First English guttural c and g preceding t, in the
P. of the verbs ' bring,' ' seek,' ' think,' and ' work,' became h, and in the
same verbs the stem-vowel was changed to o or ea. In Old English
further alterations were made. The h in the P. was changed to gh or S ;
the final c of the stem mostly became ch, and the stem- vowel was changed
to ou or tx) an. Similar changes were made in Past forms of the verbs
* catch,' ' fetch,' ' reach,' and ' stretch.' Hence are found — in Old, and partly
in Modem, English— such variations in the Past as the following : —

NEW CONJUGATION. — M.E.

137

Present.

Past.

Present.

beseek

besought

catch

beseech

beseeched

reach

fetch

f(shte {andfetchde)

work

stretch

strehte (and straugkt)

Past.
caught (and catch' d)
ratcffht (and reached)
worhte (and wroitght)

COMPOUND CONJUaATION.

To form the First Future Tense of the Compound
Conjugation, we add to the Helping Verbs of that Tense
the Infinitive, without the sign ' to.' With the Helping
Verbs of other Compound Tenses in the Indicative Mood,
and for the Compound forms of the Infinitive Mood, we
use the Perfect Participle.

The appended table gives the forms and constructions required for trans-
lating into English the six Tenses in the Indicative Mood of a Latin Verb —
Present, Past, Perfect, Pluperfect, Puture Imperfect, Future Perfect. The
constructions belonging to the Subjunctive Mood are noticed in § 23
■and § 58.

NEW CONJUGATION— (^c^ve Voice).

call

One of the verbs ' bring,' ' command/ ' gnard,' ' guide/
*have,' 'make,' 'move,' 'praise,' may be used instead of
*call.'

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Fl.

I call

thou callest

he calls Icalleth]

we 1

you >call

they J

PerfeoL
1 have
thou hast
he has [^hatJi]
we have
you have
they have

-called

Past.
8. I called
thou calledst
he called
Fl. we 1

you > called
they J

Pluperfect.
8. I had
thou hadst
he had
Fl. we had
you had i
they had J

called

138

INFLEXIONS.

Future.

8. I shall
thou wilt
he will

PI. we shall
you will
they will

-call

PI.

Future Perfect
IshaU
thou wilt
he will
we shall
you will
they will

have called

IMPERATIVE MOOD,
call

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Nouns.
(to) call
(to) have called
calling

Participles {or Verbal Adjectives).
Imperf. calling
Perf. called
Gomp. Perf. having called

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

The Passive Voice of the Verb is used when the
Subject is represented as receiving or enduring an action.
Ex. : ' The tree was felled.^

The Verb in the Passive Voice has no peculiar in-
flexion.

The Perfect Participle is used with Helping Verbs ta
form all the Tenses of the Passive Voice.

PASSIVE VOICE.— INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present ...

Past

Perfect ...
Pluperfect
Future Imperfect..,
Future Perfect . . .

he is praised.

he was praised.

he has been praised.

he had been praised.

he will be praised.

he will have been praised.

The appended tables give the forms and constructions required for
translating into English the six Tenses of the Indicative Mood in the
Passive Voice of a Latin Verb — Present, Past, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future
Imperfect, Future Perfect.

NEW CONJUGATION. — M.E.

13»

OLD COl^JJJGATION— (Passive Voice),

to be known

* There are not many Verbs of the Old Conjugation that
can be used in the Passive Voice with reference to the First
and Second Persons. For practice the verbs bind, find, see,
may be used.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

S. I am

thou art

he is
PI. we a.re

you are

they are

'known

Perfect.
I have 1

thou hast
he has [^hath']
we have
you have
they have

been known

I shall
thou wilt
he will
we shall
you will
they will

Future.

be known

Past.
I was
thou wast
he was
PI. we were
you were
they were

Pluperfect.
I had ]

known

thou hadst i
he had I , ,
PL we had bee^^o^
you had
they had -J

Future Perfect,
I shall "]

thou wilt
he will
PI. we shall

have been
known

you will
they will J

IMPERATIVE MOOD,
be known

INFIlSnTIVE MOOD.

Verbal Nouns.
(to) be known
being known
having been known

Participles (or Verbal Adjectives).
Perf. known

Gomjp. Perf. having been known

140

INFLEXIONS.

NEW C01^JJJGAT101^—(Passwe Voice).

to be called

Any of the Participles ' commanded,' * guarded,' * guided,'
' praised,' * ruled,' may be used instead of ' called.'

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PI.

1 am
thou art
he is
we are
you are
they are

Present.

called

Perfect.
1 have
thou hast
he has [_hat7i]
we have
you have
they have

been called

Future.

1 shall
thou wilt
he will
we shall
you will
they will

-be called

PI.

Past.
1 was
thou wast
he was
we were
you were
they were

Plujp&ffect.
I had
thou hadst
he had
we had
you had
they had

called

been called

Future Perfect,
I shall
thou wilt
he will
we shall
you will
they will

have been
called

IMPERATIVE MOOD,
be called

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Nouns.
(to) be called
being called
having been called

Participles {or Verbal A^'eciives),
Perf. called

Oomp. Perf. having been called

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 141

*23. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

The logical treatment of Clauses called * Subjunctive ' belongs to Syntax.
[See § 68.] The following notes serve only to indicate some uses of Sub-
junctive Verbal Forms in First Eiiglish and in Old English.

In E.I. verbal forms in the Subjunctive Mood might ioWow
sucli conjunctions as ' if,' ' that ' (= in order that), ' though,'
'as if,' 'lest,' and 'whether,' when these words served to
introduce sentences expressing subjective notions or supposi-
tions. A wish or a purpose might also be expressed by means
of a conjunction introducing a clause containing a verb in the
Subjunctive Mood.

It is not easy to avoid using here the seemingly pedantic word
'Subjective;' for no other adjective can serve -well as a substitute.
[See § 68.]

The chief use of a verb in the Indicative Mood is to assert
a fact. In the constructions now employed as substitutes for
old forms belonging to the Subjunctive Mood, a sentence may
express some notion of possibility, probability, or contingency,
but it does not assert that an act has talcen place, is now
taking place, or will tal^e place. This is the general character-
istic of all forms and constructions rightly called Subjunctive.

Ex. : ' If he were well educated, he would be a modest

It may be noticed here that the forms 'could,' 'would,' 'should,' and
' mi^^ht ' may be used with a Subjunctive meaning in the Present Tense.
So we find ' wouldest' (wouldst) used in Old English. [See § 68.]

To denote that the verb is not used to assert a fact, such
conjunctions as have been named are used in E.I., and the
verbs following have no endings to show distinctions of
person. In M.E. the same rule is sometimes observed in
the Present Tense, but is often disregarded. In examples
where the old rule is observed, the infinitive form (for
instance, ' have ') is used for all the three persons in the
Singular, and in the Plural of the Present Tense ; but in the
Past every verb — excepting the abstract verb be — has, in
constructions belonging to the Subjunctive Mood of M.E., forms
that serve also for the Past of the Indicative Mood. [See § 58.]

In M.E. the name * Subjunctive Mood ' is given to a series of construc-
tions or sentences, not to any distinct forms that belong to the
Subjunctive, as the form 'writes' belongs to the Indicative Mood.
[See § 68.]

142

INFLEXIONS.

The Subjunctive forms of the abstract verb bedn, the old verb bindan,
and the new verb haelan are given in the appended tables.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD OF beon.

E.I.

Pbesent.

Sing. PI.

l."1 si, s^, I sin, s^,

2. > sed, or j sedn, or

3. J bed i bedn

E.II.

Present.

mj:.

'i}

seo, or
beo, be I

PI.
seon, or
beon, ben
be

Present.
PI.

1.] I 1.1

2. }be 2. ybe

3j I 3.J

Past.

3. J

i:}

Past.

■were i
■ware weren
(etc.) I

Past.

1. were

2. wert

!}■

Examples of Subjunctive Clatcses. — E.I. ' Sam hit sy sumor sam
winter ' ( = Whether it be summer or ■winter). E.II. 'Ac be hii arise,' etc.
( = But if they be arisen, etc.) M.E. 'If I be pleased to give a thousand
ducats,' etc.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD OF bindan AND haelan.

E.I.

Sing.

Present.

PI.

I bind-an
bind-e (-en)
hsel-e j hael-an

I (-eii)

E.II.

bind-e

3;/M-

Present.
PI.

bind-en(-e)
hel-en (-e)

M.E.

•\bv.

3:>

Present.
PL

n \bind
„■ ^heal

Past,
bund-e

Past.

hsel-de

bund-en
(■on)

bael-den
(-don)

'bond-e

hel-e-

de, or

hel-e-d

bond-en (-e)

hel-e-den,or
hel-e-de, or
hel-e-d

Past.

1. bound

2. bound^st ^ bound

3. bound

1. heal-e-d

2. heal-e-dst J> heal-c-d

3. heal-e-d

24. EXTENDED COMPOUND CONJUGATION.

English Verbs have few inflexions. To supply the defects
of the Simple Conjugation we have constructions in which
verbs called auxiliaries serve to express variations of meaning
more numerous and also more accurate than such as are ex-
pressed by means of inflexions in Greek and Latin. The
extended treatment of these constructions belongs rather to
Syntax than to Etymology. Some writers — accepting a very
extensive definition of the word ' Conjugation ' — have given
the following classification of constructions ser-vdng to express
notions of continuous or progressive action : —

IRREGULAR VERBS. M.E. 143

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Progressive. — I am writing.
Present Intentional. — I am going to write.
Past Progressive. — I was writing.
Past Intentional.— 1 was going to write.
Future Progressive. — I shall be writing.
Future Intentional. — I shall be going tb write.

The expression ' about to write ' is sometimes used instead of ' going
to write.'

The ' Potential Mood ' (as defined by several grammarians)
consists of a verb conjugated with one of the auxiliaries
*may' or 'can.' The Potential Mood thus defined has four
tenses : —

Present. — I may {or can) write.

Past. — I might (could, would, or should) write.

Perfect. — I may {or can) have written.

Pluperfect. —I might (could, would, or should) have written.

The ' Potential Mood ' has, moreover, been described as
including the following forms for the expression of progressive
action : —

Present Progressive. — I may be writing.

Past Progressive. — I might (could, would, or shoidd) be writing.

Perfect Progressive. — I may have been writing.

Pluperfect Progressive. — I might (g^c.) have been writing.

The definition of the Imperative Mood is sometimes ex-
tended, so as to include such sentences as the following : —
* Let me go ;' ' Let us play.'

The auxiliary verb ' do ' is employed in constructions de-
scribed as ' emphatic' Ijx. : ^1 do write ;' ' I did write.'

The auxiliary ' do ' is also employed in the constructions
called negative and interrogative, and in their combination.
Ex. : ' He did not come.' ' Did you speak ? ' * Did you not
speak ? '

In poetry and in old literature an inversion made in the
usual order of words serves to denote interrogation. Ex. :
' Sayest thou this thing of thyself ? ' ' Speakest thou not
unto me ? ' ' Knowest thou not that I have power ? '

26. IRREGULAE VERBS.— M.E.

Verbs belonging to neither of the two Conjugations — Old
and New — are called Irregular Verbs.

The following ten verbs have irregular forms of conjuga-

144

INFLEXIONS.

lion:— 'be/ *do/

dare ' (= ' venture '), * shall/

. go,'* can,"
' will,' * may,' ' ought,' * must.'

Of these ten irregular verbs seven are called defective
with respect to the number of their tenses. These seven
verbs — originally Past forms of verbs — are used in the Present
Tense : — ' can,' ' dare,' * shall, ' will,' ' may,' ' ought,' ' must.*
Of these seven verbs five have now for the Past the forms
given in the following table ; but the words ' could,' ' should,'
' would,' and ' might ' may be used in the Present Tense, with
a Subjunctive meaning. [_See § 58.]

Present.

can

dare

shall

win

may

Past.
could
durst
should
would
might

The two verbs ' ought ' and ' must ' may be used either in the Present
or in the Past Tense, but ' must ' is rarely used for the Past.

be
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present. Past.

s.
PI.

I am

thou art
he is
we 1

8. I was

thou wast (or vjert, in poetry)

he was
PL we -)

you > are

they J

you Were
they J

SUBJUN-CTIVE MOOD.

(if) I ^
„ thou
„ he
„ we

-be

S. (if) I were
„ thou wert
„ he were
PL „ we T

5» you

„ they J

„ you > were
„ they J

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Verbal I
(to) be
being

INFIN

^ouns.

ITIVE MOOD.

Participles,
Imp. being
Perf. been

IRREGULAR VERBS. M.E.

145

The use of the form 'werf has been supposed to belong to the Subjunc-
tive Mood, but it belongs also to the Indicative. Both ' wast ' and ' wert '
(in the 2nd person Past) are comparatively modern forms, used instead
of the old form 'were.' [/Sfee * 20.] It is obvious that the ImperHtivo
('be') cannot be employed without an adjunct, such as is seen in the ex-
ample ' be still. ' The Indicative (3rd person Sing. Pr.) is correctly iised
without any adjunct in Hebrews xi. 6.

do
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Past

Present.
8. I do

thou dost [doesti
he does Idoeth, doth'\
PI. we ]
you I do
they

8. I did
thou didst
he did
PI. we ]
you I did
they

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

do
INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Nouns.
(to) do
doing

Participles.
Imp. doing
1 Perf. done

INDICATIVE MOOD.

8. I go
thou ^
he go

PI. we ^
you
they

Present.

'oest

BS \_goetli']

■go

Past.
8. I went

thou went-est Iwentsf]
he went
PI. we

you went
they

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

go
INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Nouns.

Participles.

(to) go

Imp. going

going

Perf. gone

146

INFLEXIONS.

The original meaning of the verb wende = turn. Such forms of this
verb as are found in M.E. poetry (' wend,' ' wends,' and ' wended ') belong
to the New Conjugation.

The old P.P. ago serves as an adjective in the phrase ' a long time ago,'
and as an adverb in the phrase ' long ago.'

can

INDICATIYE MOOD.

Tast.

Present.

8. I can 8.

thou canst
lie can
Fl. we ] PI

you t can
they J

The letter 1 in the Past forms,
to the verb either in E.I. or in E.II.

I could

thou couldst \_could''st]

he could

we ]

you L could

they J

could ' and ' couldst,' does not belong

Present.
8. I dare
thou darest
he dares, dare
PI. we

you !- dare
they

dare
INDICATIYE MOOD.

Past.

8. I 1
thou
he
PI. we

Y durst

you j
they J

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Verbal Nouns. Participles.

(to) dare i Imp. daring

daring i Perf. dared

in the Present Singular, 3rd person, the form * dare ' is historically
correct. The transitive verb ' dare ' (to defy, or to challenge) is a regular
verb of the New Conjugation.

shall

Present.
8. I shaU
thou shalt
he shall
Fl we ]

you I shall
they I

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Past.
1 should
thou shouldst Ishouldest]
he should
we \

you I should
they)

IRREGULAR YERBS. — M.E.

147

The original meaning of ' I shall ' = ' I have iucurred the guilt, and must
therefore pay the fine.' Some dim memory of this original meaning has
given rise to modem distinct uses of 'shall' and 'will,' when used as
auxiliaries in the Puture Tense. [See § 46.]

wiU

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

Past.

S. I will

8. I would

thou wilt
he will

thou wouldst [would' st"]
he would

PL we ]

you win
they )

you would
they

N.B. — The independent verb * will ' (seldom used) belongs to the New
Conjugatron.

may

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present,

Past.

S. I may
thou mayst
he may
PI we ]

8. I might

thou mightest [migJifst]
he might
PI. we ]

you
they

hmay

you

they

•might

ought

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

Past.

8. I oug

thou a

he ou:

PI we ^

west lahest (Ell.)

?ht

8. I ought

thou oughtest (Matt. xxv. 27)
he ought
PI we )

you
they,

ought

you
they

■ought

The tense of 'ought' depends on its context. {Set Jam^s iv. 16;
Acts xvii. 29 ; LxncE xxiv. 26 ; Matth. xxv. 27.)

148

INFLEXIONS.

must
USTDICATIYE MOOD.

Present. Past.

must

The tense of ' must ' depends on its context. For its use in the
Present Tense, see John iii. 7 ; ix. 4. For the Present Tense, used with
reference to the Future, see John x. 16, and 1 Cor. xv. 53. For the use
of the Past, see John iv. 4, and Luke xxiii. 17. The word 'context*
means -words found connected with the verb in a certain sentence, or in a
series of sentences.

8. I ■
thou
he

PI we

•must

8. I ^
thou
he

PL we

you
they.

*26. ADVERBS.— E.I., E.II.

Adveebs having forms borrowed from Adjectives have, in
First English and in Old English, inflexions for degrees of
comparison.

In First English the regular endings of the three degrees
are e, or, ost. In Old and in Modern English the compara-
tive suffix is er, the superlative est. The following old forms,
mostly irregular or defective, are more or less represented in
Modem English : —

Positive.

Comparative.

Superlative.

E.I.

—

aer (formerly)

serest

E.II.

—

er (ar)

erst

feorr (far)
fer

fyrre

ferre

fyrst

ferrest

lange (long)
lange

leng

lenger (leng)

lengst

lengest

late (late)
late

lator

later

latest (regular)
last

lytle (little)
litel

las

les

last

lest

micle (much)

mare (ma)

msest

mikel (moche)

more (mo, ma)

mest (most)

ADVERBS.

149

Positive.
E.I. neah (nigh, near)
E.II. neh

oft (often)
oft

rat5e (early)
rathe

wel (well)
wel (well)

yfele (ill, hadly)
yvele (eville)

Comparative.

near

ner (nere, neor)

oftor

ofter (oftener)

rat5or
rather

bet (bett)
bet (bett)

wyrs

wors (worre)

Superlative.

neahst

oftost (regular)
oftest

rarest (regular)
rathest

betst (best)
best

wyrst

wurst

ADVERBS.— M.E.

In Modern English, Adverbs ending in ly are mostly
compared by means of the Adverbs more (comparative)
and Tiiost (superlative).

But such adverbial forms as * rightlier,' ' earlier,' and ' earliest ' belong
to Modern English literature.

Degrees of diminution are expressed by means of the
Adverbs less and least.

The suffix ly is added to some Adjectives, and to some
Adverbs having forms of comparison. Ex. : ' formerly,
'firstly,' 'lastly,' 'mostly.'

The uses of rtiore and most for comparison of adverbs are as old as their
uses in the comparison of adjectives.

Double forms in comparison of adverbs are not allowed in Modern
English, but they occur in Old English, though not so frequently as double
forms in comparison of adjectives. [See * 19.]

Both comparison and proportion are denoted by such
phrases as ' the more ' and * the less,* of which the uses are as
old as the English language.

' The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun,
The higher he's a-getting,
The sooner veill his race be run.
And nearer he's to setting.' — Hebbick.

150

INFLEXIONS.

The regular forms of inflexion are er (comparative) and
est (superlative).

Positive.

Comparative.

Superlative.

fast

faster

fastest

high
long
loud

higher
longer
louder

highest
longest
loudest

soon

sooner

soonest

Some Adverbs have irregular, and others have defective,
degrees of comparison.

The "word ' near ' is a comparative form ; but its first meaning is for-
gotten, and it is therefore treated as an adverb of the positive degree.

The comparative form ere {= ' before ') serves — mostly in verse — as a
preposition and as a conjunction. The superlative form erst also belongs
mostly to verse. The forms further and furthest strictly belong to the
adverb forth.

IREEGULAR FORMS OF COMPARISON.

Positive.
far

far (forth)
ill (badly)
late
little
much
near (nigh)

rathe (obsolete) j

well

The first meaning of the adjective brae's = swift, and in Old English
the adverb ' rathe ' means • quickly ' or ' early.' Milton, in his phrase * the
rathe primrose,' employs the word as an adjective.

Comparative.

Superlative

farther

farthest

further

furthest

worse

worst

later

last

less

least

most

nearer

rather (= sooner

or more willingly)

better

best

DERIVATION. 151

DEEIVATION.
27. INTRODUCTION.

Words, when classified with respect to their original
forms and to their derivation and structure, have the
following names : — Eoots, Stems, Primary Derivatives,
Secondary Derivatives, and Compound Words.

A KooT, in English, is a word that cannot be derived
from any other word in English.

A Primary Derivative is a word of which the use, or
the relation to other words, or the class to which it be-
longs, is changed without the aid of a suffix. Ex, : the
noun ' bond ' is derived from the verb ' bind,'' by changing
the vowel.

No attempt is here made to trace back any Modem English -word to its
oldest root or crude form. In the -word ' action,' act is the stem and ion is
the suffix. The crude form, or root, ag, is found in Greek and Latin, but
does not distinctly exist as a word in English, though we have it in it&
unaltered form in the word ' agent,' with a vowel-change in ' exigent,' and
with loss of the vowel in ' cogent.' The distinction made between roots
and stems has, with respect to the analysis of Secondary Derivations, no
practical importance. Stems may be called modified roots. In the
Secondary Derivative ' rid-er ' the root is rid, and in ' road-ster ' the first
syllable, road, is a stem or a modified root. But the root and the stem are
alike in this : — each is the main part or base of the word, of which the
other part is a suffix. When we have to analyse a word only so far as to
draw a line between the main part and the suffix, it is convenient to set
aside, for the time, the different uses of the words ' root ' and ' stem,' and to
call the main part the stem, though it may perhaps be a root. By some
writers the convenient word 'base' is employed, so that it may serve to.
denote either a root or a stem.

The following verbs are examples of Roots in English : —
'bear' (to carry), 'bind,' 'bless,' 'feed,' 'live,' 'lose,' 'ride,"
'sing,' 'strike.'

The following nouns are called Primary Derivatives : —
'bier,' 'bliss,' 'bond,' 'food,' 'life,' 'loss,' 'road,' 'song,"
' stroke.'

Many words, without any change of form, are transferred, as parts of
speech, from one class to another. For example, the following may be
used as nouns or as verbs: — 'air,' 'beard,' 'fish,' 'foam,' 'hand,' 'land,*^
•mind,' 'sail,' 'seal,' 'show,' 'snow.' The following maybe used as ad-
jectives or as verbs : — 'black,' 'level,' 'light,' ' open,' ' warm.'

In one class of Primary Derivatives a vowel-change takes

152 DERIVATION.

place. Ex. : ' hclit ' and ' hit ' (from ' bite '), a ' drove ' (from

* drive '), a ' road ' (from ' ride '), a ' seat ' (from ' sit '), a
^shot' (from 'shoot'), a ^ song ^ (from 'sing'), ^ stake ^ and

* stock ' (from tlie verb ' stick '), and ' stroke ' (from strike ').

In a second class the final consonant of the stem is
changed. Ex. : ' ditch ' (from ' dig '), ^ proof (from ' prove '),
and ' strife ' (from ' strive ').

In a third class both the vowel and the final consonant are
changed. Ux. : ' batch ' (from ' bake '), ^ frost ' (from ' freeze '),
'Z*/e' (from 'live'), ' Zo5S ' (from 'lose '), 'we/T and ' t^oo/'
(from ' weave ').

Secondary Derivatives are mostly formed with the aid of
English and Roman Suffixes. JEx. : ' lord-ship,' ' man-hood,'
^act-ion,' 'drna-ment.' The suffixes ship and Aooc? are Eng-
lish, but ion and 77ient are Roman,

A Suffix is a word, or a part of a word, that has lost,
partly or mostly, its own first meaning, and in many instances
has suffered alterations of form. Thus it has been gradually
reduced from the position of an independent word to a posi-
tion that may be called menial, and it now serves to modify
more or less the meanings ol other words. Ex. : the modern
adjective and adverbial suffix ly is an altered form of the First
English word and adjective suffix lie (= 'like'), of which
the adverbial form is lice. The form ' like ' still holds its
place as an independent word, bat ly is a suffix.

The Stem is that part of a derivative word to which the
meaning chiefly belongs. To the Stem a suffix is appended,
in order to change the meaning and the use of the word, or to
remove it out of one class among the Parts of Speech into
another Ex. : the Stem ' good ' is an adjective ; the Secondary
Derivative, 'gdod-ness,' is an abstract noun. The Stems
' child ' and ' man ' are nouns, but the words ' child- like ' and
^ man-ly ' are adjectives.

Several suffixes have comparatively definite uses in the formation of
Secondary Derivatives,

Of other suffixes the use has become indefinite. For example, dom still
retains a reference to dominion in the word ' kingdom ; ' but the uses of on
and ion are various, or indefinite, in the words ' dragon/ ' champion,'
•' million,' and ' minion.'

Secondary Derivatives are, with respect to their etymo-
logy, divided into two classes. The first includes words
formed with the aid of English suffixes. The second includes
words with Roman suffixes and a few endings of Greek words.
Each class contains nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Adverbial
suffixes are English.

NOUNS. — ENGLISH SUFFIXES.

153

28. NOUN SUFFIXES.— ENGLISH.

First may be noticed some brief forms, or vestiges, of
derivative endings, that are now hardly noticed as suffixes.
Of these several belong to names of the seasons of the year
and other natural transitions, to names of implements and
operations in agricnltiire, and to names of plants and animals.

The order of suffixes — both English and Eoman — in the lists that fol-
low, is not alphabetical, but has reference to final sounds thus classified : —
vowels (i, y, .e, a, o, u, w) ; liquids (m, n, 1, r) ; labials (p, b, f, v) ; den-
tals (t, th, d) ; sibilant dentals (s, c, sh, ch, g) ; gutturals (k, c, ique,
ch, g). Sharp sounds — labial, dental, and guttural — are placed before flat
sounds, and therefore iff (in 'bailiff') is placed before ive (in 'native'),
though both represent one Latin suffix. No notice is taken of the silent
final e in such suffixes as ate and ive. [/See * 2,]

Suffix.

Examples of Uses.
meadow,' 'shadow,' ' sparrow,' * swallow.

' ' storm,' ' stream,' '
morn,' 'rain,' '

worm,
raven.

1, le, el

'blossom,' 'gleam,'
' corn,' ' heaven,'

' thorn,' ' wolkin ' (= the sky).
'apple,' 'fowl,' 'nettle,' 'ouzel,' 'saddle,'

' sickle,' ' snail,' ' throstle,' ' weazel.'
'fddder,' 'hunger,' 'laughter,' 'slumber,'
' summer,' ' thunder,' ' timber,' * water,'
^ ' weather,' 'winter,' 'wonder.'

( : ' belt,' ' craft,' ' dint,' ' draft,' ' emmet,' ' flint,'
. J i ' frost,' ' harvest,' ' hornet,' ' malt,' ' market,'

, jj *mist,' 'night,' 'shaft,' * thicket," thirst,'

1 1 ' wort ' (= any plant).

' Spring,' ' Summer,' and ' Winter ' are English names ; ' Autumn ' is a
Latin name, but ' harvest' (harf-est) is English.

Examples of Uses.
' breadth,' ' depth,' ' earth,' 'growth,' ' health,'

* heath,' ' mirth,' ' month,' ' tilth,' 'warmth,'

'wealth,' 'width.'
'deed,' 'field,' 'fold,' 'ground,' 'herd,'

'land,' 'need,' 'speed,' 'strand,' weald,'

' wind,' ' yard.'
Suffixes having the sound of final S, and

others having the sound of s preceded by a

guttural (as in cs = x), are found in the

words ' eaves,' ' flax,' ' fox,' * goose,'

' horse,' and ' ox.'

Suffix.
th

d, de

«l8, a noun suffix in E.I. and E.II., does not belong to M.E.

154

DERIVATION.

Examples of Uses.
k I ' hawk,' ' lark,' ' milk,' ' stork,' ' work.'

Of the following First English Suffixes some, when found
in names of persons, have reference to character, position, and
occupation. Others have a diminutive or contemptuous
meaning. The order is that of the preceding list.

Suffix. Examples of Uses.

f\ (NotfoundinE.I.,

k-in J is in E.II. dimi-

i I nutive)

In Middle High Grerman ek-in, and in Mecklenburg Lo"w Grerman ek-en.
( = Modern High Grerman ch-en), is a diminutive suffix.

kilderkin,' lambkin.' ' Per-
kin ' and ' Perkins ' are di-
minutive forms of ' Piers.'

Suffix.

ster

ard, art

aid, old
ock

E.I. ere

Examples of Uses.
'baker,' 'fisher,' 'fuller,^
' leader,' ' rider, ' ' spider *'
(= spinner), ' waggoner.'
In E.I. the suffix est-re is the feminine of ere.
In M.E. only one word — ' spinster ' — remains^
of several feminine nouns that, in Old English
of the earlier time, had the suffix stere, which,
at a later time, was freely employed in f orming^
masculine names, such as correspond with the
M.E. nouns ' Baxter ' (= baker), ' Brewster'
(= brewer), and ' Webster ' (= weaver).

' braggart,' ' Richard,' ' slug-
gard.'
' Harold,' ' Oswald.'
'hillock,' 'paddock.'

heard (strong)
weald (power)

00, uc

ock has not always a diminutive meaning. The word ' paddock ' may
= a small field, or a toad. In * mattock ' the ock takes the place of Og in
the Cymraeg word ' matog.'

Examples of Uses.
' Grddwulfing ' (son of Gdd-

wulf).
' Will-ing-ton ' (name of a

village) .
' cyn-ing ' (king), ' lord-ing '

(lord).
' farth-ing ' (one of four

parts) .
'darling,' 'worldling.'

Several English Suffixes are used in the formation of ab-
stract nouns, or names of general notions.

ing

patronymic

ing

local, etc.

ing

denoting rank

ing

fractional

1-ing

vague

NOUNS. ROMAN SUFFIXES.

155

Of these suffixes the meanings cannot always be expressed in precise
terms. For example, lock (representing lac) in ' wedlock ' seems to have
no force more than that of the abstract sufl&x ing. In E.I. the noun wedd
= a pledge, and ' wedlock ' = plMg-ing. In ' h^m-lock ' the sufl&x repre-
sents leac ( = a plant). In ' know-ledge ' the second syllable is an altera-
tion of lac. This suffix seems to be as vague or abstract as the verbal
l^can, employed in forming such compound verbs as geriht-l^can (to
make right), and sumor-laecan (to make for summer).

In the appended list the order of final sounds is observed.

Examflea of Uses.

dom

scape

ship

hood, head

red

ledge

dSm (abstract) i

scipe (shape) |

scipe (rank)

scipe (abstract)

t in E.I.

6 (abstract)

had (state)

raeden

lac

wis-

' kingdom,' 'thraldom,

dom.'
' landscape ' (old form =

' landskip ').
' lordship,' ' worship.'
' fellowship,' ' friendship.'
' might,' ' right.'
' growth,' ' health,' ' truth.
' godhead,' ' manhood.'
' hatred,' ' kindred.'
' knowledge.'

In E.I. are found the nouns reaf-lac (robbery) feoht-lac (warfare).

ness
lock

ing

E.I. (abstract)
lac

E.I. nng, ing

E.II.inde,ende,
inge, ing

Examples of Uses.

' goodness,' ' likeness.'

' wedlock.'

in abstract nouns : * bless-
ing.'

in many words that — like
* being ' and ' coming ' —
serve as nouns and as ad*
jectives. [iSee * 20.]

29. NOUN SUFFIXES.— ROMAN.

The following are Old French and Latin Suffixes, some-
times serving in the formation of concrete nouns. The order
has still reference to final sounds.

on, ion

o-on

L. 0, id (gen.
onis), mascu-
line ; Fr. on

Examples of Uses.

* centurion,' ' dragon,* ' ma-
son,' ' minion ' (a pet).

' bufioon,' ' pantaWon,' ' pol-
troon,' ' saldon.'

\56

DERIVATION.

Stiffix.

Examples of Uses.

Fr. al, el, elle ; )
L. dlis j

' channel,' ' chattel.'

er-el

Fr. er-elle

' mackerel,' ' pickerel.'

Fr. el, elle ; L. |
ellus (-a, -UTYi) )

'busheV 'vessel'

Fr. al, aille ; L. ]
dlis, PI. alia |

' animal,' ' victuals.'

ule, cle

L. iilus

' globule,' particle.'

ar, er

Fr. ier, iere

' frontier,' ' larder,' * river.'

€r

Fr. oir, eoire

' censer,' ' manger.'

Fr. re

' cinder,' ' monster,' ' wafer.'

L. eta, etes

' comet,' ' planet.'

et, ot

Fr. et, ot

'ballot,' 'coronet,' 'islet,'
' streamlet.'

ade, ad

Fr. ade

' brigade,' ' cascade,' ' salad.'

ice, is

•

Fr. ice, is -, L. "
icms, icium, itium

' hospice,' ' lattice,' ' trellis.'

ice

Fr. as5e

' crevice.'

ace, ass

Fr. fern, ace,
mas. as

asse ;

' cuirass,' ' cutlass,' ' gri-
' mace,' ' terrace.'

age

Fr. age ; Med. L.

' cottage,' ' vicarage,' ' vil-

agium

lage.'

Roman Suffixes are used in the names of countries and
for national names, as in the following nouns, here arranged
with reference to their final sounds : —

Examples of Uses.
' Normandy.'
' Pharisee.'
' Arabia,' ' Persia.'
' Spain.'
' Chaldean.'
' Palatine.'
' Italian.'
' Chinese.'
' Romanesque.'

The sufl&xes ite and ot, in 'Israelite' and ' Cypriot,' are shortened forms
of the Greek noun-endings lies and dies.

The Roman Suffixes ant (and ent), er, or, and y are ex-
tensively used in words relating to government, the Church,
the army, to social distinctions, and to literature and art.
'The order, again, has reference to final sounds.

Suffix.

Fr. ie

Fr. e, ee

L. ia

ain

Fr. agne

ean

Fr. Sen

ine

Fr. in, ine

ian

Fr. ien

ese

Fr. ois

esque

Fr. esque

NOUNS. — ROMAN SUFFIXES.

157

ic (ick in \
old spel- \
ling) J

Fr. a7i, ain; L.

anus (-a, -um)
Fr. ain; Jj.amts

(-a, -um)
L. anUfS (-a,

-um) ; Fr. ain
Fr. ain

Fr. ien; L. ^{m2«s
Fr. al, aille ; L.

L. ariuSj aris ;

Fr. aire, ier,

iere
Fr. nominative,)

eres )

L. z'or ; Fr. ieur \

L. ^-or ; Fr. ob- \
lique case-end- I
ing, eor J

L. t-or, s-or \

L. arius ; Fr.
ter, a?ire

Fr. if, ive; L. ]
ivus {-a, -um) j

Fr. if, vve ; L.
*vz*5 (-a, -um)

L. ent-em, ant-
em ; Ft. aw^,

L. dtus

Fr. is^e ; Gr. istes

L. adj. ending \

hundus ; Fr. h

hond f

Gr. and L. as,

adis
Fr. i'ce, *s ; L.

itius, icius

Gr. ikos ; L.

Examples of Uses.
' publican, ' veteran.'

'villain' (a serf).

' citizen,' ' warden.'

* sovereign.'

' patrician,' * plebeian.'

' general,' ' menial.'

'dowager,' 'scholar,' 'Tem-
plar,' 'vicar.'

' engineer.'

' inferior ' ' senior,' (adjec-
tives and nouns).

' Saviour.'

' author,' 'creditor,* ' rector,'

'traitor,' 'tutor.'
' bachelor,' ' chancellor,'

' proprietor,' ' warrior.'

' bailiff,' ' plaintiff.'

' captive,' ' native.'

' client,' ' defendant,' ' pre-
sident,' 'regent,' 'serjeant,*
' servant,' ' student.'

* advocate,' ' potentate.'
'artist,' ' pianist,' ' royalist.*

' vagabond ' (a noun or an
adjective).

dryad, ' monad,' ' Naiad,'
* nomad,' ' triad.'

' apprentice,' ' novice.'

' catholic ' (noun and ad-
jective), ' domestic ' (a ser-
vant).

158

DEKIVATION.

The following Roman Suffixes (with which the Greek
ending iMs is placed here) serve to form abstract nouns.
The order still has reference to final sounds : —

mony
ey

ty
sy

ion
on

t-ion
s-ion

ar, er

eur
or, our

L. dtus, ata, ia,
ium; Fr. e, ee,
ie

Er. "nioin

L. entia ; Er. ]
ence j

Er. er-ie \

L. tat- em ; Old \
'Fr.tet,te','New \
Er. te J

L. and Gr. sis

Er. ue, tu

L. io (feminine, "]
and denoting i
action, or a
state of being
=the result of
an action. To Y
io belong also
I I collective and
I concrete mean-
ings, as in ' na-
tion,' ' lotion ')
( j L. arium, aria;
Er. aire, ier.

Er. eur

L. or, oris ; Er
eur, our

Examples of Uses.

' comedy,' ' courtesy,' ' mo-
desty,' 'study,' 'tragedy.'

' ceremony,' ' testimony.'

' clemency, ' infancy.'

' chivalry,' ' poetry,' ' re-
velry.'

' antiquity,' ' piety.'

' ecstasy,' ' idiosyncrasy.'
' value,' ' virtue.'

' admiration,' ' cession,'
' reason.'

I ' danger,' ' grammar,'
' prayer.'

' grandeur.'

' behaviour,' * honour ' (or
'honor'), 'splendour.'

A hybrid word is made when a Roman suffix is appended to an English
stem. In 'behaviour' be is an English prefix, 'have is an English
stem, and our is a Eoman suffix. [See § 39.]

Suffix.

Examples of Uses.

ure

L. ura ; Er. ure

'culture,' 'nature.'

nre

Er. ir

' leisure,' ' pleasure.'

L. itus

' credit,' ' merit.'

ate

L. atus

' consulate,' ' episcopate

GREEK SUFFIXES.

159

Suffice.

Examples of Uses.

ment

atdnement,' ' employment.'

L. mentum (both -
abstract and
concrete, as
in 'fulfilment' T
and ' pave- |
ment ') J

The word ' atonement ' is formed from ' at one ' ( = at peace with one
another). The Old English parts of the word = at oon = ' at one.'

Examples of Uses.
L. tudo (ab-
stract and col-
lective)

tude

ance
€iice

age

ice, ise

Ics

Ique

esque

L. antia, entia ; |

Fr. ence, ance )

L. entia : Fr. ]

ence )

Fr. age (abstract \
andcollective);^
L. aticum I

Fr. ice, ise |

Gr. ihos

Fr. ique \

Fr. esqice \

fortitude,' 'multitude,'
'plenitude.'

' ignorance,' ' substance.'

' innocence,' ' penitence.'

' courage,' ' bomage,' ' lan-
guage.'

'cowardice,' 'justice,' 'trea-
tise.'

' physics,' ' politics.'

the ' antique ' (= a style of
art).

' burlesque,' ' pictuiesque '
(nouns and adjectives).

The preceding analysis shows that among Nouns having Eoman Sufl&xes
many end with the vowel y, or with the sounds of liquids and dentals.
With respect to meanings, these Nouns are rather abstract than concrete.
Of the examples given some are late imitations of old derivatives coming,
through the medium of French, from Latin.

GREEK SUFFIXES.

Three Greek terminations of words — ikos, iakds, and
ismds — serve to form abstract nouns and some adjectives.
The first (ikds) has, in English, the forms ic and ics, and
fi'om the second we have the ending iac in a few words. The
meaning in both =: ' belonging to,' and the more definite
meaning is found in the preceding stem. The third suffix
(ismos), reduced to ism, has meanings such as these : — ' a
tendency to'— 'the profession of — 'the prevalence of —
* adherence to the principles of — 'belief in the doctrine ' or
ii^the system indicated by the stem- word — lastly, the doctrine

160

DERIVATION.

or the system itself. As the word politeia means 'the
government of a state,' ' politics ' must include all things
' belonging to ' that government. ' Platonism ' may mean the
doctrine taught by Plato, or adherence to his principles, or
some tendency towards acceptation of his teaching.

In several adjectives ending in ic the suffix comes (through
the Latin icus, or through the French ic, ique) from the
Greek ikos. Ex. : * catholic,' ' domestic'

30. ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES.— ENGLISH.

Of these suffixes ed, en, fill, some, and y, are used to
denote, more or less, the possession of a quality indicated by
the stem-word. Participial forms in ed were used in E.I.,
and are extensively used in Modern English in cases where no
verb exists to which such forms belong. Ex. : * right-minded,*
though it does not belong to the verb ' mind,' is good English,
and in structure is like ' open-hearted ' and ' left-handed.*
The uses of other adjective suffixes are shown in the appended
table. The word ' biixom ' shows that both the stem and the
suffix may come from E.I., though the derivative itself is not
found there.

Suffix.

Examples of Uses.

y
y
ly

E.I. ig

1 iht

lie

' pretty,' ' speedv.'
* stony,' ' thdrnf .'
' goodly,' ' manly.'
' fallow,' ' yellow.'

seme

snm

' buxom,' ' winsome.'

' oaken,' ' woollen.'

en 1

P.P. ending
en

'frozen,' 'written.'

er-n

* eastern,' ' northern.'

11, le

* evil,' ' little.'

' fickle,' ' nimble.'

' bitter,' ' other.'

t
it, id

P.P. ending
in Northern
Dialect of
E.II.

* right,' ' swift.'

' drownit ' ( = drowned),
* crookit ' ( = crooked).

fast

faest

' steadfast.'

•

' selcouthe' (= strange), 'un-
couth.'

'cold," old.'

P.P. ending
ed (od) j

' beaked,' ' hdrned.'

ADJECTIVES. ROMAN SUFFIXES.

161

Suffix.
fold

Examples of Uses,
sevenfold.'

E.I. feald
fj weard(=
ward * tending ' or

* turned')
less leas

esh s-c

ish isc ^

k c

like Itc

taking the

ing place of

i inde, etc.

and (or ande), the Pr.P. ending of the Northern Dialect, ende in the
Midland Dialect, and inde in the Southern, are generally = in meaning to
the participle and adjective ending ing ; but in some E.II. words they are
= to the suffix in a-ble or i-ble.

* frdward ' = tnrned away
from (good = perverse).

' endless,' ' fearless.*
' fresh,' ' rash.'

* English,' ' brownish.'
' blank,' ' dark.'

' childlike ' ' lifeUke.'

cunning,
*20.]

* running.' [_See

31.

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES.— ROMAN.

Suffix.

Examples of Uses.

ary

L. arius

' hereditary,' * primary.'

ine

Inus, tmis

' crystaline,' ' feline.'

an, ane

anus

* human,' ' humane.'

ian

ianus

* antediluvian,' ' patrician

Uis, ilis

' fissile,' ' servile.'

dlis

' 6qual,' ' jdvial.*

ble

Ulis

' flexible,' ' visible.'

ble, pie

plus, jplex

' double,' ' triple.'

oris or arms

' polar,' ' regular.'

ive

Ivus

' active,' ' instructive/

ate

dtus

' desolate,' ' labiate.'

ent

entem

' eminent,' ' latent.'

lent

lentus

' opulent,' ' violent.'

tdus

' acid,' ' rigid,' ' vivid.'

bund

hundus

* moribund.'

cund

cmhcl/u8

' jocund,' ' rubicund.'

ous

osus

' aqueous,' ' fabulous.*

ose

osus

* verbose.'

domestic,* * p<5b*tic.*

icick \ ^^^^osih'^^^'^X
K Fr. ic, %que

In the older style of spelling, ick was formerly used for io.

Suffix. Examples of Uses.

10, ique
esque

ICUS

Fr.

ique
Fr. esque

antic' (= odd), * antique'
(= ancient),
burlesque,' * picturesque.*

162

DERIVATION.

32. VERBAL SUFFIXES.

Verbs having First Englisli stems have lost their infinitive
suffixes, an and ian. In verbs borrowed from Latin and
French almost all Roman noun suffixes are found, excepting
a,bout a dozen used to form abstract nouns.

Suffix, Examples of Uses.

' cleanse,' ' dye,' ' give,' ' lie,'
' ride,' ' tease.'

' carry,' ' remedy,' ' vary.'

' magnify,' ' terrify.'

' beacon,' ' beckon,'
' christen.'

The n here represents, not the E.I. verbal ending ian, but the n of the
€tem preceding that lost suffix. Some verbs in en are imitative.

Examples of Uses.
from nouns in ' bridle,' ' fiddle,' ' nail,'
1, el {etc.) ' sail,' ' whistle.

( from nouns in A

y
fy

€11, on

1, le

a vestige of en
(ien) in E.II.
verbs
Fr. ier (oier)
¥r.fier, from L. \
ficare )

E.I. n-ian ]

€r
t, te

ate

ize

ish

er, or (etc.),
and from ad-
jectives,in the
comparative

Fr. re (?)

L. tare ; Fr. ter

L. atum and
atus

Fr. ser

Fr. iser ; Gr.

Fr. iss (in verbs
in ir)

' better,' ' feather,' ' fetter,'
' foster,' 'further,' ' gather,'
' hinder.'

' render,' ' surrender.'

* denote,' ' treat.'

'agitate,' 'create,' 'migrate,'

' renovate. '
' erase ' ' reverse ' ' use.'

civilize,' ' exorcise,'

ternize.'

nourish,' ' punish,'

nish.'

fra-

va-

meal

ADVERBIAL SUFFIXES.

Examples of Uses.
boldly,' ' hardly.'

E.I. lice (

lice ( = \
; E.II.

liche) /

E.I. msel (=

part of time,
etc.)

* piecemeal,'

COMPOUND WORDS.

163

A derivative word is called a hybrid when it consists of parts belonging
to two languages. Ex. . in ^pUce-meal ' the first part is French, the second
is English.

Suffix.

ward, or
wards

ways

wise

E.I. weard (an

adj. ending =

* tending ' or

' turned ')
E.I. weg (=a

way)
E.I. wise (=

' manner ')

Examples of Uses.
forwards, ' ' hdmeward. '

likewise.'

In the Northern Dialect gate, or gates, takes the place of both tuays and
toise. Thiis ' al-gates' = 'by all ways,' and ' thus-gate' = ' thus wise,' or
'* in this way.'

%x.

ling

E.I.l-inga;E.II.

linge

Examples of Uses.
darkling ' (Milton).
linff.'

side-

In Northern forms linge becomes linges, which in the Scottish Dialect is
Teduced to lins, as in ' aiblins ' (perhaps), and ' sidelins ' (sideling). The
Old English adverbial ending es is changed to ce in the words 'once,'
* twice,' ' thrice,' ' hence,' • thence,' and ' whence.' In * hither,' ' thither,'
4ind ' whither,' ther takes the place of der in Old English.

Suffix.

long

E.I. (lang
'long')

Examples of Uses.
along (adv. and jprep.)
E.I. andlang.

COMPOUND WOEDS.
33. INTEODUCTION

When two words — each having, when placed apart, a
f'distinct meaning — are placed together, so as to make one
word, the word is called a Compound. Ex, : ' bowstring.'

The Chief Words in a sentence are the Noun, the Pro-
noun, the Adjective, and the Verb. Adverbs, Prepositions,
and Conjunctions are called Particles. [See § 7.]

Compound Words are divided into two Orders. In the
First Order one Chief Word is connected with another.
[Ex, : ' landmark ' ( = noun + noun) ; ' freeman ' ( = ad-
jective + noun); ' spendthrift' (= verb + noun).

164 , COMPOUND WORDS.

In the Second Order a Compound is made by con-
necting one of the Chief Words with a Particle. Ex. :
' overflow ' ( = preposition + noun).

Compounds of the First Order are described in §§ 34, 35, and 36.

To indicate the several forms of Compounds the sign + is used, with
the initials N (for noun), A (for adjective), and V (for verb). Thus
N + N = one noun connected with another, or added to another.

Compounds are more or less firm, or established by common use. To
some extent firmness is indicated by the accent thrown upon the first part,
and by omitting the hyphen, as in ' sunrise ' and ' sunset,' which may be
contrasted with 'wine-merchant' and with ' steel-pen.' But the hyphen is
often printed in firm compounds, such as ' sea-coast ' and ' play-time.'

Excepting two or three words, compound nouns formed of First Eng-
lish stems have no connective vowels. In ' hand-i-work ' i is not a con-
nective rowel, but represents the first syllable of geweorc ( = weorc =
work). In ' handy work ' and ' handy book ' the word * handy ' is a modem
form of the Old English adjective ' Mnde,'' of which the first (or etjrmo-
logical) meaning = ' dexterous.' The second meaning (which in the olden
time was more commonly accepted) = ' courteous,' or ' benign,' and ' gra-
cious.' \,See ' Specimens of Early English,' Part. II. By Morris and
Skeat.]

34. COMPOUND NOUNS.

A Compound Word that serves as a Noun may have one
of these three forms :— N 4- N ; A -f- N" ; Y -f N. Ex.:
* fisherman,' ' freeman,' ' spendthrift.'

N -\- N. — As general rules for this form, the following-
may be given : — The first word is the defining word, or names
the species. The second word names the genus. The firsfc
word has the accent. Ex. : ' bowstring.' [See § 36, on ex-
ceptions to the rule of accent.]

The first noun may serve, as an adjective, to define the
second, with respect to its kind. Ex.: * oak-tree,' 'cherry-
tree.'

The first may define the second, with respect to materials.
Ex. : ' flint-glass,' a ' steel-pen,'

I'he first may define the second, with respect to some
likeness. Ex. : ' bell-flower.'

The first may have the use of a noun in the Possessive
Case. Ex. : Wednesday = Woden's day, in E.I. Wodnes
dag ; Thursday = Thor's day, in E.I. punres dag ; Gospel =
God's word, or message.

But in numerous examples the first word in a compound serves instead
of a participial or a prepositional phrase that might be used as an adjective.
In the words 'a lily growing in water,' the phrase 'growing in water'

COMPOUND NOUNS. . 165

serves to express clearly the meaning of the first -word in the compound
noun 'water-lily.' Many compound nouns, consisting formally, of two
parts, have, when translated by means of phrases, at least three, parts, of
which one is a preposition. To express fully the meaning of one of these
compounds, the order of its two parts must be inverted, and a preposition
must be placed between them. Ex. : a ' chiirch-yard ' is ' a yard near the
church.' The general law or habit of forming compounds is this : — two
words between which some well-known relation exists are placed together,
and it is assumed that a simple reference to usage will make their relation
clear. In many instances no sign of connexion is placed between the two
words, as when we write, ' He was Jcilled by a cannon ball.' In other cases
a hyphen is set between the two words, as in the examples : ' bank-note,'
' cannon-hall,^ * cypress-trees,' ' good-natured,' ' hackney-coach,' * h^n-coop,'
' tilt-yard,' ' weak-sighted.' When by frequent use the two parts of a com-
pound are so closely united that we cease to think of them as two, they
are written as one word. Ex. : ' Cheapside,' ' grasshopper,' ' lawsuit,'
'shopkeeper,' 'sunset,' 'workman.' The general rule — not strictly ob-
«erved — is to drop the hyphen when the compound has been made firm.
The place of the accent is not in every instance clearly defined.

The following are examples of prepositional phrases re-
quired to express fallj the meanings of some compound
nouns : —

' bell-wether ' = the sheep with the bell.

' birth-right ' = right acquired hy birth.

' cannon-ball ' = a ball to be fired out of a cannon.

' fire- wood ' = wood./or making fires.

' grasshopper ' ^ a cricket that hops on grass.

' gold- wire ' = wire drawn out of gold.

' landlord ' = owner of land.

' May-fly ' = a fly appearing in May.

' pen-knife ' = 'a knife for making pens.

' i-ail-way ' = a road made of rails.

' sea-breeze ' = breeze blowing from the sea.

' self-control ' = government of one's self.

Many compound nouns are partly made of verbal
nouns ending in ing.

Ex. : ' eating-house ' = a house for eating.
' fishing-rod ' = a rod for fishing.
' landing-place ' = a place for landing.
' walking-stick ' = a stick for walking.

It is obvious that, in these examples, the words ending in ing must not
be described as qualifying adjectives, or as immediately connected with
their following nouns. Ex. : in ' walking-stick ' the first part does not de-
note a quality belonging to the second.

Of some compounds the meanings must be found in their history. Ex, :
' gossip ' is a corrupt form of godsib, which in E.II. is changed to 'gossib.'
^f the two words united in the comjyund the first was once equivalent to

166 COMPOUND WORDS.

tlie sacred name * Grod,' and the second (sib) had the meaning of the word
' akin.' A godfather was therefore called godsib, as one who was made
akin, or closely related, to another by a sacred relationship. At a later
time the word was made to serve as a name for any familiar friend, and
then it was nsed to describe familiar or trivial conversation.

A + N. — In compounds of this class the adjective mostly
retains its ordinary use, and is placed in immediate attributive
relation with the noun. Ex. : ' blackberry,' ' freeman,' ' holi-
day.'

V + N. — Compounds of this class are less numerous than
those of the classes already noticed. Ex. : ' pick-pocket/
'turn-spit,' 'turn-coat,' 'tiirn-key.'

PROPER NAMES.

Among names of lands and towns in First English several
are formed by adding to a more definitive word one of the
words burh (borough), land (land), rice (realm), mseg^
(nation) . Some names of places, like names of persons, have
been contracted and otherwise altered, so that their first
forms are not readily seen. Thus at ]>8ere burh becomes
'Atterbury' and ' Attenbury.' The r was lost when the
grammatical gender of burh was forgotten, or n was inserted
for the sake of euphony. Final words in names of places
have historical interest. Some have in the course of time
become so much worn or obscure that they look like suffixes,
though they are words, and in many instances their meanings
are known. A few words borrowed from Latin are found
among them. Others are mostly, or exclusively, found in
Northern Names. In English names of places the first word
is definitive ; but in many Keltic names of the same class the
second word is definitive. [See § 39.]

35. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.

A Compound Word that serves as an Adjective may have
one of these two forms : — A + A ; N + A.

The form V + A is rarely seen. Ex. : ' forg^t-ful.'

A + A. — In some compounds of this class the relation of
one word to the other may be simply expressed by * and ' or
by the sign + .

Ex. : ' bitter-sweet,' the name of a plant (woody nightshade, of which
the Latin name is dulcamara) = bitter and sweet.

But in more numerous compounds having the form A + A

COMPOUND VERBS. 167

the first adjective defines the second, as in the examples

* bright-r6d ' and ' riiddy-brown.'

The second adjective may have the form of the Imperfect,
or of the Perfect Participle. Ex. : ^ hard-working/ ' open-
hearted,' 'high-minded.'

In the last two examples a noun with the suifix ed serves as an adjec-
tive having the form of a Perfect Participle. The verb ' shape ' exists,
from which the adjective in 'well-shaped' is formed. We have no verbs
from which we can form such adjectives as ' hearted ' and ' minded,' In
other examples are found apparent Perfect Participles that are, in fact,
nothing more than adjectives, of which the ending ed means 'supplied
with.' These adjectives are good English words in E.I., as in M.E. [See
§36.]

N 4- A. — In some compounds of this class the nonn defines
the adjective with respect to likeness. Ex. : ' niit-brown,'

* snow-white.'

The adjective having the form of the Imperfect Participle
is preceded by a noun serving as the object. Ex. : ' friiit-
bearing,' ' soul- stirring.'

In some compounds the relation of the adjective to the
preceding noun may be expressed by a preposition.
Ex. : ' brim-ful ' = fall to the brim.
* h^art-sick ' = sick at heart.
' sea-girt ' = girt with the sea.
' stead-fast ' = firm in a place.
' thank-ful ' = full of thanks.

36. COMPOUND VERBS.

Compounds of the First Order — i.e. those in which each
word has a distinct meaning and is one of the chief parts of
speech — are rarely used as English Verbs. The few examples
found have the forms N + V and A + V.

One almost obsolete word, of Latin and Norman-French origin —
' vouchsafe ' — has the form V + A. The Latin vocdre salvum = N.F.
vockier salf, E.II. vouche saf, vouchsafe ( = to promise safety ; or, with
loss of its primary meaning, = to grant).

mis, used in composition, is closely related with the noun 'miss' (a
failure), but is used in E.I. as a particle. Ex. : mislaedan ( = mislead).

In First English some compound verbs of the forms N + V and A + V
have for the second part -IsBcan. Its meaning is rather vague, but it gene-
rally has the force of ' to make,' ' to make for,' ' to become,' or * to come,'
as may be seen in the examples appended.

Ex. : efenlaecan = to become like, or to imitate.

he >am hilse genealeehte = he came near (to) the house,
nealsecan = to come near,
winterlffican = to make for winter.

168 COMPOUND WORDS.

N + V. — Compound verbs having this form are rare.
Ux. : ' backbite,' ' browbeat,' ' waylay.'

In 'back-bite' the noun is the object; 'brow-beat' = to threaten bi/
frowning ; ' way -lay ' = to beset in the way.

Some apparent examples of the form N + V are doubtful. In ' back-
slide ' the first word is a particle. In ' sooth-say ' the first word may be
either a noun or an adjective. The verb ' parboil' looks like a compound
of ' part ' and ' boil.'

Such words as ' edify ' ' signify,' and ' multiply ' are in some Grammars
placed among English Compounds of the First Order. It is true that, in
Latin, their component parts are stems, but in English fy and ply serve
only as suffixes.

It must not be supposed that, because we may use such compounds as
' book-learned,' ' moth-eaten,' ' new-fangled,' and ' wind-fallen,' we have any
verb like ' fangle,' or that we may coin such compound verbs as ' book-
learn,' ' moth-eat,' and ' wind-fall.' The compound ' new-fangled ' repre-
sents the E.II. adjective ' new-fangle.' The compounds 'book-learned,'
' moth-eaten,' and ' wind-fallen ' belong to the class N + A. The com-
pounds ' high-minded ' and ' open-hearted' belong to the class A. + A.. The
word ' wind-fall ' (a shortened form of ' wind-fallen ') is commonly used as
a, noun.

A -f V. — Compound verbs of this class are rare. Ex. :
'fulfil,' 'rough-hew.'

The latter word is found in the writings of Shakespeare.

A compound word is sometimes used as part of another
compound.

Ex. : ' husband-man.' Here ' hus-band ' = hus-bonda, a
householder, or a peasant who has a fixed place of
abode,
'lord-lieutenant.' ['lieu- tenant' = locum tenens, one

holding the place of another. ]
' Shepherd-Lord.' [' shep-herd ' = sceap-hyrde, a

keeper of sheep.]
' stirrup-leather.' [' stirrup ' := stige-rap, a rope for
climbing up.]

The word * stirrup ' may serve as an example of several old compounds,
so far disguised by modern forms as to be no longer noticed as compounds.
The following words belong to this class : —

'curfew' (= Fr. couvre-feu).

'orchard' (= E.I. ort-geard = h^rb-garden).

Several words that look like English compounds are corruptions of
French words.

Ex. : ' cray-fish ' is most probably a corruption of the Old French word
escrevisse.

The accent in Compound Words of the First Order is
mostly placed on the first or the definitive word, as in ' sun-
rise ' and ' siinset.'

PREFIXES. 169

But to facilitate, or to make distinct, its pronunciation, a compound
may have the accent on the second -word ; or, in certain cases, may have
two accents.

Ex. : ' north-^ast,' ' north- w6st,' etc. ; ' w^U-h^ad ; ' ' lord-lieutenant.'
In some instances doubt may exist with respect to the accentuation of
compounds seldom used. In proportion as they become more and more
familiar, the tendency of the accent to fall on the first part becomes
stronger. It has already been noticed that accents serve to make verbs
distinct from nouns. \8ee * 5.] In examples of compounds it will of
course be understood that the accent given to a word used as a noun may
be changed when that word serves as a verb.

37. PREFIXES.

A Compound Word of the Second Order is formed by
connecting or placing together a Chief Word or a Stem
and a Particle.

The Particle is placed before the Chief Word or the
Stem, and is, therefore, called a Prefix.

In the verb ' pre-fix ' the first syllable is the prefix and the second has
•the accent ; but when the same word serves as a noun, the accent falls
upon the pr6-fix.

With respect to their sources, Prefixes are divided mainly
into two classes — English and Roman.

Several Greek prefixes are used as component parts of words.

With respect to their uses, Prefixes are called inseparable
or separable.

An inseparable Prefix has no use save in composition.
A separable Prefix can be used apart.

In the word ' awake,' the first syllable a is an inseparable prefix.
In the word * overflow,' * over ' is a separable prefix, which is used
Apart in the sentence, ' The water fiowed over the bank.'

The following English Prefixes are inseparable: — a, an,
nn, be, for.

The preposition * for,' in the sentence * He worked for me,' is distinct
from the inseparable prefix ' for,' which has both a negative and an em-
phatic force.

In EngHsh, all the Roman Prefixes are inseparable, ex-
cepting some special uses of contra, extra, per, and plus.
When used as parts of the Latin language, the following
Prefixes are treated as inseparable : — in, with a negative or
privative meaning, as in the adjective incertv^ (= uncertain) ;
amb (with its variations), and dis, ne, re, and se.

170 COMPOUND WORDS.

Roman Prefixes are mostly, but not exclusively, used in
composition with. Latin words and stems. [_See § 38.]

A Prefix belonging to E.I. may in M.E. retain its first
meaning, or may have a secondary use. Ex. : by ( — near)
keeps its first meaning or use in the word ' by-stander,' but
has a second meaning, implying reproach, in ' by- word.'
Sometimes a Prefix — like i and y in some Old English forms-
of participles — is inert, or void of meaning.

ENGLISH PREFIXES.

a ( = Gothic us and E.I. a). The meaning has become
vague, but seems in some words to be initiative, in others
intensitive, and in ' a-rise ' the a apparently = ' up.' Ex. :

* arise,' ' arouse,' ' awake.'

a = E.I. and in the preposition andlang (= 'al6ng*), of
which the E.II. forms include anlong and endlang.

a = on. Ex. : ' aboard,' ' afield,' ' around,' ' ashore.' In
the adverb ' anon ' the prefix is an (= on). [_8ee an.]

a (= the P.P. prefix y or i) was used in words like ' adrad '
(= dreaded) in E.II., and is still employed in the words
'ago ' and ' aware.' [See i and y.]

In the word ' adown ' the prefix a = the E.I. preposition of, which =
both 'of and 'from.' 'He gefeoU ofdune on )>a flor' = 'He fell down
(or adown) on the floor.' Here dun = a hill, or any height, and of-dune
= downwards. In * a-w6ary ' the prefix has an intensitive meaning, like
that of an in the compound ' an-hungered.' [See an.] a ( = ' on ') is, like
the article in M.E., changed to an before a vowel.

after serves as a prefix in ' afternoon,' and in ' after-
thought.'

al in some words (for example, ' almighty ') = the adjective

* all,' and supplies one part in an English compound of the
first order ; but in other words the first part, al, is one of
the various forms assumed by the Roman prefix ad (af, ag,
al, etc.)

For a peculiar use of ^ all to' in E.II. see to, an adverbial prefix, of
which the meaning = a-sunder. The Latin dis, and the G-erman isier, are
corresponding prefixes.

an (= on). Ex. : anon (= ' in one,' or 'at once '), ane7it
(a convenient old word = respecting).

an (inseparable), in ' answer,' represents and in E.I., and
has the meanings of ' back,' ' against,' and ' in reply.'

In the E.II. compound ^ an-hungred' an is intensitive. [/See Matth.
iv.2.]

ENGLISH PREFIXES. 171

at, in many words, is a variation of the Latin prefix ad. But at is.
an English prefix in the word ' atonement' = ' at-oon-ment ' = union.

at is the prefix in the E.II. word ' at-oon ' ( = at one = in concord),
which is often found in CHArcER, and occurs more than once in the ' Tale
of Gamely n.'

at served as a prefix in some proper names found in Old English, of
which several have been more or less disguised by contraction. This has
already been noticed with reference to the names * Atterbury ' and * Atten-
biiry,' which are in meaning equivalent to ' at the borough.' It seems also
clear that ' Twell ' = ' at the well,' and that ' Noakes ' is a plural form of
' Noke,' a name disguising, by casting oiF the preposition and by contrac-
tion, the original form 'atten oak' = at the oak. The initial n in Noke
belongs to the definite article * J?en,' which represents the E.I. dative form
bam.

be (inseparable) in * bespeak,' as in other examples, makes
tlie verb more distinctly transitive.

In * beside ' and ' besides ' he = at or 6y. In the words ' become ' and
' belay ' the prefix gives new meanings to the verbs. It makes verbs of
nouns in ' befriend ' and ' betroth,' and it has a privative meaning in the
verb 'behead.'

by (= * near ') implies inferiority and disrespect in ' by-
word ' and ' byname,' but keeps its first meaning (near) in
' by-stander.'

e in ' enough ' is (like a in ' alike,' ' akin,' and ' among ')
a vestige of the prefix ge in E.I. \_See the obsolete prefix y.}

for (separable) = the prep. ' for ' in ' forsooth.'

for (inseparable) has the negative force of ver (German)
in ' forbid ' (= to bid not to do). It has an emphatic force in
the old participle ' forlorn,' which means ' utterly lost.'

fore (sometimes for) =' before ' and 'in front.' Ex.:
' forebode,' ' foreland,' 'foreshore.' But we find the negative
meaning of * for ' in the verb ' forego.'

forth = 'f(5rw^ards' in 'forthcoming,' 'fdrthgoing.'

fro (= 'from' or ' averse to') has, in three English words,
tlie negative or deteriorative meaning of the German prefix
ver. Ex.: 'frdward,' 'frowardly,' ' frdwardness.'

In the Gothic New Testament of the fourth century, < fravaiirlits ' =
"A-il, or that which is averse from good. (John ix. 41.)

gain (= 'against,' or ' on the opposite site') keeps its Old
l']nglish meaning in 'gainsay' (to controvert).

i (a vestige of the verbal prefix ge in E.I.) is found in the
obsolete adverb i-wis, or ywis (= 'truly'), which has been
falsely supposed to be a verb preceded by a pronoun.

iil='in.' Ex.: 'income,' 'inland,' 'inroad,' * instep.' In
some words the E. in has been displaced by the Roman en or
em, as in ' entwine ' and ' embdlden.'

172 COMPOUND WORDS.

mis (E.I.) implies defect or error, as iu * mishap,' 'mis-
take,' etc.

mis is a prefix in E.I., and in meaning coincides with the Norman-
French mes (Latin minus).

ne is the oldest Teutonic particle of negation.

*ne' (or, with elision, n') is the prefix in 'nay,' 'never,' and 'none.'
{See § 12.]

off (in form belonging to the E.I. preposition af ) has re-
tained its first meaning in ' offset ' and ' offspring.'

In ' the offside ' ' off' is in meaning equivalent to an adjective, and is
the opposite of ' near.'

on = ' npdn ' or ' forward,' as in ' onset ' and ' onslaught.'

The prefix on is reduced to a in ' a-shore ' and ' a-fleld.'

out has its first meaning in ' outbreak,' ' outcast,' ' outlaw,'
* outroot,' etc. ; but implies extension in ' outspread ' and ' out-
stretch.'

The notions of prevalence and excess are expressed in ' outnumber,
' outwit,' ' outdo.' The notion of excess is also strongly expressed in the
odd phrase ' to out-Herod H^rod,' where a proper noun is used as a verb,

over keeps its first meaning in ' overcast,' ' overcloud,'
' overseer.' Extension is expressed by 'overflow,' and 'over-
spread.'

The notion of prevalence or victory is found in * overawe,' ' overcome,
' overreach,' ' overrule,' ' overrun ; ' but in the words ' overwise,' ' over-
zealous,' we find the notion of excess.

It should again be noticed that a form serving as a verb may be distin-
guished by accent from the same form serving as a noun. Ex. : ' overflow '
(noun) ; ' overflow ' (verb).

thorough (= 'through') keeps its first meaning in
' thoroughbred,' ' thoroughfare,' and ' thorough-going.'

to (obsolete) = the Latin dis and the Grerman zer in the words ' all to
brake.' {See Bible. Judges ix. 53.]

to = 'on this ' and ' on the ' in the adverbs ' to-day ' and
' to-morrow ; ' but the same meaning does not appear in the
adverb ' together.'

•am, or umhe, like the Lat. amb, the E.I. ymb, and the Modern German
um, = ' about ' or ' around,' and serves as a prefix in many E.II. words,
■such as umgang (a circuit), and umset (P.P. = beset all round).

un (inseparable) expresses a negation in the nouns ' un-

ROMAN AND GREEK PREFIXES. 173

certainty/ * unrest,' * untruth,' in the verbs ' unbind,' ' un-
learn,' and in the adjectives ' unable,' ' unarmed.'

In adjectives nn expresses privation or negation in many words : ' un-
bearable,' ' unMifying,' * unfair,' ' untold,' * unwise.' In ' unanimity ' and
' uniform ' un is a part of the Latin umis, which = ' one.'

under (= 'under') keeps its first meaning in 'undercur-
rent,' ' undermine,' ' undershot,' and has a secondary meaning
in ' underhand,' ' understand,' and ' undertake.'

up (= 'up') keeps its first meaning in 'upbear,' 'up-
heave,' ' uplift ; ' but has a secondary meaning in ' upbraid,^
which means to ' reproach.'

wan (= wanting), from the adjective wana, was used in E.II. as a
prefix expressive of privation. Ex. : ' wanhope ' ( = want of hope = des-
pair).

with (inseparable) = ' against,' and has an adversative
force in ' withstand ; ' but has the meanings of ' back ' and
' from ' in ' withdraw ' and ' withhold.'

with (inseparable) differs only in use from the preposition ' with,^
which, in E.I., has sometimes the meaning of the prefix.

v/ell (^ the adverb ' well ') keeps its first meaning in the
noun ' welfare,' and in ' well-meant," ' well-bred,' and other
adjectives.

' Welcome ' looks like a compound of ' well ' and ' come,' but represents
the First English verb wilcumian, which = greet and treat kindly.

y, an obsolete prefix (found as an archaism in Spenser's poetry), is a
vestige of the verbal prefix ge, which in E.I. sometimes denoted verbs
derived from nouns. In Old English y (i, or a), as a prefix of the perfect
participle, is void of signification.

38. ROMAN AND GEEEE PREFIXES.

In the list of Roman and Greek Prefixes the Prefixes are mostly Latin.
The abbreviation Lat. ( = Latin) is used only here and there, to show the
Latin form of a Prefix having variations. The abbreviation Gr. = Greek ;
Fr. = French; Old Fr. = Old French.

a, ab, abs (=' from,' ' away ') is the opposite of the prefix

* ad,' as may be seen in ' avert ' (to ' turn from ') contrasted
with ' advert ' (to ' turn to ').

The use of ' ab ' is apparent in the examples 'absolve,' 'abdicate,

* abhor,' but is disguised in ' avaunt ! ' which = the Old Fr. avant, from
the Lat. ab ante.

a = Fr. ^ in 'ag<$g '(Fr. a gogo)^ ' apace,' ' apart,' ' ap^rt '

174 COMPOUND WORDS.

'(of whicli ' pert ' is a shortened form), and ' avalanche ' (from
a vol — Lat. ad vallem).

a= Lat. e (= ex) in 'amend,' from the Lat. emendare.

ad, in the words ' advance ' and ' advantage,' is a mistake
of the Fr. a (from the Lat. ah) in the words ' avancer ' and

* avantage,^ which come from the Lat. ah ante.

ad (= 'to,' or 'toward') preserves its meaning, while it
changes the d to c, f, g, 1, n, p, r, s, and t, in the verbs

* accede,' 'affix,' 'aggravate,' 'allege,' 'annex,' 'appeal,' 'ar-
raign,' 'assent,' and ' attract.'

amb, am (= Lat. amhi^ E.I. ymb and E.II. 'wm&e=round
about) is used without any change in the words ' ambiguity,'
'ambition,' and 'ambulance,' but loses the b in 'amputate.'

amphi (Gr. afx(bi = ' on both sides,' or ' round ') means.
round in ' amphitheatre.'

' Amphibious ' is an adjective used to describe some animals supposed
to be capable of breathing and living in either water or air.

an, or a (Gr. d, iiv) ■=■ destitute or deprived of, in ' an-
archy,' from the Gr. apyj] = government.

ana (Gr. d>'d = ' up,' ' through,' ' thorough '). ^x. : ' ana-
tomy.'

apo (Gr. ctTTo = ' from,' etc.) JEx. : 'apostle ' = one sent
forth.

ante (= ' before,' with regard to place, time, or order)
keeps both its form and its meaning in ' antecedent ' and
' antechamber.'

By changing e to i this prefix becomes, in form, identical with the
Greek prefix 'anti,' which means ' against,' as in the noun ' Antichrist.'

anti (Gr. avri = 'against '). Ex. : 'antithesis.'

bene = ' well ' in ' benediction,' ' benefit.'

bi, or bis = ' twice ' or ' double.' Bx. : ' biennial,' ' bifur-
cation,' 'biscuit.'

cata (Gr. /caTd= 'down,' 'for,* 'against,' 'concerning').
Ex. : ' catastrophe,' ' catechism,' ' category,' ' catholic'

circum (= ' around '). Ex. : ' circuit,' ' circumnavigation,'

* circumscribe,' ' circumvent.'

CIS (= ' on this side '). Ex. : ' cisalpine ' = on this side
of the Alps. [See ultra.]

con (= ciim = ' with ' or 'together '). Ex. : 'concentrate,'
' conception,' ' concert,' ' conciliation,' ' connect.'

The n is often changed into 1, m, or r, or is omitted. Ex. : ' collect,'

* complex,' 'correspond,' 'co-eval,' • co-operation.'

ROMAN AND GREEK: PREFIXES. 175

contra (=' against'). Ex. : 'contraband/ 'contradiction,'

* contrast.'

The modifications * contro ' and < counter ' appear in * controvert,

* c6unterpoint,' ' counterpart,' and ' counterpoise.' In book-keeping, the
■adverbial phrase per cdntra = on the other side.

de (= ' from ' or ' forth '). Ex. : ' deduce,' ' deduct,' ' de-
face,' ' deprive,' ' derive.'

This de, serving to denote derivation, as well as the notion of priva-
tion, is not always easily distinguishable from de, used in Old Fr., in
stead of the Lat. dis, and denoting division, as in 'decompose' and

* detach.'

demi, Fr. (Gr. //'/it = ' half '). Ex.: 'demigod,' 'demi-
«emiquaver.' The prefix ' semi ' is more frequently used.
Ex. : ' semicircle,' ' semicolon.'

dia (Ghr. ^la = 'through'). Ex. : 'diameter.'
dis, di (= 'asunder') keeps its form and its first mean-
ing in ' dissent,' ' dissolve,' ' distend,' ' distract.' It serves to
•express privation and negation in ' disarm ' and ' displease.'

The euphonic changes of dis to di and dif are seen in ' dilate,' ' diverge,'

* differ,' ' diffuse,' ' difficulty.' The modification de is used in ' decom-
pose,' ' defjr,' * deploy,' ' detach,' and the Old French form des remains
in ' descant ' (a noun).

ec, el (Gr. eK = Latin ex = ' out '). Ex. : ' ellipsis.'
en, em, Fr. (= 'in'). Ex.: 'embark,' 'enclosure,' 'en-
join,' ' enthrone,' 'entitle,' ' envelope.'

The Latin in sometimes takes the place of the French en, as in * intitle '
and * inthr6ne.'

enter (Fr. entre = ' between,' ' among ') serves as a substi-
tute for the Latin ' inter ' in ' entertain ' and ' enterprise.'

epi (Gr. kiri = ' upon '). Ex. : ' epitaph.'

en (Gr. tl = ' well,' or ' agreeable '). Ex. : ' euphonic '=
sounding well.

ex (= ' out') retains its first meaning in 'exempt,' ' ex-
patriate,' ' export,' ' ex-president,' etc.

The notion of fulfilment or completion is expressed in other words, as
in ' eff^t ' and ' elaborate,' while excess is denoted in * ex6rbitant.'

The X is sometimes changed, for the sake of euphony, into ' f ' and • s,'
as in ' efface,' ' effect,' ' escape,' ' escheat,' and ' essay ' (the verb), and x is
omitted in ' elaborate,' ' Elegant,' ' elocution,' etc. Ec = ex in ' ecstatic'

extra = 'beyond.' Ex. : * extradition,' 'extraordinary.'

In the phrase * no extra charge made,' extra is used as an adjective.

hemi (Gr. ijfAi = * half). Ex. : * hemisphere.'

176 COMPOUND WORDS.

hyper {Gr. virip = ' over *). Ex. -. ' hyperbolical.'
hypo (Gr. vtto =: 'under'). Ux. : 'hypothesis.'
in (= ' in ' or ' into '), when prefixed to verbs, strengthens
their meaning, especially w^ith respect to notions of transition
and inclosure. Examples of the former use are supplied by
'invade,' 'inject,' ' infatuate,' while the notion of inclosure is
expressed in the words ' innate ' and ' incarceration.'

Modifications of in are seen in ' illumine,' * impoverish,' ' irradiate.'

in (= ' not,' or the English prefix un), when prefixed to
nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, contradicts their meanings.
Ex. : ' inglorious.'

Besides the modifications 11, im, and ir, the contradictory in has the
form ig, seen in ' ignorant ' and ' ignominy.'

inter (= 'between,' or 'among'). Ex.: 'intercourse/
' interjection,' ' interlude,' ' international,' ' interpose.'

In the noun ' intellect,' the prefix inter is changed by assimilation.

intrd (Lat. adv. ; inter, intra, prep. = ' within '). Ex. :
' introduce,' ' introspection,' ' introvert.'

juxta (= 'near'). Ex.: 'juxtaposition.'

male, mal (= 'ill,' 'bad'). Ex.: 'maladministration,'
' malecontent ' (or ' malcontent '), ' malevolent.'

meta {Gr. fxETu=:^ after,' but has other meanings, of which
some imply change, or transition). Ex. : ' metamorphosis.'

mis (Old Fr. mes, from the Lat. minus, in meaning =
the First English mis). Ex. : ' misadventure,' ' mischance.'

ne (= ' not '). Ex. : 'nefarious,' ' neutral.'

non (= ' not '). Ex, : ' nonconformist,' ' non-entity,' ' non-
essential,' * nonjuror,' ' nonpareil,' 'non-resident,' 'nonsense,*
' nonsuit.'

6b (— 'against,' 'towards,' and 'in the way') becomes,
by assimilation, ' OC,' 'of,' 'or,' *op.' Ex.: 'obvious,' 'occur,'
' ofiend,' ' oppose.'

par, in the verb ' parboil,' is apparently equivalent to ' part.'

para (Gr. irapa = ' beside,' but sometimes implies contra-
diction). Ex. : ' paradox ' = an opinion opposed to commonly
accepted notions.

pen (Lat. paene, Fr. pen = ' almost '). Ex. : ' peninsula,'
' penultimate.'

per, par (= 'through ') denotes extension and completion
in the words ' perfect,' ' permeate,' ' pervade.'

In the adverb ' peradv^uture ' the prefix = ' by,' or ' by means of.' These

ROMAN AND GREEK PREFIXES. 177

meanings are not seen in the words 'pardon' and ' perjury.' In ' pellAcid *
( = thoroughly clear) the final consonant of the prefix is changed, by
assimilation to 1 in ' lucid ' ( = clear). .

peri (6rr. Trepi = 'round about '). JEx. : ' perimeter.'
plu (Lat. plus = 'more '). Ex. : 'pluperfect.'
pre (Lat. prae = ' iu front of). Ex. : ' prevent.'
preter (Lat. praeter = ' past, ' by-gone,' ' beyond '). Ex. :

* preternatural,' ' preterpluperfect.'

pro (= ' forth,' 'forward,' ' instead of). Ex. : ' proceed,'

* proconsul,' ' progress,' ' protrude,' ' providence.'

The French form ' pur ' appears in ' purchase,' * purport,' * purpose,
and ' por ' occurs in ' portrait.'

pro (like con) is used as a noun and as an adjective in the phrases

* the pro's and the co7i's ; ' i. e. * the arguments pro and con.'

p5st (= ' after '). Ex. : ' posthumous,* postpone,' ' post-
script.'

re (= 'back' or 'again'). Ex.: 'reappoint,' 'recede,'
'renew,' 'resist,' 'return.'

In some -words re merely strengthens the meaning, as in ' rejoice.'
Before a vowel d is added to re in ' redeem ' and ' redolent.'

rear (Old Fr. arere and rere = ' backward,' 'behind').

Ex.: 'rear-admiral,' 'rear-guard,' 'rear-rank.'

retro (= 'backward'). Ex.: 'retrograde,' 'retrospect.'
se, sed (= ' apart '). Ex. : ' secede,' ' seclude,' ' sedition,'

' select,' ' separate.'

In * sedition ' a d is added to the particle. In * secure ' the particle se
and the whole word have changed their first meaning : se-cura = ' apart
from care.' ' Secure ' now means ' safe.'

semi (=^ Gr. 37/ii = 'half'). Ex.: ' semicirque,' 'semi-
quaver,' ' semitone.' [See demi.]

sine (= ' without '). Ex. : ' sinecure.'

sub (= 'under'). Ex.: 'subjugate,' 'submit,' 'sub-
scribe.'

The notion of inferiority in rank is expressed in 'subaltern,' 'sub-
ordinate,' ' sub-prior,' and that of diminution is implied in ' subtract.' The
modifications of this prefix are caused by assimilation before c, f, g, m, p,
and r. Ex.: 'succumb,' ' suffix,' 'suggest,' 'summons,' 'support,' 'surro-
gate,' ' suspension.'

subter (= 'under'). Ex.: 'subterfuge,' 'subterranean.*
super (= 'above' or 'over'). Ex.: 'superfluous,* 'su-
perintendent,' ' supernatural.'

The Fr. form sur appears in ' surface,' • s^plice,' ' surprise.*
• N •

178 SOURCES OP ENGLISH WORDS.

supra ( = * above ') is used in the noun ' supralapsarians ' and in the ad-
jective * supramundane.' The noun is the name of a sect.

syi, sym, syn {Gr. avv and Ivv z=^ together with '). Ex. :

* syllable,' * sympatliy,' ' syntax,' ' synthesis.'

* Syntax ' = that part of G-rammar which treats of words, phrases, and
sentences, as placed together with other words, phrases, and sentences.

trans (= ' across '). Bx. : ' transcribe,' ' transient,' * transi-
tion,' ' translation.'

The modification ' tra ' is found in ' traduce,' and the Fr. form * tres '
appears in ' trespass.'

ultra (= ' beyond '). Ex. : ' nltra-liberal,' ' ultramarine '
(a blue pigment), ' ultramontane ' (= beyond the Alps), ' ultra-
mundane ' (= beyond the visible world).

In the first of the examples given the meaning of the prefix = extreme.
The word ' ultramontane ' has reference to Eome, and in controversy is used
to denote the whole system of ecclesiastical government of which Eome is
the centre

vice (Lat. vice = * instead of'). Ex.: ' vice-admiral^*

* vice-president,' *vice-roy.'

vis (Old Fr. = the Lat. vice). Ex. : ' viscount.'

Of the rules prescribed for Divisions of Syllables, in writing and print-
ing, the most important are those founded on a correct knowledge of Sufl&xes
and Prefixes. [See §§ 40 and 42.]

39. SOUKCES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

First English and Latin are the two main sources of
words in Modern English. To the first belong many concrete
or realistic words ; to the second many words having abstract
or general meanings.

The word English has two meanings. It serves, first, as a name for
the Teutonic tongue more strictly called First English and often called
Anglo-Saxon ; secondly, as a name for the composite tongue of which First
English and I.atin are the two chief sources. The context will here pre-
vent confusion of the two meanings.

To First English belong the oldest forms of numerous
nouns serving as names of appearances, sounds, and transitions
in the external world collectively called Nature, such names
as ' earth,' ' heaven,' ' sun,' ' day,' 'moon,' ' stars,' 'fire,' 'light,'
'sunrise,' 'sunset,' 'twilight,' 'night,' 'water,' 'springs,'

* wells,' 'waterfalls,' Mand,' 'sea,' 'thunder,' 'lightning,'
*wind,' 'storm,' 'rain,' 'hail," snow.'

Many names of plants and trees and of their several

FIRST ENGLISH STEMS. 179

parts: — 'ash,' 'birch,' 'bloom,' 'blossom,' 'root,' * stem,*
'stalk,' 'leaf,' *tw%,' 'sprig,' 'spray,' 'rind,' 'bark,' 'hay/
'straw,' 'chaff.'

Some names of wild and tame quadrupeds : — ' horse,'
' hound,' ' cow,' ' sheep,' 'swine,' * boar,' 'wolf,' 'fox,' ' hare,'
' deer,' ' marten.'

Some names of birds, fishes, reptiles, and insects : — 'hawk,*
' raven,' ' crow,' ' starling,' ' bittern,' ' crane,' ' owl,' ' sparrow,'
' lark,' and ' nightingale ; ' ' fish,' ' whale,' ' worm,' ' snake,'
' fly,' ' bee,' ' grasshopper.'

Names for parts of the human body : — ' head,' * eye,'
' brow,' ' ear,' ' month,' ' nose,' ' hand,' ' foot,' etc.

Many verbs serving to express physical acts: — 'run,'

* leap,' ' come,' * go,' ' take,' ' make,' * break,' ' work,' ' creep,'
' smite,' ' grasp,' ' gather,' etc. [See * 20, § 21.]

Many adjectives denoting natural qualities: — 'hard,'

* healthy' (or 'hale'), * swift,' ' fair,' 'dreary,' 'stony,' 'good,'
*bad,' 'green,' 'white,' 'blue,' 'yellow,' 'growing,' 'blooming.'

Many names of buildings and their furniture : — ' house,'

* bam,' ' beam,' ' gable,' ' roof,' ' door,' ' stool,' ' bench,' ' bed,'
' loom,' ' board,' ' dish,' etc.

Names of agricultural implements, etc. : — ' plough,' ' har-
row,' ' share,' ' sickle,' ' gear,' ' wain,' ' wheel,' ' spoke.'

Some names belonging to navigation : — ' keel,' ' boat,'
' stem,' ' stem,' ' rudder,' * oar,' ' sail,' and ' sound,'

Household names : — * father,' ' mother,' ' husband,' ' wife,'

* brother,' ' sister,' ' friend,' ' gossip,' ' neighbour,' ' godfather,'
' godmother,' ' kinsman,' ' kindred.'

Adjectives denoting moral qualities : — ' good,' ' bad,'
bright,' 'wrong,' 'holy' ( = morally 'healthful'), 'kind,'
' true,' ' mild,' ' steadfast.'

Some of the chief topics of discourse may be placed in the following
order : —

1. Nature

2. Physicallife

3. Domestic life

4. "Warfare

5. Grovernment

6. Morality

7. Religion

8. The Church

9. Art, Poetry
10. Philosophy

By means of this order the topics to which First English words mostly
belong may be readily shown. They are abundant in the departments
indicated by the numbers 1,2, 3, and 4, and they are less numerous in the
departments denoted by the numbers 5 and 6. To the sections of which
the numbers are 7, 8, 9, and 10 a comparatively scanty vocabulary belongs.

First English Stems are partly known by their forms, and
by their connexion with English Suffixes and Prefixes, in
derivative and in compound words. [/See §§ 28, 30, and 37 ]

# n2 •

180

SOUKCES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

In some words Englisli SuflBjxes and Prefixes are attached to
Latin Stems, and in other words Latin Suffixes and Prefixes
are connected with English Stems. Such words are called
hybrids. Several hybrid words are well established in Modern
English. A few examples are appended. In each word the
English part is printed in Italic.

Ex. : ' avt-fulj' ' &e-cause,' ' chast-e7^,' ' dnke-dom,^ ' over-
rate,' ^vLse-less,' ' dis-&eZie/,' ^ meein' while,* ^re-taJce,* '' under-
value.'

In each of these words the part not printed in Italic belongs to Latin.

With few exceptions, words belonging, as parts of speech,
to the following classes and subdivisions have stems of which
the original forms are First English : —

Pronouns of all the six classes. [See §§9, 18.]

Particles ; i.e. adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions.
\_8ee §§ 12, 13, 14.]

Nouns changing vowels in the plural, \_8ee §§ 16, 17.]

Numeral adjectives and adjectives having irregular forms
of comparison. [See §§ 10, 19.]

AH the verbs placed in the seven classes of old verbs.
[See * 20.]

Many contracted or otherwise irregular verbs of the ISTew
Conjugation. Ex.: 'feed,' 'lend,' 'make,' 'say,' 'seek,' 'sell.'
[/See* 20.]

All the anomalous verbs: — 'be,' 'can,' 'do,' 'go,' etc.
[See * 20.]

Many verbs that have been transferred from the Old
Conjugation to the New. Ex. : ' bake,' ' bequeath,' ' climb,'
'heave,' 'help,' 'laugh,' 'shave,' 'sleep,' 'weep.' [See *20.]

The preceding analysis makes it clear that if a student wishes to write
English so that his words may be mostly Teutonic, he has little more to
do than to take care about nouns, adjectives, and verbs ; for the other
words must be mainly Teutonic. Of course he will generally reject long
words. Of all our monosyllables a very large majority belongs to First
English ; but a considerable number of exceptions may be noticed. The
following short words are of Eoman origin : —

air

arms

art

beef

care

chair
chant
chase

clerk

form

mace

pert

couch

frail

means

pork

count

fruit

mode

port

creed

goal

-monk

praise

crime

grace

move

preach

dame

host

page

prince

debt

hour

palm

rank

doubt

jail

part

ray

duke

large

pawn

robe

flour

league

peace

rude

flute

lute

peer

sage

saint

sire

space

spouse

style

use

vaunt

veal

vice

FIRST ENGLISH STEMS.

181

Nouns.
bro^or, brother
dohtor, daughter
fader, father
frednd, friend
mann, man
mo^or, mother

Of First Englisli words many may be called comparatively
firm, with respect to both their forms and their meanings.
To the class of firm words belong many concrete nouns, or
names of general and constant use ; adjectives of number, and
others denoting such qualities and differences as are continu-
ally noticed ; verbs telling of acts perpetually repeated. The
permanence of thoughts pervading innumerable alterations of
forms is expressed in these firm or permanent words — nouns,
adjectives, and verbs — of which a few examples are here
given.

Adjectives, Verbs.

eald, old finde, find

god, good gite, get

heard, hard habbe, have

riht, right healde, hold

seofon, seven leose, lose

Strang, strdng tace, take

Of the words not obsolete many have suffered alterations
of form or of meaning, sometimes of both ; or as parts of
speech they have been transferred from one class into another.

In the appended examples the abbreviations used for names of parts of
speech are set iii curves, and modern forms are set in Italic. Suf. = suffix.

M.E.

* to boot ' (adv.)
cheap (adj.)
quell (v.)
he-queath (v.)
deem (v.)
fangs (n.)
' as lieve' (adv.)
main-vaast (adj.)
'in shd plight' (n.)
like-mse (suf.)

Of all the changes made in the meanings and uses of old
words one of the most prevalent is a gradual diminution.
The first meanings of their oldest forms are not expressed now
by the nouns ' churl ' and ' qualm.' The verbs ' fare,' ' fear,'
' harrow,' and * starve ' have not the meanings of their oldest
forms. On the contrary, some words extend and refine their
uses, as may be seen in the example * win.'

Various alterations of m£anings are shown in the following examjples:-^

E.I. M.E.

E.I.

Meanings.

bot (n.)

profit

ceap (n.)

a bai^ain

cwelle (v.)

kill

cwe^e (v.)

say

deme (v.)

doom

fange (v.)

seize

leaf (n.)

permission

magen (n.)

might

plihte (v.)

pledge

wise (n.)

manner

ceorl, a peasant
cwealm, death
fare (v.), go

churl, a niggard

q%calm, nausea

fare (with extended uses)

182 SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

E.I. M.E.

faere (v.), frighten
hergian (v.), lay waste
steorfe (v.), die
winne (v.), fight
witan (v.), know

fear (v., intrans.)
harrow (v.), distress
starve (v.), die of hunger
win (v.), gain
Ho wif (adv.)

E.II., in tlie course of the time thirteenth century — four-
teenth century, cast off more and more of such inflexions as
belonged to the tongue written, in the tenth century, by
^LFKic. He (it can hardly be doubted) wrote, like other
churchmen who in his time studied Latin, so as to make the
utmost possible use of First English inflexions. To some
extent a similar result of reading Latin is evident in the
constructions employed in some parts of Wycliffe's Bible.
On the other hand, popular English, in the time of ^lfric,
might, in all probability, include many words not employed
by that writer, and might have some free constructions in
which the inflexions seen in his writings were more or less
neglected. After the Conquest the same process of casting
ofi' inflexions would naturally go on more and more rapidly,
when English vs^as left to the care of the people, though it
does not follow that this movement would make progress
alike in all places. The general result, however, was this :
that E.II. was made to differ widely from E.I. It has there-
fore seemed expedient to give to the tongue written by
-^LFRic a distinct name. Accordingly, ' Anglo-Saxon,' as
a term synonymous with First or Oldest English, is now a
name established by the authority of learned writers, includ-
ing a majority of those whose names are here appended.

English Writers on the History of E.I. : Barnes, Latham, Marsh,
MoRLEY, Skeat ( ' Anglo-Saxon Gospels '), German Writers : G-rimm,
Koch. English Writer of E.I. Lexicon : Bos worth. German Writers :
Ettmtjller, Grein. English Writers on E.I. Grammar : Latham, Sweet,
Thorpe. German Writers : Koch, Matzneb.

The two cotemporaneous processes by which E.II., of the
time twelfth century — fourteenth century, was made to differ
more and more from E.I. were these : — a gradual disuse of
inflexions and an increasing use of words borrowed from Old
French, otherwise called Norman-French, a tongue consist-
ing mostly of common or popular Latin, mixed with many
Teutonic and a few Keltic words. Students who would learn
more respecting the sources of that language will find aids in
the works to which references will be appended. In England,
during the twelfth century, Old French was the language of

OLD FRENCH WORDS. 183

poetical literatnre, though one English romance — Latamon's
story called * Brut ' — may belong to that time, Latin was
the written language of studious churchmen and schoolmen.
Meanwhile E.II., spoken (and to some extent written) with
increasing neglect of inflexions, was the language of the
people.

The course of transition from E.I. to E.II. forms is made apparent by
comparing with older versions two versions of Gospels known by the names
* Eoyal ' and ' Hatton ' — both made in the twelfth century, and lately edited
by Skeat. To the same time belong two series of homilies — the ' Lam-
beth ' and the ' Trinity College Homilies ' — both edited by Mobbis.

OLD FEENCH WOEDS.

Latin is a name employed with a twofold meaning — first,
to denote the highly- cultivated language written by Ciceeo
and by Virgil ; secondly, to denote the earlier and later rude
or popular tongue, sometimes more distinctly called ' rustic
Latin.' The former — closely limited with respect to both
time and space — was soon debased, and afterwards was more
or less imperfeotly represented by mediaeval Latin writers.
Some altered, expanded, and refined meanings of Latin words
may be ascribed to several mediaeval writers on ecclesiastical
questions. Old French has its two chief sources in common
or ' rustic ' Latin and in Old German. In the course of the
Middle Ages, the popular Latin that for a long time had been
prevalent in Gaul, mixed its own forms with stems borrowed
from Teutonic tongues spoken by hordes of barbarians —
Goths, Longobards, and Franks. Of this mixture examples
are still seen in words classed as belonging to Low or Me-
diaeval Latin. Such words are found in the languages called
French, Italian, and Spanish — all three alike in one respect :
their predominant constituents are Latin. The Roman tongue
thus represented, during the Middle Ages, such power as
had formerly belonged to the Roman empire itself. As Old
French was a mixture of some Teutonic with numerous Latin
stems, the Normans brought over with them many words of
Roman origin and others having Teutonic stems, which already
existed in First English. For example, the Norman — put-
ting an initial gu instead of an EngHsh w — said 'guile'
where the Englishman said * wile,' just as we may now say
' guard ' instead of ' ward.'

Among English words of Roman origin the more altered
forms have come for the most mrt through a French medium.

184

SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

and the forms less altered have been directly borrowed from
Latin. Thus we have from the Latin ^ domitare ' the Old
French' verb ' danter,' and from this comes the verb * daunt ; '
but from the Latin ^f actio ' our word ^faction ' is directly
borrowed. From the same Latin word ^f actio ' we have the
Old French word ^facJion,^ and from this comes our word
^fashion.' Of some words borrowed from French the sources
are found in no classical Latin dictionary. Thus from the
Low Latin noun ' regalimen ' (a kingdom) we have the Old
French word ' realme,^ and from this come the Old English
word ' reame ' and the modern form * realm.'' Various other
alterations of form are seen in the appended list of nouns,
adjectives, and verbs borrowed from Old French.

Latin words are set within curves. The abbreviation L.L. serves to 'point
out a word found in Low or Mediceval Latin.

anguisse (angustia), anguish

anoier (nocere), annoy

apert (apertus), ;pert

avaler (ad rallem), vail

avantage (ab + ante), advantage

cabas (caput), cabbage

cas (casus), case

casse (capsa), cash

caitif (captivus), caitiff

chalenger (calumniare), challenge

chatel (capitale), chattels

chef (caput), chief

col (quietus), coy

cmnpanie (L.L. companium), com-

pany
danter (domitare), daunt
defier (fides^ defy
empeirer (pejor), imjpair
eschele (scala), scale
escluse (L.L. exclusa), sluice
escuier (scutarius), esquire
estable (stabilis), stable
estorer (instaurare), store
fait (factum), /ea^

Among our earlier words of French and Latin origin
many, belonging to English of the thirteenth century, are
found in writings treating of religion and of ecclesiastical
affairs. The advantages afforded by these words may be esti-
mated by comparing with older homilies a long and methodical
sermon called * The Persones Tale,' which, on the authority of
certain manuscripts, has been ascribed to Chaucer.

falte {ialleTQ), fault

faye (fata), 'faerie '

gaiole (L.L. gabiola), gaol (jail)

gaufre (L.L. gaufrum), wafer

glorios (gloriosus), glorious

jogler QoculsLTi), juggle

jornee Idinvnus), Journey

langue (lingua), language

maule (malleus), maul

morine (mori), murrain

paier (pacare), ^ay

pais (pax), ^eace

paroisse (L.L. parochia), parish

plaissier (plexus), plash

pousser (pulsare), push

pris (pretium), price

quiter (quies), quit

rais (radius), ray

scandele (scandalum), scandal

seure (sequi), sue

temptier (tentare), tempt

voclier (vocare), vou^h

void (viduus), void

OLD FRENCH WORDS.

185

Old English Words borrowed from Old French.

absoluoiun

confessour

freres

nonnes

preisunge

salme

advent

covenant

glorious

obedience

prelat

seint

bischop

crede

grace

oile

preyeres

sepxilchre

canoun

croys

homage

ordre

professiun

sermun

canticle

crucifix

lescuns

oreisun

ransun

servise

chapele

debonere

letanie

passiun

reclus

tempel

chapitre

devocyon

majeste

paynym

religiun

tentaciun

cherite

devot

matines

penaunce

relike

testament

clergie

disciple

merci

perfectiun

remissiun

trinyte

clerk

disciplines

minstre

persones

repentant

vanite

collecte

dignite

miracle

pilgrimage

reverence

ymages

commande-

eremite

misericorde

poverte

sacrement

ment

ewangeliste

nativite

prechures

sacrifyse

The two lists appended may show the variety gained by the
introduction of numerous words borrowed from Old French.

Old EngUsh Words borrowed from Old French.

abandun

chaumbre

ensample

labour

nortoure

sentence

acount

circum-

fairye

langage

odour

sire

adaunt

stances

fame

largenesse

parlement

squiers

adversite

companie

favour

lettres

pasture

traitours

aflfectiun

corageus

firmament

madame

power

tresun

angoise

cumfort

franchise

maistrie

price

tryacle

a.^evt (open)

custome

gentil-men

manteine

prisun

usage

assise

daunte

governor

marchaunt

profound

valleye

autorite

defaute

grandame

meister

prosperite

venture

aventure

defence

honeste

melodie

prowesse

venysoun

beef

delit

honour

messager

purchas

vertu

blame

distresse

ignorance

mutton

quarellis

warant

cause

doloure

justis

noble

renoun

champiouu

doute

keverchief

nombre

scolers

Mod

em Forms

of Words b

orrowedfrc

m Old Fre

nch.

achieve

coulter

enhance

16yal

prayer

renown

acquaint

courage

enj6y^

maintain

prison

rescue

affair

court

explain

marquess

prune

sirloin

allow

culprit

expound

matter

purchase

sovereign

array

cushion

feiidal

menial

purloin

sudden

assizes

daunt

frail

merchant

purpose

summons

assuage

decay

garment

messenger

pursue

squire

avenge

default

garrison

mischief

quarrel

trowell

bachelor

delight

guardian

nurture

quarry

umbrage

beguile

despise

guerdon

parliament

rally

umpire

bounty

despoil

guile

party

realm

vanquish
virtue

charge

destroy

impair

peasant

refrain

chieftain

disguise

je6pardy

perform

remark

wager

cloister

display

kerchief

person

redound

coj^^y

embroil

livery

iiraise

render

186 SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

English writings of the thirteenth and fonrteenth centuries
show that, during that time, the two languages, English and
Old French, became more and more closely united, or grew
together, so as to make out of two languages one tongue, a
language still commonly and correctly called * English ' for
two reasons : the best or most useful words had mostly their
sources in First English, and the grammar of the composite
tongue still remained thoroughly English. The word ' com-
posite ' — often employed in speaking of our modern tongue —
is hardly adequate to denote the intimate blending of Teutonic
with Roman elements that took place in the course of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The result was a union
of strength and harmony ; a union of many short, clear, and
strong words, with numerous and melodious variations of ex-
pression for all such changes as may be required in the tone
or meaning of a speaker. Such a union of Teutonic and
Roman elements exists in no other language.

For English readers aids for the f Jaidy of Old French are not numeroua.
The following references ■will be useful : — Heaene's edition of ' Kobert
of Gloucester ; ' Morris (' Historical Outlines of English Accidence,' Ap-
pendix III.); Morris and Skeat (* Glossarial Index to Specimens of Early-
English '). Eeaders of German will find aids in the writings of Diez (on
the ' Eomance Dialects ') and Matzner (' Franzosische Grammatik ' and
' Alt-Eranzosische Lieder ').

OLD NORTHERN WORDS.

A course of varied readings in Old English literature' —
including, of course, specimens of the Northern English
writings called ' Scottish ' — will show that the sources of
words belonging to Old English are not all found in First
English and Old French. Of the Teutonic words not found
in the literature of First English some are with good reason
ascribed to the Old Northern or Scandinavian tongue, spoken
by the rude invaders called ' Northmen,' or ' Danes.' Theirs
was a Teutonic tongue which, while it was closely related to
the Oldest English, had peculiar forms, such as are still pre-
served ill the oldest literature of Iceland.

Some doubts must attend researches in this part of etymology. First
English literature — consisting partly of sacred poetry and of other writings
devoted mostly to the service of religion — could not represent the whole
living vocabulary of the people. The fact remains, however, that in Eng-
lish, and especially in ' Scottish,' writings of the olden time, some words, of
which sources are found neither in Eirst English nor in Old French, have
forms closely resembling some still preserved in the tongue called Icelandic
or Old Northern. The words themselves belong mostly to the vocabulary

OLD NORTHERN WORDS.

187

of rude physical life, and to its attendant warfare. Several local names
remaining in districts where the words called * Old Northern ' have
been mostly preserved ; the whole history of the cruel aggressions called
' Danish ; ' traditions of which vestiges, formerly associated with terror,
sire still remaining in northern and in midland districts — these are parts of
the evidence adduced to show that some of our words belong to a tongue
spoken by the rudest of all the Teutonic tribes who invaded the island now
called Great Britain. Their incursions and devastations, continued during
the ninth and tenth centuries, spread terror all along the east coast of
England, as among the G-aelic people of Scotland, from whose language the
Old Northern seems to have borrowed several words ; for example, the
word ^ gjalti^ (= a coward). The following examples have been classed
with words borrowed from the Old Northern tongue. Words here set with
quotation points are found in extant dialects, or in Old English. To the
latter the number 2. is a reference. "Words followed by the letter N. belong
to the N. of England, or to Scotland. The following are all found iu
' Scottish ' literature : — ' boun,' ' busk,' ' canty,' * fey,' ' gain ' ( = near, etc.)y
' gar,' 'raik,' 'slee,' *sturt,' 'tint' (= lost), and 'toomit' (= emptied).

Old Northern and English Words.

and-riki, drake
banga (strike), banff
bara (wave), ' bore ' of

a tidal river
barkr (barge), barque
beita(set on dogs), bait
bikar (cup), beaker
bdndi (resident pea-
sant), * bondemeti,' 2.
boun (ready), p.p. ofbua
briosk (gristle), brisket
bua (make ready),

' boun,' p.p., N.
buask (get ready),

' busk; N.
bulki, bulk
bylgia, billow
daggardr, dagger
daska (strike), dash
deyja (perish), die
doggr, dog
dwelja (abide), dwell
fana ('play the fool'),

'/owcZ' (silly), N.
feigr (a., ' near death '),

'fei/; N.
felagi (shareholder),

fellow
tjall (mountain), 'fill;

N.
flenja.^tM^

fleygja (piit to flight),
'fla^; or frighten, N.

gauta (play), * cantg '
(playful), N.

gata (way), 'gait; N.

gegna (meet), * gain '
(near, etc.), N.

gil (ravine), ' ghyli; N.

giska, guess

glupna (look down-
cast), 'glo'pnid ' (2.,
amazed), N.

gora (make), 'gar; N.

gromr, groom

gustr (storm), gust

hitta, hit

hnefi (fist), ' neif;
' nieve; N.

hrifa (snatch), rive

hrokr, rogue

kasta, cast

kinda ('bete a fire'),
kindle

kroppa (cut short),
crop

krii (a crowd), crew

kuta (pierce), cut

leggr, leg

lypta, lift

mati (associate), mate

oddi (unequaD, odd

ransaka (fight for plun-
der), ransack
reka (roam), * raik; N.
seigr (sure), 'sicker; N.
skalldr (poet), scald
skilja (understand, v.),

skill, n.
skuflfa (mock), scoff
sky (cloud), sky
slaegr (sly), ' slee; N.
snakr (boat), smax;k
sokum = ' for the sake

of
stedja (to fix), bestead
steggr (male animal)^,

stag
styrdr (hard), sturdy
styrr (battle), ' stour '
styrt (strife), ' sturt;

2. N.
jjrifask (prosper), thriv&
Crista, thrust
tjorn (lake), ' tarn; N.
torn (emptiness), ' too-

mit ' (emptied), N.
ttilka (interpret), talk
t^na (lose), ' tint' (lost),

N.
windauga, window
wiskr (cunning), wizard

188 SOUKCES OF ENGLISH WOKDS.

For further information on -words ascribed to the Old Northern tongue
students may refer to lexicons and glossaries compiled by the ■writers
whose names are here given : — Cleasby (Icelandic) ; Ihee (Old Swedish) ;
Mtjreay (Scottish).

CYMRAEa WORDS.

The student wlio to some knowledge of the Teutonic lan-
guages, First English and Old Northern, adds a considerable
acquaintance with Old French, will be able to trace back to
their sources a large number of the words seen in Old Eng-
lish ; but he will still find here and there forms of which he
<jannot guess the sources. Of these words several may, with
great probability, be ascribed to the Cymraeg or ' Welsh '
tongue. But much caution is required in this part of ety-
mology, for in many instances false conclusions may follow
hasty observations of likenesses, when these are not well
tested by references to history.

The Cymraeg word ' pert ' is, in form and meaning, like ' pert ' in
Modern English. But it is clear that, in Old English, the words ' aperte,'
' perte,' ' pertiliche,' and others belonging to the same stem, were borrowed
from the Old French ' apert,' of -which the source is seen in the Latin
* a-pert-us ' (open, or made manifest). The quotations appended show the
first meaning of the word, and it will be noticed that the secondary meaning
(' rather bold ') naturally follows the first — ' open,' in speech, or in manner.

' ... to serue treu>e euere.
pat is J?e perte profession* pat a-pendeb to knihtes,' — Langland.

Translation : — ' To serve truth ever — that is the manifest profession
[or duty] that belongs to knights.'

' Lok, who that is most vertuous alway,
Priv6 and pert, and most entendith ay
To do the gentil dedes that he can —
Tak ' [thou] ' him for the grettest gentil man.' — Chattcek.

♦. . . Appear, and pertly!' — The Tempest, Act iv. Sc. i. — Shakespeare.

Here 'pertly' seems to mean 'clearly' (not 'briskly'); for it is not
likely that the poet would address to ' Ceres ' and ' Juno ' a command
equivalent to that implied in the old interjection ' yare ! '

' In a body, when the blood is fresh, the spirits pure and vigorous — not
only to vital but to rational faculties, and those in the acutest and the
pert-est operations of wit and subtlety — it argues in -what good plight and
constitution the body is,' etc. — ^Milton.

The examples given suffice to show that in etymology references to
history are the means of finding safe guidance.

"Words given in pairs, in the list appended, serve here merely as ex-
amples of likeness. It is not asserted either that the word set as the
second comes from the first, or that the first comes from the second. "Words
made prominent are called 'Cymraeg,' because that is their true name.

CYMRAEG WORDS.

18i>

The name * Welsh,' in its first meaning, was not intended to serve as a marlc
of respect. In pronunciation, c = k ; dd = th in the pronoun ' thine ; '
th =« th in the adjective 'thin;' w short = o in 'who;' w long = o in
* move ; ' f = V, but ff — the English f ; the sound of the aspirated 11 cannot
be defined by writing.

In the abbreviations here used, the figures 1. and 2. resjpectively follovr
words found in E.I. or in E.II. ; the letter ^.follows words belonging mostly
to North Britain, and a few words heard in dialects are set with qtiotaiioii
points. Where some distinction of meaning is noticed, it is shown by words
set within curves.

Oymraeg and English Words.

coblin, goblin
cogl, cudgel
cop (top), cop^, I., cop-
ing
costio (coster, O.F.), to

cost
craig (stone), crag
crimpio (to shape in

ridges), to crimp
crochan (pot), croc, I.
crwg, crook
cwrian, to cower
cwysed, a gusset
cylyn, a kiln
cynell, a kennel
darn, a darn
dinas (a city), denizen
dirgel (secret), digol, 1.
dryg-edd (malice), dry,

1. (sorcery)
dwn (dusky), dun
ffel (sly), /«^/ (cruel)
ffladru (to fondle), to

flatter
fSLaim (lancet), fleam
ffordd (a way), forb, 2.
SriM (aiovest), 'frith,'

2.
ffynel (air-hole), funnel
ffysgio (to drive off),

fysan, 1.

gefyn (a fetter), gyves
glyn (deep dale), glen,

N.
grual, grvd

Afon (a river), Avon

basged, basket

bel (war), bealu, 1.,

bale, 2.
bicra (to fight), bicker
best, n., to boast, n.
botas, a boot
botwm, a button
bragal (to vociferate),

to brag
brat (clout), ' brat '

(apron)
bre(hill), '6me,'N.
bryn (hill), 'brent,' 2.

(steep)
bwth (hut), booth
caban (booth), cabin
cam (crooked), gambrel
earn (a heap) = cairn,

N.
chwidog (a sorcerer),

cwidol-yiiS, 1, (a sor-
ceress)
chwiff, whiff
chwip, qui'p
chwired, quirk
chwyrn ( a whirl),

cwyrn, 1. 'quern '
cleca (to gossip), to

clack
clepio (to prate), clepe,

2. (caU)
clog (large stone), clog
clwt (a patch), clout
cnap, knob

The connexion of Old English yfith. the Cymraeg or Welsh tongue is
the least explored part of English Etymology. The following refer-
ences may be given: — Dieffenbach ('Celtica'); Garnett ('Philological
B»ays'); Spureeix (' Welsh-English^ictionary ') ; Stephens ('Literature

grugiar, grouse

gwald, welt

gwn, gown

hap (luck), hap

hofio, to hover

hyrddu (to push), to-
hurt

llais (a sound), lay

Uawnt (smooth hill),
lawn

Uercio, to lurk

Hug (partly), luke-
warm

masg (net- work), inesk

mocio, to mock

od (notable), odd

pawen, a, paw

pranc, a. prank

pwtio (to push), to put

rhasg (a slice), rasher

rhenc (a row), rank

sad (staid), sad, 2,

tabar, a tabart, 2.

tre (a town), Daven-
try

truan (a,, outcast), tru-
ant

twtiaw (to make neat),
tidy, a.

wyneb (a face), nebb, 1.

wysg (a stream), tiie
Wiske

ysnoden (a fillet), a
' snood,' N.

190

SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

•oftheKymry'); Williams ('Lexicon Comu-Britaunicum''
matica Celtica ').

OLD EI!^GLISH.

Zetjss (* Gram-

Old English contains, besides its store of First Eng-
iisli words, others borrowed from the languages Old French,
Old Northern, and Cymraeg. Variations gradually made in
the forms and the meanings of words — especially in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and partly during modern
times — are too numerous to be classified in a handbook.

Of all the alterations referred to, one of the most frequent is a gradual
diminution (and often degradation) made in the meanings of certain words
— for example, in such words as ' angre,' ' schroude,' ' smacky,' and ' triacle,'
The last (made by contracting a Greek word and adding a suffix) was once
the name of a sovereign antidote against poison, and, without any loss of
dignity, the word ' triacle ' might serve then to make clear some point in a
moral or a religious discourse. On the contrary, of some words the first
meanings were extended, and in some instances were refined, as may be
noticed in the adjective 'hende' (courteous), of which the first meaning
was that belonging to the modern form ' handy.' A very significant series
of alterations belongs to the word of which one old form is ' sely.' In
High German the first meaning of the corresponding word has been ex-
tended and refined. The adjective selig may be applied to one who is
happy in his departure from this life. But in English the word has passed
through these changes of meaning: — 1st, lucky; 2nd, innocent, or good;
3rd, ' silly,' and consequently ' miserable.' In some instances words have
been, for a long time, overlooked in literature — the verb ' slink,' for ex-
ample. It is hard to draw the line between the living vocabulary and
words that may be fairly called obsolete. Some considerable knowledge of
dialects is assumed when it is said that certain words are altogether
obsolete. Several of those words otherwise forgotten (like 'dight' =
arrayed) have found places of refuge in poetry. Others may without
regret be left to die ; for the loss of such polemic words as ' >repe ' (scold)
and ' sace ' (fight) leaves no want of ample variety in modern synonyms.
But for such forgotten words as ' an^nt ' (respecting) and ' fremme ' (to act
well for a given end) our modern tongue has no good and ready substitutes.
In meaning, the last-named word is well represented by the verb * frame,'
often used in the dialect of the "West Eiding. A few examples of Old
English words, now altered in meaning, or called ' obsolete,' or living only
in dialects, are given in the list appended.

M. indicates a Midland dialect. The letter 'N. follows words still extant in
Northern dialects. The older meanings are set within curves.

schroude (any garment) ; scrud, 1.
smacky (to taste, or perceive);

smcsccan, 1.
thewes (virtues) ; thedwas, pi., 1.
thole (endure) ; polian, 1., N.
wither- win (adversary) ; wider

(against) ; winnan (fight), 1.

angre (any vexation) ; ange, 1.
joist (to supply harbourage, etc., for

cattle) ; O.F. gister, M.
layke (play); lac, 1. (a game\N.
roune (to speak secretly); run, 1.

(a mystery)
sacc-les (inoffensive) ; sacan, 1. (to

fight), N.

LOCAL NAMES,

191

LOCAL NAMES.

Britain, partly or mostly inhabited by tbe Cymraeg
people, while it was governed by a Roman army, was after-
wards invaded by the English and their neighbours, and in
later days was here and there ' ransacked ' by northern hordes,
who from time to time during the ninth and tenth centuries
spread devastation in several parts of the island. In the
eleventh century they were victorious, and their invasions,
which partly left their impress in names of places, came to an
end after the Norman Conquest. The sources of Old English
are to some extent indicated in the names of places, and
among local names in England the words most numerous
have their sources in First English.

Of the abbreviations here used, 1^. follows names of places in the North,
and E. names of places in the Eastern Counties, etc. C. = Cymraeg ; G. =
Gaelic ; and R. = Boman.

Old Words in Local Names.

"beck (a stream), Trout-
beck, N.

bourne (a stream), Ash-
bourne

brig (a bridge), Brig-
stock

burgh (a town), Edin-
burgh

by (a town), Whitby,
N. and E.

caster (a camp), Lan-
caster, R.

cheap {ceap, a market),
Cheapsida

Chester (a camp), Col-
chester, R.

coin (a colony), Lin-
coln, R.

combe (a hollow), II-
fracombe, C.

cotes (huts), Fencotcs

cove (a hollow), Mal-
ham Cove

craig (a rock). Craven

croft (an inclosure),
Seacroft, N.

dal (a dale), Kendal, N.

den (a hollow), Haw-
thornden

down (a hill), Lans-

downe
ea (water), Winchelsea
fell (a hill). Cam Fell,

N.
fold (an inclosure), Stod

Fold, N.
folk (people), Norfolk
force (a waterfall),

Airey Force, N.
ford (a passage), Ox-
ford
forth (a way), Gar-

forth, N.
garth (an inclosure),

N. and W.
gate (a way), Sandgate
ghyll (a ravine), N.
glen (a deep dale),

Glen Almain, G.
grave (?), Gargrave
ham (home), Chatham
hoe (a hill), Ivinghoe
holm (an islet), Ramps-
holme
holt (a wood), Knock-
holt
how, etc. (a hill), Green-
how, N.

hurst (a wood). Chisel-
hurst

hythe (a port), Green-
hithe

ing (a meadow). Ris-
ing

ing (patronymic ?), Bil-
lingham

law (a hill), Warden-
law, N.

lea, etc. (a pasture, a
shelter)

lieu (Fr. a place), Beau-
lieu Road

mere (a lake), Gras-
mere

minster (a convent),
Leominster, R.

mouth (of a river), Ex-
mouth

ness (a promontory),
Dungeness

nor (north), Norfolk

pen (a summit), Peny-
gant, C.

port (a harbour), New-
port, R.

raise (a height). Dun-
mail Raise, N.

192

SOURCES OF ENGLISH WOKDS.

rigg (a ridge), Lough-

rigg, N.
scar (a cliiF), G-ordale

Scar, N.
sex (Saxon), Essex, E.

andW.
shaw (a wood), Oaken-

shaw
sMre (a division), Berk-
shire
suf (soutii), Suffolk
stead (a place), Hamp-

stead
stoke, etc. (a place),

Brigstock
stone {st&n, 1.), Stain-

cliflfe

stow (a place), Godstow
strath (a dale), Lang-

strothdale
street (Lat. strata via),

Stratford, E.
tarn (a lake), Malham

Tarn, N.
thorp (a village), Low-
thorp
thwaite (a field), Sea-

thwaite, N.
toft (an eminence),

Langtoft, N.
ton (a town), Taunton
torr (a hill). Bell Torr
try (C., a town), Daven-

try

vaulx (valley), Eievaulx
Abbey

weald (forest or waste
land), the Weald of
Kent

well (a spring), Brace-
well

wick (a recess, a place),
Alnwick

wiske (C. wysg, a
stream), N.

with (by, near), Beck
with, N.

wold {weald), the "Wolds

worth (?) Boulsworth (a
high moor), Kenil-
worth (an estate)

WORDS SELECTED FROM OLD GLOSSARIES.

For certain uses it is convenient to speak of Old English
and of Modern Englisb. as of two distinct subjects ; but these
two names denote two developments of one language, and in
writing of Grammar it is neither possible nor desirable to treat
separately of the two subjects naturally united. No hard and
precise line can be correctly drawn, so as to separate forms
often called ' obsolete ' from others that, although rarely seen
or heard, are found here and there in Modem English litera-
ture. Words belonging respectively to these two classes are
given in the appended selections from Old Glossaries.

In the abbreviations the figures 1. and 2. severally follow words found in
E.I. or m E. II. ; jpr. — Present, p. « Past, andjp.jp. » Perfect Participle.

a, the contracted form

of have
abidden, endured ; p.p.

of abide
aboht, redeemed ; p.p.

of abye
alderliefest, dearest of

all
allow, approve ; 1st

meaning
axe, ask ; acsian, 1.
bad, bade ; p. of bid
behight, promised ;

comp. p.p. of hatan, 1.

Old English Words.

beholden, bound; holde,

2.
belike, to favour, to

approve
bestead, make staid,

or ' bring about '
beth, (we, ye, they)

are, be ye ; beon, 2.
betide, to happen ;

tidian, 1.
bide, endure, wait for ;

bidan, 1.
bilef, remained; p. of

belifan, 1.

bin, are, is ; pr. of beon.

2.
bistad (in some places)

' beset '
boden, invited; p.p. of

beoden, 2.
bonn, ready ; p.p. of bua
bound, ready = boun:

from bua (to make

ready), N.
bounden, bound ; p.p.

of bind
brook, endure ; brucaUy

1. (use)

OLD ENGLISH WORDS.

193

byschyne, shone upon ;

^.■p. cormp.of schinen, 2.
can, canst. (So ' shall,'

* will,' * may,' and

' dare ' are used.)
chid, chidden; p.p. of

chklen, 2.
clave, adhered; p. of

ckven, 2.
clept, called; p.p. of

clepen, 2.
cloven, cleft; p.p. of

cleave
con, to study; con, 1.
couthe, knew [* 20]
dalve, digged; p. of

delven, 2.
deem, think ; deman,

1. ( = pronounce

doom)
dight, arrayed ; p.p.

of dihtan, 1.
don, put on = ^ do on''
dout, put out = ' do

ouf
drave, drove ; p.s. of

driven, 2.
draw'd = drew or

drawn
e^^, incite; eggian, 1.
fadge, suit ; ge-fegan,

1.
fear, to frighten ;/<^ra«,

1.
fat, fetched ; p.p. of

fetten, 2.
flang, flung ; p. oiflin-

gen, 2.
forewite, foreknow ;

witen [§ 37]
forlorn, lost; p.p. of

forleosan, 1. [§ 37]
freighted, fraught ;

p.p. of freight,

'fraucht '
fret, eaten away; p.p.

oifreten, 2.
freyne, ask; fregnan,

1.
gain-giving, misgiving

[§ 37]
gainsay, contradict

[§3^
gan, began [§ 21]

gear (ready means),

gere, 2 ; gearo (ready),

1.
gird, smite ; gyrdan,

1.
gives, give ; N. plural
gramercy (many

thanks), grand' merci,

Fr.
halidom, relics ; ' by my

halidom' = an oath
harry, distress ; ker-

gian, 1.
hight, named ; Mtew, 1.
holden, held ; p.p. of

healden, 2.
holpen, helped ; p.p. of

helpen, 2.
hove, distended; p.p.

of heave
ihote ( = hight), named
iwis, certainly (adverb)
lahte, latched ; p. of

lacchen, 2.
lemman (friend), leman
let, hinder; letten, 2.
lench, laughed ; p. of

latighen, 2.
liste, it pleased ; lystan,

1.
lit, come by chance ;

p.p. of lighten, 2.
loken, locked; p.p. of

hiken, 2.
longe, on accoimt of;

gelang, 1.
lough, laughed; p. of

laughen, 2.
makar, maker = a poet
methinks, to me it

seems
mistook, mistaken ; p.p.
mun, must ; N.
nabbe, have not = ne

+ habbe
ought, owe ; owen, 2.
pert, manifest; apert,

O.F.
pheeze, scare, drive ;

fysan, 1.
pight, fixed ; p.p. of

-picJicn, 2.
planched, planked ; Fr.

planchHer

plight, pledged ; p.p.

of pUghten, 2.
quit, made void ; p.p.

oi quiten, 2.
quoth, said ; p. of que-

then, 2.
raught, reached ; p.

and p.p. of rechen, 2.
reck, to care for ; recan, 1 .
red, rid ; redden, 2.
redde, advised; p. of

reden, 2.
rede, advice ; reden, 2.
reeve, a steward; ge-

refa, 1.
reft, bereft ; p.p. of

reave
rennede, ran [* 20]
riven, torn ; p.p. of rive
roode (the cross) ; rod,

1.
rounded, insinuated ;

runian, 1.
routhe (pity) ; hreow, 1.
schawes, groves ; N.

scua, 1. (shade)
sched, divided; p.p. of

scheden, 2.
schent, ruined, dis-
graced ; p.p. of schen-

den, 2.
schope, made ; p. of

schapen, 2.
schriven, confessed ;

p.p. of schriven, 2.
sheene, shining ; schi-

nen, 2.
shinde, shone; p. of

shine
shined, shone ; p.p. of

shine
smit, smitten; p.p. of

smite
sperr, to shut up ; spar-
ran, 1.
starven, starved; p.p.

of stervcn, 2.
straught, distracted ;

strecchen, 2.( = stretch)
strave, strove ; p. of

strive
strawed, strowed [§ 21]
stricken, advanced ; p.p.

of strike

194

SOURCES OP ENGLISH WORDS.

swink, to work ; smn-

ken, 2.
Bwonken, worked ; p.p.

of swinJcen, 2.
tarre, incite; terian, 1.

(= vex)
teen, grief; teona, 1.

(harm)
tide, come to pass ;

tidian, 1.
to wit, namely ; adv.

from witen, 2.
iincoutli, unknown ; un-

coupe, 2.
undern, 9 a.m.
understanden, p.p. =

understood
uneath, hardly; eO^, 1.

(ease)
Tipholden, supported ;

p.p. of uphold

wanhope, despair; wan,

1. (prefix = wanting)
wantrust, distrust ;

wa7i, 1.
war (wary) ; w^r, 1.
waxen, grow, grown ;

weaxen, 2.
ween, to imagine ; we-

nan, 1.
wend, to turn ; wendan,

1.
wight, any creature ;

wiht, 1.
will, wild ; Scottish
winne, get; winnan, 1.

(= fight)
wiste, knew ; p. of

witen, 2.
with, against ; wtSer, 1 .
witherwin, adversary ;

OLD DIALECTS.

wont, accustomed ; p.p.

of wunien, 2. (to

dwell)
wood, mad; wod, 1.
worhte, worked ; p. of

worchen, 2.
worj^e, to become ;

weor^an, I.
wot, knows ; pr. of

witen, 2.
wrake,vengeance ; wrcec,

1.
wreathen, wreathed ;

p.p. of wrethen, 2.
writhen, wreathed ; p.p.

of writhen, 2.
yclept, p.p. = named
yode, went ; eode, 1. ( =

went)
ywis, certainly ; adv.

It has been noticed that, in the English of the fourteenth
century, there were three dialects ; that in Scotland, during
the time 1350-1550, transitions in forms of speech were made
more slowly than in Midland districts of England, and that, in
later days, the ' Scottish,' or most conservative form of the
Northern Dialect, was erroneously described as ' a language '
distinct from English. [See * 20.]

Some references to writings and selections representing the three dia-
lects may be given here.

Example of the Southern Dialect : ' The Ayenbite of Inwyt ' (pub. for
E. E. Text Soc.)

Exs. of the Midland Dialect: 'William of Palerne' (E, E. Text Soc);
' Piers the Plowman ' (part of B. text, ed. by Skeat) ; the Publications of
4ie Chaucer Society.

Exs. of the Northern Dialect : ' The Bruce,' by Barbour (E. E. Text
Soc.) ; ' Complaynt of Scotlande ' (ed. by Murray, for E. E. Text Soc.) ;
* Cursor Mundi ' (E. E. Text Soc.)

The more important variations of words in the extensive
vocabulary of Old English are such as belong to dialects, or
serve to define periods in the development of the language ;
but numerous other variations exist, which are nothing more
than so many modes of spelling, chosen by writers who
severally claimed, in this respect, unbounded freedom, and
knew nothing of any rules belonging to orthography. Varia-
tions of this class make more copious than they would other-

LATIN WORDS. 195

wise appear the glossaries required by readers of Old English,
Its wealth of words and its numerous variations of spelling
may both be studied in the glossaries, etc., to which references
are here appended.

E.II. Glossaries, etc. : Morris (Gloss, to * Cursor Mundi ') ; Ellis (' On
E. E. Pronunciation ') ; Glossarial Indexes to Morris and Skeat's * Spec.
of E. E. ; ' Gloss. Index to Skeat's ' Spec, of Eng. Lit., 1394-1597 ; ' Halli-
"WELL ('Archaic Words,' etc. — more than 50,000); ' Promptorium Par-
Tulorum' (Eng.-Lat. Gloss, of 15th c. ed. by Wat); Stratmann ('Diet, of
Old Eng.') E.II. Grammar: Bernard ('William Langland'); Koch;
Latham; Matzner; Morris.

LATIN WORDS.

Many words that are constituent parts of Modern English
may, with respect to their sources, be called Latin. Of these
the oldest are some Roman names of places, such as Chester,
Exeter, and Lancaster. Next come the ecclesiastical terms
introduced in translations made by Augustine's immediate
followers, and in writings by other churchmen who, after the
sixth century, used a considerable number of such words as
are now represented by ' choir,' ' cloister,' ' creed,' ' monk,'
and ' priest.' More numerous words of the same class were,
in the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, made
more or less current by writers of translations, and by
preaching friars who, in their quotations of Latin, often re-
peated and expounded their original Latin terms. In those
times a teacher would hardly use such a word as fortitude
without adding the interpretation ' that is, strength.' By these
and similar means the people were often made to see the
force and utility of general terms, and, while mainly holding
fast their own language of common life, they soon learned to
like their new Roman words ; many altered forms borrowed
through the medium of Old French ; others, less numerous
and less altered, such as ' firmament,' ' innocent,' ' medicine,'
and 'penitence,' and several borrowed directly from Latin.
To the latter class considerable additions were made in the
second half of the fifteenth century, while in Scotland the
poets of that time introduced too many Latin words, and so
made their writings more and more unlike the rude language
spoken by the people. In England, at the same time, and in
the former half of the sixteenth century, the Midland Dialect,
greatly enriched by appropriations of Latin, was gradually
assuming the character and the position of Standard English,
[See * 20.]
• of

196 SOURCES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

In the latter half of the sixteenth century, or in the time
when Elizabeth was reigning, the establishment of Modern
English took place. This was the result of several powerful
and concurrent causes — the general intellectual excitement
spreading among educated men, the introduction of printing,
and the revival of classical literature, which was soon followed
by the publication of many translations from Latin, Italian,^
and French, and by large importations of Latin words.

Of the numerous Latin compounds introduced by writers of the seven-
teenth century many have failed to establish themselves as parts of the
spoken tongue, though they still keep their places in dictionaries, compiled
in the eighteenth century by scholars who knew more of Latin than of
English. To make room for numerous long words {e.g. ' deosculate,' ' de-
lacrymation,' and ' fuliginous ') compilers cast away many English words of
which they did not know the sources, and excluded from so-called ' English
dictionaries ' such quotations of proverbial and idiomatic phrases as would
have shown the uses and meanings of old words too carelessly called ' obso-
lete.' By this process of casting away a great deal of Old English, a
' Latinized ' stylo of diction was made predominant, and the effects of this
innovation have not yet passed away. Too many writers use words of
which they do not know the true meanings, and too many readers acquire a
liking for 'vague, glossy, and unfeeling' forms of expression. Meanwhile,
in some books, and in too many sermons addressed to the people, a lan-
guage that may be called partly foreign, or half -Latin, is used as the mean&
of teaching. It is, of course, understood that not a word of disrespect i&
here applied to Eoman words employed with their true meanings and set
in their right places.

The words chiefly wanted in Old English of the earlier
time were terms denoting general ideas. The tongue had
numerous adjectives, like 'empty,' 'fair,' 'kind,' 'ready,' and
' swift,' and besides these some nouns of general import, like
' hardihood,' ' knowledge,' ' neediness,' and ' readiness ; ' but
there was in the latter class no great variety, and no remark-
able extension was made in their meanings. Writers of the
higher order, who could not well express their best thoughts
by means of such words as ' boxumnes ' (obedience), ' saccles '
(innocent), and 'onesprute' (inspiration), were sometimes
compelled to give to their own old words, and to their later
words borrowed from French, meanings higher than at
first belonged to them. Accordingly 'hende' (handy) was
made to mean ' gracious,' and a noun derived from ' de-
bonere ' ( = c/e hon air) was used as a word equivalent to
' grace ' or to ' goodness ' in the highest degree. The compre-
hensive and higher words then wanted were afterwards
supplied by Latin, and at the same time means for the con-
struction of scientific terms were afibrded. The student whose

VAEIOUS SOURCES. 197

iirst work is observation of facts must have names to denote
their differences and their likenesses ; but tbronghout his
whole process he keeps in view one main result, which is their
true ' classification.' This one word ' classification ' is a fair
example of the comprehensive terms supplied by Latin com-
pounds. The same tongue affords nouns synonymous with
some Old English names, and other words having the meanings
of verbs and nouns borrowed from French, as in the examples
' persecute ' and 'pursue,' 'redemption * and 'ransom.' The
inconvenience attending a common use of compounds of
which the stems are not well understood has been noticed.
The analysis of compounds of which the parts are Latin be-
longs to an important section of Etymology. [_See § 40 and
the second Vocabulary.]

Of the numerous words borrowed from Latin, those that
are purely abstract or general remain so far permanent and
unaltered, with respect to their meanings, that they may well
represent the duration of Rome itself. Examples of these
firm words are seen in 'affirmation,' 'transition,' and .'renova-
tion.' But in other words meanings less abstract, or more
nearly associated in any way with the passions of men, are of
<;ourse variable, as may be noticed in such examples as ' ani-
mosity,' 'attorney,' 'censure,' 'insolent,' 'officious,' 'opinion,'
and ' resentment.' Several Latin words have still, in the
Bible of the seventeenth century, and in the Book of Common
Prayer, meanings that are elsewhere obsolete — for example,
* allow,' ' comfort,' and ' prevent.' These words, in the places
referred to, have kept original meanings that, in common
talk, have been diminished and altered.

VARIOUS SOURCES OF WORDS.

When compared with numerous Roman words coming
directly from Latin, or indirectly, through the medium of
Old French, other contributions to the resources of the English
Language may well seem unimportant. A few examples of
naturalized words coming from various sources are here ap-
pended. Words belonging to Modern French or to Modem
Italian are omitted.

American. — canoe, maize, potato, tobacco, -wig^ram.
^raiic.— alchemy, algebra, assassin, caravan, mosque, saltan, talisman,
vizier, zenith.

Chinese. — caddy, mandarin, nankeen, tea.
Butch. — schooner, sloop, yacht.

198

SOUECES OF ENGLISH WORDS.

Hebrew. — Amen, cherub (pi. cherubim), hallelujah, hosanna, jubilee^
leviathan, sabbath, seraph (pi. seraphim), shibboleth.

Hindu {etc.) — calico, curry, jiingle, pundit, rajah.

Persian. — azure, bazaar, dervish, emerald, lilac, sherbet, paradise.

Polynesian. — taboo, tattoo.

Portuguese. — caste, palaver.

Spanish. — armada, alligator, mosquito.

Turkish. — divan, dragoman, janissaries, scimitar.

The sources of English words are abundant, but in some instances the
language is poor with respect to synonyms. As examples of words having
few equivalents these may be noticed : — ' characteristic,' * use ' (the noun),
and the adjective 'curious,' employed with an objective meaning. There
are not many words that, witJi respect to language, can well take the place
of ' sources.' The Grreek word ' Etymon,' if accepted so that it might take s
for the plural, would often serve as a convenient word. After all the care
spent in research, there are words of which the history remains obscure —
for example, the noun ' boy,' and the verbs ' carp,' ' hamper,' and ' haunt.'

The variety of the sources noticed is briefly shown in the following list.
The languages to which the words severally belong are indicated by abbrevia-
tions. It will be noticed that the words borrowed from Latin belong severally
to four periods.

Avon, Cym.
boy(?)
carp, V. (?)
Chester, Lat.,
child, Eng.
choir, Lat., 2.
feU, North.

firmament, Lat.,3,
gamboge, Malay
guide, Old Er.
hamper, v. (?)
haunt, V. (?)
horticulture, Lat.
4.

jubilee, Heb.
mandarin, Chin,
mosque, Arab,
mosquito. Span,
palaver. Port,
paradise, Pers.
precis, Mod. Er.

rajah, Hind,
scimitar, Turk,
tattoo, Polyn.
thermometer, Gr
virtuoso, Ital.
wigwam, Amer.
yacht, Dutch

Weitebs on the History, etc., of the English Language.

In the appended list of references to books, only a few a/re named; but
these are enough to lead to a knowledge of other useful works on the same
extensive subject. The abbreviations ' Eng^ and ' Germ.' denote the two lan-
guages English and Grerman; * etym' and ^pron.,' in references to dictionaries,
are substitutes for the words ' etymological ' and ^pronouncing* In references
to writers on English Grammar, the sign III. indicates that the writer whose
name immediately precedes treats of M.E. in its historical union with E.I.
and E.II.

"Writers on the History of the English Language : Latham, Marsh,
Morris, Skeat, Trench. Old Dictionaries, etc. : ' Promptorium Parvu-
lorum' (Eng.-Lat., 15th c); Palsgrave (Fr.-Eng., 1530); 'Manipulus
Vocabulorum' (Eng.-Lat., 1570); Skinner (Eng.-Lat., 1671); Phillips
(•World of Words,' 1678; the same work ed. by Kersey, 1706); Bailey
(1735); Johnson (1755). New Dictionaries, etc.: Abbott ('Concordance
to Pope's Writings'); Cruden ('Concordance to the Bible'); Mulleb
(Eng.-Germ.) ; Ogilvie (etym. pron., ed. by Cull) ; Eoget (' Thesaurus ') ;
Schmidt (' Shakespeare Lexicon ') ; Trench (' Select Glossary') ; Webster
(etym. pron., ed. by Mahn) ; Wedgwood (etym.) ; Smith (' Synonyms ') ;
SouLE ('Synonyms'). — Writers on English Grammar: Abbott ('Shake-
spearean Grammar'); Haldeman ('Affixes'); Jonson, Ben. (17th c.) ;
Koch (Germ., III.); Latham (III.); Mason; Matzner (Germ. III.);
Morris (III.)

LATIN COMPOUNDS. 199

40. LATIN COMPOUNDS.

Analyses of vocabularies employed by several good writers
of English give the following results, of which the accuracy
is, of course, approximate. In some considerable parts of our
literature, the number of English words, compared with that
of Latin and other borrowed words commonly used, has
nearly the ratio of five to one. In a total of four hundred and
eighty words, the places occupied by English words are nearly
four hundred, and the places where Latin and other borrowed
words occur are about eighty. But the latter number is
greatly increased when writings on politics, jurisprudence,
philology, theology, and philosophy are examined ; and, again,
the number of borrowed words is increased when treatises on
the arts and sciences are made subjects of analysis. In these
the number of the Greek compounds is considerable. In
general literature, Latin compounds, compared with those
made of Greek words, are proportionately numerous. The
latter belong especially to writings on the sciences. [/See the
Vocabularies 11. and III.]

Greek compounds are extensively employed in treatises on astronomy,
botany, chemistry, geography, geology, mathematics, mechanics, mineralogy,
optics, and zoology. [See Vocabulary III.]

Latin compounds are largely employed by writers on education, ethics,
history, jurisprudence, national economy, and politics. [See Vocabu-
lary n.]

Numerous compounds borrowed from Latin and G-reek are employed by
critics and other writers on the fine arts : — architecture, sculpture, painting,
music, and poetry. [See the Vocabularies II. and III.]

In verse the number of Latin words is, in proportion, much smaller than
their number in prose. With respect to the use of words having their
sources in First English, the general tendency of poetry is conservative.

Our extensive modern uses of Latin compounds are closely
connected with the history of culture. Of several compounds
the stems are words that once had crude meanings, such as
are still connected with many Old English words — expressions
naturally belonging to times when rapacity wore no disguise,
and when acts of violence were the means of conquest on one
side and of defence on the other. The first meanings of
certain stems are now forgotten. Thus the force of sacan (to
fight) does not belong to the verb ' for-s4ke,' which serves as
an instance of diminution or loss of force. In some Latin
compounds transitions of the same kind have taken place.
Stems have lost so far their primitive meanings that words

200 LATIN COMPOUNDS.

originally relating to the camp and the forum serve now to
express ideas belonging to the literature of culture.

The difference of primary and secondary meanings is shown by the
■words ' greed,' ' stourl ' fight,' ' ransack,' and ' war,' set in contrast with the
words ' rapacity,' ' acts of violence,' ' conquest,' ' spoliation,' and ' defence.'
The crude meanings of the first series have hardly lost their force, while
our modern uses of the Latin words show a diminution of meaning. The
noun 'rapacity ' hardly retains all the rude force of 'greed,' though the verb
rcupio = reafian (to rob). In early Greek and in Latin the root of ago
belonged to words used in warfare, of which no thought is implied in the
derivative ' ag-ent ' and the compound ' trans-act-ion.' The chief cause of
such diminutions and of other changes of meaning is clear. Where stems
do not belong to our popular tongue, the force of compounds is vaguely
understood. Hence Latin words, in poetry, cannot have the force of such
pure English as was often written by Woebsworth. Wherever the design
is to denote forcibly our immediate impressions, or to excite feelings closely
associated with well-known words, pure English is the language to be
chosen. But it cannot supply all the words for writing on government and
education, or vocabularies appropriate to treatises on the arts and sciences.
In these, as in other departments, such aids as are supplied by Latin and
Greek are most valuable.

The history of our composite language, when extensively studied, serves
as a history of transitions in culture. Alterations of language have fol-
lowed changes of institutions — especially those of the seventh, thirteenth,
and sixteenth centuries — and thoughts more comprehensive than those
expressed by earlier forms have been developed by means of Latin com-
pounds. To these words new meanings have been given by alterations of
opinion and belief; hence there arise, in close association with studies of
words, questions too important to be treated here, though they may be
suggested. Should the higher meanings given to certain words be viewed
as results of ' evolution,' as effects of a law immanent in society? or must
they be ascribed to historical events and to institutions founded on autho-
rity ? These are examples of questions connected with the study of lan-
guage. In relation to inquiries here suggested, the historical study of
English has great importance.

Latin compounds are so extensively employed, that ignor-
ance of their structure leads to wrong uses of words forming
a large proportionate part of our language. The meanings of
Latin stems, in all derivatives and compounds generally used,
should be taught as carefully as we teach spelling.

Latin and Greek vocabularies are appended to this Grammar. They
contain stems to which belong some thousands of words. More than a
thousand belong to the seven verbs cd'pio, fero, mitto, jpUco, pono, Undo,
and teneo.

The Accentuation of Latin Compounds.

1. Words ending in ian, ion, ior, ious, eons, or uous have
the accent on the antepenultimate. \_See § 42.]

LATIN COMPOUNDS. 201

2. In componnds of the first order the English tendency
is to place the accent on the definitive word ; but in some
polysyllables the Latin rale so far prevails that the accent
falls on the antepenultimate. [/See §§5 and 38.]

Ex.: 'aqueduct,' 'drmistice,' 'artifice,' 'magnanimous,*

* manuscript,' 'monopoly,' 'multiform,' 'omnipotence.' [^ee

§5-]

3. Where the English tendency and the Latin rule con-
tradict each other, the former sometimes prevails, as in the
words 'agriculture,' 'melancholy,' and 'orthoepy.' [See §38.]

4. In compounds of the second order the English ten-
dency is to place accents of nouns on separable prefixes.
This tendency prevails also in Latin nouns, where the chief
parts are monosyllabic, [^ee §§37 and 38.]

Ex. : ' abstract,' * advent,' ' college,' ' comfort,' ' index,'

* preface,' 'proverb.'

5. In many compounds of two syllables the accent is re-
moved from the first to the second syllable, in order to make
verbs distinct from nouns.

Ex. : ' abstract,' ' export,' ' extract,' ' import,' ' object,'

* present,' 'protest,' 'record,' ' rebel,' 'refuse.'

The Structure of Latin Compounds.

Two stems — one called the verb-stem, the other the
supine-stem — are used in the structure of Latin compounds.
The latter stem is usually formed by adding tu or su to the
root, or to the verb-stem, and this addition often requires a
change in a •preceding consonant. In ago the root (which in
this instance = the verb-stem) is ag, and if to this stem tu
is added, a sharp follows a flat consonant ; in other words,
the surd dental t follows the sonant guttural g. Assimilation
of the two consonants here takes place, and, to make pro-
nunciation easy, the g is changed to c in the supine-stem
actu. From the former stem the derivative word ' ag-ent ' is
formed, and the latter stem, casting oS" the final vowel,
appears in the words 'act-ion' and ' act-ive.' In the word
' colony ' col, the verb-stem of colo (' I cultivate '), is seen,
and the supine-stem cultu appears in the word ' culture.' In
facio (* I make ') the verb-stem is f ac, and the supine-stem is
facta, which, casting off the final vowel, appears in ' fact '
and in ' faction.' But neither of these two stems is found
unchanged in the words ' deficient ' and ' defect.' When serv-
ing as parts of compounds, several Latin verbs change the

202

LATIN COMPOUNDS.

vowel of the stem. Thus facio, coinpomided with the particle
de, changes a to i, as in the verb deficio, and changes a to e
in compounds made with the supine-stem, as in the nonn
defectus. These two vowel-changes are seen also in the
words 'deficient' and ' defect.' The verb fero (' I bear,' or
' bring ') has no supine-stem, but borrows one — latu — from
another verb. Hence the difference of forms in the two words
' re-fer-ence ' and ' re-lat-ion,' of which the meanings are
closely allied.

It may be noticed here that, to show the structure of words, they are
diA^ded as in the examples * con-struct-ion ' and • re-lat-ion ; ' but, in
accordance with pronunciation, words are divided as in the examples ' con-
struc-tion ' and ' re-la-tion.'

The utility of numerous compounds having Latin stems is
obvious. There is no Teutonic compound that can con-
veniently express the meaning of ' composition,' and to substi-
tute, instead of ' impervious,' the cumbrous word ' un-through-
fare-som ' — a compound of which the four parts are English
— would be a tedious process. Compounds of which the
elements are Latin are mostly recommended by ease in both
spelling and pronunciation and by precision of meaning.
ISee the Vocabularies I. and II.]

The knowledge of a few stems of Latin verbs, when added
to a knowledge of suffixes and prefixes, will give the meanings
of numerous compounds. From the verb pono scores of
words are formed, and when it is known that posit means
' placed,' the uses of such words as ' composition ' and 'pre-
position ' are obvious. The verbs capio ('I take'), -specio
('I behold'), teneo (' I hold '), and tendo (' I stretch ') are
sources of an extensive vocabulary.

In the appended examples of compounds, the meanings of suffixes and
prefixes are not given. [See §§ 29, 31, and 38.]

The number 2. points out the second or supine stem, as used in compo-
sition. The letter c. refers to a vowel-change made in a stem when it is
employed as one part of a compound.

Prefixes. Stems.

ad jacio (2. c. ject.), jplace

ad verbum, verb

ag gravis (adj.), heavy

col lego (2. lect.), gather

com p5no (2. posit), j3^^

con curro, run

con fero, bring

con jungo (2. junct.), Jom

Suffixes.

Compounds.

ive

' adjective.'

—

' adverb.'

ate

' aggravate.'

ion

' collection.'

ion

' composition.'

ent

' concurrent.'

ence

' conference.'

ion

' conjunction.' ,

GREEK COMPOUNDS.

20a

Prefixes.

con

contra

in
inter
intro

non -i- de
pre
pro
pro
pro
pro
re
re

Stems.
sono, sound
statuo (2. c. stit.),se^
traho (2. tract.), draw
dico (2. diet.), say
facio (c. fie), mahe
lego (2. lect.), choose
flecto (2. flex.), lend
venio, come
duco, lead
lego (2. lect), read
scribo (2. script), write
pono (2. posit.), j9Zace
habeo (2. c. Mbit.)
pello (2. puis.), drive
tester, hear ivitness
video, see
fero, hear
fero (2. lat.), hear

Suffixes

Compounds.

ion

* consonant.'

ion

* constitution.'

ion

' contraction.'

ion

' contradiction.*^

ent

* deficient.'

—

' elect.'

ion

* inflexion.'

* intervene,'

—

' introduce.'

nre

' lecture.'

—

' nondescript.'

ion

' preposition.'

—

' prohibit.'

ion

' propulsion.'

—

' protest.'

ence

' providence.'

ence

' reference.'

ion

' relation.'

GREEK COMPOUNDS.

A few examples are given of Greek words serving as
parts of compounds established in Modern English. \_8e&
Vocabulary III.]

Greek Words, Compounds.

arche (government) + a (negative) * anarchy.'

autos (self) + kratos (power) * autocracy.'

bios (life) + graphe (writing) ' biography.'

chronos (time) + logos (discourse) ' chronology.'

dLemos (the people) + kratos 'democracy.'

ge (<^e ear^/^) + graphe 'geography.' i

hieros (a priest) + arche ' hierarchy.'

lusis (loosing) + ana (thorough) ' analysis.'

nomos (law) + astron (star) ' astronomy.'

pathos (disease) + logos ' pathology.'

temno (cut) + ana * ' anatomy,'

thermon (heat) + metron (measure) ' thermometer.*

thesis (placing) + syn (with) * synthesis.'

topos (a place) + graphe ' topography.*

tupos (a type) + graphe * typography.'

zoon (an animal) + logos * zoology.'

-:^04 ALTERATIONS OF WORDS.

41. ALTERATIONS OF WORDS.

Alterations that, in the course of time, have been made
in the forms of English words are so numerous that their
adequate treatment would require space far exceeding the
limits of a handbook ; but an outline may show the means of
making many changes, and some results of the process may
be indicated. Of all the means employed the most important
are irregular uses of twenty-six letters in writing signs for
forty-one or forty-two sounds. [See § 1, ** 2 and 3.] Of
these various and irregular uses one example must here suffice.
The sound of a, pronounced as in the word ' pale,' is denoted
by a in ' fate,' ' haste,' and ' mate ; ' by ai in ' plain,' ' rain,' and

* vain ; ' by ay in ' day,' ' ray,' and ' way ; ' by ea in the verbs

* bear,' 'break,' and 'tear;' by ei in 'deign,' 'reign,' and
' vein ; ' lastly, by ey in the verbs ' convey ' and ' obey,' and
in the noun ' prey.' Among these and other modes of vari-
ously denoting one sound, some may serve, here and there, to

' indicate sources of words ; but in general variations, like those
here noticed, can give no safe guidance in etymology. The
sound of a in ' pale ' is denoted by ai in ' fair ' and ' rain,' of
which the First English forms are fager and regen ; by ^i in

* air ' and ' praise,' from the Old French air and preis ; by ay
and ei in ' way ' and ' their,' of which the First English forms
are iveg and ])dra ; and, lastly, by ay and ei in the verbs ' stay '
and ' deign,' of which the Old French forms are esteir and
deigner. It is obvious that such uses of letters can give no
clear guidance, though it is granted that ai and ei, in Enghsh,
often represent ai and ei (or oi) in Old French.

Vowels — initial, medial, or final — are in some words
omitted. Ex. : spice (from the O.F. espisce), pert (O.F.
upert) ; captain (O.F. cajpitaine), and creed (E.I. credo).

Consonants — ^initial, medial, or final — are in some words
omitted. jEx. : ' it ' (E.I. hit), ' apron ' (O.F. najperon), ' slice '
(O.F. esdice), ' Craven ' (Cym. Craigvan), ' Thursday ' (E.I.
punres-dag), ' deceit ' (E.II. deceijpt) riddle (E.I. rcedels),
anvil (E.il. anvelt).

In some words both consonants and vowels are together
-omitted. Ex.: 'drake' (O.'N. andriki), ' spence,' a pantry
(O.F. despense), 'spite' (O.'F. desp it), 'lark' (E.I. Idwerce),
Mord' (E.I. hldford), 'lady' (E.II. lafdi), Oxford (E.II.
Oxenforde), ' garment ' (O.F. garniment), riches (E.II. richesse,
in the singular number ; pi. richesses), England (E.I. Engla-

ALTERATIONS OF WORDS. 205-

Icmd). In the last word the first two syllables form the
genitive case of the plural Engle (= Englishmen).

In words less numerous than those already noticed, letters
have been added to old forms. Ex.: 'whole' (E.I. lidl)y

* could ' (E.II. coude), ' groom ' (E.I. guma = a man),

* nimble ' (E.I. nemol), ' sovereign (O.F. sovrain).

Ti-ansposition of letters has taken place in some words.
Ex.: 'apple' (E.I. ajppel), 'thrill' (E.I. ]>yrUan), 'white''
(E.I. hwU).

Consonant mutations (or ' permutations ') are distinctly noticed in
another place.

One of the results of alterations concurrent with other
causes is that many words and syllables coming from different
sources have been reduced to identity of form, as may be
seen in ' light,' the adjective (= not heavy), compared with
'light,' the verb (= kindle and enlighten), and with ' light, '^
the second syllable in the noun and verb ' delight.' The first
syllable is French in ' wam-tain ; ' but in the compound
' mam-mast ' the first part is English. Examples of formal
coincidences are numerous.

There are at least two meanings for each of the words ' bound,' ' chase,'
' hail,' ' mail,' ' pale,' ' pine,' ' port,' ' pound,' * race,' ' rank,' and ' well ; ''
three or four for each in ' bill,' ' case,' * check,' ' flag,' ' lay,' ' rail,' and
' sound ; ' Jive, or perhaps six, meanings may be given to each of the words
'bay,' 'block,' and ' box.' The noun ' hamper' (a basket) has its origin in
Low Latin ; but of the verb ' hamper ' the source is not so readily found.
Some old uses of this verb remind us of the O.F. verb empeirer (to impair)..
The word ' fell,' of which the sources are E.I. and O.N., serves as a tran-
sitive verb, or as the Past of an intransitive, and has besides the meanings
' cruel,' a ' hide ' or ' skin,' and a ' hill ' or ' high moorland.'

Compounds, by means of alteration and contraction, have
assumed the appearance of derivatives, or of simple words.

Thus ' sheriff,' in structure, looks like ' bailiff,' but comes from the E.I.
compound scire-gerefa. In hlaford, the E.I. form of ' lord,' a contraction
has been made (it is said) of hldf (a loaf or portion of bread) + wedrd (a
keeper and distributor). Accepting this etymology (which is hardly clear),
the primitive ofl&ce of a hlaf-weard, or ' lord,' was in some degree like one
instituted in ancient Egypt, during a time of famine. [^G-en. xLi. 48-56.]

Another result of alterations is that some words of foreign
origin have assumed the appearance of native compounds.

For example, ' rose-mary,' the name of a fragrant herb, comes from the
Latin rosmarinus. The word ' b^ef-eaters ' is probably a misrepresentation
of tlie O.F. name huffetiers (from huffet\, and ' causeway ' may belong to
the French cauchie, an alteration of the first Latin word in calceata (via) ;

"206 ALTERATIONS OF WORDS.

■while the O.F. word escrevisse may be the source of the apparent compound

* cray-fish.'

In writing of formal alterations made in words, several
<;ompound terms, borrowed from Greek and Latin, are em-
ployed, and these terms may here be noticed.

aphderesis {Gr., taking away from the beginning). Ex. : ' sport' (O.F.
desport), 'story' (O.F. histoire).

apocope {Gr., taking away from the end). Ex. : * gear ' (E.I. gearwa),
'harbour' (E.II. herherwe).

assimilation {Lat., making like). Ex. : ' gramercy ! ' (an old inter-
jectional form, from the French grand' merci), ' gospel ' (E.I. godspell),
' stirrup ' (E.I. stigrap).

elision {Lat, cutting off). Ex. : ' 6nvoy ' (Fr. envoye), ' writer ' (E.I.
writere).

epenthesis {Gr., adding within). Ex. : ' 6mpty ' (E.I. emtig).

metathesis {Gr., transposition). Ex.: 'frith' (Sc. firth) 'wheat'
(E.I. hwmte).

paragdge {Gr., adding at the end). Ex.: 'amongst' (E.I. amang),
' ancient ' (O.F. ancien), ' limb ' (E.I. lim).

prosthesis (6^r., adding at the beginning). Ex.: 'newt' (E.II, ew^),
' smelt ' {melt), ' whole ' (E.I. Ml).

syncope ( Gr., blending two syllables). Ex. : ' head ' (E.I. heafod),

* lark ' (E.I. lawerce), ' made ' (E.II.

Of all words in Modem English, those least altered are
words borrowed lately and directly from Latin. "With respect
to nnmerons other forms, the general results of manifold
alterations are these : — our modern modes of spelling indicate
truly neither pronunciation nor etymology.

There are in the English now B^dken. forty -one ox forty-two sounds; to
denote these sounds there are only twenty-six letters, and of these deficient
signs the best possible use is not made. \^See ** 2, 3.]

CONSONANT MUTATIONS.

Alterations, such as have been noticed, are seen when our
attention is bounded by the limits of one language; other
mutations, more extensive and in their results more perma-
nent, are observed on passing from one lang-aage to another.
The history of language is, for the most part, a story of rest-
less transition, though institutions, ecclesiastical and scholastic,
have given stability to the written and printed forms of
■classical Greek and Latin. The Latin of the golden age has
thus been preserved, and the style of Cicero may here and
there be still admired in compositions belonging to the nine-
teenth century. But that literary and classical tongue — never
-spoken by the people — was, in its golden time, as closely
limited as it was highly cultivated. Its monumental forms

CONSONANT MUTATIONS. 207

were, dnring mediaeval times, represented, more or less im-
perfectly, in the literature of the Church, and they were after-
wards brought to light by the labours of many zealous scholars.
Meanwhile, in the course of the Middle Ages, the popular
tongue called Roman {lingua Romana rustica) was mixed with
words introduced by barbarous peoples, and out of the mixture
of ' rustic Latin ' with some foreign stems there arose several
new languages and dialects. In the land now called France
the dialects (of which the constituent parts belonged mostly
to Roman stems) were mainly divided into two groups ; one
including the dialects spoken in the South, the other those
spoken in the North. In the latter division the dialect called
French was, in the course of time, made predominant over all
others, though these did not disappear. Numerous words
once called Roman thus passed through mutations manifold,
and such as can be only partially classified or made to corre-
spond with known rules and habits of transition. Extensive
and permanent alterations, like those here noticed, take place
in the development of new languages, and are seen in passing
from one language to another.

Of such consonant mutations as may be called occasional, and may take
place within the limits of one living tongue, the Cymraeg language aiFords
abundant examples. Here consonant mutations are made in accordance
with certain rules of position. Thus the initial dental in tad changes so as
to lead to the forms dad, nhad, and thad. These mutations are occasional,
and are made as certain sequences of words require. Meanwhile tad re-
mains, as the radical form of which the others are variations.

In passing from one language to another we observe, in
forms cognate with respect to their remote origin, a series of
consonant mutations of which the results are, in each lan-
guage, made permanent. For example, in certain words
where <j> is seen in the Greek, the Gothic has b ; where the
former language has 5 the latter has t, and where the former
has r the latter has th. Of similar mutations a considerable
number are classified as changes made in accordance with
certain laws or habits of transition. The aspirate becomes
flat ; the flat becomes sJiarp^ and the sharp becomes aspirate.
By using initials, instead of the words ' aspirate,' * flat,' and
' sharp,' the general order of these mutations may be briefly
indicated : —

1. a . f

2. f . s

3. s a

Information respecting certain modifications of the order here noticed
"Will be found in books on comparative philology. The few examples here

208

ALTERATIONS OF WORDS.

given will show how cognate words may differ in their forms. It will bo
remembered that Grothic and E.I. both belong to the Low German division
of the Teutonic languages.

Examples of Comonant Mutations.

Greek

Gothic

E.I.

1. OvydTTjp

dauhtar

dohtor {daughter)

Bvpa

daur

duru (a. door)

<p4p(i}

bairan

beran {to bear)

(ppariip

brothar

broker {brother)

Xa(pw

-gairns

georne {gladly)

Xeo)

giutan

geotan {to pour)

X6pT0S

gards

-geard {a yard)

2. y6vv

kniu

cneow {a knee)

SdKpv

tagr

tear {a tear)

54Ka

taihun

ten {ten)

Sepw

tairan

teran {to tear)

S6pv

triu

tredw {a tree)

Ua>

twai

twa {two)

oSois {-6vTos)

tunthus

t6« {a tooth)

3. irapd

fra-

fram {from)

irarrjp

fadar

faeder {father)

Trepdu

faran

faran {to go)

T^paofxa

thairs-an

Jjurstig {thirsty)

TOP

tha-

>e {that or the)

Tpe7i.

threis

)>ri {three)

[ar mutations, with

some modif

ications, are observed,

thic and E.I. to the

mediaeval la

nguage called Old Higl

Gothic

E.I.

O.H.G.

1. anthar

o-Ser

andar {the other)

tha-na

\>e

den {that or the)

threis

>ri

dri {three)

thu

I'U

du {thou)

2. boka

boc

puGcha {a book)

brikau

brecan

prechan {to break)

brothar

broker

pruoder {brother)

daur

duru

tor {a door)

ga-daursan

durran

tarran {to dare)

gards

-geard

karto {an inclosure)

3. fadar

feeder

vatar {father)

faran

varan {to go)

taihun

ten

zehan {ten)

tunthus

to-S

Zand {a tooth)

twai

twa

zuei {two)

witan

wizzan {to know)

Words coming from different sources, and having different

CONSONANT MUTATIONS. 209

meanings, may be reduced to a formal identity, while unlike
forms may have one origin and one meaning. Namerons
instances of this disguised relationship have been collected
and classified. The collation of cognate words has been con-
nected with extensive historical researches, and these com-
bined studies have given rise to a remarkably comprehensive
theory of related languages. Accordicg to this theory, several
of the Asiatic languages, and by far the greater number of the
European, are classed as languages belonging to one common
stock — the so-called ' Aryan,' spoken (it is supposed) in pre-
historic times, in a region of which Bactriana might possibly
be the central district. This primitive * Aryan ' had its
dialects ; and, in the course of time, extensive migrations and
other causes of separation made such differences in modes of
speech, that out of the first series of the * Aryan ' dialects new
languages were gradually developed. Among their means of
separation from one another the changes here called conso-
nant mutations were introduced, and of these some were made
more or less permanent. For example, where the dental con-
sonant 0 (= th) was pronounced as an aspirate by the people
of one tribe, another tribe acquired the habit of substituting
the flat dental sound denoted by d, and thus the Gothic word
dour (a door) was made unlike the cognate word dvpa.
Similar changes were made permanent as habits in the pro-
nunciation of labial, dental, and guttural consonants. Thus,
in the course of time, the people of one tribe might have in
their own tongue altered forms of many stems belonging to
languages called ' foreign,' and might be incapable of under-
standing numerous words that formerly belonged to all the
tribes of the people called ' Aryan.'

To a reader of Modern English a passage in E.I. may seem foreign,
though it does not contain a single stem that is not often employed in the
reader's own English. In this case the chief sources of difference are not
such consonant mutations as have been briefly noticed here.

The two main divisions in the * Aryan ' family are the
Asiatic and the European. To the former belong Sanskrit
and Old Persian. To the latter division belong the Keltic
languages {Gaelic and Cymraeg) ; the Teutonic or German
(Low and High) ; the Letto- Slavonic (including Lettish and
Snissian), and the Pelasgic (Greek and Latin).

The Oriental languages called ' Semitic ' — including Hebrew, SyriaCy
and Arabic — are not classed with the languages called 'Aryan.' From
this large family only a few of our European tongues are excluded : —
JBasaue, Estkonian, Finnish, Hungarian^ Lappish, and Turkish. Of the

210 DIYISIONS OF SYLLABLES.

comprehensive theory here so briefly noticed more can hardly be told in
this place ; but the following references may serve to direct young students
to copious sources of information: — Max Mullee ('Lectures on the
Science of Language'); Schleicher ('Die Sprachen Europas;' 'Compen-
dium der vergleichenden Grammatik,' etc)

42. DIVISIONS OF SYLLABLES.

Some practical rules for dividing syllables have been given, but must
again be noticed, as they are more or less restricted or Trwdified by certain
historical rules. The seven practical rules here given have mostly reference
to pronunciation. Historical rules prescribe such divisions as show the struc-
ture of words. [See * 6.]

In writing, the division of syllables shonld be as far as
possible avoided. It is often inevitable in printing ; but in
many lines divisions may be skilfully avoided.

There are seven formal or practical rules for dividing
syllables, and there are seven rules that may be called his-
torical or etymological. The rules in the first series have
reference to the various positions of vowels and consonants ;
to the beginnings of syllables, and to pronunciation.

PRACTICAL RULES.

I. Where other rules will allow it, let consonants begia
syllables, ^x. : jpd-jper, sil-ver, se-cret, std-tion.

II. A word of one syllable must not be divided. Ex. :
eaves, stairs, states.

In historical grammar a word that, in the course of time, has been
reduced to one syllable, may be divided so as to show its original structure.
Ex. : ' wor-ld ' = wer-old.

III. Two vowels having distinct sounds may be divided.
Ex. : huri-al, deni-al, di-al, soci-ety, sujperi-or, tri-al.

There are about twenty digraphs, each consisting of two letters that
must not be divided. These digraphs will be more distinctly noticed.

IV. One consonant set between two vowels may be placed
with the latter vowel, especially where the former is long.
Ex. : ho-vine, cd-pahle, du-tiful, mo-tion, no-tice, pd-jper, to-hen.

Y. Two consonants set between two vowels may, in many
instances, be divided. Ex. : bajp-tize, hdr-rier, flit-ting, frdg-
ment, fus-tian, gldd-den, glim-mer, mdn-ner, sec-tion, seg-ment,
sil-ver, tab-let.

Eut in tii-ble the mute and the liquid ar« too closely combined to be

ETYMOLOGICAL RULES.

211

divided, and the same may be said of their positions in du-pU-cd-tiorit
peo-ple, tri-fie, sd-cred, and sS-cret — words that must be noticed in the next
rule. In the exam^^lefrdg-ment, the practical rule is in concord with the
historical rule. The first syllable = the stem and the second = the suf5x.
But this concord is not seen in sic-tion, of which the stem is sect and the
suffix is ion. Here the historical rule is made subordinate to the seventh
and last of the practical rules, and tion is treated as one syllable. There
are consonants set in pairs, each pair having one sound, and these conso-
nants must not be divided. They will be more distinctly noticed.

YI. Where two or three consonants are set between two
vowels, a labial, dental, or guttural may be placed with r or 1,
to begin a syllable. Ex. : hub-hie, dou-hle, peo-ple^ tri-fley
cdt-tle, mid-die, dSc-tri/ne, sd-cred, se-cret, strug-gle.

In several words s, followed by a mute, begins a syllable, as in cpii-
strdin, despond, destroy, respond, and restr&in. The prefix is abs in abS'
cdnd, abs-tdvn, and dbs-tract. The prefix is di in distil.

The seventh practical rule is the result of a common sibilant pronuncia-
tion of dentals placed before the following unaccented tenninations — ion^
ial, ure, eous, ious, ience, ienf, and iate, as in the words appended:-^
aversion, pdr-tial, pleasure, crustd-ceous, grd-cibus, courd-geoue, prodi-giouSt
pd-tience, pd-tient, and sd-tiate. After n the termination ieni makes but
one syllable, and in sound = yent.

YII. The division of terminations shown in the appended
list of words is established by the common pronunciation of
these and similar words.

Each of the endings ion, ial, etc., is sounded as one syllable, but with
respect to structure is counted as consisting of two syllables, and the
syllable immediately preceding is therefore called the antepenultimate,
{See § 4.]

In every word given in the appended list the accent falls on the syllable
immediately preceding the termination, \_8ee § 40.]

an-cient

eonv6-nient

pa-tience
pa-tient

sa-ga-cious

av^r-sion

coura-geous

sa-tiate

con-science

crusta-ceous

pre-t^n-tious

sp6-cial

construc-tion

ess^n-tial

pro-vin-«ial

tr6a-sure

controv6r-sial

na-ture

reli-gious

ETYMOLOGICAL RULES.

The seven formal or practical rules already given have reference to the
positions of letters, to the beginning of syllables with consonants, and to
some indications of pronunciation. The general purport of all the seven
historical and etymological rules is shown in the next paragraph.

To show the structure of words, their constituent parts —
words, prefixes, derivative suffixes, and inflexions — are set
aparf^by means of hyphens. \^See §§ 28-38, and the three
V^abularies.] •

212

DIVISIONS OP SYLLABLES.

Notes on the accentuation of compound -words are given in §§36
and 40.

I. In compounds of the first order two or more words are
set apart. [See §§ 34, 35, and 36.]

aero-naut

fir-tree

leger-de-main

snow-white

agri-cultiire

free-sp6ken

main-land

South-W^st

alder-man

gar-lic

main-tain

store-house

any-thing

Glou-cester

manu-script

thermo-meter

aque-duct

half-penny

may-fly

ver-juice

baro-meter

hand-ker-chief

mono-logue

vermi-form

cold-hearted

homo-logous

ortho-graphy

vin-egar

ciir-few

htis-band-man

ortho-epy

vouch-safe

dear-bought

ic-icle

rail-way

ward-robe

de-bon-air

inn-keeper

Shake -speare

whirl-wind

fast-sailing

knee-deep

shep-herd

work-man

II. In compounds of tlie second order tlie stems and the

prefixes are set

apart. [/See §^

37 and 38.]

abs-eond

dis-arm

male-volent

r^ar-guard

abs-tain

dis-dain

mis-take

re-b^l

abs-tract

dis-ease

non-sense

red-olent

an-swer

dis-play

over-flow

rd-fuge

a-theism

di-stil _

par-don

re-strain

a-verse

enter-tain

pen-insula

retro-grade

b^ne-fit^^

es-cape

per-fect

retro-spect

circum-jacent

fro- ward

peri-meter

r6-vel

com-placent

im-manent

por-trait

se-lect

eon-cord j;

in-quire

post-pone

sub- tract

con-striiction ''''

in-sect

pre-dict

super-sede

coun-sel

intel-lect

preter-mit

sus-p^nd

de-stroy

inter-dict

pro-hibit

sus-tain

de-viate

intro-duce

pur-loin

vice-roy

dif^ference

in-v6ke

piir-pose

vis-count

III. In secondary derivatives the stems and the suffixes
are set apart. [8ee §§ 28-32, and the three Vocabularies.]

In some words one suffix follows another, as in 'fanat-
ic-ism.'

ag-ent

anarch-ic

ant-ic

ant-ique

antiqui-ty

app6ar-ance

apprent-ice

ball-oon

barg-ain

beck-on

brown-ish

carri-age

champ-ion

civil-ize

colonn-ade

comment-ary

confine-ment

c6nstan-cy

construct-ion

conv6n-ient

deniz-en

depart -ure

differ-ence

disposit-ion

6ast-ern

enthusi-asm

enthiis-iast

govern-or

^nvi-ous

grand-eur

Europ-ean

hill-ock

exter-ior

incliis-ive

fabul-ous

Ind-ia

famili-ar

infin-ite

fam-ine

innoc-ence

flex-ible

Isl-et

flor-ist

Israel-ite

flii-id

legat-ee

g^neral-ize

librar-ian

gent>ile

16ck-et

glob-ule

liimin-ous

ETYMOLOGICAL RULES.

213

magni-fy

pag-an

pun-ish

toler-able

Malt-ese

pagan-ism

quarr-el

trib-nte

mar-in e

parl-our

r6nd-er

tri-ple

mathem-atics

passion-ate

Eich-ard

unst^ad-y

men-ace

P6rs-ian

rig-id

vaga-bond

m6ni-al

pictur-^sque

royal-ist

vap-our

miscell-any

pi-ty

rus-tic

vict-ory

moist-ure

plaint-iff

schol-ar

victu-als

mon-ad

plaint-ive

somno-lent

vill-age

mori-bund

plan-et

sp611-ing

wis-dom

multi-ply

poefc-aster

Syr-iac

world-ling

multi-tude

potent-ate

tlaeh-er

nat-ure

psalmod-ist

t^sti-mony

IV. The wc

)rds placed tog

ether in compound pronouns,

and in the vag

'ue nouns ('another,' etc.) often classed with

pronouns, may

be set apart, as

in the following examples : —

an-6ther

it-self

them-s61ves

who-ever

any-body

my-s61f
no-body

thy-self

what-so-ever

any-one

your-self

■whom-so-^ver

any-thing

no-thing

your-selves

whose-so-^ver

her-s61f

one-self

what-ever

who-so-ever

him-self

our-selves

which-^yer

Compounds made with the aid of self, ever, and so-ever have an em-
phatic force, but in modem usage they are partly treated as expletive and
obsolete forms.

Y. Compound particles are divided.

Adverbs : — a-16ng

an-6n

a-shore

Prepositions : — a cross

a-mong

in-to

Conjunctions ;

-al-th6ugh

be-cause

ex-c6pt

for-sooth

hence-for-ward

in-d^ed

be-y6nd
to-wards
up-6n

how-ever

m^an-while

never-the-16ss

there -after

there-in

perhaps

un-til

through-out

with-out

th6re-fore

un-16ss

wh^re-fore

YI. The suffixes of gender in nouns, and of comparison
in adjectives and adverbs, are set apart.

author^ess (but ' enchan-tress'), h6ro-ine, spin-ster, testa-trix, rix-en.
gr6at-er, gr^at-est, inf^r-ior, rath-er, s6on-er.

YII. Yerbal inflexions and infinitive endings are set apart
from the stems of verbs.

call-est, call-edst, call-eth, call-ed.

call-ing, kn6w-ing, writ-ing, 8p6k-en.

civil-ize, fabric-ate, magni-fy, pun-ish.

But doubled consonants, not belonging to the stem and coming before

S14

DIVISIONS OF SYLLABLES.

the ending of the imperfect participle, are separated, as m flit-ting, run-
ning, stop-ping, and writ-ten. In c&U-ing andfall-ing the doubled conso-
nants belong to the stems.

In many instances the two methods of division are co-
incident in their results, and thus obedience paid to a rule in
the former series leads to concord with some rule given in the
latter series. For example, in dividing the disguised com-
pound pSr-poise, the fifth rule of the first series prescribes the
same division that might be made with a reference to the
original words jporcus-jpiscis. In dear-bought and in over-flow
the divisions, made in accordance with the fifth and sixth
rules of the first series, serve also to show the structure of the
compounds. The general purport of tke second series of rules
accords also with the results of several rules in the first series,
with respect to divisions made in the words appended. \_See
the three Vocabularies.]

ab-s61ve

dis-comfort

agri-culture

dis-guise

aristo-crat

dis-play

as-suage

dis-position

b6ne-fice

enter-tain

bi-ennial

en-vious

circum-jacent

ex-tend

com-pany

hero-ine

com-placent

holi-day

corn-pound

in-dignant

con-cord

influ-ence

con-d^mn

in-sect

contra-dict

intel-lect

de-parture

intro-diice

in-vade

m^ta-phor

move-ment

over-flow

pel-liicid

por-trait

pre-dict

pre-vious

pro-fane

pro-hibit

pur-loin

pur-sue

re-bel

r^-fuge

re-nown

re-quire

r^tro-spect

r6-vel

s6mi-colon

sub-due

sub-tract

super-sede

siir-name

siir-plice

vice-roy

way-lay

VARIATIONS.

In many instances rules given for dividing stems from
suffixes and prefixes do not accord with divisions made with
respect to the positions and sounds of letters. \Bee Vocabu-
lary II.]

Accordingly it must be noticed that the fourth and fifth rules of the
first series are often made subordinate to the general intention of the
second series. Thus the formal rules here mentioned would allow such
divisions as wri-ting and lear-ning, but etymology requires writ-ing and
le&rn-ing, because ing is a sufl^.

Ordinary notions of divisions can hardly fail to make distinct such
well-known suffixes as Ttient, ness, tude, and ward; but with respect to
several Latin suffixes beginning with vowels, there exists a considerable
diversity of practice.

In English verbs, dropping in their participles a final and silent e, the

VARIATIONS.

215

last consonant of the stem is often set with the sufiSx, as in the example
wri-ting.

In the appended examples, the fourth, fifth, and sixth miles of the first
series are made subordinate to the second and third rules of the second
series. In other words, some rules for division, having reference to the
positions of letters, are here made subordinate, in order that prefixes and
sufl^es may be set apart from the stems.

abs-cond

con-strain

exist-ence

rM-olent

abs-tain

d^lic-ate

govern-ess

refi^ct-ive

abs-tract

depart-ed

gr^at-er

r^nov-ate

a-cross

de-spond

import-ant

re-sp6nd

ag-ent

de-stroy

inniimer-able

re-strain

bond-age

differ-ence

liv-ing

royal-ist

brown-ish

dis-arm

n^glig-ent

sed-ition

calend-ar

dis-ease

pen-ultimate

8ugg6st-ing

capit-al

di-stil

pict-ure

trans-lat6

confid-ence

6vid-ent

prejud-ice

vic-ar

The tliird rule of the second series is, in nnmerons in-
stances, made subordinate to the seventh rule of the first
series — ^for example, in the words audd-cious, con-struc-tion,
pd-tientj and sjpe-cial. \_8ee "Vocabulary II.]

This seventh practical rule is the general result of a sibilant pronuncia-
tion given to numerous words having the unaccented terminations already
noticed. As one example of blending with the suffix a part of the stem,
the word con-struct-ion may be noticed. The prefix is con ; the stem is
struct ; and ion, the suffix, comes from oblique cases of Latin nouns (femi
nine), having io in the nominative and ionis in the genitive. But the
practical division of the word is con-struc-tion. The letter t is given to the
last syllable, because a sibilant t here blends in pronunciation with the
suffix and forms part of the third syllable, of which the whole sound is
equivalent to shun. As one example of false division, the supposed case of
cons-truct-ion may be given. Here the formation of the word is shown so
far as to set apart the Latin suffix ion. But the stem is not truct, and the
prefix is not cons. The division does not indicate the true pronunciation
(con-struC'skun), but contradicts at once the seventh rule in the first series
and the rule for setting apart prefixes. The seventh rule here named has
reference to a numerous class of words, of which some specimens may be
noticed.

Final dan and sian are sibilant in jphysi-eian and Persian. The ter-
minations tion and sion (the latter following a consonant) sound like shun,
as in condi-tion, inven-tion, nd-tion, posi-tion, reld-tion, ascSn-sion, mis-sion,
2>osses-swn, and provision. In the same position tial, sial, and cial are in
sound nearly like shdl, as in mdr-tial, pdr-tial, controvirsial, commer-cial,
and spe-cial. In the same position ure is mixed with a sibilant s in trea-
sure, while iate and eate blend with sibilant t and s in sd-tiate ndu-seate.
Fmaldent and tient sound like shent in dn-cient and pd-tient, and science
is sibilant in conscience. Final tious, ccous, and cious sound like shiis in
contSn-tious, senten-tious, cetd-ceous, crustd-ceous, predd-ceous, audd-cious,
capd-cious, and grd-ciotis. Final geous and gious sound like jus in gor'
geous and prodi-gious.

216 DIVISIONS OP SYLLABLES.

To the rules already given some special observations may he added re-
jecting certain coTnbinations of letters.

COMBINATIONS OF LETTERS.

The two letters that denote a diphthong must not be
separated.

The two letters in a digraph denoting one vowel- sound or
a diphthong-sound must not be separated.

There are about twenty of the combinations called digraphs, in which
each pair of letters has the sound of a simple vowel. Consequently the
three rules having reference to consonants placed between vowels are not
changed when a digraph is used instead of a simple vowel-sign. The
sounds of some combined letters may be defined here, and certain excep-
tional uses may be briefly noticed. Digraphs may be thus made distinct
from vowels placed together but belonging to two syllables.

ai and ay are often sounded as a in pale. Ex. : deldy, gain, pain,
pay, way. ao in gaol has the sound of a in pale, au sounds as the broad
a (in call) in caught and taught, but has, in the words aunt and taunt, the
sound of the a in ah. In the affirmative word ay (as often sounded) the
letters are equivalent to two vowels made distinct, as if printed in the form
a-i. ea, sounded as e in Tnet, is heard in bread, breast, head, tread, and
heavy; but the same digraph has the long sound of ee (as in feet) in heard,
peace, flea, and release ; the sound of a (as in 'pale) in hear, break, great,
pear, and tear ; and a shortened sound of ah is heard in heart and hearth.
ei and ey in deign, obey, reign, and they = a in pale ; but in conceive,
deceive, and receive = ee in feet, eo in people = ee in feet, and in yeoman
= 0 in note; but in Jeopardy the eo = e in met. ew (like eu in feud) is a
diphthong in few and mew, but in crew and grew has a shortened sound of
0 in move, and in sew = o in note.

ia in carriage = i in tin, but in the final syllables of Christian and
filial the i = the consonant y. ie in believe, field, piece, reprieve, wield,
and yield = ee in feet ; but it is a diphthong ( = i in pine) in pie, tie, and
vie, and in friend it sounds as e in Tnet. In the ordinal numerals twenti-
eth, thirti-eth, etc., the two vowels i-e do not make a digraph, but have
distinct sounds and may be divided, io in.fdshion has the short sound of
n in cup.

oa in boat, coat, coax, and oak sounds as o in note ; in broad and groat
as a in call ; but in cupboard = u in cwp. oe in foe and sloe sounds as o
in note.

ua in gu&lity and quantity = wa, but in guard = a in ah. ue has the
diphthong-sound (= u in tube) in cue and hue, but in the word true has a
shortened soimd of o in move, ui in build, guilt, and guinea soimds as i
in tin, but in guide is like the diphthong i in pine, no, when following q,
sounds mostly like wo (in quoth) ; but in the word liquor the letters quo
= ku.

There are no triphthongs in English — i.e. there are no syllables in which
three vowels unite their sounds, so as to produce the sound of a vowel or a
diphthong. In the word awe the sound of the three letters = the sound of
the broad a in call, eau in the French word beau = o in note, but eau in
beauty = n in tube ; eou is not a triphthong, but has two distinct and dis-
tributed sounds in the words houn-te-ous, hid-e-ous, and plen-te-ous. ewe

COMBINATIONS OF LETTERS. 217

has the diphthong-sound of u in ttibe, and eye has the diphthong-sound of i
in pine. It will be remembered that, in sounding a diphthong, a move-
ment or change of position is made in the organs of speech. By this fact a
diphthong is made distinct from a simple vowel.

ieu in lieu and adieu has the sound of u in tube, but in lieutenant the
three letters ieu have the sound of e in met ; iew in view has the diph-
thong-sound of u in tube. The vowels iou have two distinct and distributed
sounds in the words gldri-ous, illustri-ous, ingeni-ous, insidi-ous, odi-ous,
tSdi-otcs, and vdri-ous.

owe has the sound of o in note. In the noun quoit the three letters uoi
= the diphthong in boi/ ; but uoy in buot/ is sometimes pronounced so that
bwoy might be the spelling denoting the sound of the word, and making it
distinct from boi/.

Two consonants denoting one sound must not be divided —
for example, the dental ch in the verbal form teach-est, and in
the compound tea-chest

ch (inseparable) in some words of Greek origin = k, as in character ;
but ch in the prefcs of arch-bishop, and in words of English and French
origin, has a sharp dental and sibilant soimd, as in chest, sh has a flat
dental and sibilant sound in shall, th (inseparable) has a sharp dental and
lisping sound in think, and a flat sound of the same class in that. In
the word diph-thong ph = f or p, and th sounds as in think. The sharp
sound of th is heard also in the word d-theist, where a is the prefix.

gh (inseparable) is silent in though, weigh, etc., but has, in laugh and
other words, the sound of/, and in ghost and aghast = the guttural g in go.
ph in phial and in several Greek compounds has the sound of f. The n
followed by g has a guttural sound in long, sing, and young ; but the two
letters are sometimes set apart in lon-ger and in youn-gest. The aim of
this division is to indicate the two distinct sounds of the n and the g. This
mode of division is not recommended ; it contradicts the sixth rule of the
second series.

218 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

SYNTAX.

43. INTRODUCTION

Syntax means arrangement, or setting together in
right order.

In G-reek syn ((Ti/V) means together, and taxis {rd^is) means arrange-
ment.

Syntax, as a part of Grrammar, treats in the first place
of the right placing of words, phrases, clauses, and
principal sentences, and secondly defines the right uses of
inflexions.

A sentence is formed when words or expanded elements
are so placed together that something is told. A sentence
consisting of only two words may name an agent, and may
tell or assert that an act takes place. The noun names
the agent, and the verb expresses ^e act. The meaning
of the noun may be made clearer by means of an adjective,
and the use of the verb may be made more definite by
means of an adverb. A transitive verb must be followed
by an object, and the use of a vague verb must be made
clear by some appended word or phrase. These are the
chief elements of speech.

In all languages words serve to express these general
notions : — that persons and things, seen and unseen,
exist ; that they dififer one from another in their qualities
and their relations ; that acts, proceeding from agents,
seen and unseen, take place; that acts differ from one
another with respect to their own nature, with respect to
interests, motives, and relations called subjective, and
with respect to various relations of place, time, degree,
causality, manner, and circumstances ; lastly, that certain
acts are transitive and pass on from agents to objects,
either so as to produce alterations in objects already
existing, or so as to create objects. All these general
notions are expressed by means of the parts of speech
called nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. The noun

INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX. 219

may name either the agent or the object. The verb, con-
nected with a subject, asserts that an act takes place, and
that it proceeds from a certain agent. The noun, or name,
is made more special by appending an adjective, and the
verb is defined by an adverb.

The elements of sentences may be expanded. Several
words may be used instead of a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb. These are changes of forms ; but all the chief or
essential parts of sentences have been named. Particles
called prepositions serve mostly as parts of expanded
adverbs, and sometimes as parts of expanded adjectives.
Conjunctions serve, in many places, to connect one
sentence with another ; in other places, to link together
the parts belonging to one sentence. Setting aside, for
the present, the uses of these particles, the true elements
of sentences are these : — nouns denoting subjects, adjec-
tives, verbs, adverbs, and nouns denoting objects. The
union of the verb with the agent — like the union of the
transitive verb with its object — is close or immediate.
But the adjective is connected with the noun, and the
adverb, in its principal use, is connected with the verb.
All the parts of the sentence are therefore united, and the
centre of the union is the verb.

This introductory analysis is a result of abstraction, -which consists
mostly in setting aside many differences and treating mainly of likenesses.
This process is allowed in grammar to an extent not known in any other
science. For example, nouns are here divided into two classes, called
♦ concrete ' and ' abstract.' With regard to certain nouns in the latter class,
disputations of great importance have been continued from the days of the
schoolmen down to the present time. In certain uses of adjectives we
ascribe to things properties or qualities that have been defined by physical
science ; but there are many other uses that have their origin only in the
mind. A distinction of the same kind may be made with respect to many
uses of adverbs. Again, the general notion of causality — constantly as-
sumed in the uses of transitive verbs and in those of some adverbial clauses
— has been called in question and has been made the starting-point of a
long series of disputes. All these questions, and others pertaining to the
study of language, may be noticed briefly by a grammarian, but only for the
purpose of setting them aside. His subordinate task is, not to examine
the sources of general or abstract and permanent notions, but to classify the
forms in.which these notions are expressed. With regard to their validity,
he can do nothing more than point to the fact that, in language, they have
been constantly assumed. In language we constantly express such notions
of substance, transition, and union as have no reference to any evidence
afforded by inductive science.

220 * INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

Analysis, in G-rammar, means the division of a sen-
tence into the parts belonging to it. The intention is to
make clear its elements and their relations.

In the compound word * analysis ' the G-reek noun Aijcns is strengthened
in meaning by the prefix avd, which generally means u^), but here is, in
force, equivalent to the prefix thorough.

The outlines of Analysis are given here, and special observations are
appended to Ewles of Syntax given in §§ 63-64. Tabular Forms for the
Analysis of Sentences are given in § 60.

THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES.

The elements of sentences, when each element has for
its form of expression a single word, have mostly the
names already noticed — nouns, adjectives, verbs, and
adverbs. But their forms of expression may be expanded,
while their uses remain unaltered. Accordingly, when
their several uses rather than their forms are studied, the
elements of sentences have the following more compre-
hensive names ; — subjects, attributes, verbs, complements,
adverbials, and objects.

In writing of Syntax it is generally convenient to give examples in the
affirmative form of the Indicative Mood.

A sentence must contain a subject and a verb. Ex, :
' He writes.'

In this place, and in all the parts of Syntax, the verbal forms of the
Infinitive Mood are not called verbs. They cannot assert or tell, and
therefore cannot give union to other parts in a sentence. The verbal forms
of the Infinitive Mood serve respectively as nouns and as adjectives.

A Simple Sentence contains only one verb, and, when
the verb is concrete and intransitive, or is used intransi-
tively, the sentence may consist of only two words ; but a
transitive verb is followed by an object. When the verb
is in the Passive Voice, the subject denotes that which
receives or endures the effect of an act. Ex, : ' Myron
sleeps.' ' Myron made a statue.' ' The statue was placed
there.^

The subject answers the question asked by placing who or what before

RELATIONS. 221

the verb. The object answers the question asked by placing whom or what
after a transitive verb.

Ex. : ' Who sleeps here ? ' Myron. * Who made the statue ? ' Myron.
* He made — what ? ' A statue.

The adjunct belonging to the subject, to the object, or
to any noun or substantive word, is called an Attribute,
and the adjunct defining a verb is called an Adverbial.
Ex, : ' Young Myron made a beautiful statue.' ' He
placed there the statue.'

EELATIONS.

The relations existing between the several parts of a
sentence are of four kinds : — attributive, predicative,
adverbial, and objective. The first exists between the
attribute and any form serving as a noun, the second
between the verb and the subject ; the third exists chiefly
between the adverbial and the verb ; the fourth exists
between the transitive verb and its object.

This fourfold division of relations is practical, and may be readily
understood. In accordance with a less analytical view of sentences, their
relations of parts may be reduced to a threefold division. This may be
made by taking together the verb and the adverbial, as making one definite
assertion, but a threefold division should not be made by mingling with an
adverbial an objective relation. The next example may suffice to mak&
clear a fourfold division.

* Young Myron placed there a beautiful statue.'
The relation of young to Myron is attributive.
The relation of beautiful to statue is attributive.
The relation of placed to Myron is predicative.
The relation of there to placed is adverbial.
The relation of statue to placed is objective.

APPOSITION, CONCORD, AND GOVERNMENT.

In writing of Syntax these three words are often employed : — apposition,
concord, and government. In apposition two names, or two forms of speech,
are used instead of one, and the intention is to give clearness or emphasis
to one part of a sentence, as in the following lines : —

' The Eagle, he was lord above.
And Kob was lord below.'

Concord is a word denoting strictly a likeness or formal connexion of
two words placed together in attributive or in predicative relation to each
other. Thus, in the sentence mr bonus est, the adjective bdnOs, like the

222 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

noun mr, is masculine, and has the nominative form of the singular, while
the verb has the form of the third person singular. The adjective, there-
fore, is here placed in concord with the noun, with respect to gender,
number, and case, while in number and person the verb agrees with the
noun. Thus concords are shown in the forms of highly inflected languages ;
but "in English our so-called * concords ' of gender, number, person, and case
are mostly understood, or are merely implied. These are the ' concords '
spoken of as existing in numerous instances where the relations of words
are not indicated by inflexions. Of the sentence ' Junius wrote letters ' it
may be said, ' the verb here agrees in number and 'person with the subject,^
though the same form of the verb might follow any one of the five pronouns

* I,' ' he,' ' we,' you,' and * they.*

In government the exact meaning or use of a word is made dependent on
another word which, in English, mostly precedes, but, with regard to the
possessive case, follows the governed word. Ex. : ' Csesar defended them,
for they were the soldier's friends.' Here the verb governs the object them,
and the possessive form soldier's is governed by the following noun. In
English, governed nouns are made distinct merely by their meanings and
their positions, in all instances, excepting the use of the possessive inflexion.
The general meaning of government may be thus briefly given : — ^let any
word, a, require that another word, b, shall have a certain use in a sentence ;
then it is said that ' a governs b.'

These observations have reference to uses or meanings. The names

* genitive,' ' ablative,' etc., are properly names oi forms that do not exist in
English. Their names are not clear enough to define uses. Respecting the
use of a Greek or a Latin noun, placed in a sentence, nothing clear is told
when it is said, ' this noun has the form of the genitive case singular'

WOKDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES.

Each of the elements in a sentence may "be represented
by a word ; the subject by a noun or a pronoun ; the
attribute by an adjective ; the verb, when concrete, by a
word like ' writes ; ' the adverbial by an adverb, and the
object by a noun or a pronoun. But these elements may
be expanded, and a phrase or a clause may be used instead
of a single word. The for^n is changed, but the use.
remains the same.

In some instances the substitution of a phrase or a clause, instead of a
word, is a mere matter of choice. Thus, in translating the Latin ablative
casu, we may either write ' accidentally * or make use of the phrase * by
chance.' So, instead of speaking of ' an honourable man,' we may say ' a
man of honour,' and we may substitute a clause to take the places of both
the adverb and the preposition in the sentence ' He contended successfully
for the prize.' The expanded sentence will then be this : ' He contended
so that he won the prize.' But in numerous instances the substitution of a
phrase or a clause is a great improvement with respect to clearness, and in
many cases no single word can be found to represent fairly the meaning of
a phrase or a clause. In making translations, phrases and clauses must

PHRASES.

223

often change places. For example, when German or English is put into
Greek, a participial phrase must often take the place of a clause.

The Phrase may consist of two or more words, but
does not include a verb. Ex, : ' They began building the
walls.^

The Clause includes a verb, and is a sentence that is
made subordinate to another. Ex,: 'He said that you
would come,''

The whole sentence containing a clause is called a
Complex Sentence.

Phrases and Clauses have the relations belonging to
words called Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs.

Phrases, considered with respect to their forms, or
those parts of speech of which they consist, are called
Infinitive, Participial, and Prepositional Phrases.

EXAMPLES OF PHRASES.

Infinitive.
To write
To read
To be called

Participial.
Writing notes
Beading history
Well described

Prepositional.
For your sake
With care
In that place

With respect to their uses. Phrases are classified as in
the following list of examples : —

Examples.

To persevere is your duty.

Beading history is for me a plea-
sure.

He ended well the work so weU
begun.

The shadow of the nwwitain
darkens the dale.

He had learned by teaching.

They walked over the plain.

Names.
Nov/n-Phrases.

Adjective-Phrases.

Adverbial-Phrases.

NOUN-PHRASES.

A Noun-Phrase may have one of the forms shown in
the appended examples : —

TJie Infinitive . . ^ To err is human.'

^Infinitive + Noun . ' 1^ write history is a hard task,*

224 ' INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

Verbal Noun + Noun . Beading poetry is yoiir delight.
Infinitive + Adjective . To he faithful is our duty.

A Noun-Phrase may take the place of the Subject, or
of the Object, or may be governed by a preposition.

In the last instance the phrase is called dependent. [See § 49.]

Subject . . . . ^ To err is human.'
Object .... They began building the walls.
Dependent . . . He was ill paid for writing the

book. ^

The pronoun ' it,' placed before the verb, is often set in
apposition with a Noun-Phrase. JEx. : ' It is to put the effect
before the cause. It is to vindicate oppression,' etc. —
Macaulat.

NOUN-CLAUSES.

A Clause includes a verb, and is therefore a sentence,
but, for the sake of a convenient distinction, the name
' clause ' is used to set apart a subordinate sentence, on one
side, and, on the other, all the words belonging to a
principal sentence. The whole sentence, containing both
the principal assertion and the clause, is called a Complex
Sentence, because its two parts are closely connected by
subordination. In a Compound Sentence two or more
sentences are placed together, but each has, apart from
ellipsis, an independent meaning. \_See § 65.]

A Noun may be expanded, so as to have the form of a
Noun- Clause. Ex. : ' Caesar asserted that the Romans had
been faithful.'

Here the principal sentence ends with the word • asserted.'

A Noun-Clause may take the place of the Subject
{Ex, I.), or serve as the Object (Ex. II.), and may be
placed in apposition with a Noun, or with a Pronoun.
{Ex. III.)

Ex. I. : That he is someti/mes impatient is not to be denied.
„ II. : ' We knew that he wovJd come.'
„ III, : ' The fact that he wrote the whole of the book is not
denied.'

ADJECTIVE-PHRASES. 225

An abstract Noun-Clause e?ipresses an a^^Fa fact,
and is often introduced by 'thatJ The pronoun '-i^,'
placed before the verb of the Principal Senterj.:( , is often
set in apposition with an abstract Noun^Iause, as in the
following examples : — > ' '

* It was expected tJiat he would come,^

* Jit was in 1780 that Johnson completed his ^^ Lives of the
Foets.'^ ' — Macaulat.

Many noun-claus^ afe introducedJbjr that ; ' but the conjunction is
often omitted where the dause haal^e place of an object, Ex.: 'We
kno-w [that] you were there.' In iiiairect questions, and in some other
places, noun-clauses are introduced by interrogative words. Ex. : ' Tell us
where you live'

A concrete Noun-Clause may relate to persons, things,
or places, and may be introduced by a relative pronoun, or
by an adverb.

^x. : ' "We know who you are and where you live.*

When a Noun-Clause has the form of a direct quota-
tion, the quotation-sign takes the place of ' that,^

Indirect : Caesar declared, that the Eomans had heen faithful.
Direct : Caesar said, ' The Romans have leen faithfuV

The names of clauses must be made known by uses, and are not to be
guessed by means of such introductory words as ' that,' ' who,' and ' where,^
of which each may introduce either a clause serving as a noun, or another
serving as an adjective, while ' that ' may introduce an adverbial-clause.

ADJECTIVE-PHRASES.

An Adjective-Phrase may have one of the forms shown
in the appended examples : —

Infinitive Passive . . This is the work to he done.
Infinitive Transitive +
Noun . . . * Our wish to win the game led

ns,' etc.
Participle + Nomi . The tree hearing fruit was spared.
Participle -f Adverh . The stream here flowing refreshes

the grass.
Preposition + Noun . He is a man of honour,
Prep. + Adj. + Noun . The elms m f/m j9ar A; are stately.
Prep. -^ Part. +Nov>n . Your plan of keeping a^comits is

gogd.

* Q

226 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

An Adjective-Phrase may serve to define either a Sub-
ject or an Object, or any substantive word.

Ex. : The stream here flowing refreshes the grass of the

valley.

ADJECTIVE-CLAUSES.

An Adjective-Clause may serve to define either a Sub-
ject or an Object, or any substantive word.

Ex. : ' The river which rises on the moor flows through the
dale.'
* We have received the parcel that you sent.^

Eelative Pronouns and Adverbs serve as the con-
nectives of Adjective-Clauses. When the connective is a
Eelative, the Antecedent should be either a substantive
word or a noun-phrase.

Ex. : The debt that you have contracted must be paid.

When a whole sentence is intended to take the place of the antecedent
and ends with a noun, the appended adjective-clause, introduced by ' which,'
may have an ambiguous reference — in other words, may seem to belong
either to the sentence or to its last word. Ex. : ' He will not pay the debt,
which is a disgrace' Is the debt itself or the refusal * a disgrace ' ?
Examples of this class are numerous.

VEEBS.

A sentence may have the form of two words, but must,
with respect to meaning, contain a subject, a predicate, and
a copula (or bond), by which the former two parts are con-
nected. When a verb is concrete, it contains both a
predicate and a copula. The latter is, in some forms,
denoted by an inflexion.

Ex. : ' Myron sleep-S ' = * Myron is sleeping.'

In the former sentence the verb is serves as the copula or bond, and
in the other the letter s takes the place of is. But in several forms of the
verb no bond appears. It is implied and is not formally expressed. In
the sentence • The children sleep,' no letter is added to make the verb finite
or limited — in other words, to show that it refers to the number and the
person of the subject ' children.' The bond is here invisible, but its exist-
ence in the mind is implied when we say, ' The Verb agrees with the Subject
in number and person.' [See § 68.]

A concrete verb, or verb of complete predication, contains two closely

COMPLEMENTS. 227

united parts. The verb has a union in itself, and draws all other words in
the sentence into union. An Attribute, placed without a verb, names ^
quality, an act, or a state of existence, but does not assert that the quality,
act, or state of being belongs to any subject. No union of two parts is
made by putting together the two words ' light ' and ' shining ; ' for
' shining ' is a merely attributive word, and tells nothing. But in the
sentence ' Light shines ' we have a union that is threefold. The verb has in
itself two parts — an attribute part and a form that connects the attribute
with the subject. Accordingly there are seen in the sentence these three
parts : — a narns, an attribute, and a bo7id, which in force is always equiva-
lent to some form of the general verb ' to be.' Of these three parts the
second is more or less deficient in a considerable number of verbs, which
are therefore called * verbs of incomplete predication.' "Without the aid of
complements, such verbs tell little or nothing. Nothing is told distinctly
by saying • The air becomes,' but when the attributive word ' cold ' follows, we
have an assertion. Here ' cold ' is the complement. When the attributive
element is altogether wanting, or is more or less vague and deficient, au
adjunct called ' a complement of the predicate,' or briefly ' a complement,'
follows the verb.

Such complements as follow the verb ' make ' have been vaguely called
' factitive objects.' The following two sentences may be noticed : —

A. ' The people made the statue an idol'

B. ' The people idol-ized the statue.'

If in A the word ' idol ' is an object, it follows that in B there is an,
object in the verb. But the predicative verb in 5 = the vague verb + the
complement in A, and in each of these two sentences the object is * statue.*
The appended examples show how closely, in some instances, complements
are connected with certain verbs.

• The Nile maJces the y&Wej fertile ' =3 ' The '^'Aq fertilizes the valley.'
' Sunshine Tnakes all things bright ' = ' Sunshine brightens all things.*
' He poured the glass /wK ' = ' He filled the glass.'

' They rnade the practice legal ' = ' They legalized the practice.*

* They made the frontier strong ' = ' They fortified the frontier.'

Here the verb made is vague, but becomes special or clear when the
complement is added. In the Persian language, kardan and other verba
are used in many places exactly as the verb made is used in these
examples.

COMPLEMENTS.

In many verbs the adjective or attributive part is so
far vague or defective that adjuncts called Complements
are required to make such verbs clear, or predicative.

Both the Complement and the Adverbial serve to extend or define the
assertions made by verbs, but the union of the Complement with the Verb
is closer than that formed by the Verb with such Adverbials as, with
respect to their uses, may be called free adjuncts. Their aid is not strictly
demanded.

With respect to its forms or its constituent parts, s^

Q 2

228 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

Complement may consist of a word, a phrase, or a clause,
as the appended examples show : —

Noun . . . They made him king.

Adjective . . . The water is deep.
Phrase . . . He was in the town.
Clause . . . We were told [that] the house

was let.

The abstract verb ' be ' always requires a complement.

The chief exception to this rule is found in Hebbews xi. 6.

Several participles, serving as complements, are so far
vague that they must be followed by other adjuncts.

Ex. : * We are all disposed to give advice.^

Here the first complement ' disposed ' is so far vague that it wants some
adjunct like the phrase ' to give advice.'

Complements are often required by verbs of the fol-
lowing classes : —

The auxiliary verbs 'may,' 'can,' 'let,' 'must,' 'have,'
' shall," wHl.' [J7aj. L]

Verbs like ' become,' ' continue,' ' grow,' ' remain,' ' sub-
sist.' [Ex. II.]

Verbs like ' appear ' and ' seem.' [Ex. III.]
Verbs like 'belong,' 'lie' (= to be situate), 'live' (=
dwell), ' live ' (= gain means of living). [Ex. IV.]

Verbs Hke 'consider,' 'deem,' 'esteem,' 'regard,' 'take.'
[Ex. v.]

Verbs like ' make ' and ' render.' [Ex. VI.]
Verbs like ' advise,' 'compel,' 'reduce.' [Ex. VII.]
The verbs ' weigh ' and ' measure.' [Ex. VIII.]
Many verbs when employed in the Passive Voice. [Ex,
IX.]

Ex. I. : ' He may come.' * We can read.' ' Let us go.'
Ex. II. : 'It becomes dark.' ' He grows strong.' ' It

remains true.'
Ex. III. : ' It appears clear.' ' It seems useless.'
Ex. IV. : ' The source lies hidden.' ' They dwell in that
land.'
, ' Bath is situate on the Avon.' ' The people live
hy fishing.'
Ex, V. I ' While othel*s speak of his folly, he takes it/or
granted that he is wise.' ' We called him

ADVERBIAL-PHRASES. 229

brave, and held his virtue in high estimation,*
*I took you /or a friend.' * I cannot regard
a flatterer as a friend.'

Ex. VI. : ' He made the frontier safe.' ' They made him
hing.'

Ex. VII. : * They urged me to go on.' * Compel them to
come in ! '

Ex. VIII. : * The block weighs a ton.' ' The wheel mea-
sures nine feet round.'

Ex. IX. : ^We were advised to go on.' ' Socrates was ^Qm
cused of impiety.' ' He was doomed ^o <^ze.'

The verb ' make ' — in this respect like some other
verbs — has two uses. In the first it retains its primitive
meaning, and must have an object, but requires no com-
plement. In the second use an adjunct is wanted to give
to the verb a second and complete meaning. Other verbs
are used so that they are sometimes complete and at
other times are incomplete in their predication.

In the appended examples complements are set in Italic.

Complete : — ' He made a statue.' ' The mill-stream turns
the wheel.' 'He firmly held the standard.' 'He let the
farm.' ' They found the money.'

Incomplete : — ' They made the statue a7i idol.' * During
his imprisonment his hair turned gray.' ' Nothing but truth
will last and hold out to the end.' * He let the house fall to
ruin.' * They found him guilty.' [/See § 46.]

Complements and Adverbials compared.

The general distinction to be made between a Complement and an
Adverbial is this : the latter may be used, but the former must be used.
There are, however, several degrees of compactness in the union that com-
plements may have with the defective predicates contained in some verbs.
In certain cases, the removal of the complement would leave a vague
assertion; in others it would leave a false assertion. It would be useless
to _ attempt drawing a hard and precise line between the two classes of
adjuncts by which the meanings of verbs are extended or made more
definite. Boundary lines are sometimes but faintly drawn in language, as
in nature. Analysis, like science of every kind, has its own limits.

ADVERBIAL-PHRASES.

An Adverbial-Phrase may have one of the forms shown
in the appended examples : —

230 INTRODUCTION TO STNTAY.

Infinitive . . . * They came to scoff.*
Infinitive + Noun . . ' He went to see the games.*
Adjective + Noun . . ' They visit us every day.'
Preposition + Noun . ' They burned the wood to char'

coal.*
Frep. + Adj. + Noun . ' Crusoe lived on an island.*

It is convenient to give the name Adverbials to all phrases and clauses
that have the use of Adverbs.

Adverbials define assertions, and may refer to the
place, the time, the extent or degree, the cause, the pur-
pose, the manner, the means, or to the circumstances of an
action. Other uses of Adverbials are too numerous to be
analysed in this place. [_See §§47 and 57.]

With respect to the notions that they express, and to the positions they
may hold in sentences, adverbials — taking together their simple and theii
expanded forms — are so greatly diversified, that a list like the appended
can give only a few of their most frequently recurring forms. \^8ee §§ 57
and 58.]

Ad/verhials of Place answer the questions : — * Where ? *

* Whence?' 'Whither?' < How far?' * In what course ? '
lEx. I.]

Adverbials of Time answer the questions : — ' When ? '

* How long ? ' ' How often ? ' [Ex. II.]

Adverbials of Degree extend and limit assertions, [JE7aj.

III.]

Adverbials of Causality indicate reasons, motives, and pur-
poses. \_IJx. IV.]

Adverbials of Manner here include such as denote means
and circumstances. lEx. Y.]

Adverbials of Beference connect sentences and introduce
topics. [Ex. YI.]

Adverbials of Contrast introduce contrasted and contro-
versial assertions. \_Ex. YII.]

Adverbials of Substitution have the meaning denoted by

* instead of.' [^a;. YIIL]

Bx. I. : * Where ?' . . . ' He lives in Borne.*

' Whence ? ' .

'Whither?*
'How far?*

* In what course ?

'He sailed from the is-
land.*

' He went to the camp.*

' They scattered flowers
aU along the way.*

' The line is drawn from
8.E. to N.W.

ADVERBIAL-PHRASES.

231

Ex.U.: 'When?* ,
* How long ? '

'How often?'
Ex, III. : Extent

Degree

Ex. rV. : Reason

Motive

Purpose

Ex, V. : Marnier

Means

Ex. VI. : Reference .
Ex. Vn. : Contrast .

Ex. VIII. : Substitution

* He will return at noon.'
'He was absent two

hours.*

* He comes every day.*

* So fa/r your words are

true.*

* At this degree of cold^

still water freezes.'

* He failed for want of

money.*
*For envy they accused

him.'
*We used all our

strength to lift it.*
*He acted in a careless

way.*

* Caves have beenformed

by streamlets.*

* The knot was cut urith

a sword.*

* As for moneys neglect

it not.'

* On the contrary f 1

maintain the truth,'
etc.

* He returned evil for

good* (= instead of
good).

Various Adverbial-Phrases.

There are many adverbials that may be collected under such general
names as * connecting and introductory phrases,' • phrases of reference/ and
'phrases of contrast.' The following are examples: — 'As for money,
neglect it not.' — Iz. Walton. * As to that, I very seldom go,' etc. — Db Foe.
' For my own part, I could not but be pleased to see the knight,' etc. —
Addison. • It is therefore, upon the whole, a duty which every man owes to
his country.' — ^Biackstone. ' Now, as touching this third ordinance, I will
deal honestly with you.' — Aenold. « On the contrary. Autumn is gloomy.*
— STILLINGFI.EET. < Becreatlou is intended to the mind as whetting is to the
scythe.' — ^Bp. Haix,

Of similar forms of expression no exhaustive analysis can be given, fbr
adverbials are as numerous as the relations of actions to antecedents, cir-
cumstances, and results. But several phrases that in literature often
occur may be here noticed, including one that, in conversation, is old and
almost obsolete : — ' by dint of argument ' (by force) ; ' bt/ rneans of persua-
sion ;' ' by reason of sin ; ' • by virttce of the law ;* *by way of compensa
dpn;' 'for the sake of -pea^e ;' 'in behalf of the -poot;' *in consequence of

232 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

delay ; ' 'in lieu of that ' (instead) ; * instead of that ; ' * it was along of yon '
{old) ; ' it "was on account of that ; ' ' it was owing to that ; ' ' on this side
the grave ; ' ' with regard to the law.' Of some phrases the use is to modify
or to subdue the general tone of an assertion, as in the examples ' at least
I would say ; ' 'for my own fart I would say,' etc.

Connexions of Phrases. ->

A sentence is called simple because it contains only one verb, and not
because it is short. For by means of inserted phrases a simple sentence
may be made long.

One phrase may be appended to a word in another phrase, as the phrase
* of the Nile ' is appended to the noun * overflow ' in the following ex-
ample : — * The land is made fertile by the overflow of tTie Nile.' Again, to
some word in the second phrase a third phrase may be attached, ami thus
the connexion of a subordinate part with one of the chief parts in a sentence
may be made more and more remote. Such a stringing together of phrases
— one depending upon another — is not recommended. Ex. : * This enter-
prize was well adapted [I] to bring [2] into vigorous exercise [3] habits of
endurance and perseverance [4] acquired in the course [5] of long and weari-
some journeys [6] through many lonely regions [7]. This sentence, in-
cluding only one verb, contains seven phrases. The phrase * well adapted '
serves as a complement.

Adverbial-Clauses are in many instances clearer than
Phrases in denoting relations of place, time, degree,
causality, and manner.

The appended list of examples may serve to indicate several of the chief
notions to which Adverbial-Clauses refer. But no concise account can
fairly represent the great variety of adverbial phrases and clauses. These,
with respect to their manifold uses, are, of all the elements in complex
sentences, by far the most versatile. It might be added — with respect to
English literature — that the variety of adverbials is such as almost to
defy the powers of analysis.

Place . . . . ' He found the book where he left

Motion . . . . ' He will go wherever Duty may

call Mm.'
Time . . . . ' We began our work when the

sun was rising,^
Oomjpa/rison . . . ' He likes you better than \he

Tikes'] me.'
Limitation . . . ' As long as this warmth remains j

water flows.*
Proportion . . . ^ As 1 is to x, so is x to 1 — ^.

' The more we learn, the less we

think of our learning.'

Here the repetition of 'the' = 'eo . , . . eo,' instead of * quo . , . . eo*

VARIOUS PHRASES AND CLAUSES.

233

2Ianner .
Likeness
CJircnmstances
A Cause
A Reason
A Purpose
A Result
A Concession.
A Condition .

He went away so that his de-
parture was not noticed.*

He looks as if he did not know
you.^

-he

' While others turned traitors,
[Abdiel] was true.*

' The river is swollen, because so
much rain has fallen.*

' As I have not studied the ques-
tion, I shall give no answer.'

' The guide will go forward, thai
he may show us the way*

' You have spoken so well, that I
must thank you.*

' Though you cannot understand it,
you must believe it.'

' If he had money, he would give
it.'

Such adverbial-clauses as express conditions and suppositions are rightly
called subjective, hut are more frequently called * subjunctive.' In the em-
ployment of such phrases, some careful writers make alterations in their
uses of verbal inflexions, but many writers neglect these changes.
[See IBS.-]

Examples of Various Phrases and Ciauses.

In the examples appended, Phrases and Clauses are printed in Italic. It
Tnay be noticed here that there are sentences in which adverbials are not made
clearly distiTict from adjective-phrases. In numerous instances the words
belonging to one clause are separated by the insertion of a clause. Ex. : ' He
represented to them that the event (which they and he had long wished for)
was approaching.*

The adjective-clause, here set within curves, separates a noun and a verb
belonging to the noun-clause, which is introduced by the conjunction * that*
It should be observed that here and there * that ' or 'which,* the connectives of
adjective-clauses, are omitted, in prose as well as in verse.

Noun-Phrases. — It teaches us how to live. ' Learn to do well.' ' To err
is human.' To forgive is divine. To speak sincerely is our duty. Would
you learn to speak correctly ? Writing exercises is one way of learning.

Noun-Clauses.—' Re first observed that those writings were of several
kinds* — RoscoB. ' He represented to them that the event which they and
he had long wished for was approaching.' — Hume. He tells me that you
cannot swim. It is a fact that he has won the prize. It is not true that
they have been conquered. ' It was generally thought that no man could,
resist such force of argument* ' It was not to be supposed that juries would
find such men guilty of treason.' — Burnet. It will be foimd true that
fiatterers are traitors. ' The writer here asserts that every finite cause must
be an effect. • We cannot say how long we shall remain here* * Who
doubts, for a moment, that it is base to speak falsely 1 * ' Tell us where you

234 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

In the last example ' where ' introduces a noun-clause. This clause
denotes an iinknown place, and serves as the object following the transitive
verb ' tell.'

Adjective-Phrases. — 'Cyrus drove back the soldiers stationed near the
king.' Here is the work to he done. That left an impression not easily
forgotten. These hills contain mines of copper and iron. These men,
forgetting time, were wandering on the shore. 'The shadow of the
mountain darkens the dale.' They lived in the dale of the Dove. This
plan of classifying books is practical. Thus ends the work so well begun.

Adjective-Claiises. — 'All those hundreds of millions that were slain in
the Roman wars shall appear.' — Jee^ Tayloe. He then returned to the
place whence he came. Here is the man that will tell us the story. ' Is .
there any writer whose style should be closely imitated ? ' ' There are some
men who might laugh at this.' The stream which rises on the hill flows
through the valley. These are the heights whence our foes descended.
' This is the way that will he found the shortest.' ' We have received the
books you sent.' ' Where lies the land to which yon ship must goV —

WOEDSWOETH.

' Ye winds, that have made me your sport.
Convey to this desolate shore
Some cordial, endearing report
Of a land / must visit no more ! ' — Cowpee.

Complements. — ' The people, who called him their hero, took him for a
leader, and soon made him king.' ' He made the frontier strong, and of all
the land he let no part/aZ^ into decay! ' They made the serpent an idol.'
[In these sentences the verbs * called,' * took,' * made,' and ' let,' if they
were left without their complements, would have false meanings.]

Adverbial-Phrases. — 'America, on account of its vast extent, has all
varieties of climate.' At this degree of cold, still water freezes. Before
seven o'clock our work will be done. He gave that advice /or your welfare.
'Loud cries arose out of the deep forest, but silence now and then followed
those noises.' Near the fountain a pleasure-house was built. ' The more
they multiply the more friends you will have.' — Btjeke. * The prisoners
must be tried by a jury.' This stream has its source on the mx>or. We
were to soTne extent successful. Willows are planted along the river-side.

Adverbial- Clauses. — As the heat increases, the mercury is expanded.
' Could Time restore the hours, I would not call them back.' Do you expect
to win my confidence, when you flatter me ? ' Your calculation is correct as
far as it goes.' 1 am as old as you are. [The adverbial-clause is con-
tracted.] ' If Junius lives, you shall often be reminded of it.' * If the show
of anything he good for anything, I am sure that sincerity is better.' —
TiLiiOTSOJsr. ' The brilliance of the diamond is not more remarkable than
its hardness.' [The adverbial-clause is contracted.] The higher we climb,
the colder it becomes. * When passion is loudly speaking, the voice of
reason is not heard.' ' JVhen these facts were made known, a great pertur-
bation took place in the army.'

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

A Compound Sentence is made by placing together
at least two independent sentences, connected by one of
the conjunctions called co-ordinative. \_See § 14.]

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. 235

A Compound Sentence, when not contracted by ellipsis,
contains at least two verbs. Ex, : ' The sun shines and
the rainbow o/p'pears.

In a Complex Sentence the connection is closer than that existing be-
tween the members of a Compound Sentence. In the former the clause is
made subservient to the chief assertion ; but in the latter the annexed
sentence retains individuality or independence.

Ellipsis here means the omission of a word, or of several words,
belonging to each of two or more sentences placed in co-ordination. In the
following example the words that might be repeated are set within
brackets : — * "We saw there no wide landscape, but [we saw] a place of
sheltered quiet.' [iSeg §66.]

A sentence may be compound and complex. Of the
two sentences joined by co-ordination, one or both may be
complex. Both are complex in the appended example : —

Ex. : * He is the last man that finds himself to be found
out ; and whilst he takes it for granted that he makes fools
of others, he renders himself ridiculous.' — Tillotson.

A Simple Sentence contains but one verb. A Complex Sentence may-
contain several verbs, but of these only one makes the assertion of the
Principal Sentence ; the others are subordinate, or belong to Clauses. In
the preceding example of a compound and complex sentence there are five
verbs — ' is,' ' finds,' ' takes,' ' makes,' and ' renders.' Of these verbs two —
*is' and * renders' — belong respectively to the two principal sentences.
The verb ' finds ' is placed in an adjective-clause ; * takes * belongs to an
adverbial-clause, and ' makes ' belongs to a noun-clause. An analysis of
the whole sentence is appended. It will be noticed that and connects the
two chief members of the Compound Sentence. The former includes one
clause ; the latter has two clauses.

Analysis of a Compound and Complex Sentence.

He is the last man

that finds himself to be found out

[and] whilst he takes it for granted

that he makes fools of others , .
he renders himself ridiculous , .

FiEST Principal Sentence.
f Adjective- Clause, belonging
\ to the noun 'man.'

(Adverbial- Clause relating to
the verb + complement
' renders ' . . .' ridiculous.'
(Noun- Clause, in apposition
I with it.
Second Principal Sentence.

In order to show at once the uses of both phrases and clauses. Tabular
Forms for the Analysis of Sentences are sometimes arranged in Jive columns.
[See ^60.]

Sentences, of which the general structure has been described, may be
greatly diversified by inversions of order, and by ellipses or omissions of
words. By these means analysis is here and there made rather difficult.
[^§§61,66.]

236 INTBODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

Of every element — word, phrase, or clause — three questions may be
asked : — Is this form of expression English ? Is the use here made of it
"warranted ? Is it so 'placed that its use may be readily understood ? To
these three questions all the rules of Syntax have reference.

PERIODS AND PARAGRAPHS.

A Period, containing several principal sentences, may be
made symmetrical, with regard to the extension and the con-
struction of the two chief members into which it divides itself,
as in the appended example : —

* Truth is always consistent with itself, and needs nothing to help it
out ; it is always near at hand, and sits upon our lips, and is ready to drop
out before we are aware ; || whereas a lie is troublesome, and sets a man's
invention upon the rack, and one trick needs a great many more to help it

out.' TiLLOTSON.

Here the sign |1 marks the place -where the whole period divides itself
into two main parts, which are set in contrast with each other.

The word * period ' is often more freely employed, so as to denote
generally any complete sentence, or any series of sentences closing with a
full stop. In some following paragraphs, the term ' period ' denotes here
and there a compound sentence of which each part is complex.

A Paragraph consists of a series of sentences belonging to
one division of a chapter or section. When constructed in an
artistic style, the paragraph has a beginning, a middle, and an
end. In one form of the paragraph the theme, introduced in
the opening, is expanded in the middle, and at the end is
reduced to the form of a summary.

THE STRUCTURE OF PERIODS.

In writing Latin — especially in historical writing — the
general structure of periods must first be studied ; and when
this is done, a second task remains: words, treated as
parts of principal sentences, or of phrases and clauses,
must have not only their right order, but also their proper
inflexions. Here are two tasks, and in Latin each is
difficult. In writing English, the former is considerable ;
the latter is, comparatively speaking, nothing. Through-
out the history of the language its two main tendencies
have been these : to diminish the value of inflexions, and
proportionately to make more and more important the
order of words, principal sentences, phrases, and clauses.
Our general syntax requires study ; but our special syntax
is easy.

THE STRUCTURE OF PERIODS.

237

Our tongue is for the most part non-inflected. It has endings to make
nouns plural, but many words plural in meaning have no sign to show it.
The possessive sign has uses very closely restricted. Excepting always the
place of the verb itself, a word in ing may take the place of any element ;
may serve as a subject or as an attribute, as a complement or as an
adverbial, or lastly as an object. In pronouns distinct forms sometimes
agree with their distinct uses. For example, these forms serve as sub-
jects:— /, thou, he, she, we, they, and who. But the following may ba
either subjects or governed words : — you (or ye), it, this, that, these, and
those. The following may be governed by a verb or by a preposition : — 7ne,
thee, tis, him, her, them, whom. The pronouns me, us, him, her, and them
are often used as Dative cases are used in Latin. But each has also th&
uses of the Accusative in Latin. Ex, : ' The teacher praised him and gave
him a book.* Some adjectives and a few adverbs have changes to show
degrees in comparison. Eight forms are, in etymology, treated as belonging
to the verb write, and no English verb can have more. Two {writing and
written) are verbal forms, not verbs ; three (writest, writeth, and wrotest)
are practically obsolete ; three only {write, writes, and wrote) are commonly
used as verbs. The poverty of our English verbs may be shown by a
contrast : —

Latin,

English.

Latin.

English.

reg-0

I rule

rex-i

I ruled

reg-is

hou rulest (obs.)

rex-isti

thou ruledst (obs.),

reg-it

he rules

rex-it

he ruled

reg-imiis

we )

rex-imiis

r6g-itis

you y rule

rex-istis

you • ruled

reg-unt

they J

rex-erunt

they

* The verb agrees in number and person with the subject^ In Latin thi*
asserted concord is formal ; in other words, it is shown by changes of form.
In English the assertion means only this : in its form the verb mv^t not
contradict either the nimiber or the person of the subject, and where a
proper form of showing concord exists, that form must be employed.
Another contrast of Latin and English is seen in the following sen-
tences : —

Latin. — * Arbores serit agricola, quarum aspiciet baccam ipse
nunquam.'

English. — * The husbandman plants trees of which he will never see the
fruit.'

The Latin has five, but the English has only two, inflected words ; the
order is in the Latin variable, but it is hardly variable in good English
prose. Of far greater difierences some fair examples ought to be seen in a
Latin translation of the following sentences : —

* The present constitution of our country is to the constitution under
which she flourished, five hundred years ago, what the tree is to the sapling,
what the man is to the boy. The alteration has been great. Yet there
never was a moment at which the chief part of what existed was not old.
— Macaulay, History of England, vol. i. p. 25, 3rd edit.

The words here inflected are eleven in fifty-four. In terse Latin they
would have nearly the ratio of ten to twenty-two.

It is instructive to compare with the concise style of
^CAULAT the comprehensive style of Hookee, who, in the

238 INTKODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

course of the time 1585-1600, wrote the earliest of all metho-
dical treatises in English prose. Since his day the fact that
onrs is mainly a non-inflected tongue has led us more and
more to care for simplicity in the structure of periods. The
following is one of Hookee's more intricate passages. The
words in Italic are not marked as errors, but should be
noticed as closely connected with his style : —

'The stateliness of houses, the goodliness of trees, -when we behold
them, delighteth the eye; but that foundation which heareth up the one,
that root which ministereth unto the other nourishment and life, is in the
earth concealed ; and if there be at any time occasion to search into it, such
labour is then more necessary than pleasant, both to them which undertake
it, and for the lookers-on. In like manner the use and benefit of good laws
[the object enlarged and set before the verb] ; all that live under them may
enjoy with delight and comfort, albeit the grounds and first original causes
from whence they have sprung be unknown, as to the greatest part of men
they are. But when they who withdraw their obedience pretend that the
laws which they should obey are corrupt and vicious, for better examination
of their quality, it behoveth [ = the Latin oportef] the very foundation and
root, the highest well-spring and fountain of them, to be discovered.
Which [ = and this'] because we are not oftentimes accustomed to do, when
we do it, the pains we take are more needful a great deal than acceptable ;
and the matters which we handle seem, by reason of newness (till the
mind grow better acquainted with them), dark, intricate, and unfamiliar.' —
Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, book i.

When considered with respect to the date of the work and
the diflBculties of the subject, the writer's style has such a
union of force and clearness as may be justly called marvel-
lous. In his best passages he does in English that which,
with practice, may be more correctly done in Latin. He often
brings together into their own logical union, and gives in one
period, several important thoughts, of which one idea is the
source ; or in one comprehensive paragraph he gives the out-
line and general design of a treatise. As a contrast the fol-
lowing passage may be noticed : —

' In such a state of society as that which existed all over Europe during
the Middle Ages, it was not from the king, but from the nobles that there
was danger. Very slight checks sufficed to keep the sovereign in order.
His means of corruption and intimidation were scanty. He had little
money, little patronage ; no military establishment. His armies resembled
juries. They were drafted out of the mass of the people ; they soon re-
turned to it again ; and the character which was habitual prevailed over
that which was occasional. ... At home the soldier learned how to value
his rights ; abroad, how to defend them. . . . Such a military force as this
was a far stronger restraint on the regal power than any legislative
assembly. Resistance to an established government, in modern times so
difficult and perilous an enterprise, was in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries the simplest and easiest matter in the world. Indeed, it was far
too simple and easy.' — Macatjlay, Edinburgh Beview, vol, xlviii. p. 96.

THE STRUCTURE OF PERIODS. 239

The difference of the two passages here quoted belongs
essentially to two main principles of construction, and these
may be set in contrast and called Latin and English. Of
many careless writers — old and modem — ^it is truly said, * they
have no style ; ' but the chief methods employed by our classic
authors, in the structure of periods, are these two, Latin and
English ; and of all the authors whose method is to a consider-
able extent Latin, one of the best — perhaps the best — is
Hooker. In his great work, the sentences and periods that
may be especially called ' clear ' and * easy ' are numerous,
and it is only with reference to his longer and more intricate
periods that his method may be called Latin. His prose con-
sists on the whole of far better English than that of Milton's
prose writings. On the other hand, there are found, in the
writings of Macaulat, some periods considerably extended;
but there are found also many sentences that, as regards
their structure, may be called extremely English. The inter-
mediate and conciliatory style of Addison is noticed in another
place. Here it is, in the first place, important to make clear
the difference of these two methods : Latin and English. In
doing this, repetitions of words will be prevented by substi-
tuting for them the following signs, which here may generally
denote either simple or expanded forms of expression : —

Names.

Signs.

Names.

Sign;

The subject .

The complement .

The attxibute

. a

The adverbial

The verb

The object

In Latin — chiefly in the historical style — a long period
may be very comprehensive and yet may be clear. The main
reason is this : the forms of words, phrases, and clauses here
show clearly their several uses. For example, the adverbial-
phrase, for the most part, looks like an adverbial. And other
subordinate parts have forms that make them distinct from
words belonging to a principal sentence. Accordingly, an
elaborate Latin period may contain, beside assertions of some
main facts, several references to times, or to places, or to cir-
cumstances, and these collateral parts may be so many that
three or more periods would be required to give them all
clearly in English. The principal subject of a Latin period
may be placed at a considerable distance from the verb making
the chief assertion, and yet, when the period is ended, its
meaning may be made perfectly clear. The principal subject
may come first, and the chief verb may be set last. Between
th^m several adverbial adjunct^ may be set, so as to occupy

240 INTKODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

the middle parts of the period, and next to these may come
the object, or, in some instances, a complement or a predicate
introducing the verb. This order may be here briefly indi-
cated by means of the following signs : —

S, Z, Z, 0, C, V.

If English words might be arranged in a Latin order, such
a series of words as the following might appear : —

' The prince [s], when those youths approaching and saluting him he
saw [x ; a clause], instantly summoning a council [x], himself [o] th&
victor [c] declared [v].*

These inversions of the order usually seen in English
sentences are less remarkable than the number and the clear-
ness of such subordinate parts as in Latin may be connected
with a principal sentence, and may serve to form a terse or
synthetic sentence. To put into English one Latin sentence,
it must sometimes be divided, so as to form two or three
distinct propositions. That a certain well-known author — a
Parisian — has, during some years of the present reign, resided
mostly in London; that he has lately given, in a series of
letters addressed to a friend, certain sketches of our English
institutions and manners, and that these letters are written
with remarkable grace and fluency : all these facts might in
Latin be given in one sentence — a sentence including only one
verb, instead of the three here employed.

In English the forms of words, phrases, and clauses do
not serve to any great extent to indicate their uses. The
noun, for example, forming one part of an adverbial-phrase
and governed by a preposition, or by a participle, has no
change of form. Accordingly, our periods are for the most
part made shorter than Latin periods, and substitutes for
certain uses of inflexions are supplied by simplicity of struc-
ture, and by the order of words, phrases, and clauses. On a
clear understanding of these facts certain rules of English
composition have been founded, and numerous examples of
strict obedience to those rules may be readily found in the
pages of Macaulay. On the other hand. Hooker is named as
one of the best of all the writers who have endeavoured to do
in English that which may be more correctly done in Latin.

In several other respects (of which little or nothing can
here be said) these two writers differ very widely. A com-
prehensive union is the earlier writer's chief aim ; the latter
dissects subjects, and displays great skill in various specimens
of minute analysis. Of the former author the general tone is-

THE STRUCTURE OF PERIODS. 241

conciliatory ; the latter gives emphasis to his own assertions,
and often makes them still clearer by means of sharply-
defined antitheses. But, with regard to their two styles, the
chief difference is this : the old author remembers too well
some constructions rightly called Latin ; the modem historian
studies brevity and good order, and remembers, almost too
well, that he has to write in a language that for the most part
may be called non-inflected. Hence he never attempts the
task of giving in four periods all that Hookee endeavours to
say in the passage already quoted. The older author would
here give expression to four most important ideas respecting
several relations of abstract theory to practical affairs. An
essay — nay, a treatise — ^is required to set forth clearly all the
meaning of that quoted paragraph. That theory, in its right
place, is useful ; that many, who can fairly appreciate facts,
find theory uninviting and difficult ; that institutions blamed
for their defects may still be well-founded, and on the whole
may be very beneficial ; and that this truth may be demon-
strated— these are the main ideas given, with collateral
observations and illustrations, and all arranged so as to be
included within the compass of four periods. On the other
hand, the later writer uses not less than ten full stops, all set
within the compass of about fourteen lines. Of these full stops,
the first shows the end of two curt assertions, both qualified
by one clause. Then another fact is asserted, and for these
three facts certain causes are briefly assigned in the next three
periods. Of the cause last named — the want of a standing
army — some details are almost as briefly supplied, and the
logical conclusion of the whole is then given in three short
sentences. Throughout the whole the author does not forget
for a moment the fact that he is writing a language in which
order and simplicity are the chief sources of clearness. He is
not one of those orators who, in a breath, can speak of two or
three perfectly distinct matters. In every sentence of the
passage last quoted the subject is first of all made clear.

In doing this, one of the writer's more frequent uses is to employ a
noun-phrase, or a noun-clause, made clear by means of the introductory
pronoun it. His repetitions of this distinctive form are here and there
tiresome, but it is clear that the writer knew well what he was doing.
Apart from it (in apposition), the noun-phrases and noun-clatcses would
mostly begin with to or with that — two words having versatile uses — and
the writer's first wish was to make clear the subject of every sentence.
Accordingly, when the form of the subject is expanded, the pronoun comes
first, and shows us that the following phrase or clatise is intended here to

R •

242 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

serve instead of a noun. From numerous examples of carefulness on this
point the following may be selected : —

Phrases. — ' It is amusing to think over the history of most of the publi-
cations that have had a run during the last few years.' ' It is to accuse the
mouth of the stream of poisoning the source.' 'It would be difiScult to
name a book which exhibits more kindness, fairness, and modesty.'
Clauses. — ' It is no small evil that the avenues to fam£ should be blocked up
by a swarm of noisy, pushing, elbowing pretenders. . . . It will hardly
be denied that government is a means for the attainment of an end.'

Having made Hs subject prominent, tlie modern historian
next takes care to introduce only a few phrases and clauses,
and he places these adjuncts so that their several relations to
nouns or to verbs are for the most p8|,rt readily seen. Here,
however, he has to encounter one of our chief difficulties in
composition, and sometimes — comparatively speaking, rarely
— he makes a mistake in misplacing an expanded adverbial.
Now and then, indeed, he constructs a long period, but it is
neither intricate nor elaborate ; for his method is here very
simple, and the result is accordingly very clear. One element,
employed either in a simple or in an enlarged form, is re-
iterated— a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, or an object.
This last, for example, is often repeated in a long period
serving as introductory to the ' History of England.' Every-
where the writer's chief aims are isolation, antithesis, and
emphasis in assertion or in denial. The reader may like or
may dislike the writer's tone, but must understand his meaning.
In his style of composition one good trait is ever made distinct
and prominent. But a virtue may have its attendant defects,
and clearness itself is not an exception. Where this good
quality is nearly always so brightly displayed, the quiet charms
of freedom, variety, and harmony must sometimes be absent.
Extensive reading will show that these qualities belong to
EngHsh literature.

The two styles already noticed may be respectively called
the synthetic and the analytic. The latter might, with respect
to its most distinct and prominent forms, be called antithetic.
But with respect to the brevity of sentences, it is mostly Hke
our ordinary style of narration and common discourse. This
style is so familiar that it is hardly spoken of as 'a style.' It
is our plain, ordinary mode of writing, and is often vaguely
described as * a simple style.' Here the word ' simple ' is
falsely employed. Excepting the instance of Macpherson's
' Ossian,' paragraphs in books are not made by stringing
together 'simple sentences.' Even children do not always
(talk in * simple sentences,' but often make use of clauses.

THE STRUCTURE OF PERIODS. 243

Our plain, ordinary style, in literature and in conversation,
has these chief traits : it is neither extensively synthetic nor
remarkably antithetic ; it does not merely say one thing and
then come to a full stop, but the sentence mostly ends when
two or three things have been said or implied ; one short
sentence is mostly followed by another having a similar
extent ; the subject, or the verb, is defined by a phrase, or by
a clause ; but the phrases and clauses introduced in one
sentence are few. These are the chief traits of our ordinary
style, which is largely employed by narrative authors and by
writers of all classes, excepting a few who are distinguished
by their frequent use of long sentences.

Long sentences are not often constructed so well that they
may be classed with artistic periods. In both the construction
employed extensively is synthetic ; but an artistic period has
its own distinct method of construction. A long sentence, of
the ordinary kind, may be made perfectly clear, and may be
easily resolved into a few constituent parts or elements. Of
these one, having the form of a word, a phrase, or a clause,
may, as to formy be repeated again and again. One verb
may follow several subjects, or may be followed by several
objects, and thus the long sentence may be made clear, though
it has no remarkable symmetry or beauty. But in other
specimens of long sentences — for example, in many written
by Clarendon — ^too many phrases and clauses are inserted,
and the relations of pronouns are often made dubious. In one
sentence the writer sometimes intends to say or to imply half
a dozen facts, or more, and at last the reader hardly knows
where to find the principal subject. In plain words, he does
not well see what the author is writing about.

An artistic period has a form not seen in long sentences of
the ordinary kind. The whole period divides itself into two
main parts — each complex — and their relation to each other is
made clear. Each is distinct, while closely united with the
other. Thus the period may develope a contrast ; a doubt
may be followed by its solution ; relief may follow suspense,
or the latter part may answer a question proposed in the
former. The period has two main parts, and these are united
so as to constitute a whole.

Of the four modes here respectively called synthetic, ana-
lytic, plain or ordinary, and artistic, each may be made tiresome
by frequent repetitions. The fifth — the true classic style — is
often and truly called * harmonious,' but its character cannot
Jf)e fairly denoted by the use q£. any single term. The general

B 2

244 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

traits of this style are variety and harmony, and its beauty is
seen, not in any single sentence, but in the whole series of
sentences forming a passage. Such plain and familiar con-
structions as have been called ordinary are freely employed ;
antithesis is used, but is not made too prominent ; synthetic
sentences are introduced, but are not vaguely extended, and
periods that may be called artistic are employed, but not
isolated by means of an excessive elaboration. All these four
modes of construction are rightly treated as the subordinate
parts of a passage or a series of sentences ; all variations of
mode are subdued by a constant regard to the general harmony
of the whole to which they belong. Classic prose is almost as
scarce as melodious verse.

Few writers — even among those justly called ' classic ' —
bestow much care on their constructions of paragraphs. In
its purport, as well as in its form, a well-constructed para-
graph should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. But
in many formal divisions called ' paragraphs ' the order is
merely consecutive, and in others no progress is made ; their
movement is like that of ' a door on its hinges.'

PROSE WRITERS.

Freedom and variety have always belonged more or less
to English Syntax, while its general or higher rules have,
during the last five centuries, remained mostly permanent.
Our constructions of sentences are far older than the modern
forms of our words. The changes that have taken place in
Syntax belong mostly to its special part — that part which
prescribes certain uses of inflexions.

When writings of the fourteenth century are called
* obsolete ' and ' obscure,' these terms refer to their etymology,
and to their special, but not to their higher or general, Syntax.
The facts here named may be readily made evident by a brief
review of selected writings, including specimens of our best
works produced during the course of the last five centuries.
It will be understood that the writings here noticed are de-
scribed only with reference to their higher Syntax, or to their
more prominent modes of construction. In studying the
relations existing between phrases and clauses on one side^
and principal clauses on the other, we learn the main rules of
our higher Syntax — rules more important than those which
treat mostly of mere words and their several inflexions. It is
with reference to our higher rules of Syntax that our present

PROSE writers: 1356-1400. 245

modes of construction are described as ancient, Englisli, and
permanent.

1356-1400. — The prose written during the latter half of
the fourteenth century contains many specimens of rather
long sentences. Here, as in Modem English, clearness is
mostly a result of the right order in which subjects, verbs,
and their several adjuncts are placed. Numerous passages
that, with respect to their length, look like periods, consist of
nothing more than series of short sentences. In many parts
of Wycliffe's Bible the syntax closely imitates the style of
the Yulgate. In the prose of Teevisa (a translator) the
short sentences are better than the long. ' The Yoiage and
Travaile ' of Mandeville (who wrote in 1356) shows archaisms
of syntax ; but these have reference rather to our special than
to our general rules of syntax. For example, double forms of
comparison and of negation are often seen, and in denoting
purposes, as in other uses, for precedes the infinitive, as in
the following sentence : — ' The lewes han no propre lond of
hireowne/or to dwellen inne.' Many examples of synthetic
sentences, rather long yet perfectly clear, are seen in the
* Tale of Melibeus,' a translation given in Chaucer's ' Canter-
bury Tales.' The paragraphs on ' Riches ' may be classed
with our best specimens of Old English prose. In the same
collection ' The Persones Tale ' (a treatise on penitence) con-
tains many long sentences. Among these some are easily
made, by stringing together several assertions ; in others one
part is in substance repeated, or is divided into particulars,
which are given in the form of a series. Here, as elsewhere,
the right order of subjects, verbs, and their several adjuncts
is the true source of clearness. The higher or general syntax
is essentially nothing more than such right order as is seen in
the works of our best modem writers.

'"What is li3tere,/or to seie to the sike man in palasie [palsy], Synnes
ben for3ouen to thee, or for to seie, Ryse, tak thi bed, and walke ? Sothely
[truly] that 3ee -mte [may know] that mannes sone hath powere in erthe
to for3etie synnes', he seith to the sike man in palasie, ' I seie to thee, ryse
up, take thy bed and go in-to thin house.' — Wycliffe's Bible, Mark ii.

' And also Machomete loved wel a gode heremyte that duelled in the
desertes, a myle fro Mount Synay, in the weye that men gon fro Arabye
toward Caldee, and toward Ynde, o [one] day journey fro the see, where
the marchauntes of Venyse comen often for marchandise.' — Mandevillb.

'Hyt 6emeJ» a gret wondur hou3 Englysch, i>at is )>e bur|)-tonge of
Englysch men and here [their] oune longage and tonge, ys so dyuers
[diverse] of soun in t>is ylond ; and J?e longage of Normandy ys comlyng
[a new comer] of a-no)>er lond, and haj? on [one] maner soun among al men
J*t speke> hyt ary3t in Engelond.' — ^hn of Tbevisa.

246 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

' If thou be right happy, that is to sayn, if thou be right riche, thanne
schalt thou fynde a gret nombre of felawes and frendes ; and if thy fortune
chaunge, that thou waxe pore, fare wel frendschipe ; for thou schalt ben
aloone withouten eny companie, hut if [except] it be the compaignye of
pore folk.' — The Tale of Melibeus.

' By these resouns that I have sayd unto you, and by many another
resoun that I know and couthe say, I graunte yow that richesses ben goode
to hem [them] that gete hem wel, and to hem that hem wel usen ; and
therfore wol I schewe yow how ye schulde here yow in getyng of riches, and
in what maner ye schulde usen hem.' — The Tale of Melibeus.

' Certes [certainly] than is envye the worste synne that is ; for sothely
[truly] alle other synnes ben somtyme oonly agains oon special vertu ; but
certes envye is agayns al goodnes ; for it is sory of [for] alle the bountees
of his [its] neighebor ; and in this maner it is divers [different] from all
the synnes ; for wel [indeed] unnethe [scarcely] is ther any synne that it
ne [not] hath som delit [delight] in itself, sauf [save] oonly envye, that
ever hath in itself anguisch and sorwe [sorrow].' — The Persones Tale.

The best prose of the fifteenth century belongs to the time
1422-1483, and is written mostly in an artless and familiar
style. The language of the ' Paston Letters ' has often a tone
so modern, that doubts have been raised respecting the
authorship of the letters and the time to which they belong.
After 1430 Sir John Forte scue wrote, in a homely style, a
book showing the advantages of a limited monarchy, and
Pecock, a bishop, wrote, after 1450, a book against the
Lollards. Some years after that time IIobeet Fabian wrote a
chronicle of English history. Caxton, our first printer, wrote,
near the time 1483, his preface to a second and amended
edition of the ' Canterbury Tales.' That preface includes
some long and ill-constructed sentences. But the prose of the
time here noticed is mostly clear, with respect to its general
syntax. In the ' Paston Letters ' the worst error is a vague
use of pronouns — an error too noticeable in our literature of
the present time. Of this error some examples are seen in
the following excerpt from a letter written by Agnes Paston
and referring to her son's education : —

' If he [Clement] hathe nought do [done] well, nor wyll amend, prey
hym [G-renefeld, a schoolmaster], that he wyll trewly belassch hym, tyl he
wyll amend ; and so ded the last maystr [schoolmaster], and the best that
ever he had, att Caumbrege. And sey [to] Grenefeld, that if he wyll take
up on him to brynge hym [Clement] in to good rewyll [rule] and lernyng,
that I may verily know he doth hys dever [duty], I wyll geve hym [the
master] x marcs for hys labor, for I had lever [would rather choose] he
[Clement] wer fayr beryed than lost [ruined] for defaute [by his own
fault].'— TAe Paston Letters.

' It is cowardise and lack of hartes and corage that kepith the French-
men from rysing [insurrection], and not povertye ; which corage no Frenche
man hath like to the English man. It hath ben often seen in Englond
that III or rv thefes for povertie hath sett upon vii or viii true men.

PROSE writers: 1500-1560. 247

and robbyd them al. But it hath not ben seen in Fraunce that vii or
viii thefes have ben hardy [bold enough] to robbe iii or rv true men.
Wherefor it is right seld [seldom] that French men be hangyd for robberye,
f<yr that [because] they have no hertys to do so terryble an acte.' — Sib
John Fortescub.

' And in the moneth of Juny this yere, the comons of Kent assemblyd
them in grete multytude, and chase [chose] to them [for themselves] a
capitayne, and named hym Mortymer and cosyn to the Duke of Yorke •
but of moste [by most people] he was named Jack Cade. This [man] kepte
the people wondrouslie togader, and made such ordenaunces amonge theym,
that he brought a grete nombre of people of theym unto the Blak Heth,
where he deuysed a bylle of petycions to the kynge and his counsayll.' —
Egbert Fabian.

* I said .... I wold ones [once] endevoyre me to emprynte it [the
book] agayn, for to satisfy the auctour, where as tofore [before] by
ygnoraunce I erryd in hurtyng and dyffamyng his book in dyverce [various]
places, in setting in somme thynges that he never sayd ne [nor] made, and
leving out many thynges that he made, whyche ben requysite to be sette
in it.' — William Caxton.

1500-1550. — In tHe former half of tlie sixteentli century
prose lias mostly a plain and easy style, but contains too
many long sentences, often shapeless, though seldom obscure.
The conjunction and is too often set v^here a full stop would
be more welcome. In a sermon preached by Bishop Fisher
(in 1509) the chief traits are frequent inversions of our
usual order — an order too strictly followed by many modern
writers. His style thus gained emphasis, while it lost no clear-
ness. Lord Berners's version of Froissart ; More's historical
book ; Latimer's sermons, and Elyot's ' Castle of Health ' —
all these contain fair specimens of plain English. Tyndale's
version of the New Testament (1525), and later versions of
the Bible, had, in their general diction, an archaic and conser-
vative character, too important to be fairly estimated here.
With respect to syntax, their tendency was indeed good, so
far as it extended, but it was not strong enough to control
the fashions of the times that followed. The anonymous
Northern book, called ' The Complaynt of Scotlande ' (1549),
has its own modes of spelling and other variatione of words,
while its general syntax is ordinary. Ascham is on the whole
the best writer of this time. His book on archery ('Toxo-
philus,' 1544) partly agrees with his own ideal of a good
style ; it should be always clear, he says, and should have
various tones, rising and falling in accordance with the
theme.

'She was good in remembrance and of holding [tenacious] -.memory. A

ready wit [the object] she had also to conceive all things, albeit they were

- right [very] dark. Right stiidiou^XhQ predicate] she was in books, which

248 INTKODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

she had in great number, both in English and in French ; and for her
exercise, and for the profit of others, she did translate divers matters of
devotion out of the French into English.' — John Fisheb. [The spelling is
altered.]

* Maistres Alyce, in my most harty wise I recommend me to you, and
■whereas I am enfourmed by my son Heron of the losse of our barnes and of
our neighbours' [barns] also, with all the corn that was therein, albeit
(saving Grod's pleasure) it is gret pitie of so much good corn lost, yet sith
[since] it hath liked [pleased] hym to sende us such a chaunce, we must
and are bounden, not only to be content, but also to be glad of his visitacion.
He sente us alle that we have loste ; and sith he hath by such a chaunce
taken it away againe, his pleasure be fulfilled. Let us never grudge ther
at, but take it in good worth [part], and hartely thank him, as well for
adversitie as for prosperitie.' — Sib Thomas Mobe, A Letter to Lady More.

' And here note the diligence of these shepheardes : for whether the
sheepe were theyr owne, or whether they were servaunts, I cannot tell, for
it is not expressed in the booke ; but it is most lyke they were servauntes,
and theyr maysters had put them in trust to keepe theyr sheepe. . . . And
here all servaunts may learne by these shepheards to serve truely and
diligently unto their maisters ; in what busines soever they are set to doe,
let them be paynefuU and diligent, like as Jacob was unto his maister
Laban.' — Hugh Latimeb. [The punctuation is altered.]

* In winter, running and wrestling is convenient ; in summer wrestling
a little, but not running; in very cold weather, much walking; in hot
weather rest is more expedient. . . . Finally, loud reading, counterfeit
battle, tennis or throwing the ball, running, walking, added to shooting
(which in mine opinion exceeds all the other), do exercise the body
commodiously.' — Sib Thomas Elyot. [The spelling is altered.]

' A certayne man had two sonnes, and the yonger of them sayde to his
father : father geve me my part of the goodes that to me belongeth. And
he divided unto them his substaunce. And not long after the yonger sonne
gaddered all that he had togedder, and toke his jorney into a farre countre,
and theare he wasted his goodes with royetous lyringe. And when he had
spent all that he had, there arose a greate derth thorow out all that same
lande, and he began to lacke [want]. And he went and clave to a citesyn
of that same countre, which sent him to his felde to keep his swyne.' —
William Tyndale's Version of the New Testament, Luke xv.

' There is nocht twa nations undir the firmament that ar mair contrar
and different fra vthirs nor [than] is [ = are] inglis men and scottis men,
quhoubeit [howbeit = although] that thai be vith-in ane ile, and nycht-
bours, and of ane langage. for inglis men ar subtil, and scottis men ar
facile, inglis men ar ambitius in prosperite, and scottis men ar humain in
prosperite. inglis men are humil [humble] quhen [when] thei ar subieckit
be force and violence, and scottis men ar furious quhen thai ar violently
subiekit.' — The Com'playnt of Scotlande.

'It is a notable tale that old Eir Eoger Chamloe, sometime chief
justice, would tell of himself. When he was Ancient in inn of court,
certain young gentlemen were brought before him, to be corrected for
certain misorders, and one of the lustiest [merriest] said : " Sir, we be
young gentlemen ; and wise men before us have proved [tried] all fashions,
and yet those have done full well." This they said, because it was well
known Sir Roger had been a good fellow in his youth. But he answered
them very wisely. " Indeed," said he, " in youth I was as you are now, and
I had twelve fellows like unto myself ; but not one of them came to a good

PROSE writers: 1558-1603. 249

■end. And, therefore, follow not my example in youth, but follow my
counsel in age, if ever ye think to come to this place, or to these years that
I am come unto ; less [lest] ye meet either with poverty or Tyburn in the
way." ' — Roger Ascham. [The spelling is altered.]

1558-1603. — The Elizabethan age has, with respect to
poetry, such fame as belongs to no other time, and of its prose
some parts have been highly commended as works of genius.
It must, therefore, be remembered that our topic is prose, of
which nothing is said, save what relates to syntax. Three
styles of construction are at this time prevalent— the ordinary,
the synthetic, and the analytic. The last is often made anti-
thetic, and the first is too often mixed with long and cumber-
some sentences. This mixed style is seen in several works,
consisting mostly of chronicles, voyages, and travels, while
long sentences of a better constraction are numerous in the
* History of the World,' compiled by Raleigh and his friends.
Elaborately synthetic periods have been noticed as traits in
Hooker's work, but it contains also many passages of which
the style is various and harmonious. Bacon employs three
modes of construction. His ordinary style often supplies
examples of extreme conciseness ; in some places the synthesis
is artistic, in others an analytic form prevails, and antitheses
are stated with great force and clearness ; but in many
passages his thoughts, like men in a crowd, press one upon
another. He gives in a brief essay the matter of a treatise.

Of some extravagant styles, partly admired as literary
fashions of this time, two are named — the antithetic prose of
Lyly and GossoN on one side ; on the other, the polemical
prose of Thomas Nash and his associates. This latter style
Bacon described as an ' immodest and deformed manner of
writing.'

' The British tongue called Cymric [Cymraeg] doth yet remain in that
part of the island which is now called Wales, whither the Britons wejre
driven after the Saxons had made a full conquest of the other, which we
now call England, although the pristine integrity thereof [i.e. of that
tongue] be not a little diminished by mixture of tlie Latin and Saxon
speeches withal. [Here, as in many places, the preposition withal follows
the noun.] Howbeit many poesies and writings — in making whereof that
nation hath evermore delighted — are yet extant in my time, whereby some
difference between the ancient and [the] present language may easily be
discerned, notwithstanding that among all these [writings] there is nothing
to be found which can set down [establish] any sound and full testimony of
their own original, in remembrance whereof their bards and cunning men
[scholars] have been most slack and negligent.' — Williajvi Harbison,
[The spelling is altered.]

' They say the goodliest cedars which grow on the high mountains of
WLibanus thrust their roots betweeii*he clefts of hard rocks, the better to

250 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

bear themselves against the strong storms that blow there. As nature has
instructed those kings of trees, so has reason taught the kings of men to
root themselves in the hardy hearts of their faithful subjects ; and as those
kings of trees have large tops, so have the kings of men large crowns,
whereof [ = and anent the crowns of both cedars and kingsj, as the first
■would soon be broken from their bodies, were they not underborne by
many branches, so would the other easily totter, were they not fastened on
their heads with the strong chains of civil justice and of martial discipline.'
— Sir "Walter Kaleigh. [The spelling is altered.]

' If your sacred Maiestie thinke me vnworthy, and that after x yeares
tempest, I must att court suffer shipwreck of my tyme, my -wittes, my
hopes, vouchsafe in your neuer-erring iudgement some plank or rafter to
wafte me into a country vi^here, in my sad [serious] and settled devocion, I
may in euery corner of a thatcht cottage -write praiers in stead of plaies,
prayer for your longe and prosprous life, and a repentaunce that I have
played the foole so louge. . . . Thirteene years [have I been] your
highnes [a possessive form] servant, but yet [I have] nothing; twenty
freinds [have I] that, though they saye they wil be sure, I find them sure
to be slowe. A thousand hopes, but all nothing ; a hundred promises, but
yet nothing. Thus, casting upp the inventory of my freinds, hopes,
promises, and tymes, the summa totalis amounteth to just nothing. My
last will is shorter than myne invencion ; but [except] three legacies —
patience to my creditors, melancholie without measure to my friends, and
beggerie without shame to my family.' — John Ltly.

' The title of my book doth promise much, the volume you see is very
little : and sithens [since] I cannot bear out my folly by authority, like an
emperor, I will crave pardon for my phrensy, by submission, as your
worships' to command. The school -which I build is narro-w, and at the
first blush appeareth but a dog-hole ; yet small clouds carry -water ; slender
threads se-w sure stitches ; little hairs have their shadows ; blunt stones
•whet knives ; from hard rocks flow soft springs ; the -whole world is dra-wn
in a map. Homer's ' Iliad ' in a nut-shell, a king's picture in a penny,'
etc. — Stephen Gtosson.

' To the second rancke of reprehenders, that complain of my boystrous
[boisterous] compound words, and [of my] ending my Italionate coyned
verbes all in ize, thus I replie : That [there is] no -winde that blowes
strong but [ =5 that .... not] is boystrous ; [there can. be] no speech or
wordes of any power or force to confute or perswade, but [ = that .... not]
must be s-welling and boystrous. For the compounding of my -wordes,
therein I imitate rich men -who, having store of -white single money
together, convert a number of those small little sentes [coins] into great
peeces of gold, such as double pistoles and portugues [Portuguese gold
pieces]. Our English tongue, of all languages, most s-warmeth with the
single money of monosillables, which are the onely scandal of it. Bookes,
written in them and no other [words], seeme like shop-keepers' boxes, that
containe nothing else saue halfe-pence, three-farthings, and two-pences.
Therefore what did' me [ = for my part] I, but, having a huge heape of
those worthlesse shreds of small English, in my pia maters purse, to make
the royaller shew with them to men's eyes, [I] had them [sent] to the
compounders immediately, and exchanged them foure into one, and others
into more, according to the Greek, Erench, Spanish, and Italian.' — Thomas
Nash.

* Thus arose political societies among men naturally equal. Men
reasoned that strifes and troubles would be endlesse, except they, gave their

PROSE WRITERS : 1600-1660. 251

common consent all to be ordered by some whom they should agree upon,
without which consent there were no reasons that one man should take
upon him to be lord or iudge over another ; because although there be,
according to the opinion of some very great and iudicious men, a kinds of
naturall right in the noble, wise, and vertuous, to governe them which are
of servile disposition ; neuerthelesse for manifestation of this their right,
and men's more peaceable contentment on both sides, the assent of them
wlio are to be governed seemeth necessary.' — Kichaed Hookeb.

' Studies serue for pastimes, for ornaments, and for abilities. Their
chiefe use for pastime is in priuateness and retiring ; for omamente is in
discourse, and for abilitie is in iudgement. For expert men can execute,
but learned men are fittest to iudge or censure. To spend too much time
iu them is sloath, to vse them too much for ornament is affectation : to make
iudgement wholly by their rules is the humour of a schoUer. They perfect
Nature, and are perfected by experience, Craftie men contemne them,
simple men admire them, wise men vse them : For they teach not their
owne vse, but that is a wisedome without them : and aboue them wonne by
obseruation. Reade not to contradict, nor to belieue, but to waigh and
consider.' — Lobd Bacon. [In the specimens that follow the spelling is
made modern.]

• As water, whether it be the dew of heaven or the springs of the earth,
doth scatter and lose itself in the ground, except it be collected into soma
receptacle, where it may by union comfbrt [strengthen] and sustain itself,
and [as] for that cause the industry of man hath framed and made spring-
heads, conduits, cisterns, and pools, which men have [been] accustomed
likewise to beautify and adorn with accomplishments of magnificence and
state, as well as of use and necessity ; || so knowledge, whether it descend
from divine inspiration, or spring from human sense, would soon perish
and vanish to oblivion, if it were not preserved in books, traditions, con-
ferences, and places appointed, as universities, colleges, and schools, for
the receipt and comforting [ = strengthening or establishing of] the same.' —
Lord Bacon. [The parallels (1) show the division of the whole period
into its two main parts.]

'The virtue of prosperity is temperance; the virtue of adversity is
fortitude. Prosperity is the blessing of the Old Testament ; adversity is
the blessing of the New, which carrieth the greater benediction and the
clearer revelation of God's favour. . . . Prosperity is not without many
fears and distastes ; and adversity is not without comforts and hopes. We
see in needleworks and embroideries, it is more pleasing to have a lively
work upon a sad [sedate] and solemn ground, than to have a dark and
melancholy work upon a lightsome ground ; judge therefore of the pleasure
of the heart by the pleasure of the eye. Certainly, virtue is like precious
odours, most fragrant where they are incensed [burned] or crushed ; for
prosperity doth best discover "sace, but adversity doth best discover virtue.'
— Lobd Bacon. [The first specimen shows the writer's plain style ; the
second is an artistic period ; the third contains several antitheses.]

1600-1660. — Milton's prose is in one respect lil^e the
prose of Jeremy Taylor. Each contains many long periods
of which the structure is too extensively synthetic. The same
excess is here and there seen in several other writers of this
time. On the other hand, numerous passages of clear and
analytic character are seen^n the writings of Hall, Earlr,

252 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

and Fuller. The style of Izaak Walton has its own un-
studied harmony ; and, with respect to ease and variety, Cowlet,
in some degree, anticipates the later classic style of Drtden.
But in moderate synthesis, and clear analysis, Hobbes is the
best prose- writer of this period.

'Seeing that truth consisteth in the right ordering of names in our
affirmations, a man that seeketh precise truth had need to remember what
every name he useth stands for, and to place it accordingly ; or else he will
find himself entangled in words, as a bird in lime twigs — the more he
struggles the more belimed. And therefore in geometry — which is the
only science that it hath pleased Grod to bestow on mankind — men begin at
settling the significations of their words, which settling of significations
they call definitions, and place them at the beginning of their reckoning.
By this it appears, how necessary it is for any man that aspires to true
knowledge to examine the definitions of former authors, and either to
correct them where they are negligently set down, or to make them himself.
For the errors of definitions multiply themselves according as the reckoning
proceeds, and lead men into absurdities, which at last they see, but cannot
avoid without reckoning anew, from the beginning, in which lies the foun-
dation of their errors.'— -Thomas Hobbes.

* What would a blind man give to see the pleasant rivers, and meadows,
and flowers, and fountains, that we have met with since we met together ?
I have been told, that if a man that was born blind could obtain to have
his sight for but only one hour during his whole life, and should, at the
first opening of his eyes, fix his sight upon the sun when it was in his full
glory, either at the rising or setting of it, he would be so transported and
amazed, and so admire the glory of it, that he would not willingly turn his
eyes from that first ravishing object to behold all the other various beauties
this world could present to him. And this, and many other like blessings,
we enjoy daily. And for most of them, because they be so common, most
men forget to pay their praises ; but let not us, because it is a sacrifice so
pleasing to Him that made that sun and us, and still protects us, and gives
us flowers, and showers, and stomachs, and meat, and content, and leisure
to go a-fishing.' — Izaak "Walton.

* Learning is like a river, whose head being far in the land, is, at first
rising, little, and easily viewed ; but, still as you go, it gapeth with a wider
bank ; not without pleasure and delightful winding, while it is on both
sides set vrith trees, and the beauties of various flowers. But still the
further you follow it, the deeper and the broader 'tis, till at last it inwaves
itself in the unfathomed ocean ; there you see more water, but no shore —
no end of that liquid fluid vastness. In many things we may sound
Nature, in the shallows of her revelations. "We may trace her to her
second causes ; but, beyond them, we meet with nothing but the puzzle of
the soul, and the dazzle of the mind's dim eyes. While we speak of things
that are, that we may dissect, and have power and means to find the
causes, there is some pleasure, some certainty. But when we come to
metaphysics, to long-buried antiquity, and unto unrevealed divinity, we are
in a sea, which is deeper than the short reach of the line of man. Much
may be gained by studious inquisition ; but more will ever rest [remain],
nrhich man cannot discover.' — Owen Feltham.

' After I had, from my first years, by the ceaseless diligence and care of
my father, whom God recompense, been exercised to the tongues, and some

PROSE WRITERS : 1660-1700. 253

sciences, as my age "would suffer, by sundry masters and teachers, both at
home and at the schools, it was found that -whether aught was imposed [on]
me by them that had the overlooking, or betaken to of my own choice in
English, or other tongue, prosing or versing, but chiefly the latter, the
style, by certain vital signs it had, was likely to live. But much latelier,
in the private academies of Italy, whither I was favoured to resort, per-
ceiving that some trifles which I had in memory, composed at under
twenty or thereabout — for the manner is, that every one must give some
proof of his wit and reading there — met with acceptance above what was
looked for ; and other things which I had shifted, in scarcity of books and
conveniences, to patch up among them, were received with written en-
comiums, which the Italian is not forward to bestow on men of this side
the Alps, I began thus far to assent both to them and divers of my friends
here at home ; and not less to an inward prompting, which now grew daily
upon me, that by labour and intent study, which I take to be my portion in
this life, joined to the strong propensity of nature, I might perhaps leave
something so written, to after-times, as they should not willingly let it
die.' — John Milton.

' It is a vanity to persuade the world one hath much learning by getting
a great library. As soon shall I believe every one is valiant who hath a
well-furnished armoury. I guess good housekeeping by the smoking, not
the number of the tunnels, as knowing that many of them, built merely for
uniformity, are without chimneys, and more without fires. Once a dunce,
void of learning, but full of books, flouted a libraryless scholar with these
words : " Hail, doctor without books ! " But the next day, the scholar
conyng into the jeerer's study crowded with books, " Hail, books," said he,
" without a doctor ! " ' — Thomas Ftjixee.

* So have I seen a lark rising from his bed of grass, and soaring up-
wards, singing as he rises, and hopes to get to heaven, and climb above the
clouds ; but the poor bird was beaten back with the loud sighings of an
eastern wind, and his motion made irregular and inconstant, descending
more at every breath of the tempest, than it could recover by the libration
and frequent weighing of his wings, till the little creature was forced to sit
down and pant, and stay till the storm was over ; and then it made a pros-
perous flight, and did rise and sing, as if it had learned music and motion
from an angel, as he passed sometimes through the air, about his ministries
here below.' — Jeeemy Tatloe.

1660-1700. — The more synthetic prose of this age has two
styles ; one comparatively clear, the other too often obscnre.
The former is seen in the writings of Barrow, South, and
Stillingfleet ; the latter in the prose of Clarendon. In
several works of this age — above all in the prose- writings of
Drtden — a great improvement is made by a more liberal nse
of short sentences. The style of Temple is harmonions, but
with regard to energy and variety cannot be compared with
Dryden's. This is not always careful and precise, but is so
natural and various, and so well accordant with its themes,
that it is justly called classical.

' From his travels he [Fiennes] returned through Scotland (which few
taavellers took in their way home) #t the time when that rebellion [the

254 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

Scotch] was in bud : and [he] was very little known, except amongst that
people [his own sect] which conversed wholly amongst themselves, until he
was now [at last] found in Parliament [sent to Parliament], when it was
quickly discovered that, as he was the darling of his father, so he [Fiennes,
the son] was like to make good whatsoever he had for many years promised.'
— Lord Claeendon.

♦ They must be confessed to be the softest and sweetest, the most
general and most innocent amusements of common time and life. They
still find room in the courts of princes and the cottages of shepherds.
They serve to revive and animate the dead calm of poor or idle lives, and
to allay or divert the violent passions and perturbations of the greatest and
busiest of men. And both these effects are of equal use to human life ; for
the mind of man is like the sea, which is neither agreeable to the beholder
nor to the voyager in a calm or in a storm, but is so to both when a little
agitated by gentle gales ; and so the mind, when moved by soft and easy
passions and affections. I know very well, that many, who pretend to be
wise by the forms of being grave, are apt to despise both poetry and music,
as toys and trifles too light for the use and entertainment of serious men.
But whoever find themselves wholly insensible to these charms would, I
think, do well to keep their own counsel, for fear of reproaching their own
temper, and bringing the goodness of their natures, if not of their under-
standings, into question : it may be thought at least an ill sign, if not an
ill constitution, since some of the fathers went so far as to esteem the love
of music a sign of predestination, as a thing divine, and reserved for the
felicities of heaven itself.' — Sib William Temple.

'The laws of history, in general, are truth of matter, method, and
clearness of expression. The first propriety is necessary, to keep our
understanding from the impositions of falsehood ; for history is an argu-
ment framed from many particular examples or inductions ; if these
examples are not true, then those measures of life which we take from
them will be false, and deceive us in their consequence. The second is
grounded on the former ; for if the method be confused, if the words or
expressions of thought are any way obscure, then the ideas which we re-
ceive must be imperfect ; and if such, we are not taught by them what to
elect or what to shun. Truth, therefore, is required as the foundation of
history to inform us, disposition and perspicuity as the manner to inform
us plainly; one is the being, the other the well-being of it.' — John
Dryden.

* In a word, that former sort of satire, which is known in England by
the name of lampoon, is a dangerous sort of weapon, and for the most part
unlawful. We have no moral right on the reputation of otlier men. It is
taking from them what we cannot restore to them. There are only two
reasons for which we may be permitted to write lampoons ; and I will not
promise that they can always justify us. The first is revenge, when we
have been affronted in the same nature, or have been anyways notoriously
abused, and can make ourselves no other reparation. And yet we know,
that, in Christian charity, all offences are to be forgiven, as we expect the
like pardon for those which we daily commit against Almighty God. And
this consideration has often made me tremble when I was saying our
Saviour's prayer ; for the plain condition of the forgiveness which we beg,
is the pardoning of others the offences which they have done to us ; for
which reason I have many times avoided the commission of that fault, even
when I have been notoriously provoked. Let not this, my lord, pass for

PROSE writers: 1700-1760. 255

vanity in me, for it is truth. More libels have been written against me
than almost any man now living ; and I had reason on my side to have
defended my own innocence. I speak not of my poetry, which I have
wholly given up to the critics : let them use it as they please : posterity,
perhaps, may be more favourable to me : for interest and passion will lie
buried in another age, and partiality and prejudice be forgotten. I speak
of my morals, which have been sufficiently aspersed : that only sort of
reputation ought to be dear to every honest man, and is to me. But let
the world witness for me, that I have been often wanting to myself in that
particular : I have seldom answered any scurrilous lampoon, when it was
in my power to have exposed my enemies : and, being naturally vindictive,
have suffered in silence, and possessed my soul in quiet.' — John Drtden.

' I confess it is as difficult for us, who date our ignorance from our first
being, and were still bred up with the same infirmities about us with which
we were bom, to raise our thoughts and imaginations to those intellectual
perfections that attended our nature in the time of innocence, as it is [difficult]
for a peasant bred up in the obscurities of a cottage to fancy in his mind
the unseen splendours of a court. But by rating positives by their priva-
tives, and [by] other acts of reason, by which discourse supplies the want
of the reports of sense, we may collect the excellency of the understanding
then by the glorious remainders of it now, and guess at the stateliness of
the building by the magnificence of its ruins. All those arts, rarities, and
inventions, which vulgar minds gaze at, the ingenious pursue, and all
admire, are but the relics of an intellect defaced with sin and time. "We
admire it now only as antiquaries do a piece of old coin, for the stamp it
once bore, and not for those vanishing lineaments and disappearing draughts
that remain upon it at present. And certainly that must needs have been
very glorious the decays of which are so admirable. He that is comely
when old and decrepit, surely was very beautiful when he was young.' —

KOBEBT SotTTH.

'But "he that walketh uprightly, and worketh righteousness, and
speaketh the truth in his heart," . . . may possibly meet with such as will
be ready to condemn him for hypocrisy at first ; but when they find he
keeps to a certain rule, and pursues honest designs, without any great
regard to the opinion which others entertain concerning him, then all that
know him cannot but esteem and value him ; his friends love him, and his
enemies stand in awe of him. " The path of the just," saith the wise man.
" is as the shining light which shineth more and more unto the perfect
day." As the day begins with obscurity and a great mixture of darkness,
till by quick and silent motions the light overcomes the mists and vapours
of the night, and not only spreads its beams upon the tops of the mountains,
but darts them into the deepest and most shady valleys ; thus simplicity
and integrity may at first appearing look dark and suspicious, till by
degrees it breaks through the clouds of envy and detraction, and then
shines with a greater glory.' — Edward Stuxingfleet.

1700-1760. — In the prose of Addison sentences well
varied in modes of structure are in various ways linked
together, and their general effect is like that produced by a
series of well-modulated harmonies. This style is too good
to be fairly represented by anv one short specimen ; but the
first quotation here given may serve as an example of art

256 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

where no artifice appears. Addison here introduces a themOy
and gives three illustrations ; he then closes the paragraph
by repeating in an expanded form the initial theme. The
same mode of composition is employed in classical music.
In the special syntax of words Addison is not always precise,
but the general order of his sentences is good. His friend
Steele wrote less elegantly, but with natural ease and fluency,
connecting with familiar modes of structure others of a more
synthetic type. He holds a high place among the writers
who in his time made literature social, and who wrote with
such native force and vivacity as were not known in prose
written before the time of Detden. The harmonious periods
of Shaftesbuet and the graceful sentences of Pope's best
letters were results of study — study made too apparent by
the former writer, but often well concealed by the latter. In
Berkeley short and plain sentences are so well connected
with others more synthetic, that the general result is an ad-
mirable style. The writers here named are rightly called
classic, and the time to which their productions belong may
be described as the age when English prose was made beau-
tiful.

' A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that
the vulgar are not capable of receiving. He can converse with a picture,
and find an agreeable companion in a statue. He meets with a secret
refreshment in a description, and often feels a greater satisfaction in the
prospect of fields and meadows than another does in the possession of
them. It gives him a kind of property in everything he sees, and makes
the most rude, uncultivated parts of nature administer to his pleasures. So
that he looks on the world in another light and discovers in it a multitude
of charms that conceal themselves from the generality of mankind.' —
Joseph Addison.

* I am always well pleased with a country Sunday, and think, if keeping
holy the seventh day were only a human institution, it would be the best
method that could have been thought of for the polishing and civilizing of
mankind. It is certain the country people would soon degenerate into a
kind of savages and barbarians, were there not such frequent returns of a
stated time, in which the whole village meet together with their best faces,
and in their cleanliest habits, to converse with one another upon dijSerent
subjects, hear their duties explained to them, and join together in adoration
of the Supreme Being.' — Joseph Addison.

' We shall, therefore, utterly extinguish this melancholy thought of our
being overlooked by our Maker, in the multiplicity of his works and the
infinity of those objects among which he seems to be incessantly employed,
if we consider, in the first place, that he is omnipresent ; and, in the
second, that he is omniscient. If we consider him in his omnipresence, his
being passes through, actuates, and supports the whole frame of nature.
His creation, and every part of it, is full of him. There is nothing he has
made that is either so distant, so little, or so inconsiderable, which he does

PROSE writers: 1700-1760. 257

not essentially inhabit. His substance is within the substance of every
being, whether material or immaterial, and as intimately present to it as
that being is to itself. It would be an imperfection in him were he able to
remove out of one place into another, or to withdraw himself from anything
he has created, or from any part of that space which is diffused and spread
abroad to infinity. In short, to speak of him in the language of the old
philosopher, he is a being whose centre is everywhere,, and his circum-
ference nowhere.' — Joseph Addison.

' But of all evils in story-telling, the humour of telling stories one after
another in great numbers is the least supportable. Sir Harry Pandolf and
his son gave my Lady Lizard great oflfence in this particular. Sir Harry
hath what they call a string of stories, which he tells over every Christmas.
When our family visits there, we are constantly, after supper, entertained
with the Glastonbury Thorn. When we have wondered at that a little,
" Ay, but, father," saith the son, "let us have the Spirit in the Wood."
After that hath been laughed at, " Ay, but, father," cries the booby again,
" tell us how you served the robber." " Alack-a-day," saith Sir Harry with
a smile, and rubbing his forehead, " I have almost forgot that, but it is a
pleasant conceit, to be sure." Accordingly he tells that and twenty more in
the same independent order, and without the least variation, at this day, as
he hath done, to my knowledge, ever since the Eevolution.' — Sir Richard
Steele.

' What is every year of a wise man's life but a censure or critic on the
past ? Those whose date is the shortest, live long enough to laugh at one
half of it ; the boy despises the infant ; the man, the boy ; the philosopher,
both ; and the Christian, all. You may now begin to think your manhood
was too much a puerility, and you will not suffer your age to be but a
second infancy. The toys and baubles of your childhood are hardly now
more below you, than those toys of our riper and our declining years, the
drums and rattles of ambition, and the dirt and bubbles of avarice. At
this time, when you are cut off from a little society, and made a citizen of
the world at large, you should bend your talents, not to serve a party or a
few, but all mankind. Your genius should mount above that mist in which
its participation and neighbourhood with earth long involved it ; to shine
abroad, and to Heaven, ought to be the business and the glory of your
present situation. Remember it was at such a time that the greatest
lights of antiquity dazzled and blazed the most, in their retreat, in their
exile, or in their death. But why do I talk of dazzling or blazing ? — it was
then that they did good, that they gave light, and that they became guides
to mankind.' — Alexander Pope.

' It is impossible, from the nature and circumstances of humankind, that
the multitude should be philosophers, or that they should know things in
their causes. We see every day that the rules, or conclusions alone, are
sufficient for the shopkeeper to state his account, the sailor to navigate his
ship, or the carpenter to measure his timber ; none of which understand the
theory, that is to say, the grounds and reasons either of arithmetic or
geometry. Even so in moral, political, and religious matters, it is manifest
that the rules and opinions early imbibed at the first dawn of under-
standing, and without the least glimpse of science, may yet produce
excellent effects, and be very useful to the world ; and that, in fact, they
are so, will be very visible to every one who shall observe what passetb
round about him.' — Geobge Berkeley.
• S*

258 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

1760-1800. — Of the several styles already defined, two —
the synthetic and the analytic — chiefly demand notice. Plain
or ordinary prose is freely employed by many writers, and is,
therefore, not characteristic. Artistic periods and harmonious
paragraphs are proportionately rare. Since Dryden's time
several writers have preferred synthetic modes, and variety
has been produced by the freedom naturally belonging to
English literature, but its general tendency has been analytic.
The writings of Johnson, Robertson, and Gibbon belong to
the time here noticed, but these are mostly studied produc-
tions, and do not represent ordinary modes of construction.
In Hume synthetic periods of moderate extent are connected
with prose of an ordinary type, and the general result is
pleasing. Goldsmith's prose is classic and beautiful, though,
like Addison's, not always minutely correct. With regard to
force of expression, Burke is the greatest prose writer of his
time. His language is often made remarkable by antithesis,
but has generally freedom, variety, and harmony, and is
rightly called classic.

' On him that appears to pass through things temporal -with no other
care than not to lose finally the things eternal, I look with such veneration
as inclines me to approve his conduct in the whole, without a minute
examination of its parts ; yet I could never forbear to wish, that while Vice
is every day multiplying seducements, and stalking forth with more
hardened effrontery, Virtue would not withdraw the influence of her pre-
sence, or forbear to assert her natural dignity by open and undaunted per-
severance in the right. Piety practised in solitude, like the flower that
blooms in the desert, may give its fragrance to the winds of heaven, and
delight those unbodied spirits that survey the works of Grod and the actions
of men ; but it bestows no assistance upon earthly beings, and, however
free from taints of impurity, yet wants the sacred splendour of beneficence.*
— Samuel Johnson.

* Those who cast their eye on the general revolutions of society, will find
that, as almost all improvements of the human mind had reached nearly to
their state of perfection about the age of Augustus, there was a sensible
decline from that point or period ; and men thenceforth gradually relapsed
into ignorance and barbarism. The unlimited extent of the Eoman
Empire, and the consequent despotism of its monarchs, extinguished all
emulation, debased the generous spirits of men, and depressed the noble
flame by which all the refined arts must be cherished and enlivened. The
military government which soon succeeded, rendered even the lives and
properties of men insecure and precarious ; and proved destructive to those
vulgar and more necessary arts of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce ;
and, in the end, to the military art and genius itself, by which alone the
immense fabric of the empire could be supported. The irruption of the
barbarous nations, which soon followed, overwhelmed all human knowledge,
which was already far in its decline ; and men sunk every age deeper into
ignorance, stupidity, and superstition ; till the light of ancient science and
history had very nearly suffered a total extinction in all the European
nations.' — David Humk.

PROSE writers: 1800-1860. 259

' In this situation, man has called in the friendly assistance of philo-
sophy, and Heaven, seeing the incapacity of that to console him, has given
him the aid of religion. The consolations of philosophy are very amusing
but often fallacious. . . . Philosophy is weak ; but religion comforts in a
higher strain. Man is here, it tells us, fitting up his mind, and preparing
it fcr another abode. "When the good man leaves the body, and is all a
glorious mind, he -will find he has been making himself a heaven of
happiness here ; while the wretch that has been maimed and contami-
nated by his vices shrinks from his body with terror, and finds that he has
anticipated the vengeance of Heaven. To religion, then, we must hold, in
every circumstance of life, for our truest comfort ; for if already we are
happy, it is a pleasure to think that we can make that happiness unending ;
and if we are miserable, it is very consoling to think that there is a place
of rest. Thus to the fortunate religion holds out a continuance of bliss ;
to the wretched, a change from pain.' — Oliver Gtoldsmith.

'As long as you have the wisdom to keep the sovereign authority of this
country as the sanctuary of liberty, the sacred temple consecrated to our
common faith, wherever the chosen race and sons of England worship
freedom, they will turn their faces towards you. The more they multiply,
the more friends you will have ; the more ardently they love liberty, the
more perfect will be their obedience. Slavery they can have anywhere. It
is a weed that grows in every soil. They may have it from Spain, they
may have it from Prussia ; but until you become lost to all feeling of your
true interest and your natural dignity, freedom they can have from none
but you. This is the commodity of price, of which you have the monopoly.
This is the true act of navigation, which binds you to the commerce of the
colonies, and through them secures to you the commerce of the world.
Deny them this participation of freedom, and you break that sole bond
which originally made, and must still preserve, the unity of the empire.
!Do not entertain so weak an imagination, as that your registers and your
bonds, your affidavits and your sufferances, your coquets and your clearances,
are what form the great securities of your commerce. Do not dream that
your letters of office, and your instructions, and your suspending clauses,
are the things that hold together the great contexture of this mysterious
whole. These things do not make your government. Dead instruments,
passive tools as they are, it is the spirit of the English communion that
gives all their life and efiicacy to them. It is the spirit of the English
constitution which, infused through the mighty mass, pervades, feeds,
unites, invigorates, vivifies every part of the empire, even down to the
minutest member.' — Edmund Burke.

1800-1860. — In the structure of periods, tlie general ten-
dency of modem English literature is analytic ; but some re-
markable exceptions should be noticed here. It will of course
be understood that the terms * synthetic 'and * analytic ' are
not employed in this place with the strictness that belpngs to
mathematical science. In writing, a synthetic style must to
some extent be analytic, or it could not be clear ; on the other
hand, a style called analytic must be also synthetic, at least so
far as it puts words together. The term 'simple,' already
ijpticed, does not describe ai^ analytic style. In syntax a

8 2

260 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

sentence like ' It rains ' is called simple, because it contains
only one verb ; but the following is also a simple sentence : —

' Decius, tired of writing books adapted to the learned only,
popular question, -with many points of practical interest in it, for the pur-
pose of bringing into useful exercise all the deptb and clearness of thought
accraing from habits of mind long clierished by philosophical studies.' —
MoEELL, The Aiialysis of Sentences.

This is a simple sentence, for it contains but one verb ; but
it is obviously not intended to represent the analytic style of
modern literature. Where phrases and clauses proportionately
numerous are inserted to modify a principal sentence, where
two or more principal sentences so modified are connected, and
where long periods so constructed are often employed, the
style is synthetic. The sentence just ended is synthetic, for
three clauses are there used to make one assertion definite ;
but the occasional use of such a sentence does not make a
synthetic style. The traits of that style are these : — frequent
uses of long complex sentences, and of such periods as are
both complex and compound. The synthetic style thus defined
may with care be made clear ; but writing in an analytic style
is a far easier task. Here comparatively few phrases and
clauses are used to modify principal sentences, and the princi-
pal sentences thus modified are not often so connected as to
make long periods. Given any fair number of pages, the
difierence of the two styles may be shown by the simple pro-
cess of counting the full stops. Thus in several pages written
by Jeffrey only thirty full stops are counted, while Macaulay,
in the same number of pages, makes use of more than fifty.
Gibbon uses many sentences of moderate length, but his style
is on the whole synthetic. Macaulay introduces here and
there a long sentence, but his style is mainly analytic.

The writers of the time here noticed may, with regard to
syntax, be divided into two classes — one exceptional, the other
representing a general tendency. To the former class belong
Hall, Wordsworth, Jeffrey, Hallam, Arnold, and Newman^
whose styles are mostly synthetic; and two — Southey and
Irving — whose writings have the variety and harmony of the
style called classic. In his well-known ' Life of Nelson '
Southey' s variety is well shown, when the ordinary prose of
the opening chapter is set in contrast with the more synthetic
style of the conclusion. Irving's prose is not in all respects to
be classed with Southey's, but has varied and harmonious
traits too little cared for at the present time. Excepting
Macaulay, all the authors here named may, with regard to

PROSE writers: 1800-1860. 261

their syntax, be placed in one class. Their styles, however
various, are alike in one respect ; they do not represent the
general tendency of their time. That tendency is clearly ex-
emplified in the writings of Macaulat.

'Freedom, driven from every spot on the continent, has sought an
asylum in a country which she always chose for her favourite abode ; but
she is pursued even here, and threatened with destruction. The inun-
dation of lawless power, after covering the whole earth, threatens to follow
us here ; and we are most exactly, most critically placed, in the only
aperture where it can be successfully repelled — in the Thermopylae of the
universe. As far as the interests of freedom are concerned— the most im-
portant by far of sublunary interests — you, my countrymen, stand in the
capacity of the federal representatives of the human race ; for with you it
is to determine (under Grod) in what condition the latest posterity shall be
born ; their fortunes are intrusted to your care, and on your conduct at this
moment depends the colour and complexion of their destiny. If liberty,
after being extinguished on the continent, is suffered to expire here, whence
is it ever to emerge in the midst of that thick night that will invest it ? It
remains with you, then, to decide whether that freedom, at whose voice the
kingdoms of Europe awoke from the sleep of ages, to run a career of virtuous
emulation in everything great and good ; the freedom which dispelled the
mists of superstition, and invited the nations to behold their God ; whose
magic touch kindled the rays of genius, the enthusiasm of poetry, and the
flame of eloquence ; the freedom which poured into our lap opulence and
arts, and embellished life with innumerable institutions and improvements,
till it became a theatre of wonders ; it is for you to decide whether this
freedom shall yet survive, or be covered with af uneral pall, and wrapt in
eternal gloom.' — Robert Hall.

' Poetry is the breath and finer spirit of all knowledge ; it is the im-
passioned expression which is in the countenance of all science. Emphati-
cally may it be said of the poet, as Shakspeare hath said of man, " that he
looks before and after." He is the rock of defence for human nature ; an
Tipholder and preserver, carrying everywhere with him relationship and
love. In spite of difference of soil and climate, of language and manners,
of laws and customs ; in spite of things silently gone out of mind, and
things violently destroyed ; the poet binds together by passion and know-
ledge the vast empire of human society, as it is spread over the whole
earth, and over all time. The objects of the poet's thoughts are every-
where ; though the eyes and senses of man are, it is true, his favourite
guides, yet he will follow wheresoever he can find an atmosphere of sensa-
tion in which to move his wings. Poetry is the first and last of all know-
ledge— it is as immortal as the heart of man.' — William Woedsworth.

• It has always been our opinion, that the real essence of poetry — apart
from the pathos, the wit, or the brilliant description which may be embodied
in it, but may equally exist in prose — consists in the fine perception, the
vivid expression of that subtle and mysterious analogy which exists between
the physical and the moral world, which makes outward things and qualities
the natural types and emblems of inward gifts and emotions, and leads us
to ascribe life and sentiment to everything that interests us in the aspect
of external nature.' — Fkancis Jeffrey.

' When a mere child, he strayed a birds'-nesting from his grandmother's
^use in company with a cow-bojK the 4inner-hoar elapsed ; he was

262 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

absent, and could not be found ; and the alarm of the family became very
great, for they apprehended that he might have been carried oif by gipsies.
At length, after search had been made for him in various directions, he was
discovered alone, sitting composedly by the side of a brook which he could
not get over. " I wonder, child," said the old lady when she saw him, " that
hunger and fear did not drive you home." " Fear, grandmama ! " replied the
future hero ; " I never saw fear. What is it ? " Once, after the winter
holidays, when he and his brother William had set off on horseback to
return to school, they came back, because there had been a fall of snow ;
and William, who did not much like the journey, said it was too deep for
them to venture on. " If that be the case," said the father, " you certainly
shall not go ; but make another attempt, and I will leave it to your honour.
If the road is dangerous you may return : but remember, boys, I leave it to
your honour." The snow was deep enough to have afforded them a
reasonable excuse ; but Horatio was not to be prevailed upon to turn back,
" We must go on," said he : " remember, brother, it was left to our honour."

* There were some fine pears growing in the schoolmaster's garden, which
the boys regarded as lawful booty, and in the highest degree tempting ; btit
the boldest among them were afraid to venture for the prize. Horatio
volunteered upon this service : he was lowered down at night from the
bedroom window by some sheets, plundered the tree, was drawn up with
the pears, and then distributed them among his school-fellows, without
reserving any for himself. ''He only took them," he said, " because every
other boy was afraid." ' — Egbert Southey.

' The victory of Trafalgar was celebrated indeed with the usual forms
of rejoicing, but they were without joy ; for such already was the glory of
the British navy, through Nelson's surpassing genius, that it scarcely
seemed to receive any addition from the most signal victory that ever was
achieved upon the seas ; and the destruction of this mighty fleet, by which
all the maritime schemes of France were totally frustrated, hardly appeared
to add to our security or strength ; for while Nelson was living to watch
the combined squadrons of the enemy, we felt ourselves as secure as now,
when they were no longer in existence.

* There was reason to suppose, from the appearances upon opening his
body, that in the course of nature he might have attained, like his father,
to a good old age. Yet he cannot be said to have fallen prematurely whose
work was done ; nor ought he to be lamented, who died so full of honours,
and at the height of human fame. The most triumphant death is that of
the martyr ; the most awful, that qf the martyred patriot ; the most
splendid, that of the hero in the hour of victory ; and if the chariot and
the horses of fire had been vouchsafed for Nelson's translation, he could
scarcely have departed in a brighter blaze of glory.' — Egbert Southey.

' The feudal constitution was little adapted for the defence of a mighty
kingdom, far less for schemes of conquest. But as it prevailed alike in
several adjacent countries, none had anything to fear from the military
superiority of its neighbours. It was this inefficiency of the feudal militia,
perhaps, that saved Europe, during the middle ages, from the danger of
universal monarchy. In times when princes had little notions of confede-
racies for mutual protection, it is hard to say what might not have been the
successes of an Otho, a Frederic, or a Philip Augustus, if they could have
wielded the whole force of their subjects whenever their ambition required.
If an empire equally extensive with that of Charlemagne, and supported by
military despotism, had been formed about the twelfth or thirteenth cen-

PROSE "WRITERS: 1800-1860. 263

turies, the seeds of commerce and liberty, just then beginning to shoot,
would have perished ; and Europe, reduced to a barbarous servitude, might
have fallen before the free barbarians of Tartary.' — Henry Halxam.

* There are few writers for whom the reader feels such personal kindness
as for Oliver Goldsmith, for few have so eminently possessed the magic gift
of identifying themselves with their writings. We read his character in
every page, and grow into familiar intimacy with him as we read. The
artless benevolence that beams through his works ; the whimsical yet
amiable views of human life and human nature; the unforced humour,
blending so happily with good feeling and good sense, and singularly
dashed at times with a pleasing melancholy; even the very nature of his
mellow, flowing, and softly-tinted style — all seem to bespeak his moral as
well as his intellectual qualities, and make us love the man, at the same
time that we admire the author.' — Washington Ibving.

'Scipio could not be like Caesar. His mind rose above the state of
things around him ; his spirit was solitary and kingly ; he was cramped by
living among those as his equals whom he felt fitted to guide as from some
higher sphere ; and he retired at last to Liternum, to breathe freely, to
enjoy the simplicity of his childhood, since he could not fulfil his natural
calling to be a hero-king. So far he stood apart from his countrymen —
admired, reverenced, but not loved. But he could not shake off all the
influences of his time : the virtue, public and private, which still existed at
Rome — the reverence paid by the wisest and best men to the religion of
their fathers — were elements too congenial to his nature not to retain their
hold on it : they cherished that nobleness of soul in him, and that faith in
the invisible and divine, which two centuries of growing unbelief rendered
almost impossible in the days of Caesar. Yet how strange must the con-
flict be when faith is combined with the highest intellectual power, and its
appointed object is no better than paganism ! Longing to believe, yet re-
pelled by palpable falsehood — crossed inevitably with snatches of unbelief,
in which hjrpocrisy is ever close at the door — it breaks out desperately, as
it may seem, into the region of dreams and visions, and mysterious com-
munings with the invisible, as if longing to find that food in its own crea-
tions which no outward objective truth offers to it,' — Thomas Aknoxd.

' Poetry, I conceive, whatever be its metaphysical essence, or however
various may be its kinds, whether it more properly belongs to action or to
suffering — nay, whether it is more at homo with society or with nature,
whether its spirit is seen to best advantage in Homer or in Virgil — at any
rate is always the antagonist to science. As science makes progress in any
subject-matter, poetry recedes from it. The two cannot stand together ;
they belong respectively to two modes of viewing things, which are contra-
dictory to each other. The mission of science is to destroy ignorance,
doubt, surmise, suspense, illusions, fears, deceits, according to the " Felix
qui potuit rerum cognoscere eaicsas " of the poet, whose whole passage, by
the way, may be taken as drawing out the contrast between the poetical and
the scientific. But as to the poetical, very different is the frame of mind
which is necessary for its perception. It demands as its primary condition
that we should not put ourselves above the objects in which it resides, but
at their feet ; that we should feel them to be above and beyond us, that we
should look up to them, and that, instead of fancying that we can compre-
hend them, we should take for granted that we are surrounded and compre-
hended by them ourselves. It implies that we understand them to be vast,
. immeasurable, impenetrable, inscrutable, mysterious so that at best we are

264 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

only forming conjectures about them, not conclusions ; for the phenomena
which they present admit of many explanations, and we cannot know the
true one.' — John Henry Newman.

' On the morning of Wednesday, the 13th of February [1689], the court
of "Whitehall and all the neighbouring streets were filled with gazers. The
magnificent Banqueting House, the master-piece of Inigo, embellished by
master-pieces of Kubens, had been prepared for a great ceremony. The
walls were lined by the yeomen of the guard. Near the northern door, on
the right hand, a large number of Peers had assembled. On the left were
the Commons with their Speaker, attended by the mace. The southern
door opened ; and the Prince and Princess of Orange, side by side, entered,
and took their places under the canopy of state. Both Houses approached,
bowing low. William and Mary advanced a few steps. Halifax on the
right, and Powle on the left stood forth ; and Halifax spoke. The Con-
vention, he said, had agreed to a resolution which he prayed their High-
nesses to hear. They signified their assent ; and the clerk of the House of
Lords read, in a loud voice, the Declaration of Eight. When he had con-
cluded, Halifax, in the name of all the Estates of the Kealm, requested the
Prince and Princess to accept the crown.' — Lord Macauiay. [The passage
given here has been selected as a specimen of the writer's extreme analytic
style. His less analytic passages have been noticed. In many of these
passages the sentences of which they consist are made comparatively long
by several formal repetitions of one element — for example, by formal repe-
titions of a clause serving as an object. In other instances a long compound
sentence is made by writing, without a full stop, a series of short inde-
pendent sentences. The next quotation is an example of this class.]

' Ask a follower of Bacon what the new philosophy, as it was called,
in the time of Charles the Second, has effected for mankind ; and his
answer is ready. It has lengthened life, it has mitigated pain, it has ex-
tinguished diseases ; it has increased the fertility of the soil ; it has given
new securities to the mariner ; it has furnished new arms to the warrior ;
it has spanned great rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown to
our fathers ; it has guided the thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to
earth ; it has lighted up the night with the splendour of the day; it has
extended the range of the human vision ; it has multiplied the power of
the human muscle ; it has accelerated motion ; it has annihilated distance ;
it has facilitated intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, all dis-
patch of business ; it has enabled man to descend to the depths of the sea,
to soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the noxious recesses of the
earth, to traverse the earth on cars which whirl along without horses, and
the ocean with ships which sail against the wind.' — Lord Macatjlay.

ORDINARY PROSE.

Some prefatory remarl^s and definitions of terms here serve
to introduce an extensive and classified series of examples
selected from English prose writers. These examples repre-
sent the main facts of onr practical syntax. Rules or general
observations follow, and these are given as results of induction
— valid only so far as they are found accordant with the con-
structions of general literature. It will be useful to notice

ORDINARY PROSE. 265

first some general conclusions. The tendency of onr ordinary-
prose is mostly analytic, and its chief rules of syntax are those
respecting order ; these chief rules are few, but the observa-
tions required respecting many constructions of words and
phrases are proportionately numerous. The conclusions here
noticed in a prefatory way will be tested by many references
to that general literature on which true rules of syntax are
founded. It is understood that reading should be the first
course in learning syntax, and that the study of rules should
follow. In the whole process of education, nothing can be
worse than an inversion of this order.

Excerpts already given have shown that, in English syn-
tax, the uses of inflexions are subordinate matters, as com-
pared with the importance belonging to sequences of words,
phrases, and clauses. To show this no reasonings are re-
quired. It will be enough to compare with some pages
written by Lord Clarendon a like number written by Lord
Macaulat. One is careless, the other careful, of order ; hence
their chief difference, so far as syntax is concerned. The
latter is nearly always clear ; the former is often obscure.
The chief rules of order have been more or less observed since
the time of Hooker, and obedience has been made easier by a
change that has taken place since his time — mostly since the
close of the seventeenth century. The general tendency of
ordinary prose has since that time been analytic. Exceptions
are seen in the writings of the past, and in some productions
of the present age ; but the general conclusion given here is
based upon an extensive induction. Periods and other long
sentences have become rare ; modem prose likes short sen-
tences and numerous fall stops. In a word, its tendency is
analytic.

The term ' analytic ' is here employed as comparative, and the term
* synthetic ' applies to every style, clear or obscure, in which long sentences
are rather numerous.

The prevalence of the analytic style is in our own day
remarkable, but the style itself is not new. Short sentences
are abundant in Bishop Hall, Earle, Heylin, and Fuller —
writers of the seventeenth century. Dryden, in the latter
half of that century, wrote fluent and versatile prose, in which
short sentences are proportionately numerous. In the eight-
eenth century De Foe and Fielding made free use of short
sentences, and their styles, though various to a considerable
extent, may be classed with ordinary analytic prose. In the
f)resent age short sentences — inch as may be easily classified —

266 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

are made prominent in many books, and in several journals,
literary and political, having a wide circulation. Our ordinary
prose is thus made easy to write, and as it is seldom read
aloud, its want of modulation is not cared for. The age is
practical, not artistic. Here and there analytic prose, hard
and sharp in outline, and more or less polished, might be de-
scribed as a style distinct from that called ' ordinary ; ' but the
distinction may here be set aside ; and, with respect to their
frequent uses of short sentences, the two styles may be treated
as one. The term ' ordinary ' has in this place no reference to
any traits higher than those noticed by a writer on syntax.
Nothing is said of the excellence that may belong to an ordi-
nary style.

Synthetic prose is still written, but represents now no
general tendency. Of all the long sentences here and there
employed in recent literature, few have an artistic form of
structure. Many sentences are made long merely by means of
formal, not verbal, repetitions, such as will be defined in
another place. These serial sentences are sometimes appro-
priately employed in passages of a descriptive kind. In other
places they sometimes serve as mere catalogues of topics, too
many to be distinctly treated.

Sequences consisting of short sentences connected with
others more extended make a varied style, and a varied style
has sometimes beauty like that observed in the composition of
artistic music. But variety or modulation is only one of all
the fine traits to be noticed in the writings of Addison, Gold-
smith, and SOUTHET. Prose writers of their class are, like
poets, bom, not made. Poets have often written beautiful
prose.

Three styles have been chiefly noticed — the analytic, the
synthetic, and the varied. The first is called * ordinary,' not
with a meaning of depreciation, but with reference to the pre-
valence of that style in modem literature. The examples that
might be quoted are innumerable. Many will be given in
connection with classified rules and observations.

A summary review of the prose written from the time of
HoOKEK to the present shows that a great alteration has been
made in our habitual modes of constructing sentences. The
alteration has been made, for the most part, since the time
when synthetic prose was written by Baeeow, and by nine or
ten among the greatest of his cotemporaries. Since that
time the main tendency of style has been analytic. The cmise
cannot be fully explored here, but may be suggested as a subject

ORDINARY PROSE. 267

of inquiry. Id our time the analytic tendency of science is
cotemporaneous with, a like tendency in writing prose. In
science observations of differences and likenesses proceed step
by step toward definition and classification. One observation
is made at a time. Everything is sharply defined. Apart
from conclusions based upon induction nothing is taken for
granted, and as far as possible all collateral notions called
' subjective ' are suppressed. This process is the opposite of
our old style of syntax, where a period might include half a
dozen matters, each liable to be called in question. The
difference has already been shown by contrasting some sen-
tences written by Hooker with others written by Lord
Macaulat.

Analytic modes of construction are cognate with the
tendencies of science. Clearness like that demanded in
science is the first quality now commended. There must be
light everywhere, though it be the light of winter, making
visible the structure of trees stripped of fohage and bearing no
fruit. Clearness is an effect of contrast, and for contrast a
sentence consisting of two parts, divided in meaning by the
use of ' hut' serves often as an energetic and ready form.
Cautious controversy — distinct from mere declamation — has,
with respect to style, a tendency like that of science. Less is
taken for granted. Assertions are often timidly expressed,
and are so well guarded that carefulness becomes at last tire-
some. In extreme instances prose has a rigidity that would
be appropriate in a treatise on some special point of law, or in
a minute description of some mechanism. Courage, freedom,
and variety are to be classed with the best qualities belonging
to the literature of the past ; but carefulness, precision, and
consequently clearness, are the traits most prominent in many
excellent specimens of the prose written in the present age.
In several political journals the prose here described is in its
right place, is well adapted to its topics, and is excellently
written.

Certain modes of expression correspond with certain mental
habits, and it is clear that one of two cotemporaneous ten-
dencies may serve at least to confirm the other. One of the
best rules to be observed in writings of a didactic kind is
equivalent to the first of all the rules to be observed by the
student of any science — fix your attention on one point ;
mark its differences, and define as closely as possible its indi-
viduality. In poetry, on the contrary, the first rule — or say
'rather, in8tinct--is to find likenesses everywhere, and, as far

268 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

as possible, ' to draw all things to one.' It seems at least
probable that, in an age eminently scientific, general literature
may echo tones first heard in lectures on science ; for we know
that formerly, in a time remarkable for a superabundance of
poetry, the prose of the period was to a great extent written
in a poetical style. In that time — the latter half of the six-
teenth century — one style of prose, greatly admired, had the
exuberant diction then admired in verse. In the next century,
Bareow had among his cotemporaries nine or ten authors
whose style was, like his own, synthetic ; but they were not
his imitators. Their style was closely associated with their
own favourite studies, and was a characteristic of their time,
when those studies were greatly prevalent. There was in the
eighteenth century a widespread tendency to diminish the
amount of all that had been based on authority, and, cotem-
poraneous with that tendency, there was an increase of neat-
ness and elegance in writing prose. There was less to be
said, and accordingly it was said more readily. The English
style of that time was imitated by several German authors.
In the nineteenth century, the short sentences of our analytic
prose are cotemporaneous with our widespread 'rudiments
of popular science.' These words denote, of course, nothing
more than such ' rudiments of science ' as may be readily and
commonly understood. Science has two circles, an inner and
an outer. Words spoken in the former are in the latter
vaguely echoed, but their tendency is to some extent appre-
hended. Imitation follows ; and the style well adapted to
topics strictly scientific is made wearisome when its echoes
are heard almost everywhere. In a word, the analytic style
that rightly belongs to science has, to a considerable extent,
affected the style of our modern general literature. Other
causes of alteration might be noticed, but of modern innova-
tions the chief is an affectation of scientific precision.

Constructions of sentences and uses of words are from
time to time affected by alterations of fashion, while all that
in our syntax is permanent is based on the habits and tradi-
tions of general literature. The term general, as here em-
ployed, should be defined. It might be rather narrowly
defined as a term applied to the collected prose writings ot
such authors as these: — Drtden, Addison, Goldsmith, Southey,
and Macaulay. But this term 'general,' as applied to litera-
ture, should be more liberally defined ; accordingly, an attempt
is here made to give the wider definition required. All the
people speaking one tongue may, with regard to their Ian-

ORDINARY PROSE. 269

guage, be divided into three classes. The first is the large
class, having no literary culture. Their words, including
many old forms, are often interesting, but their syntax does
not show the freedom and variety of English. On the other
hand, there is a comparatively small class of writers on science.
They have their own special vocabularies, while they employ
to a considerable extent the syntax of general literature ; but
their writings, when strictly scientific, do not show the free-
dom and variety of English. Its wealth of words and its rules
of syntax are shown by our best writers in general literature,
and this, liberally defined, includes such writings as the fol-
lowing:— poetry, imaginative prose, readable histories and
biographies, well- written accounts of voyages and travels, and
the essays and reviews contained in several excellent journals,
literary and political, having a wide circulation. These
writings, taken altogether, form the body of our general
literature. With regard to language, the main tendency of
this literature is conciliatory, connecting the past with the
present, and the language of culture with interests as wide as
society itself. Literary culture is thus made in several im-
portant respects conservative. Writers die, but their best
works live, and in these writings old words, phrases, and
modes of construction are preserved. Thus the conservative
power of literature resists, to a considerable extent, the in-
fluence of that mutability to which every living tongue is
liable. But however durable the forms of literary culture, the
destiny of a living tongue is mutability. Forms of speech
have not the durability of those sculptured in marble. While
we are writing of certain constructions, they are becoming
more and more obsolete, and the outlines we would faithfully
portray are fading away while we are looking at them. All
that an historical and inductive writer on syntax can do is to
define forms comparatively permanent, and draw, between the
old and the new, some lines of demarcation. Books called
' monuments ' grow old in style, though not in substance.
The Bible of the seventeenth century had even then an antique
tone, and for its interpretation the aid of a special annotated
vocabulary is now required.

The facts already noticed indicate not only the general
design of the syntax following, but also the subdued tones of
several assertions given in the shape of * rules.' The treatment
of syntax is here inductive, and its * rules ' are therefore com-
paratively few ; but examples and special observations of facts
are proportionately numerous. The authorities referred to are

270 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

not reasonings, but facts, and these are found in general litera-
ture. It is everywhere taken for granted that our best au-
thors, though here and there careless, have on the whole
written good English. They are our teachers. A gram-
marian's highest aim is to make clear, by means of analysis
and classification, the constructions that our best writers have
made comparatively permanent. These are our rules of syn-
tax.

Two brief examples of induction are given here. (1.) The old prepo-
sition anent is fallen into disuse, and one of several substitutes is the
phrase as to. Is it correct ? Eeasonings can say nothing here, but refe-
rences to many authors will show that the phrase is often used. (2.)
Where an adjective-clause begins with which, the antecedent should be
a word, and should not be remote. Otherwise a false reference may ap-
pear. Ex. : ' I allude to the article " Blind," in the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica, published at Edinburgh in 1783, which was written by him.' —
Mackenzie, Life of BlacklocJc. Is the rule absolute ? Almost ; but the
following excerpt may be noticed : — ' Throughout the whole of those lives
[of English Poets] there appears an assumiotion of superiority in the bio-
grapher over the subjects of his labours, which diminishes the idea of their
talents.' — Eoscoe, Life of Pope.

It has been said English Syntax should be inductively
studied. This remark does not imply that induction is the
sole basis of knowledge. If such a thesis could be maintained,
this would not be its place ; for that thesis is general. Here
the special subject is English Syntax, and respecting this
alone the proposition is submitted, that rules should be founded
on many concordant examples. There are ' rules ' not gene-
rally observed, ' rules ' not confirmed by respectable evidences,
and ' rules ' of which good authors have apparently known
little or nothing. [See § 58.] On the other hand, there are
seen in literature constructions of which little is said in our
numerous ' rules.' These observations lead to such conclusions
as the following: — that many examples should be given,
that these should be classified, so that they may be readily
found, and that rules should serve as symbols of many con-
cordant examples. One apparent objection may be named.
There are classed with good authors several who knew metho-
dically little or nothing of syntax; indeed, they wrote well
because their genius was not confined within the bounds of
very strict rules. As verse has been well written by men who
did not study rules of prosody, so prose has been well written
by men who hardly ever thought of sjnatax. It is obviously
true ; but if urged here as an objection, it is quite out of
place. Its opposite would be a general thesis, to the efiect

ORDINARY PROSE. 271

that all knowledge must be acquired by studying rules. Here
that notion is not for a moment entertained. Again and
again it has been refuted. There are, of course, errors to be
found in our best writers ; but in many respects their modes
of construction are cognate and concordant. Yet it is not to
be supposed that their concords have always been studied.
That notion, shown to be false by the theory and history of
poetry and music, is also refuted by the history of literature.

Reading is the best method of studying syntax. But there
are certain aids that may be supplied in a treatise on Gram-
mar. Examples found scattered in many books may be col-
lected and classified. Our knowledge of liberties allowed by
traditional usage will guard us against pedantry, and the ob-
servance of a few good rules will make our confidence secure.
Inquirers will find here in fairly selected examples answers
that cannot be always well given in the shape of concise
rules ; they will find, above all, that tame formality is a thing
not cognate with the genius of our literature. On the whole,
our best authors have respected traditional order, while they
have also loved freedom.

An eclectic list of prose writers is appended, but is not
intended to represent all the wealth of our literature. The
general aim is to name writers in all departments of general
literature, and to indicate the times to which their works
severally belong. Their traits of style are mostly noticed
only so far as to point out one formal trait in each instance ;
but here and there an asterisk follows the name of a vn^iter
whose style has often been called admirable. The list con-
tains the names of several authors rightly called ' great ; ' but
it is not to be understood that writers not named in this
place are therefore regarded as having inferior claims. The
date preceding an author's name shows the year of his birth,
and the date following shows the year of his decease. The
abbreviations used are, of course, not intended to show the
best traits of the writers named, but have meanings closely
restricted, o indicates nothing more than the fact that many
sentences comparatively short may be readily found in the
writer's prose ; s indicates that long periods, or long sentences,
occur, and V that many short sentences are connected with
others more extended. The abbreviation [trans.'i shows that
a work is a translation. After each author's name a specimen
or a collection of his writings is named. In one place [.<'
indicates a doubt respecting the authorship of a tract. [Am.
shows that certain books belong to American literature.

272

INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX.

PROSE WRITERS.

.1300

SiK John Mandbville

.1324

John Wycliffe

.1330

John of Trevisa

.1340

Geoffbey Chaucer

.1410

Sir John Fortescue

.1452

Eobert Fabian

1459

John Fisher

.1475

Hugh Latimer

1477

William Tyndale

1480

Sir Thomas More

1480

Sir Thomas Elyot

1505

John Knox

1515

EOGER ASCHAM

] .5.^0

William Harrison

1530

Sir James Melvil

.1550

ElCHARD KnOLLES

1552

Sir Walter Kaleigh

1553

EicHARD Hooker

1561

Lord Bacon

1574

Joseph Hall

1581

Lord Herbert

1588

Thomas Hobbes

1593

IzAAK Walton

1596

James Hotvell

1601

John F-arle

1608

Lord Clarendon

1608

Thomas Fuller

1608

JoHx Milton

1613

Jeremy Taylor

1615

Eichard Baxter

1618

Abraham Cowley

1628

John Bunyan

1628

Sir William Temple

1630

John Tillotson

1630

Isaac Barrow

1631

John Dryden

1633

Egbert South

1635

Edward Stillingfleet

1636

Thomas Sprat

1643

Gilbert Burnet

1661

Daniel de Foe

1667

Jonathan Swift

ca. 1372
1384

ca. 1400
ca. 1400

1470

1512
1535
1555
1536
1535
1546
1572

1568
ca. 1590

1606
1610

1618

1600
1626
1656
1648

1679
1683
1666
1665
1674
1661
1674
1667
1691
1667
1688
1698
1694
1677
1700
1716
1699
1713

1715
1731
1745

' Voiage and Travaile '

1 V

[Parts of] 'The Holy
Bible ' \trans.'\

' Polychronicon ' {trans.l

i v-

' The Persones Tale '

trans. .?]

' Absolute and Limited

! <►

Monarchy '

* Concordance of Stories '

* Sermons '

' Sermons '

' New Testament ' \trans.^.

! 0

' History of Eichard III.'

' Castle of Health '

* Eeformation in Scot-

land '

' Toxophilus '

' A Description of

Britaine '

' Memoirs '

'A History of the

Turks '

[Parts of] 'A History

of the World '

' Ecclesiastical Polity '

' Essays '

' Sermons '

'Life of King Henry

VIIL'

' Human Nature '

^f-

' Complete Angler '

' Familiar Letters '

' Essays and Characters '

' Hist, of the Eebellion '

' Worthies of England '

' Areopagitica '

' Sermons '

' The Saints' Eest '

' Essays '

' The Pilgrim's Progress '

' Essays '

•K-

' Sermons '

'Essays,' 'Prefaces'

' Sermons '

'History of the Eoyal |

Society' 1

'My Own Times'

' Eobinson Crusoe '

' Gulliver's Travels '

PROSE writers: 1300-1860.

273

Sib Eichabd Stf,f,t,f.

1729

Parts of] 'The Tatler'

Joseph Addison

1719

Tarts of] ' Tho Spec-
tator'

COKYEES MiDDLETON

1750

* Life of Cicero '

George Berkeley

1753

'Principles of Human
Knowledge '

Alexander Pope

1744

' Correspondence '

Benjamin Franklin

1790

* Correspondence ' [Am.'\

Samttel Johnson

1784

' The Rambler '

David Hume

1776

' History of England ' .

Thomas Gray

1771

* Correspondence '

William Kobertson

1793

* History of America '

William Gilpin

1804

' Forest Scenery '

Junius [a ^seudonyrri]

m.l790?

'To the King' [1769]

Oliver Goldsmith

1774

'The Vicar of Wake-
field'

♦

E»mund Burke

1797

' On the French Eevolu-

tion'
' Correspondence '

William Cowper

1800

Edward Gibbon

1794

' Decline and Fall of the
Eoman E.-ipire '

William Eoscoe

1831

' Lorenzo de' Medici '

William Cobbett

1835

* English Grammar '

KoBERT Hall

1831

' Sermons '

John Foster

1843

' Popular Ignorance '

W1LLL&.M Wordsworth

1850

' Prefaces '

Sir Walter Scott

1832

' Ivanhoe '

Samuel T. Coleridge

1834

* Liteiary Eemains*

Lord Jeffrey

1850

' Eeviews '

Eobert Southey

1843

' Life of Nelson '

■»}■

Charles Lamb

1834

'Essays of Elia'

Henry Hallam

1859

* Europe during the Mid-
dle Ages '

William E. Channing

1842

'Self-Culture' [Am.-]

Washington Irving

1859

'BracebridgeHall'[^w.]

Thomas de Quincey

1859

' Leaders in Literature '

Mary K. Mitford

1855

'OurViUage'

Thomas Arnold

1842

' History of Eome '

Thomas Caelyle

—

'Hero Worship'

William H. Prescott

1859

' The Conquest of Peru '

[Am.-]
' Essays

Lord Macaulay

1859

John H. Newman

—

' Miscellanies '

Lord Lytton

1873

'TheCaxtons'

Lord Stanhope

1876

' History of England '

Lord Beaconsfield

' Coningsby '

Nath. Hawthorne

1864

'Twice-Told Tales '[^w».]

Wm. E. Gladstone

' Church Principles '

Wm. M. Thackeray

1863

' The Newcomes '

Charles Dickens

1870

' David Copperfield '

George H. Lewes

—

'Life of Goethe*

274 syntax: examples.

44. EXAMPLES: SUBJECTS.

Eules in English Syntax are founded on the literature
already briefly described. Accordingly, examples selected
from that literature here precede such general observa-
tions as may afterwards be given in the form of rules.
There are in English, as in other languages, numerous
constructions — for example, many prepositional phrases —
that must be learned by conversation and reading, while
those parts of Syntax that may be reduced to the shape of
sure and concise rules are comparatively few. The use of
theory is secondary ; reading is the first course in studying
English SjTQtax.

By means of discords in nomenclature, the study of
Syntax has been made more difficult than it ought to be.
It is, therefore, first of all important to set aside several
names of mere forms, and to see clearly the uses of the six
elements employed in making sentences. These have
a,lready been described, but must be briefly noticed here,
in relation to their nomenclature and to certain uses of
abbreviations. In a sentence where the verb is intransi-
tive, the chief elements are two — the subject and the
verb. But in a sentence where the verb is transitive
three of the parts may be called chief elements — the sub-
ject, the verb, and the object. The chief words employed
in both these sentences serve to express the two general
notions of substance and action. The noun denotes a
substance, and the verb asserts that an action takes place.
Adjuncts called attributes are used to define words de-
noting substances, and adjuncts of two classes are used for
defining verbs. Many verbs serve alone to make clear
assertions. Other verbs are aided by adjuncts that Tnust
be employed to make clear assertions. These adjuncts
are called complements. But verbs of the former kind
may be defined by means of such adjuncts as may be em-
ployed, or may be omitted. These are called adverbials.
In the observations and examples that follow, the order
everywhiere corresponds with the order in which the ele-
ments of sentences are here named : —

subjects: words.

275

1. Subjects.

2. Attbibutes,

3. Vebbs.

4. Complements.

5. Adverbials.

6. Objects.

In subdivisions, each element — excepting the verb
itself — is distinctly treated as consisting of a word, a
phrase, or a clause. The numbers of the paragraphs con-
taining examples correspond with the numbers prefixed to
the paragraphs consisting of observations. Keferences are
thus made easy.

In writing of syntax, tiresome repetitions of certain terms
are avoided by using the signs shown in the table appended.
The letter x, here denoting an adverbial, serves as a sign
clearly distinct from a, the sign of an attribute. Here and
there, in some notes on examples, ax indicates a phrase in
which the two relations, attributive and adverbial, are more
or less closely connected. Asterisks serve to point out errors
and nnnsual or obsolete forms.

Signs.

I^ames.

Signs.

yames.

a principal sentence

a predicative verb

a subject ; a word

a complement

a vagne word, instead of

a complement after o

a noun

a complement ; a phrase

a subject ; a phrase

a complement ; a clause

a subject; a clause

an adverbial ; a word

an attribute ; a -word

an adverbial ; a phrase

a vague -word used as an

an adverbial ; a clause

adjective

an object ; a word

an attribute ; a phrase

an object ; a phrase

a connective phrase

an object ; a clause

an attribute ; a clause

erroneous, or obsolete

a verb

SUBJECTS

: WOE

.DS.

Ohservations. — 1. The subject may be represented by any
one of the following forms : — a noun ; a pronoun ; a word often
used as an adjective ; or a word ending in ing. Some words
in ing are often used as nouns, have plui-als in s, and are often
preceded by adjectives; others are seldom placed in the re-
lations here implied. The distinction thus made between
read'Vng and lov-ing is the result of usage, and has no refe-
rence to any difference of an etymological kind. Nouns in ing,
when denoting transitive actjpns, are of course followed by

T 2

276

syntax: examples.

objects, and so help to make phrases, which must be noticed
in another place.

2. In every sentence the subject must be made clear.
This observation is made with especial reference to words
called pronouns. The uses of pronouns should be made clear,
and, as far as forms allow, the relations of pronouns should
be shown with respect to gender, number, and person.

3. Two or more words — two nouns, for example, or a
noun and a pronoun — may be employed together, or set in
apposition, to give emphasis or clearness to the subject. The
latter of two nouns so placed may serve as an attribute.
[See § 45.]

4. Some pronouns are naturally vague in their own
meanings, but their relations to other words, or to phrases, or
to clauses, must always be made as clear as possible. For
example, the pronoun it may have reference to a preceding or
to a following noun, may refer to a cause unknown or un-
named, may introduce several nouns, or may be set in appo-
sition with a phrase, or with a clause. The following forms
of pronouns all serve as subjects, but those of the latter class
(6.) serve also as objects or as dependent words. The two
forms thou and ye are obsolete in conversation : —

a. I

•we

b.it

that

thou

they

these

who

you

those

she

this

The compound forms myself, ourselves, and other compounds
of self with their plurals, serve as subjects and as objects, or
as dependent words, and himself though formally dependent,
is often set in apposition with a subject.

5. There are in English many vague words. Of these
some serve instead of nouns, others as adjectives, and others
may serve either as nouns or as adjectives. These facts have
been made obscure by schemes of strict classification founded
on etymology. The following words — mostly classed with
* indefinite pronouns ' — ^may serve as subjects, or, in other
words, may be used instead of distinct nouns : —

all

everybody

nothing

another

few

one

any

many

others {plural)

anybody

self

aught {or ought)

much

several

both

naught ipr

nought)

some

each

neither

somebody

either

nobody

such

enough

none

what

SUBJECTS : WORDS. 277

Here and there the. words 'nobody, nothing, and one have the
plural forms ' nobodies,^ ^ nothings,^ and '■ones.'' The ending of
the possessive case is sometimes added to the words another,
nobody, and one. The old form enow (= enough) is not a
plural form, but (like enough) may be used as an adjective,
and may define either a singular or a plural noun.

6. Excepting a few pronouns — already noticed — the same
forms that serve as subjects serve also as objects, and as de-
pendent words following prepositions. The subject, in nu-
merous sentences, is the initial word, or stands near the be-
ginning ; but variations of this order have always been allowed,
and are indeed required for the sake of emphasis.

7. In modern constructions belonging to the Imperative
Mood the subject is mostly omitted.

8. In E.II. ye represents the subject, while the object and
the dependent pronoun have alike the form you ; but in M.E.
you takes the place of ye. The Bible of the seventeenth cen-
tury preserves many archaic forms, including the subject ye,
as may be seen in MaUh. v. 11, 12 ; 21, 22 ; 33, 34

9. Lastly, it maybe noticed that as any word, any syllable,
or any letter may be made the subject of a remark, so it may
be made the subject of a sentence.

In the following, as in other selections, some examples, selected from
various hooks and journals, have the signature G-.

Examples. — 1. * Now fades the glimmering landscape from the sight.'
— Gray. [The subject, in verse, often follows the verb, and the same
order is often seen in prose.] ' Next this parlour lies the pigeon-house. . . .
There are upon the ground-floor, in all, twenty-four apartments^ — Pope.
[Prose.] ' Milton's Paradise Lost was first published in 1667.' — G. ' /
am monarch of all / survey.' — Cowpek. * Thou art very great.' — Bible.
[Old ; obsolete in conversation, but not in verse.] ' He lifts his head. , . .
She dwelt among the untrodden ways.' — ^Wobdsworth. 'The rich and
the poor shall there appear.' — Jee. Taylor. * Blue and yellow are mixed
in this colour.' — Gr. ' The poore is but feeble.' — Langland. ' Miltoi>'s
earlier poetical writings were collected in 1638.' — Gr. ' Writing was my
trade.' — Gtoldsmith. * Far off his coming shone.' — Milton, * Boasting is
no sign of self-knowledge.' — G-. ' There are two abbreviations or shorten-
ings.^ — CoBBETT. ' The rowing of the Cambridge crew is neater than that
of the Oxford.' — G. * Reading maketh a full man.' — Lord Bacon. [It
will be seen in the sequel that forms in ing have the uses indicated by 8,
a, c, X, and o.]

2. ' They called thee " merry England " in old time.* — Wobds-
woRTH. [They in force = the E.I. form me = men.] ' Who is the happy
warrior ? ' — Wordsworth. [As the initial word of a query, who is naturally
indefinite.] ' Who swerves from innocence recovers not his loss.' — Words-
worth. [Old; Who here ss The man who.] 'In restraint wAo stifled lie,
Shall taste the air of liberty.' — Cotton. [Here who = the men who.]
'5© then said to his friend, *'If / d^j^not return in the course of an hour,

278 syntax: examples.

you must not wait for me." ' [Clear.] * ' He told his friend that, if he did not
return in the course of an hour, lie should not wait for him.' — G. [Not clear.]
' The oak and the apple-tree are useful ; this yields good fruit, and that strong
timber.' — Gr. \this refers to the nearer of the two preceding nouns.] * ' For
two years he lived there with his uncle, who died in 1770, and soon after-
wards \he ?] went to France.' — Gr. * * They [the commons] were summoned
by their kings, whenever they were compelled to have recourse to such aid
as they could afford.' — G. \they ?] * * Few know how to be idle and inno-
cent; every diversion they take is at the expense of some virtue.* \theyT\
* ' Astronomy and astrology differ widely ; this is a science, that a dream.'
— G, \th%s and that should change places.] * ' After he [the king] had com-
manded him [the bishop] to sit down by him [the king] and be covered, he
[the king] resumed most of the heads of the sermon, and said he looked
upon himself as chiefly touched by it. He desired him, as he [the bishop]
had already given him the exhortation in general, so to direct him to his
duty in that particular. ... * The bishop, astonished at this tenderness
in so young a prince, burst forth in tears, expressing how much he [the
bishop] was overjoyed to see such inclinations in him, but told him he [the
bishop] must take time to think on it.' — Bp. Buenet. * *His education [Lord
Falkland's] for some years had been in Ireland, where his father was lord-
deputy ; so that when he [the son] returned into England,' etc. — Claeen-
DON. * ' Its progress \i.e. the Kussian Empire's] has been slow, but it [i.e.
the empire] is only on that account the more likely to be durable.' — Ali-
son, [it apparently, but not truly, refers to ' progress.']

3. ' The Eagle, he was lord above. And Eob was lord below.' — Woeds-
WOETH. ' Truth, simple truth, was written in his face.' — Ceabbe. ' Our
landlord, he goes home to-night.' — Southey. * And every soul, it passed
me by. Like the whiz of my cross-bow.' — Cojlbeidge. ' They seem them-
selves also to enjoy their mode of life.' — Gelpin. * Oh, 'twas a siyht — that
heaven, that child — a scene which might have well beguiled Ev'n haughty
Eblis of a sigh.' — Mooeb. 'My banks, they are furnished with bees
Whose murmur invites one to sleep.' — Shenstone. ' Silence and Twilight
here, twin-sisters, keep Their noonday watch.' — Shelley. ' They knew,
these excellent old persons, that .... they ought to have given place to
younger men.' — Hawthoene.

4. * It was frosty last night.' * It is an ancient mariner. . . . It was
an Abyssinian maid.' — Coleeidge. 'Avoid indiscriminate charity. It
is an error.' — E. A. Abbott. [Examples of it introducing phrases and
clauses are given in the sequel.]

5. 'All that can now be done is but little.' — G. 'All are but parts of
one stupendous whole.' — Pope. In M.E. all = either sv or av, and, as
sv, may be singular or plural.] ' All praise the likeness that thy skill hath
made.' — Woedswoeth. ' Who is here so vile ? ... If any, speak ! ' —
Shakespeaee. [In M.E. any, having reference to a person, becomes anyone, or
anybody. In a humorous and familiar style, a body is here and there vaguely
used instead of anybody.] ' If there is anything better to be done, name
it! ' — G. ■* 'This werldes, welth, auht, and cat^l.' — Old Metrical Homily.
'Is ther aught elles?' — Chatjcee. [For aught the modern spelling is
ought.] 'Should ought impious or impure, Take friendship's name.' —
T. H. Bayly. ' They both were now well stricken in years.' — Bible. ' Each
will tell his own story.' [Each historically belongs to the singular,
but is sometimes set in apposition with two nouns, and has then a use
called 'distributive.' It is not required that two substantive words in

* subjects: words. 279

apposition must each have the same number.] * The oak and the elm have
each a distinct character.' — Gilpin. ' Each [of the two men] spake words
of high disdain And insult to his heart's best brother.' — CoLEBiDaE.

* * Each have stamped their own impress on the character of the people.' —
Alison. \has .... itsi] ' Each [ = Every feature'] gives each [ = everp
other] a double charm, As pearls upon an Ethiop's arm.' — Dteb. ' Each
[ = Everyone] must give an account of his own adventures.' • Each [of these
two trees] has its own characteristic form.' ' Either will suit me very well.'
' Either of these distinguished officers [two] would have been a successor
worthy of Luxemburg.' — Macatjlay. [The modern so-called ♦ rule ' that
either must always refer ' to one of two ' is not founded on literary history.]
^Enough is as good as a feast.' — G-. 'We're enough! — Lobd Byeon.
[Instead of enough the old form enow is sometimes used with a double
meaning ; but it is not an exclusively plural form.] * * Every schuld
an hundred knightes bryng.' — Chaucee. [Old ; in M.E. every is employed as
an adjective.] ' Everybody must respect his neighbour's rights.' [Correct.]
' A few who were present were in the secret.' — G. * Few know how to
be idle and innocent.' — Addison. ' Few, few shall part where many meet.'
— Campbell. * Are there few that be saved ? ' — Bible. ' Little can be
said in favour of that scheme.' — G. ' Many will say to me in that day.
. . . Many that are first shall be last. . . . Many are called but/ew [are]
chosen.' — Bible, * More might be said of this.' [Historically more is a
comparative form belonging to much ; but both more and most may have
reference to number as well as to quantity.] ' Much has been said, and
more remains to be told.' ' All these and wore came flocking.' — Milton.

* ' Naught may declare.' — Chaucee. [' Naught else ' may be found here
and there in modern authors, but the usual substitute for the old word
naught is nothing.] ^Neither has anything he calls his own.' — Otway.

* * Thersites' body is as good as Ajax', "When neither are alive.' — Shake-
SPEAEE. \ndther, the negative form of either, should, like this word, be
followed by a verb in the singular.] ' Of that matter nobody has spoken
a word.' ' My right there is none to dispute.' — Cowpee. • None but the
brave deserves the fair.' — Deyden. * None of their productions are extant.'
— Blaie. [In M.E. none mostly = sv, and wo = av ; but in E.II. none in
many places is used instead of no.] ' Nothing of importance has happened.'
' An idol, saith he, is nothing' — Hobbes. * One must walk carefully here.'

* There shall be two in the field ; the one shall be taken and the other
left.' — Bible. * The little ones all ran to hail their friend.' — G. * Give me
another pen; this is a bad one.' 'All our little ones are well.' ' One
ought to do a thing oneself, if one wants it done properly.' — G. * My very
««(/" was yours.' — Otway. [In E.I. self in often used as an adjective follow-
ing pronouns, but in Old as in Modem English self is often employed as a
noun.] * • It's no man's several.' — Ben Jonson. [Old ; in M.E. several
has reference to nouns in the plural.] * The work sorne praise, and sofne the
architect.' — Milton. * Of birds some live mostly on trees, and some on
the ground.' 'Stop. . . . reaideTa all and some ! ' — Deyden. [Old ; the force
of the phrase — often occurring in old literature — is equivalent to the meaning
of 07ie and all.] ' Some thought Dunkirk, some that Ypres was his object.'
— Macaulay. [In E.II. som, or sum, might belong to tae singular. In
modem literature some, used as sv, or used alone as a substantive, has
mostly a plural reference. Somebody, something, and somewhat belong to
the singular.] ' What mxist now he done ia hardly known.' — G. [What,
m force, often = That which.] ' Wljft is the matter ? '— G. • What'a gone,

280 syntax: examples.

and what's past hope, Should be past grief.' — Shakespeaee. [In many
places the words 'what .... what' — 'partly .... partly' and are
used as adverbial connectives. Ex. : * People died, ^partly on account of
grief and partly for hunger.' Instead of this we have in O.E. the follow-
ing sentence : — * ' Wat vor honger, wat vor wo, men deyde.' — Robebt of
Gloucester. Here wat = partly.'] * ' Sche was, as who seith, a goddesse.'
— GowER. [Here who = man in E.I., or the indefinite one in M.E. This
vague use of who is obsolete.] ' The whole of the day was wasted.' [whole,
here used as a noun, serves often as an adjective.]

6. ' There is some plot against me laid.' — "Woedswoeth. [s often
follows verbs introduced by there.] ' Then shrieked the timid and stood
still the brave.' — Byron. * How unlike marble was that face ! ' — Keats.
' Say, were you conscious ? ' — G-. ' So was ended the day' ' Six hours a
day, the young students were employed in this labour.' — Swift.

* Deep in the shady sadness of a vale.
Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn,
Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star —
Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone.' — ^Kbats.

[This bold inversion of the usual order would hardly be allowed in prose.]

7. * ' Go ye into all the world.'— ^e^^e. [Old.] * Teach me thy
statutes.' — Bible. ' My soul, turn from them ; turn we to survey Where
rougher climes a nobler race display.' — Goldsmith. [The construction
turn we would in prose be changed to let tis turn.] * But view them closer,
craft and fraud appear.' — Goldsmith, \yiew them is an imperative form,
but in force = if you view them.] * Change the order of the words, and
you spoil the sentence.' — G. ' Then sing, ye birds ! sing, sing a joyous
song.' — ^WoEDswoETH. [Poetical.] * Mourn, shepherd, near thy old gray

stone.' — ^WOEDSWOETH.

* His praise, ye winds ! that from four quarters blow,
Breathe soft or loud, and wave your tops, ye pines ! * — ^Miltok.

' . . . . Sing, ye meadow streams, with gladsome voice,
Ye pine-groves, with your soft and soul-like sounds.' — Coleeidge.

8. *If ye love them which love you, what reward ha^yeye?' — Bible.
[In E.II. ye = s, and you = o, or is dependent. In M.E. ye is obsolete in
prose.] ' I only just ask you to look yonder, and tell me whether you ever
saw a more disreputable spectacle ? ' — Loed Lttton. ' You are so unlucky
as not to have the skill even to steal with taste. . . . Oh, but I wouldn't
have told you, only to divert you.' — Sheeidan. * There you shall sit, and
I will make you a bouquet of myrtle every day. ... On the left hand you
will find the door of the parlour, into which I will conduct you. . . . There
you shall find me ready to conduct you to Olney.' — Cowper.

9. ' The 's of the possessive case is not a shortened form of the pro-
noun his.' — G. ' The plural ending es was not borrowed from Old French.*
' The form worth serves as the present and the future of an old verb.' — G.
' The aye's and no's were then counted ' [i.e. the members voting respec-
tively for and against the bill]. ' The suffix er is English ; ion is a Latin
suffix of many abstract nouns.' * With reference to their common source,
the indefinite adjective an and the numeral 07ie are alike.' — G. 'For once
the O's and the Macs were in the right.' — Macal^lat. [I.e. the Irish and
the Scotch gentlemen whose names have the prefixes 0 and MacJ

SUBJECTS : PHRASES. 281

SUBJECTS: PHRASES.

Observations. — 1. A verbal noun in ing, denoting transi-
tive action, is of course followed bj an object, and tbus a
pbrase is made, which may be employed either as a subject or
as an object. But more frequently the phrases thus formed
are indirectly governed ; in other words, they are made de-
pendent on prepositions. The strict classification of forms
given in etymology is not always observed in syntax. Sub-
jects having the forms of verbal nouns in ing are connective
in their relations, and here and there are defined by means of
adverbs. In the first of the excerpts given below, making^
preceded by an adjective and by an adverb, is followed by the
object a will. The pronoun it is sometimes set in apposition
with a phrase of the kind here described.

2. The noun-phrase employed as a subject has often the
infinitive form, of which to write is an example, and where the
verb is transitive an object follows, as in the phrase to write
TWtes. It will be noticed, in another place, that a noun-phrase
may be the complement of the abstract verb.

3. The initial pronoun it is often set in apposition with a
subject-phrase, or with several phrases, each having the in-
finitive form. In another place it will be noticed that it is
often set in apposition with a subject-clause.

Examples. — 1. * The not making a will is a culpable omission.'.— Paxey.

* Committing an error is a mistaking of good and eviV — G-. ' The giving a
bookseller his price has this advantage.' — Selden. * ' It is yll healing
of an olde sore^ — Heywood. * The choosing of 'pertinent circumstances is
the life of a story.' — Sib R. Steele. * His commanding those things to he
.... importeth the establishment of nature's law.' — Hooker. • Burning
anything with fire is put for the consuming thereof by war. . . . Elding
on the clouds [is put] for reigning over much ;people.' — Sir Is. Newton.

* Laughing to one's self-gvAXQfh. all the rest into jealousy and examination
of themselves.' — Hobbes.

2. * To live and not to see is a great misfortune.' — Gr. ' My power is
to advise, not to compel.' — Johnson. ' To sit on rocks, to muse on flood and
fell .... This is not solitude.' — Lord Byron. ' Thus to relieve the wretched
was his pride.' — Goij)Smith. ' To be a fine gentleman is to be a generous
and a brave man.' — Sir Eichard Steele. ' One of the greatest secrets in
composition is to Jcnow when to be simple.' — "W. Irving. ' The use of pro-
nouns is to make speaking and writing more rapid.' — Cobbett. * The only
consideration is, hm to get at them. . . , How best to honour her, and abate
the pride of her enemies, must be the subject of your deepest consideration.
. . . To get to his assistance was impossible.' — Southey.

3. * i^ is vain for you to rise np early.' — Bible. ' It was in my power
to have exposed my enemies' — Dryden. * It \s for the guilty to live in
fear.' — Cobbett. ^It\s a crime to give indiscriminately' — E. A. Abbott.
*It is hard to personate and act m part long.' — Tillotson. 'Is it for him
to question the dispensation of the royal favour ? ' — Burke. ' It was an ad-

282 syntax: examples.

vantage to him to he furnished with an outline of characters and events. It
•would be absurd to read the works of such a writer. It is not easy to
make a simile go on all fours. ^ — Lord Macaulay.

SUBJECTS: CLAUSES.

Observations. — 1. Abstract nonn-clauses, relating to acts
or facts, are often introduced by that ; sometimes by how, or
by why.

2. Concrete noun-clauses, relating to persons, things,
times, and places, are respectively introduced by who, which,
what, when, where, and why. Noun-clauses implying doubt
are often introduced by whether, and serve mostly as objects.

3. A noun-clause — abstract or concrete — may be set in
apposition with, the pronoun it.

Examples. — 1 . * That such a man should have written one of the best books
in the world is strange enough. . . . Another law of heroic rhyme "was, that
there should he a pause at the end of every couplet.* — Loed Macaitlay.
* His hope was that peace might soon be made.* ' By this it appears how
necessary it is to examine the definitions of former authors' — Hobbes. ' How
it chanced .... is one of the greatest mysteries of human nature.' —
Lord Macatjlay. ' How France was saved from this humiliation ....
■will now be seen.' — Alex. Bain. * The simple question is, whether there
are not distinct species of oratory.' — Sra. W. Jones.

2. ' What bodies these ashes made up, were a question above antiqua-
rianism. . . . What song the sirens sang, or what name Achilles assumed,
. . . though puzzling questions, are not beyond conjecture.' — Sib T. Browne.
' Whatsoever happeneth new to a man giveth him matter of hope of knowing
somewhat that he knew not before.' — Hobbes. * Whatsoever distracts the
'pleasure lessens it.' — Deyden.

3. * Hyt semej? a gret wondur, how^ Englysch . . . . ys so dyuers of soun
in \>is ylond* — John of Trevisa. 'It was found that the style was likely
to live.' — Milton. ' It happened in the reign of this king, there was a fierce
battle fought in Flintshire.' — Fuller, [After ' king' the conjunction that
is omitted.] ' It is thought he perished by poison.' — Alg. Sydney. [Again
that is omitted.] • It was as often said, " This is that Bucephalus " as
^^ This is that Alexander."' — Cowley. 'iiJ would seem that he had never
said but one witty thing in his whole life.' — Is. Disraeli. * It was pro-
vided also that there should never be a full stop, except at the end of a
couplet. . . . It \s not in the fine arts alone, that this false correctness is
prized. . . . It may be doubted, whether there is .... a single remarkable
passage.' — Lord Macaulay. * It is only higher up that Imagination can
find rest for the sole of her foot.' — C. Bronte. ' It imports me little what
ground I tread on.' — Lord Bolingbroke.

In the above, as in other examples, various uses of it are shown. It may
refer, backward or forward, to a word, a phrase, or a clause ; or may be
utterly indefinite, as in the saying, * It was frosty last night.' The fol-
lowing remark applies to forward references : — ' It serves to mark, in a
strong manner, the subject, in a mass, of what is about to be affirmed or
denied.' — Cobbett. In other words, the subject is first pointed at as some-
thing not clearly seen ; then follows an expression in which the subject is
made distinct. \_See § 46,]

attributes: words. 283'

45. ATTRIBUTES: WORDS.

Attributes are placed in relation with substantive
words and with phrases, of which the meanings or uses
require enlargement or definition. The definition sup-
plied may have reference to quality, quantity, order, iden-
tity, or possession. In the attributive relation a connexion
of the attributive with the substantive is not asserted, but
is indicated or assumed, as in the examples ' a firm will^
' a defeated army.' In the predicative relation the attri-
butive is so placed that its connexion with the substan-
tive is asserted, as in the examples ' Your will is firm^
' The army was defeated,'' Here the attribute is made a
predicate. In many grammars the verb and the attri-
bute, taken together, are collectively described as making
a predicate.

Observations. — 1. An attribute may consist of any one of
the following forms : — an ordinary adjective ; a verbal form
in ing, or ed, or en ; a noun in apposition ; the possessive
case of a noun or a pronoun ; a phrase ; or a clause. It will
be noticed that here, as in the sequel, words in syntax are
always treated with reference to their uses. Accordingly,
certain attributive uses of words called nouns are noticed in
this place.

2. A noun, when placed in apposition with another, may
serve as an attributive word ; it hel^s to enlarge or to define
the meaning of a substantive.

3. The possessive case of a noun is governed by the noun
following, and serves as an attribute. The possessive in-
flexion should mostly be employed when the governed noun
is the name of a person. In some other cases the particle of
preceding a noun, may be used instead of 's, if no change of
meaning is made ; but of has versatile uses, and is not always
a correct substitute. The 's appended to a noun of time
denotes duration, not possession.

4. One attribute may belong to several nouns, and several
attributes may belong to one noun. In its comparative form
the adjective has mostly reference to two individuals, or to
two classes ; but the superlative refers to several in one class;
or in one series. Some forms often called adjectives may
serve as adverbs, and some words mostly called adverbs serve
here and there as adjective^ Many adjectives may be defined

284

syntax: examples.

by adverbs ; but the meanings of some attributive words ex-
clude comparison.

5. The following vague words, of wbich the greater
number may serve as pronouns, serve also as adjectives, and
are often placed before nouns : —

all

another

any

both

certain ( = some)

each

either

enough

every

few

many

many a

much

other

several

some

sucsh

the same
very
•what
yonder

6. Several adjectives have, with respect to gender and
number in nouns, the restricted uses shown in the examples
appended.

7. The two adjectives an (or a), indefinite, and the, defi-
nite, are mostly called articles, and have peculiar uses, which
are shown in the examples. These uses may be partly defined
and prescribed, but are best learned in the course of reading.
Indeed, they are commonly well understood in a practical
way. In form, as in meaning, a,n is cognate with one (1. an)
and with any (1. aenig). 'Give the boy a shilling' means
' Give him one shilling.' ' Give him the shilling ' means that
which he claims, or ought to have, as the case may be. Placed
before few and little, the indefinite article makes their mean-
ings more positive. The definite article is a weak substitute
for that. Where a weakened word like that or those is re-
quired, write the ; where it would have no force, leave it out,
if usage permit Names of materials (such as metals), virtues
and vices, arts, sciences, theories, and studies are placed alone ;
but a special theory may, by means of the, be set in contrast
with another. The serves to show that two nouns placed near
each other are names of two difierent things or persons.
Again, in a series, items are made distinct by setting the
before each name ; but there is no rule here save usage. An
adjective form following the may serve as a noun, concrete or
abstract. The is set before collective nouns, national names,
party-names, and names of families and species (here man is
an exception) ; often before names of rivers, but rarely before
names of countries. A proper name following the is often
made common. The correlative phrases ' the more .... the
less ' are adverbials of proportion, and in each the = by that
[degree], and represents the pronominal instrumental case pe
in First English. Lastly, readers will find the inserted in
many places where its force is hardly perceptible.

attributes: words. 285

8. Verbal forms having the endings ing, en, ed, d, or t
serve as adjectives, and of these forms some are often placed
before nouns, but others are seldom or never so placed. Here>
as elsewhere, respect must be paid to usage. The verbal,
where transitive, governs an object. Adjectives ending in ed
are not always verbal. [See § 35.]

9. In certain words, but chiefly in pbrases, the two
relations attributive and adverbial are closely associated.
The sign ax may here and there indicate the character of such
connective words and phrases.

10. Adjectives are often used as complements with verbs
of incomplete predication. [See § 46.]

Examples. — 1. ' Clear daylight suddenly appeared, and brightened all the
rippling streams in the green valley.' — Gr. * Our old friend the miller -w^s
there.' * The weeJds holiday -was enjoyed by our boys.' — G-. ' The captain
was an honourable man.' * He is a man of honour.' * Here lies the deed
to be signed.' * The workman's task was hard.' [' hard ' = c]

2. * Peter the Hermit was preaching there.' * Stephen the Martyr waa
there put to death.' ' Solomon, the son of David, built the temple.' * Croe-
sus, King of Lydia, was then renowned for his wealth.'

3. ' The children's toys were bought there.' ' The tyrant's power was
dreaded.' * The tyrant Henry's power was made absolute.' ' The Nortons
impounded the Cliffords' stray deer.' [After a plural ending in s the apos-
trophe meirks the possessive case.] * A month's holiday.' [The possessive
case here denotes duration.] ' The poet Gray's letters are good specimens
of fluent prose.' [The inflexion 's is here, as before, added to the latter
of two nouns set in apposition.] * We have read Gray's poems and Cow-
pcr's.' [These two inflexions make the two noims distinct from the names
of two joint authors.] ' We have read Beaumont and Fletcher's plays.'
[Here the proper nouns are the names of two joint authors.] * At the end
of this street you will find Smith's smd. Brown's of&ces, opposite each other.'
[The men are not partners.] ' St. James's Square.' ' Lycurgus' sons.*
[When the singular ends in es, or is, or us, sounded as a distinct syllable,,
the apostrophe is often used alone ; but it is better to say ' the sons of
Lycurgus.'] ' We must respect a British critic's censure.' — Gr. [Here one
of the two harsher sibilants might be avoided by saying ' the censure of a
British critic.*] 'He soared on eagles' wings.' [After a plural noun ending
in 8, the apostrophe alone represents the inflexion.] ' She went to the
baker's ' [shop]. ' That is a work of Milton's ' [i.e. one of Milton's works].
' He was a friend of Ccesar's ' \i.e. one of Caesar's friends. The govern-
ing noun is often omitted]. ' The Vision of William concerning Tiers the
Plowman' [This is the correct English title of a well-known book written
by WnxiAM Langland, who lived in the latter half of the fourteenth cen-
tury. This title was too long to serve well as the ready name of a book.
Accordingly it was changed, and the book was called first • The Vision of
Piers the Plourfnan, 'xthen briefly ' Piers Plowman's Vision.' Consequently,
Englishmen, as well as Frenchmen, have erroneously described the said
' Piers ' as a rustic author ' who wrote The Vision.' They might as truly
say that a wandering author, whose name was ' Pilgrim,' wrote the allegory

^called the ' Pilgrim's Progress.'] * * John Jackson his book.' [This use of

286 syntax: examples.

hi$, instead of 's, is an error, founded, however, on many apparent examples
easily found in E.II. literature. It was once supposed that the 's in ' the
king's crown ' was a contraction of his in • the king his crown ; ' but this no-
tion does not accord with well-known facts in the history of our own language
— to say nothing of cognate tongues. The inflexion 's is a contraction of
the inflexion es belonging to the possessive case of the strong declension in
E.I.] ' Have we not seen, at pleasme's lordly call, The smiling, long-fre-
quented village fall ? ' — G-oldsmith. [' The possessive inflexion 's should
especially be used when the governed noun is the name of a person ; ' but
this rule is not exclusive.] * For thou art Freedom! s now and Fam^s! —
Haxleck. * One of the best means of securing on^s self from infection.' —
De Foe. ' His discourse was broken oflf by his mai-Cs telling him that he
had called a coach.' — ^Addison. ' Eejoicings upon theiVcw Year's Coming of
Age.' — C. Lamb. ' The Thirty Tears' War.' — G-. ' This world's first creation.'
— Hooker. ' He had need be afraid of others' memory.' — Bacon. * He will
sooner be at his journeifs end.' — Locke. ' A nasal solo of at least three
bars' duration^ — W. Ieving. * The spider's web is cable to man's tie on
earthly bliss.' — YouNa. • That article appeared in " Chambers's Journal." '

* Did you read the review in last week's " Athenaeum " ? ' — G-. * We were
then shown Edward the Confessor's tomb. ... It was my fortune to
sit next to a neighbour of Sir Eager' s.' — Addison. 'Napoleon evinced
the greatest satisfaction at the result of this day's operations.' — Axison.

* As in Byron's day, there were thousands to whom the world was a blank.' —
EoGERS. 'In this edition Shakespeare's plays and poems are contained
in five volumes.' *'The baker and chemist's shops were destroyed'
\i.e. the baker's shop and the chemist' s^. 'The sage's and the poet's
theme.' [Correct, if we are here speaking of two men.] * ' St. John's the
Evangelists Lay.' [John.']

4. * ' How much more elder art thou than thy looks ! ' — Shakespeare.
[Old.] • And yet I show you a more excellent way.' — Bible. [Modern.]
' In greater or lesser degrees of complexity.' — Bueke. * Along with Shake-
speare's intense humour, and his equally intense, piercing insight into the
darkest, deepest depths of human nature, there is still a spirit of universal
kindness pervading his works.' — Hare. ' A prouder or a more conceited
writer never lived.' — G-. * * The most straitest sect.' — Bible. [Such double
comparatives and superlatives as most clennest (cleanest), more unhappyer,
and most unkindest are often found in O.E., and were not condemned in
Shakespeare's time. In M.E. these double forms are not allowed.] * The
loneliest place.' ' The most unmeasured abuse.' * He suffered the extremest
pain.' — Gr. [In these and many similar instances the error is not formal,
but logical. There are some adjectives that, with respect to their meanings,
must exclude comparison. Ex. : — square, extreme, perfect, boundless, abso-
lute, and infinite. But such words as chief est and perfectest are found in
good authors.] * He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser
light to rule the night.' — Bible. [The double comparative form lesser is
established by usage.] ' Of these two pictures the smaller is the better' — Gr.
[The comparative is correctly used in speaking of two things ; but the super-
lative is sometimes employed by Goldsmith. The first two of the speeches
here quoted he ascribes to ' Tony, ' but the third belongs to ' Mrs. Prim-
rose.'] ' Your own notes are the wildest of the two. . . . We'll see which
is the strongest, you or I. . . . My eldest can cut paper, and my youngest
has a very pretty manner.' — Goldsmith. [Here the speaker refers only to
two.'] * The veriest accident may determine what part shall be preserved.'

attributes: words. 287

— LoKD Jeffeet. [The form very often serves as an adjective, but veriest
is not often seen.] ' The honourahlest part of talk is to give the occasion.'
— Bacon. ' Hast thou looked on the potter's wheel — one of the venerahlest
objects ? . . . And fancy the most assiduous potter but without his wheel.'
— Caelyle. [A strict and modern rule asserts that dissylables must
generally be compared by means of the adverbs more and most ; but such
words as pleasanter, pleasantest, handsomest, and solidest are found in good
writers. In general the stricter rules laid down for the uses of er and est
are not well obeyed. Of these rules the two following may be noticed : —
1. The suffixes er and est may be appended to monosyllables, and to dis-
syllables ending in le or y preceded by a consonant. 2. In words of two
or more syllables the suffixes er and est should not be appended to any of
the following endings : — ain, al, ate, ed, ent, id, ing, ful, less, ous, and
some. This extensive rule is not founded on facts.] * • Of all the other
qualities of style clearness is the most important J [Omit the word other.']
' He is the ablest and 'most conscientious man on that side.' — Gr. * Homer
was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist.' — Pope. * * They have read
the three first books of the Anabasis' [Say, the first three.]

5. ' All Europe was looking anxiously towards the Low Countries.' —
Macaulat. * All . the candles were lighted.' — Fielding. ' Four happy
days bring in another moon.' — Shakespeare. * Now, another person woidd
be vexed at this.' — Sheridan. ' If any man will sue thee. ... So is
this great and wide sea, wherein are .... both small and great beasts.'
— B^le. 'Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose.' —
Junius. * A certain man planted a vineyard.' — Bible. * Each lonely scene
shall thee restore.' — Collins. ' Black rocks .... lift on either hand their
countless peaks.' — J. Montgomery. ' Have I not cares enow ? ' — ^Bybon.
[enow is an old form of enough, which, as a noun, may denote either the
singular or the plural, and serves sometimes as a and sometimes as x.
The notion that enow should serve as the plural of enough is an error.]
' Every tree is refreshed by the rain.' [In O.E. every might serve as sv,
but it serves now as av.] * He passed a, few days in luxurious repose.' —
Macaulay. [few = few, if any ; a few = some, not many.] * Of making
many books there is no end.' — Bihle. * Many a flower is born to blush
unseen.' — Gray. * The many favours you have received should be remem-
bered.*— Gr. * There are wore things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are
dreamt of in our philosophy.' — Shakespeare. [7nore is not historically
the comparative of many, but may have reference either to number or to
quantity. In etymology more is historically the comparative form of much.]
* Whence should we have so much bread ? . . . We have taken no bread. . . .
The barbarous people showed us no little kindness.' — Bible. * Other joys
are but toys.' — ^Walton. * I see no other way.' [The plural form others -
sv.] ' Several veSLSons might here be noticed.' — G. 'To every several man.'
— Shakespeare. [In O.K., as in some legal phrases, several may belong
to a noun in the singular.] * Sojne people talk as if what debts were not

' paid were lost ; but it's no such thing. . . . Such men are the men you
want, if they'll only carry the laws far enough to do some good.' — Mrs.
KiRKLAND. [In O.E., as in M.E., the uses of some are versatile ; as sv, the
word may in O.E. refer to one or to several persons, and in M.E. it may
refer to an indefinite part. As av, the word some may still belong to a
singular or to a plural noun. In the phrases ' some sixty yards,' ' som£
dozen Komans,* etc., the adverbial som£ = about.] * I hate the very sound

^of them.' — Buekb. * The entertainer provides what fare he pleases.' —

288 syntax: examples.

Fielding. * How faintly looks the sun on yonder climates ! ' — Shaftes-
BUEY. * Near yonder thorn. . . . Near yonder copse.' — Goldsmith. [In
M.E. yonder, as av, belongs mostly to poetry; but its use is common enough
in O.E.]

6. ' All men will speak good of themselves.^ — Gr. • You have enough
care.' * You have had cares enough' — Gr. ' This kind of treatment will
not please him.' — Gr. ' For those people we have no respect.' — G. * These
two princes were seated on either side of the throne.' \each'i historically
either is not incorrect.] 'Each man shall receive one sovereign.' * ' Every
man must maintain their own rights.' [Say, his?^ 'For all our pains we
had 7«o thanks.' ' There is wo music in that noise.' *It is indeed "such
writing as was never read.'" — Pope. ^ Such people should have their
reward.' [The following vague adjectives belong to nouns in the sin-
gular : — each, every, either, many a, much, neither ; the following to nouns
in the plural '.—few, many, several ( = the obsolete word divers) ; the fol-
lowing belong either to nouns singular or to nouns plural : — all, any,
enough ( = the old form enow), no ( = 7iot any), some, such. Where a noun
is in the singular, and is followed by as, introducing a clause of com-
parison, a often comes between such and the noun. 'For such a man
as you describe.'] * ' Incline thine ear. . . . Forget also thine own people.
. . . He shall be like a tree that bringeth forth his fruit in his season. '^
— Bible. * ' The water y-ran [ = ran] in his streames.' — Lydgate. [Old ;
the neuter possessive its is a modern form. In O.E., and in poetry, mine
and thine often come before vowels. It is understood that adjectives
having pronominal forms show, as far as their inflexions allow, the
gender and the number of the nouns to which they respectively belong.]
* * All the virtues of mmikind are to be counted on a few fingers, but his
follies are innumerable.' — Swift, [their.'] * * Both minister and magistrate
are compelled to choose between his duty and his reputation.' — ^JtrNiTTs.
[In both places omit his.] * * She fell a-laughing like one out of their
right mind.' — Maeia Edgewoeth. [Instead of their read one's.] * ' Every-
body should respect their neighbour's rights.' — G. [his.] ' This twenty
years have I been with thee.' — Bible. [Old, and cognate with many good
examples. The number of years is collectively taken.]

7. ' They're both of a [ = one] size.' — Goldsmith. ' These are cheap
at a shilling a hundred' [i.e. at one shilling for one hundred]. 'A poet-
aster may dream that he is a Milton.' — G. [A proper noun following an
or a is treated as a common noun.] ' Burleigh had a cool temper, a sound
judgment, and a constant eye to the main chance.' — Loed Macatjlay.
*No figures will render a cold ovan empty composition interesting,' — Blaie.
' There is little to be said in his favour.' * Still there is a little to be said
in his ■^vour.' — G. ' Show me the misprint you find in the solution of that
equation.' — G. ' Astronomy is a science.' ' Milton did not accept the modern
theory of astronomy.' 'Silver is lighter than gold.' 'Truth will prevail.' 'Tell
me the truth.' — G. * ' We saw the old and new bridge.' [the old and the
new.] * ' The Indians came out from the north and south side.' [the north
side and the south.] 'He wrote to the secretary and to the librarian.'
[Right, if he wrote to two persons.] ' The grass wants rain, but the wheat
look.** well.' — G. 'In this stream we have the perch, the roach, the chub,
the dace, and their common enemy the pike.' — G. ' Here we may chase
roach or dace, perch or pike, bleak or gudgeon.' — Iz. Walton.

*. . . . Silent, bare.
Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie
Open unto the fields, and to the sky.' — Wobdswoeth.

attributes: words. 289

* The figure, placed in statue-like repose, has great dignity, but the
face is full of kindness. The hair, the diadem, the simple drapery ; all
harmonize with the expression of that face — so gentle, yet so majestic- — Gr.
[The writer names the traits of a certain picture.] ' The crafty and the
easy, the wise and the foolish, the rich and the poor, shall all appear.' — Jeb.
Taylor. ' T^ Kak6v = beauty ; or, more strictly, the beautiful.^ — Gr. ' The
multitude.' 'The congregation.' 'The Danes.' 'The Whigs and the
Tories.' ' The Nortons did not live on good terms with the CliiFords.' — Gr.
' The polar bear belongs to the frigid zone.' * Man has the gift of speech.'
' The Thames.' ' France.' ' Tirol belongs to Austria.' ' Where are the
Keplers and the Newtons of your time ? ' — G. ' The more you learn, the less
you will think of your learning.' — Gr. [Here the form the is historically
pronominal, and the forms more and less are adjectives ; but the uses of
the more and the less are adverbial ; they relate to the verbs learn and think^
and serve as connectives denoting proportionate ratios of increase and de-
crease. The example (belonging strictly to § 47) is placed here, because it
shows clearly the diflference of etymology and syntax. The former treats
mostly oi forms ; the latter of relations or uses.']

8. * ' Ich y-leue [I believe] .... ine lyf eurelest-iwc?e [in the life ever-
last-i72^].' — Dan Michel, 1340. [In the old Kentish sermon here quoted,
many of the nouns end in Inge, while nearly all the words ending in inde
serve either as adjectives or as complements. In two places inde = the
suffix able ; but its general force = that of the later suffix ing.] ' Thei
drynken gode beverage and swete and noryssh-yw^e.' — Sie John Mande-
viixE. ' Anone lykinge wynd vulde J>e seyles [Anon a favouring wind
filled the sails].' — John of Tkevisa. ' A worthy weed [coat] well closing
[i.e. fitting well]. . . . Busyness, that cunning creature.' — Gtavin Douglas.
' And stars declining counsel us to rest.' — Earl of Surrey.

* The wrathful Winter, 'preaching on apace.
With blustering blasts had all y-bar'd the treen [trees].' — Sackville.

' Raging waves foaming .... wandering stars.' — Bible. ' Instead of
the rolling tide .... I saw nothing but the long, hollow valley of Bagdat,
with oxen, sheep, and camels graziny upon the sides of it.' — Addison.
' The ships .... were required for more pressing services. . . . More
gratifying testimonials of public admiration awaited Nelson wherever he
went. ... A soldier-like and becoming answer was returned. . . . Amid
heart-breaking griefs she found consolation.' — Southey. ' William war-
nede hym of couenant y-brokc [broken].'— John of Tretisa. ' They have
made them [i.e. for themselves] a molten calf. . . . Thou shalt not make
unto thee [i.e. for thyself] any graven image. . . . They .... stagger
like a drunken man. . . . Some [escaped] on broken pieces of the ship.' —
Bihle. ' He sung Darius .... fallen from his high estate.' — Dryden. ' The
swollen river. . . . K forgotten story. ... A tale forgotten long ago. . . .
A. forlorn hope. . . . The cloven foot. . . . A frozen lake. . . . These welU
bound volumes.' — G. ' Ich y-zej [1 saw] )>e holy martires [martyrs] mid
blisse and worJ>ssipe y-corouned [crowned].' — Dan Michel. ' He fond the
heremyte ded.' — Sir John Mandevillb. ' Praise him with stringed in-
struments and organs. ... Ye are like unto whited sepulchres.' — Bible.
'A gentle knight y-clad in mightie armes. . . . First lusty Spring all dight
[arrayed] in leaves of flowers.' — Spenser. ' Your long-expected letter is
come at last. . . . The parcel brought y^terday is welcome. . . . The ball so
wen hit and so well caught was bowleoby a left-handed man.' — G. [Here

290 syntax: examples.

hit and caught are examples of forms that do not often precede their nouns.]
* It is a stiff-necked people.' — Bible. ' They are good men, much hearted
like an hen.' — Skelton. ' He is a lion-hearted man.' — G-. ' A double-
minded man is unstable in all his ways.' — Bible. [These compound adjec-
tives do not indicate that the verbs 'hand,' 'neck,' 'heart,' and 'mind'
have any existence. There are, indeed, such verbs as * hand ' and ' mind,'
but in meaning they are not connected with ' left-handed ' and ' high-
minded.' See § 35.]

9. * Here, by the bonds of nature feebly held,

Minds combat minds, repelling and repelled.^ — Goldsmith.

[Here the relations of the words in Italic are twofold. They define the
subject, while they indicate a reason for the assertion. These two relations
are often noticeable when certain phrases serve instead of single words ;
but in many instances the adverbial relation is the more prominent.]

10. 'He was cautious; indeed, he was afraid of us.' — Gr. [cautioiis =»
c ; afraid = c. See § 46.]

ATTRIBUTES: PHRASES.

Ohservations. — 1. Attributive-Phrases liave forms called
severally verbal and prepositional ; but these forms do not
indicate tbeir nses or relations. Some phrases called ' prepo-
sitional/ as to their initial forms, serve as attributes ; others,
far more numerous, serve as adverbials. [^See §§7, 43.]

2. Objects follow verbal adjectives ending in ing, when
these denote transitive action. It should be remembered that
the essence of the verb itself is the power of telling or assert-
ing. Both verbal nouns and verbal adjectives can govern
directly. Of these verbal forms some are so far vague in their
meanings that they must be followed not only by objects, but
also by complements, or such adverbial expressions as can-
not be well omitted. The following sentence affords an ex-
ample : — ' We are lost in wonder at the idea of forming a vast
mountain [at EUora] into almost eternal mansions.^ Here the
object, if left without the complement, would suggest a false
notion.

3. Attributive-Phrases mostly relate to substantive words
immediately preceding, while Adverbial- Phrases are more
moveable. Care is required here and there in rightly placing
an Attributive-Phrase.

4. There are certain phrases in which the two relations,
the attributive and the adverbial, are more or less closely con-
nected. The phrase defines the subject, with respect to cir-
cumstances, and at the same time indicates a reason for the act
denoted by the verb. In the examples following, connective
phrases are distinguished by means of the sign ax.

5. A simple sentence may contain several phrases, and

ATTKIBUTES: PHRASES. 291

an attributive may often be well followed by an appended
adverbial. Thus one phrase may be so linked to a word in
another, as to be removed in a second degree from a word in
the chief sentence. Again, there may be a third, and even a
fourth, remove. But the employment of several remote phrases
in one simple sentence is not recommended.

Examples. — 1. ' I have nothing to say to it.' — Locke. ' A sight to dream
of, not to tell.' — Coleridge. ' Here lies the deed to be signed.' ' This is
the road to York.' ' That is the way to win the game.' — G. ' There is also
room reserved for the loftiness or gravity of general history.' — Deydbn.

* And, towering o'er these beauteous woods,
Gigantic rocks were ever dimly seen.' — Pbof. Wilson.

•In literature we judge from a taste never formed.' — Lobd Lttton.
' Moors, dark with heath, shut in little valleys.' — C. Beonte. * He resumed
most of the heads of the sermon.' — G. Burnet. [In many places of, soon
following of, has an awkward effect.] ' There has been an attempt to re-
construct society on a basis of material motives and calculations' — Lord
Beaconsfield. ' "We then went through miles of ruined tombs' — Dickens.

2. ' And he seith to the man hauyinge a drye honde [hand], " Ryse
in-to the mydil." ' — Wycliffe. ' He hears the bell perpetually telling the
sad stories [ap of the first degree] of death [ap of the second degree].' —
Jer. Taylor. ' The admiral .... sent him a note advising him to be
guided.' — Sotjthey. ' Fear to do base, unworthy things is valour,' — Ben
JoNSON. * You may behold a Scipio and a Ltelius gathering cockle-shells
on the shore.' — Dryden. 'The means of effecting every improvement ....
may be found within the constitution itself.' — Lord Macaulay. ' Strength
of will is the quality most needing cidtivation.' — G. H. Lewes. ' Caesar
then wrote three words, containing three sentences. . . . There are several
ways of telling that story' — G.

3. ' Several generations have now passed away since any wise and
patriotic Englishman has meditated resistance to the established govern-
ment.'— Lord Macaulay. * ' His broad, round face [the tiger's], when
turned towards us, striped with white, made the stoutest tremble.' — Basil
Hall. [Put striped with white, next face, to which the phrase belongs.]
* * Some great improvements have been lately made in books for children.
Every Christmas brings us a store of well-illustrated books for the amuse-
ment of children sent forth from Paternoster Row.' [The iphTS,se sent forth,
etc., should of course follow books.]

4. ' A grete multitude, heerynge the thingis [ax] that he dide, camen to
hym.' — Wycliffe. ' Learning is like a river, whose head, being far in
the land [ax], is, at first rising, little and easily viewed.' — Feltham. ' Sir
Roger, being a good churchman [ax], has beautified the inside of his
church.' — Aj)dison. ' This artifice succeeded against tht^se inexperienced
troops, who, heated by action [ax] and sanguine in their hopes [ax], precipi-
tately followed the Normans.' — Hume,

' And the weak soul, within itself unblest [ax],
Leans for all pleasure on another's breast.' — Goldsmith.

'His horse, urged for many miles to its utmost speed [ax], appeared to
rg^l from fatigue.' — Sir W. Scott. 'The Englit^hman, «^ra/wiw^ /or ever
to hold his loved India [ax], will plant a firm foot on the bankjs of the

u 2

292 syntax: examples.

Nile.' — KiNGLAKE. ' The labourer, having done a fair day's work [ax],
went home.' [There are phrases, apparently connective, that are simply or
mainly adverbial. The following are examples.] ' God grant that, having
a competency [xp], we may be content.' — Iz. Walton.

* They please, are pleased ; they give to get esteem,
Till, seeming blest [xp], they grow to what they seem.' — Goldsmith.

' The herald then, seeing each champion in his place [xp], uplifted his
voice.' — Sir W. Scott. [The phrase relates to the verb. Generally
speaking, a denotes a permanent relation, and x one that is occasional or
transitory ; but the clearest mark of the adverbial is this : it relates mostly
to action, transition, and passion.]

5. ' Cyrus drove back the soldiers stationed [a to soldiers'] before the
king [xp to stationed, and subordinate in the second degree].' ' Decius,
tired [a] of writing books [xp to tired ; sub., 2nd degree], adapted [a to
books ; 3rd degree] to the learned only [xp to adapted ; sub,, 4th degree],
chose a popular question.' — Morell. [In the following examples, attri-
butes, taken together with their appended adverbials, are set in Italic,
and degrees of subordination are denoted by means of figures.] 'Now
came forth Walton's disciple, ready [a] to put into exercise [2] the skill
accruing from habits [3] of perseverance [4].' ' This enterprise was well
adapted [c] to bring into vigorous exercise [2] habits of endurance and per-
severance [3], acquired in the course [4] of long and wearisome journeys [5]
through many lonely regions [6].' It is of course understood that this sen-
tence is not selected as a model to be imitated. On the contrary, it is
intended to show that a simple sentence may be made cumbrous by string-
ing together too many phrases. Attributive-phrases, thus extensively
employed, are especially objectionable. It will be shown, in another place,
that adverbials may be more freely employed.]

ATTRIBUTES: CLAUSES.

Observations. — 1. Attributive-Clauses are expanded ad-
jectives. Their connective forms are relative pronouns and
adverbs. In places where, if inserted, they would be governed
forms, having definite and restrictive uses, relative pronouns
are often omitted, especially in conversation. More strictly
described, clauses serving generally as adjectives have two
uses — one definitive, the other simply connective. In old litera-
ture, these two uses are to a great extent represented by the
two forms that Sbud which', but since the seventeenth century
the distinction has been more or less neglected, though it is
not forgotten. When strictly employed, that should restrict
or define the meaning of the antecedent ; which (or who)
should introduce a new assertion made respecting the ante-
cedent.

2. That, originally demonstrative, and identical vrith the,
is weakened in force when used as a relative pronoun, but has
not lost its first characteristic — pointing out. It is our oldest

attributes: clauses. 293

relative pronoun. In First English se (declined) and j^e (not
declined) were both demonstrative forms, but they served also
as definitive relatives. [See § 9.] In the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries that was employed as a substitute for j)e, and fol-
lowed antecedents of all genders and of both numbers. The
definitive use of that was generally established in the four-
teenth century. In Chaucer that . . . . he = who, that ....
his = whose, and that .... him — whom. In the fifteenth
century Bishop Fisher's sermons show clear examples of that
definitive, contrasted with which connective. Their uses were
partly confused in the sixteenth century; but that definitive was
often and clearly employed in verse by Spenser, Daniel, Dray-
ton, and Shakespeare, and in prose by Bacon. In the seven-
teenth century the restricting relative that is often employed by
Milton, as in the * Morning Prayer ' Q Paradise Lost,' book v.)
The sequences which and who, following respectively that,
him, they, and those, are used by Barrow, as by other good
authors of his time, and they mostly avoid the collision that
that, afterwards denounced by Addison. In the ' Sermon on
the Mount ' (Matth. v.-vii.) that definitive is found in about
fifteen places, but in five places which is equally definitive.
HoBBES often uses that with a restrictive force. In the earlier
part of the eighteenth century Addison, often using well a
definitive that, avoided such close repetitions of the word as were
too freely employed. That mostly follows the words all, any,
everything, none, nothing, the first, the last, and the sa,me ; also
nouns defined by superlative adjectives, and superlatives em-
ployed as substantives. That, made use of as equivalent to
what, and this latter word, used as equivalent to a definitive
that, are both obsolete.

3. Which and who are in many places merely connective,
and serve to introduce additional assertions relating to ante-
cedents already defined. But in modern literature these vague
connectives are often employed to introduce clauses where the
writer's intended meaning is definitive. The old form the which
is often definitive, but which serves cotemporaneously as a sub-
stitute in Shakespeare and in later writers. In the seven-
teenth century which definitive often follows they and that.
Addison writes which after the, this, and those, where the use
is definitive. In the nineteenth century which and who are
very freely employed, often rightly by a sheer accident, but
often falsely, instead of that. The frequent result is that the
intended uses of clauses are left vague, and their meanings
are indicated by the lame aid^of punctuation. That^ more

294 syntax: examples.

closely connective than which, takes no comma before it, but
which, introdncing a clause that might be omitted, is often
preceded by a comma. Two grammarians — Bain and Abbott
— have especially treated of the distinct uses here noticed.

4. (a) Where, without loss of force, and it, or and he, might
serve as a substitute for a connective pronoun, that is not re-
quired. (&) Where the antecedent is already well defined, that
is not required, (c) Where which or tvho might leave the
meaning doubtful, or would be weak and wanting due em-
phasis, write that.

5. The Attributive- Clause is an expanded adjective.
Simple adjectives precede their nouns, but expanded adjec-
tives follow. In other words, the clause should relate to the
tvord immediately or nearly preceding the connective. The
relations of such words as that, which, who, where, and when
are shown by their places. Apart from its position, who might
relate to any person, or to any persons, and that might relate
to any noun, without regard to distinctions of gender and
number. Accordingly, where clauses serving as adjectives
are wrongly placed, their meanings may indeed be guessed,
but false and sometimes ludicrous meanings may for a moment
be suggested. Our laws of usage afibrd us a considerable
extent of freedom in placing adverbials having the expanded
forms of phrases and clauses. It is not understood that the
adverbial must always or chiefly relate to the nearest pre-
ceding word. But our rules for placing Attributive- Clauses
are comparatively strict. It cannot be said, however, that
the connective ivhich always follows immediately the word
to which the clause relates. This is indeed the rule, but
some clear exceptions are found in the writings of good
authors, among whom Addison may be specially named.

Examples. — 1. 'The d\f^cvi\.t\es with which he was surrounded seemed
to call forth new talents.' [ac inserted between s and v in p.] ' As the
barren country through ichich they passed afforded hardly any provisions,
they -were reduced to feed on berries.' — Eobertsokt. [ac inserted between
s and V in xc] ' My soul is still a stranger in the land wherein I dwell.'
[The connective is an adverb.] ' Know you the land where citron-trees
are blooming?' [The connective is an adverb.] *A man that seeketh pre-
cise truth had need to remember what every name [thaf] he useth stands
for.' — HoBBES. [The writer omits that where it would be the object.]
■'He shows well, and says well, and himself is the worst thing [that] he
hath.' — Bp. Hall. [As before, the writer omits that.^

' That independence a Britons prize too high
Keeps man from man, and breaks the social tie.' — GtOLDSMITH.

[Here which is understood as preceding • Britons.'] * Ye winds ....

attributes: clauses. 295

convey some report of a land [thaf] I must visit no more.' — Cowpbr.
'We can estimate the rank [that] they should severally hold,' — Lobd Lytton.
2. ' Feeder ure \>vi ];>e eart on heofonum. . . . pin feeder J>e ges^h'5
[sees] on diglum [in secret] hyt agylt [will repay it] i>e.'— Bible. ' Hd,
ne eart J)^ se men >e on minre scole w^re afed ? ' [' What ! art thou
not the man that wast nurtured in my school ? '] 'On anre dune J>e is
gehaten Synay.' — ^lfbic. ' Uppon ane dune >at is J>e mont of Synai.' —
Old English Homilies, 'pe isetnesses [ordinances] )jet beon makede.'
[1258.] 'Heiemen [high men] of >is lond, >at of hor [their] blod come,
holde]> alle ]>ulke [that same] speche >at hii [they] of hom [from them,
i.e. the Normans] nome [took].' — Eobebt of Glottcester. 'Vaderoure,
)>et art ine heuenes.' — Dan Michel. ' Machomete loved well a gode here-
myte, that duelled in the desertes.' — Sir John Mandevillb. ' Symont
suede [followed] hym, and thei that weren with hym.' — Wycliffe. ' par
ys also a pond \>at turnej> tre [wood] in-toyre [iron].' — John of Trbvisa.
' Pacienee, that is another remedie agains ire, is a vertu that . ... is not
wroth for noon harm that is doon to him.' — The Persones Tale. ' It is
cowardise that kepith the Frenchmen from rysing.' — Sir John Fortescue.
* The fortune that prevails must be the right.' — Daniel.

' The storms of sad confusion that may grow
Up in the present, for the coming times.
Appal not him that hath no side at all
But for himself. . . .' — Daniel.

' The Dryads that were wont about thy lawns to rove ....
They, with the oaks that lived, now with the oaks are dead.' —

Drayton.

' I could, in this town, buy the best pig or goose that I could lay my hand
on for fourpence.' [1581.]

' You know that you are Brutus that speak this.'
' I that denied thee gold will give my hearL'
' The quality of mercy is not strained —

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes.'
* You take my house, when you do take the prop

2%a^ doth sustain my house. . . .' — Shakespeare.

' He that questioneth much shall learn much. . . . There be some
that think their wits have been asleep, except they dart out somewhat that
is piquant.' — Lord Bacon. * He shall be like a tree .... that bringeth
forth his fruit in his season. . . . Who shall dwell in thy holy hill ? He
that walketh uprightly. . . . Broad is the way that leadeth to destruction.
... On the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. [ That as a
relative does not admit of a preposition before it.] .... Which, now, of these
three .... was neighbour unto him that fell among the thieves ? ' — Bible.
' There is a passion that hath no name ; but the sign of it is that distortion
of the countenance which we call laughter, which is always joy.' — Hobbes.
' You shall hardly meet with a man that complains not of some want.
... I have heard of a man that was angry with himself because he was
no taller. ... He that loses his conscience has nothing left that is worth
keeping.' — Iz. Walton.

' Leaving the old, both worlds at once they view
That stand upon the threshold of the new.' — Waller.

' Herostratus lives, that burned fhe Temple of Diana ; he is almost lost

296 syntax: examples.

that built it.' — Sir T. Browke. ' All those hundreds of millions that were
slain in all the Koman wars shall appear.' — Jer. Taylor. ' This innocent
deceiver of the world (as Horace calls him) I take to have been more
happy in his part than the greatest actors that fill the stage with show and
noise ; nay, even than Augustus himself, who asked, with his last breath,
whether he had not played his farce very well.' — Cowley. ' He is the last
man that finds himself to be found out.' — Tillotson. ' All that is to be
found in books is not built upon true foundations.' — Locke. 'He that
is comely when old and decrepit, surely was very beautiful when he was
young.' — South. ' He had a copy brought him of everything that passed
in his council.' — Bp. Burnet. * The valley that thou seest is the vale of
misery. . . . "What thou seest is that portion of eternity which is called
Time. . . . Does life appear miserable, that gives thee opportunities of
earning such a reward? Is death to be feared, that will convey thee
to so happy an existence ? ' — Addison. * That that that gentleman has
advanced is not that that he should have proved.' — Spectator, 80. [In-
tentionally made ludicrous.]

'How small, of all that human hearts endure
That part which laws of kings can cause or cure ! ' — Johnson.
* Bright-eyed Fancy, hovering o'er.
Scatters from her pictured urn
Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. — Gray.

' Such already was the g^oryof the British navy, that it scarcely seemed
to receive any addition from the most signal victory that was ever achieved
upon the seas.' — Southey. ' The great charm of English scenery is the
moral feeling that seems to pervade it.' — W. Irving. * The knowledge
that will hold good in working — cleave thou to that.' — Carlyle. ' It was
not reason that besieged Troy ; it was not reason that sent forth the Saracen
to conquer the world ; that inspired the Crusades ; that instituted the monastic
orders ; it was not reason that produced the Jesuits ; above all, it was not
reason that created the French Eevolution.' — Lord Beaconsfield. ' He is
one of the best and wisest men that have ever lived.' — Bain. ' There are
a good many Eadical members in the House who cannot forgive the Prime
Minister for being a Christian.' ' Twenty years hence, who is to say
whether the meaning is " and they, i.e. all the Eadical members in the
House," or " there are a good many Eadical members of the House that
cannot," etc' — E. A. Abbott. ' There is not an ox, or a cow, or a swine
.... that is not set down in the writ \i.e. 'Domesday'].' — Freeman.

3. * After-ward speke we of scornyng, whiche is a wikked thing. . . .
I will speke of covey tise, of whiche synne saith seint Poule,' etc. — The
Persones Tale. ' The assent of them who are to be governed seemeth neces-
sary.'— Hooker. ' The mountains which divide Thessaly from Greece.' —
Sir "W". Ealeigh. ' As for jest, there be certain things which ought to be
privileged ft-om it.' — Lord Bacon.

' The intent and purpose of the law

Hath full relation to the penalty

Which here appeareth due upon the bond.' — Shakespeaee.
' If it be proved against an alien,

That by direct or indirect attempts

He seek the life of any citizen,

The party 'gainst the vjhich he doth contrive

Shall seize one half his goods.' — Shakespeare.

attributes: clauses. 297

* Narrow is the way which leadeth unto life.' — Bible. ' The Egyptian
mummies, which Cambyses or time hath spared, avarice now consumeth.' —
SiE T. Browne. * They were forced to let the flames burn on, which
[= a7id this] thej did for near two- miles in length.' — ^Evrlyn. 'What
can be more just, pleasant, or beneficial to us than are those duties of piety
which religion enjoins?' — Bareow. ' I observed some w^ ran to and fro
upon the bridge. . . . He then resumed his discourse, telling me that the
widow Truby .... distributed hdr medicine gratis among all sorts of
people ; to which [ = and to this] the knight added,' etc. — Addison. ' " I
have gotten four shillings," said he, "which [= and this] is a great sum." '
— De Fob. ' Jones answered, " That is the ghost." To which [ = And
to this] Partridge replied,' etc. — Fielding. ' The road which led to honour
was open to your view.' — Junius. ' The client resembles that emperor who
is said to have been suffocated with the bed-clothes, which were only de-
signed to keep him warm.' — Goldsmith. * There are ties which, though
light as air, are as strong as links of iron.' — Burke. * Is not this the very
nonsense which is talked/ etc. — Sydney Smith. ' The advice and medicine
which the poorest labourer can now obtain is far superior to what Henry
VIII. could have commanded.' — Lord Macaulay. 'The same poet who
conceived the character of Achilles has also drawn that of Hector.' — T.
Arnold. * ' Who steals my purse steals trash.' — Shakespeare. [Here
Who = He who.] ' Coveitise is for to coveyte sucke thinges as thou hast not.'
— The Persones Tale. [In many places sicch . . . . as = that or those ....
which.] ' Such reading as was never read.' — Pope.

• There's not a flower
But shows some touch, in freckle, streak, or stain,
Of his imrivalled pencil.' — Cowper.

[Here but = that .... not.] * * A vagrant is a man what wanders
about.' [?Aaif.] * ' He prays you will forget the error, and which was not
wilful.' [Omit and.] ' He thanked the friend who gave the aid which was
so welcome at that time.' [Omit which was. Close repetitions of relatives
should be avoided.]

4. {a) ' Here comes a native, who [ = and he] may be able to tell us
the name of this river.' — Gr. {a) ' These words were received with a shout
of joy, which was heard in the street below.' — Lord Macaulay. (b) ' If
ye, then, be not able to do that thing which is least, why take ye thought
for the rest ? ' — Bible, (b) ' The best kind of glory is that which is re-
flected from honesty.' — Cowley, (b) 'Those great councils which had
once curbed the regal power had sunk into oblivion.' — Lord Macaulay.
(c) ' I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything that is not prac-
tical.'— E. A. Abbott, (c) 'Mr. Tegg heard Alderman Cadell give the
then famous toast, " The Booksellers' four B's — Burns, Blair, Buchan, and
Blackstone," which indicated the books that were sold in the greatest
numbers.' — Athenceum. (c) ' It seems strange there should be so few who
have really made themselves acquainted with the origin, the history, and
the gradual development into its present form of that mother tongue which
is already spoken over half the world, and which embodies many of the
noblest thoughts that have ever issued from the brain of man. ... It is the
plain Saxon phrase that, whether in speech or in writing, goes straightest
and strongest to men's heads and hearts.' — Lord Derby.

6. ' There is a passion that hath no name ; but the sign of it is that
Mstortion of the countenance which y^ call laughter.' — Hobbes. * ' There

298 syntax: examples.

wanted not some who believed him to be prond and imperious, from which
no mortal man was ever more free.' — Clarendon. [As a pronoun, which
should relate to 'pride; not to proud. The writer knew nothing at all
about pronouns, and the consequence was, he was most unhappily fond of
them.] ' What thou seest is that portion of eternity which is called time.
. . . There was no passage except through the gates of death, that I saw
opening every moment. . . . There were indeed some persoms (but their
number was very small) that continued a kind of hobbling march. . . .
He was conducted to that figure which represents that martyr to good
housewifery who died by the prick of a needle.' — Addison. * ' He had been
eight years [engaged] upon a project for extracting sunbeams out of cucum-
bers which were to be put into phials hermetically sealed, and let out to
warm the air in raw, inclement summers.' — Swift. [The ' cucumbers '
were not ' to be put into phials.'] * ' Some men are too ignorant to be
humble, without which there can be no docility, no progress.' — Berkeley.
[As a pronoun, which should relate to humility, not to humhle.l ' All this
upper story has for many years had no other inhabitants than certain rats
whose very age renders them worthy of this venerable mansion. ... It
is furnished with historical tapestry whose marginal fringes do confess the
moisture of the air.' — Pope. [In E.I. hwa is interrogative and relates to
persons, while hwaet relates to things ; but the genitive case is liwsBS,
relating to both persons and things. The modern form whose represents
hwses, and belongs historically as much to the neuter as to the masculine.
There is no ground for the notion, that whose must always relate to per-
sonal names. Our modern substitutes for whose are often awkward and
are quite useless.] *' Homer is remarkably precise, which renders him
lively and agreeable.' — Blair. [Again which relates to no substantive
word.] * ' There appears an assumption of superiority in the biographer
over the subjects of his labours, which diminishes the idea of their talents.'
— RoscoE, [Here which relates to a remote noun. Four phrases come in
between the antecedent and the relative.] * ' Several of the Gardes were
stationed at the windows of the houses who kept up a heavy fire.' — Sir A.
Alison. ['At the windows,' ez'c., were stationed 'several of the Gardes^
who, etc.] * ' What is to be thought of the poor shepherd-girl from the
hills and forests of Lorraine that .... rose suddenly out of the quiet ....
rooted in deep pastoral solitudes ? ' — De Quincet. * ' It is this all-per-
vading preserice of light, and this suffusion of rich colour, through the
deepest shadows, which make the very life and soul of Venice.' — Mrs. •
Jameson. [As far as possible, the relation of which should be made ob-
vious. Instances of extreme carelessness are numerous. In selecting a few
specimens, it would be useless td append exact references to errors or defects
that may be found almost everywhere.] * ' My son, they tell me, spends
too much time in playing the flute, which I am sorry to hear.' [Here which
intentionally = and that report?^ * ' Henry has, at last, devoted his atten-
tion to the study of common law which affords me such great satisfaction.'
[Here which intentionally relates to the fact stated in the sentence pre-
ceding.] * ' He read slowly and in a monotone that long chapter which
made us all so sleepy.' [Again which seems intended to relate to the
whole sentence.] *'I bought a Swiss atlas at that shop which is full
of misplaced names of mountains.' [Here at that shop might conveniently
follow bought, or might with emphasis begin the sentence.] * ' This Latin
period is compound, and is complex in each of its two main divisions,
which requires considerable care in making an English translation.' [A
full stop should follow divisions. The next sentence may begin with

TERES. 299

words like these: — 'It will therefore require,' etc.] *'When a sailing
vessel is leaving our horizon, the last part seen by a distant observer is the
top-gallant that shows us the earth is round.' [The sequence exemplified
here is especially out of place in the treatment of a scientific topic. Facts
should first of all be distinctly stated and set apart from all inferences. A
full stop should follow top-gallant. The next sentence should be some-
thing like the following : — ' This is one of several observations made use of
to show that the earth is a spheroid.'

46. VERBS.

Observations. — 1. Whatever its form may be, the verb —
sometimes called ' the finite ' or ' limited ' verb — is a word
that, considered as regards its force, unites two elements —
one attributive, the other connective — so that the whole word
called ' the limited verb ' connects something with, or tells
something of, the subject. The verb that ascribes to a subject
nothing more than being or existence is called abstract ; the
verb that ascribes to a subject any distinct state of being, or
any distinct act or quality, is called concrete. There are, of
course, several shades or gradations in the line thus drawn
between two classes of verbs. Strictly speaking, there is
only one verb. In language, as in nature —

' The One remains ; the many change and pass.'

The general idea of that which was, and is, and is to come,
does not belong to any particular theory called ' philosophy,'
but is expressed or understood inevitably, in all tongues, and
whenever any sentence connects an attribute with the general
assertion of existence. There is only one abstract or general
verb — to be. Of this one verb all the concrete or predicative
verbs are, in fact, so many variations, made by connecting
various attributive elements with the abstract or general verb,
either indicated by an inflexion, or understood as everywhere
present when we assert anything. Thus all concrete verbs
are to the one general verb as so many modulated echoes of
one voice. But in grammar it is convenient to treat of
concrete verbs as of so many distinct verbs. They are the
words that distinctly assert. Variations of order show, here
and there, that a verb is employed, not to assert a fact, but
to express a wish, to give a command, or to ask a question.
These modified uses are not immediately noticed here. The
chief use of the verb is first of all to be considered, and must
be viewed in connection with the synthetic forms employed in
making definite assertions. In Latin these forms are com-
paratively numerous ; in mod«m English they are remarkably

300 syntax: examples.

few. [See §§ 20, 21.] When the form of a verb is synthetic,
as in the Latin word regutnus (we rule), there are seen two
elements so connected as to make one word. And, to a
slight extent, the same kind of synthesis is observed in
English, as in the sentences * He comes ' and ' He idles. ^ In
each of these instances the personal suffix s, when connected
with a stem, makes a predicative verb that tells something of
the subject. The stem idle supplies the attributive element
in the verb, and s makes the assertion. But assertions clearly
expressed are found in many English sentences where no
suffix is seen having the use of the s in idles. Our verbs
have mostly lost their personal suffixes or inflexions. There
are retained in our analytic tongue only a few traces of the
several suffixes that in cognate languages limit or define
meanings in the asserting words called verbs. In the three
languages chiefly referred to — Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin —
the personal suffixes of verbs have forms more or less like
those shown in the appended table. The meanings here
given are accepted as, at least, highly probable : —

SiNGULAB. PlUEAL.

Forins. Meanings. Forms. Meanings.

thou

mas "we

tas ye

nti j they

In Latin es is the root of the present in the abstract verb
{esse), and suffixes essentially like those noticed here are
seen in the forms su-m (I am), es (thou art), es-t (he is),
s-u-mus (we are), es-tis (ye are), s-u-nt (they are). The suf-
fixes, as here understood, connect with the stem a force of
assertion, and define, with regard to both number and person,
the subjects of the six assertions. Historically speaking, these
suffixes are described as forms originally belonging to pro-
nouns. But in the act of connecting any one of the suffixes
with the stem es, it is implied that existence (denoted by the
stem) belongs to the subject denoted by the suffix. The
meaning of the stem es is abstract, and consequently the
assertion made by means of any one of these suffixes must be
abstract. In other words, the verb so formed is not predi-
cative. But there are numerous stems denoting (without
assertion) special acts, such as are indicated by the stems
due, reg, and scrlh, seen in the verbs duc-o (I lead), reg-o (I
rule), and scrib-o (I write). These are concrete verbs of which
the stems, when connected with inflexional suffixes, make

VERBS. 301

definite assertions in tlie examples already given, as also in
regi-t (he rule-s), regi-mus (we rule), and regu-nt (they rule).
In one of these latter instances the English verb (so far like
the Latin) has a limiting or definitive form (rule-s) — a form
showing both the number and the person of the subject. But
this is an exceptional instance of likeness ; the two languages
difier widely from each other in their modes of constructing
finite verbs, or forms of clear assertion. In Latin assertions
are, as we have seen, made definite by means of suffixes, and
are so complete that the form called the verb is, in fact, the
compendious form of a whole sentence. In English, on the
other hand, such forms as ebh, land, and water (often used
as nouns), or such as idle, open, and warm (often used as ad-
jectives), may, without any alteration or addition, serve well
as verbs. Similar forms, aided by personal suffixes, served
also as verbs in the English speech of the oldest time. Those
suffixes are now mostly lost, and the result is this : many
forms serving as nouns serve also as verbs. The meanings or
uses of these forms must, therefore, be shown by means of their
context, as in the following sentences : — ' We see land,'' ' We
land ; ' ' There is an open door,' 'We open the door.' Modern
English is, in several respects, a tongue more like the Chinese
than like the Latin written by Sallust, by Livy, and by Tacitus.
Our limited and definite forms of assertion are mostly defined
by their context. They should not be confused with words
called ' verbal,' with regard to their forms, though serving as
nouns or as adjectives. Predicates include often such words
as the following : — 'loving,' 'beloved,' 'writing,' and 'written.'
These forms include the stems of verbs, and may therefore be
called verbal ; but they are not verbs, or words that assert.
Such forms as 'heard,' 'held,' 'found,' and 'loved' serve
often as verbs ; but they may also serve as adjectives follow-
ing nouns, or as complements following the abstract verb to
he. Every verbal form ending in ing belongs practically to
one of the classes, nouns and adjectives. Verbal nouns in
ing denoting transitive actions, and consequently followed by
objects, are sometimes called ' Gerunds.' \^See § 48.] Verbal
adjectives, named with respect to their forms, are often called
' Participles.'

2. The classification of verbs given already (in § 11) is
not strictly regarded in practice. English writers have
claimed great freedom in their treatment of the verbs
severally called 'intransitive' and 'transitive,' and in their
jises of verbal forms having tj^e meanings called ' intransitive,'

302 syntax: examples.

Hransitive,' and * passive.' No strict rule can be maintained
in opposition to liberty warranted by general usage ; but it
is often convenient to observe the different uses of similar
forms. The verbs lie and rise (intransitive), contrasted with
lay and raise (transitive), may serve as examples. The imper-
sonal verb with a dative me ( = to me) occurs often in old
literature. A dative me (= for me) following personal verbs
is sometimes used by Shakespeare, and is found in the Bible.
This construction is unusual in modern literature, and has
been sometimes treated as expletive, but is not obsolete in
conversation. Like him^ as employed in some passages, me
in the construction referred to is, in form and in meaning, a
dative case. Here and there the object it follows a verb, so
as to indicate some vague transitive meaning. In old litera-
ture, and here and there in modern verse, verbs used with
reflex meanings are followed by personal pronouns having
simple forms hke him and thee ; but in modern literature the
compounds himself, yourselves, etc., are substituted. The
words each other and one another serve as the objects of verbs
intended to denote reciprocal actions. The meanings of certain
verbs are often modified by particles immediately following,
especially by the particles at, of, off, out, to, and up. Verbs having
their meanings thus modified have sometimes been called ' pre-
position-verbs ; ' but it is clear that the use of a particle modi-
fying the force of a verb must be adverbial. In parsing, the
verb and its particle may be taken together. Particles serve
often to modify the meanings of perfect participles. Lastly,
it may be noticed here, that good authors here and there in-
troduce unusual forms as well as uncommon uses of verbs,
such as ' glooms,^ employed by Goldsmith, and ' blooms ' (tran-
sitive), employed by Keats.

Examples. — 1. E.I,: Ic bind-e, >u bind-est, he bind-e^, we bind-a-S,
ge bind-a6, hi bind-a'S ; bind [Imperative singular], bind-a^ [Imperative
plural]. E.II. : Ic bind-e, \>u bind-est, he bind-eth, we bind-eth [South
Dialect], we bind-en [Midland], we bind-es [North] ; bind [Imperative
singular], bind-eth [Imperative plural]. ' Fal [mountayns] upon us now
and hyde us.' [These were Imperative forms plural in the North Dialect.]
M.E. : I bind, thou bind-est [mostly obsolete], he bind-eth [mostly obso-
lete], he bind-s, we bind, you bind, they bind ; bind [Imperative singular
or plural]. Past. — E.I. : Ic band, we bund-on. E.II. : Ic bond, we bond-
en. M.E. : I bound, we bound. [See § 20.]

2. ' The table moves.' ' The table is moved.' ' Here is a house to be
sold' ' Here is a house to let' ' We were next shown Edward the Confes-
sor's tomb.' — AuBisoK. ' My father was possessed of a small living.' —
GrOLDSMiTH. * There is more to be said.' * There is something more to tell.'
' Surely you dream.' * We have dreamed a dream' * She [a ship] walks

verbs: concords. 303

the -waters.' — Wilsok. • This ivory feels smooth.' ' He stole the money.'
' They stole away.' ' There is much to admire in this picture.' ' Methinks
[ = To me it seems] I hear a voice.' * Sche was vanyssht riht as hir liste [as
was pleasing to her].' — Gower. ' It me for thynketh [= seems evil to me].'
— Langland. ' I say, knock me at this gate, and rap m£ well [ = knock
for me]' — Shakespeake. 'Fetch me the books.' 'Solomon hiiilt kim[^
for him] an house. ... I builded me houses, I planted me vineyards.' —
Bible. • Foot it featly here and there.' — Shakespeare. ' Come, and trip it
as we go.' — Milton. ' Haste thee, nymph ! ' — Milton. ' They sate them
down.' — SouTHEY. ' They defended themselves.' — Scott. 'Without laws
the people would destroy one another.' ' These two friends helped each
other.' ' The parson and the stranger shook one another lovingly by the
hand.' — Fielding. ' The treasure was carriecZ home.' 'Their scheme was
-well carried out.' ' His remarks were well pointed.' * His error was
pointed out.' ' He was pointed at and laughed at.' ' I have known a piece,
with not one jest in it, shrugged into popularity.' — Goldsmith.

' No more thy glassy brook reflects the day,
But, choked with sedges, works its weedy way.' — Goldsmith.

' There the black gibbet glooms' ' What sorro-ws gloomed that parting
day ! ' — Goldsmith. ' I readily closed with the offer.' ' The poor exiles
.... fond^.y looked their last.' 'If the cakes ate short, and crisp, they
were made by Olivia.' ' I therefore made directly homewards.' — Gold-
smith. ' It is that within us which ma^^s /or righteousness.' — M. Arnold.
' No stationary steeds cough their own knell.' — Cq-wpeb. ' While barred
clouds bloom the soft-dying day.' — EIeats. ' Do as you would be done by.'
' I do not enter into these metaphysical distinctions.' — Burke. ' Not to
know me argues yourselves unknown.' — Milton. [argues here = shows,
or proves.] ' This young beginners should be entered in and she-wn the
use of.' — Locke. ' I was not swaddled, and rocked, and dandled into a
legislator.' — Burke. * ' I have walked my clothes dry.' — Lord Lytton.
[An extreme example of brevity, and a bold license. The -writer means
to say, 'I have walked until my clothes have become dry.']

CONCORDS.

Observations. — 1. The Latin verb agrees -with tlie subject
in number and person. Ex. : reg-o (I rule), regi-mus (we
rule), regi-tis (you rule), regu-nt (they rule), rex-i (I ruled),
rex-i-t (he ruled), rex-i-mus (we ruled), rex-i-stis (you ruled),
rex-e-mnt (they ruled). Latin examples are given, because
the quoted rule belongs truly to Latin grammar. In the
word rex-i-mus the personal ending mus is the part that ex-
presses a concord. The Latin words given here have several
changes. The English words show only one change — the
addition of d, an ending denoting a past time, but indicating
neither number nor person. The form * rule-d * may follow
anyone of the pronouns 'I,' 'he,' 'we,' 'you,' and 'they.'
Here, therefore, the English verb does not express a distinct
Concord with any subject. She Latin rule of concord relates

304 syntax: examples.

to the personal inflexions by which crnde verbal forms
are made ' finite ' or limited. ' The copnla, or bond, when
distinct [^.e. when set apart, as in Vir est bonus], is generally
some finite part of the verb of being, sum. Bnt in general
the predicate and the copula are blended together in one finite,
predicative verb. Ex. : Ego disc-o (I learn, or am learning) ;
Homines spira-nt (Men breathe, or are breathing). Here,
strictly speaking, the crude forms (disc, spira) are the pre-
dicates, and the endings (o, nt) are the copulas.' — Dr. Ken-
nedy. It is thus seen that, in Latin, the concords of the
verb are denoted by personal endings distinctly connecting
assertions with the subjects ' I,' ' thou,' 'he,' ' we,' 'you,' and
' they.' But, setting aside the forms mostly obsolete (writ-es^,
wvit-eth, wrot-est), our predicative verb has only three conver-
sational forms that assert — write, writes, wrote. Of these only
one (writes) is strictly limited as to both number and person.
In writes the form indicates concord with a single subject of
the third person. But no concord is thus indicated in any
one of the following sentences: — ' I write,' ' he wrote,' 'we
wrote,' ' they wrote.' The form wrote may follow any personal
pronoun, excepting thou. It is clear, then, that the rule,
strictly understood, belongs to Latin and other highly in-
flexional tongues. In English our main facts of concord are
these : — (1) The verb does not contradict the number or the
person of the subject. (2) Where there is a form showing
the distinct concord required, that form is employed, as in ' he
writes.^ (3) A ' plural verb ' may have a form used in
speaking of one ; a ' verb in the singular ' may have a form
used in speaking of many. As regards both number and
person, the English verb is mostly vague, and may have any
one of several relations. Its intended relation to a certain
subject is usually shown, not by its form, but by its position
in a sentence. In forms distinctly denoting personal concords,
English verbs of the oldest known time were defective,
especially in the plural. In E.I. the three persons plural of
the Present all ended alike in aS, for which Old English sub-
stituted eth in the Southern Dialect, and en in the Midland,
while es (or is or ys) in the Northern was the regular ending
of the second and third persons. For the three persons plural
of the Past the earliest ending was on (or un), which followed
d in weak verbs, and made the final syllable don (or dun). In
the Southern as in the Midland Dialect of E.II. e took the
place of 0 (or u). The final n was often dropped, or the two
letters en were omitted ; so that don was changed to den, then

verbs: concords. 305

to de, and lastly to d. Meanwhile the Northern Dialect made
the three persons, singular and plural, of weak verbs end alike
in it (or ed) for the Past. It has been observed that, in the
same dialect, the second and third persons in the singular
and in the plural of the Present ended usually in es (or is or
ys). In Old English, therefore, the plural endings eth
(Southern), en (Midland), and es (Northern) — considered as
signs of personal concords — were made vague and useless.
They were still employed now and then in the literature of
the sixteenth century, when en was allowed to fall into disuse
(though preserved in some dialects), while es (or is) remained
as a plural ending belonging mostly to the dialect called

* Scottish.' Plural verbs ending in s are to be found in old
copies of Shakespeare, though in modern editions our usual
forms have been mostly substituted. In one place, at least,
the old plural makes a rhyme, and has consequently been
spared (in Macbeth, Act ii. so. 1). In the singular the ending
eth (as well as s) was long retained in literature. Though
still preserved in the Bible, and here and there employed as
an archaism in poetry, eth is now obsolete in conversation,
and its substitute is s, which is practically our only remaining
ending that shows a distinct concord.

2. The subject is often a single noun, or a pronoun, but may
include several nouns, or may consist of a phrase or of a clause.
\_See §§ 43, 44.] Nouns are noticed in the first place. Their
required concords are but partly indicated by forms ; their
meanings supply better guidance. Where the intention is to
speak of one, the verb is singular ; where the intention is to
speak of two, or of more, the verb is plural. The form of a
noun may be plural (or may look like a plural) while the
concord required may be siugular. Nouns connected by and
require mostly (not always) a plural verb, while nouns con-
nected by or (or by nor) are usually followed by a singular.
Where several nouns are placed in a series, and collectively
form a subject, and often precedes the last noun, and the
verb is usually (not always) plural. Several verbs may belong
to one subject. The words it is have the uses of c'est and
ce sonb in French, and may serve to introduce a subject of any
description.

Examples. — 1. E.I. : 'We forgif-a-S ilrnm gyltendum \yfe forgive
our debtors].' ' Gif ge so'Slice ha lufl-a« >e e6w lufl-atS [If ye truly love
those that love you], hwylce mede habb-a^ ge 1 [what meed have ye ?] '

♦ We ne scul-on bees gel^fan [We shall not believe that = We must not
b|Jieve that].' ' Ge geh^rd-on bset ^jecweden waes [Ye heard what was
said].' E.ll. : 'He answer-ep [He awsi^ers].' ' We vorlet-eJ» oure yelderea

306 syntax: examples.

[We forgive our debtors.]' — Dan Michel. 'Whil 30 habb-e> wyt at
wolde [While ye have wit at command] sech-e]? ore soule bote \^seek your
soul's good].' — Proverbs of Hendyng. 'Hylybb-e|> [They ^i?;(5], hy by-ejj
zikere [they ie safe].' — Dan Michel. *Wefor3ev-en oure dettours [We
forgive our debtors].' — Reliquice Ant. i. 31. ' No-w we leu-eii Joseph, and
of >e king carp-en [Now we leave Joseph, and carp of the king].'— Joseph
of Arimathie. ' Til ye mebring-en Beniamin [Until ye bri7ig me Benjamin].'
— Genesis and Exodus. ' I tolde hem, that in oure contree wer-en trees,
that bar-en a fniyt, that becom-en briddes [birds] fleeynge : and tho that
fell-en in the water lyv-en, and t\\Q\th.Q,t fall-en on the erthe dy-en anon.*
— Sib John Mandbville. ' Lauerd [Lord], what is man j^at jjou min-es of
him ? ' — Northumbrian Psalter. ' Thou has made heven and erth.' — Towneley
Mysteries. ' Oppen-es your yates [gates] wide, Yhe \>aX princes ere [are] in
pride. . . . Bliss-es to Lauerd [Bless the Lord] with all your might, Alle [ye]
his aungels that ere [are] bright.' — Northumbrian Psalter. ' He oft dote-s
.... his tung [tongue] fayl-es .... his bak [back] wax-es croked ....
his eres [ears] wax-es deef .... his wyttes [wits] fayl-es.^ — Hampole.
' Grret fisches et-es the smale.' — Metrical Homilies. ' Thus the losels [worth-
less men] strives [argue] and says' — Skelton. ' Your clokes smelleth
musty.' * Such tunges [tongues] .... hath made great diuision.' —
Skelton. ' Anciene writtaris commonlie comparis it [the chameleon] to
ane flatterare.' — Buchanan. ' The stateliness of houses, the goodliness of
trees, when we behold them, delighteth the eye.' — Hooker.

* And then the whole quire hold their hips and laugh,
And waxen in their mirth.' — Shakespeare.

' Whiles I threat, he lives :
Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives.
I go, and it is done.' — Shakespeare, Macbeth, ii. 1,

• Hark! hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings,

And Phoebus gins arise.
His steeds to water at those springs
On chaliced flowers that lies.'

Shakespeare, Cymbeline, li. 3.

*No"W rebels move prevails with words
Than drawgoons [dragoons] does with guns and swords ....
Yea, those that were the greatest rogues
Follows them over hills and bogues [bogs].'

Cjmlasd, The Highland Host, 1697.

2. * One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh.' —
Bible. ' Whatsoever it be that moveth laughter, it must he new.' — Hobbes.
' The use of fraudulent weights and measures was severely punished in the
middle ages.' — Gr. * A few hours' walking was enough to complete the
journey.' — Gr. ' He who fair and softly goes steadily forward will sooner
be at his journey's end than he that runs after every one he meets.' —
Locke. ' Thou'll break my heart.'— Burns. [The old Northern form for
wilt = will.] ' His eyes were with his heart, and that was far away.' —
Lord Byron. * There are some gentlefolks below.' — Sheridan. ' Eound
about him were numberless herds of kine.' — Longfellow. ' His stores of
oatmeal tiere brought out; kine were slaughtered.' — Lord Macaulat. ' The
proud are taught to taste of pain.' — Gray. [Many adjectival forms pre-

VERBS : CONCORDS. 307

ceded by the serve as plural subjects.] ' Blessed are the undefiled in the
way.* — Bible. ' His voice, his figure, and attitudes are all admirable.' — Gold-
smith. ' Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports and populous
cities — these are not the elements that constitute a great nation.' — Euskin.
' To him [there is] no high, no low, no great, no small.' — Pope. ' In
old times, fire, air, water, and earth were called " the four elements.'^ '
— G. ' He fills, he hounds, connects, and equals all.' — Pope. • It is the
spirit of the English constitution which, infused through the mighty mass,
pervades, feeds, unites, invigorates, vivifies every part of the empire.' —
Btjrke. ' Patience and perseverance remove mountains.' — L. Mubrat.
'Charles and Henry are here.' — G. 'Blue and yellow make green.' —
Mason, English Grammar, ' A mixture of blue and yellow makes green.'
— G. ' In every tribe superstition, or gratitude, or fortune, has exalted a
particular family.' ' It is frosty this morning.' — G. ' It is six weeks ago '
(= the time, six weeks, is gone). 'It is I.' — Bihle. 'It is those men
who deserve well of their country. . . . It is the dews and showers that
make the grass grow.' — Cobbett. ' It is the rain and the fog that make
England gloomy [Cast la pluie et le brouillard qui attristent V Angleterre'].
. , . It is the kings who are the chiefs of the peoples [Ce sont les rois qui
sont les chefs des nations'].' — Brachet, French Grammar.

* It was the choristers who went to meet
The train, and now were entering the first street.' — Leigh Hunt.

Special Observations. — 1. The following verbs (sometimes
called ' Prceterito-Prcesentia ') liave now, in the Present, the
forms that in ancient times belonged to the Past — can, shall,
will, may, ought, must. The intransitive verb dare (= venture)
is historically one of this class, and, like the six other verbs
named here, should have no final s in the third person singular
of the Present ; but this old and intransitive verb dare (= to
venture) is often confused with the new and transitive verb
dare (= to challenge), to which the s in the Present properly
belongs. The Past of the old verb dare (= venture) is durst ;
but the Past of the new verb dare (= challenge) is dared.
The verb need should rightly have a final s in the third person
singular of the Present ; but the form need is sometimes em-
ployed as if the verb belonged to the class of old verbs repre-
sented by can. It will be remembered that there is an adverb
needs, which in some places looks like a verb. The adverb
(a case of nedd, a noun) had originally the instrumental form
nede (= by force), for which the genitive form nedes was
afterwards substituted.

2. The following /o7*m5 of nouns should here be noticed : —
(a) forms used alike in the singular and in the plural ; (h)
forms denoting the singular, but placed with plural verbs ; (c)
plural forms sometimes followed by verbs in the singular;
(^ those looking like plurals and often followed by plural
verbs ; (e) numerals treated as nouns.

X 2

308 syntax: examples.

3. A collective noun may denote unity or plurality. In the
former case the verb is singular ; in the latter the verb is
plural. The following are examples of collective nouns: —
aristocracy^ college, commons, committee, congregation, majority,
minority, mob, nobility, people, school. Adjectival forms, pre-
ceded by the, serve as collective nouns, often requiring plural
verbs.

4. Some vague words used as nouns are singular ; others
are plural ; some may be either singular or plural.

Singular. Plural. Singular or Plural.

another much ought

anybody nobody self

each nothing what

either nought

everybody one

both noughts

few ones

many others

nobodies several
nothings

all some

any such

enough the same
more
none

5. Vague words used as adjectives often indicate the con-
cords that follow. For instance, a series of nouns, each pre-
ceded by every, will be followed by a singular verb.

The Singular follows — another, each, every, either, many a, much,
neither, a certain.

The Plural follows — certain (= the obsolete word divers), few, many,
other, several ( = the obsolete word divers).

Either the Singular or the Plural may follow — all, any, enough,
( = enow), no ( = not any), some, such, the same, what.

6. Queries respecting rules of concord are often suggested
by placing together — apparently as the subjects of one verb —
nouns or pronouns differing in number or in person, or in
both. The student's aim should be to avoid, as far as pos-
sible, the ellipses here referred to. [See § 65.] To justify
them, these three ' rules ' are given in some books : — The
verb agrees with the nearer subject ; the plural comes next
before the verb, and the verb is plural ; the verb agrees with
the first person rather than with the second, and with the
second rather than with the third.

7. In apposition, nouns and pronouns of different numbers
may be placed together. The verb agrees in number with
the word or the words made chiefly prominent.

8. The relative, by means of its position, represents the
number and the person of the antecedent. Accordingly, when
a relative is the subject, the required number and the person
of the verb are shown by a reference to the antecedent.

9. An apparent case of bad grammar is often a fair ex-
ception, or one that may be readily justified by reference to
the author's meaning.

TERES : CONCORDS. 309

10. Errors are often suggested by words coming in
between the subject and the verb, and in many other cases
the number of the subject is forgotten.

Special Examples. — 1. ' pe more J>at a mon can [ = knows], J?e more
wiirtje is he.' — Robert of Gtlotjcbster. ' Thou can.'' — Gr. [In O.E. the st
of the second person is often dropped in ca7i, shall, will, etc.] ' No man
dar entren in to it.' — Sir John Mandevilie. ' I dare do all that may become
a man, Who dares do more is none. . . . "What need a man care ? ' — Shake-
speare. ' He will rise and give him as many as he needeth! — Bible. ' One
need only read.' — Pope. ' To fly from need not be to hate mankind.' —
Byron.

2. (a) ' prytty j'ousend pound.^ — Rob. of Gloucester, (a) ' The
days of our years are three score years and ten.' — Bible. ' The Queen took
upon herself to grant patents of monopoly by scores.' — Macaulay. [In
many places the plural form scores occurs, but has no numeral prefixed.]
(a) 'William loste \>re >e beste kors ]?at .... were ystyked ry3t vnderhym.'
— John of Trevisa. (6) ' There were forty-seven sail of the line.' — Sotjthey.
(h) ' There were Beaumont's foot.' — Macaulay. (b) • Ten sail of the line
were seen.' (b) ' One thousand cannon were landed.' — Gr. (c) ' The wages of
sin is death.' — Bible. (<?) ' Mathematics becomes the instrument of Attro-
nomy and Physics.' — Lewes, (c) ' The Mathematics lead us to lay out of
account all that is not proved.' — Sir W. Hamilton.' (c) 'Every twenty
paces gives you the prospect of some villa.' — Lady Montague, (c) ' Six-
pence is a low price.' (c) ' Where is the hundred pounds ? ' (c) ' Three-
fourths is a greater share than two-thirds [is].' — Gr.

(d) ' The noun abns, sometimes preceded by an and followed by a
singular verb (often by a plural), = E.I. (Blmese (sing.) = Greek ix^-n^xoaiivf).
(d) The apparently plural form riches = O.E. richesse (singular, with
richesses for the plural), {d) The noun summons (singular, with the plural
form summonses) = O.F. semonse. (d) The apparently plural form eaves =
E.I. yfes [singular] = a margin, but in M.E. is followed by a plural verb.'
— G. (d) 'The amends was.' — Robert of Bkunnb. {d) 'Government is
a means for the attainment of an end.'— Macatjlay. (d) ' Every means
was lawful.' — Gibbon, (d) ' Every means was used.' — ELa.llam. (d) ' Are
there no means for helping these men ? ' — G. (d) * Much pains has been
taken.' (d) ' Great pains were taken to make the work complete.' — G. (d)
' A certain man .... asked an alms.' — Bible. 'The very alms they receive
are the wages of idleness.' — Addison, (d) ' There are great odds.' —
Hooker, (d) * On which side do the odds lie ? ' — Locke, (d) ' What's the
odds? ' — G. (d) ' 111 news rides fast while good news baits.' — Melton, (d)
'is there any news in the paper?' — G. (d) 'He fetched up the bag in
which was the provisions.' — De Foe. (e) ' The Forty are but men.' —
Byron, (e) ' The Ten appointed the Three who were especially active.' — G.

3. • As soon as the assembly was complete. . . . The cavalry are obliged to
climb the hill.' — Gibbon. ' No class requires more to be cautioned.' —
Johnson. ♦ Thanne longen folk to gon on pilgrimages.' — Chaucer. ' Not
80 thinketh the folk of the village.' — Longfellow. ' The whole herd of
cattle was there collected.' — G. ' There was nigh unto the mountains a
great herd of swine feeding.' — Bible. * ' These kind of people are not
to be trusted.'— G. [The construction is usual, but a here = kind.]
' Mankind is appointed to live in a future state.'— Butler. 'The party
%i8trusts its own leaders.* — G. ' ThI people is one.' ' The people have as

810 syntax: examples.

many opinions as heads.' — G-. • The people, however fallen, are still men.
Trade's unfeeling train usur-p the land.' — Gtoldsmith. ' Blessed are the
undefiled. . . . Blessed are the merciful. . . . The poor is separated from his
neighbour.' — Bible. ' The proud are taught to taste of pain.' — Gkay.

4. ' All are but parts of one stupendous whole.' — Pope. * All is vanity.*
— Bible. * All is still.' — Scott. ' All was done that charity could do.' —
BuHKE. ' Each gives each a double charm.' — Dyer. * Enough is as good
as a feast.' — G. ' Enough, alas ! in humble homes remain! — Byron. ' Are
there few that be saved ? . . . . Many are called, but few \are\ chosen.' — Bible.

* There's but little to say for him ; still there's a little to be said.' • There
were many coming and going.' — Bible. ' Much has been said, and more
remains to be told.' — G. ' Nobody cares for me.' — Burns. * My right there
is none to dispute.' — Cowper. ' Of all that property nothing now remains!
— G. ' Some say the " Pilgrim's Progress " is not mine.' — Bunyan.

* What's gone, and what's past hope. Should be past grief.' — Shakespeare.
' At once came forth whatever creeps! — Mixton. * The whole of the after-
noon was wasted.' — G. \^ee § 44, Words, 5.]

5. ' Ml the members of that one body, being many, are one body.' —
Bible.

' Each purple peak, each flinty spire,
Was bathed in floods of living fire.' — Scott.

* Every man of them was employed in praising his friends.' — Goldsmith.

* Every age, every rank, every condition of life has its own trials.' — G.
' Many a flower is born to blush unseen.' — Gray. • No white man, no
black man is a slave in this land.' — G. [See § 46, Words, 5.]

6. ' You and I are invited.' [* The verb is in the plural, and in the
first person, if the first person is named.' — Angus.] ' You and he are
good friends.' [' The verb is in the second person, if the second person is
named.' — Angus.] * ' You, and not I, were there.' * ' He, and not you, is
chargeable with that fault.' [' The verb agrees with the affirmative pro-
noun.'— Angus.] * ' Neither you nor I am right.' * ' They or I am in fault.'

* ' Either you or he is wrong.' * ' Neither he nor they are satisfied.' ' Neither
the captain nor the sailors were saved.' — G. [These examples, selected
from several well-known books, are not recommended. Their discords
arise from hasty ellipses, and to justify these licenses certain * rules ' have
been invented. It is desirable to avoid harsh constructions, and in many
instances it is easy. For example, instead of saying 'They or I am in fault,'
it is easy to say, ' The fault must be theirs or mine.' Many difficulties in
analysis arise from ellipses, which belong to two classes. In the former
the word already used is omitted ; in the latter we omit a similar word.
The ellipses here noticed belong to the latter class. See § 66.]

7. ' All, all the scene, in short — sky, earth, and sea —

Breathes, like a bright-eyed face that laughs out openly.'

Leigh Hunt.

[Here s = scene.'] ' The oak and the ehn have, each, a distinct cha-
racter.'— GiLPiN. * We have turned, every one, to his own way.' — Bible. ' A
torch, snuff dind. all, goes out in a moment, when dipped in the vapour.' —
Addison.

' Oh, 'twas a sight — that heaven, that child —
A scene that might have well beguiled
Ev'n haughty Eblis of a sigh
For glories lost and peace gone by ! ' — Moore.

verbs: concords. 311

8. 'It was seen by the man who is here.' ' It was seen by the men who
are here.' * Here is the hoicse that was sold.' * Here are the houses that were
sold.' ' My yWew<^ who ^wows the way will guide you.' ' Every wor^i that
was written was well chosen.' ' All [i.e. the whole story] that has been told
is true.'— Gr. ' All [i.e. all the persons] that hate me whisper together
against me.' — Bible. [To find the right number and person of a verb having
for s a relative, we refer to the antecedent.] ' They that make them [idols]
are like unto them. . . . Here is the mind which hath wisdom.' — Bible, ' These
are not the elements that constitute a great nation.' — Ruskin. ' It is not
the composition of the piece, but the number of starts and incidents that
may be introduced that elicits applause.' — Goldsmith. ' It is that within
us which makes for righteousness.' — M. Arnold. [The relative which = s,
and the antecedent = the demonstrative pronoun that.]

9. * The Pleasures of Memory, by Rogers, was published in 1 792. Tales
of the Hall, by Crabbe, tf^rts published in 1819.' — Gr. [In each instance s
= the name of a book.] ' " Slow and sure " wins the race ' [i.e. the method
indicated by the proverb uuins]. ' Two and two makes four.' — Popb. * Five
dozen and half a score makes seventy.' — Gr. [The sum 60 + 10 = 70.]
' The mind and the spirit remains invincible.' — Milton, [s = two names
of one force = the will.] * The spectator and historian of his day has
observed.' — Gibbon, [s = two titles of one author.] ' The saint, the father,
and the husband, prays.' — Burns, [s = three titles of one man.] ' Here'*
the pen and ink.' ' Here's a knife and fork.' ' Where's my hat and stick ?
'Two shillings and sixpence is the right change for half a crown.' — G. 'The
hue and cry of the country pursues him.' — Junius. [Two words very
closely associated are often treated as making one name.]

'Ah, then and there was hurrying to and fro,
And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress.' — Byron.

[The verb is expressed in the first sentence, and the following two sen-
tences are elliptical ; in each were is omitted.]

' Our own ?ieart, and not other men's opinions,
Forms our true honour.' — Coleridge.

[The writer gives the verb of the affirmative sentence, and ormtsform
in the negative sentence. See § 65.]

10. * ' The richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuous.' — Gibbon.

* 'Nothing but clearness and simplicity are desirable.' — Maunder. * ' The
use of fraudulent measures and weights were severely punished in the
middle ages.' *' Neither Charles nor Henry were invited.' — G. * ' Neither
physic nor law are to be practically known from books.' — Fielding. * ' Neither
the white man nor the black man are slaves in our land.' — G. [is a slave.]

* • How happy it is that neither of us were ill.' — Johnson. * ' Morning or
evening are the best times for study.' — G. * ' The number of inhabitants
were not more than four millions.' — Smollett. * ' Only a few hours' waZArwj^
were required to cross the plain.' [was ; s = walking.] * ' The herd is
carried home to their respective owners.' — Gilpin. * ' Where is my gloves? '
[Usage alone can supply rules for the verbs rightly following such nouns as
these : — scissors, billiards, and gloves.] * 'Nought but shadowy forms were
seen to move.' — Thomson. * 'Each have stamped their own impress on
the character of the people.' — Alison. [Each is strictly a singular form.]

* ♦ Mr. Scott with his two sons were there.' ' The house with all the out-
lilildings were sold.' [with cannot will take the place of and.] * 'Homer,

312 syntax: examples.

as well as Virgil, were translated and studied on the banks of the Ehine.'
— Gibbon. * ' The poor man as well as the rich pat/ taxes.' [pays ; the
phrase as well as cannot well take the place of and.] * ' This letter is one
of the best [letters] that has been written by Lord Byron.' — Leigh Hunt.
* ' We have here one of the best books that has been lately published.'
[Omit that has been, or write have instead of has.]

VERBS IN CONCORD WITH PHRASES.

Observations. — 1. A single Noun- Phrase is placed in
concord with a verb of the third person singular.

2. A single Noun-Phrase, set in apposition with ^Y, or
with a singular noun, is placed in concord with a verb in the
Singular.

3. Two or several Noun-Phrases may be placed in concord
with a verb in the Singular.

4. Two or several Noun-Phrases, introduced by it, may
form the subject of a verb in the Singular.

5. Two or several Noun-Phrases may be collectively re-
presented by tJiis, followed by a verb in the Singular.

6. Two or several Noun- Phrases are sometimes followed
by a verb in the Plural.

Examples. — 1. 'To relieve the wretched was his pride.' — Goldsmith.
' To be a fine gentleman is to be a generous and brave man.' — Steele. [See
§ 44, Phrases, 2.]

2. ' It is for the guilty to live in fear.' — Cobbett. [See § 44, Phrases, 3.]

3. * To subsist in lasting monuments, to live in their productions, to
exist in their names .... was large satisfaction.* — Sib T. Bbownb.

' To gild refined gold, to paint the lily,
To throw a perfume on the violet,
To smooth the ice, or add another hue
Unto the rainbow ....
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess.' — Shakespbabb

' To lodge in a garret .... to dine in a cellar .... to translate ten
hours a day .... to be hunted by bailiffs .... to die in a hospital, and
to be buried in a parish vault, was the fate of more than one writer.' —
Macatjlat.

4. ' It is vain to rise up early, to sit up late.' — Bible.

* . . . . To die, and [to] go we know not where ;

To lie in cold obstruction ....

To be imprisoned in the viewless winds

'tis too horrible.' — Shakespeare,

5. ' To sit on rocks, to muse on flood and fell .... this is not solitude.'
— Byron. ' To suffer woes .... to forgive wrongs .... to defy Power
.... to love .... to hope .... this is to be good.' — Shelley.

6. ' To be read by bare inscriptions, to hope for eternity by enigmatical
epithets, or [by] first letters of our names, to be studied by antiquarians
. ... are eold consolations.' — Sib T. Bbowne.

YERBS: MOODS. 313

VERBS IN CONCORD WITH CLAUSES.

Observations. — 1. A single Noun-Clanse is placed in con-
cord with a verb of the third person singular.

2. A single Nonn-Clause, set in apposition with it, or
with a singular noun, is placed in concord with a verb in the
Singular.

3. Two or several Noun-Clauses, set in apposition with it,
or with a singular noun, may be placed in concord with a
verb in the Singular.

4. Two or several Noun- Clauses are sometimes placed in
concord with a verb in the Plural.

Examples. — 1. ' That he stooped, to accommodate himself to the people,
is sufficiently apparent.' — "Worbsworth.

2. ' It was in this way that our ancestors reasoned. It is well known
t?iat he made less use than any other eminent writer of those strong^ plain
words, of which the roots lie in the inmost depths of our language.' —
Macattlat. ' It is not true that he said that.' — Mason. [See § 43, p.
242.]

5. ' It is quite clear to me— that Southampton is the only person to
whom Shakespeare promises immortality ; that the Sonnets are dedicated
by W. H. to Southampton, [and] that W. H., who calls himself Mr., cannot
be a nobleman.' — Athenceum.

4. ' That, without the consent of the representatives of the nation, no
legislative act could he passed .... that no man could be imprisoned
.... that no tool of power could plead the royal command, as a justifi-
cation for violating any right of the humblest subject, were held, both by
Whigs and Tories, to be fundamental laws of the realm.' — Macauiay.
[This is not an example of the writer's ordinary style.]

IMOODS.

Observations. — 1. A mood is the mode or manner in which
verbs are used in speaking of acts that really take place, or of
our own notions respecting acts. Verbs are employed in the
mood called the Indicative in order to assert, or (with the aid
of adverbs) to deny, or to ask questions. Personal inflexions,
so far as they are retained in modem usage, belong to this
mood. There is now remaining no single word used in the
Subjunctive that is not also used in the Indicative.

2. In asking questions, inversions of the usual order of
words occur frequently in O.E., and they are still retained
where the verbs are those called 'auxiliary.' In modem
literature and in conversation the verb do is extensively used
in interrogations, in emphatic assertions, in negations, and in
'elliptical answers. Here and? there a clause having an inter-

314 syntax: examples.

rogative form is employed instead of a conditional clause in-
troduced by if.

3. Verbs in the Imperative serve mostly to express com-
mands and requests, but sometimes denote conditions and
suppositions. The subject, where expressed, follows the im-
perative verb ; but in M.E. the subject is mostly understood,
not expressed. The Imperative is here and there useful as
an energetic substitute for a subjunctive clause expressing a
condition. For example, in ' Change the order, and you spoil
the sentence,' and will be omitted, if the first three words are
altered to ' If you change ; ' but the force of the verb will be
diminished.

4. Verbs employed in the mood called the Subjunctive do
not assert facts, but serve to express conditions or supposi-
tions and other notions that might be generally called subjec-
tive, if the term subjunctive were not established. This term
rightly applies, not to any acts ov facts themselves, but to our
own notions respecting them. Doubt or fear, reserve or
modesty, suggests the modes of expression called subjunctive,
and it is naturally impossible to define closely the limits of
their application. For while they often imply some doubt
existing in the mind of the spettker, he may choose to employ
them in speaking of certain facts respecting which he enter-
tains privately no doubt. A subdued and guarded tone may
sometimes be desirable, and consequently subjunctive modes
of expression will be preferred. Accordingly, the forms and
the constructions employed in making assertions will be
avoided, as far as usage may allow, and those called subjunc-
tive will be substituted. We have no generally accepted rule
for using these subjunctive constructions and inversions, but it
is often advisable to retain them, in order to distinguish ex-
pressions denoting doubt from others denoting certainty.
Subjunctive modes of expression may be classified as
follows : —

(a) The forms of verbs employed in the Subjunctive do
not belong to this mood alone, but are characterized either by
some peculiar uses or by a disuse of personal inflexions in the
places where in the Indicative they would be retained. These
peculiar uses and vague forms denote generally that assertions
are avoided. Thus in he writes the verb asserts ; but in the
clause if he write no assertion is made. The verb here is not
tied to the subject by means of any personal inflexion, but the
vague form write is employed to imply doubt or uncertainty.
Subjunctive uses and forms (of which tables are given in

YERBS: MOODS. 315

§ 23) often follow the conjunctions although, as (with as if and
as though), except, if, lest, that (= in order that), though, umless,
and whether, when these words introduce clauses expressing
uncertainty ; but it is not to bo understood that these words
must always be followed by subjunctive constructions. The
word Zes^— peculiarly subjunctive in its force — is now seldom
employed without might or should following.

(6) In many passages, where the meaning is subjunctive,
the conjunctions uamed are not followed by subjunctive con-
structions. There has been, and still remains, in modern
literature a general tendency to neglect subjunctive con-
structions and inversions.

(c) In many passages where the above-named conjunc-
tions (excepting lest) are employed, the meanings and the
forms belong alike to the Indicative ; in other words, there is
no intention of expressing any doubt.

(d) Subjunctive meanings are often denoted by inversions
of the order of words used in making assertions, and some-
times both subjunctive forms and inversions are employed
together. Sometimes had, without an inversion, is used with a
subjunctive meaning, as in 'I had fainted, unless I had be-
lieved.'— Bible.

(e) A principal sentence including nnay or might serves
often to express a doubt, or to make a notion of possibility
distinct from the assertion of a fact. A subjunctive meaning,
relating to a present time, may be expressed also by could,
should, and would — words that serve often to soften or
subdue the tone of an assertion, a denial, or a refusal.

(/) Subjunctive forms and constructions are chiefly em-
ployed in adverbial-clauses implying notions of condition or
supposition. [See § 47.] But these forms and constructions
may also serve to denote commands, wishes, fears, and purposes.
Here, as before, the main characteristic of the Subjunctive
remains unaltered. It serves to express thoughts and senti'
ments — especially doubts — and partly avoids forms and con-
structions employed in asserting facts. But in many places
forms do not indicate meanings. In Latin the forms of the
Subjunctive are distinct, and their uses are extensive ; but of
these nothing more is said here. In English, on the contrary,
we have subjunctive meanings in numerous passages where
there are no peculiar forms and no distinct constructions to
denote them. Here the conjunction alone can indicate doubt —
for example, in the clauses ' if you have ' and ' if they have,'
where the verb has the form ^d the place it would have in

316 syntax: examples.

the Indicatiye. Some grammarians have invented the mle
that 'the form peculiar to the Subjunctive Mood is used
only where uncertainty and futurity are both implied.'
[MoRELL, E. Oram.'] But the fact is, that in our literature
there is no rule that is generally observed. One chief inten-
tion of the Subjunctive is to denote doubt ; but Macatjlay —
intending to express, as strongly as possible, the doubts occa-
sioned by another author's ambiguity — writes is after whether^
and again after if. [Exam.ples, 4 (6).]

5. The forms falsely classified, long ago, as belonging to
the so-called ' Infinitive Mood ' are not verbs. "Words in syntax
are treated of with respect to their meanings or uses. The
forms of the ' Infinitive Mood ' are, therefore, noticed here
only in order to refer to the following sections, where their
uses are described: — 44, 45, 46 (Complements), 4^7, 48. These
references will be enough to show that, taken collectively,
forms called verbal are employed (a) as subjects, (6) as attri-
butes, (c) as complements, (d) as adverbials, and (e) as objects.
\_Exam;ples, 5.]

Examples. — 1. ' It is a notable tale. ... In youth I was as you are now.'
— AscHAM. ' I cannot tell ; for it i^ not expressed in the booke.' — Latimer.
' Herestow not ? ' — Chatjceb. [' Hear est thou not ? ' Such blended forms as
herestow occur often in old literature.] • Knowest thou not ? . . . . Speakest
thou not unto me ? . . . . Couldest not thou watch one hour ? . . . . Answerest
thou nothing ? . . . . Know ye not ? .... Do ye not know ? . . . . Are ye
come out as against a thief? .... Be ye come out?' — Bible. 'Come
you from Padua? .... Hates any man the thing he would not kill?
. ... Do you confess the bond?' — Shakespeare.

2. ' Are you there ? ' ' Did you go ? ' ' Can you tell me ? ' ' May we go ? '
' Shall we go ? ' ' Will you come ? ' ' Would you believe it ? ' * Must you go ? '
' Do you believe that ? ' * I c?o believe it.' [Emphatic] ' Do they ever agree ? '
— Gr. 'When they do agree, their unanimity is wonderful.' — Sheridan.
•Do you say that?' 'I do [say that].' 'Then he falls, as I do [fall].' —
Shakespeare. ' Is any among you afflicted ? let him pray. Is any merry ?
let him sing psalms.' — Bible. [Instead of the questions, clauses intro-
duced by if might serve ; but the force of the text would be diminished.] ,

3. 'Trusteth ye. My sone, speknot. Kep wel thy tongue.'— Chaucer.
' Herkyns alle [i.e. all ye].' — Towneley Plays. 'Fal [ye mountains] and
hyde us.' — Hampole. 'Take heed. . . . Come. . . . Watch. ... Be it
unto thee even as thou wilt. . . . Let no fruit grow on thee. . . . Let both
grow together. . . . Gro, and do thou likewise. . . . This know also. . . .
The cloke .... bring with thee, and [bring] the books.' — Bible. ' Turn we
[i.e. Let us turn].' — GtOLDsmith. ' First pay your debt ; then you may talk
of generosity.' ' Let x equal z, and y equal z ; then x equals y.' — Gr. ' Prove
that, and I will submit.' — Angus. * SpeaJc the word only, and my servant
shall be healed.' — Bible. ' Change the order of the words, and you spoil
the sentence.' — G-. [The force will be lessened if, omitting and, the sen-
tence begin with the clause ' If you change.'] ' Effect this, and you may
lead him with a straw.' — Gilpin.

verbs: moods.

317

4. (a) * And [ = If] she have
children, thei leten hire lyve.' — Sm
John Mandevillb.

' His berd [beard] was brood, as
though it were a spade.

'If thou tak no vengeance.' —
Chaucer.

' I must do it, as it were ....
perfitelie [perfectly].' — Lady Janb
Grey.

' That .... is not quickened, ex-
cept it die.' — Bible.

' The village is, as it were, the
beginning of London.' — De Foe.

' If thou bring thy gift — If thy
right hand offend thee — If he neglect
to hear the church.' — Bible.

' If every ducat were in six parts.'
— Shakespeare.

* If I were your enemy.' — Junius.

' If pride were his.' — Cbabbe.

' If he were content.' — Sydney
Smith.

' Love not sleep, lest thou come to
poverty. ' — Bible.

'Though he slay me, yet will I
trust in him.' — Bible.

'Though this earth were to be
burned.' — Chalmers.

' "Whether he be a sinner or no, I
know not. . . . Whether it we/'e I or
they, so we preach, and so ye be-
lieved.'— Bible.

' Who knows whether the best of
men be known ? ' — Sir T. Browne.

' This would make them consider,
whether what they speak be worth
hearing.' — Sir K. Steele.

{b) * If yoM speakst talae.' — Shakb-

SPEAEE.

' If thou remember est.' — Bible.

' If any member absents himself.'
— Addison.

' If Junius lives.'' — Jttnius.

' If he Jinds his collection too
small .' — Johnson.

' If Jupiter if content — Ye powers
that rule the tongue, if such there
are.' — Cowper.

' If liberty ie suifered to expire.' —
K. Hall.

' If this gees on for a hundred
years.' — Jefj rey.

* Then, as if this was not enough.'
— Dickens.

' If it rains to-morrow, we will
not go.' — G.

'If he is caught, he will be
punished.' — G.

' If I aw asked, whether there is
any danger, I answer, " Yes." ' —
Sheridan.

' People .... came to learn
whether the bad news was true.' —
Macaulay.

' If no man has a right to political
power .... the whole foundation
of government is taken away.' —
Macaulay.

* We are really at a loss to deter-
mine whether Mr. South ey's reason
for recommending large taxation is,
that it will make the people rich, or
that it will make them poor. But
we are sure that, if his object is to
make them rich, he takes the wrong
course. ' — Macaulay.

(c) ' If there's a Power above us.' — Addison. ' If there's a hereafter.'
— K. Blair. ' If he [Addison] fails in anything." — H. Blair. ' If his
political prudence was insufficient.' — Hume [writing of Charles I.] ' If
it is abuse [As it is], why, one is always sure to hear of it.' — Sheridan.
' Though he was rich.' — Bible. ' Though a new constitution was not needed '
[in 1688].'— Macaulay.

' Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread,
Eternal sunshine settles on its head.' — Goldsmith.

(d)* Could youth last .... had ^oys no date.'— The Reply [aacrihed
to SiB W. Baleigh]. ' Had 1 but served my God.' — Shakrspbahb. ' Were
but this sort of men wise.' — Tillotson. * Were 1 a father.' — Addison.
^Had he thy reason.'— Pope. ' CouldTime restore the hours. . . . Might one
wish bring them. . . . JTere he on eai^. . . . ^(jw^cZ I describe a preacher.' —

318 syntax: examples.

CowPEB. ' Vf^ere he never so benighted.' — Caklylb. ' Bad Staiford suc-
ceeded .... had he formed an army .... had we then risen.' —
Macatjlat.

(e) ' There are (it may be) so many kinds of voices.' — Bible. ' One
would expect to be let [admitted] into the hall ; alas ! yon find yourself in
a brew -house.' — Pope. ' It would be difficult to praise [the book] too highly.'
— Gr. • There is, I would submit, something to be said on the other
side.' ' I would respectfully decline that offer.' * I should hardly believe
that.' ' I should doubt it.' * I should say " Xo." ' — Gr.

(/) ' I gi"^® thee charge that thou>tee^ this commandment.' — Bible. ' 0,
could I flow like thee ! ' — Denham. ' 0, that my power to saving were
confined ! ' — Dbyden. ' I wish I were a queen ! ' — Goldsmith. ' Take
heed, lest any man deceive you. . . . Take heed, that no man deceive you.' —
Bible. [The former clause implies a, fear, the latter s, purpose.]

5. (a) 'To err is human ; to forgive, divine.' [sp] ' To be read by bare
inscriptions. . . . to be studied hy Q.xit\.c[ViAv\6s . . . . are cold consolations.'
— Sir T. Browne, [sp. See § 44.] 'What supports me, dost thou ask?
The conscience to have lost them, overplied in liberty's defence.' — Mixtox.
[sp] ' Writing [maketh] an exact man.' — Bacon, [s] ' If keejpvig holy
the seventh day were only a human institution.' — Addison, [sp]

{b) 'He has aybr^mw^ temper.' [a] * That was a /or^-oifi^eTz. promise.'
[a] ' There is .... a time to weep, and a time to laugh.' — Bible, [ap]
' Here lies the deed to be signed.^ [ap] ' The pleasure of being cheated.'
— Butler, [ap] 'Freedom, driven from every spot.' — R. Hall. [ap.
See § 45.]

(c) ' His temper is forgiving.' [c] ' He let the sword fall.' [cm]
'He let the house fall to ruin.' [cp] ' More to be desired are they than
gold.' — Bible, [cp] 'Labour and intent study .... I take to be my
portion' — Milton, [cm] 'I take [him] to have been more happy.' —
CovTLBT. [cm. See § 46, Complements.']

{d) 'Let every man be swift to hear, slow to speak.' — Bible, [xp]
' We are come here to play, and not to quarrel.' [xp] ' As for being
known much by sight .... I cannot comprehend the honour.' — Cowley.
[xp] ' Having written twice, I shall not write again.' [xp] ' In keeping
of them there is great reward.' [xp] ' Whence comest thou ? ' * [I come]
from going to and fro in the earth, and /row walking up and down in it'
^-^Bible. "[xp. See § 47.]

((?) ' He likes reading.' [o] ' Learn to do well.' — Bible, [op] * ' I
thought [ = intended] to have slainhim.' — Scott, [op; ^o sZay is here a better
phrase.] ' They love . . . , to be called of men, '^ Rabbi, Rabbi." ' — Bible.
[op. See § 48.]

TENSES.

Observations. — 1. Eorms and constructions denoting Tenses
usually follow one another in the order of time. The Present
often follows the Perfect, but has several peculiar uses, (a)
Its forms serve to introduce quotations, to express axioms
and maxims, and to denote habitual acts or permanent facts.
(5) In poetical narration sudden transitions from the Past
(even from the Pluperfect) to the Present occur, (c) The

YERBS: TENSES. 319

Present is sometimes employed instead of tKe First Future.
When a consequence is expressed, may and will follow such
verbs as come^ hope, and trust, employed in the Present.

2. The Past denotes indefinitely an act taking place in
the past, (a) The act may be regarded as continuous or un-
finished, and in this case the construction sometimes called
the ' Past Progressive ' may be substituted for the Simple
Past. (6) Or the act is understood as ended, though this is
not formally shown, (c) Or it is to be understood that the
Past denotes an act often repeated. The Past may follow the
Pluperfect, and, when an intention is expressed, may be
followed by the verbal form of which to write is an example ;
but ought in the Past is followed by phrases like to have
ivritten. When a consequence is expressed, might and
would follow forms and constructions like feared and was
fearing. Should, after a conditional clause, may denote
certainty, and would (in the same sequence) may express an
inclination.

3. The Perfect usually denotes an act partly belonging to
past time, yet remaining as a result in the present, (a) The
Perfect Participle following have and its inflexions forms the
Perfect. (&) But when we refer chiefly to the result of an
act, the Present of the abstract verb often takes the place of
have, (c) The Perfect may follow the Past, and may be fol-
lowed by the Present. Such constructions as have heard,
have observed, and have teen told are often followed by past
forms of verbs belonging to clauses. Co-ordinative conjunc-
tions usually connect verbs in like tenses, or in such as denote
ordinary sequences ; but this rule does not apply to connec-
tives having subordinate uses. [/See § 50.]

4. The Pluperfect implies a double reference to past time,
and speaks of a past time more remote than another, (a)
The Perfect Participle following liad forms the Pluperfect;
but when we refer chiefly to a result, was, with its inflexions,
sometimes takes the place of had. (6) The Pluperfect may
be followed by the Past in co-ordinate sentences, (c) Where
clauses and sentences are connected together, the Pluperfect
may precede or may follow the Past. Where its meaning is
subjunctive, the Pluperfect is often followed by sentences in-
cluding the Past forms could, should, would, and might. Here
and there the Pluperfect is used where the meaning might be
denoted by the Past.

5. The First Future has distinct uses of shall and vjill. The
toner still retains a trace of i^ original meaning ; the latter

320 syntax: examples.

often denotes volition. [_See § 25.] (a) In tlie First Person
sJiall maj denote futurity, certainty, compulsion, or volition.
In the otHer persons shall is often used, though it may, in
some instances, express notions of authority, certainty, or
compulsion. The force of the verb depends mostly on its
context, or on the speaker's tone, and can hardly be defined.
(b) Volition is often expressed by will in the First Person;
but will in the other persons may denote futurity and cer-
tainty as well as volition, (c) In questions, both shall and
will are freely employed, and the latter may imply volition.

6. (a) The Second Future — less used than the First —
implies a double reference to the future, and speaks of a future
time following another. Here may sometimes takes the place
of shall or of will.

(b) The Second Future may follow the First, and the
First may follow the Second.

Examples. — 1. ' I have seen all ... . and, behold, all is vanity.' —
Bible. ' I have written plainly to him, and he knows my intentions.' — Gr.
' He can walk, if he wilts it.' — Locke. ' I will that they be with me.' —
Bible, [will, the independent or complete verb, is rarely used.] * We
may play now.' — G. [The tense of an irregular verb is, in many instances,
shown only by the context.] ' Ye ought to say. If the Lord will, we shall live.
. . , We ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold. ... I mtist
work the works of him that sent me, while it is day.' — Bible. 'He dare
not say that.' [Correct.] ' He dares me to do it.' [Correct.] ' What
need a man care for a stock ? * — Shakespeare. ' What needs my Shake-
speare ? ' — Milton.

(a) ' Things which are equal to the same are equal to one another.'
' A stitch in time saves nine.' ' Homer gives an account of the battle.' 'Milton
describes the fall of the rebellious angels.' * ' Wordsworth said, the child
was father to the man.' [sai/s ; is] 'He who fair and softly ^oes steadily
forward .... will sooner be at his journey's end than he that runs after
every one he meets.' — Locke. ' One gener-dtion passeth away, and another
generation cometh ; but the earth abideth for ever.' — Bible.

(b) 'His steede was al dappul gray; It goth [goes] ful softely.' —
Chaucer. ' When the morning was come, the giant yoes to them again, and
takes them into the castle-yard.' — Buntan.

' The wanderer's eye could barely view
The summer heaven's delicious blue ....
And now, to issue from the glen.
No pathway meets the wanderer's ken [sight].' — Scott.

(c) 'Duncan comes to-night.' — Shakespeare. *I must work ....
while it is day : the night cometh. . . . Watch therefore : for ye know not what
houryour Lord (7oj!A come. . . . This mortal w^^sif put on immortality.' — Bible.
'We trust you 7nay be successful.' 'We obey the laws that we ?way be
free.'— G.

2. ' He durst not do it' ' He dared me to do it.' * The vessel lay there
at anchor.' ' He laid his books on the table.' ' He rose from his seat.'

YERBS : TENSES. 321

• He raised his head.' ' He sat on the bank.' ' He took the plants and set
them in his garden.' ' Thou wa»t blending with my thought.' — Colebidge.
' Say, wast thou conscious ? ' — Cowpeb. * So wert thou born.' — Dbtden.
*YovL ought [= owed] him a thousand pounds.' — Shakbspeabe. 'He left
Judaea .... and he must needs go through Samaria. ... I wist [ = knew]
not, brethren, that he was the high priest.'— Bible. ' I had written [or I
wrote] before yours came to hand.' ' Yesterday I intended to write.' ' Thou
oughtest, therefore, to have put money to the exchanges. . . . These things
ought ye to have done' — Bible. ' I was fearing I might be too late.'

* If we extracted the square root of this number, we would have twenty-
four.' \shovld^

(a) ' They were eating and [were] drinking. . . . While the bridegroom
tarried, they all slumbered [= were slumbering].' — Bible. 'While Nelson
was living, to watch the combined squadrons of the enemy, we felt ourselves
as secure as now when they were no longer in existence.' — Sotjthey. [now
sometimes relates to the latter of two occasions, both past]

(b) ' Caesar crossed the Rubicon.' ' We swam safely across the river.'
'His speedy victory was immediately reported in the words "I came, I saw,
I conquered." ' — G.

(c) ' At night he would return to the camp. . . . That day he would
stay at home. It was only at night that we would gather together before
the fire.' — W. Ibving. [would here denotes habitual actions.]

' They walk'd and ate, good folks : What then ?
Why, then they waWd and ate again.' — Pbior.

3. 'It [Bacon's philosophy] has lengthened life .... has mitigated
pain .... has lightened up the night.' — Macaulay. [It is implied that
the results still remain.]

(a) ' Sir Roger has beautified the inside of his church. He has likewise
given a handsome pulpit-cloth.' — Addison.

(b) ' The songs and the fables that are come from father to son.' — Addi-
son. ' He is come.' ' Your best friend is gone.'

.(c) ' Since last week, when I wrote to him, I have seen him.' ' I have
seen all . . . . and, behold, allw vanity.' — Bible. ''Re has often told me that,
at his coming to his estate, he found his parishioners very irregular.' —
Addison. ' It has been observed that Pope taught himself writing by copy-
ing printed books.' — Is. Disbaeli. ' We are informed of the facts to which
your letter directed our attention.' — G-.

4. (a) ' Sir Roger had been a good fellow in his youth.' — Ascham.
' By this time [past] the equipage of the strolling company was arrived.' —
Goldsmith.

(b) ' A headstone had been prepared, and a person came forward to plant
it.' — Wilson. ' He had studied the question and, therefore, his answer
was ready.' — G.

(c) ' He observed 1 had promised another paper upon the tombs.' — Ad-
dison. 'He assured me that this invention had occupied all his thoughts
from his youth.' — Swift. ' I had scRTce finished my fable when the lawyer
came' — Goldsmpth. 'When he had concluded, Halifax requested the
Prince and Princess to accept the crown.' — Macaulay. 'If the chariot and
the horses of fire had been vouchsafed for Nelson's translation, he could
scarcely have departed in a brighter blaze of glory.' — Sotjthey, ' If an
emnire equally extensive with that of Charlemagne had been formed , . .

322 syntax: ^examples.

the seeds of commerce and liberty .... would have perished.' — Hallam.
' We had written to you yesterday before the receipt of your note.' [wrote.'] -

5. {a) ' I shall be seventeen years old to-morrow. Some day we shall
know all about it. We shall have to wait here two hours. I have thought
of it, and I shall go. I shall refuse to pay that sum.' — Gr. ' There you
shall find me, ready to conduct you to Olney, and I will tell you what you
shall find at your first entrance. Yqu shall see, on the right hand, a box
of my making. . . . We will be as happy as the days are long.' — Cowper.
* Ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.' — Bible. ' I
say, you shall not go.' — Gr.

(6) ' We will go with you. You will most probably be invited. You
say you cannot come ; the fact is, you will not.' — G. ' At church he will
sit where he may be best seen.' — Bishop Hall.

6. («) 'We shall have done OUT ■work to-morrow when you coTae. Next
Midsummer we shall have lived here five years.' — Gr. ' After a lapse of two
hundred and fifty years, we are afraid to think of the space they may have
shrunk into.' — Jeffrey.

(b) ' My face will not wrinkle, nor [will] my hair be gray ; for this
corruptible shall have put on incorruption.' — Baxteb. ' When this mortal
shall have put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying
that is written.' — Bible.

COMPLEMENTS: WORDS.

Ohservations. — 1. Among tlie various words and phrases
following verbs, and making their predicates more distinct,
some are called complements, and others adverbials. In the
sentence ' He came early ' the predicate contained in came is
distinct, and early is an adverbial that more closely defines the
predicate. But in the sentence * His beard became white ' the last
word is a complement. Is there a reason for the employment
of these two names ? The history of the word cume may give
the answer required. The verb's primitive force is still retained
in come, but is mostly left vague in our uses of the compound
he-come. The former, placed with a subject, makes a clear
assertion ; the latter mostly requires an adjunct, and this ad-
junct that must be employed is a complement. In E.I. the
prefix be makes, in some places, no alteration. * He becom
to anre byrig ' means ' He came to a town.' In E.II. become
(or bicome) in several places means gone, but in others has
only the vague force of the compound in * His beard became
white.' Shakespeare in several places employs becomes as a
verb equivalent to adorns. In these instances the verb is
clearly predicative, and is followed by an object. But in
modem literature becomes — sometimes employed with the
poet's meaning, or as equivalent to suits — has in many places

verbs: complements. 323

a vague meaning, denoting nothing more than a transition
from one state to another. The verb itself says only what
may be said of anything, and consequently an adjunct is re-
quired. Adjuncts thus required, and called complements, are
here classified as consisting respectively of words, phrases,
and clauses. The verbs mostly requiring complements have
been classified. [See § 43.]

2. The abstract verb be requires adjuncts, and its limited
forms, followed by adjuncts called perfect participles, form
the two tenses of the Passive voice : — ' I am ruled * and ' I
vms ruled.* In many places have retains a primitive force;
in others it requires adjuncts, and with their aid makes the
two tenses ' I have ruled ' and ' I had ruled.* These construc-
tions— like others of the conjugation called compound — are
sentences made of vague verbs and adjuncts, and are called
' tenses ' because they serve as translations of Latin forms,
such as regor (I am ruled), re^e&ar (I was ruled), rexi (I have
ruled), and rexeram (I had ruled). In Latin the predicate of
the last word is rex, and the limited verb is eram. The verb
had and the adjunct ruled should, strictly speaking, be de-
scribed as a verb and a predicate ; but for the sake of brevity
both are often taken together and called a * predicate.' In
logic the predicate is that which is said, and the verb, or
copala, is the word that asserts. In questions do is a vague
verb requiring adjuncts, but in familiar talk do in force often
represents the old verb dugan (= avail). The verbal form
going is an adjunct in sentences sometimes classified with the
tenses called 'intentional.' \_8ee § 24.]

3. The defective verbs of which shall and can are ex-
amples are called ' auxiliaries,' because they are followed by
complementary adjuncts, and serve with these to form various
constructions, mostly classified with the tenses called com-
pound. The history of shall — in E.I. sceal, in E.II. seal and
schal — shows the process by which the meanings of other verbs
have been diminished in the course of time. It is probable
that several old Teutonic languages had a stem not unlike
skil, denoting and naming a destructive act, and a verb like
skila, of which the Past, skal — in E.I. sceal — was in force
equivalent to 'I have killed' (a man). For the guilt thus
confessed the ordinary penalty was a fine, which the criminal
was hound to pay. Hence ic sceal served to confess a debt,
and afterwards the altered word schal (pronounced as shall)
might express, though with a decaying force, a sense of both
obligation and futurity. This* complex meaning has been

T 2

324 syntax: examples.

gradually made weaker and weaker, but has not yet altogether
passed away. The verb still sounds here and there harshly,
when employed in the second person, and there is sometimes
a notion of obligation associated with the form should, as in
* You should pay your debts ' (i.e. you ought to pay).

4. The complements of intransitive verbs are mostly placed
next to their verbs. Verbs denoting weight and measure are
followed by definitive nouns and numeral adjectives, and
adverbs may, of course, be employed also to modify the force
of the verb and its adjuncts.

5. The complements immediately following give, and some
verbs of similar meaning, might be classified with ordinary
adverbials, but are very closely connected with certain verbs.
These verbs are often followed by him and them, which, in their
forms and their uses, often represent dative cases in E.I.,
but in M.E. may serve also as objects. The forms me, us,
thee, and you (eow) serve in M.E. — as in E.I. — either as dative
cases (forms of complements) or as objects. In reading aloud
pronouns having the uses of dative cases should mostly be
unemphatic. [See § 47.]

6. The complements of make, and other transitive verbs of
similar meaning, mostly follow objects, and are sometimes
called * factitive objects;' sometimes 'indirect objects.' It
will be noticed, in another place, that German grammarians
have given to the word ' object ' a meaning so wide that it
cannot be defined. [See § 48.]

7. The verbal forms called perfect participles, and em-
ployed in constructions described as belonging to the Passive
voice, are often followed by adjuncts that may be clas-
sified either as complements rather closely connected, or as
adverbials that, here and there, might be omitted without any
considerable loss of meaning. 'No hard line of demarcation
can here be fairly drawn ; but it will be remembered that,
speaking rather strictly, complements are adjuncts that must
be employed, and adverbials are adjuncts that may be em^
ployed, but may often be omitted without a destruction or a
serious alteration of the meaning intended. [See § 47.]

1. « He to J>am weardmannum becom [He came to those watchmen].' —
JElfbic. ' pey ne myjt neuer here [hear] whydyrward he was bpcome
[gone]. Now is Pers hy come bry eke [poor ; c].' — E. Mannyng. ' Sythen
[Afterwards] by -com man's lyf les [c].' — Hampoo!. 'It well becomes
[= adorns] the ground.' — Shakespeake. ' When it is grown it becometh a
tree [c].' — Bible. ' They became guides [c] to mankind,' — ^Pope.

2. 'Her is fyr micel [much fire]. Hwser is j^aet tiber [sacrifice] ? ' —
C-KDMON. [The complements here are the adverbs her and hwaer.] 'I

YERBS ; COMPLEMENTS. 325

was come' — Ltbgate. ' AH things thataro [ «» exist] hare some operation.'
— Hooker. [Here 'are' requires no c] 'It is very cold.' — Shakespeare.
' Hajp'py is the man. . . . "3.0^ good diudiho-w pleasant it is.' — Bible. ' Though
all is easy, nothing isfeeble.'—W. Irving. ' Are yon going? Are you going
to write r — G. ' I have dwelled.' — Mandeville. ' I haif been here this
■whyle.' — Henbyson. 'Kichard might asaued [have saved; c] hymself.' —
Old Chronicle. ' He has come to London. They are come. They are gone.'
— G. 'He did bede me. One bade me. I did me hie. Then I hied me.'
— Ltdgate. ' Thus did both these nobles die'— Chevy Chase. ' They did
say their prayers. I did send to you.' — Shakespeare. ' All living creatures
he doth feed.' — Milton. ' I hope we shall witness all this, if the French
do come.' — S. Smith.

3. ' pil scealt Isaac me onsecgan {devote']. He sceolde his drihtne
>aiician [He was bound to thank his Lord].' — Cjedmon. ' This dette ssel
[shall = owes] ech to othren.' — Dan Michel. ' By that feith Ischal [owe]
to you. If thou be right riche, thanne schalt th.ou fynde .... frendes.'
— Chaucer. ' I schal rise up and go to my fadir.' — Wtcliffb. * Thou
shalt dwell with me.' — Robin Hood. * There shal no pore neighbour of
mine bere no losse.' — Sir T. More. 'Ich wille telle 30U.' — William of
Shpreham. 'It wolde never bere fruyt.' — Mandeville. 'Oplondysch
[Rustic] men wol lykne ham-sylf to gentil men.' — John of Trevisa.
' What will you buy 1 ' — Lydgate. ' I will be thy friend' — Robin Hood.

* • If we take the square root, we will [ = shall] have twenty -four.' — G. ' This
will never do.' — Jeffrey. [Here ' do ' has a complete meaning = ' do well,'
or ' be good for ' something.]

4. ' Now the time seems come.' — Milton. * The king grew vain.' —
Dryden. ' They all grew worse.' — Prior. ' He returned a friend who
came a foe.' — Pope. ' The mind of a young creature cannot remain empty.'
— Berkeley. 'Learning wiser grows.' — Cowper. ' The foam lay white on
the turf.' — Byron. ' This block of marble weighs a ton. The stem measured
nioicfeet round.' — G.

6. ' Se bisceop him Cristes lare tsehte [The bishop taught him Christ's
lore], pa circlican j^eawas he bser getaehte ]?am preostum [He there
taught the priests ecclesiastical rites].' — ^lfric. 'Give sorrow words.

* Knock me [ =for me] at this gate.' — Shakespeare. ' Give me understand-
ing. . . . Teach me tliy statutes. . . . Saddle me [ =for me] the ass. . . .
Woe worth [ = be to] the day ! ' — Bible. ' Teach m^ to live.* — Bishop
Ken. ' What you write can never yield us delight.' — Dryden.

6. ' No man mi3te daunte or make tame hym.' — Wycliffb. ' Nothing
can we call our own. . . . They hailed him father of a line of kings.' — Shake-
speare. ' Did I request thee .... to mould me wia».?'— Milton. 'To
make them kneel he gave every one of them a hassock. ... It makes nature
administer to his pleasure.' — Addison, * All men agree to call vinegar
sour, honey sweet, aloes bitter.' — Burke. * Military government rendered
the lives of men insecure.' — Hume. ' We allow him vanquished.' —Sir W.
Scott. ' Do not think me ungrateful. He found all his wants supplied.' —
Mason, E. Gram. ' Friendship makes the world a home. They made us
welcome.' — G.

7. * Ye wolde eschewe to be cleped [called] an averous [avaricious]
man.' — Chauceb. • You would be taught your duty.' — Shakespeare. ' He
was forbidden access.' — Hume. * Each must be allowed its share of time.'
— Johnson. 'Churchill had been made a baron.' — Macaulay. 'Alex-
amfer was called the Great.' — MAS0N,f£J. Gram. 'We were taught men-
suration.'— G.

326 syntax: examples.

COMPLEMENTS: PHRASES.

Ohservations. — 1. Some intransitive verbs — sucli as 'con-
sist ' and ' remain ' — and several transitive verbs, in their
meanings like ' make' and 'take,' are often so employed as
to require the aid of phrases serving as complements.

2. Several perfect participles, and some other words often
nsed as complements, are so far vagne in their meanings that
they must be followed by other adjuncts to make complete
predicates. In a rather minute style of analysis, one adjunct
might here be treated as the complement of another ; but two
or three must in many instances be taken together, in order to
make the predicate complete. Ex. : ' He thinks himself ohliged
[1] to he [2] sad [3].' The second adjunct partly defines
the first, and the third defines the second. The three, taken
together, make a phrase that defines the use of the verb
thinks.

3. Several transitive verbs, in their meanings like ' ad-
vise,' ' compel,' and ' reduce,' are followed by phrases that
might perhaps be well classified with ordinary adverbials ; but
these phrases are, in many instances, closely connected with
the verbs to which they belong. It is of course understood
that there can be no great error in treating as adverbials the
phrases noticed in the examples appended. The facts of prac-
tical syntax make difierences and defects of classification
inevitable. There are constructions in which boundary lines
drawn by theory appear but faintly, or vanish. [^S^ee § 43.]

1. 'He will make it i'o ben cryed [published].' — Mandeville. 'Take
him for all in all' — Shakespeare. ' He maketh me to lie down in green
pastures. . . . He turneth the dry ground into water-springs, and there he
maketh the hungry to dwell. He causeth them to wander. Yet setteth
he the poor on high. * What went ye out /or to seel ' — Bible. ' I took it for
a vision.' — Milton. ' Sometimes wit lieth in a pat alhision.' — Barrow.
' The comely order of the house is turned all into coiifusion.' — Howe. ' My
chief aflfliction consisted in my being singled out .... as a proper object
on whom he might let loose his cruelty.' — Cowpeb. 'The destruction of
the fleet hardly appeared to have added to our security.' — Southey.
' We made them play the game out. They held his valour in high esteem.
I regarded him as a friend. How could you take a flatterer /or a friend V

2. ' Harold seyde .... hyt [his oath] was compelled to be yswore.* —
John of Tretisa. 'Ambition should be made of sterner stuff ' — Shake-
speare. ' He thinks himself obliged to be sad.' — Addison. ' Nobody will
be argued into slavery.' — Burke. ' Man is made to mourn! — Burns. ' He
cannot be said to have fallen prematurely.' — Southey. ' He was at once
set to rtde the state.' — Macaulay. ' His enemies were soon reduced to
despair.' — Gr.

ADVERBIALS. 327

3. ' Claudius had commanded all Jews to depart from Rome.' — Bible.
' He would have all men to bend to his plans.' — Angus. ' They doomed
him to die. The Cape then belonged to Holland' — Q-.

COMPLEMENTS: CLAUSES.

Clanses serve respectively as subjects, attributes, adver-
bials, and objects. But in certain instances clauses very
closely connected with the abstract verb, or with vaguely
predicative verbs and participles, have been classed with com-
plements. A few examples are appended. One apparent
example is here omitted. It should be regarded as a name.
[Exod. iii. 14.]

' I am 05 7 am.' — "Wtatt. ' All things are as is their use' — Turbee-
viLE. ' How [much is] a score of ewes [worth] now ? [That is] thereafter
as they be' * Accommodated — That is when a man is, as they say, accom-
modated.'— Shakespeare. ' I am persuaded that none of these things are
hidden' — Bible. ' His solicitor had informed him that his jplea could be of
no use' — H. Walpolb. 'You are persuaded that Lord Amherst will de-
fend Kew Bridge.' — S. Smith. ' Things are not what they seem.' — Long-
FEixow. ' The purse was where I left it.' — Morell, E. Gram. ' I convinced
him that he was mistaken. The opinion of the judge was that the prisoner
was guilty.' — Mason, E. Gram. * I was informed the house was sold.' —
Adams, E. Gram.

47. ADVEEBIALS.

The term Adverbial — employed in its widest sense —
is here applied not only to words called adverbs, but also
to all phrases and clauses serving to define or to modify
the meanings of verbs and attributive words. The Attri-
bute enlarges or modifies the meanings of substantive
words ; the Adverbial, those of predicative and attributive
words.

To show more clearly the nature of adverbials, it may for
a moment be supposed that they are not employed. Without
their aid an assertion may still be made complete. ' Clear
daylight appeared.' Again, an assertion is made complete
when the abstract verb and a complement take the place of
the intransitive verb appeared. * Clear daylight was appear-
ing.* To express completely a transitive act, an object must
follow the verb. ' The wind dispersed the clouds.' In each
of these examples one act alone is asserted. Two facts may
of course be asserted in two sentences. ' Clear daylight
appeared. The appearance of^ay light was sudden.* A single

328 syntax: examples.

word may well take the place of the latter sentence. ' Clear
daylight appeared sudderily.'

Again, two acts — one transitive — are asserted in the fol-
lowing two sentences : — ' The wind dispersed the clouds. Clear
daylight appeared.' These assertions might well be connected
by and, but each would still remain independent. One
would not be made subordinate to the other. But the two
acts asserted are viewed as intimately connected with each
other. Forms of expression should, as far as possible, repre-
sent truly our notions and correspond with our observations
of facts. This law is obeyed when an adverbial-phrase takes
the place of the former sentence. ' The wind dispersing the
clouds J clear daylight suddenly appeared.' Or instead of a
phrase a clause may be employed. ' As the wind dispersed the
clouds, clear daylight appeared.' The three adjuncts thus
employed are formally various ; one is a word, another is a
phrase, and the last is a clause. But all are alike in their
common use. They serve to define and modify an assertion
made by a predicative verb, and are therefore called adverbials.

As regards their more important uses, adverbials are
divided into three classes.

(a) The first includes those defining assertions of acts or
transitions, viewed with respect to place and time, quantity
and quality, sequence, manner, means, degree, and limitation.

' At a late hour they arrived.' Their arrival is asserted with a reference
to time ; but the two notions of arrival and lateness are not always or
inevitably related to each other.

(6) The second class includes adverbials expressing relative
notions of comparison, proportion, condition, and causality.

* Two-thirds must be less than the whole! The adverbial is one of com-
parison, and the notion asserted is inevitably relative.

(o) The third class includes adverbials of affirmation and
negation.

There remain still unnoticed many adverbials that, in an extensive
treatise, might be classified, but here may be collectively called various.
Their different uses are best shown in the sentences to which they respect-
ively belong, and here can be indicated only by means of nouns having
cognate meanings. We have, for example, adverbials denoting union ('to-
gether ') ; division (' piecemeal ') ; exclusion (' waiving that ') ; substitution
(' instead of that ') ; asking (' how,' ' where,' ' when,' ' why,') ; answering (' to
that') ; guessing (' say, twenty ') ; haste {'yare,' 'briskly ') ; delay (' at leisure') ;
will (' leuere' ' readily ') ; choice (' as you like ') ; opposition (' on the con-
trary'); defiance ('for all that'); aid ('for your sake ') ; politeness (' by
your leave'); modesty ('for my own part'); moderation ('for the most
part') ; finality (' after all ') ; eternity (' evermore '). Hardly any class ia

ADVERBIALS I WORDS. 329

more numerous than that of the adverbials denoting capacity and introduced
\>y as. These are distinct from others (' as to,' ' as regards,' etc.), also in-
troduced by as, and serving as phrases denoting references, retrospective or
prospective (' as touching,' ' as concerning,' ' ane7it that').

The adverbials most frequently occurring in a writer's style serve partly
to indicate his culture, and distinct sections of literature have severally
their own classes of adverbs. As there are topics and writings fairly called
trivial, so there are cognate trivial adverbials. "We have, for example, ad-
verbials of childish imitation (' rub-a-dub,' ' tweedle-dee ') ; of hesitation
(' willy-nilly ' = will ye, nill ye) ; of confusion (' pell-mell,' 'helter-skelter') ;
of contempt ('I care not a straw').

No meanings can be really stronger than those of the adverbs employed
in yes and no. But adverbials of asseveration are redundant in some sections
of literature. The obsolete phrase b?/ my halidom is a comparatively inof-
fensive example of numerous old expressions. Of these many, by familiar
misuse, lost long ago their first meanings, and disguising (as well as they
might) their original forms, passed over into the class of words and elliptical
phrases called interjections.

Adverbs should help to define or modify predicates ; but here and
there a writer inserts a word or phrase to show that his meaning is inten-
tionally left vague, or is expressed with much caution, such as is implied in
saying • as it were,' or ' so to speak.' "With a similar intention like
(without a complement) is used in some dialects ; for example, in answering
a query : — ' How far may it be to the " Swan " ? ' ' "Why, its gainly four mile
like.'

Among the examples already given, some might misrepresent adverbials
as expletive or unimportant parts of sentences. On the contrary, right uses
of these adjuncts have great importance. In grammar it is required only
that the predicate shall be complete, not that it shall be true. But in his-
torical and didactic literature it is also required that, as far as possible,
the predicate shall be made true; and this must often be done by means of
such expressions of limitation, qualification, and condition as are classified
with adverbials. Habitual right uses of these adjuncts are sure indications
of culture. ' It is an advantage of no mean importance to be able to grasp
in one grammatical expression a general truth, with the necessary limita-
tions, qualifications, and conditions which its practical application requires,
and the habitual omission of which characterises the shallow thinker.' —
Marsh, Lectures on tJie English Language.

ADVERBIALS: WORDS.

Observations. — 1. As regards their forms, adverbials, ex-
cepting a few, are cognate with other parts of speech. In
the words yes (a contracted sentence) and no (a contracted
phrase) the adverbial elements are ye (= ge, E.I.) and ne
(reduced to n). The words yes and no, it is said, should not
be called adverbs. They must, then, be treated as elliptical
expressions including adverbs. [See §§12, 20, 37.]

(a) In prose numerous adverbs are words having distinct
^ms ending in ly. There are a few adjectives ending in

330 . syntax: examples.

ly, to which the adverbial suffix should not be added. [See

§ 12-]

(b) In prose some adverbial uses of adjective forms are
established, and others not commonly accepted as correct are
found in the literature of the last three centuries. It is not
everywhere easy to draw a line of distinction between adjuncts
called Adverbials and others called Complements.

2. (a) As regards their uses, words called adverbs belong
mostly to the first of the three classes of adverbials.

(6) But there are a few ^rms (sometimes denoting infer-
ence) that refer to notions of causality more frequently and
more clearly expressed in clauses.

(c) For our ordinary uses of negative forms Modern
English has a rule that was not known in old times. Two
negatives, when relating to one verb, are not allowed. They
are, however, often so employed when one has the form of a
prefix, and they are of course rightly used when a twofold
denial or prohibition is implied. In verse they serve
sometimes (but rarely) instead of the ordinary form of
affirmation.

(d) It is in many places clear that some words called
adverbs serve to modify the meanings of nouns. Many
adverbs have uses so numerous that here they must be collec-
tively called various.

(e) Here and there a form usually employed as an adverb
{then, for example) serves as an adjective, and here and there
an adverb (now, for example) serves as a noun. There are
examples of adverbs employed as verbs.

3. As regards their places, adverbials — especially the
words called adverbs — are versatile, and an adverb may some-
times be moved without an alteration of the meaning intended.
The chief rule of position is this — where it is not used to
modify the general tone of a whole sentence, the adverb
should be placed near the word or the phrase intended to be
modified.

(a) Placed at the beginning, an adverb may give defini-
tion or emphasis, or a modified tone, to the whole of a sentence.
Thus the adverb even, placed as an initial word, may show
that an assertion is remarkable chiefly with respect to the sub-
ject, while the same word even, placed in another position,
may give force to the verb itself. Examples of such adverbs as
even, only, and accordingly, rightly employed in several places,

ADYEllBIALS : WORDS. 331

will be found mora useful than our rules for placing adverbs.
Many examples are given in the sequel.

(b) The adverb may precede an adjective, a verb, a com-
plement, an adverb, an adverbial-phrase, or an object ; but
the adverb often follows the object. It is here implied that
the adverb may be placed between an auxiliary verb and
its complementary infinitive or participle. The adverb im-
mediately preceding a predicative verb serves often to give
emphasis to an assertion.

(c) The adverb may follow an intransitive verb, or one
of the verbal forms falsely classified as belonging to a so-
called Infinitive Mood. In numerous instances the adverb
follows the object of a transitive verb.

Examples. — 1. (a) ' pas word sind sceortlice gesaede [These words are
shortly said].' — King Alfred. ' Hyt ys no3t clerlych [clearly'] yknowe.' —
John of Tbevisa. ' This false knyght was slayn .... hastily.' — Cha-ucer.
• Prey hym that he wyll trewly [ = fairly] belassch hym.' — Paston Letters.
' Let us hartely thank him.' — Sib T. More. ' He answered them very
wisely.' — Ascham. ' Thus arose political societies among men naturally
equal.' — Hooker. ' Some books are to be read ordy in parts.' — Bacon.
' Merrily, merrily shall I live now.' — Shakespeare.

(h) 'A folk ferr \_ = faroff] &nd first [ = formerly] vncuth.' — Cursor
Mundi. [Each of these forms serves as a and as x.] ' Hire her is fayr ynoh
[Her hair is fair enough].' — Old Song. [Each of these forms serves as a and
as X.] ' 'Eoldfast the form of sound words.' — Bible, [fast serves as a and
as X.] * Scarce can they tread the glowing ground. . . . The snow covers the
hills. How wide and deep it lies ! ' — Shaftesbury. [Scarce serves often
as a and as x = scarcely ; wide serves as a and as x ; deep as a and as x.]
' To buy cheap and sell dear is their rule.' [cheap has at \arious times
served as s, as a, and as x ; dear as s, as a, and as x.] ' This poor child
looks very coW.' ' She answered me very coldly.' — G. [Here the distinct
form has a distinct use. [See § 12.]

(o) ' Sleep lay flat on the ground.' — Sackville. * She speaks small,
like a woman. . . . All [= Quite] foredone [= tired out]. . . . How sweet
the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! ' — Shakespeare. ' Fast [ = Close] by
the tree of life.'— Milton. 'The hearse that bore thee slow away.' —
CowpEH. ' The meteor flag of England Shall yet terrific burn.' — Campbbix.
[In poetry adjective forms are in many places more expressive than adverbs
ending in ly.]

2. (a) ' Wat [ = Partly] vor honger, wat [ = partly] vor wo, men deyde.'
— Robert of Gloucester. * pys man ere ys somdel [somewhat = partly]
ychaunged.' — John of Tbevisa. ' If thou be right riche.' — Chaucer. ' I
had lever [rather] he were fayr beryed.' — Paston Letters. ' Many poesies
are yejf extant.' — W.Harrison. ' Prosperity doth best discover vice. . . .
First [correct], metals are more durable ; secondly, they are more solid.' —
Bacon. ^Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further.' — Bible. '1 thence in-
voke thy aid.' — Milton. • It breaks through the clouds and then shines.' —
Stillingflebt. 'I have seldom answered.' — Dbtden. *I have almost
forgot that.'— Stbpxk. * Affairs take a still worse turn.' — Humb. ' Alighting,
' he advanced.' — Smollett. • Whet^ill she turn, and whither? . ... On

332 SYNTAX : EXAMPLES.

went she, and dice north her journey took.' — Wordsworth. 'While Nelson
was living to watch the combined squadrons of the enemy, we felt ourselves
as secure as now, when they were no longer in existence.' — Southey,
[now relates sometimes to the latter of two occasions, both past.]

(b) ' We, then, that are strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak.
. . . Therefore thou art inexcusable. . . . Wherefore ye must needs be sub-
ject.'— Bible. [These adverbs relate to preceding arguments.] ' Hence
it is inferred. . . . Whence it follows.' — G-. * i^row Aewce it must follow.'
— Butler. [This phrase = hence, and is used by good authors ; but the
preposition is useless.]

(<?) * 8othely\Truly\?i\\.Q thingesrenovelen [renew themselves]. . . . Ne\
ne say not [Nor do I deny] that thou w maist wel schrive the [that thou mayst
well shrive thee].' — The Persones Tale. 'Nor did they not perceive.' —
Milton. [Unusual.] ' I deny not but that it is of greatest concernment.'
— Milton. [The meaning intended remains when but is omitted.]
' Such a course of life cannot but [= must] end in misery.' 'It is not im-
possible.' — Gr.

{d) ' Well, and .... what might the gentleman say ? — Why, he roundly
asserts .... that you have not one idea of your own .... nay [=yea,
and more'], that you are so unlucky as not to have the skill even to steal with
taste. . . . Now, another person would be vexed at this.' — Sheridan.
[It is in some places hard to draw the line that makes separate adverbs and
interjections.]

{e) ' The then Bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty.' —
Clarendon. ' Now Griant Despair had a wife. . . . Well, on Saturday,
about midnight, they began to pray.' — Btjntan. [The author employs now
and well as words connecting principal sentences.] ' We may collect the
excellency of the understanding then [existing] by the glorious remainders
of it now [existing].' — South. ' His forehead [was] wrinkled .... by
thinking of his whens and hows.^ — Wordsworth, Peter Bell.

3. (a) ' Sothely I seie to thee.' — Wtcliffe. 'Immediately the cock
crew. . . . Even a fool, when he holdeth his peace, is counted wise. . . .
Only Luke is with me.' — Bible. ' Yet we know that all offences are to be
forgiven.' — Drtden. ' Even we ourselves choose rather.' — Shaftes-
bury. ' Sure it is not armour, is it ? ' — Fielding. ' Sincerely, then, do
you like the piece? — Wonderfully! .... Really, I can't agree with my
friend Sneer. . . . Yes, yes, you do.' — Sheridan. ' Certainly no man ever
bestowed such a gift.'— Jeffrey. ' Accordingly he sailed for Canada.' —
Southey. ' Unfortunately he thinks too highly of himself.' — Angus.
' Whence comest thou ? Whither shall I flee ? ' — Bible. * Where is he going ? '
' Where do you come from ? ' — Gr.

(b) ' Work never so mammonish is in communication with nature.' —
Carlyle. [x, a. These and the following signs show the order in which
adverbs are placed.] ' Taxation hardly presses on the rich, but presses
hardly on the poor.' [x, v; v, x. The adverb is used here with the two
meanings of slightly and severely.] ' I seriously admire the piece.' — Sheri-
dan, [x, v] ' She slowly and naturally turned away her head.' — Scott.
[x, v] ' We might say that they did not persecute, but they only punished.'
— Macaulay. [x, v] ' Other joys are but toys.* — Walton, [x, c] ' Gro-
vernors are therefore appointed.' — Bolingbroke, [x, c] ' I must needs
have tired you.' — Pope, [x, c] 'Men of letters have accordingly ceased
to court individuals. We will not positively afl&rm that.' — Macaulay.
[x, c. The position thus denoted is otherwise named. * The adverb ' (it

ADVERBIALS: WORDS. 333

is said) * is often well placed between the auxiliary [the vague verb] and
the verb ' [i.e. a verbal /orw used as a complement]. 'You are not only
older, bat also stronger than he.' [x, c] ' The effects may be traced even
at the present day.'— Macaulay. [x, xp] 'I should have done ^ms^ as
he did.' — Fiklding. [x, xc] ' He died solely because he could not help
it. . . . That prince had governed without any Parliament, and even when
Parliament was sitting, had supported Buckingham.' — Macaulay. [x, xc]

• Yet those have done full well.' — Ascham. [c, x] • Is he frightened
now?* — Fielding, [c, x] 'Brown was a civil fellow enough. . . .
[c, x] Have you never [ = not] a son ? ' — Smollett. [This sequence x, d
— not ordinary when x is expanded and o is a word — occurs usually in two
cases : when x is a brief negative, and when o is a clause, or is followed by
ac] ' I graunte wcl that I have erred.' — Chaucer, [x, o] ' The Lord
added to the church daily such as should be saved.' — Bible, [x, o] * I
know very well that many are apt to despise both poetry and music' —
Temple, [x, oc] ' I observed, too, that he turned over the leaves.' — "W.
Ikvino. [x, oc] ' We spoke not a word. . . . We carved not a line, and
we raised not a stone.' — Wolfe, [x, o] ' He had vastly the advantage.'
— Hawthorne, [x, o] ' If you had added, therefore, some conditions. . . .
He sent, therefore, ambassadors to Carthage.' — Dr. Kennedy, [x, o] * We
then saw clearly enough our own mistake.' [x, o]

(c) * He looked up, steadfastly.' — Bible, [v, x] ' London was, but is
[ = exists] no more.' — Evelyn, [v, x] ' Indeed you saw right.' — Fielding.
[v, x] ' He that read loudest was to have a halfpenny.' — Goldsmith,
[v, x] ' We remained awhile in silence.' — Southey. [v, x] ' It is in the
hands of men who will spend less liberally.' — Macaulay. [v, x] * The
number of the disciples multiplied in Jerusalem greatly. . . . Came it unto
you only ? ' — Bible, [v, xp, x] ' I'll never trust an innocent face again.'
— Fielding, [o, x] ' He treats his subject home.' — Dryden. [o, x] ' I
shall see you again. We shall take walks together.' — Cowper. [o, x] ' If
we understand it r?^A%. . . . They discuss it freely. . . . We should prize
it far less.' — Macaulay. [o, x] ' Have you given it them, yet ? ' — Db Foe.
[o, X, x] • He loves money only too well.' [o, x, x, x] 'I punished them
oft in every synagogue. . . . We will give ourselves continually to prayer.
. . . Give thyself wholly to them.' — Bible, [o, x, xp] * He drives his
reader along with him.' — Dryden. [o, x, xp]

The two rules appended here are the results of our common usage in
placing attributes and adverbials.

In an attributive clause, that or which relates to & ne&T substantive word,
[See § 46, aauses.]

The adverbial following an object relates to a near verb, or attributive
word. [See § 7.]

In the following excerpts the sign a shows here and there the place
where the adverb might be well inserted. * ' A One wretched actor only
deserted his sovereign.' — Gifford. ' A One species of bread of coarse
quality was only allowed to be baked.' — Alison. ' Thoughts are otUy
criminal a when they are first chosen.' — Johnson. ' He only took them
A because every other boy was afraid.' — Southey. * Thales was not only
famous A for his knowledge of nature, but [also] for his moral wisdom.' —
Enfield. ' We not only saw A the Queen, but [also] the Prince.'— G.

• Sinners also lend to sinners, to receive a as much again.' — Bible. * To
the verb only [ = aloiie] belongs the force of assertion. ' Abdiel only [ = alone]
^as faithful.' * To slowiy trace th^orest's shady scene.' — Bybon. [The

334 syntax: examples.

place of the adverb is unusual.] ' You may come to-morrow, oidy \_ = hut'\
I am not sure of meeting you.' — Gr.

ADYERBIALS: PHRASES.

Observations. — 1. {a) Of the various forms of adverbial-
phrases several have been noticed (in § 43), and others will be
seen in the examples appended. All phrases serving in any way
to define the meanings of verbs and attributive words are
here treated of with respect to their common relation, and are
accordingly called adverbials. Among their various other
nam.e8 two examples must be especially noticed here, as they
are often employed in parsing sentences like the following: —

' Frigoribios parto agricolae pleruTnque fruuntur.' — Virgil.

^ In frosts their earnings farmers Tnost enjoy.' — Gr.

When parsing for etymology we describe the forms of words
and phrases ; in parsing for syntax, their relations. In Latin
grammar we have names of certain forms, and to a considera-
ble extent these names serve also to indicate relations. Thus
when a sentence tells of rain falling, or of a storm rising, we
see in such forms as caelo and alto not only that they are
formally ablative, but also that in their uses they are both alike
adverbial. In Latin, cases of nouns are in numerous instances
called adverbs, but other cases, as truly adverbial in their
uses, are described as dative or as ablative forms. Thus
plerumque is an adverb, but frigoribus is called an ablative
form, though both are alike adverbial in their relation. The
two nomenclatures respectively belonging to etymology and
to syntax are here mixed together, yet without such confusion
as we have in English parsing, when the objective case is em-
ployed as a term commonly applied to words having widely
difi'erent uses. To set aside the term, several English gram-
marians have rather freely employed names of Latin cases.
This cannot consistently be done, for — excepting the posses-
sive, which has a narrow range of uses — we have not one
case-ending of nouns. On the other hand, if names denote
uses, the words ' genitive,' ' dative,' and ' ablative ' cannot
describe well our uses of numerous phrases serving instead of
inflexions. It is allowed, however, that the names referred to
would be better than our so-called * objective case,* which has
no distinct forms and has widely different meanings.

In our ordinary mode of parsing a sentence like that
given above, most is of course called an adverb. In its relation
it is like the phrase in frosts, but this is not treated as an ad-

ADVERBIALS: PHRASES. 335

verbial. First of all the phrase is dissected, and then frosts is
described as *a noun in the ohjective case governed by the
preposition in.' The phrase is thus isolated, not treated as
one of the four distinct elements in the sentence. Obviously
such parsing as this belongs more to etymology than to
syntax. A minute dissection of phrases does not show that
union of elements which makes a sentence. The objective
case is so often named that it must be more distinctly noticed
here.

' The Ohjective Case.'' — The appended parsing of a simple sentence shows
the construction and the use of an adverbial-phrase. In an ordinary mode
of parsing, the following would perhaps be the whole account given of the
noun in the phrase referred to : — ' River is a common noun, neuter, singular,
and in the ohjective case, governed by the preposition into.''

' Many streamlets flow into the river.'

Many an adjective of number belonging to streamlets.

streamlets a common noun, neater, plural ; the subject.

jiow a verb intransitive of the new conjugation, in the indicative

mood and the present tense ; plural, third person, in con-
cord with streamlets.

into a preposition, showing the relation of river tofl^w.

the a demonstrative adjective, belonging to the river.

river a common noun, neuter, singular, dependent on the preposi-

tion into.

into the river an adverbial-phrase defining or extending the meaning of the
verb fl^w.

The division of the phrase into three words shows its construction ; but
in parsing for syntax the use must also be shown. Every part of the sen-
tence has some relation to one of its chief elements. The ordinary parsing
is, therefore, followed here by an observation showing the use of the phrase,
taken as a whole and defined as one of the chief elements in the sentence.
The phrase is made of a preposition, an adjective, and a noun, but is em-
ployed as an adverbial adjunct to the predicate.

(&) Numerous adverbial-phrases are formed of prepositions
followed by nouns or pronouns, and are therefore called, with
respect to their structurCy 'prepositional phrases.' The nouns
so employed include many verbal forms denoting actions.
These nouns are sometimes called 'gerunds.' Where the
action is transitive an object follows, and thus a phrase is
made including a preposition, a verbal noun, and an object.

Greneral Syntax describes the elements of sentences and their relations.
The minute analysis or dissection of isolated phrases, considered as existing
apart from their relations, belongs to Special Syntax. [See § 49.]

336 syntax: examples.

positions, and prepositions are followed by certain nouns made
appropriate by the laws of usage. The sequences referred to
are idiomatic, and relate partly to etymology. These sequences
— to some extent variable — can never be clearly prescribed
by any series of rules, however numerous. Extensive reading
and habits of minute observation must here take the place of
theory. [^See § 49.] So numerous are adverbial expressions
that, after all endeavours to classify them under names show-
ing their uses, there remain many that must be collectively
treated as adverhials of reference. In some instances these
serve as connective phrases, and are otherwise almost ex-
pletive.

2. (a) Adverbial-phrases have generally uses already
ascribed to adverbials without respect to their various forms.
Simple adverbs, though numerous, cannot denote clearly all
the ways in which acts may be defined as regards place and
time, sequence, manner, means, degree, and limitation. We
have, therefore, numerous phrases supplying more definite
forms of expression. For example, the phrase near that tree
is more definite than the simple adverb there.

(h) Considered as means of expressing relative notions —
comparison, proportion, condition, and causality — phrases
are clearer than words, and clauses are clearer than phrases.

3. (a) Adverbial- phrases often begin sentences, and some-
times, when so placed, refer to preceding sentences.

(h) Adverbial-phrases often follow verbs and comple-
ments. It is of course implied that adverbial-phrases
often follow compound tenses, including those of ' the passive
voice.'

(c) Adverbial-phrases often follow objects of transitive
verbs and nouns dependent on prepositions. As regards its com-
parative freedom of position, the adverbial differs widely from
the attribute. The latter should always be placed near the
substantive word to which it relates. But it is understood
that the adverbial relates to a verb, or to an attributive word,
and therefore a dependent noun, or an object — sometimes an
object with an attribute — may come between a verb and an
adverbial. In numerous places the meaning of the adverbial
is not shown hy means of reference to the nearest verb or verbal
form,

(d) Other positions are less noticeable, but three may be
named. An adverbial-phrase placed between the subject and

ADVERBIALS: PHRASES.

337

the verb looks, sometimes, like an attribute. [/See § 45,
Phrases.']

(e) An adverbial-phrase is sometimes placed between a
verb and its complement. This position is not inconvenient
when the phrase is short.

(/) An adverbial-phrase is sometimes placed between a
verb, or transitive verbal form, and its object. As a general
rule this position is to be avoided when the object is a word
and the adverbial consists of several words ; but an adverbial-
phrase may rightly precede an object having the expanded
form of a clause. With respect to position, the adverbial is
the most versatile of the elements employed in forming sen-
tences.

(a) Examples of Nouns Employed in Adverbial-Phrases.

As to money, he's rich enough.
At midnight we arrived.
At that time we were absent.
At this degree it freezes.
He arrived at neon.
He learned by teaching.
He stayed at our house.
He went into thefidd.
He will come another time.
I walked along the shore.
I walked ten miles.
In that place we remained.
It is raining in the valley.

It was cut with a sword.

It was done /or that cause.

It was done on a large scale.

It was done for your sake.

Let us go into the playground.

She died for want of food.

They scattered flowers on her

path.
They are soaring over the cliff.
We were to some extent fortunate.
With sword in hand he came.
You were well paid for your

care.

(6) As regards the forms of adverbial-phrases, two of those most fre-
quently occurring have been named. {^Observations, 1, i.] But these forms
are indeed so various, that we may say with an old writer, ' an adverb may
be made out of anything.' The following list does not give all the names
applied to the forms of adverbial-phrases : —

Forms of Adverbial-Phrases.
It was said in haste.
You are come in good time.
He spoke to me.
He lives to eat.
He learns by teaching.
He learns by teaching others.
We stayed there three days.
Having rested, they marched on.

Thou away, the birds are mute.
Him destroyed .... all this wiU
soon follow.

Names of Adverbial- Phrases.
Preposition + Noun.
Preposition + Adjective + Noun.
Preposition + Pronoun.
Infinitive ; Verbal Noun.
'Preposition + ' Gerund.'
Preposition + ' Gerund ' + Object.
Adjective + Noun.
Imperfect Participle + Perfect Par-
ticiple.
' Nominative Absolute.*
♦ Dative Absolute.'

[The last form serves in many places as an imitation of the Latin
' active absolute.'] ' I schewe yow h«nr ye schulde here yow in getyng of

t538 syntax: examples.

riches.'' — Chaitcee, The Tale of Meliheus. [This is a form often recurring
in old literature. The next excerpt is modern.] * He is bent on acquiring
wealth.^ — G. \_8ee § 49, Sequences.']

2. (a) Adverbials of place and time are very numerous : — ' Fyse hig
man georne [drive them with all speed] ut of }>ysan earde.' — King Cnut,
Secular Laws. ' William potte J>at kny3t out of cheualry' — John of Tee-
YisA. ' The Sonne fro the south line is descendid.' — Chaucee. ' The Lord
bless thee out ofZionJ — Bible. ' Throughout the whole of those lives there
appears,' etc. — ^Roscoe. 'Ye shed rain from heaven [Lat. caelo'] on the
seed-lands [Lat. satis'l' — Trans. 0/ Viegil. ' The dead still rule our spirits
from their umsl — Bteon. * He saw a sail appearing in the distanced
' There lie on the north side some barren tracts.' ' Caves are often formed
ioi limestone.' ' The moon sheds radiance over the water.' ' Flowers
bloom along the bank.' ' The canal intersects the plain from north to south'
— G. Time : — ' He hit [that land] haefde vii winter.' — Queen Eadgifu,
A.D. 960. ' This twenty years have I been with thee.' — Bible. ' Old
families last not three oaks.' — Sie T. Beowne. ' Methusalem might be
half an hour in telling what o'clock it was.' — Steele. ' Six hours a day
the students were employed.' — Swift. ' The moon shines too, though not
for lovers, these cold nights. '-^Fot?e.

Adverbials relating to the circumstances, the means or instruments, and
the modes of actions are very numerous : — ' The saboth Tnaad, Jhesus bigan
for to teche.' — Wycliffe. [The translator follows closely the Latin sab-
bato facto = ' when the sabbath was come.'] * Thou away, the very birds
are mute.' — Shakespbaee. * I shall not lag behind, thou leading.' — Milton.
* This done, he withdraws and leaves them.' — Buntan. ' The fire continu-
ing, I took coach.' — Evelyn. ' Ujpon looking wp, "What mean," said I,
" those great flights of birds ?".... Sir Roger, jpopping out his head,
called a coachman.' — Addison. ' The supper done .... they form a
circle.' — Buens.

' The children sported with the laughing waves.
The sunshine glancing on their naked limbs.' — Alex. Smith.

Means : — ' The whole river, \in'\ rushing down a steep rock, forms a
noble cascade.' — Smollett. 'Streamlets by flowing together form rivers,
and caverns are made by the tricklings of many rills.' — G-. Instrumentality :
— ' Orpheus, with his lute, made trees bow themselves.' — Shakespeaee.
Manner : — ' He was techynge hem [them] as hauynge power.' — Wycliffe.
' John Cornwal, a mayster of gramere, chayngede ]>e construccion of [ =
from] Freynsch into EnglyschJ — John of Teevisa. \/.e. he taught boys
to put Latin into English, not into French. — Introduction.'] ' Our aunt
observed, with a toss of her nose, that Brown was a civil fellow enough.' —
Smollett. ' In these friendly groups they range the forest. . . . You see
them going about at their ease, and conversing with each other in short,
pithy sentences.' — Gilpin. ' He related, with a grave face, how old Mr.
Cave saw a ghost.' — Macaulay.

Measure, Weight, and Price : — ' pat welle ys bote [only] twenty foot
long and twenty foot brood, and no3t deop bote [except] to pe kneo.' — John
OF Teevisa. 'His brain outweighed his rage but half a grain.' — S.
Butlee. ' At Verona, in 1228, the interest of money was fixed by law at
twelve and a half per cent.' — Hallam. ' That is cheap at a shilling.' ' These
are cheaper at a shilling a gross.' ' He does not care a straw for you.' ' This
block of marble weighs a ton.' — G.

ADVERBIALS: PHRASES. 339

(b) Comparison and Proportion: — 'There ben watres that ben fuUe
byttere, three sithes [times] more than is the water of the see.' — Mandb-
viiXE. Ms wel may the eherl be saved as the lord.' — The Persones Tale.
' All their sporte is but a shadoe to that pleasure that I find in Plato. . . .
In respect of it [study] all other pleasures be but trifles.' — Lady Jake Grey.

• Kecreation is to the mind as whetting is to the scathe.' — Bishop Hall.

* As good almost kill a man as a good book.' — Milton. 'Advantages may
be bestowed in proportion to degrees of virtue.' — Butler. ' [These] appear
to great advantage.' — Gilpin. ' It was doing on a larger scale what we see
done every day on a smaller scale.' — Arnold. '-By her in stature the tall
Amazon had stood a figmy's height. . . . These accents — 0, how frail
to that large utterance of the early gods ! ' — Keats. ' The present constitu-
tion of our country is to the constitution under whioh she flourished fi.ve
hundred years ago what the tree is to the sapling.' — Macaulay.

Limitation and Finality: — 'In brief, he [the hypocrite] is the stranger's
saint.' — Bishop Hall. ' Upon the whole matter .... I take him to have
been more happy.' — Cowlet. ' For my ovm part, I could not but be
pleased.' — Addison. ' It -is, upon the whole, a duty which every man
owes.' — Blackstone. * [It] may be learned in a very considerable degree
by example.' — Home. ' It is a happy world after all.' — Paley.

Causality and Purpose: — 'In that lond he wolde suffre deth .... for
to delyvere us. ... A strong man scholde have ynow to done for to bere o
[one] clusire with alle the grapes.' — Mandeville. 'All things do her
[divine law] homage, the very least as feeling her care.' — Hooker. 'What
went ye out for to see .?.... He knew that for envy they had delivered
him.' — Bible. 'Studies serve for delight.' — Bacon. 'Why have we so
many lawyers but to secure our property ? ' — Goldsmith.

Reference: — * As for jest, there be certain things which ought to be
privileged from it.'— Bacon. 'As for money, neglect it not.' — Walton.

* .^5 for being known much by sight, I cannot comprehend the honour.'
— Cowley. 'These are to take a final leave of you as to this world.'
— Ray. 'As toiwhing the ordinances, I will deal plainly with you.' —
Arnold.

(c) Affirmation and Negation: — 'All other pleasures, in very deede, be
but trifles.' — Lady Jane Grey. ' Th' one has my pity ; not a Jot the other.
. . . You delight not in music. Not a whit when it jars so.' — Shake-
speare. ' [He] will by no m^ans clear the guilty.'- - Bible. [The phrase,
here emphatic, is often vaguely employed instead of not.'] 'The best
kind of glory, no doubt, is that which is reflected from honesty.' —
Cowley. 'Do you imagine that it is the land-tax which raises your
revenue? No! Surely no! ' — Burke. 'I must say "guilty" z<pow my
honour.' — H. Walpole. ' Talk not of an inn ! Mention it not for your life.'
— CowPER. ' It was completely ill-natured, to be sure. . . . 0 no ! anxious,
not I, not the least.' — Sheridan. ' A man's a man for all that.' — Burns.
' Are all prepared ? They are — nay [ = yea], more— embarked.' — Byron.

3. (a) Adverbial-phrases ofien begin sentences: — 'In brief, he is the
stranger's saint.' — Bishop Hall. ' This done, he leaves them.' — Bunyait.

♦ In all parts of biography Plutarch excelled.' — Deyden. ' Much about the
tame time, I walked out into the fields.' — De Foe. ' From the first [cause]
you derive a claim to respect.' — Junius. ' From her situation Rome is
exposed to the danger.' — Gibbon. ' As to comedy, you have not one idea.' —
Sheridan. ' In other wars we have been a divided people.' — R. Hall.
' Amording to him, every person was to4be bought.' — Macaulay.

z 2

340 SYNTAX : EXAMPLES.

{b) Adverbial-phrases often follow verbs and complements : — ' Studies serve
for delight. . . . Some books are to be read only in parts.' — :Bacon. * I was
received vert/ kindly, and went Jhr Tnany days to the academy.' — Swift. ' I
write to make you write' — "West. ' His hostility arose from the vexation
which he felt. . . . The [rate] is now reckoned at one in forty-five. . . .
The historical literature of England has indeed suffered grievously /row
a circumstance which has not a little contributed to her prosperity.' —
Macauxat.

(c) Adverbial-phrases often follow objects of transitive verbs and nouns
dependent on prepositions : — ' Some prying maids reported that they saw
a lady [o] in a fardingale [ap] through the key -hole [xp].' — Pope. ' We have
hampered our antagonist in such a manner that .... we shall lay him
fairly on his back.' — G-oldsmith. ' Mention it not for your life.' — Gowper.

' We interpret the particular act by the general character. . . . Our rulers
will best promote the improvement [o] of the people [ap] by strictly con-
fining themselves [xp, I] to their own legitimate duties [xp, 2].' — Macaulat.
[Here the first adverbial relates to promote ; the second to the transitive
verbal form confining.]

(d) * The whole river Clyde, [in] rushing down a steep rock, forms a very
noble cascade.' — Smollett. ' The herald then, seeing each champion in his
place, uplifted his voice.' — Scott. [See § 45, Phrases.]

{e) ' Meretricious ornaments of every kind are by uncultivated minds pre-
ferred to the chaste elegance of nature. Metaphors should on no occasion
be scattered with too profuse a hand.' — W. Irving. ' I stand here before
you as one who has now for the seventh time been chosen by you.' — Arnold.
' A circumstance which has not a little contributed to her prosperity.' —
Macaulat.

(/) * [The waters] overspread, without limit or control, the plains and
cities.' — Gibbon. ' It was doing on a large scale what we see done every
day on a smaller scale.' — Arnold. 'We may observe [v, transitive], to the
honour of Mr. Southey [xp, 1], that he never speaks of the people [oc] with
that pitiful affectation of contempt [xp, 2].' — Macaulay. [The former
phrase intervenes between the verb and its object-clause ; the latter, fol-
lowing the object-clause, relates to the verb speaks.]

ADVERBIALS: CLAUSES.

Observations. — 1. (a) Adverbial- clauses relate to verbs
and attributive words, and are usually connected with phrases,
clauses, and sentences by means of adverbs and subordinative
conjunctions. [See § 14.] Here and there the initial word
is a verb. Clauses denoting proportion are introduced by
such phrases as the more and the less.

(h) In clauses of condition and supposition — as in some
expressions of commands, wishes, fears, and purposes — forms
and constructions called subjunctive are sometimes em-
ployed, especially in our older literature. [See § 46, Moods.]

(c) Where the intention is to avoid the use of forms and
constructions as serving mostly for making assertions, subjunc-
tive modes of expression are still employed here and there ;

ADVERBIALS: CLAUSES. 341

but for their appropriate uses we have no rule that is com-
monly observed. [^See § 46, Moods.']

2. The uses of adverbial-clauses are generally like those
of the numerous phrases that serve instead of simple adverbs.
(a) Such relations of place, time, sequence, etc.j as maybe de-
noted by phrases are often more clearly expressed by means
of adverbial-clauses.

(6) E-elative notions of comparison and proportion, con-
cession and exception, condition and causality, intentions,
results, and apprehensions, are often expressed by means of
adverbial-clauses. Of these some have the constructions
called subjunctive. [See § 46, Moods.]

3. The best places for adverbial-clauses are the three here
chiefly noticed, (a) The adverbial-clause often precedes the
principal sentence. This position is ordinary where the clause
is long, but may sometimes denote emphasis.

(6) The adverbial- clause often follows the verb or its com-
plemcDt. It often follows, therefore, the attributive part of a
compound tense.

(c) In many places an adverbial-clause follows an object,
or a noun dependent on a preposition. A simple adverb or an
adverbial-phrase often precedes an adverbial-clause. For
the sake of emphasis, the beginning of a sentence or of a
period is the best position for an adverbial having an expanded
form.

(d) Other positions are less to be commended. Here and
there an adverbial-clause is placed between the subject and
the verb.

(e) A brief clause is sometimes placed between a verb and
a complement, or between a verb and a following subject
having the form of a clause. This is a place more conve-
niently occupied by a simple adverb.

(/) Where the object is considerably expanded, it some-
times follows an adverbial-clause; but where the latter is
considerably extended, it can seldom be placed conveniently
between a verb and its object. Among the examples ap-
pended, one deserves especial notice. In this instance two
adverbial-clauses and a phrase of the same kind are inserted
between the verb and the object-clause. The passage is
noticeable, because the writer's usual style is remarkably
correct. [Examples^ 3,/.]

<Whe quotation borrowed belongs to* review of Southkt's Colloquies on
Society, and the reviewer is Macaulay.

342 syntax: examples.

Examples. — 1. (a) ' As nature has instructed those kings of trees, so has
reason taught the kings of men.' — Sir W. Kaleigh. * When he should
give, he looks about him, and says, "Who sees me?"' — Bishop Hall.
' When all is done, human life is but like a froward child.' — Sir W.
Temple. ' The further you follow it, the deeper and broader 'tis.'— Fel-
rHAM. ' As Sir Roger is landlord to the whole congregation, he keeps them
va. very good order.' — Addison. ^ Bo what you can, there will still be a
bias from education.' — Berkeley. ' The more they midti'ply, the more
friends you will have.' — Burke. ' As the harren country afforded hardly
any provisions, they were reduced to feed on berries.' — Kobertson. ' Whe-
ther this story be true or not, he was beyond all question miserably poor.' —
Macatjlat.

(b) ' If thy fortune chaunge .... fare wel frendschipe! ' — Chaucer.
' If the method he confused .... then the ideas which we receive must be
imperfect.' — Dryden. ' Had all the gentlemen of England made the same
improvements, our whole country would have been at this time as one great
garden.' — Addison.

' If we are miserable, it is very consoling to think that there is a place,
of rest.' — Goldsmith. ' If it is abuse, why one is always sure to hear of
it.' — Sheridan. 'If this goes on a hundred years,' etc. — Jeffrey. ]^8ce
§ 46, Moods.-]

2. {a) Adverbial-clauses of place and time are numerous : — ' Whither
thou goest I will go, and where thou lodgest I will lodge. . . . Where thou
diest I will die. . . . Where two or three are gathered together in my name,
there am I. . . . Before Abraham was I am. [Here the sequence of tenses
is quite unusual.] . . . Since the world began was it not heard. . . ^
When he is come he will reprove the world of sin.' — Bible. ' Where once
we dwelt our name is heard no more.' — Cowper. ' Where the business of
government is confined to a few, the faculties of the many become torpid.' —

KOSCOE.

Degree : — ' As far as the interests of freedom are concerned, you stand in
the capacity of the federal representatives of the human race.' — E. Hall.
' So far as the sphere of feudality extended, it diffused the spirit of liberty.'
— Hallam. 'It implies that we understand them to be vast, immeasurable,
impenetrable, inscrutable, mysterious, so that at best we are only forming
conjectures about them.' — J. H. Newman.

(b) Comparison and Proportion: — 'Mr re libels have been written
against me than almost any man now ' vi fg.' — Dryden. [Clauses of com-
parison are usually elliptical. See § i 5 ] ' We admire it now only as an-
tiquaries do a piece of old coin.' — South. ' He tells that, and twenty more
[old stories], as he hath done ever since the Revolution.' — Steele.

' As duty, love, and honour fail to sway.
Fictitious bonds, the bonds of wealth and law,
Still gather strength, and force unwilling awe.' — Goldsmith.

* They clung about him as captives [cling] about their redeemer.' — Burke.
'Poetry is as immortal as the heart of man [is immortal].' — Wordsworth.
' Their debts were more than they were able to discharge.' — Arnold.
' Honour and shame were scarcely more to him than light and darkness to
the blind. . . . As the magic lantern acts best in a dark room, poetry effects
its purpose most completely in a dark age.' — Macaulay. ' As science maJces
progress m any subject-matter, Tpoetry recedes from it.' — Newman. 'The.

ADVERBIALS: CLAUSES. 34,>

squire looked at the parson as if he could have beaten himj' — Lytton. ' He
looked dreamy, as if he was thinking of old times' — Gr. ' In narrative
poetry, pictures are but passingly named, 05 scenery is noticed by a traveller
still proceeding on a journey.' — English Poets.

Concession and Exception : — ' TJiough he slay me yet will I trust in him.
. . . Except these [shipmen] abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved.' — Bible.
' The use and benefit of good laws all that live under them may enjoy,
albeit the grounds from whence they have sprung be unknown' — Hooker,
' Where the laws required two witnesses, he would not accept one, though
it were Cato himself — Addison. * I should not have gone to law but that
I was assured of success.' — Gtoldsmith. ' No work of this sort can be profit-
able, unless the public be unlling to pay.' — Macaulat.

Condition and Causality : — ' Sith it hath liked hym to send us such a
chaunce, we are bounden .... to be content.' — Sir T. More. ' We are
forced to raise our rents by reason we must buy so dear.' — W. Stafford,
1581. ' Had he been born an absolute prince, his humanity and good sense
had rendered his reign happy.' — HtJME. [In p, as in xc, the construction
is subjunctive, denoting in each case that the writer is expressing a suppo-
sition. 8ee § 46, Moods."] ' I hope we shall witness all this [display of
courage] if the French do come.' — S. Smith. ' He only took them because
evtry other boy was afraid.' — Sottthet. [The right order would be only
because, etc.] ' He retired .... since he could not fulfil his natural calling.'
— Arnold. ' He tells us that Bishop Sprat was very properly so called,
inasmuch as he was a very small poet.' — Macatjlay. ' We overestimate the
value of Talent, because it dazzles us ; and we are apt to underrate the im-
portance of Will, becattse its works are less shining.' — Gr. H. Lewes. ' The
Spartans, you say, were hard men because they hadhard laws ; nay, the
laws were hard because the men were hard.' — Gr.

Intentions, Apprehensions, and Results: — ' Follow my counsel, less [lest]
ye meet either with poverty or Tyburn in the way.' — Ascham. ' Take heed
lest any man deceive you. . . . Take heed that no man deceive you. ...
Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long' — Bible.
' That our readers may be the better able to appreciate the merits of this de-
fence, we will state, as concisely as possible, the substance of some of these
laws.' — Macaitlat. ' The fir-trees and cedars of Lebanon blend their
voices, and the dead are called up from their graves, that they may join in
a song of triumph over a fallen oppressor.' — English Poets.

(c) ' The understanding was then, as it were, the soul's upper region.* —
SoxTTH. ' True it is — as St. Paul observes — that .... the duties of natural
religion may be discovered.' — Berkeley. ' My merits, whatever they are,
are original and personal.' — Burke. ' Bold as your assertions are, they are
but one-sided.' — Gr.

3. (a) ' As he goes on in mathematics, the road becomes smooth and
easy.' — Home. ' Were he never so benighted, there is always hope in a man
that actually and earnestly works.'— Carlyle. 'As his own mind is small,
he can see nothing great.' — Gr. [N.B. The best places for adverbial-clatises
are shown in the examples already given.]

(b) ' Who can direct, when all pretend to know ? ' — Goldsmith. * The
black rock .... was visible, and continued to be so, until they came to a
turn.' — ScoTT. ' On that side they would not descend, because it was too
steep.' [Several examples have been given in noticing the forms and the
uses of adverbial-clauses.]

344 syntax: examples.

not make use of my coral until they had taken away the hells from it.' —
Addison. [Several examples have been given in noticing the forms and
the uses of adverbial-clauses.]

id) ' The woollen coatj for example, which covers the day-labourer, as
coarse and rough as it may ajpjpear, is the produce of the joint labour of
a great multitude of workmen.' — A, Smith. ' We are, on the whole,
inclined to think .... that the labouring classes of this island, though
they have their grievances and distresses .... are, on the whole, better off.'
— Macaulay.

(e) ' The understanding was then, as it were, the soul's upper region.' —
South. ' My misfortune was that, when the wind served, I happened to be
with a party in the country.' — Gtoldsmith.

(/) ' We are, on the whole, inclined to think, though we would speak
with diffidence on a point on which it would be rash to pronounce a positive
judgment without a much longer and closer investigation than we have
bestowed upon it, that the labouring classes of this island, though they have
their grievances and distresses— some produced by their own improvidence,
some by the errors of their rulers — are, on the whole, better off as to
physical comforts than the inhabitants of any equally extensive district of
the old world.' — Macaxjlat. [The placing of the adverbials is not good.
Viewed apart from the writer's name, the whole period might pass as
an attempt to put into English the involved sentences of some German
author.]

48. OBJECTS.

Objects, defined with respect to their relations, are
those substantive expressions which directly or imme-
diately follow transitive verbs and verbal forms, and make
complete such predicates as denote transitive acts. The
object might, therefore, be rather vaguely called a com-
plement, but in speaking more distinctly it should be
described as a completion of a transitive verb. The
word transitive, as employed here, applies to any verb
that, in any given passage, expresses the notion of a tran-
sitive act, or one described as passing on and requiring an
object.

A verb that in one place is intransitive may in another be transitive.
In dictionaries we have stereotype 'verbs intransitive' and 'verbs transi-
tive ' — i.e. verbs so called without respect to their contexts. But these
hard definitions are not practically regarded. [See §§ 11, 46, Verbs, 2.]

The act expressed by a transitive yerb is described as
one that passes on from a cause or an agent, and either
so as to create something or so as to make a change in
something. This general notion is modified when we
speak of acts that have no real effects, and of objects that
are ideal.

objects: words. 345

The notion of causation, strictly understood, implies a transference of
force, such as is denoted in the assertion ' He felled a tree.' But in the
sentences ' They saw the rocks ' and ' He made logic his study ' no such
transference is implied. A question might here arise — Does there exist,
apart from our own notions, any ground for the distinction made between acts
that pass on and acts that do not ? The question is named because it might
be suggested by some words here employed. It belongs, however, to general
logic, or to science strictly so called. The grammatical distinction made
here relates only to the usages of Modern English. A verb that, in our
own tongue, is indirectly/ followed by a substantive expression may, in
another tongue, be directly followed, and, vice vcrsd, our direct sequence may
for translation require an indirect sequence. The English verb attack and
the French attaquer are cognate in their etymology and are equivalent in
their syntax. But in syntax agree is not equivalent to agreer, and annoy
is not equivalent to nuire. In numerous instances similar variations of
construction make our modern syntax distinct from that of First English.
The latter is often like Latin in the employment of genitive and dative
cases after certain verbs.

The object answers the question asked by putting
whom or what after a transitive verb, and in giving
the answer no preposition, either expressed or under-
stood, is required in good English. This is the gram-
matical rule for finding the object.

To the rule there is but one exception, and this is merely formal or
apparent. Ex.: 'He would like to come.' He would like what? To come.
Here the main part of the substantive giving the answer is come, a verbal
noun often called ' the infinitive.' This is employed as s, or as o, and has in
M.E., as in E.II., the sign to prefixed. In E.I. the particle to was prefixed,
not to the subject having an infinitive form ending in an, but to an oblique
case ending in anne. This is sometimes called 'the gerund' and 'the
dative ; ' but these names do not clearly indicate its various uses, which
are generally such as belong respectively to attributes, complements, and
adverbials. These uses were formally indicated by both the ending and
the particle. In M.E. the particle in to write — employed as s or as o — has
not the usual force of the preposition. Nor has it the force of to in adver-
bial-phrases denoting purposes. Ex.: '"We came here to play, not to
quarrel.' In the sentence ' To work is my pleasure,' to is a sign, and its use
— that of the noun-suffix ing. 7b work used as s or as o = working, and,
with a shade of distinction in meaning, = work. Hence this use of the
particle to makes no true exception to the rule that objects directly or im-
mediately follow transitive verbs and verbal forms.

OBJECTS: WORDS.

Observations. — 1. The names given to words serving as
objects are various. Of these names several must be noticed,
because they are often employed.

(a) It should first be obiferved that the name ohjed^ as

346 syntax: examples.

used by some grammarians, has a meaning far wider than
that of the definition already given.

' The object,^ says Dr. Kiihner, * includes all that bears a relation to the
predicate so as to make it complete, or define it more closely.' \^Greek
Grammar, 1865.] Accordingly, he goes on to show that o^ecits are denoted
by the following forms : — any one of the three cases of nouns, the Accusa-
tive, the Genitive, and the Dative ; a case used with a preposition ; an in-
finitive {i.e. a verbal noun) ; a participle ; an adverb. This very wide
definition is noticed only to show that it is not accepted here. Writers
accepting it would speak of direct or of immediate objects when they defined
such words as we have described and called objects. Such words, it might
be added, have in Latin the form of the accusative case; but the latter
assertion requires modification. In the sentence ' They enjoy their earnings '
the last word is f he object ; but to put it into Latin the ablative form
{parte) would be employed.

(6) Among the nouns and pronouns that in English follow
transitive verbs, many follow directly, and would, in Latin,
have accusative case-endings.

(c) Other nouns and pronouns are placed next to tran-
sitive verbs, but follow indirectly. Their indirect sequence
is shown by the fact that, without change of meaning, one of
the prepositions to or for may be placed between the verb and
the substantive word, which, in Latin, would have the form
of the dative case. The use of the dative is adverbial, and
its forms give answers to such questions as ' To whom ? ' ' For
whom ? ' ' For what ? '

In Latin, as in E.I.,the noun would have an accusative and the pronoun
a dative form in the sentence 'Forgive us our trespasses.' In the ordinary
way of parsing, all the nouns and all the pronouns here referred to are
treated as so many substantive words in the objective case {b and c), and
no notice is taken of the difference shown in these observations.

{d) Among our substantive words many follow preposi-
tions, and thus serve to form phrases having adverbial uses,
including among others those which, in Latin, are denoted
by the forms of dative and ablative cases.

Substantives depending on prepositions are also commonly described
as nouns and pronouns in the objective case. The substantive so defined
may serve as an object, or as an adverbial, or as part of an adverbial.

(e) In each instance the question arises, how shall it be distinctly
named ? In the first place {b) it is here called an object ; in the next (c) it
is called an adverbial ; in the third {d) it is treated as forming a part of an
adverbial-phrase. When the phrase is 'parsed,' or dissected, the word de-
fendent applies to the noun or to the pronoun governed by the preposition.
[§ 43, Government; § 49, Sequences.']

2. (a) The noun has no change o^ form to show that it

objects: words. 347

serves as an object. Its use is indicated by its place, or by
the context.

(b) There are passages where doubts may arise respecting
the distinction to be made between objects and such words as
often follow objects, and serve as the complements of vagne
transitive verbs, especially of verbs like make. \_See § 46,
Complements J Words."]

(c) There are seven pronouns that have dependent or
governed forms, employed wherever these pronouns serve as
objects : — me, us, thee, him, her, them, and the interrogative
and relative word whom. But these words do not exclusively
represent objects. The same forms may be governed by pre-
positions, and — excepting whom — each may have the use of
a dative case in Latin. Whom follows to or for where a dative
adverbial meaning is to be expressed.

Of the corresponding pronominal forms in E.I. all may serve as dative
cases, and three — him, >ani, and hwam — are distinctly dative. But this
case-name cannot generally apply to our dependent forms of pronouns so
as to indicate at once their forms and their uses. To students who have
too narrowly defined the uses of adverbs it seems an innovation when me,
him, and them, as employed in many places, are classed with adverhials.
Two facts should therefore be noticed here : — The tises of the Latin dative
case are clearly adverbial, and the forms of numerous adverbs are historically
rightly described when they are called ' petrified cases of nouns and pro-
nouns.' In their relations these cases are adverbials, or are parts of ad-
verhials. [§ 49, Sequetices.'] Confusion is the result of employing in syntax
names of forms instead of names that indicate relations.

{d) The relative pronoun is not governed by the transitive
verb that governs the antecedent. As regards number and
person, the relative, by means of its position, represents the
antecedent. [§ 46, Special Observations, 8.] But an antecedent
object may be followed by a relative subject, as an antecedent
subject may be followed by a relative object. Or both may
be governed words, while the government of each is distinct
from that of the other. The relative introduces a clause, and
is governed by some word contained in this clause.

(e) The object is sometimes a verbal noun ending in ing ;
but in very numerous passages — especially in old literature —
nouns having this form are made dependent on prepositions.
The verbal noun may be intransitive, though its cognate verb
may be employed mostly with a transitive force. When tran-
sitive, the verbal has of course an object, and, taken together
with its object, makes a phrase. Adverbs sometimes modify
verbal nouns. [§ 48, Phrases, 2.]
^ (/) Here and there a wor^ seldom employed as a noun

348 SYNTAX: EXAMPLES.

serves as an object, mostly where the style of speaking is
humorous or colloquial.

3. (a) In its ordinary place the object follows the govern-
ing verb, and where they are divided by intervening elements
— adverbial or attributive — these are not greatly expanded.
[§ 47, Words,d; Phrases, S.]

(b) Excepting relation to subjects, all that has been said
of attributes applies to the uses and places of attributes be-
longing to objects. Simple adjectives precede the objects to
which they relate, but expanded attributes follow. [§ 45,
Clauses, 5.]

(c) Short adverbial expressions often precede and often
follow objects. The more expanded forms of adverbials
mostly follow. Adverbials often follow verbal nouns. [§ 47,
Words, 3 ; Phrases, 3 ; Clauses, 3.]

(d) In many places — in prose as well as in verse — the
object begins a sentence.

Examples. — 1. (a) 'The accusative denotes the immediate completion
(the immediate object) of a verb.' — Dr. KiJHNEE.

(b) Many -writers apply the name Accusative to words here called
objects.

(c) ' The Dative Case shows the person to whom something is told or
given, or for whom some action is performed.' — E. Adams, English
Grammar.

{d) All the words here variously described as ' objects,' * accusative
cases,' ' dative cases,' and ' dependent ' substantives are commonly treated
as so many examples of the objective case. The writers who thus employ
that name are too numerous to be noticed distinctly. As a contrast to their
method, the next excerpt should be noticed.

(e) ' " / told him my opinion." The object of the verb is " my opinion,"
and " him " is equivalent to to him, and consequently is in the adverbial
relation to the verb " told." ' — C. P. Mason.

2. (a) In the following excerpts all the words serving as objects are
taken together with the short nttributive words belonging to them, and are
set in Italic: — ' What numbers do I see here! .... How is it possible that
half this multitude find employment ? . . . . The catchpole watches the
man in debt, the attorney watches the catchpole, the counsellor watches the
attorney, the solicitor the counsellor, and all find sufficient employment. . . .
So the whangam [a reptile] ate the grasshopper, the serpent ate the whangam,
the yellow bird the serpent, and the hawk the yellow bird ; when, sousing
from on high, a vulture gobbled up the hawk, grasshopper, whangam, and
all in a moment.' — Goldsmith.

{b) Again, objects, taken together with their attributive words, are set
in Italic. The complements of transitive verbs are followed by the sign
cm : — ' There once lived a youth, who was well trained by an athlete, and
acquired skill in the art of wrestling. But tho trainer reserved for his
own use one sleight, of which the pupil knew nothing. However, he won,
without that, several victories — so easily, indeed, that he grew vain, and at
last he challenged his master. A fair trial of their skill soon followed.

objects: words. 849

The jouth made a violent attack. The athlete stood, for a time, firm as an
iron pillar. Then he grasped the youth, lifted him up, and laid him down.
" That sleight" said the youth, " I did not understand." " That slei_ght"
said the master, " I kept for myself ; for I remembered our old proverb
— I made the hoy [o] an archer [cm], and then he made tm [o] his butt
[cm]." '— G.

(c) ' Thy hand shall lead me. ... I will praise thee. . . . Make us
glad. . . . JFAow have I in heaven but thee ? ' — Bible. 'I believe I may
venture [= trust] thee. ... I asked Am how people did thereabouts. . . .
He bid her stay a few moments. ... I do not abandon them ; I keep them
from want.' — De Foe.

(d) ' They dart out somewhat that is piquant.' — Bacon. [The antece-
dent somewhat = o, but the relative that = s.J * He whom thou lovest is
sick.' — Bible. \_He = s, but whom — c] ' "We have found him of whom
the prophets did write.' — Bible. [Him = o governed by ' found,' but whom
is dependent on the preposition.] ' Obey them that have the rule over you.'
— Bible. [Them = o governed by ' obey,' but that = s of the clause.]

♦ Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you.' — Bible.
[Here the order usually observed is inverted, and ac precedes p. Whom
= 0 governed by * worship,' and him = o governed by * declare.' The
same inversion of order is seen in the next excerpt.] • Whom he called,
them he also justified.' — Bible. [Whom = o governed by 'called,' and them
= 0 governed by ' justified.']

(e) ' Fredome makes man to have liking.' — Baebotjk. ' He knew oure
britil making.' — Herefoed, Psalter, ' pe water ]?er-of ha]> wondur [won-
derful] worckyng.' — John of Trevisa. ' Tak not sair in mind the waver-
ing of this wretchit warld of sorrow.' — Dunbar. ' He heard minstrelsie
and daunsynge.' — Tyndale. ' [I], now pride of youth is past, do love to
be and let all seeming pass.' — G-ascoigne. ' I remember the wooing. . . .
I hear a knocking' — Shakespeare. ' If he read little, he had need have
much cunning [ability].' — Bacon. ' Thou rulest th^ raging of the sea.' — •
Bible. ' The multitude of sufferers does not lessen, but [does] increase the
sufferings.' — J. Taylor. 'He first made writing easily an art [cm].' —
Dhyden. ' No person can take amiss our not visiting.' — Southby. ' Oh,
who would not welcome that moment's returning ! ' — Moore. ' She would
have no more prophesyings.' — H. Morley.

(/) ' Mark you his absolute shall !' — Shakespeare. ' 'Tis heaven itself
that points out an hereafter.' — Addison.

3. (a) • Follow it step by step.' — Locke. * Have you given it them
yet ? ' — De Foe. ' They owed their advancement to her choice.' — Hume.

* You could not lose it by mistake.' — Junius. ' He has Coke and Hales for
him.' — Goldsmith. ' John divided the silver among them.' — Richardson.
' I seriously admire the piece. . . . What is the purpose of showing a work
to a friend ? ' — Sheridan.

(6) ' This invention had employed all his thoughts.' — Swift. ' Your
tropes suit the general coarseness [ a, o] of your style [ap following o].' —
Sheridan. ' It was time to declare the pledge [o] of Rebecca [ap] for-
feited [cm].' — Scott. • Cyrus attacked the Persian soldiers [a, o] stationed
in front of the king [ap following o].'— G.

(c) ' I shall be willing to allow a man one round of my watch.' — Steele.
' They saw a lady [o] in a fardingale [ap] through the key-hole [ax to v].'
— Pope. ' To recover at any price the honour of his friendship.' — Junius.
^ou shall see on the right hand a ^ox of my making.' — Cowpbr. ' The

350 syntax: examples.

Temple sondeth not forth her champions [o] against nameless men [xp
tov].' — Scott. * He will prosper your going out and your coming in' —

SOUTHET.

(d) ' The same we term a law. . . . The use and benefit of good laws all
who live under them can enjoy.' — Hookeb. * And this we enjoy daily.' —
Walton. ' Paul I know, hut who are ye ? ' — Bible, ' Him the Almighty
Power hurled headlong .... from the sky.' — Milton. ' The praise of
Bacchus then the sweet musician sung.' — Detden. ' Slavery they can
have anywhere.' — Buekje. ' These calamities our Eevolution averted.' —
Macaulay.

OBJECTS: PHRASES.

Ohservations. — 1. Verbal nouns, like verbal adjectives and
complements, require objects when their meanings are transi-
tive. Objective phrases may consist of verbal nouns followed
bj words either directly or indirectly governed ; in the latter
case, a preposition intervenes between the verbal noun and
the dependent substantive word. It should be remembered
that the relation of a word following a verbal noun belonging
to a phrase does not show the relation of the whole phrase
itself, which may serve as an adverbial or as an attribute.

{a) When followed by words directly governed, or when
employed alone, the infinitive forms of which to write is an
example may serve to make objective phrases.

(6) Verbs in meaning like expect are followed by infinitive
forms of which to see is an example. These forms, serving as
objects, may at the same time require objects, and may follow
either the present or the past forms of preceding verbs.
Without its usual sign to, an infinitive form may follow any
one of the verbs called auxiliary and irregular, excepting he
and go ; or may follow a substantive word placed next to any
one of the following verbs : — hid, feel, hear, let, need, and see.
The substantive word placed next to a verb in meaning like
helieve or know is sometimes followed by to he with a comple-
ment, as in Latin the Accusative is often followed by the In-
finitive, and thus forms an objective phrase.

(d) Compound infinitive forms, less frequently employed
than the forms already noticed, serve to make objective
phrases.

2. (a.) In Modern English many attributive and adverbial
phrases consist of forms in ing made dependent on preposi-
tions and followed by objects ; in E.II. forms in ing, employed
as nouns, are in numerous instances made dependent on pre-

objects: phrases. 351

positions, and words following nouns in ing are frequently-
made dependent on the preposition o/, as in the following
excerpt, which is taken from an old treatise called ' A Tale,'
and commonly ascribed to Chaucer : —

' Fastynge stont [ = consists] in thre thinges; in forbering of [ = ab-
staining/roTTi] bodily mete and drink, and in forbering of worldly jolit6,
and in forbering 0/ worldly synne.' — The Persones Tale.

Our extended modern uses of words directly governed by-
verbal forms in ing are to be classed among the chief chai-ac-
teristics of Modern English. Of the two following phrases
it is on the whole correct to say, the former is old and the
latter is new : —

Old. New.

' By the preaching of repentance.' * By preaching repentance.'

The preceding excerpt from The Persones Tale truly
represents numerous old constructions of verbal nouns ;
but for words of the same class E.II. has other constructions,
of which examples are given in the sequel. [Examples, 2, a
and &.]

(6) Verbal nouns in ing, governed directly, but followed
by words governed indirectly, serve to form objective phrases.

(c) Here and there verbal nouns in ing, placed as objects,
and at the same time so as to govern objects, serve to make
objective phrases. Of these phrases several, though rarely
found in books, have been made common enough by colloquial
usage.

(d) The compound verbal forms, made by placing parti-
ciples after having, or being, or having been, are proportion-
ately seldom employed. They serve here and there as
objective phrases or as phrases made dependent on preposi-
tions. Phrases like having loved may of course be followed
by words directly governed.

(e) In many places a verbal adjective in ing, followed
by an object, makes a phrase, of which the relation is some-
times attributive and sometimes adverbial.

3. (a) In the examples already given, showing the usual
places of adverbials, the places of objects are also shown.
[See § 47.]

(b) When an adverbial and an object come together —
both relating to one verb — the form more expanded often
follows ; thus the phrase often follows the word. But as
regards a place near the verb, the claim of the objective
phrase is generally prior to that of any adverbial, excepting a
simple adverb. [8ee, in this stction, Phrases, 1, 2.]

352 syntax: examples.

Examples. — 1. (a) 'He ongan [began] smesig&n[to study].' — King
^LFREB. ' This man began to build.* — Bible. ' He no-w prepared to speak.'
— Milton. ' An [One] ongan fyrene [an evil deed] fremman [to do].' —
Beowulf. 'He ongan hi laeran [to teach them]. . . . All begin to mock
him. . . . All began to make excuse.' — Bible. ' William grauntede hys
enymyes to do pe same.' — John of Teevisa. ' I did not think to shed a
tear.' —Shakespeare.

(b) ' I expected to plough my land last Monday.' — Cobbett. * ' I thought
to have slain him where he stood.' — Scott. [Here to slay him is the correct
phrase.] ' Last week I intended to begin building the wall.' — Gr. ' Se bis-
ceop hine let faran [let him go].' — ^lfbic. 'He wolde gladly here this
heremyte preche' — Mandevilie. ' ' When the French king saw them flee.' —
LoedBerners. 'Myself. ... do love to Be, and let all Seeming pass.' — Gas-
coiGNE. ' Bid me discourse.' — Shakespeare. ' I saw a mob gather about me.'
— GrOLDSMiTH. ' I hear thee speak of a better land' — Mrs. Hemans. 'We
heard the cataract roar.' ' I saw him catch the trout.' ' I saw the bat flit
by.' — G. ' I knew thee to be expert.' — Bible. ' I believe the man to be
guilty.' — C. P. Mason.

(c) ' Every man must begin to be more ready to amend himself — Ascham.
' By that sin fell the angels ; how can man, then, .... hope to win by it ? '
— Shakespeare. ' Satan went round the globe, contriving constantly to
ride with darkness.' — Macaulat.

(d) ' Ye wolde eschewe to be cleped an averous man.' — Chaucer. ' Such
groans .... I never remember to have heard.' — Shakespeare. 'They
love to be called " Rabbi." ' — Bible. ' Sir William remembered the coat to
have been frequently worn by his nephew.' — Goldsmith. ' I should like to
have known that good Samaritan.' — Thackeray.

2. [In the following examples words belonging to phrases and directly
governed are set in Italic, (a) ' Than [ = Then there] is discipline oek (also)
in suffring ^acientlj urrojtges that ben doon to him, and eek in pacient sufFer-
aunce of maledies.' — 2 he Persones Tale. ' So joy I in you seeing [i.e. in seeing
you].' —^iR P. Sydney. ' What a brave privilege to be free from receiving
and from paying all kinds of ceremonies! ' — Cowley. 'He occupied him-
self with farming his glebe. . . . Nelson gave orders for boarding that shi'p.
. . . The French protested against giving him ^^w ^ro?^i/(?.' — Sotjthey. [The
special syntax of each phrase has been noticed. As to their general syntax,
each of the phrases here dissected is an adverbial, excepting the attributive
phrase \for boarding that ship.']

(b) ' This sacrament bitokeneth ^Ae knytting togider of Christ and of
holy chirche. . . . We schuln give rekenyng of every ydel word.' — The
Persones Tale. ' The mayor called a common council for to purvey the
withstanding of these rebels." — Fabian. ' Would your honour please to
let the bespeaking of the table alone ? ' — Sterne. ' It is not everybody
who could have so dexterously avoided blundering on the daylight.'—^
Macattlay.

(c) ' Thou respect' st not spilling Edward's blood.' — Shakespeare. * I
like hearing music' — C. P. Mason. ' He does not like paying his debts.
. . . They soon began building the walls.' — G.

(d) ' We cannot help being dismayed at the prospect.' — Jeffrey.

(e) *Ye schul flee avarice, usyngeyowre richesse.' — Chaucer. 'Wanting
money, I might not then speed.' — Lydgate. * Eneas departed, bearing his
old fader.'— GAXToy!. 'So is my love still telling wAa^ is told.' — Shake-
SPBAEB. 'Demas hath forsaken me, having loved this present world.' —

objects: clauses. 353

Bible. «He conceives that he ought to be a Paul Pry choosing our opinions
for us.' — Macaulat. [The general syntax of the phrase is not noticed
here, where the aim is only to point out some words directly governed.]

OBJECTS: CLAUSES.

Observations. — 1. With one exception, all that has been said
in defining noun- clauses placed as subjects applies also to ob-
jective clauses. These are sometimes placed in apposition
with nouns ; seldom in apposition with it. The ordinary con-
nective of abstract objective clauses is that, which is sometimes
omitted. [See § 44, Glauses.]

2. Pronouns and adverbs used in asking questions are
also employed as connectives of concrete objective clauses.
Several clauses, connected or unconnected, may be governed
by one verb, or by one verbal adjective. Clauses are
often governed by the verbal nouns in ing, called gerunds.

3. (a) The places of objective clauses are mostly shown
in the examples given to show the more ordinary places of
adverbials. \_8ee § 47.] Where an adverbial and an object
come together — both relating to one verb — the form more
expanded often follows; thus the phrase often follows the
word, and the clause often follows the phrase. As regards a
place near the verb, the claim of a direct object is generally
prior to that of any adverbial having a form considerably
expanded.

(6) As regards attributive adjuncts, all that has been
said of attributes qualifying subjects applies also to the various
forms of attributes employed to qualify objects. Simple
adjective forms precede the words qualified ; but the more
expanded forms of attributes follow. The attributive clause
must be placed near the word k) which it belongs, and can
seldom be well employed to qualify an objective clause taken
as a whole. [iSee § 45, Clauses, 5.]

(c) In its ordinary place, the objoct follows the verb or
governing word ; but, for the sake of emphasis or variety,
an objective clause may be employed to begin a sentence.
\_See § 65.]

Examples. — 1. 'Yee schuUe understonde that Machamete was horn in
Arahye' — Mandevillh. 'He chargede J>a< hy scholde take no prayea
\^= spoils]' — John of Trevisa. ' Now schul ye understonde that the re-
levy nge of avarice is misericorde [mercy] and pitS.' — The Fersmes Tale.
' Solomon saith truly : " Of making many books there is no end." ' — Fttllkk,
♦For just experience tells, in every soil,
• That those who think must govttn those who toil.* — Goldsmith.

A A

354 syntax: examples.

We see no reason for thinking that the opinwns of the magistrate are more
likely to be right. . . . He thinks that the country is hastening to destruc-
tion.'— Macatjlay. * He held the strange theory that children are born
with minds like blank 'paper.' — Gr.

2. ' Thei ne "wysten [ =knew] never where that thei scholde arryven. . . .
The lordes of Normandy consaylde a-monge ham-sylf what were beste to do!
— John of Trevisa.

' Ask me no more where Jove bestows,
When June is past, the fading rose.' — Carew.

' It is necessary to understonde whens [ = whence^ that synnes s]pringe,
and how they encresen, and whiche they ben.' — The Persones Tale. ' Con-
sider what thou wert, what thou art, what thou shall be.' — Quarles. ' So
she asked him what they were, whence they came, and whither they were
bound, and he told her.' — Bunyan. ' He adjures the spectre to tell him
what he is and why he comes.' — Macaulay. ' What does experience prove ?
That your forefathers were great blockheads, and that their descendant is
not a whit the wiser.' — Lytton.

3. (a) ' Let the world witness /or me [xp] that I have been often want-
ing to myself [oc] in that particular [xp].' — ^Dryden. [The relations of the
two adverbials are distinct ; the former relating to witness, the latter to
wanting. '\ 'I fancy we shall have rain [oc] by the shooting of my corns
[xp].' — Goldsmith. [The placing of the xp is not to be judged by the rule
for placing ap.] * You may see with anguish [xp] how much real import-
ance and authority you have lost [oc].' — Junius. ' The British sailors re-
marked to each other [xp] what a fine sight yonder ships would make at
Spithead [oc]. . . . 'H.e ohseryed, as they were carrying him down the ladder
[xc], that the tiller ropes, which had been shot away, were not yet replaced
[oc, enlarged by ac relating to s], and ordered that new ones should be rove
immediately [oc].' — Southed. 'It was doing on a larger scale \x^'\ •v/ho.t
we see done [oc] every day [xp] on a smaller scale [xp].' — Arnold. ' Pizarro
called out with stentorian voice [xp], " Let no one who values his life strike at
the hica " [oc, enlarged by ac relating to s].' — Prescott.

(6) ' A wine merchant told her he had some Rhenish wine, which had
been in his own possession more than half a century [oc, followed by ac].*
— Southey.

(c) ' What he found amiss in the first edition, he silently corrected.' —
Johnson. ' '* There is no real happiness in this tvorld," said he, writing to
Earl St. Vincent.' — Southey. ' Whether the old or the new vice be the
worse, we shall not attempt to decide. . . . Why a spirit was to be evoked
for the purpose .... why the vicar of the parish might not have done as
well — we shall not attempt to decide.' — Macaulay. ' '^ Lenny Fairfield
should have the preference," muttered the parson.' — Lytton.

49. PEEPOSITIONS.

The elements of sentences have been described and
called respectively subjects, attributes, verbs, comple-
ments, adverbials, and objects. \_See § 43.]

With these elements that ' part of speech ' called a
preposition has not been classed, because it is a word that

niEPOsiTiONS : sequences. 355

cannot take the place of any one of the elements already
named. A word often used as a preposition may serve as
an adverb ; but the same word, treated as a preposition,
is a mere particle employed in making a phrase. The
phrase itself may be an adverbial or an attribute. The
use of the particle is as subordinate as that of the letter i
in the Latin word d6m-i (= at home). The uses of prepo-
sitions— already shown in many examples of phrases —
must here be treated of more distinctly. In other words,
the special syntax — the internal structure — of the phrases
called prepositional remains to be noticed.

The question will sometimes arise, Is the phrase attributive or ad-
verbial? In this case substitute a nearly equivalent word, and ask, What
part of speech is this ? Or substitute a clause, and ask, What is its use ?

SEQUENCES.

Observations. — 1. Prepositions serye for making phrases,
including those which serve as translations of oblique cases
in Latin and other synthetic tongues (a). Among other
phrases we have to notice those serving as attributes (&),
and those — far more numerous — serving as adverbials (c).

In parsing to show the organic structure or the union of a sentence, a
phrase = a part or member, and should not be dissected. If from must be
set apart in parsing from heaven, then O must be so treated in parsing
the word caelo.

(a) ^ Cael-o demittit imbrem'=' From heaven he sheds
rain,' and 0 in the first word =from. But a case in Latin
often requires the aid of a particle to show its force, as in the
phrase ex alto (' out of the deep '), employed when we are
speaking of a storm coming up (apparently) out of the sea ;
for alto alone might = ' in the deep.' Caelo is a form called the
ablative case, and here the name partly indicates the use of the
word, as the case serves often to denote the -place from which
an action proceeds. But the ablative, like every other obUque
case, has various uses. The names of Latin cases are sometimes
employed to describe the uses of English phrases, and are
suitable here and there ; but in many instances they are use-
less. The substitution of the general term adverhial^ as ap-
plicable to a very large majority of our prepositional phrases,
may be recommended by a reference to the history of noun-
cases, adverbs, and prepositions. In many instances cases
scfving as adverbs have been set apart and formally classified

AA 2

356 syntax: examples.

witli adverbs, while the nouns from which they at first sprung
have been forgotten. From time to time adverbs have re-
quired various modifications to make their meanings mojje
special, and to meet these requirements nouns have been
appended, so that adverbs have become prepositions, while in
many instances the particles as first used may still serve as
adverbs. In short — excepting some phrases serving as attri-
butes— our prepositional phrases are on the whole equivalent
to so many expanded forms of adverbs. These phrases have,
therefore, been mostly classified with adverbials. If thence
in the sentence ' Thence he sends rain ' is an adverb, it follows
that, as regards meaning, caelo and its translation /rom heaven
must be adverbials. \_8ee § 47, Phrases, 1, a.']

(6) Some prepositional phrases follow substantive words,
and serve as attributes. [See § 45, Phrases, 1.]

(c) Numerous prepositional phrases follow verbs, verbal
nouns, and attributive words, and serve as adverbials. Of
these many examples have already been classified, \_8ee § 47,
Phrases."]

2. (a) Certain verbs, adjectives, and complements are
more or less appropriately followed by certain prepositions,
and to some extent the prefixes of compound words indicate
the prepositions that should follow. [See § 38.]

(6) But no strict rules of sequence can be given here ;
for variations are found in the writings of our best authors.
It is in this place especially true that extensive reading is our
best way of studying syntax. [See § 13.]

Eight uses of prepositions denoting relations of place are noticeable as
fine traits in the writings of our best English poets.

(c) In prepositional sequences, as elsewhere, the mutability
of our language is shown. In old literature there are several
phrases that have become obsolete.

3. (a) Prepositions govern dependent nouns and pronouns.
ISee § 13.J

Let any word, a, require that another word, b, shall have a certain use
in a sentence, then it is said that ' a governs b.' [See § 43.]

Dependent nouns have no change of form. Among pro-
nouns there are seven having oblique case-forms, which must
be employed when the pronouns are governed : — me, us, thee,
him, her, them, whom. The vague words sometimes called t
' indefinite pronouns ' include the following, which may follow -l
prepositions : —

each

nobody

everybody

nothing

many

one

much

others

naught {or nought)

somebody

PREPOSITIONS : SEQUENCES. 357

all

another

anybody

aught (or ought)

both

The following pronominal forms may serve either as sub-
jects, or as objects, or as dependent words governed by pre-
positions:— you (and ye in M.E.), it^ this, these, that, those,
which, and the compounds myself, himself, ourselves, etc.

The following forms denote subjects, and cannot serve
as dependent pronouns : — I, thou, he, she, we, they, who.

After save and hut, which as subordinative conjunctions in E.II. = except,
the subject-forms of pronouns occur frequently in M.E.

The term dependent indicates that the words to which it applies are
not subjects and are not objects. In many grammars we find the following
rule : — ' Prepositions and transitive verbs govern substantives in the objec-
tive case.' It seems advisable to set aside a name so vaguely employed.
[See § 47, Phrases, 1, a,] We have a possessive case in ^Milton's poetry.'
When we say ' the poetry of Milton,' the attributive phrase is a poor sub-
stitute for the case. [See § 46, Words, 3.]

(Z)) The relative is not governed by the preposition that
governs the antecedent. In many sentences the preposition
is placed at the end, especially where a dependent relative is
omitted and where that is the relative. After verbs of ' giving,'
' lending,' ' sending,' 'telling,' and * showing ' prepositions are
often omitted.

The nouns and pronouns immediately following these verbs are, in
their uses, equivalent to dative cases, and among the pronouns him, them,
and whom are historically dative forms, but since Chaucer's time they have
served also as objects.

(c) A noun-clause is sometimes made dependent on a
word called a preposition. The particle hut has often the
force of except, and is treated as a conjunction. The noun-
clause, taken together with the particle, serves as an adver-
bial-clause.

This construction is as old as Chaucer's time.

(d) Prepositions may follow adverbs, and in many in-
stances words serving as prepositions may serve also as
adverbs.

(e) Repetitions of prepositions give emphasis and distinc-
tion to dependent words.

Similar uses belong to repetitions of articles and conjunctions, especially
iff places where repetition is not usu^.

358

syntax: examples.

(/) Before the relative whom several writers have em-
ployed the word than, as if it was a preposition.

"With reference to history and to general usage, than is a conjunction,
and conjunctions do not govern words ; but the sequence than whom has
been described as well established by usage. It is bad if than is taken as
a conjunction.

Examples. — 1. (a) The following examples show that in Latin, as in
E.I., either cases or phrases may in meaning be equivalent to phrases in
M.E.

M.E.
In heaven [xp] warps on a mass
of waters [ap] ;

clouds collected oiit of the dee'p

conglomerate a storm [foul] with
black showers [xp] ;

hollow rivers swell with roaring

the sea boils with reeking friths
[xp].

M.E.
We wonder at the beauty [xp]
of the sun [a].

She cried with a loud voice [xp].
If one go beyond the wood [xpj.

LATIN.

Caelo venit agmen aquarum ;

nubes conlectae ex alto

glomerant tempestatem imbribus
atris ;

cava flumina crescunt cum sonitu ;

aequor ieT:'VQt fretis spirantibus.

E.I.
We wundria'S >aBS wlitan
J>8Bre sunnan.

Heo clypode micelre stefne.
Gif man geond wudu gonge.

(b) Among the examples those followed by Gr are, like the rest, selected
from good authors. ' One would fain outlive his trial at law.' — ^Bisnop
Hall. * The difference between good and bad is infinite.* [The preposi-
tion is a compound of twain = two.] ' The Life of Pope by Eoscoe.' — Gr.

* Hunting is a game /or princes.' — Iz. Walton. ' It is high time /or me to
be gone.' — Abdison. ' Their passion for war was extreme.' — Kobertson.

* Night is the time for rest,' — J. Montgomery. ' Canute could not fail of
meeting with adulation /ro?7i Aes courtiers.' — Htjme. 'So should desert m
arms be crowned.' — Dryden. ' Their incursi(>ijs into the empire began in
the fourth century.' — Eobbrtson. ' There is nothing so delightful as the
hearing of truth.' — Addison. ' Miles of ruined tombs' — Dickens. * This
sway over other souls. ' A sight to dream of.' ' You have more intercourse
with the Germans' — Gr.

(c) ^Across his brow his hand he drew.' — Scott. 'Against thee have
I sinned.' — Bible. ' With eyes shut against the rain's driving.' — R. Brown-
ing. ' Timotheus placed amid the tuneful quire.' — Dryden. * Some fell
among thorns' — Bible. ''Twas at the royal feast [cp].' — Dryden. 'Nor
do we start at his awful name.' — Cowper. ' How bowed the woods beneath
their sturdy stroke .' ' — Gray. ' There the black gibbet glooms beside the
way.' — Goldsmith. ' A shot passed between Nelson and Hardy.' — Sotjthkt.
*Yet shall he mount .... beyond the limits of a vulgar fate.' — Gray.
' We are unregarded by the world.' * Notybr this faint I.' ' If he ask /or
bread.' ' His bowed head seemed listening .... for some comfort.' ' He
sailed /or Canada.' ' A man's a man for all that.' ' In thee have I trusted.'
' He closed his eyes in endless night.' ' Yet in my heart I feel your might.'

PBEPOSITIONS : SEQUENCES.

359

* He arrived off Cadiz ^ ' On her dulcimer she played.' ' He on honey-dew liath
fed.' ' May I but meet thee on that peaceful shore ! ' ' We almost seem passed
to another sphered ' In vain to me the smiling mornings shine.' ' To the last
gasp will I stand.' ' These pastoral farms, green to the very door.' ' I again
repose under this dark sycamore.' ' I called upon the Lord.' ' He did fly
upon the tuings of the wind.' 'Soothed with the sound, the king grew vain.'
' With thee conversing, we forget all time, and toil, and care.' — G. ' The
valleys also are covered over with com.' — Bible. ' Timotheus .... with
flying fingers touched the lyre.' — Dbyden. 'Do not burden them with
taxes' — BuBKE. ' These cliflfs .... connect the landscape with the sky.'
— ^WoRDSWOBTH. ' Not a setting beam could glow Within the dark ravines
below.' — Scott.

* Abide with me when night is nigh.
For without Thee I dare not die.' — Keble.

2. (a) In these examples prefixes and prepositions agree in their mean-
ings. A word is hardly required to say that the meanings given below are
not exclusive. [See § 38.]

a, ab, abs = from, which follows ' abstain,' ' abstract,' and ' av^rt.'
ad = to, which follows ' adhere,' ' accMe,' and ' attract.'
con = with, which follows • compare,' ' converse,' and * contend.*
dig = from, which may follow ' depart,' ' differ,' and * dissent.'
in (with a verb) = in, which may follow ' engage,' ' include, and
' indulge.'

re = back ; hnt from often follows 'recMe,' * receive,' and ' retire.'
se = apart ; but from mostly follows ' secede,* ' select,' and ' separate.'
(b) Several variations of sequences are here placed in contrast. These
sequences are all found in good authors, but for the sake of brevity the con-
text is not always given entirely in this place,

' He adheres to the principles of
that sect. He will accede to your

request. We agree to that.'
' Form my soul averse /row sin.'

*We concur with the writer.
Here we shall not contend with
him. We have pleasure in comply-
ing with your request. We confided
our property to his care.'

' The town is six miles distant
from Durham. The adjective is in
this respect different from the verb.
He was disappointed of his reward.
Let it be fairly divided between the
two claimants.'

•There are some exceptions to
the rule. He was then made exempt
from service. They escaped out of
the prison.'

' We must insist upon this point.
They indulged themselves in all
Mftds of pleasures. It was included
in our last request.*

' The means were well adapted
for that end. You are well ac-
quainted vnth the facts. On that
point we agree vnth the author.'

' My feeling is averse to this inno-
vation.'

'/n that opinion they all con-
curred. We must contend for this
principle. He has to contend against
great valour. We at that time had
confidence in his integrity.'

' He is still discontented with his
lot. They differ tuith you on several
points. He was disappointed in his
bargain. Let the square be divided
into two triangles.'

• He took exception at this badge.
He took exception against one of the
jury. They escaped /row their foes.'

* He was initiated into half a
dozen clubs. They are too indulgent

^to their children. It was inclosed
with my note.'

360

syntax: examples.

*He is incapable of treachery.
"We are uncertain of success. He is
independent of our aid.'

' He returned from France. It
was received from your clerk. He
has still some regard for his own
reputation. They still remained in

'He was left unaided hy his
friends. He is inexpert in that art.
For you that is impracticable.'

' He returned to England. He was
reduced to despair. It is replete with
learning. With regard to his own
interests he is careful enough. The
sentinel remained at his post.'

(c) 'Alle .... mide [with] him wereon.' — Latamon. 'He felle on
-Mandeville. ' Chyldren \>\x\> [are] compelled for to leue [leave]
here oune longage.' — John of Teevisa. ' He expounyde to his disciplis
alle thingis on-sidis hond [by himself — i.e. apart].' — Wycliffe. ' Four of
the clock it was. . . . Many a draught of wyn had he drawe [smuggled]
from Burdeux ward. . . . His study was but litel on [of] the Bible.' —
Chauceb. * She restrained her appetite till [to] one meal of fish.' — Bishop
FisHEB. ' I take my course to sea ward.' — Turbervile. ' I fall on weeping.'
— Lady Jane G-bey. ' You will never live to my age without [unless] you
keep yourself in breath with exercise.' — Sydney. ' Their inquiries must
of force [needs] have been of a far other kind.' — Bacon. ' All this is 'long
of you. ... A merrier man .... I never spent an hour's talk withal.' —
Shakespeare. ' Expend after [according to] your purse.' — Bishop Hall.
•Thy thoughts which are to us-ward. . . . Such trust have we through
Christ to God-ward. . . . For the edifying of the body.' — Bible. [The last
is an example of numerous old phrases in which the verbal noun preceded
by the is followed by of § 48, Phrases.] ' We have no moral right on
the reputation of other men.' — Dbyden. ' A man of polite imagination
is let into a great many pleasures.' — Addison. ' One would expect, after
entering through the porch, to be let into the hall.' — Pope.

3. (a) Dative cases and all substantive words made dependent on ex-
pressed prepositions are set in Italic. ' If ye will truste to my counseil, 1
schal restore you [ = to you] your doughter, and I will doon [dp] you [ = for
you] so moche that ye schul have honour inthxs cause. . . . Yet thar [need]
ye not accomplise thilke same ordinaunce, but [except] you [= to you] like
[ = it be pleasing]. . . . Ye schul schape you [o] to th.a,t entent tha.t 'He
give [ = may give] you [ = to you] counseil.' — Chaucer, Tale of Melibeus.
[Here ye is always the subject; you, in one place an object, serves in four
places as a dative ease.] ' All things were created by him and for him ;
and he is before all things, and by him, all things consist. And he is the
head of the body, the church. ... Of him, and through him, and to him,
are all things ; to whom be glory. . . . When I departed from Macedonia,
no church communicated with me concerning giving and receiving, but ye
only,' — Bible. ' There is none other that fighteth for us, but only Thou.' —
Eng. Service. * Nothing this wide universe I call, save thott, my rose.' —
Shakespeare. ' Who flatters is of all mankind the lowest, save him who
courts flattery.' — H. More. [The sequences of ' save ' and ' but ' here and
there imply doubts respecting their uses. Each may be taken as an im-
peratiA^e in a clause.] ' He is now in the house. He rises very early ;
indeed, he sometimes gets up at five o'clock in the mjomihg,' ' He has gone
into the field.' — Gr.

{b) ' Deliver me from them that [s] hate me. . . . Give to him that [s]
asketh thee, and from him that [s] would borrow of thee turn not thou away.'
— Bible. ' Thou knowest not what colour jet is of — Shakespeaee. ' Sunday
he esteems a day a to make merry in.' — Eaele. ' There's a single field

PREPOSITIONS : SEQUENCES. 361

which I hare looked wpon' — Wordsworth. ' Thy deep ravines and dells
among' — Scott. ' "Which box did you send for 1 ' ' The place a we arrived
at was a deserted village.' 'Here is the porter that the box was given to.'
— G. ' I am possessed of that is mine. [Here that = what.] ... * Who
do you speak to ? ' — Shakespeare. [To whom ; the error is not a rare in-
stance.] ' Give A him a crown.' ' Send a me word.' * Tell A us the
story.' * Show A me your work.' — G.

(c) * That oon [one] myghte not see, but [= except] it were with thilke
[those] yen [eyes] of his mynde, with whiche men seen, whan that they
ben blynde.' — Chattcer. ' Except these abide in the ship ye cannot be
saved.' — Bible. ' The mission of science is, to destroy ignorance . ... ac-
cording to the [maxim] " Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas " of the
poet.' — J. H. Newman. [The verse quoted here would of itself be de-
scribed as a sentence. But the prepositional phrase according to and the
verse appended, taken together, make an adverbial-phrase relating to the
verbal form destroy.]

(d) 'They came out of their houses.' ' Up to the sky she gazed.' — G.
' Englishmen .... looking downwards to the earth.' — Wordsworth.
' For the bringing under of these rebels.'— Spenser. ' I am a man more
sinned against than sinning.' — Shakespeare. * Guilt brings down the
thunder.' — Akensidb. *Many a holy text around she strews.' — Gray.
' The tale is hushed up.' ' Sand has filled up the ruins.' ' He thought
nothing too mean to pick up.' 'Your science is not much to boast of ' I
will not be laughed at.' — G. [The particles should be taken with the verbal
forms to which they are appended. These particles, though clearly used
here to modify the meanings of verbal forms, have been called ' preposi-
tions.' They are surely adverbials if there is truth in the saying, ' All
things are as is their use.']

{e) ' Unto the Jews I became as a Jew . ... to them that are under
the law as [one] under the law . ... to them that are without law as
[one] without law . ... to the weak became I as [one] weak. ... I am
made all things to all men.' — Bible. ' In all time of our tribulation ; in all
time of our wealth ; in the hour of death, and in the day of judgment
.... deliver us.' — Eng. Service.

(/) ' Belial came last, than whom a spirit more lewd Fell not from
heaven.' — Milton. ' A most enchanting wizard did [there] abide. Than
whom a fiend Tnore fell is nowhere found.' — Thomson. ' We have now
named the most extraordinary individual of his time, one certainly than
whom none ever better sustained the judicial office ; one than whom none
ever descended from the forum into the senate with more extraordinary
powers of argumentation.' — Brougham. [The sequence than whom is bad
English, if than is taken as a conjunction. The controversial notions of
several grammarians are appended.]

' Who, having reference to no verb or preposition understood, but only
to its antecedent, when it follows than, is always in the objective case.' —
Bishop Lowth. [Here the bishop's own English is bad. He means to say
that the phrase than whom is correct.]

' " Than whom." It is a very common parliament-liouse phrase, and,
therefore, presumptively corrupt.' — Cobbett.

' Than is followed by the objective case of the relative ; as, "a man
than whom I never saw a better." ' — Morell.

' Some maintain that than is [here] followed by the objective case of
• •

362 syntax; examples.

the relative. If this view be allowed, than must be regarded [here] as a
preposition.' — Angits.

' When Milton wrote than whom he was probably thinking of the Latin
ablative placed with a comparative, as in the following sentence : — " Sol
.... possis nihil urhe Boma visere maim." ' — Gr.

50. CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences and
clauses. The words strictly called conjunctions have been
noticed [§ 14]. Besides these, there are others — relative
pronouns and adverbs — to which connective uses belong.
These are mostly called connectives. It is commonly said
there are three kinds of sentences — simple, complex, and
compound [§ 43].

The complex sentence contains at least one clause, and the clause is
often called ' a subordinate sentence.' The compound sentence, or period,
must contain at least two co-ordinate sentences, and may contain several
clauses. "When each of its main divisions contains a clause or several
clauses, the whole should be described as a period. There are five or
six meanings given to the word sentence. It will be convenient here to use
^e viovdi ^period as a term applicable to any compound sentence.

'AND.'

Observations. — 1. And may connect two words making a
compound subject or object ; two adjectives belonging to one
noun, or making a complement ; two verbs correspondent in
form and having one subject ; two adverbials defining one
word ; or two substantives dependent on one preposition.

No other conjunction has these uses. With cannot serve as a substi-
tute for and. Where and connects words, grammarians often explain
away the fact by a theory. It is noticed in connection with the appended
examples.

2. Where three or more words make a compound subject,
and is usually placed only before the last. Where and is
omitted, the word all or these may serve to collect the terms
making a subject. Where these are set in pairs, to show like-
ness or contrast, and is repeated.

3. And connects phrases having attributive, adverbial, and
substantive uses. Where the phrases include verbal forms,
and are taken together to form a subject or an object, aiid
should connect correspondent verbal forms.

Where the subject is a series of phrases the verb is mostly singular.
[See § 46, Verbs in Concord with Phrases, 4.]

SUBORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 363

Examples.— 1. ' " You and I will travel together." Many grammarians
insist that, in cases of this kind, we are to regard the sentence as a contrac-
tion of two sentences joined by and. This explanation might do very well
for such a sentence as '■^John and William are eleven years old " — that is,
" John is eleven years old, and "William is eleven years old " — but it is
simply absurd when applied to such a sentence as " Two and three make
five," or " He and / are of the same age ; " '• Blue and yellow make green."
— C. P. Mason. ' The fury of the Russians and the obstinacy of the Turks
made the conflict dreadful.' * In this painting lights and shades are well
blended.' ' He has blended well the lights and the shades in this painting.'
* He sells good books and bad books.' ' He is a faithful and industrious ser-
vant.' * The sky is blu^ and clear.' ' The wheat looks strong and healthy.' —
Gr. ' There lives and works a Soul in all things.' — Cowper. * He lives and
reigns [not reignethi for ever.' ' They acted cautiously and wisely.' — Gr.

' Late and soon^
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers.' — "Wobdsworth.

* Our science itseK is but a mixture of light and shade' — G. * In all
things approving ourselves .... hj honour and dishonour, by evil report
and good report.' — Bible. * ' He with his brothers are able to do much.' —
CoBBBTT. [Here with does not serve well for and. The writer defends the
syntax here exemplified.]

2. 'A simple bed, an arm-chair by its side, and a tiny -washing-table,
with a small white basin on it and a sponge, is all the furniture.' — Gr.
H. Lewes. [The two parts of the sentence connected by is are like the two
sides of an equation.]

* The sceptre, learning, physic, must
All follow this, and come to dust.' — Shakespeake.

' The crafty and the easy, the wise and the foolish, the rich and the poor,
shall all appear.' — Jee. Tatloe.

* Oh Life I without thy checkered scene
Of right and wrong, of weal and woe,
Success and failure, could a ground
For magnanimity be found ? ' — Woedsworth.

3. ' The armour of righteousness on the right hand and on the left. . . .
In returning and rest shall ye be saved ; in quietness and in confidence shall
be your strength. ... In the evening, and morning, and at noon-day will
I pray.' — Bible. 'For a man to write well there are .... required, to
real the best authors, observe the best speakers, and mu^h exercise of his
own style.' — Ben Jonson. [Here the ordinary noun exercise is awkwardly
linked with two verbal nouns, each having the infinitive form.] ' To be a
well-favoured man is the gift of fortune ; but to write and read comes by
nature.' — Shakespbarb. [^See § 46, Phrases, 3, 4.]

SUBORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIOl^S.

Observations. — 1. For conjunctive and subordinative uses of
particles Old English had many forms, especially compounds,
that have become obsolete, and others of which vestiges remain
iifinodeni literature. Among thl latter the forms most notice-

364 SYxNTAX: EXAMPLES.

able are tliose which show the extensive employment of tliat
— a particle that in E.II. might serve to introduce a clause of
almost any kind. Alone, or aided bj another particle, that
served to link numerous clauses severally denoting antece-
dence, duration, consequence, concession, causality, and finality.

2. Words serving as links of clauses in Modern English
may be divided into two classes, the first (a) including rela-
tive pronouns and adverbs, the second (h) including wordp
more strictly called conjunctions — as, because, except, if, lest,
though, unless, while, and that when it introduces a o'ubstan-
tive-clause or an adverbial-clause. But in several respects
all the words used as links of clauses are like one another.
Each refers to some element not contained within the clause
itself. This element is a substantive word when the clause is
attributive. In other instances reference may be made to a
predicative verb, or to a vague verb taken with its comple-
ment ; but there are examples where the clause is related to
the verb taken together with an adverbial or with an object.
[Bee § 47, Glauses, 1, a.]

The link shows that the clause itself is intended to serve
as a noun, or as an adjective, or as an adverb. Each link may
connect together a main sentence and a clause ; elements
having distinct relations, and verbs differing in mood, or in
tense, or in both. In these respects clause-links are all unlike
the conjunction and. Their special uses have been shown in
numerous examples of clauses serving respectively as nouns,
as adjectives, and as adverbs.

NouN-CiATJSES, employed as subjects and as objects, have for their con-
nectives how, that, what, when, where, whether, which, who, and why.
[§§ 44 and 48, Clauses.l

Attbibutive-Clatjses have for their connections how, that, when,
whence, where, wherefore, wherein, who, whom, whose, and why. [§ 46,
Clauses.']

Adyerbial-Clatjses have for their connectives after, albeit [old],
although, an or and [old = «/], as [with several distinct uses], because,
before, except, if, lest, since, than, that, the [as employed in themore], though,
unless, when, where, whether, while. [§ 47, Clauses.]

3. The conjunction and may connect together two clauses,
when they belong to one class, and have a common relation.
When placed before a relative, and should introduce the
second of two attributive clauses. And should not be em-
ployed to link a clause with a phrase.

4. The particle as, employed in clauses as well as in
phrases, has uses remarkably various. It occurs often in ad-
verbial-phrases of reference [' as to,' 'as regards '] ; in others

SUBORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 365

it points to the manner, or to the result of an act [' He acted
so as to win praise '] ; in others it points to some reason
founded on the capacity of an agent [' Let me, as an older
man, advise you ']. In some clauses as, placed after such,
serves instead of who. In many elliptical clauses of compari-
son as refers to some word not expressed in the clause, but
corresponding to a word employed in the main sentence.
Ellipsis often suggests errors in grammar, and these are
rather numerous in clauses introduced by a conjunctive as
following an adverbial use of the same particle and denoting
equality.

5. Clauses of comparison introduced by than are mostly
elliptical, and here again ellipsis often suggests errors in
grammar. Than, as placed here and there, looks like a pre-
position.

' Than whom.'* This exceptional sequence has been noticed.
[§ 49, Sequences, 3,/.]

Examples. — 1. ' pat [ = So that] at the last l^ai ordeind tuelue [twelve].'
— Cursor Mundi. ' Wkils that the peple of Israel passeden the see.' —
Mandeville, ' Sith that 1 have told yow .... Whan that dame Pru-
dence saugh hire tyme. . . . Though that ye han sworn.' — Taleof Melibeus.
' That that I did, I was set on to do't by Sir Toby.' — Shakespeake. 'Paul,
after that the governor had beckoned unto him to speak, answered ....
Before that certain [men] came from James, he [Peter] did eat with the
Gentiles. ... It was told me how that the Jews laid wait for the man.
. . . So that they fled out of the house. . . . Until that an offering should
be offered for every one of them.' — Bible.

2. Verbs differing in mood or in tense are set in Italic. * I give thee
charge that thou keep this commandment.' — Bible. ' It is thought [that]
he perished by poison.' — Alq. Sydney. ' Herostratus lives that burned
the temple of Diana.' — Sir T. Browne. ' It is not true that he said
that.'— C. P. Mason. [See §§ 44, 45, 47, Clauses.]

3. ' They heard that some ships had been wrecked, and that others had
lost their anchors.' [And connects two objective clauses.] * He was a
man who acted uprightly and [who] cared for his neighbour.' [And con-
nects two attributive-clauses, as again in the next excerpt.] ' Our old
friend, who had been well acquainted with our circumstances, and who
had so far guided us, was then called away.' * * The captain, a brave
man, and who had often risked his life, escaped without a wound.' [Omit
and.] ' He ran as fast as he could and until his strength failed.' [And con-
nects two adverbial-phrases ] * ' I find in my neighbour a man always
acting honestly and who minds his own business.' [Place ' who ' next to
* man ; ' for ' acting' writes acts.]

4. Words that have been omitted are here and there placed within
brackets. * Is [His] folc flowe [fled] . . . . as hii were agaste [terrified].'
— Robert OF Gloucester. 'The king it wiste, and als-so faste As he
which was of hih prudence.' — Gower. ' Forasmoche as I se your humility,
i^ constreigneth me to do yow grace.' — Tale of Melibeus. 'His thoughts
are as just, as those of Horace [are jAt].' — Dryden. 'They clung about

366 syntax: examples.

him as captives [cling] about their redeemer.' — Bitbke. * The French
forces left Scotland as much to their own satisfaction as to that of the
nation.' — Eobertson. ' He is as tall as I am [tall]. . . . When I was a
child I spake as a child [speaks].' — C. P. Mason. * The ruby is not
as hard as the diamond [is hard].' ' He is not as strong as you [are
strong].' • You are as good a player as he [is a good player].' ' He paid
you as well as [he paid] me.' 'It affects your own interests as much
as [it affects] mine.' ' Henry likes work as well as [he likes] play.' — Gr.

* * The nations, not so blest as thee [art blest],

Must in their turn to tyrants fall.' — Thomson. [?]

5. As before, words that have been omitted are here and there placed
within brackets. * Thaim [To them] war leuer [it were more welcome] than
al this werd [world].' — Metrical Homilies. ' pat kenne)> [teaches] >e in
herte, for to loue ]?i louerd leure [more dearly] \>en >i-selueii.' — Langland.
* A heart dearer than Plutus' mine [is dear], richer than gold [is rich]. . . .
If thou cut'st more than [is] a just pound .... thou diest.' — Shake-
speare. ' I understand more ^Aa7» the ancients [understand], ... I had
rather speak five words with my understanding tkaji ten thousand words
in an unknown tongue.' — Bible. 'He is taller than I am [tall]. ... He
is more industrious than [he is] clever.' — C. P. Mason. ' He helps you
more than [he helps] me.' ' He can help you more than I can help you.' —
G. * ' You are a greater loser than me.' [There is no word, expressed or
understood, to govern me. Say .... than I am.]

co-oedhstatiye conjunctions.

Observations. 1. — It lias been shown tliat relative pronouns
and adverbs serve largely as connective words of which the nses
are subordinative. (cl) There are certain particles called co-ordi-
native conjunctions — and, hut, or, nor, and a few others noticed
already. [§ 14.]

(h) Of two co-ordinate sentences each may be simple or
each may be complex. [§ 43, pp. 235, 243.]

(c) In many co-ordinate sentences the conjunctions that
might be employed are omitted. The two sentences may have
the same subject, or the same verb. In these cases ellipsis
often occurs. [§ 65.] Sometimes the subject and the verb
are alike in both, and may be omitted in the second sentence.

2. (a) The verbs in co-ordinate sentences connected by
and mostly correspond with each other in mood, and often in
tense.

(&) But and sometimes connects sentences of which the
verbs differ from each other in mood, or in tense, or in both.

(c) Where the verbs in sentences connected by and differ
in mood, or in tense, or in both, and where the assertions
made by two verbs are strongly contrasted, their common
subject may well be repeated, or an equivalent subject may
be employed.

CO-ORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 367

3. The chief nses of co-ordinative conjunctions have been
noticed. [§14.] A few special observations are here
appended.

(a) But — in this respect like for and nor — is often placed
next to a full stop and at the beginning of a principal
sentence.

(b) Or sometimes connects two names of one thing.
Where or connects words of different meanings, either may-
precede the first. Where the two words are nouns, an article
may be repeated.

(c) In M.E./or [= because] is in some places subordina-
tive, just as /or alone, and several phrases including for are
subordinative in E.II. In other places /or is co-ordinative,
and comes next to a full stop (a).

In E.I. ealswd (also) is a conjunctive adverb. In M.E. also sometimes
serves instead of and, and translates the German auch ( = E.II. ek), but not
the German also ( = consequently).

In some grammars several adverbial expressions are classified with con-
junctions strictly so called. These are specimens: — besides, however, more-
over, nevertheless, and therefore,

4. (a) The following conjunctions employed in pairs are
called correlatives : — hoth .... and ; either . . . . or ; or
. ... or (in verse) ; neither .... nor ; nor .... nor (in
verse). These are co-ordinative.

(fe) Contrasted adverbs have here and there subordina-
tive uses, in other respects like those of the conjunctions
called correlatives. In many places where correlative par-
ticles are employed, one introduces a subordinate sentence or
clause, the other a principal sentence. In other places each
introduces a subordinate sentence or clause.

Examples. 1. — (a) 'Mercy and truth preserve the king, and his throne
is upholden by mercy. . . . The lips of the righteous feed many ; but fools
die for want of wisdom.' — Bible. [Co-ordinate sentences like these are
numerous in the Book of Proverbs.]

(6) • Every day will I bless thee ; and I will praise thy name for ever
and ever.' — Bible. ' This world seems a desert, when we see in it only
mountains, rivers, and towns ; btct when we know that here and there we
have friends who, though distant and silent, are caring for us, this world is
for us like a home in the midst of a garden.' — G.

(c) ' Many talk of friendship ; few understand its essential conditions.'
' For many readers the "Odyssey " is a romance ; Horace found in it a series
of moral lessons.' — G. ' Read, not to contradict and confute, nor to believe
and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse ; but [read] to weigh
and consider.' — Bacon.

2. {a) I looked into the book, and saw its merit.' — Johnson. 'All
ffis excellences, like those of Natufc herself, are thrown out together;

368 syntax: examples.

and, instead of interfering with, support and recommend each other.'—'
Jeffrey.

(h) ' Ask of me, and I shall give thee the heathen for thine inheritance. . . .
The Lord hath sworn, and will not repent. . . . Thy brother was dead, and
is alive again ; was lost, and is found.' — Bible. ' Before that time my green-
house will not be ready, and it is the only pleasant room belonging to ns.
I line it with mats, and spread the floor with mats, and there you shall sit
with a bed of mignonette at your side.' — Cowper.

(c) ' He has been penitent ; he has confessed his fault ; and now [he]
shall be forgiven.' — Gr. ^A waTJ may be rich by chance ; but no one can
be good, or rise, without effort.' — Angus.

3. (a) ' For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made
alive. But every man in his own order [shall be quickened].' — Bihle. * You
see those several people [as described by Plutarch], in their difierent laws,
and policies, and forms of government ; in their warriors, and senators, and
demagogues. Nor are the ornaments of poetry, and the illustrations of simi-
litudes, forgotten by him.' — Drtden.

(b) * In the sentence " We know him," the last word is the object, or
word directly governed.' ' The form " him" must be either an object, or a
word governed by a preposition.' ' Achilles must either subdue his anger, or
must see the Greek army defeated.' 'Providence may either avert the evil,
or turn it to our advantage.' ' Take that which you prefer— the book or the
picture.' — Gr.

(c) ' So willesfol [wilful] he was, and al for [ = because] in the o>er
bataile him vel [befell] so vair cas [such fair luck].' — Robert of Glouces-
ter. 'Our first duty is to elect leaders, /<?r [= because] without order
no good thing can be done.' — G. ' As ye are partakers of the sufferings,
so shall ye be also of the consolation. For we would not, brethren, hav^
you ignorant of our trouble which came to us in Asia.' — Bible.

4. {a) ' pe poure [poor] ba [both] and riche comen her toforen [before]
him.' — Legend of St. Katherine. ' I am a debtor, both to the Greeks and
to the Barbarians. . . . Either make the tree good, and his fruit good ; or
else make the tree corrupt, and his fruit corrupt.' — Bible. * You regard
neither the letter nor the spirit of the law.' — Angus.

(b) 'He not only cautioned you, but also repeated the caution.' — G.
* Though he slay me [xc], yet will I trust in him [p]. . . . J[s far as the east is
from the west [xc], so far hath he removed our transgressions from us [p].'
—Bible, '^sthe tree falls [xc], so it lies [p].' — G. ' He is so feeble [p]
as to be unable to walk [xc].' — Angus. 'I cannot say whether he will
come [oc], or not [oc, contracted].' — G. ' Whether it be I [xc] or they [xc],
so ye believed.' — Bible.

51. INTERJECTIONS, ETC.

The places of the forms more or less strictly called
interjections — each consisting of a vowel, or of an isolated
word — are partly prescribed by usage ; but in other re-
spects these forms are not affected by any rules of syntax.

Ohservations. — 1. (a) Besides the forms strictly called in-
terjections, others may be isolated so as to serve as interjections.

INTERJECTIONS, ETC. 369

A noun or a pronoun, representing a vocative case in Latin, is
often placed with an interjection ; but in many places the noun
is employed alone, or with an adjective.

(fe) Where an interjection apparently governs a pronoun,
it is sometimes understood that a preposition has been omitted,
or that the sequence of the two words is prescribed by usage,
as in ' Ah me ! '

2. (a.) In many elliptical sentences their exclamatory
tones are denoted, partly by initial interjections, and partly
by means of punctuation. Where their verbs are imperative,
short and elliptical sentences are sometimes called ' inter-
jections.'

(h) In complete sentences, where all the parts have their
usual order, grief, surprise, irony, indignation, or invoca-
tion may be denoted by a final note of exclamation, which
thus serves instead of an initial interjection.

(c) By the same means, an exclamatory tone may be
given to a complete sentence in which the order of the words
is interrogative. It is thus indicated that no answer is ex-
pected. Generally speaking, the uses of interjections are to
a large extent superseded by means of punctuation.

3. The sources of numerous ' interjections ' (so called) are
adverbial. The expletive expressions here referred to belong
especially to our dramatic literature, and in conversation
are mostly obsolete. They consisted at first of adverbial-
phrases employed with a notion of strengthening forms of
assertion and denial. These phrases, by means of common
abuse, lost their first meanings, while, to disguise their
irreverence, their original forms were purposely contracted,
or were otherwise greatly altered. Thus they passed over
into a class of almost meaningless words sometimes called
' interjections.' [§ 15.]

Examples.— \. (a) * Ea la [=Ah, or Alas], ]>t min sunu.' — JElfbic.
' Hayt [ = Gee], stot [horse] ! '— Chattcbr. ' 0 ho! we have escaped. . . .
My youngest [daughter] has a very pretty manner of telling fortunes upon
the cards. Fudge!' — Goldsmith. 'Pshaw, beauty! we don't mind that.
... I am the man .... "homo sum" [Terence], hem! .... What day
of the month was it ? . . . . The first of April. Umph ! ' — Colman.
' He roundly asserts that you have not the slightest invention. ... I am
diverted ; ha, ha, ha ! Not the least invention ! ha, ha, ha ! ' — Sheridan.
•Cheerly, cheerly, my hearts! yare [ = briskly], yare .' ' — Shakespkare.
^ Eh ! haw! what! Captain, did you write the letter then?' — Sheridan.
'Heyday, freedom! freedom! .... Fury, Fury! there, Tyrant, there!
hark, hark ! '— Shakespbark, Tempest, Act iv. Sc. i. [• Fury ' and ' Tyrant*
are here names of hounds.] '0 Friend! I know not which way I must
lool*for comfort. ... 0 Cuckoo ! .... 0 blessed bird ! .... 0 blithe

B B

370 syntax: examples.

New-comer ! ' — Wordswoeth. ' I have done nothing but in care of thee —
of thee, my dear one ! . . . . Give us kind keepers, heavens ! * — Shake-
speare. 'Ollapod! that sounds like an ancient name.' — Colman. 'Long-
favoured England ! be not thou misled.' — Wordsworth.

(b) ' Wo me [ = to me] bi-tyde [happen] ! ' — Langland. ' Oh, woe [be
to] the day ! . . . . Ah me ! ' — Shakespeare. ' 0 dear me ! ' — Gr.

2. (a) '0 for a dirge ! . . . . Oh, what a wreck ! ' — Worbsworth.
* Still the same burning sun ! no cloud in heaven ! .... 0 for the plover's
pleasant cry, to tell of water near ! 0 for the camel-driver's song ! ' —
SouTHEY. ' Lullaby [ = Gro to sleep], my wanton Will ! ' — Gascoiqne.
' Avaunt, Sir Doctor Deuyas ! ' — Skelton. * Woe worth [be] the day [ =
to the day] ! ' — Scott. ' Avaunt ! — Shakespeare. ' On, to lona ! ' — Words-
worth. On ! Stanley, on .' ' — Scott, ' Adieu .' ' [ = 2b God I commend
you]. . . . ' Good-Vye!' [ = God be with you.]

(6) * They parted — ne'er to meet again ! ' — Coleridge. * Hope gives
his feeble limbs a sudden strength ; he hurries on ! ' — Southey. * Common
sense is so prosaic ! ' — G. H. Lewes. [The tone here indicated by the note
of exclamation is ironical.]

(c) 'How are the mighty fallen in the midst of the battle! ....
How doth the city sit solitary that was full of people ! how is she become
as a widow ! ' — Bible. ' Ah, why [should we] deceive ourselves ! ' — Wobds-
wobth.

3, 'Ye have i-nough, 'pardy [ = par Dieu\ !' — Chatjcbb. [This ex-
ample may indicate the way in which many adverbials of asseveration by
frequent misuse assumed interjectional forms, or were purposely disguised.
So 'marry r (in Shakespeare) disguises the ' Seinte Marie T of an earlier
time, and ' by'rlakin ! ' a contracted diminutive (also found in Shakespeare),
serves instead of the phrase ' by our Lady ! ' The forms 'gad! ' and ' egad!'
with too many others like them, disguised a Name often profanely used,
while in ' 'sdeath/' as in several like forms, nothing was left of that Name
save the s' of its possessive case. See The Pardoneres Tale in Chatjcbb,
and the Persones Tale, edited by Fubnivail.]

syntax: rules. 371

52. SYNTAX: RULES.

It has been shown, in the observations and examples
already given, that our sentences have numerous varieties
of structure of which little can be told in the form of
concise rules. Among the rules of syntax one is usually
expressed in terms like these : — ' The verb agrees with
the subject in number and person.' The rule itself is
readily understood, and where it is not formally known is
mostly obeyed. But, as we have noticed, there are many
apparent exceptions, and these are not as well understood
as the rule. Here, then, as in other instances, the chief
use of the rule is to direct attention to certain formal
anomalies ; in other words, the references appended will
be found more useful than the rule itself, which — left
alone — might, in many cases, leave room for doubt, or
might lead to error. It should be remembered that
rules and facts rarely or never agree together exactly.

It has been noticed in several preceding sections [44-51]
that numbers of paragraphs containing examples corre-
spond with numbers prefixed to paragraphs consisting of
observations. The rules that follow are arranged in an
order corresponding with that of the sections above
referred to, and at the end of each rule references are
given to the observations and examples on which the rule
is founded.

It will be noticed that the same figures and Italic letters that refer
to observations refer also to corresponding examples.

63. SUBJECTS.

In every sentence, as in every clause, the subject must
be made clear.

§ 44, Words, 2, 4, 6 ; Phrases, 3 ; Clauses, 3.

As far as their forms allow, pronouns show their agree-
ment in gender, number, and case with the nouns to
which they relate.

•§ 44, Words, 4, 5. •

B B 2

372 syntax: rules.

The relative pronoun, by means of its position, repre-
sents the number and the person of its antecedent.

§ 46, Special Observations, 8.

In apposition, nouns and pronouns differing in their
numbers may be placed together.

§ 44, Words, 3 ; § 46, Special Observations, 7.

The pronoun it may refer to a preceding noun, or may
introduce a subject of any kind — a noim, singular or
plural; or several nouns ; a subject-phrase, or a subject-
clause.

§ 44, Words, 4 ; Phrases, 3 ; Clauses, 3 : § 46, Concords, 2.

54. ATTEIBTITES.

An adjective may be placed either in attributive or in
predicative relation to a substantive word. Adjective
forms serve often as complements, and often as adverbs.

§ 45, Words, 1 ; § 46, Complements, Words; § 47, Words, 1, b, c.

The comparative adjective refers mostly to two indi-
viduals, or to two classes ; the superlative to several in
one class, or in one series.

§ 45, Words, 4.

A noun set in apposition with another, or a noun in'
the possessive case, may serve as an attribute.

§ 45, Words, 2, 3.

The possessive case, denoting possession — also denoting
duration — should mostly be used where the governed noun
is the name of a person.

§ 45, Words, 3.

Several vague words, serving often as substantives,.,
serve also as adjectives.

§ 44, Words, 5 ; § 45, Words, 5.

The — a weakened demonstrative, in meaning cognate
with that and those — may limit or define the use of a
noun ; or may show that two nouns connected by a par-

syntax: rules. 373

tide are the names of two different things, or that an ad-
jective form is employed as a plural noun. The often
precedes collective nouns, names of rivers, and plural
names of families.
§ 45, Words, 7.

Among verbal forms serving as attributes some are
often placed before nouns ; others are rarely or never so
placed.

§ 46, Words, 8.

A phrase employed as an attribute relates to the sub-
stantive word immediately preceding.

§ 45, Phrases, 3.

A clause employed as an attribute relates to a sub-
stantive word immediately or nearly preceding the con-
nective.

§ 45, Clauses, 5.

In many places the relatives which and who are connec-
tive, but are not definitive. That, more closely connective,
serves, in many places, to define the antecedent. Where
and it or and he might take the place of the connective,
and where the antecedent is already well defined, that is
not required. "Where which or who might leave a doubt
as to the meaning of the antecedent, that is strictly
required.

§ 45, Clauses, 2, 3, 4.

55. VERBS.

' The verb agrees with the subject in nmnber and per-
son.' Where no suffix limits the verb, its concord is un-
derstood— not expressed. Where there is a form to show
concord, that form is employed, as in ' He writes,^

§ 46, Concords, 1, 2.

In speaking of one, the verb is singular, though the
subject may look like a plural ; in speaking of two or
TYiore^ the verb is plural. Many apparent errors are ex-
amples of good grammar.

^ 46, Concords, 2 ; Special Observa^ns, 9.

374 SYNTAX : RULES.

Where they are each preceded by eachf or by every, or by
wo, two singular nouns connected by and require a singular
verb. Two singular nouns connected by or — ^like those con-
nected by nor — require a singular verb.

§ 46, Concords, 2 ; Special Observations, 5, 9.

A collective noun may denote union or plurality. In
many instances the concord required ie not shown by the
form of the subject.

§ 46, Special Observations, 2, 3, 4, 9.

In certain sentences shortened by ellipses, nouns and
pronouns differing in number and person are apparently
made the subjects of one common verb.

§ 46, Special Observations, 6 ; § 65, Ellipses.

Where the subject is a relative pronoun, the number
and the person of the verb are shown by reference to the
antecedent.

§ 46, Special Observations, 8.

A single noun-phrase, or a noun-clause, employed as a
subject, requires a singular verb. Two or several phrases,
or several clauses, are followed mostly by a singular verb,
but sometimes by a plural.

§ 46, Phrases, 1-6 ; Clauses, 1-4.

Verbs connected by and correspond with each other in
mood, and often in tense. Where they differ in tense,
their common subject may be repeated.

§ 46 ; § 60, Co-ordinative Conjunctions, 2, a, h, c.

In asking questions, inversions of order are still re-
tained where the verbs are those called auxiliary and
irregular. In the Imperative Mood the subject follows
the verb, or is understood — not expressed. Subjunctive
meanings are often denoted by inversions.

§ 46, Moods, 2, 3 ; § 58 ; § 46, Moods, 4, d.

In the third person singular of the Present the follow-
ing verbs have no final S : — can, shall, will, may, ought, must,
and dare (intransitive).

§ 46, Special Observations, 1.

syntax: rules. 375

The Tenses mostly follow one another, so as to repre-
sent a progressive or a retrogressive order of time ; but the
Present has several peculiar uses.

§ 46, Tenses, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

In denoting intentions and results, such verbs as come,
fear, hope, and trust, when employed in the Present, are
followed by may and will, and when employed in the
Past are followed by might and would ; or in both tenses
they may be followed by the infinitive form of which to write
is an example. But ought, in the Past, must be followed
by a phrase like to have written*
§ 46, Tenses, 1,2; § 25, ought.

When the result of an act, rather than the act itself,
is denoted, the Present of the abstract verb may serve in-
stead of have in the Perfect, and the Past of the abstract
verb may serve instead of had in the Pluperfect.

§ 46, Tenses, S,b; 4, a.

Shall, in the Future, may sometimes denote authority,
or compulsion, or an inevitable sequence of cause and
effect.

§ 46, Tenses, 5, a ; CompleTnents, Words, 3.

56. COMPLEMENTS.

The complements of intransitive verbs are mostly placed
next to their verbs.

§ 46, Complements, Words, 4.

The complements of mahe and other transitive verbs
of similar meaning mostly follow objects.

§ 46, Complements, Words, 6.

Several participles often employed as complements
are vague in their meanings, and are, therefore, followed
by secondary complements consisting of phrases.

§ 46, Complements, Phrases, 2.

Clauses sometimes serve as complements.

• § 46, Complements, Clatises. •

376 syntax: kules.

57. ADVERBIALS.

Adjective forms often serve as adverbs in prose. In
verse adverbial uses of adjective forms are established by
common usage.

§ 12, Forms ; § 47, Words, 1, b, c.

In Modern English two negative adverbs, relating to
one verb, are not allowed. Double forms of negation —
like double forms of comparison — are allowed in Old
English.

§ 47, Words, 2, c ; § 12, Forms ; § 19, E.I., E.II.

As regards their positions, adverbials are the most
versatile elements of sentences. A simple adverb may
begin a sentence, or, with emphatic force, may imme-
diately precede a verb. More usually the adverb imme-
diately follows the verb, or comes between the verb and its
complement. Lastly, the adverb may follow the object.
But in many instances the adverb must be placed close to
the word defined, or made emphatic.

§ 47, Words, 3, a, h, c.

In many examples adverbials consisting of phrases
have the places already assigned to simple adverbs.

§ 47, Phrases, 3, a, h, c.

The beginning of the sentence, and the end, are suitable
places for adverbials consisting of clauses.

§ 47, Clauses, 3, a,b, c.

58. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Constructions of words and inversions of order called
subjunctive are sometimes employed in adverbial-clauses
of condition and supposition ; also in expressions of wishes,
fears, and purposes.

§ 47, Clauses, 1, b; 2, b; Concession, Condition.

The general aim of subjunctive constructions and in-
versions is to express thoughts, doubts, and suppositions

(

syntax: rules. ' 377

in such a way as to avoid modes of speaking usually em-
ployed in making assertions.
§ 23 ; § 46, Moods, 4, a, d,f.

Subjunctive modes of expression may follow if, lest,
that, and several other conjunctions, but it is not to be
understood that these particles must be followed by
subjunctive constructions. There is prevalent in our
modem literature a general tendency to neglect these
■constructions.

§ 46, Moods, 4, a, h.

The forms could, should, would, and might may be
employed with a subjunctive meaning, without reference
to a past time.
§ 46, Moods, 4, e.

Here and there one of the verbs could, would, had,
Tnight, and were begins a subjunctive clause, in which the
usual order of words is inverted, and had, without inver-
sion, is sometimes employed as equivalent to should have.

§ 46, Moods, 4, d.

59. OBJECTS, ETC.

Transitive verbs and verbal forms are followed by sub-
stantive words directly governed and called objects, or by
phrases and clauses serving as objects. When pronouns
are employed as objects, their oblique forms serve, as in
the places where they follow prepositions — me, us, thee,
him,, her, them, whom.

§ 18, Pronouns, M.E. ; § 48, Words, 2, a, b, c; Phrases, 1, 2;
Clauses, 1, 2.

In M.E. verbal forms in ing that in E.II. were fol-
lowed by prepositional phrases are often followed by ob-
jects, or words directly governed.

§ 48, Phrases, 2, a.

The relative pronoun is not governed by the transitive
verb that governs the antecedent.

» § 46, Special Observations, 8 ; § ^, Words, 2, d.

378 syntax: rules.

Where the relative pronoun, if inserted, would be
directly governed, it is often omitted, especially in con-
versation.

§ 45, Clauses, 1.

Where a phrase or a clause is the object, its use is not
shown by any change of form.

§ 48, Phrases, 1, 2 ; Clauses, 1, 2.

The object usually follows the verb, but relative and
interrogative pronouns precede their governing verbs.

§ 48, Words, 2, c, d.

Short adverbial expressions often precede and often
follow objects ; but the more expanded forms of adverbials
mostly follow.

§ 47, Words, 3, b ; Phrases, 3, c; Clauses, 3, c : § 48, Clauses, 3, a.

Some verbs usually called intransitive are here and
there followed by nouns and pronouns serving as objects^
Some verbs usually called transitive are here and there
employed as intransitive verbs.

§ 46, Verbs, 2 ; § 11, Verbs ; § 48, Objects.

In E.II., and in modern verse, verbs denoting reflex
actions are often followed by simple forms of pronouns ;
but in modern literature such compound forms as himself
and yourselves are mostly substituted.

§ 11, Verbs; § 18, Pronouns, E.L ; § 46, Verbs, 2.

Infinitive forms, followed by words directly or in-
directly governed, serve often to make objective phrases.
§ 48, Phrases, 1, a, b, c. -

WOEDS INDIEECTLY GOVEKNED.

After verbs of ' giving,' ' lending,' ' bringing,' ' sending,'
' telling,' and ' showing ' nouns without change of form have
the chief use of the Dative in Latin, or of nouns following
to in English. Placed in the same sequence, personal
pronouns have their oblique forms — me, us, thee, him, heVy
and them.

syntax: rules. 379^

By several grammarians the nouns and pronouns here noticed are defined
as ' indirect objects,' or as ' Dative objects.' § 46, Complements, Words, 5 ;
§ 48, Words, I, c, e; § 49, Sequences, 3, b.

In E.II. and in modern verse oblique forms of pro-
nouns, having the use of the Dative, often precede certain
impersonal verbs.

§ 46, Verbs, 2.

In our older literature the oblique forms me and him
[ = for me and for him'] follow verbs in some places
where the pronouns seem almost expletive. They have
here one of the uses of the Dative in Latin.

§ 18, Pronouns, M.E. ; § 46, Verbs, 2.

Oblique forms of pronouns follow lihe^ near, and some
words of cognate meaning, and have one of the uses of the
Dative, as in ' He is like him.'

* Oh for breath to utter what is like thee! ' — Shakespeare. [§ 9, Pro-
nouiis.'l

PKEPOSITIONS.

Prepositions are placed before substantive words,
and serve to form phrases — some employed as attributes ;
others, more numerous, employed as adverbials. Preposi-
tions are, therefore, particles employed in changing the
uses of substantive words.

§ 7, E. ; § 13, Uses ; § 45, Phrases; § 47, Phrases; § 49, 1, a, b, c.

The relations indicated by means of prepositions are
so various that they cannot be defined without the aid of
an extensive series of examples.

§ 13, Uses; § 45, Phrases, 1 ; § 46, Complements, Phrases, 1, 2 : §47,
Phrases, 1, a, b; 2, a, b, c : § 48, Phrases, 2, a, b: § 49, Sequences, 1, a;
2, a, b, c.

Prepositions are followed by nouns without a change
of form, but pronouns show, as far as their forms avail,
their dependence on preposi ions. The same forms that
serve as objects, and as Dative cases, serve also when pro-
nouns are governed by prepositions — me, us, thee, himy
• her, and them, •

§ 18, Pronouns, E.I., M.E.; § 48, Words, 2, c ; § 49, Sequences, 3, c.

380 syntax: eules.

TKe relative pronoun is not governed by the preposi-
tion that governs the antecedent. The governed relative
is often omitted. It should be inserted where it serves
to introduce some additional fact respecting the ante-
cedent.

§ 46, Special Observations, 8 ; § 48, Words, 2, d; § 49, Seqitences, 3, b.

Dative uses of pronouns are denoted by their oblique
forms, without the aid of a preposition ; but whom follows
to or for, where a Dative use is denoted.

§ 18, Pronouns, M.E. ; § 49, Sequences, 3, b.

In questions — especially in familiar conversation —
the preposition is often placed at the end of a sentence.

§ 49, Sequences, 3, b.

The relative and definitive pronoun that does not follow
a preposition. In places where that, if inserted, would
be dependent, it is often omitted, and the preposition is
placed at the end of the clause.

§ 49, Sequences, 3, b.

In verse the preposition often follows the dependent
word.

§ 49, Sequences, 3, b.

Eepetitions of prepositions give emphasis and distinc-
tion to dependent words.

§ 49, Seqv£nces, 3, e.

A preposition may govern a phrase and make an
alteration in its use.
§ 48, Phrases, 2, a, b.

A preposition sometimes governs a clause and makes
an alteration in its use.
§ 49, Sequences, 3, c.

Instead of the particles called prepositions, certain
phrases are often employed, and these phrases, taken
together with their dependent words, serve to form various
adverbial-phrases.

§ 43 (p. 231), Various Adverbial-Phrases.

syntax: rules. 381

Particles often employed as prepositions may serve as
adverbs ; or may be appended to verbs, and serve as com-
plements that alter the meanings of verbs.
§ 46, Verbs, 2; § 49, Sequences, 3, d.

CONJUNCTIONS.

No other conjunction has all the uses of and. Neither
the preposition with nor the phrase as well as can serve
as a substitute for and,

§ 46, Special Observations, 10: § 60, 'And,' 1, 2, 3; Subordinative Con-
junctions, 3; Co-ordinative Conjunctions, 2, a, b, c.

Subordinative conjunctions and other connective
words link together elements having distinct relations
in complex sentences, and connect verbs differing from
each other in mood, or in tense, or in both.

§ 14-, Subordinative Conjunctions ; § 50, Subordinative Conjunctions, 2.

In E.II. that is often employed after other connective
words, and serves in forming clauses having severally the
uses of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. That, in our older
literature, is sometimes equivalent in force to that ivhich,
and accordingly may then follow a preposition.

§ 49, Sequences, 3, 6; § 60, Subordinative Conjunctions, 1.

Co-ordinative conjunctions connect together elements
having the same relation in compound sentences, or
periods.

§ 14, Co-ordinative Conjunctions: § 50, Co-ordinative Conjunctions, 1,
a, b, c; 2, a, b, c.

Or often connects two names of one thing. Where
or connects wcrds, phrases, or clauses, distinct in their
meanings, it may be preceded by the collateral form
either. The same rule applies to like uses of the forms
neither and nor,

§ 14, Co-ordinative Conjunctions; § 60, Co-ordinative Conjunctions, 3, b.

But — a form having imrious uses — is in one respect
like for and nor, as it may be placed next to a full stop.

382 SYNTAX.

But, as employed in some places, is in meaning equivalent
to that .... not.

§ 9, Relative Pronouns; § 14, Various Uses (p. 61); § 60, Co-ordinative
Conjunctions, 3, a, h, c.

In elliptical clauses of comparison as and than are
followed by oblique forms of pronouns wbere verbs are
omitted that, if inserted, would precede the pronouns.

§ 50, Sabordinative Conjunctions, 4, 5.

Conjunctions do not govern words ; but the sequence
' than whom ' is found in several authors.
§ 49, Seqtiences, 3,/

INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections do not govern words ; but there are
elliptical modes of expression in which words called inter-
jections are followed by oblique forms of pronouns.
§ 51, 1, b.

60. TABULAR FORMS OF ANALYSIS.

Tabular forms of analysis serve to make clear the
structure of sentences, and afford considerable aid in the
study of English Composition.

As regards clearness, writing English is an easy art, of
which the main rules are these three : —

1. Let the niiraber of the principal sentences, as compared
with the number of their subordinate phrases and clauses, be
proportionately large.

2. Shun the use of phrases considerably enlarged by con-
nection with phrases holding a lower place in subordination.
[§ 45, Phrases, 5.]

3. Place adjuncts so that their relations to primary ele-
ments may be clear.

Two or three examples of an involved style may be given ; but the sen-
tences analysed in this section are for the most part those of which the
structure is ordinary. Each of the three kinds of sentences respectively
called Simple, Complex, and Compound may be divided into two or three
varieties, and a knowledge of these will lead to the acquirement of facility
4n writing English. [§ 43, pp. 238-42, 260, 265-66.]

TABULAR FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 383

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

Observations. — A. It has been noticed that every sentence
inclndes a subject and a verb, and that whera the verb is
transitive an object follows. These are the primary elements,
and, when compared with these, the others are called subor-
dinate. When an adjunct is placed in relation with a primary
element, that adjunct is subordinate in the first degree. To
the adjunct so placed anoth,er may be appended, and thus
made subordinate in the second degree. [§ 45, Phrases, 5.]
One chief aim of analysis \_A] is to show the union of the
parts employed in making a sentence. Each adjunct is,
therefore, defined as one placed in relation with one of the
primary elements, w^hile those adjuncts holding secondary or
lower places in subordination are not separately defined.
Adverbials and attributes are thus often tahen together as parts
forming one adjunct, of which the character is shown by its
relation to one of the primary elements. The name of the
phrase has reference to its use.

' All things are as is their use.'

B. In another and a more minute method of analysis the
distinct uses of the adjuncts having secondary and lower de-
grees of subordination are noticed. The former mode of
analysis {A) shows union ; the latter (B) shows how one ad-
junct may be divided into two or several parts. This latter
process must lead at last to the minute or verbal analysis
called 'parsing.' [§61.] Here it will bo especially shown
how an adverbial-phrase may be followed by an attributive,
so that both, taken together, make a more expanded adver-
bial-phrase [-B].

6. Simple sentences may be lengthened, not only by in-
serting the secondary adjuncts already noticed, but also by
enlargements or repetitions of the elements called primary.

Where in a simple sentence each element consists of one word, or of a
short phrase, tabular forms like those denoted by A and B may be conve-
nient, but for other simple sentences the form denoted by C may serve.
For the uses of abbreviations see § 43, p. 220. The predicative verb [vc]
= one word, or = a vague verb + a complement. The attribute consisting
of one word, or of two adjectives, or of a noun placed with an article, is put
with the subject [s] or with the object [o] ; but the attributive-phrases are
placed with adverbials in the fourth column. Connective words ai-e set
within curves, and words referred to are set in Italic. In the abbreviated
form X — vc the dash = the phrase • relating to.' The second degree of sub-
ordination is not noticed in the first^eries of examples [^].

Examples. — A. 1. * Sunshine brightens the streams in the
dale.'

384

SYNTAX.

2. ' Sunshine makes bright all the streams flowing down
on the west of the dale,'

3. ' The east side of the dale is darkened by the moun-
tain's shadow.'

4. ' Myron the sculptor placed there a beautiful statue of
Juno.'

5. ' The people made the statue an idol '[i.e. they idolized
the statue].'

6. * Cyrus drove back the Persian soldiers stationed near
the king.'

7. ' The vessel was wrecked on the coast of the island.'

s + a

Sunshine

The east side

Myron the sculp-
tor

The people
Cyrus

brightens

makes + bright

is + darkened

placed

made + an idol
drove

o + a

the streams

all the
streams

a beautiful

statue
the statue
the Persian

soldiers

ap + X + xp

in the dale [ap —
streams]

flowing down on the
west of the dale
[ap — streams]

of the dale [ap —
side], by the moun-
tain's shadow [xp
— darkened]

of Juno [ap — stattie],
there [x — placed]

back [x — drove],sta.-
tioned near the king
[ap — soldiers]

7. The vessel was wrecked on the coast of the is-

land [xp — wrecked]

5. 1. ' The light of sunrise shines clearly over the ridge
of the high mountain.^

2. ' Many streams are flowing down on the west of the
dale.''

3. ' The dale is darkened by the shadow of the mountain.''

4. ' The vessel was wrecked on the coast of the island.^

Adjuncts having a secondary degree of subordination are here set in

Italic, as in the analyses appended.
xp in numerous examples.

s + a vc

In combination xp + ap = an enlarged

o + a

The light

shines

Many streams

are + flowing

The dale

is + darkened

The vessel

was + wrecked

x + xp
over the ridge [xp — shines] +

of the high mountain [ap —

ridge]
down [x.— flowing] + on the

west [x.'^ —flowing] + of the

dale [ap — west]
by the shadow [xp — darkened'\
+ of the mountain [ap — shadow]
on the coast [xp — wrecked]-^

of the island [ap — coast]

TABULAR FORMS OF ANALYSIS.

385

This rather minute plan of analysis serves to show that two phrases
are often combined to serve as one. But the plan is not generally recom-
mended. [§ 46, Phrases, 5 ; § 61.] The plans following the next four
excerpts are convenient for analyses of sentences in which subjects, or
attributes, or objects are considerably enlarged. Adjuncts having secondary
or lower degrees of subordination are here set in Italic ; but attributes and
adverbials are taken together in several extended phrases of which the
uses are attributive.

G. 1. 'The fignre, placed in statuelike repose, the hair,
the diadem, the simple drapery — all these harmonize well with
the expression of that majestic cov/ntenance.* — G.

2. ' Cyrus the Great, residing seven months in one district,
then three months in another, and then two months in a third,
enjoyed, as regards heat and cold, a perpetual Spring.' — G.

3. * The trim hedge, the grassplot before the door, the
little flower-bed bordered with box, the woodbine trained up
against the wall and hanging its blossoms around the lattice,
the pot of flowers in the window, the holly providentially
planted around the house, to cheat winter of its dreariness, and
throw in a semblance of green summer to cheer the fireside — all
these bespeak the influence of taste.' — W. Irving.

4. ' Here, at the great annual fair, Venetian commerce
displayed its rich stores — silks, woollen cloths, velvet, fine
lace, golden chains, mirrors, pearls, glittering weapons,
brooches, and jewelled bracelets.' — G.

For the analysis of a sentence in which the subject or the attribute has
a form considerably enlarged, the column under s + a is widened, or a
column may be arranged under the sign ap, as in the example here ap-
pended.

s + a ap vo x + xp

1. The figure placed in statue

like repose

harmonize

well [x — harmonize]

the hair, the diadem, with the expression

the simple drapery — of that majestic

all these countenance [xp —

harmonize']

Here the adverbial-phrase ' with the expression ' has its last word en-
larged by the attributive-phrase 'of that majestic countenance,^ and the
two, taken together, serve as a more expanded adverbial-phrase. See the
examples placed under the letter B.

8 + a

Cyrus the Great

ap (extended)
residing seven months

in one district

then [residing] three

months in another •

(and) [residing] two

months in a third

C C

enjoyed

o-f-a

a perpetual
Spring

as regards
heat and
cold [xp
—enjoy-
ed]

386

SYNTAX.

s + a a + ap (extended) vc

All these bespeak

the pot of
flo-vrers
the holly

the trim hedge

the grassplot before the door

the little flower- bordered mth

bed box

the woodbine trained up

the
wall (and)
hanging its
blossoms
around the

lattice providentially/ [xp

in the window — plant ~

to cheat winter of its

planted around dreariness [same]

the house (and) throw in

semblance of green
summer [same]
to cheer the fire-side
[ap — semblance']

In \hQ fourth example the object consists of the word ' stores ' followed
by a series of nouns in apposition.

o + a
the influ-
ence of

x + xp

s + a
4. Venetian commerce

vc o + a x + xp

displayed its rich stores — Here [x — dis-
silks, woollen playedl
cloths, velvet, at the great an-
fine lace, golden nual fair [xp
chains, mirrors, — displayed']
pearls, glitter-
ing weapons,
brooches, (and)
jewelled brace-
lets

The examples already given show how tabular forms may be arranged
so as to suit several varieties of structure found among simple sentences.
It may be added that a long series of simple sentences — each considerably
extended, but containing only one verb — is not to be recommended. Verbs
give clearness and vivacity to sentences.

COlJdiPLEX SENTENCES.

Observations. — A. Complex sentences, like those belonging
to the style of ' ordinary prose,' have already been described.
[§ 43, pp. 224, 235, 242^3, 260, 265.] Every complex sen-
tence contains at least one principal sentence and one clause.
The latter serves either as a noun, or as an adjective, or as an

TABULAR FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 387

adverb. The examples already given are numerous. [§ 44,
Glacises ; § 45, Glauses ; § 47, Glauses ; § 48, Glauses.'} The
clause employed as a subject often precedes the principal
verb, but when placed in apposition with it the clause follows.
The clause employed as an object mostly follows the verb of
the sentence to which the clause belongs. [§ 48, Glauses^ 3, a,

B. The attributive-clause is placed near the substantive
word to which it refers. [§ 45, Glauses, 6.] The adverbial-
clause is often placed at the beginning, and often at the end,
of the principal sentence. [§ 47, Glauses, 3, a, b, c]

G. Where several clauses are made subordinate to one
principal sentence, the whole of the complex sentence may be
described as ' involved,' though its form may serve well enough
as the natural form of expression for certain ideas. The style
here noticed would be out of place in * ordinary prose,' though
it may be admirable where the thought and its form of expres-
sion are both comprehensive.

Examples. — A. 1. ' That such a man should have written
one of the best books in the world is strange enough.' —
Macaulat.

2. 'It will hardly be denied that government is a means
for the attainment of an end.' — Macaulat.

3. ' He has often told me that, at his coming to his estate,
he found his parishioners very irregular.' — Addison.

sc vc z

1. That such a man should is + strange
have written one of the best books
in the world

2. It ... . that government will + be denied
is a means for the attainment of
an end

In the third example the complex sentence is divided in a way that is
convenient where the object is a clause considerably extended.

8 VC + X OC

3. He 1 has often told me j (that) at his coming to his estate, he found

I I his parishioners very irregular

B. I. * He that is comely when old and decrepit, surely
was very beautiful when he was young.' — South.

2. ' The most gifted men that I have known have been
the least addicted to depreciate either friends or foes.' — R.
Sharp.

• 3. * The best work for the ^od of the world is that which
is not done for the sake of any reward tho world can
bestow.' — G.

c c 2

enough [x — strange]
hardly [x — denied]

388

SYNTAX.

In the following general analyses clauses are set apart from the prin-
cipal sentences to which they relate. The uses of attributive and adverbial
words and phrases are here left to be noticed in special or detailed analyses,
of which several examples have been given.

1 . He .... surely was very beautiful . . • [p]

when he was young [xc — heautiful'\

that is comely [ac — he in p]

when [he is] old and decrepit [xc — comely']

2. The most gifted men have been the least addicted to

depreciate either friends or foes . . . . [p]

that I have known [ac — Tneti]

3. The best work for the good of the world is that . [p]
which is not done for the sake of any reward . . . [ac — thafl
the world can bestow [ac — reward']

G. ' It is as difficult for us, who date our ignorance from
our first being, and were still bred up with the same infirmities
about us with which we were born, to raise our thoughts and
imaginations to those intellectual perfections that attended
our nature in the time of innocence, as it is [difficult] for a
peasant bred up in the obscurities of a cottage to fancy in his
mind the unseen splendours of a court.' — South.

GENERAL ANALYSIS.

The Principal Sentence and its Clauses. Relations,

1. It .... to raise our thoughts and imagina-
tions to those intellectual perfections .... is as
difficult for us . . . . . . . p

2. that attended our nature in the time of inno-
cence &c— perfections [in l]

3. who date our ignorance from our first being . ac — us [in 1]

4. (and) [who] were still bred up with the same
infirmities about us ac — us [in 1]

6. with which we were born .... ac — infirmities [in 4]

6. (as) it is [difficult] for a peasant, bred up in
the obscurities of a cottage, to fancy in his mind the

unseen splendours of a court xc — is difficult [in 1]

SPECIAL

ANALYSIS.

s + a vc o + a x + xp

It .... to raise
our thoughts
and imagina-
tions

is + as difficult

to those intellectual per-
fections [xp — raise], for
us [x]^— difficult]

that

attended

our nature

in the time of innocence
[xjp— attended]

who

date

our Igno-
rance

from our first being [xp —
date]

TABULAR FORMS OF ANALYSIS.

389

8 + a vc

4. (and) [who] were + bred up

(as) it ... .
to fancy the
unseen splen-
dours of a
court

were + born
is + [difficult]

0 + a X + xp

still [x — werebredup]with.
the same infirmities about
us [xp — bred up]

with which [xp — were
boni]

for a peasant, bred up in
the obscurities of a cot-
tage [XT^— difficult]

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

Observations. — A. The structure of compound sentences
has been described. [§ 43, p. 235 ; §§ 14, 60, Go-ordinative
Conjunctions.] In numerous instances the use of a co-ordi-
native conjunction is a matter of choice. Instead of aTid, set a
semicolon between the two principal or independent sentences
having meanings more or less cognate ; the two sentences are
then called ' collateral.' A full stop might be placed between
them.

Examples. — ' Clouds gathered over the hiUs ; gloom was spread over the
valley.' ' The rain came down first on the hills ; then it fell fast in the
valley.' ' At last the sun shone again ; the rainbow appeared on the
cloud.' In Macpherson's Ossian ' cognate ' and ' collateral ' sentences like
these are very frequently employed. [§ 43, p. 242.] The meanings of
these words ' cognate ' and ' collateral' may be readily shown by a contrast.
No conjunction can be placed between the following two sentences: — 'To
listen to flattery is a sign of weak judgment.' 'The tiger is the most for-
midable of all the wild beasts of India.' There may indeed exist some
natural connexion between a flatterer and a tiger, but there is found no
logical connexion in the assertions here placed together.

Instead of the semicolon — often placed between independent
sentences having cognate meanings — write a7id ; the two sen-
tences, taken together, then mal^e one * compound sentence.'
The following are examples of ' compound ' sentences, includ-
ing ^/irases but no clauses: — 'The rain came down first on
the hills, and then fell fast in the valley.' 'At last the sun
shone again, and the rainbow appeared on the cloud.'

The co-ordinative conjunction (and or but^ for example) does
not refer especially to any distinct word or element in either
of the two co-ordinate sentences, but to a likeness or unlike-
ness of meaning in each sentence taken as a whole assertion
^d compared with the other. •

Example. — ' A wise son will hear his father's reproof; but a scorner will

390 SYNTAX.

not hear reproof.' — Bible. Two assertions are here set in contrast in one
compound sentence, with which the following complex sentence may be con-
trasted : — ' You talk so fast that I cannot follow you.' Here that obviously
relates to so. The union of the principal sentence and the clause, in a com-
plex sentence, is thus made closer than the connexion of the co-ordinate
members of a compound sentence. Etymological facts here agree partly
with our nomenclature. Plecto witb cum means ' knit together ; ' but pono
with cum means nothing more than ' put together.' * Composition ' and
' compound ' are words often misused in books called ' scientific,' and in
writing of the sentences here to be analysed ' co-ordinate ' is a better term than
* compound.' The union denoted by a subordinative particle is indeed more
intimate than that denoted by a co-ordinative conjunction, but the latter
means something more than ' put together.'

In the general analysis of a compound sentence there is
nothing more to be done than to set apart the co-ordinate
sentences, and to place their conjunctions within curves. Then
each of the two or more sentences may be analysed either as
a simple or as a complex sentence. All, therefore, that re-
mains to be shown here is the method of setting apart the
independent members of a compound sentence. In the first
place sentences not containing clauses are noticed.

In the examples appended conjunctions are set within curves. Each
of the independent members of the compound sentence may be analysed in
accordance with some one of the plans already described. [Examples A.]

B. Of the two sentences joined in co-ordination one or
both may be complex. In this case it is convenient to treat
the whole as a ' period,' though this term is sometimes more
strictly employed. [§ 43, pp. 235-36 ; § 50, p. 362.]

G. It has been noticed that among modern alterations
made in our style of writing English the most important is a
general disuse of long and elaborate periods. But these have
been employed by some classic modern writers whose periods
have here and there a structure that may be called artistic.
For the treatment of certain themes, such periods are appro-
priate, though they would be out of place in our ordinary prose.
[§ 43, pp. 238-43, 251-61.]

In the examples appended [C, 1, 2, 3], their general analysis is first of
all given. The aim is to show how a period may be divided into two
or several members, each consisting of a complex sentence.

Examples. — A. 1. * In this situation man has called in the
friendly assistance of philosophy, and Heaven, seeing the in-
capacity of that to console him, has given him the aid of re-
ligion.'— Goldsmith.

2. ' The snow was deep enough to have afforded them a

TABULAR FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 391

reasonable excuse ; but Horatio was not to be prevailed upon
to turn back.' — Southet.

3. ' The breeze died away to a perfect cahn, and the sails
hung loosely against the mast.' — Basil Hall.

Sentences. Descriptions.

1. a. In this situation man has called in the friendly as-
sistance of philosophy p, co-ord. — h

h. (and) Heaven, seeing the incapacity of that to console

him, has given him the aid of religion p, co-ord. — a

2. a. The snow was deep enough to have afforded a rea-
sonable excuse p, co-ord. — h

b. (but) Horatio was not to be prevailed upon to turn

back P, co-ord. — a

3. a. The breeze died away to a perfect calm . . . p, co-ord. — b
b. (and) the sails hung loosely against the mast . . p, co-ord. — a

B. 1. 'I have seldom answered any scurrilous lampoon
when it was in my power to have exposed my enemies ; and,
being naturally vindictive, have suffered in silence, and pos-
sessed my soul in quiet.' — Dryden.

2. ' The officers, who had hitherto concurred with Colum-
bus in opinion and supported his authority, now took part with
the private men ; they assembled tumultuously on the deck,
expostulated with their commander, mingled threats with their
expostulations, and required him instantly to tack about and
return to Europe.' — Robertson.

3. ' The high altar was erected on the very spot where
Harold's standard had waved ; and the roll, deposited in the
archives of the monastery, recorded the names of those who
had fought with the Conqueror, and amongst whom the lands
of broad England were divided.'— tSie F. Palgrave.

4. ' At the usual evening hour the chapel bell began to toll,
and Thomas Newcome's hands outside the bed feebly beat a
time.'

5. * And just as the last bell struck, a peculiar sweet smile
shone over his face, and he lifted up his head a little, and
quickly said " Adsum." '

6. ' It was the word we used at school when names were
called ; and lo, he whose heart was as that of a little child had
answered to his name, and stood in the presence of the Master.'
— Thackeray.

In the following analyses long sentences are represented by their initial
and their final words, divided by signs of omission.

Sentences. ^ Descriptions.

1. a. I have seldom answered ....
enemies complex, co-ord. — 6, c

392 SYNTAX.

Sentences. Descriptions,

h. (and) being naturally vindictive ....

silence ........ simple, co-ord. — a, c

c. (and) [I have] possessed my soul in quiet simple, co-ord. — a, b

2. a. The officers .... took part with the

private men complex, co-ord. — h, c, d, e

b. they assembled tumultuously on the deck simple, co-ord.— a, c, d, e

c. [they] expostulated with their com-
mander simple, co-ord. — a, b, d, e

d. [they] mingled threats with their ex-
postulations simple, co-ord. — a, 6, c, e

e. (and) [they] required him instantly to

.... return to Europe simple, co-ord. — a, b, c, d

3. a. The high altar was erected ....

standard had waved complex, co-ord. — b

b. (and) the roll .... divided . . complex, co-ord. — a

4. a. At the usual evening hour ....

toll simple, co-ord. — b

b. (and) .... time .... simple, co-ord. — a

5. a. And just as the last bell ....

face . complex, co-ord, — b, c

b. (and) he lifted up his head a little . simple, co-ord. — a, c

c. (and) quickly said ' Adsum ' . . . complex, co-ord. — a, b

6. a. It was the word .... called . . complex, co-ord. — b, o

b. (and) lo, he . . . . had answered to his

name complex, co-ord. — a, c

c. (and) [he] stood in the presence of the

Master simple, co-ord. — a, b

0. 1. 'As tlie day begins with obscnrity and a great mix-
ture of darliness, till bj quick and silent motions the light
overcomes the mists and vapours of the night, and not only
spreads its beams upon the tops of the mountains, but darts
them into the deepest and most shady valleys ; || thus simplicity
and integrity may at first appearing look dark and suspicious,
till by degrees it breaks through the clouds of envy and
detraction, and then shines with a greater glory.' — Stilling-

FLEET.

The parallels set apart the main divisions of the period.

2. ' Piety practised in solitude, like the flower that blooms
iu the desert, may give its fragrance to the winds of heaven,
and delight those unbodied spirits that survey the works of
God and the actions of men ; || but it bestows no assistance
upon earthly beings, and, however free from taints of im-
purity, yet wants the sacred splendour of beneficence.' —
Johnson.

3. ' General principles are not the less true or important
because from their nature they elude immediate observation ; ||

TABULAE FORMS OF ANALYSIS.

393

they are like tlie air, which is not the less necessary because
we neither see nor feel it, or like the secret influence which
binds the world together, and holds the planets in their
orbits.' — Kennedy.

Again, long sentences are represented
words, separated by signs of omission.

Main Divisions.
1. a. As the day .... valleys

h. thus

glory

2. a. Piety .... men

b. (but) it bestows .... beneficence

3. a. General .... observation .
h. they are like .... orbits

by their initial and their final

Descriptions.

Four adverbial-clauses ; the
first modified by the three fol-
lowing ; the whole relating to
look dark in 6

Complex ; the principal verb,
look dark, limited by the two
following adverbial-clauses

Complex and compound, co-ord.
—h

Complex and compound, co-ord.
— a

Complex, co-ord. — 6

Complex and compound, co-ord.

SUMMARY.

The whole process of analysis may be shown, as in a sum-
mary, by giving both the general and the special analysis of
a period. [0, 2.] It has already been divided into its two
chief members, each containing two principal sentences. In
the first place, the whole is divided only so far as to show
the relations of the sentences and clauses of which a special
analysis follows.

GENERAL ANALYSIS.

Principal Sentences and Clauses. Eelations.

1. Piety practised in solitude, hke the flower ....

may give its fragrance to the winds of heaven . . p, co-ord. — 3, 6,

2. that blooms in the desert ac — flower [in 1]

3. (and) [may] delight those unbodied spirits . p, co-ord. — 1, 5, 7

4. that survey the works of God, and the actions

of men ac — spirits [in 3]

6. (but) it bestows no assistance upon human beings p, co-ord. — 1, 3, 7

6. (and), however free [it may be] from the taints

of impurity xc— wants [in 7]

7. [it] yet wants the sacred splendour of beneficence p, co-ord. — 1, 3, 5

394

SYNTAX.

SPECIAL AJSTALYSIS.

s + ap

Piety practised
in solitude

that
(and) [it]

that

(but) it
(and) [it]

[it]

may + give

de-

blooms

may +

Hght

survey

besto-ws

[may be] +
free

wants

0 + a + ap

its fragrance

those un-
bodied
spirits

the -works of
God (and)
the actions
of men

no assist-
ance

the sacred
splendour
of benefi-

x + xp

like the flower [xp — ffivel,
to the winds of heaven
_ [xp— ^e>e]
in the desert [xp — blooms]

upon human beings [xp —

however [x — free], from
the taints of impurity
[x-p—free]

yet [x — wants]

It lias been sliown, in tliese tabular forms of analysis, tbat,
in proportion as tlie elements of sentences — either those
called complex or those called compound — are more and
more divided, the general meaning of each sentence so
treated becomes less and less obvious ; but we gain at the
same time some acquaintance with various plai;is for the
structure of sentences.

By means of sublation and union, words are made to serve
as parts of phrases, and these serve as elements in clauses,
while clauses serve as the elements of the principal sentences.
Of these two or more, including clauses, may be placed
together as in G, 2, and may have the union of a well-con-
structed period.

By means of division and subdivision, we come at last to
the minute analysis in which sentences, clauses, and phrases
are divided into words. This last process remains to be noticed.
[§ 61.]

61. PARSING.

The first and easiest mode of parsing has been noticed.
[§ 7, p. 32.] Sentences are there divided into words, and
each word is named with regard to its use. In a more ex-
tended method of parsing the uses of inflexions are noticed,
and to some extent the relations denoted by putting words
together are defined.

PARSING. 395

In briefly defining relations, those -which belong to the things signified
by words are often ascribed to the words themselvies. Thus an inert and
stationary word is called a transitive yerb, because it is used to denote a
transition of force — real or supposed. The adjective is said to limit the
noun in the sentence, ' Only five men were there — not ten.' Prepositions
are called relational words, because they are employed in expressing notions
of relation, and words in which no change of form is made are described as
governed. In these and other instances words are treated with a constant
regard to our own meanings or intentions. Thus it is said (p. 222), * Let
any word, a, require that another word, b, shall have a certain use ; then
a governs b.' But, strictly meaning, it is the writer's intention that pre-
scribes the use of the governed word. "When it is said, ' This verb governs
this noun,' the meaning is, that the words are put together with the inten-
tion of denoting a transitive act. In our thought we, for a moment, blend
the verb with the act signified, and we speak of the noun as of an object
afiected by that act. When we speak of two nouns in apposition, we do
not refer merely to the fact that they stand close to each other, but to our
intention in putting them together as two names of one thing. Thus our
principle in nomenclature agrees with the saying of an old writer — ' All
things are as is their use.'

In many short sentences each word represents one of the
logical elements of which a nnion forms a sentence. Bnt in
numerous instances several words mnst be pnt together to
make a phrase, which is employed as a noun, or as an adjec-
tive, or as an adverb. In the former case parsing — such as
is noticed here — may show the union of a sentence, but not
in the latter.

Ex. 1. 'We know the way.' Each word serves as one of the elements
called logical.

Ex, 2. ' We know how to win.' Here three words are taken to-
gether to make the phrase serving as the object.

Minute analysis of the kind here noticed affords some useful exercise in
discrimination, but tells little of English Syntax. Parsing may be made
more useful by extending its range, so far at least as to include some ob-
servations on the structure and the uses of phrases. In the appended ex-
amples several observations of this kind are added, and are set in small
type. When the parsing of a sentence is written, abbreviations such as
are given in an appended table will be convenient.

For the use of beginners, a few rules of syntax are given in a condensed
form ; but nothing is said of the exceptions — real and apparent — that have
already been noticed in detail.

The figure following the parsing of a word refers to one of the rules
given in this section.

TABLE FOR PARSING.

Definitive Words used in Parsing. Abbreviations.

A Noun may be —

common, proper, abstract . . com., pr., abs.

masculine, feminine, common, neuter m., f., c, n.

396

SYNTAX.

Definitive Words used in Parsing,
singular, plural, collective
subject, object, dependent
in apposition, in the possessive case .
a complement, or part of an exclama-
tion . . .

A Pronoun may he —
personal, possessive, relative
interrogative, demonstrative, indefi-
nite ......

of the 1st, the 2nd, or the 3rd person
masculine, feminine, common, neuter
singular, plural, indefinite
subject, object, dependent
in apposition, in the possessive case .
may refer to an antecedent

An Adjective may serve to define —

quality, quantity, number

order, possession ....

or may he demonstrative or indefi-
nite ......

positive, comparative, superlative

may he placed in attributive or pre-
dicative relation ....

may serve as complement to the verb
A Participle may he —

imperfect or perfect ....

and in Syntax may he defined as an

A Verb may he (in force or meann
ing)—

intransitive, transitive, passive

(in Conjugation) Old or 'New .

(in Mood) indicative, imperative, sub-
junctive .....

(in Tense) present, past, perfect, plu-
perfect • . . . .

(in Tense) in the 1st or the 2nd
future tense ....

(in Numher) singular or plural.

(in Person) of the 1st, the 2nd, or
the Srd .....

(in Syntax) must agree in number
and person with the subject

Abbreviations.
s., pL, col.
sub., ob., dep.
in app., poss. c.

comp., exc.

per., poss., rel.

?, dem., indef.

1st p., 2nd p., 3rd p.

m., f., c, n.

s., pi., indef.

sub., ob., dep.

in app., poss. c.

ref. to antec.

qual., quan., num.
ord., poss.

dem., indef.

pos., comp., super.

in att. r., in pr. r.
comp. to the verb

imperf ., perf.

intrans., trans., pass.
0., N.

indie, imper., subj.

pr., past, perf., plu.

1st R, 2nd F.
s., pi.

1st p., 2nd p., 3rd p.

agr. w. sub.

PAUSING.

397

D^niiive Words tised in Parsing.
An Adverbial may serve to de-
fine a verb with respect to —
place, time, degree, canse, mode

An Adverb of quality may be —
positive, comparative, superlative

An Adverbial may serve to define —
a verb, an adjective, or an adverb

A Preposition may govern —
a noun, or a pronoun, or a phrase ;
comparatively rarely a clause
The government of the Preposition

is namedin par sing the dependent

noun or pronoun,

A Conjunction (co-ordinative) may
connect the sentence with the
sentence . . . . .

A Conjunction (subordinative) may
connect the clause with the word

And may connect —
the sentence. . . .with the sentence ....
the clause .... with the clause ....
the phrase .... with the phrase ....
the word .... with the word

Abbreviaticms.

p., t., d., c, m.
pos., comp., super,
def. v., adj., or adv.

gov.n., or pron., or phr.

con.

con. . . . w. word

con. . . . w. . . . (jQive
the first and the last
w&rd of each sentence
or clause; but write
out the phrase)
One Conjunction may be—
correlative with another . . . corr. w. . , .

An Interjection has rarely any gram-
matical relation.

RULES.

1. The subject is placed so that its use is shown. This
is especially noticed as regards pronouns. As far as their
forms allow, and as regards gender, number, and person, pro-
nouns should agree with the nouns for which they stand.

2. Adjectives enlarge or define the meanings of nouns.
Some verbal forms used as adjectives are placed before nouns ;
others are rarely so placed. In many sentences adjectives
serve as the complements of verbs.

8. The verb agrees with the subject in number and person.
Where a relative is the subjict, the number and person of the
verb are shown by the antecedent.

398 SYNTAX.

4. Transitive verbs and verbal forms govern nouns and
pronouns serving as objects. The relative is not governed
by the verb that governs the antecedent.

5. Prepositions denote relations, and govern dependent
nouns and pronouns. The relative is not governed by the
preposition that governs the antecedent.

6. Adverbs define the meanings of verbs, and those of
attributive words.

7. Phrases and clauses have the uses of nouns, adjectives,
and adverbs. Some prepositional phrases serve as adjectives ;
many serve as adverbs.

8. Conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences and
clauses.

EXAMPLES OF PARSING.

' The light of sunrise shines clearly over the ridge of the
high mountain, and brightens the rippling streams that flow
down into the valley. They glitter in the radiance of the
morning.' [§ 7.]

The adjective, demonstrative; defines or limits ^ light.'

—2.

light noun, common, neuter, singular ; the subject in

concord with ''shines.'' — 1 ; 3.

of preposition ; denotes the relation of ' sunrise ' and

' light,' and governs * sunrise.'' — 5.

sunrise a dependent noun, common, neuter, singular ; go-
verned by ' of.' — 5.

*0/sMwme,' a prepositional phrase, serving as an adjective to define • light*

—7.

verb, intransitive, old, fifth class [Pr. ' shines,' P.
' shone,' P.P. ' shone '], indicative, present, sin-
gular, third person; agrees with the subject
'light:— ^.

clearly adverb ; defines the meaning of * shines.' — 6.

over preposition ; denotes the relation of ' ridge ' and

' shines' and governs 'ridge.' — 5.

the adjective, demonstrative ; defines or limits ' ridge.'

—2.

ridge a dependent noun, common, neuter, singular ; go-

verned by * over.' — 5.

' Over the ridge: a prepositional phrase, serving as an adverb to define
as to place the meaning of ' shines.'' — 6.

PARSING.

399

of preposition ; denotes the relation of * ridge ' and

^ mountain,^ and governs ^mountam.* — 5.

the adjective, demonstrative ; defines or limits ' moun-

tain.^— 2.

high adjective of quality, positive ; enlarges the meaning

of ' mountain.^ — 2.

mountain a dependent noun, common, neuter, singular ; go-
verned by ' o/.' — 5.

* Of the high mountain,' a prepositional phrase, serving as an adjective to
enlarge or delBne ' ridge.' In a less analytical treatment of phrases, two
are taken together, thus : — * over the ridge ' + ' of the high mountain.'
Here the former phrase shows the use of both. When collected they form
one expanded adverbial element. Strictly speaking, the noun * ridge ' in
the former phrase is defined by the whole of the latter. The whole of the
compound adverbial serves to define the meaning of * shines.' — 7.

conjunction; connects the first principal sentence
[' The light .... mountain '] with the second
principal sentence [' the light brightens ....
streams^]. — 8.
[ * light '] the subject ; omitted in the text. [§ 65, Ellipses.']
brightens verb, transitive, new, indicative, present, singular,
third person ; agrees with ' light ' [the subject
here understood]. — 3.
the adjective, demonstrative ; defines or limits ' streams.^

—2.
verbal adjective of quality ; enlarges the meaning

of ' streams.^ — 2.
noun, common, neuter, plural ; governed by

* brightens.^ — 4.
pronoun, relative, serving to connect with the ante-
cedent, ' streams,^ the adjective-clause, ' that flow

down i/nto the valley.' — 4 ; 7.
verb, intransitive, new, indicative, present, plural,

third person ; agrees with * that.' — 3 ; 4.
adverb ; defines as to place the meaning of ^flow.' — 6.
preposition ; denotes the relation of * valley ' and

floWj' and governs ^valley.' — 5.
adjective, demonstrative ; defines or limits ' valley.'

—2.
noun, common, neuter, singular; governed by

^ into.' — 6.

' Into the valley' a prepositional phrase, serving to define as to place the
meaning of '/ow.' — 6. •

* That flow down into the valley,' an attributive-clause, serving as an
adjective to define ' streams' the object in the preceding sentence.— 7.

ri/pplvng

streams

that

flow

down
into

the

valley

400 SYNTAX.

They pronoun, personal, plural, third person ; the subject

in concord with ^glitter.'' — 3.

glitter verb, intransitive, new, indicative, present, plural,
third person ; agrees with * they.'' — 3.

m preposition ; denotes the relation of * radiance ' and

* glitter,^ and governs ' radiance.'' — 6.

the adjective, demonstrative; defines or limits ^ radi-

ance.'' — 2.

raddance a dependent noun, common, neuter, singular ; go-
verned by ' in.' — 5.

' In the radiance,' a prepositional phrase, serving as an adverb to defin e
the meaning of 'glitter.' — 7.

of preposition ; denotes the relation of ' morning ' and

^ radiance j' and governs 'morning.' — 5.

the adjective, demonstrative ; defines or limits * morn;-

ing.'—2,

morning a dependent noun, common, neuter, singular ; go-
verned by ' of.' — 6.

' Of the morning,' a prepositional phrase, serving to define * radiance.'
In a less analytical treatment of phrases two are taken together, thus : —
' in the radiance ' + ' of the morning.' Thus collected they form an ex-
panded or compound adverbial, which serves to define the meaning of
'glitter.' — 7.

62. PUNCTUATION.

To some extent the structure of sentences is shown by
the points called stops ; chiefly by three — the full stop,
the comma, and the semicolon. Punctuation is not a
science. Rules must here leave some room for freedom,
especially in books where the style is familiar. It is
convenient to treat distinctly of the stops required in
the three kinds of sentences — simple, complex, and
compound. The punctuation of various long sentences,
and of the complex and compound sentences strictly
called ' periods/ is also noticed.

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

1. A full stop is set at the end of the sentence. In the next
sentence sequence may be indicated by a word [hut, for ex-
ample] or by a phrase [as to that], and sometimes an almost
expletive word [however'] is inserted, so that the sentence is

PUNCTUATION. 401

not left without some sign of sequence. Bat it is understood
that the two sentences divided by a full stop have no gram-
matical union. A semicolon often serves instead of a full
stop, where several short and independent sentences make a
a series.

The poor child ' has learned to go to market ; it chaflfers ; it haggles ;
it envies ; it murmurs ; it is knowing, acute, sharpened ; it never prattles.'
— Lamb.

Here the genial author makes his own style as ' helpless '
as his subject. Again, where full stops are inserted, the style
may be appropriate — however simple — as in the following
sentences, where the form is good enough for the theme : —

' Till eleven he worked without interruption. A cup of chocolate was
then brought, and he resumed work till one. At two he dined. . . . His
appetite was immense. . . . Puddings, sweets, and cakes were always wel-
come.'— G. H. Lewes.

2. But, as a rule, short sentences are not set together in a
series. They serve rather to afford variety in passages where
the style is more or less synthetic.

' There has been an attempt to reconstruct society on a basis of material
motives. It has failed.' ' Venice is the only city which can yield the
magical delights of solitude. All is still and silent. No rude sound
distracts your self-consciousness. This renders existence intense.' — Loai>
Beaconsfibld.

3. Except the full stop at the end, no stops are set in
short and simple sentences, where each of the elements con-
sists of a single word. In some instances where phrases are
employed, they are so closely connected in meaning that no
stops are inserted.

' There was no longer anything to check the natural tendency to disre*-
gard the grammatical delicacies of the written language.' — Freeman.

4. Where one of the elements in a simple sentence is for-
mally (not literally) repeated, or has the form of a series, the
items are made distinct by putting after each a comma. This
rule applies where the element is enlarged, or has the form of
a phrase.

'A simple bed, an arm-chair by its side, and a tiny washing-table, with
a small white basin on it and a sponge, is all the furniture.*— G.H. Lewes.
[As regards the verb, see § 60, ' and,' 2.]

• ' In this stream we have the percj^ the roach, the chub, and their com-
mon enemy, the pike.' — G.

'Your shrewd, sly, evil-speaking fellow is generally a shallow person-
age.'— R. Sharp.

• D D

402 SYNTAX.

5. Words used as interjections, or as terms of address, are
followed by commas.

'"Why, no, sir! .... Sir, your genius is great.' — Johnson.

6. Attribntive-ptrases — especially such as include an adjec-
tive, a participle, or a noun in apposition — are often set with
commas, and where the phrase is long a comma may be set
before the verb.

' Too severe for our unaccompanied spirit, then easily overcome with
awe, -was the solitude of those remote inland lochs.' — "Wilson.

7. Adverbial-phrases are often set with commas. The
stops are omitted where phrases are closely connected, but
are inserted where each is followed by an ellipsis. [§ 65.]

' In the perplexities of nations [the comma omitted] in their struggles
for existence, in their infancy, their impotence, or even their disorganisa-
tion, they have higher hopes and nobler passions. Out of the suffering
comes the serious mind ; out of the salvation, [comes] the grateful heart ;
out of the deliverance, the faith.' — Euskin.

8. Where several subjects are collected, as belonging to
one assertion, the last is often followed by a colon, but some-
times by a dash. In the example given here one of the
subjects is qualified by a clause. In other respects the punc-
tuation might serve for a simple sentence in which the subject
consists of a series.

'The railway and the telegraph, the factory, the forge, and the mine;
the highways beaten upon every ocean ; the first place in the trade of the
world, where population would give us but the fifth ; a commercial marine
equalling that of the whole of Continental Europe : these may be left to
tell their own tale.' — "W. E. Giadstone.

9. A colon (with a dash) sometimes introduces a quota-
tion, or a series of words, placed at the close of a sentence,
and having a common relation to some word or words preced-
ing the stop. This stop is convenient where several examples
follow a rule.

' Among the subjects of Titian's portraits, the following may be named : —
Henry the Third, King of France ; Philip the Second, King of Spain ; the
Doges Loredan, Grrimani, and Lando ; the Dukes of Mantua, Savoy, and
Ferrara ; the Popes Paul the Third, Clemens the Seventh, and Julius the
Second ; and lastly the Emperor Charles the Fifth.' — Gr.

The rules already given for placing stops with words and
phrases in simple sentences, remain valid when words and
phrases of the same kind form parts of complex or of com-
pound sentences. These, however, have some special rules of
punctuation.

PUNCTUATION. 403

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

10. Noun-clauses, placed as subjects, are often set with
commas. [§ 44, Clauses.'] Where objective clauses are re-
peated, they are sometimes set with semicolons.

* It happened in the reign of this king, there was a fierce battle fought
in Flintshire.' — Fuli^ee. ' It is not in the fine arts aloue, that this false
correctness is prized.' — Macatjlay. ' That any two or more poets should
simultaneously have conceived such a character as Achilles, is next to im-
possible.'— W. Mure.

11. But noun-clauses, employed as subjects, are often
placed without stops. The places where omissions of stops
may be noticed are marked in the sentences that follow.

' That you have wronged me A doth appear in this.' — Shakespeare.
* It was evident A that strifes and troubles would be endless.' — Gr. * It
is certain A we imagine before we refiect.' — Berkeley. ' It was in
this way A that our ancestors reasoned.' — Macaulat. * It is not true a
that he said that.' — Mason. ' His hope was A that peace would soon be
made.' — G-.

12. Clauses beginning with what and whether are some-
times set with commas, which are but rarely used for objective
clauses beginning with that. [§ 48, Glauses.']

' What we hear most valued in a picture, we often find the most neglected
in a book — namely, the composition.' — Lytton. * "Whether the old or the
new vice be the worse, we shall not attempt to decide.' — Macatjlay. ' Pi-
zarro called out with stentorian voice, " Let no one strike ... at the Inca." '
— Prescott. ' In answer to these inquiries the messenger replied, that he
had not been present when the engagement took place.' — Mason.

' You know A that you are Brutus that say this.' — Shakespeare. ' I
feel A that literature, science, politics, .... are yet, as they are generally
talked about, still upon the surface.' — Arnold. * "We do not yet compre-
hend A that the author is an artist.' — Lytton. * I do not see a that this
admits of question.' — Froude. ' He told me A he would come.' — G.

13. Attributive-clauses are often set with commas when
they begin with who or with which ; especially where the re-
lative is in force equivalent to and he^ or and it. But a comma
is rarely placed before that employed as a definitive and con-
necting word. [§ 45, Glauses.]

* These words were received with a shout of joy, which was heard in
the street below.' — Macattlay. 'Harold despatched a monk to the enemy's
camp, who was to exhort William to abandon his enterprise.' — Sib F. Pal-
grave. 'It appears as that evening-star of light in the horizon of life,
^ich, we are sure, is to become, in another season, a morning-star.* — Sir
H. Davy. ' Here comes a native, wno may be able to tell us the name of
this river.' — G-.

'Narrow is the way A which leadeth to life.' — B^le. •! observed
DD 2
#

404 SYNTAX.

some A who ran to and fro upon the bridge.' — Addison. * The road A
which led to honour was before you.'— JuNros.

'I do recant the pardon A that I late pronounced here. . . . Hates any
man the thing A he would not kill? '—Shakespeare. ' There is a passion A
that hath no name.' — Hobbes. ' It is they A that keep awake the finer
parts of our souls.' — Caelylb. ' It was not reason a that produced the
Jesuits.' — Lord Beaconsfield.

14. Adverbial-clauses are usually placed with commas,
especially where the clauses are long. [§ 47, Clauses.']

* As Sir Eoger is landlord to the whole congregation, he keeps them in
very good order ; .... if by chance he has been surprised into a short
nap at sermon, upon recovering out of it, he stands up and looks about
him.' — Addison. ' If I were to assign the particular quality which con-
duces to that dreamy and voluptuous existence, which men of high imagi-
nation experience in Venice, I should describe it as the feeling of abstraction,
which is remarkable in that city, and peculiar to it.' — Lord Beaconsfield.
• The men of Kent formed the vanguard, for it was their privilege to be
the first in the strife.' — Palgrave. * As we follow the apostle in the dif-
ferent stages of his varied and adventurous career, we must strive conti-
nually to bring out in their true brightness the half-effaced forms and
colouring of the scene in which he acts. . . . And that we may be fully
qualified to do all this, we should have a clear view of the state of the
Koman empire at the time.' — Contbeare. * For a penny, at the time of
which I write, the labourer could buy more bread, beef, beer, and wine,
.... than the labourer of the nineteenth century can for a shilling.' —
Froitdb. • One Sunday, when the party had just returned from church,
they were standing together on the terrace near the hall.' — Smiles. ' There-
fore, that we may determine what is chiefly useful to man, it is necessary
first to determine the use of man himself. . . . Now when they have learned
to live under providence of laws, and with decency and justice of regard for
each other ; and when they have done away with violent and external
sources of suffering, worse evils seem arising out of their rest.' — Kuskin.

15. Adverbial- clauses are sometimes placed without
commas, especially where the clauses are short. [§ 47,
Clauses. li

* "We are forced to raise our rents a by reason we must buy so dear.'
— "W. Stafford, 1581. 'Though he slay me a yet will I trust in him.
... Is thy servant a dog A that he should do this thing ? ' — Bible. ' We
admire it now A only as antiquaries do a piece of old coin.' — South. ' I
threw away my rattle A before I was two months old.' — Addison. ' I should
not have gone to law a but that I was assured of success.' — Goldsmith.
•They clung about him a as captives about their redeemer.' — Bxtrkb.
' Where once we dwelt a our name is heard no more.' — Cowper. ' Poetry
is as immortal A as the heart of man.' — Wordsworth. 'Their debts
were more A than they were able to discharge.' — Arnold. ' Satirical
writers and talkers are not half so clever A as they think themselves.' — R.
Sharp. ' It turned out a as I expected. ... I love study more A than
ever I did. . . . He punished the boy a whenever he did wrong. ... I love
him A because he is good. ... He read A while I wrote.' — Mason.

PUNCTUATION. 405

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

36. For compound sentences the characteristic stop is
the semicolon, which serves to make distinct their main
divisions. But this stop is often set between collateral, inde-
pendent sentences, where no conjunction is inserted. The
omission of a co-ordinative conjunction is often a matter of
choice. Where collateral sentences are short, and are closely-
connected in their meanings, the stop between them may be a
comma ; but semicolons are usually set to make distinct such
collateral ' sentences as are rather long, or contain several
commas. Examples will here show more than our rules can
clearly say. In the first example the first sentence is com-
plex, not compound. The second is complex and compound.

' The wearied horse of Ivanhoe, and its no less exhausted rider, went
down, as all had expected, before the well-aimed lance and vigorous steed
of the Templar. This issue of the combat all had foreseen ; but although
the spear of Ivanhoe did but, in comparison, touch the shield of Bois-Guil-
bert, that champion, to the astonishment of all that beheld it, reeled in his
saddle, lost his stirrups, and fell in the lists.' — Sik W. Scott.

' The colours of the sky were more various than any I had ever before
observed ; the clouds too assumed a form, a tinge, and a magnitude
in their masses that excited the admiration of all on board. In a few
minutes all was changed ; the wide expanse of biirnished gold, which re-
placed the setting sun, faded sudderdy away ; the moon withdrew her
trembling beams ; and the clouds, forming into one dense black mantle,
overspread the firmament, and enveloped the whole horizon in darkness.
Thunder followed at a distance ; scarcely had its awful murmurs ceased,
when the winds came sweeping along the deep.' — Basil Hall.

' It must not be supposed, that their solitary literary studies can ever
insure for men of genius and culture such great advantages as are gained
only by means of association ; as well might it be supposed, that literary
men were already closely enough united by their use of our common lan-
guage.'— G.

There are certain instruments called musical, whose sounds seem
noisy enough to the player, though they do not travel far ; so there are men
whose opinions are essentially private or particular, and can never spread
themselves widely.' — G.

17. Where co-ordinate sentences of some considerable
length, but not complex, are set with and between them, the
conjunction usually follows a comma ; but a semicolon is a
convenient substitute in many places, where a comma would
not distinctly show the main division. [§ 50, Co-ordinative
GonjunctionSj 1, a, 6, c]

' He can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion in
Ti statue.' — Addisox. *The abbol^was freed from the authority of the
Metropolitan of Canterbury, and [was] invested with archiepiscopal juris
diction.' — Sib F. Palgbave.

406 SYNTAX.

'The world has an instinct for recognising its own ; and recoils from
certain qualities when exemplified in books, with the same disgust, or
defective sympathy, as would have governed it in real life.' — De Quincet.
' We overestimate the value of Talent, because it dazzles us ; and we are
apt to underrate the importance of Will, because its works are less shining,'
— Gr. H. Lewes.

18. The conjunction hut, denoting either limitation or
contradiction, has at least two degrees of force. The weaker
degree — appropriate to conversation — is often indicated by a
preceding comma ; the stronger, by a semicolon. [§ 14, TJses ;
§ 50, Co-ordinative Gonjunctions.']

' I have almost forgot that, but it is a pleasant conceit, to be sure.'
— Sm E. Steele. * The victory of Trafalgar was celebrated indeed with the
usual forms of rejoicing, but they were without joy.' — Southey. ' They
[satirical talkers] do winnow the corn, 'tis true, but 'tis to feed upon the
chajff.' — K. Sharp. * We were very tired, but we could not stop long.' —
Mason.

' I meet with a great many persons in the course of the year, and with
many whom I admire and like ; but what I feel daily more and more to
need, as life every year rises more and more before me in its true reality,,
is to have intercourse with those who take life in earnest.' — Aenold-. ' In
discussing, for instance, a modern work, we hear it praised, perhaps, for
some striking passage, some prominent character; hut when do we ever hear
any comment on its harmony of construction, on its fitness of design, on its
ideal character, on its essentialities, in short, as a work of art ? ' — Lobd
LyttoN. * Talent gracefully adorns life ; hut it is Will which carries us
victoriously through the struggle. Intellect is the torch which lights us
on our way ; Will the strong arm which rough-hews the path for us.' — Gr.
H. Lewes.

19. Between independent sentences, having cognate mean-
ings, a colon is sometimes set instead of a semicolon, or instead
of a full stop. Before a quotation the colon is often set with
a dash, but it is sometimes set alone. With the dash it may
introduce a series of examples following a rule, or a list of
items already referred to. [Il>ule 9.]

* The people now dragged us above forty yards on the sand : it was the
first and last time I was ever on a cayman's back.' — C. Waterton.

' She plucked a blossom from her hair, as she drew near me, and said,
" Take it : you must not refuse one token more ; this also is a sacred gift.'"

— LOCKHAKT.

' There is a congruity in their proceedings which one loves to contem-
plate : he who would write heroic poems, should make his life a heroic
poem.' — Caeltlb.

' It [the note] contained only these words : " I order you to execute my
orders, or else never to come back." ' — Lord Stanhope.

20. The insertion of many words within curves or brackets
is not good. The following long parenthesis is remarkably
objectionable : —

PUNCTUATION. 407

' My voice proclaims,
How exquisitely the individual mind
(And the progressive powers, perhaps, no less
Of the "whole species) to the external world

Is fitted.' WORDSWOBTH.

21. But a rather long parenthesis may be allowed in a
humorous style of writing, as in these lines taken from a well-
known ode, addressed to a playful child : —

' Thou cherub — but of earth ;
Fit playfellow for fays by moonlight pale,

In harmless sport and mirth,
(That dog will bite him, if he pulls its tail !) '

Thomas Hood.

22. Brackets and curves serve well here and there for in-
sertions of short notes and references, having no grammatical
union with the sentence interrupted.

* It may now be expected that, having written the life of a historian
[Plutarch], I should take occasion to write something concerning history
itself.' — Dryden. ' The night (it was in the middle of the summer) was
fair and calm.'— Thirlwall.

23. The dash — used irregularly by Sterne, as by some
later writers — serves often instead of curves ; or sets apart
and makes emphatic certain expressions. Sometimes the
words set apart are so many that the beginning of the sentence
must be repeated.

' Oh ! what was to become of us, we sometimes thought in sadness that
all at once made our spirits sink — like a lark falling suddenly to earth,
struck by the fear of some unwonted shadow from above — what was to
become of us, when the mandate should arrive for him to leave the manse
for ever, and sail away in a ship to India, never to return ! . . . . All — all
at once he drooped : on one fatal morning the dread decay began — with no
forewarning, the springs on which his being had so lightly, so proudly, so
grandly moved — gave way.' — Wilson.

' It was some time before the sheikh could be prevailed upon to descend
into the pit, and convince himself that the image he saw was of stone.
" This is not the work of men's hands," exclaimed he, " but of those infidel
giants of whom the prophet — peace be with him ! — has said, that they were
higher than the tallest date-tree ; this is one of the idols which l^oah — peace
be with him ! — cursed before the flood." ' — Layard.

24. The note of interrogation follows a direct question,
but it is not inserted where the question is indirect.

' The poetess once more steps forward, and rightly she wears now her
crimson mantle and is crowned with laurel ; for is she not victorious ? ' —
Gr. ' I asked him why he wept.'— Sterne.

25. The note of exclamation may follow a word, a phrase,
or a sentence, having the tone of an interjection. [§ 51.]

408 SYNTAX.

* A group of boys ran before me, crying out " Agamemnon ! Agamem-
non ! " ' — Stephens. * Pity, tliat from all their conquests, so rich in benefit
to others, themselves should reap so little ! ' — Cablyle.

26. Quotation points, or guillemets, may be single ["] or
double [" "]• The former may mark a single quotation ; the
latter a quotation placed within a quotation. But in many
books this order is reversed.

' Hardy knelt down and kissed his cheek ; and Nelson said, " Thank
God, I have done my duty." ' — Southet.

LONG SENTENCES.

It has been remarked that many sentences are made long
and rather cumbrous by various errors of construction.
[§ 43, p. 243.] Other long sentences, such as cannot be
strictly called * artistic periods,' may be considerably extended,
while their meaning is made perfectly clear, and their struc-
ture is readily shown, by means of punctuation. They are
usually extended by repetitions of certain elements. [§ 43,
p. 266.] In one long sentence the subject may consist of a
series of phrases ; in another, attributive elements may be
considerably extended, or an adverbial element may have a serial
form. In many instances the object consists of a series of clauses.
But there is no obscurity produced by these several modes of
repetition. The following sentence is clear, though the words
employed as subjects are rather numerous. The writer com-
pares biographical with historical writings : —

* The lineaments, features, and colourings of a single picture may be
hit exactly ; but in a history-piece of many figures, the general design, the
ordonnance or disposition of it, the relation of one figure to another, the
diversity of the postures, habits, shadowings, and all the other graces con-
spiring to a uniformity, are of so difficult performance, that neither is
the resemblance of particular persons often perfect, nor the beauty of the
piece complete.' — Dbyden.

A second example may show how a sentence is sometimes
lengthened by inserting many words and phrases serving as
adjectives : —

' From qualities, for instance, of childlike simplicity, of shy profundity,
or of inspired self-communion, the world does and must turn away its face
towards grosser, bolder, more determined or more intelligible expressions ot
character and intellect ; and not otherwise in literature, nor at all less in
literature, than it does in the realities of life.' — Db Qtjincey.

In the next example enlargements of the subject make the

PUNCTUATION. 409

sentence long. The excerpt is taken from the writer's well-
known essay on Johnson : —

' The perverse irregularity of his hours, the slovenliness of his person,
his fits of strenuous exertion, interrupted by long intervals of sluggishness,
his strange abstinence, and his equally strange voracity, his actire benevo-
lence, contrasted with the constant rudeness and the occasional ferocity of
his manners in society, made him, in the opinion of those with whom he
lived during the last twenty years of his life, a complete original.* —
Macaxjiat.

The next example is a complex sentence lengthened by
appending to the object several attributive-phrases : —

* Ye scarcely know what the name [tyrant] means; a vile person, seizing
upon the state and power of the king, trampling upon all law, confounding
all order, persecuting the noble and good, encouraging the evil, robbing the
rich, insulting the poor, hving for himself alone, and for his own desires,
neither fearing the gods nor regarding men.' — Abnold.

The following sentence is made long by the insertion of
several adverbial-phrases, which are mostly set with dashes,
employed by the writer instead of commas : —

' Upon ancient dynasties of Ethiopian kings — upon G-reek and Roman,
upon Arab and Ottoman conquerors — upon Napoleon dreaming of an East-
ern empire — upon battle and pestilence — upon the ceaseless misery of the
Egyptian race — upon keen-eyed travellers — Herodotus yesterday and War-
burton to-day — upon all and more this unworldly Sphinx has watched, and
watched like a Providence, with the same earnest eyes, and the same sad,
tranquil mien,' — Kinqlake.

Sentences like these, considerably extended by repetitions
of their elements, are numerous in English literature. Of all
those written by Macaulat, one of the longest is found in the
introduction to his * History of England.' It consists of a
subject and a verb [' I shall relate '] followed by ten objective
clauses, each considerably enlarged, and beginning with how.
As a table of contents it serves its purpose well ; but there is
no artistic variety in its structure. A similar uniformity is
seen in the longest sentence contained in Cowley's essay
known as the ' Vision of Oliver Cromwell.' In the punctua-
tion of sentences of this class a semicolon is usually set before
each of the repetitions.

In each of the preceding examples it is one of the chief
elements that is repeated, or extended. The more we enlarge
or extend the suboi'dinate elements, the further we recede
from clearness. A sentence is 'involved' when any part
■already placed in subordinati^ is enlarged to a considerable
extent. In the following excerpt an objective clause, belong-
ing to the first adjective-clause, is greatly enlarged ; so far.

410 SYNTAX.

indeed, that tlie writer is compelled to repeat the principal
subject : —

• They who, though not enduring the calamity of Milton [blindness],
have known what it is, when afar from books, in solitude or in travelling^
or in the intervals of worldly care,' to feed on poetical recollections, to
murmur over the beautiful lines whose cadence has long delighted their
ear, to recall the sentiments and images which retain by association the
charm that early years once gave them — they will feel the inestimable
value of committing to the memory, in the prime of its power, what it will
easily receive and indelibly retain.' — Hallam.

Several of our great authors have written involved sen-
tences, such as they would not have written had they made
themselves more closely acquainted with the true character of
our language. The compulsory repetition of a subject is more
excusable in speaking than in writing. A fluent and excited
orator will sometimes enlarge one element so far that the
beginning of the sentence is almost or quite forgotten, and he
finds it advisable to turn back and repeat it. The following
example is taken from a report of an after-dinner speech on
political affairs : —

' It is not until nations are able to come together, and explain frankly
to each other what it is they wish, what it is they don't wish, what it is they
are prepared to contend for, what it is they are determined to resist, and
what bona fide are their intentions on complicated questions — it is not until
you have got that sort of mutual understanding, that you can feel any con-
fidence that peace will be preserved.' — G.

PERIODS.

27. A period, having the comprehensive and nnitive struc-
ture already defined, must contain several commas, and may
contain more than one semicolon. The main division is
usually marked by a semicolon, or by a colon. In the ex-
ample appended, the two chief members are here separated by
parallels. [§ 43, pp. 235-36, 243.]

' In a prospect enriched and enlivened with inhabitants and cultivation,
the attention is caught first by the circumstances which are gayest in the
season — the bloom of an orchard, the festivity of a hayfield, and the carols
of a harvest home ; |1 but the cheerfulness which these infuse into the mind,
expands afterwards to other objects than those immediately presented to
the eye ; and we are thereby disposed to receive, and delighted to pursue,
a variety of pleasing ideas, and every benevolent feeling.' — Whately.

A compound sentence comparatively short may be called a
period, if it divides itself into two parts, each complex and

PUNCTUATION. 411

closely connected with the other. The following — found in a
translation from Goethe — may be called a period : —

* This "vrorld seems a desert, when we see in it only mountains, rivers,
and towns ; but when we know that here and there we have friends who,
though distant and silent, are caring for us, this world is for us like a home
in the midst of a garden.' — G-.

28. In a period where a semicolon has been employed in
the former part, a colon is required to show the main division.

' The man of wide sympathies feels discouragement enough, when he
surveys the past, and sees how slow has been the progress made by those
who have devoted their labours — their lives — to establish here a kingdom
that is hardly visible ; but he still retains his faith in an unseen world, and
his hope of the future : take away faith and hope — then he has nothing to
live for, and, were he not controlled by a superior moral will, he would say
in despair : — " Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." ' — Gr.

SUMMARY.

Arabic figwes refer to rules given in this section.

I. As a rule the chief elements are made distinct by means
of stops, in all sentences where expanded forms of expression
are employed instead of words. Punctuation is especially
required where one element in a sentence is considerably en-
larged. [Rules 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.]

II. The omission of a comma is often suggested by the
brevity, or by the close connection, of a phrase, or of a clause.
[i2i*Ze.9 3, 7, 11, 12,15.]

III. The items in a series of words or phrases are set with
commas. Those in a series of objective clauses are nsually
set with semicolons. [Bules 4, 10, 12.]

TV. In complex sentences many clauses— especially those
having adverbial uses — are made distinct by means of stops.
But the comma is in many instances omitted where a clause
begins with that. [Bules 10, 12, 13, 14.]

V. Collateral sentences have mostly a semicolon placed
between them. [Rules 1, 16.]

VI. The semicolon shows the main division in a compound
sentence or in a period, where commas have their ordinary
uses. But the colon is sometimes required to show the main
division of a comprehensive period, in which there are two or
more semicolons. [Rules 27, 28.]

VII. Queries that may be suggested respecting the punc-
tuation of certain phrases aftd clauses, may in many instances
be readily solved by means of reference to the numerous exam-
ples already given. [§§ 44-50.]

412 SYNTAX.

63. ORDER.

The more prevalent rules of order have been noticed
in several places, and are here collected. Eemarks on
various inversions of our usual order are given in a follow-
ing section. [§ 64.]

The Subject, having the form of a word, is placed
before the verb, aud in many instances begins the sentence.
But an attributive word, a possessive case, an adjective with
an article, or a series of adjectives, may precede the subject.
[§ 44, W(yrds,^

The subject-phrase often precedes the verb. [§ 44,
Fhrases.']

The subject-clause often precedes the verb. [§ 44,
Glauses.']

The Attributive, having the form of a simple adjective,
a possessive case, an adjective with an article, or a series of
adjectives, precedes the subject consisting of a word, or is
placed before some other substantive word. But there are cer-
tain verbal adjectives (often called participles) that are rarely or
never put before the substantives to which they belong. [§ 45,
Words, 1, 2, 3, 8; § 48, Words, 3, 6.]

The attributive-phrase follows a substantive word. [§ 45,
Phrases, 1, 5 ; § 49, Sequences, 1, &.]

The attributive- clause relates to a word immediately or
nearly preceding the connective. [§ 45, Clauses, 5.]

The Verb follows the subject. But an attribute, or a short
adverbial, may be placed between the subject and the verb.
Sometimes an expanded adverbial is so placed ; but this order
is not generally commended. [§ 44, Words, 1 ; Phrases, 1 ;
Clauses, 1 : § 45, Words, 8 ; Phrases, 2, 4 ; Clauses, 1 : § 46,
Concords, 2 ; Phrases, 1 ; Clauses, 1 : § 47, Words, 3, h ;
Phrases, 3, d; Clauses, S, d : § 64, Inversions.]

The Complement, having the form of a verbal adjective
(often called a participle), follows the vague (or ' auxiliary ')
verb to which it belongs ; but a short adverbial may intervene.
The complements of intransitive verbs, and of the verbal
adjectives employed in ' the passive voice,* follow the verbs and
the verbal adjectives to which they respectively belong. [§ 43,
Complements, p. 228 : § 46, Complements, Words, 1, 2, 3 ;
Phrases, 2 ; Clauses.]

But the complements of makef and other transitive verbs

ORDEK. 41 S

of similar meaning, mostly follow the objects of those verbs.
[§ 43, Complements J p. 229 : § 46, Complements^ Words^ 6 ;
Phrases, 1,3; Clauses.']

The Adverbial, having the form of a simple adverb, is
versatile as regards its position ; but its more prominent places
are those here defined : — at the beginning of a sentence ; between
an auxiliary verb and its complement ; after a predicative and
intransitive verb ; after the complement of a vague verb ; and
after the object of a transitive verb. The adverbial following
an object relates to a near verb, or to a near attributive word.
[§ 47, Words, 3, a, b, c]

The adverbial-phrase may begin a sentence; may follow
a verb or its complement ; and may follow either an object, or
a word dependent on a preposition. [§ 47, Phrases, 3, a, h, c]

The adverbial-clause may begin a sentence ; may follow a
verb or its complement ; and may follow either an object, or
a word dependent on a preposition. [§ 47, Clauses, 3, a, h, c]

The Object, having the form of a word, follows the go-
verning verb or verbal form. But a short form, serving as
a complement, as an adverbial, or as an attributive, may in-
tervene. [§ 47, Words, 3, 6 ; § 48, Words, 2, a, 6.]

The objective phrase follows the governing verb or verbal
form. [§ 48, Phrases, 1, 2.]

The objective clause follows the governing verb or verbal
form. [§ 48, Clauses, 3, a, fc.]

Where an adverbial and an object both relate to the same
verb, the adverbial, if short, may intervene between the object
and the verb ; but the claim of the object is prior, as regards
proximity to the verb. [§ 47, Words, 3, h; Phrases, 3,/;
Clauses, 3,/: § 48, Clauses, 3, a.]

The more expanded element has a tendency to follow that
of which the form is simple or comparatively short. In places
where two elements are related to one verb, the objective
clause may follow an adverb or an adverbial-phrase ; but the
adverbial-clause must follow the object having the form of a
noun or a pronoun. [§ 47, Words, 3, h ; Phrases, 3, f;
Clauses, 3, c]

As regards order, attributes belonging to objects are like
those belonging to subjects and other substantive words.
Simple attributive forms precede their nouns, but expanded
forms follow. [§ 45, Words, 1 ; Phrases, 1; Clauses, 1,5:
§ 48, Clauses, 3, 6.]

To the student who wouM acquire facility in the composition
of ordinary prose, one plan of analysis may be especially re-

414 SYNTAX.

commended. Specimens have been given of that rather minute
analysis in which phrases are set apart from the sentences and
clauses to which they respectively belong. This method is to
some extent useful, and the same may be said of the dissec-
tion called ' parsing.' But a greater utility will be found in
that higher analysis in which periods and complex sentences
are divided only into their chief members — principal sen-
tences and clauses. Some examples of this analysis are given
here.

Sentences and Clauses. Descriptions.

Another law of heroic rhyme was . . • • P

that there should be a pause at the end of each couplet sc — was

It was provided also p

that there should never be a full stop, except at the end

of a couplet sc — was provided

The difficulties .... seemed to call forth new talents p
with which he was surrounded [§ 45, Clauses, 1] . . ac — difficulties
As the barren country .... afforded hardly any pro-
visions xc — were reduced

through which they passed ac — country

they were reduced to feed on berries [§46, Clauses, 1] . p

Is death to be feared p

that will convey thee to so happy an existence ? . . ac — death

The great charm of English scenery is the moral feeling p

that seems to pervade it ac— feeling

1. That independence .... keeps man from man . p, co-ord, — 2
[which] Britons prize so high ac — independence

2. and breaks the social tie p, co-ord. — 1

It was not reason p

that created the French Revolution .... ac — it

There are ties which .... are as strong . . . p

though [they are] light xc — are strong

as air [is light] xc — are light

as links of iron [are strong] xc — are as strong

The advice and medicine .... is far superior to [Uiat] p

which the poorest labourer can now obtain . . . ac — advice and

medicine
what Henry VIII. could have commanded [§ 45,

Clauses, 3] ac— ^^a^

1. There is a passion p, co-ord. — 2

that hath no name • sc— passion

2. but the sign of it is that distortion of the counte-

nance p> co-ord. — 1

which we call laughter ac— distortion

That he stooped to accommodate himself to the people . sc — is apparent

[it] is sufficiently apparent p

It was in this way p

that our ancestors reasoned sc — was in this

wag
The road becomes smooth and easy . . . . p

as he goes on in mathematics xc — becomes

smooth, etc.

ORDER.

415

Sentences and Clauses.

"Who can direct

•when all pretend to know ?

1. I threw away my rattle . . . .' ,
before I was two months old

2. (and) [I] would not make use of my coral
until they had taken away the bells from it ,

He tells us

that Bishop Sprat was very properly so called
inasmuch as he was a very small poet ....

1. We overestimate the value of Talent

because it dazzles us

2. (and) we are apt to underrate the importance of Will
because its works are less shining ....

We see no reason for thinking

that the opinions of the magistrate are more likely to be

right

He silently corrected \that]

what he found amiss in the first edition

1. In this situation man has called in the friendly

assistance of philosophy

2. (and) Heaven, seeing the incapacity of that to console

him, has given him the aid of religion

1. The consolations of philosophy are very amusing

2. but [they are] often fallacious ....

1. Philosophy is weak . . . , ,

2. (but) religion comforts in a higher strain

1. Man is here fitting up his mind ....
[as] it tells us

2. (and) [is] preparing for another abode

When the good man leaves the body ....

(and) [-when he] is all a glorious mind

he will find ... ....

[that] he has been making [for] himself a heaven of

happiness here

while the wretch .... shrinks from his body with

terror • . . .

that has been maimed and contaminated by his vices .

(and) [while he] finds

that he has anticipated the vengeance of Heaven

To religion, then, we must hold, in every circumstance

of life, for our truest comfort
for .... it is a pleasure to think
if already we are happy ....
that we can make that happiness unending .
(and) if we are miserable ....
[because] it is very consoling to think .
that there is a place of rest
«l. Thus to the fortunate religion hc^s out a continuance

of bliss

Descriptions.

xc — can direct
p, co-ord. — 2
xc — threw away
p, co-ord. — 1
xc — make itse

oc — tells

xc — was properly

called
p, co-ord. — 2
xc — overestimate
p, co-ord. — 1
xc — underrate
P

oc — thinking

ac — that

p, co-ord. — 2

p, co-ord. — 1
p, co-ord, — 2
p, co-ord. — 1
p, co-ord. — 2
p, co-ord. — 1
p, co-ord. — 2
xc — is fitting up,

etc.
p, co-ord. — 1
xc — will find
xc — will find
P

QQ— will find

xc—'wUlfind
ac — wretch
xc — will find
oc — finds

xc — must hold
xc — is a pleasure
oc — think
xc — is consolirig
xc — must hold
oc — think

p, co-ord.— 2

416 SYNTAX.

Sentences and Clauses. Descriptions.

2. to the wretched [religion holds out] a change from

pain p, co-ord. — 1

It will be noticed how clear — how readily understood—
tlie author's style becomes when he writes mostly in principal
sentences. In proportion as he employs more clauses of which
the subordination is secondary, the style becomes more in*
volved, and the meaning is less readily apprehended, though
it is still remarkably clear.

The excerpt here analysed has been given in its connected form (p. 259).
For exercises in the analysis of various complex sentences numerous ex-
amples have been given in these sections : — 44, Clauses ; 45, Clauses ; 47,
dames ; 48, Clauses. For the analysis of compound sentences and periods
examples are given in § 60 and in § 62.

64. INVERSIONS.

The order in which the elements of sentences are
usually placed is varied in many sentences. One of the
chief motives of variation is a wish to make certain ex-
pressions emphatic or prominent. The two places in
which words are made prominent are the beginning of
the sentence and the end; but any unusual collocation
may serve to make a word noticeable. Certain inversions
of our commonplace order have always been allowed, and
in many places they may be made without any loss of
clearness.

Inversions and ellipses are both well suited to a familiar style, and are
freely allowed in poetry ; but they are mostly out of place in strictly scien-
tific writings. In familiar prose it is taken for granted that the reader
will guess, ijefore reading it, what will be said in the next sentence, or in
the next clause. It is a great error to accept words as the indispensable
conditions of thought. In ordinary and familiar conversations we often
know what a man will say before he begins to speak. Clever shorthand
writers do not merely follow the speaker, but often run on before him, and
write what he means to say. This, however, could not be done by the ex-
pert writer who was employed to give a report of certain lectures delivered
by Coleridge. Why ? Not because the speaker employed extraordinary
words, but because he so often gave expression to extraordinary thoughts or
to ideas which were quite new to the reporter. Here the two minds were
not in close contact with each other. ' I could seldom guess,' said the steno-
grapher, ' how the poet would end the sentence.'

The Subject often follows the verb. Tho German rule
of putting the verb before the subject in principal sentences
beginning with adverbial expressions, prevails to some extent in

INVERSIONS. 417

English, especially in many instances beginning with there. In
other places the same inversion serves to express a query, a com-
mand, a wish, a supposition, or a second negation, introduced by
7ior. The subject follows the verb in the parenthetic clause
said JiBj and in others like it. In poetry, inversions — employed
more freely than in prose — have a boldness that would be out of
place in our ordinary prose. [§ 44, Words, 6, 7 ; ^ 46, Moods^
1, 2, 3.]

' There was a certain rich man. . . . There were present at that time
some that told him of the Galileans. . . . Then came to Jesus scribes and
Pharisees. . . . Then shall the kingdom of heaven be likened unto ten vir-
gins.'— Bible. ' This fatal night began that deplorable fire.' — Evelyn. ' Here
lay the French, and thus came we.' — Wordswoeth. ' Here were small
farms.' — W. Irving.

' Will he come ? ' * Did he say that ? ' * Did t/ou not say so ? ' ' Know
you the land ?' [Not usual in prose.] ' Go ye into all the world.' — Bible.

' Had / known that.' ' Were he on earth.' ' Might one msh bring
them.' — G. [§ 46, Moods, 4, d,f.] ' They will not work, nor will they let
the other men work.' — G.

* Behold where Dryden's less presumptuous car
Wide o'er the fields of glory bear
Two coursers of etherial race.' — Gkat.

The adjective, Serving as a complement, is often set at the
beginning of a sentence. Sometimes a simple adjective
follows its noun. Verbal adjectives often follow nouns.
[§ 45, Words, 8.]

' Right studious she was.' — Bishop Fisher. ' Narrow is the way.' —
Bible. ' A man severe he was. ' — Goldsmith. ' Too severe was the soli-
tude.'— Wilson. ' Very few and very weary are those who are in at the
death.' — Macaulay. ' Comely the creature is.' — Kinglakb. ' Beep though
the causes of thankfulness must be.' — Euskin.

Verbs and verbal forms are variously placed.

' Weep I cannot.' — Sh akespfarb. * Then comes the " Why, sir ! " and the
*' What then, sir ? " and the " No, sir ! " ' — Macaiilay. ' Learn it perfectly
you cannot.' — Keinnedy. ' Out of the suffering com£s the serious mind.' —
Rtjskin.

Complements of various forms are placed at the beginning
of the sentence.

' Clouds they are without water.' — Bible. ' An ill-natured man Boswell
certainly was not.' — ^Macaulay. ' Enemies it was that made the difference.'
— De Quincmy. * How limited is human reason the profoundest inquirers
are most conscious.' — Lord Beaconsfield.

* In various other sentences, as well as in those called dedi-
catory, a dative adverbial, having the form of a phrase, is

£ B

41 8 SYNTAX.

placed at the beginning of the sentence. For certain phrases
this is a regular position. [§47, Phrases , 3, a.]

* To one time only belong the frantic delusions of such a statesman as
Vane. . . . To Thomson^ s " Castle of Indolence ^^ he vouchsafed only a line
of cold commendation.' — Macaitlay. ' To Mm alone that right belongs.' — Gr.

The next excerpt — the enigmatical dedication to Shake-
speare's * Sonnets ' — has given rise to much controversy. It
is a remarkable example of bad construction.

Let the initials, ' Mr. W. H.,' here represent the subject. Then, in ac-
cordance -with the order of many dedicatory inscriptions, the sentence
should end with the verb ' wishethj The remainder would look like a
second and imperfect dedication added by a bookseller, whose initials were
'T. T.' On the other hand, if these initials, *Mr. W. H.,' may represent
three dative cases, set in apposition with ' begetter,^ the whole inscription
may be accepted as a bold example of inversion. The subject will then be
' T. T.,' set in apposition with ' the well-wishing adventurer.' But the
difficult historical question will remain : — Who was this ' Mr. W. H.' ? \_See
46, Concord with Clauses, 3.]

' To the only begetter of the ensuing sonnets Mr. "W. H. all happiness
and that eternity promised by our ever-living Poet wisheth the well-
wishing adventurer in setting forth, T. T.' — Dedication to ' Shakespeare's
Sonnets' 1609.

The Object is often set at the beginning of a sentence.
[§ 48, Words, 3, d; Glauses, 3, c]

' The strongest castle .... the golden bullet beats it down.' — The
Passionate Pilgrim, 1699. ' The Egyptian mummies .... avarice now
consumeth.' — Sik T. Browne. * Sunday he esteems a day to make merry
in.' — Eakle. 'Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong.' — Milton.
' Slavery they can have anywhere.' — Bujrke. * Ten thousand falsehoods
has this gentleman told me.' — Goldsmith. ' His visitors he entertained with
great kindness.' — Eoscoe.

* Old wheat and beans blazing .... cart mares shot . ... the minister
of the parish wounded .... Mrs. Ply mley in fits — all these scenes of war
an Austrian or a Russian has seen three or four times over.' — S. Smith.
' Me this unchartered freedom tires.' — Woedsworth. ' This veto Parliament
has possessed ever since the Eevolution. . . . 8u/;h a bench and such a bar
England has never seen. . . . What our grandchildren may think ....
we shall not pretend to guess.' — Macaulat.

It has been noticed that prepositions sometimes follow
their dependent nouns, especially in verse. [§ 49, Sequences,
3,6.]

* A valley from the river shore withdrawn
Was Albert's home, two quiet woods between* — Campbell.

ELLIPSES. 419

66. ELLIPSES.

An Ellipsis is an omission of a word, or of two or
more words. There are two kinds of ellipses. In one the
form already employed is omitted ; in the other a similar
form is omitted. This latter ellipsis may be treated as an
error.

In a familiar style of talking or writing it would be tedious to make
every sentence and every clause complete in formal expression. Ex. : ' He
is as tall as I am [tall].' But in scientific writings repetition should be
allowed wherever a doubt might be suggested by means of ellipsis.

In simple sentences the elements sometimes omitted are
these : — the subject of an imperative verb ; the nonn govern-
ing a possessive case ; and the verb implied in exclamatory
sentences. Some abbreviated adverbial-phrases, rarely seen
in prose, occur here and there in verse. Such omissions as
are made in private memoranda occur often in certain memoirs
and journals.

* Up betimes. Called by my tailor, and there first put on a summer
suit this year.' — S. Pepys. ' Does the reader see him [Cromwell] ? A
rather likely figure, I think. Stands some five feet ten or more-.' — Carlyle.

' I was the other day at Will's [coiFee-house],' — Prior. 'We went to
see St. Peter's [Church]. '—G-.

' Eest ! how sweet [is] the sound ! ' — Baxter. • And lo ! at length the
lovely face of heaven [appears] V—Sovtsey. 'Thence to the Park, ray
wife and I [wenty — S. Pepys. * A really charming outlook in fine weather.'
— Carlti^.

' Pride in their port, defiance in their eye,
I see the lords of human kind pass by.'
' Creation's heir, the world, the world is mine.' — GoLDeMiTH.

In complex sentences the conjunction that is often omitted,
especially where a noun-clause is set in apposition with it and
follows the verb, or where the clause serves as an object.
[§ 44, Clauses, 3 ; § 48, Clauses, 3, h, c]

• It is supposed [that] he perished by poison.' — Axo. Sydney. • I re-
member [tliat] I was once in a mixed assembly, that was full of noise and
mirth, when on a sudden an old lady unluckily observed [that] there were
thirteen of us in company. ... I suppose [that] there was some tradi-
tionary superstition in it.' — Addison. 'I do recollect that something of
the kind passed through my mind ; but I did not think [that] I had uttered
it.'— BoswBLL. • We knew [that] they were gone.' — G. ' I saw [that] he
was tired.' — Mason. [It will not be supposed that the insertions in brackets
aiP intended here to suggest any imp»vements. The same remark applies
to the next paragraph of examples.]

B B 2

420 SYNTAX.

The relative and definitive tJiaf, often employed in adjective-
clauses, is sometimes omitted. [§ 45, Glauses^ 1.]

* "We soon arrived at one of the most magnificent mansions [thaf] I had
seen, ... I met a poor woman, who told me her husband had been arrested
for a debt [that] he could not pay. . . . This Lenten entertainment [thaf] I
had received made me resolve to depart as soon as possible. . . . He went
away, leaving me to add this to the other little things {thaf] the counsellor
already knew of his plausible neighbour.' — GtOldsmith.

' 'Tis distance Ithaf] lends enchantment to the view.' — Campbell.

Adverbial-clauses of comparison, introduced by as and by
than, are usually elliptical, and ellipses in these clauses lead often
to errors in grammar. The conjunction sometimes looks like a
preposition, or seems to govern a word, while the governing
word is in fact an omitted verb ; sometimes an omitted pre-
position. [§ 47, Clauses y 2, 6 ; § 50, Subordinative Conjunc-
tions, 4, 5.]

' It was as often said " This is that Bucephalus" as [it was often said]
•* This is that Alexander." ' — Cowley. ' He is not as old as you [are old].'
' He helps you more than [he helps] me.' ' Pleasure had more charms for
him than [she had for] his friend.' — Gr.

In compound sentences the subject of the second co-
ordinate sentence is often omitted in places where its insertion
would repeat the subject of the first co-ordinate sentence.
The same ellipsis occurs in many collateral sentences where
conjunctions are not employed.

' Charity suffereth long, and [charity] is kind ; charity vaunteth not
itself, A is not puffed up, A doth not behave itself unseemly, a seeketh
not her own, a is not easily provoked, a thinketh no evil, A rejoiceth
not in iniquity, but a rejoiceth in the truth.' — Bible. ' Upon the death of
my father, I was resolved to travel into foreign countries ; and [I] therefore
left the university. ... I appear on Sunday nights at St. James's coffee-
house, and [I] sometimes join the little committee of politics. ... I then
fell into an honest family, and [1] lived very happily for above a week.' —
Addison. ' He sowed the seed, and [^e] must reap the harvest.' — Gr.

In compound and in collateral sentences repetition is in
many places avoided by omitting the predicative verb. In
other places both the subject and the predicative verb are
omitted.

* Read not to contradict, nor [read] to believe ; but [read] to weigh and
consider.' — Bacon. ' The boy despises the infant ; the man a the boy; the
philosopher a both.' — Pope. ' The sun was dreaded as an enemy to the
skin without doors, and the fire [was dreaded] as a spoiler of the complexion
within [doors].' — Goldsmith. ' You shall find all men full of opinions, but
[you shall find] knowledge only in a few.' — Berkeley. ' Would he wish
for more powerful ecclesiastical tribunals ? [would he wish] for a more

ELLIPSES. 421

zealous king ? ' — Macaulat. ' He overcame not only his foes, but [he over-
came] also his own bad temper.' * She will relent ; he [will] never
[relent].' — Gr.

In the ellipses here noticed, the words omitted in the latter
sentence are, as regards their forms and their relations, exactly
like some words in the former sentence. The rnle indicated
by the examples already given is this : — avoid close and exact
repetitions. But this rale does not apply to such excerpts as
the following : —

' This matter was hushed up, and the servants [were] forbid to talk of
it.' — Pope. ' I found that monarchy was the best government for the poor
to live in, and [that] commonwealths [were the best governments] for the
rich.' — GrOLDSMiTH. ' As timber was very scarce in these parts, and [there
were] no boats to fasten together and make a bridge, he was at a great loss.'
— Kennedy. ' Palastra Stili LatinV

An ellipsis is not good where it brings more closely together two sen-
tences in which the verbs have diflferent relations. In the following example
one verb has a passive complement ; the other has a transitive meaning.

' He was opposed to, and [he] denounced their main principles.' — G-.

Where two conjunctions denote two distinct relations,
both should be inserted. The omission of than in the next
excerpt is a false ellipsis.

'He was more beloved [^Aa«]but not so much admired as Cinthio.' — G.

Sentences like the following have been accepted as correct,
and certain rules have been given, in order to make clear
constructions that are the effects of haste, or impatience in
speaking. [§ 46, Special Observations, 6.]

* You and not I were there. ... He and not you is chargeable with
that fault.' — Angus. 'Neither the captain nor sailors were saved. . . .
Are the people or the government to blame ? ' — Chambers, English Grammar.

The words omitted should be found near the place of
omission. If this be accepted as a rule, it will not agree with
the second of the elHpses noticed in the appended sentences.
A complex sentence here comes between the expression [I
7iac?] and the second ellipsis.

' I had been often told that the rock before me was the haunt of a
genius, and [I had been told] that several had been entertained with music
who had passed by it, but [/ had] never heard that the musician had
before made himself visible.' — Addison.

Where ellipses are well employed, they serve to prevent
repetitions of words recentljfc expressed, and they do not
diminish the clearness of the meaning. Ellipses of this kind
are very frequently made in conversation, and in our familiar

422 COMPOSITION.

styles of writing. Exact or verbal repetitions are avoided,
because they would be merely tedious. Formal repetitions —
such as occur where several clauses serve as a subject, or as an
object — have been noticed. [§ 62, Long Sentences.'] These are,
of coui'se, distinct from such exact or verbal repetitions as are
sometimes, but comparatively rarely, employed. Where the
latter are introduced, the motive is almost invariably a wish
to give to certain expressions a peculiar emphasis.

* Macbeth. — Methought I heard a voice cry, " Sleep no more !

Macbeth does murder sleep ; " the innocent sleep ; . . . .

Lady M. — What do you mean?

Macbeth. — Still it cried, " Bleep no more ! " to all the house :

" Glamis hath murder'd sleep, and therefore Ca-wdor
Shall sleep no more — Macbeth shall sleep no more ! " '

Shakespearb.

' I have often wondered that the same poet who wrote the " Dunciad "
should have written these lines : —

' " That mercy I to others show,
That Tnercy show to me."

' Alas for Pope, if the mercy he showed to others was the measure of
the mercy he received.' — Cowper.

' Faith had her arch — her arch, when winds blow loud,
Into the consciousness of safety thrilled.' — Wordsworth.

66. COMPOSITION.

The art of writing clear prose may be learned.
English Composition is indeed a study too extensive to be
discussed, at length in this place ; but there is one pai*t of
the subject so closely connected with analysis that it may
be noticed. This is clearness, or a right collocation of
words, phrases, and clauses. When their uses are known,
their right places will for the most part be readily seen.
Here, however, as in the analysis of sentences, reading
must precede and accompany the study of rules. There
are numerous idioms that can be learned only by means of
reading and conversation.

It is not by means of rules that such idioms as the following are made
current : — ' I can make nothing of it.' ' So h.Qmade it out.* ' He will make
it good.' *It will come home to him.' 'He treats his subject home.' —
Drtden. ' It is that within us that makes for righteousness.'— M. Arnold.

It has been noticed, that short and simple sentences

COMPOSITION.

423

are not usually written so as to make a series of any con-
siderable length.

§ 43, pp. 242-3 ; § 62, Simple Sentences.

In writing private memoranda, and in collecting facts
to be afterwards described in some more connective form,
short or elliptical sentences are mostly employed by those
who do not write shorthand. And in the first process of
selecting notes to be inserted in a precis (a summary),
short sentences are again convenient. The aim is to omit
all matters that are not essential, and to give an epitome
of the main facts. A brief example is given. Words that
may be omitted are set in Italic.

M., a consul, sends home an account of certain damages claimed by N.,
a British subject residing at 0., a foreign port. His complaint is that at
0. he can obtain no compensation for a loss of property caused by the
negligence of certain officers. The decision of the local court is, he thinks,
unjust. The consul, who has the same opinion, observes that certain reports
given in a local Journal are incorrect, and incloses a correct report of the
trial. Aqaiti he writes, to say he has taken measures to obtain for N. a trial
in a superior court, and he has reasons for believing that its decision will be
satisfactory. In his third letter he is happy to say his hopes are fulfilled ;
[he says] the aj0fair is settled, in such a way that N. has no ground of com-
plaint.

The substantial facts of the case are first of all noticed very briefly in
the form called an Abstract.

ABSTKACT.

Correspondents.

No. 1.

Consul M. to Lord D.

No. 2.
Consul M. to Lord D.

No. 3.
Consul M. to Lord D.

Dates.

1863.

May 2.

May 16.
June 3.

Contents.

N.'s complaint of his loss of goods at
0. He finds no redress there. Report
of the trial inclosed.

N.'s case is referred to a superior court.

N.'s case is settled.

The Abstract serves as an index to all documents re-
quired to confirm the chief facts of the case, which are
next given in the form of a Memorandum. This has a
more consecutive style, but is as brief as possible. It
should, however, represent fairly the whole of the corre-
spondence, and should at least answer these questions : —
What are the main facts of the case ? What is the ques-
tion about them ? What has been done in the matter ?

424 COMPOSITION.

The Memorandum serves as a complement to the Ab-
stract.

MEMORANDUM.

No. 1. 2 I 5 I '63.

[0., the name of the place.]

Consul M. informs Lord D. that the local court
of justice at 0. has failed to satisfy the just
claims of N., a British subject, who has
suffered a loss of property, and ascribes it to
the negligence of certain officers at 0. A

No. 2. 16 I 6 I '63. report of the trial is inclosed. Lord D. is

informed by Consul M. that N.'s claims for
compensation have been referred to the

No. 3. 3 I 6 I '63. jurisdiction of a superior court. Consul M.,

in his third letter, regards the affair at 0.
as now settled to the satisfaction of N.

Ordinary prose consists mostly of simple, complex, and
compound sentences, all employed so that none of these
modes of construction is tiresomely repeated.

§ 43, pp. 243, 265-6.

Three rules for the clear writing of ordinary prose have
been given. They may here be reduced to one main
rule. Avoid mostly the use of extended phrases and
clauses having secondary or lower degrees of subordination.
The lower the elements of sentences descend in the scale
of subordination, the more likely it is that the style will
be ' involved ' or obscure.

§ 43, Prose Writers ; the excerpt from Milton, p. 253.

Hetse gives the following example of the style here called involved : —
' The person who will give information respecting the offender who, on the
18th of this month, removed and threw into the river the post and the
placard which were placed here to give notice to the effect that nothing
should here be cast into the river, shall receive a reward of ten dollars.' —
Schulgrammatik der deutschen Sprache.

To say nothing of phrases, four clauses are here inserted between the
principal subject and the verb. This style is especially objectionable where
several attributive-clauses are employed in close succession.

' The style,' says Ascham, ' must be always plain and
open, yet sometimes higher and [sometimes] lower, as
matters do rise and fall.' In other words, the style should
agree with the nature of the theme. This is a valuable
rule, of which several applications may be distinctly
noticed, especially as regards the sentences most frequently
employed in ordinary prose.

§ 43, Frose Writers, p. 247 ; Ordinary Prose, p. 267.

COMPOSITION. 425

Of the three kinds of sentences to be chiefly noticed
each has several varieties. As regards the sentences called
simple, it has been observed that their elements are in-
volved when too many phrases are inserted. There is,
however, a mode of construction, by which a sentence
containing only one verb may, without any loss of clearness,
be considerably extended or enlarged. One element is
repeated, or assumes the form of a series. Thus several
enlarged subjects are in the first place introduced, and are
then collectively represented, either by the pronoun these
or by some word of similar use. The author of the
'Sketch Book' often wrote clear sentences of this de-
scription.

§ 46, Concords, 2; § 60, Simple Sentences, C; § 62, Simple Sentences.

' Lights and shadows, spread over rows of fine old mansions; reflections
cast down on the still water of the canal ; rich harmonies of colour, and
fainter hues veiled by a light exhalation — these are some of the charms
that make Venice so beautiful.' — G.

In ordinary prose — especially in description and in
narration — complex sentences, not greatly extended, are
proportionately numerous, while variety is afforded by in-
troducing here and there a short and simple sentence, or a
compound sentence including few clauses or none. These
variations of construction are appropriately used where
themes are supplied by the aspects of nature and the
vicissitudes of human life. Incessant changes of appear-
ances and successions of events are the characteristics of
nature and life. Their connective transitions cannot,
therefore, be weU represented by any series of short and
isolated sentences, such as occur so o ten in the prose in-
vented by Macpherson. His singular style has been
censured by a poet who could write well in prose.

' '* The blue waves of Ullin roll in light. The green hills are covered
with day. Trees shake their dusky heads in the breeze. Grey torrents
pour their noisy streams. Two green hills with aged oaks surround a
narrow plain. The blue course of a stream is there." . . . Precious
memorandums from the pocket-book of the blind Ossian ! .... In nature
every thing is distinct, yet nothing defined into absolute independent
singleness. In Macpherson's work it is exactly the reverse ; every thing
(that is not stolen) is in this manner defined, insulated, dislocated,
deadened.' — Wordswobth. •

As every transition in nature and every event in history

426 COMPOSITION.

has its antecedents, its attendant circumstances, and its re-
sults, an appropriate style — descriptive or narrative — must
be at once connective and diversified. Among the sen-
tences most frequently employed in this familiar style
several may be indicated by the following symbols. It is
of course understood that constructions more involved may
be sometimes introduced : —

p I xc, zc, p I p, p I zc, p I p, ac I p, ac, zc, zc | p, zc | p, ac, oc, oc.

A few examples will show that sentences like those
here denoted are often employed in descriptive and narra-
tive writings.

We went up on the east side of the hill ... . p

The weather was not very clear at the time . . . p

When we came to the top, and looked toward the east, the

view was a disappointment zc, zc, p

There was little to be seen in the distance, except a long,
wave-like swell of high moorlands . . . . p

On the west an old gray wall was seen, and beyond it the

sky alone was visible p, p

When we had climbed over a breach in the wall, how

diversified was the prospect ! zc, p

Far away in the north, blue hills connected the landscape
with the sky p

Eight before us was spread out a distant bay of the sea,

where a few sailing vessels were dimly visible . . p, ac

There was on our left a deep valley, through which a
stream was rippling and flowing, though to us it seemed
as still as the distant bay p» ac, xc, zc

Already light clouds were casting shadows over the valley

when we descended P> s:c

On our way down the western side of the hill, we met an
old shepherd, who told us that dark clouds were gather-
ing in the distance, and we should have rain before
night p, ac, oc oc

These examples show that complex sentences, not
greatly extended as to the number of their elements, may
be varied to a considerable degree. The adverbial or the
substantive clause may begin or may end the sentence.
Where one element having the form of a clause is made
prominent, or is greatly enlarged, it is often advisable to
reduce other elements to the forms of phrases. Thus
a phrase may be inserted instead of a substantive-clause.

* For a man of his character it is good, that he should he left alone.'
Instead of the clause, the phrase to he left alone may suffice. ' He
promised that he would come. ' He promised to come.

COMPOSITION. 427

In many places an attributive-phrase may serve instead
of a clause having the same relation.

' This is the best of the three roads that lead to York.' Here the phrase
leading to York may take the place of the clause.

A phrase may take the place of an adverbial-clause.

* When he saw the danger, he retreated.' Seeing the danger, he re-
treated. * As far as your ovm interests are concerned, you are careful enough.'
As to your own interests, you are careful enough.'

As regards the order or collocation of their elements,
there is left in complex sentences a wide scope for freedom
of choice, and the relations indicated by their connectives
are remarkably numerous. On these accounts such sen-
tences are well adapted to a descriptive or a narrative style
where variety is appropriate.

§ 45, Clauses ; § 47, Clauses ; § 63, Order.

The compound sentence, including few clauses, or none,
is one of the clearest of all the plans on which sentences
are constructed, and is well adapted for the collocation of
assertions independent as to their grammar, and often
equal in importance as to their meaning. But the rela-
tions indicated by co-ordinative conjunctions are compara-
tively few. The relation, in a compound sentence, belongs
usually not to any particular word, but to the whole
meaning of one sentence compared with the meaning of the
other.

It wiU be easy to supply the conjunctions omitted in
the following sentences, and to notice how few and obvious
are the relations that here should be denoted by co-ordi-
native conjunctions. In some places their insertion is a
matter of choice. -4 tic? serves mostly to denote a natural
sequence or a likeness of meaning ; or introduces an alter-
native ; nor, a second negation. The uses of hut are more
versatile. It may introduce a contrast, a limitation, or a
denial ; and in some places it leads to a sentence strengthen-
ing a negation.

§ 14, Co-ordinative Conjunctions.

• Clouds gathered over the fcills, gloom was spread over the valley
.... the rain fell fast on the hills .... at last the sun appeared again
.... the rainbow shone on the cloud.'

428 COMPOSITION.

* I -vrent by the field of the slothful .... I saw the vineyard of the
man void of understanding. It was all grown over with thorns .... the
stone wall thereof was broken down.'

' His education was above his fortune .... his love of learning made
him contented in his obscure circumstances.'

'Either this cause is sufficient to produce the effect .... there must
be another.'

' These men will not work .... will they let other men work.'

' He endeavoured to save the lives of his associates .... their own
folly made his efforts fruitless.'

' He sought means of rescue not only for himself .... also for his
associates.'

* His anger had just grounds .... it exceeded the bounds of modera-
tion.'

' I could not read through the whole of the " Faerie Queene " .... I
found in it many passages that charmed me.'

* Alas ! they had been friends in youth ;
.... whispering tongues can poison truth ;
.... constancy lives in realms above ! '

In many passages of descriptive or narrative writing,
collateral sentences, without conjunctions, are appropriately
introduced where they do not make a long and uniform
series.

' The evening was beautiful. Flocks of sheep were reposing on the
wolds; the splendour of the western sky, the glow of the yellow corn-
fields, faded slowly; shades of twilight were gradually spread over the
lower pastures, and at last the trees on the top of the highest hill looked
dark.'

The compound sentence — not involved — has a form
suitable for the expression of well-established facts, and
opinions or sentiments commonly accepted as requiring no
demonstration ; above all, it has a form suitable for two-
fold declarations and maxims founded on authority^such
as are numerous in the ' Book of Proverbs.'

It has been observed that the frequent use of and, as a link of principal
sentences, is one chief trait of the language employed in the Bible, while
frequent uses of adversative particles (in meaning more or less like hut),
and of others denoting mostly distinction and opposition, are characteristics
of G-reek literature. On one side the language denotes authority and re-
pose; on the other, eager intelligence and restless self-assertion.

Where differences are sharply defined by means of
contrast, the style is called ' antithetic,' and collateral sen-
tences without conjunctions are occasionally employed here
as modes of construction suitable for the purpose. Anti-
thesis becomes wearisome when often repeated, and serves

COMPOSITION. 429

sometimes as a means of misrepresentation ; but when
fairly employed it gives emphasis to correct observations.

§ 43, pp. 242-3.

'Poetry was not the sole praise of either; for both excelled likewise in
prose ; but Pope did not borrow his prose' from his predecessor. The style
of Dryden is capricious and varied ; that of Pope is cautious and uniform.
Dryden obeys the motions of his own mind ; Pope constrains his mind to
his own rules of composition. Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid ;
Pope is always smooth, uniform and gentle. Dryden's page is a natural
field, rising into inequalities, and diversified by the varied exuberance of
abundant vegetation ; Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe, and
levelled by the roller.' — Johnson.

' Wit exists by antipathy ; humour by sj'mpathy. Wit laughs at things ;
humour laughs m^A them. Wit is negative, analytical, destructive ; humour
is creative. The couplets of Pope are witty, but Sancho Panza is a
humorous creation.' — E. P. Whipple.

A compound sentence in. which one of the main parts,
or each, is compound, or moderately complex, is often em-
ployed in ordinary prose. Where each of the main parts
contains two assertions, and is set in contrast with the
other, it is mostly preferable to put a full stop before the
conjunction hut.

Examples of hut following a full stop may be found almost anywhere in
Macaulay's ' Essays.' It should be remembered that this conjunction is
employed to denote several degrees of contrast. Consequently the rules of
punctuation leave here some room for freedom. In the following example
a full stop is rightly placed before hut.

' The book shows the writer's moderation, or perhaps his timidity ; he
shrinks apparently from the conclusions to which his own principles should
lead him. But others will more boldly develope his doctrine ; the process
will not be always controlled by his own moderation.' — Gr.

In other examples two assertions rather closely con-
nected are set in contrast by means of hut^ and here the
form of the compound sentence may be retained, especially
where shorter sentences precede or follow.

' It is true the statesman's work may be called secondary in one respect,
since other men have made the preparation without which his success would
be impossible ; but none the less for that, the honour due to his own work
remains — he has done that which before was merely designed ; ho has
transmuted into facts ideas once described aa dreams. In work like that
the great man shows his character. He will not rest content with thoughts
that can do nothing.' — G.

These constructions,^amed as especially adapted for
ordinary use, are not exclusively recommended. There

430 COMPOSITION.

are styles in which sentences far more complex are appro-
priately employed.

It would be out of place here to notice at length the fine qualities of the
style written by De Quincet, or the lifelike originality expressed in the
' Essays of Elia.' It is enough to refer to some of the excerpts already
given. [§ 43, pp. 261-3, E. Hall, F. Jeffeet, J. H. Newman.]

In imaginative prose, in descriptive or critical essays
on art, and in non-controversial homilies, the freedom
rightly belonging to their themes should also pervade the
style. Dry, scientific correctness would here be out of place.

It would, for example, be incongruous, in writing of a painting by
Titian, or by Caliari, to substitute such commonplace as ' colouring good,'
'figures well drawn,' etc., instead of a description like the following : —

' Liffelike forms and expressions ; symphonic arrangements of figures
and their details ; natural and varied gestures ; clear yet blending colours,
reflecting a brilliant light — all are united to make this picture a master-
piece.'— Q-.

Among the styles that may be called special, two may
be briefly noticed — the legal, in which many repetitions
are strictly required ; and the logical, belonging especially
to some parts in the treatment of scientific topics. For
the latter the ordinary sentences already described are not
generally suitable. Their sequences, often selected
merely for the sake of variety, leave too much room for
the exercise of individual freedom. The aim of science is
to make itself common. For a scientific style, therefore,
the best traits are clearness and order, and that order is
the best which shows most clearly the logical sequence
of every proposition. Accordingly, the style is closely
limited as to its uses of connective expressions, while repe-
titions that would be faults in ordinary prose are freely
allowed, and are indeed inevitable. The style must be
essentially syllogistic, though the form of the syllogism
may be implied and not expressed.

So far as certain parts of scientific treatises consist of observations,
the style will of course be descriptive, and more minutely correct than any
ordinary descriptive writing; but where the aim is to show that many
facts are to be associated as so many expressions of one common idea or
law, the style will be syllogistic. For the aim is to show not what the
writer may happen to think, but what all men must think of the matter, if
they carefully study it.

Variety is here and there introduced by the insertion of

COMPOSITION. 431

one of the sentences called respectively exclamatory, in-
terrogative, and imperative. Their uses are described in
treatises on rhetoric, and may be slightly noticed in this
place.

§ 46, Moods, 3 ; § 61, 2, a, b, c.

' Who would say a word against your exercise of your own understand-
ing within its natural limits ? Who would depreciate the results obtained
by the inductive sciences ? There is no question between us respecting the
value of those results. All that is said of them — even by Macaulat him-
self— is at once conceded. The question is this : — Has your understanding
no bounds ? Can it leave no room for reverence ? ' — G-.

In the literature of the present age the ela,borate sen-
tences called periods are seldom introduced. They would
obviously be out of place in a style that treats of ordinary
matters ; but where an assertion or conclusion is remark-
ably comprehensive, and closely unites several thoughts as
parts of a whole, the form of expression should also be
comprehensive. Here the period — whatever its subdivi-
sions may be — should divide itself into two parts, so well
connected at the same time that their relation to each
other may be clearly evident.

§ 43, p. 243 ; § 60, Periods, p. 390, pp. 392-3 ; § 62, Periods, p. 410.

The sentences placed together in a paragraph are often
loosely arranged ; but in some well-constructed paragraphs
the sentences have relations essentially like those already
defined as binding together the several parts belonging
either to a complex or to a compound sentence.

§ 43, p. 244 ; p. 255, South ; p. 256, Addison ; p. 261, Haix.

In the following excerpt a colon may take the place of the full stop at
the end of the first sentence, and the next may begin without a capital letter.
The two sentences will then make a period, in which two styles of art are set
in contrast with each other.

' The eye delightedly dwells upon the brilliant individualities in a
"Marriage at Cana," by Veronese, or Titian, to the very texture and colour
of the wedding garments, the ring glittering upon the bride's finger, the
metal and fashion of the wine-pots ; for at such seasons there is leisure
and luxury to be curious. But in a '• day of judgment," or in a "day of
lesser horrors, yet divine," as at the impious feast of Belshazzar, the eye
should see, as the actual eye of an agent or patient in the immediate scene
would see, only in masses and indistinction.' — C. Lamb.

Long sentences — not correctly called periods — often
consist mostly of several ^petitions of one element, which
here takes the form of a series. These sentences, readily

432 COMPOSITION.

constructed and clear, are often seen in the literature of
the present age. But it remains true that the general
character of the style employed in that literature is analytic,
and that this style is not only appropriate to the treat-
ment of certain themes, but is also accordant with the
genius of our language.

§ 43, pp. 265-7 ; § 62, Long Sentences.

In translation from Grreek, from Latin, or from German,
a long sentence or a period often requires a division that
makes of it two or three sentences, in order that the whole
meaning may be clearly reproduced in English. On the
contrary, in the translation of French books it will often
be found that hardly any improvement can be made in
the general arrangement of the sentences. Let the trans-
lator be careful to avoid foreign idioms, and the rest of
his task will be light. He will find, indeed, in many
excellent works, traits of style that may well be imitated,
especially these : — short sentences proportionately numer-
ous and well collocated ; subjects well placed ; clear
references of pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs, and of
phrases and clauses having the uses of those parts of
speech.

In French literature -writers of clear and elegant prose are so numerous,
that if two or three are named here they must be noticed only as fair re-
presentatives of many other writers : — Th. Jotjffboy, Jules ISimon, H.
A. Taine.

As regards the structure and the connection of sen-
tences, the style should agree with the character of the
theme. This is in substance equivalent to Ascham's rule,
already noticed ; but it must here be followed by another
rule. Not only the sentences, but also the words should
be historically appropriate to the nature of the subject.
As far as usage will allow, the primitive or historical
meanings of words should be carefully preserved, and
those apparently but not truly synonymous should be dis-
tinctly employed. At the same time it will be observed
that many secondary meanings and special uses of words
have been firmly established by common usage.
§ 39, pp. 179-82, 190, 196-7 ; § 40.

CONCLUSION. 433

CONCLUSION.

The history of every language is closely connected
with the history of the people by whom it is spoken. To
learn how to read with intelligence, how to write with
some facility — these are our immediate aims in the study
of English. But it has a higher interest when regarded as
a way leading to historical truthfulness. The study of
our language, when associated with careful inquiries re-
specting the cause and the progress of culture, will lead to
knowledge of gi-eat importance. It will put aside the veil
of disguise that has been unintentionally cast over facts by
the Latinized diction of several historical authors. The
rude and strong words of early times are often weakened,
and are sometimes made false in effect, by the process of
an inadequate translation. The facts of early times are
not truly recorded when their own words are translated
into refined terms that in the course of time have lost
their primitive force. One familiar example may serve to
make this clear. More remarkable specimens of deceptive
euphuism may be easily found in certain books called
historical ; but the following may serve to show how an
assertion may be made so feeble that it cannot tell the
truth :— ' In the fifteenth century, as in the time of Lady
Jane Grrey, obedience to parents and teachers was a prin-
ciple carefully instilled into the minds of young persons.'
Here ' instilled ' is a very weak word, and one quite un-
suitable to tell anything correctly of domestic habits in the
fifteenth century. The facts referred to might have been
readily shown by giving a few excerpts from a well-known
collection of letters written at that time. Or an apt
quotation might have been given from Ascham's ' School-
master.'

§ 43, p. 246, The Pasion Letters.

The vocabulary of the people shows their culture.

Evidences of this truth are se«n when our general literature

is understood as including all writings not special. To

know how the people speak is to know, to a considerable

• F F

434 CONCLUSION.

extent, how they live. The words employed by a mere
individual may serve indeed as means of disguise ; but
the language of a people must be on the whole a true
record.

Inquiries respecting language, regarded as an expres-
sion of culture, may be made easier by dividing words into
three large classes. The first will include all such terms
as denote the ordinary affairs of physical and domestic life,
and to these may be added the words belonging to primitive
habits of warfare. The second class may include all
popular words related to notions of law and government.
The third may include all the terms appropriate to a
higher culture — that which might be conveniently called
ideal, if the word might at once qualify all such ideas as
belong to religion, to art, and to philosophy. It is obvious
that each of these classes might for some special purposes
require subdivision.

§ 39, pp. 179, 196; § 40, p. 199.

When the words most prevalent in the popular tongue
of any given time have thus been classified, the propor-
tionate number of each class will serve as a positive or a
negative index of culture. The process will not lead to
such results as can be called minutely correct, but will show,
at least, how widely different are the vocabularies employed
respectively by a barbarous and by a cultured people. It
may also correct certain errors, such as have been spread
by the authority of a classical writer, whose name is
eminent in historical literature. His assertions are not
generally confirmed by the ancient history of any language
closely related to our own. At the same time there can be
no reason for supposing that any tribes of the Grerman
people whom he describes were widely differentin character
from the cognate tribes who in the fifth and sixth centuries
gained possession of the greater part of England. Of their
characteristics clear evidence is supplied by all that is
known of their own language. They were hardy and
aggressive pirates and warriors. Among all the tribes of
barbarous people who spread themselves over Europe when
the Eoman Empire fell into ruins, they perhaps were the

CONCLUSION. 435

most energetic and capable of improvement. But every
conclusion based upon history and analogy must be dis-
puted before it can be doubted that they were exceedingly
rapacious and cruel. In the oldest accounts of their inva-
sions, and of their subsequent warfare among themselves
and against other invaders, their own tongue might have
supplied terms more graphic than any employed in the
Latin of monastic chroniclers. To the vocabulary of the
earlier invaders other words telling of strife and devasta-
tion were added (it is believed) by the later invaders
mostly called ' Danes.' This addition was a superfluity ;
for the English language of their time contained already a
very large class of words denoting 'seizing,' 'having,'
* overcoming,' and slaying.'

§ 20, Obsolete Verbs, p. 114; § 39, Old Northern and English Words,
p. 187.

If the story of 'Beowulf is referred to as evidence, it
should be observed that its milder passages were, in all
probability, added by a monastic editor. After all re-
searches, there is a veil spread over some early stories of the
invaders ; but if it be assumed as probable that the darkest
story is the truest, the early history of their language
can say nothing to contradict that supposition. The
general want of evidence respecting any considerable mix-
ture of their words with those spoken by the natives ; the
remarkably low and menial character of the few old words
apparently borrowed from the British vocabulary; the
westward retreat of the survivors, defeated in battles and
so soon driven away from the eastern coast and the mid-
land districts ; the subsequent and almost incessant war-
fare of one tribe of invaders arrayed against another ; the
animosity so bitter that the Church itself could not make
the two peoples treat each other as brethren — these facts
all point to one conclusion ; to a belief that is confirmed
by all the evidence we have respecting the divisions exist-
ing among the natives, at the time when the Eoman
army left them to take care of themselves. They were
vanquished. They fell douMless in great numbers under
the weapons of the invaders, and for the survivors there

i'r2

436 CONCLUSION.

remained only a life of slavery. Some escaped and fled
into Wales ; others found a home in Cornwall.

Introduction, p. 9.

The spread of a higher culture in the course of the
seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries must be named with
admiration, though its results cannot be fairly estimated
in this place. For many they were doubtless important
in the highest degree, though at the same time they might
be comparatively superficial as regards their influence on
a large majority of the people. Culture now led to a monastic
life. The people were divided into two classes. Many,
weary of the world's incessant strife, retired into cloisters,
where literature and culture found places of retreat that
were not always safe. To the ninth century many writers
have ascribed a comprehensively educational movement,
promoted chiefly by the great king Alfred. The
translations commonly accepted as proofs of his own literary
toil, and the general culture of which his Court was made
the centre, must indeed afford evidences of a marvellous
kind, if the old story of his life can be safely accepted as
the work of a faithful and cotemporaneous writer. To
tlie next century belong the religious writings in which the
abbot ^LFRic employed English for the expression of
thoughts and sentiments unknown to the hardy invaders
by whom the language was first introduced. He had no
difficulty in finding words suited to his theme when he
wrote in English the old legend of an apostle confronting
a wild gang of robbers. The abbot's writings include a
Latin-English vocabulary, and show his zeal for the spread
of Christian teaching ; but they tell little of any national
change made in the character or in the language of the
whole people. The supposition that in his time a general
transition from barbarism to culture had taken place
would not be supported by a reference to the secular laws
soon afterwards promulgated by Canute. It would be at
once opposed to the character of the offences noticed there
as chiefly prevalent, and to the emphasis with which the
king urges his command that mercy should attend the
execution of justice. It is there implied that, though the

CONCLUSION. 43"/

* Lord's Prayer ' was verbally known, its meaning was mostly
forgotten, and that men were often sentenced to death for
comparatively light offences.

The educational results of the Conquest are seen in the
literary remains of the thirteenth century. To say nothing
of Latin and French, two English vocabularies are em-
ployed, one by the people, the other by churchmen ; the
latter being enriched with a large store of new words,
borrowed from Old French and Latin. But a process of
union is now going on, and bringing together more and
more closely the old and the new. The people learn with
pleasure the new words in which thoughts more refined
than their own may be appropriately expressed. The
higher and the more educated classes are gradually learn-
ing to treat with respect the popular tongue, and those by
whom it is spoken. Their common resistance to injustice
is drawing together the extreme ranks of society ; the
union of their two languages is a simultaneous process, and
the general result is seen in the English language, as in
some of the English laws, of the fourteenth century. It is
clear that the movement made in the language has corre-
sponded with the progress of society.

Introduction, pp. 12, 13.

After all the changes thus briefly noticed, the English
spoken and written by the people still retains a large share
of its original rude vigour, and the fact is made clearly
enough apparent in the scanty literature of the fifteenth
century, especially in the ' Paston Letters.' Meanwhile
the revival of learning and the spread of foreign literature
have served as preparations for the great transition — or re-
volution— made in the sixteenth century. Everywhere,
so far as education has extended itself, we find unrest, am-
bition, and a display of exuberant energies. The intellect,
the imagination, and the passions are at once excited, and
every addition to the mind's stores is accompanied with a
further development of the language. All its resources
are collected, and to supply forms of expression for a crowd
.of new thoughts a vast ^pansion takes place, with a
rapidity like that displayed in the other movements of the

438 CONCLUSION.

age. Since that great transition from Old English to New^
no other change that can be compared with it has taken
place. Nothing more is therefore required here to show
that the history of our language has been closely connected
with the history of the people. The general result is an
intimate union of the two vocabularies English and
Eoman ; each so copious that, in comparison with their
utility, all words borrowed from other sources may be
treated as inconsiderable additions to our large vocabulary.
It has been shown that English words are for the most
part easily recognized.

Introduction,^. 13; §28, pp. 153-55, 160; §37, pp. 170-73; §39^
pp. 178-80.

It is not so easy to recognize all the words borrowed
directly or indirectly from Latin, though of these a very
large number may be readily distinguished.

§29, pp. 155-59, 161 ; § 38, pp. 173-78; §40, pp. 199-203; §42^
pp. 212-15.

Of the various ways in which Latin words have been
altered more or less, in order to make them English, many
examples will be found in the first of the three vocabularies
appended to this Grammar. In several of the observations
there prefixed to the several lists of words, their processes
of change are briefly noticed ; in other remarks the his-
torical interest belonging to certain studies of words is
indicated. Grammar here leads to higher studies of
language, and these may lead on to inquiries of the
highest importance^ — to questions concerning the authority
of some writings accepted as historical, such as the ' Life
of Alfred ' ascribed to Asser ; and to researches respecting
the true sources of all that is good in our modern civiliza-
tion. Errors, in many instances not intended, have been
widely spread by able historical writers, who were not well
enough prepared for their work by previous studies ;
especially by studies of old languages containing evidence
by which assertions like several of those made by Tacitus
(in his ' Germania ') must be confronted.

439

VOCABULARIES.

In the first of the appended vocabularies the initial
words are English ; in the second they are Latin, and a
few Grreek words are given with their meanings in the
third.

The Tentonic words already classified are nnmerons, and
consequently hardly any are noticed here, excepting such as
might be mistaken for words borrowed from Latin or from
French.

Since the time when some parts of this work were written, great im-
provements have been made in English vocabularies, especially in the
glossarial indexes appended to certain well-known ' Specimens of Early
English.' Facts rarely understood a few years ago are now made common-
place, and no brief vocabulary of English words can have much utility.
Their various forms and uses are never shown so clearly as in the pages of
a glossarial index. Accordingly, references have been given to several
works having the highest utility for all who would know the history of
our native words. [§ 39, pp. 183, 194, 195, 198.]

Next to our own Teutonic words, those chiefly requiring
notice are the words distinguished in the following classifi-
cation.

1. Latin words — especially verb-stems and supine-stems,
with their vowel-changes in compounds — are most exten-
sively employed in compound forms. [Vocabulary II.]

2. Of many Latin words the forms have been considerably
changed in coming through the medium of Old French.
Many examples are given in the first vocabulary.

3. There are Old French words of which the sources
are not readily found in dictionaries of classical Latin. Of
these many are found in dictionaries of Late or Mediaeval
Latin.

4. In Old French and in Late Latin some words are
found containing Teutonic stems, among them several so
disguised that they might possibly be mistaken for Latin.
These also are found in dictionaries of Late or Mediaeval
Latin.

6. A few Greek words, employed mostly in writings on
arts and sciences, are established as parts of the English
4ianguage. [Vocabulary III.J

As compared •with, the forms here classified, other borrowed words —

440 VOCABULARIES.

Arabic and Hebrew, for example — haA^e but slight importance in the
history of the language. Lastly there must be named a miscellaneous
class of words, containing some of which the sources are doubtful, others
of which the original forms and meanings are discovered only by historical
research. Among the latter several are proper names of persons or of
places, and some have reference to forgotten events and circumstances.

There are about two hundred Latin words — nouns, adjec-
tives, and verbs — that are the sources of several thousands of
English words. The means by which the few here give rise
to the many are chiefly these : — alterations made in stems, in
derivation, and in composition.

The extensive u^es of Latin suffixes and prefixes have been noticed.
[§§ 29, 31, 38.]

The infinitive forms of Latin verbs have been divided into
four classes, represented by the words amare, monere, regere,
audire. By casting ofi* the last syllable of the infinitive we
have the verb-stem employed in the present tense.

Thus in amd-re we have ama, the stem seen in the first person plural
of the present — amd-mus. As already noticed, the stem-vowel is often
changed in a compound. [§ 40.]

IVIany English words have their sources in the supine-
stems of Latin verbs. [§ 40 ; Vocabulary II.]

Adverse is related to verto, but the supine-stem versum is the form to
which the word strictly belongs. To the stem of the supine rectum belong
the two participles recturus and rectus.

Supine-stems of Latin verbs ending in t-are or in s-are
are the sources of several English verbs borrowed directly
or from the French.

Lat. tractare, Fr. traiter, E. treat. But there are some English
verbs ending in ate that are merely imitations, and do not represent any
Latin verbs. These are examples : — expatriate, indurate, insulate.

Latin verbs made from nouns, and including the suffixes
ic and ig, are the sources of some English verbs borrowed
directly, and of others that have come through the medium of
French.

Lat. castigare, 2. castigatum ; E. Castigate. Lat. judicare, Fr. juger,
E. judge.

Several verbs ending in ish belong to French verbs in-
cluding iss in some of their forms, though it is seldom seen
in the infinitive. It represents the Latin verb-suffix esc.

Lat. nutrire, 0. Fr. nurir, E. nourish Fr. finir (pi. 1st pers. pres.
Jin-iss-07is), E. finish.

VOCABULARIES.

441

Several English verbs are made by adding the ending ize
to stems borrowed from Latin nouns and adjectives.

The ending ize = the French iser and the Greek iC^iv. Lat. fraternus,
E. fraternize. Lat. tempus (Gen. temporis), E. temporize ; Lat. fertilis,
E. fertilize ; Lat. generalis, E. generalize.

Of the English verbs ending in y some represent French
verbs ending in ier and oier.

0. Fr. carier, E. carry ; Fr. varier, E. vary ; Fr. remSdier, E. remedy.

Of the English verbs ending in fy and ply, some represent
compound Latin verbs ending in ficare or in plicare, which
are represented by fier and plier in French.

Lat. magnificare, Fr. Tnagnifier, E. magnify ; Lat. multiplicare, Fr.
multiplier, E. multiply.

In English, as in Old French, the stems of many nonns
are borrowed from the oblique cases of Latin nouns. [Voca-
bulary II.]

In the second vocabulary nominative forms are given for the sake of
brevity. Oblique forms are noticed in the following examples, where
N. = nominative and A. = accusative.

Lat. N. virgo, A. virgin-em ; 0. Fr. virge (and virgine), E. virgin.

Lat. N. salmo, A. salmon-em ; Fr. sauTnon, E. salmon.

Omissions and additions of letters in English forms of
French words have been noticed. Besides these many altera-
tions of vowels and consonants occur. A liquid, a labial, a
dental, or a guttural serves sometimes instead of a letter
belonging to its own class of sounds ; sometimes for one of
another class. [§ 41.]

Lat. posterula, Fr. posterle, E. pos-
tern.

Lat. perdix, Fr. perdrix, E. par-
tridge.

Lat. capsa, Fr. casse, E. cash.

L.L. gabusia, Fr. cabus, E. cabbage.

Lat. salsisia, Fr. saucisse, E. sau-
sage.

L.L. carrochium, Fr. carrosse, E.
coach.

Lat. deliciae, 0. Fr. deleit, E. delight.
L.L. cussinus, Fr. coussin, E.

cushion.
L.L. parochia, Fr. jparoisse, E.

parish.
L.L. warenna, Fr. garenne, E,

warren.
L.L. fortalitium, 0. Fr. fortelesce,

E. fortress.
L.L. gafnim, Fr. gauffre, E. wafer.

In order to find the simple forms and first meanings of
many borrowed words, Latin changes of vowels in compounds
should be especially noticed.

An elementary knowledge of tffe Latin declensions of nouns and the
oonjugations of verbs will be found very useful. For exercises in finding

442 VOCABULAKIES.

the sources and the first meanings of borrowed words the examples already
given are numerous. [§§ 38, 40, 42.] Of many words the sources may be-
found in Vocabulary II.

Among the words of which the sources are Latin many
borrowed from Old French are so far changed that their
original forms are not in all instances easily discovered.

The means of alteration and the motives are various, but among the
latter one is so general that its character may be readily shown by a refer-
ence to our own dialects. Economy in their uses of vowel-sounds is their
most remarkably trait. In certain districts hardly more than one vowel-
sound (a in far) would be used by a native in talking of ' a wall all round
about the town.' A liking for ease in speaking is the motive.

The rudiments of the meanings expressed in numerous
Latin compounds are mostly found in a comparatively small
number of short words — nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Where
these are not well understood, their compounds are vaguely
employed. [pp. 16, 202-3.]

For a moment let it be supposed that take, with suitable variations, is
substituted for ca'pio and its variations. At once the meanings of many
compounds are made clear. Our dictionaries contain numerous words that
live only in books. The common notions of the people, expressed in their
language of daily life, are not numerous. Those of the more educated
classes, who freely employ Latin, are in most instances neither higher nor
better, but are less evident, and therefore are called 'refined.' Latin
words serve as convenient disguises, because their first meanings are
dimly seen. To a Eoman rustic, in ancient times, the word humilis
(humble) would mean 'lying on the ground,' and for a Greek raTruv6s
would mean nothing better. Christianity has so far altered the ancient
meanings of several words as to lead to mistakes in translating some
passages in classical authors.

The meanings as well as the forms of many words are
naturally variable, and pass through transitions made partly
in accordance with changes of opinion. Meanwhile other
words represent institutions, habits, and ideas that from age
to age remain firm, and impart some likeness of their own
stability to the forms by which they are denoted.

The conclusion is named here as showing one of the chief interests
attending the study of a language, especially our own. Almost two
thousand years ago the general law of variability in the uses of words was
noticed by Horace, who spoke of words fading like the foliage of summer.
In our own language the noun schrift, once popular, and often used in the
Persones Tale, is quite obsolete, and its fate has obviously not been acci-
dental. The word humility, as employed in Christian teaching, has a
meaning that did not belong originally to the Latin adjective humilis.
There are mediaeval Latin writings that Jio good scholar would attempt to
translate into classical Latin, such as could have been understood by
educated men in the time of Cicero. The ideas intended to be conveyed

VOCABULARY I.

44a

did not then exist. In English several words borrowed from Latin have
changed their meanings during the last two centuries. The words
* admirable ' and * prevent ' may be noticed.

Admirable. ' In man there is nothing admirable [to be wondered atj
but his ignorance and weakness.' — Jkr. T^lYlgr.

' Prevent us, 0 Lord, in all our doings.' — Collect.

VOCABULARY I.

The changes made in verbs borrowed from Latin belong
mostly to two classes — (1) those already made in Latin,
especially snpine-stems, and vowel-changes in compounds ;
(2) the alterations made in Old French. The study required
by mutations of the first class is comparatively light, as the
number of the verbs deserving especial notice is not great.
Their utility is proportionately very great. When these
verbs, with their supine forms and their vowel-changes in
compounds, are well known, the student has already acquired
knowledge that must lead to extensive information respecting
right uses of thousands of words. He knows, for example^
the general meanings of numerous borrowed words like those
contained in the list appended.

In this list the figure 2 marks the use of a supine-stem, and the letter
c indicates a vowel-change made in composition. The abbreviation Fr.,
following some words, shows that they have been altered in coming through
the medium of Old French. Of these words several are more distinctly
noticed in another place. The meanings of the Latin words are at least
indicated in the second vocabulary.

English omd Latin Words : Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs.

abject, jacio, 2
ablution, luo, 2
abnormal, norma
abscond, condo
absent, ens
absolute, solvo, 2
abstain, teneo
abstinent, teneo, c
abstract, traho, 2
abundant, unda
accept, capio, 2, c
accurate, cura
accuse, causa
achieve (Fr.), caput
acquiesce, quies
acquire, quaero, c
acquisition, quaero, 2
act, ago, 2

adjective, jacio, 2
adjunct, jungo, 2
admit, mitto
adore, oro
adorn, orno
advantage, p. 184
adverb, verbum
advert, verto
affect, facio, 2, c
agent, ago
aggravate, gravis
aggregate, grex (gr(
agree (Fr.), gratus
allow (Fr.), laudo
ambition, eo, 2
amiable, ^o
ampiitate, puto, 2
anguish, p. 184

animal, anima
animosity, animus
annals, annus
annoy, p. 184
anxiety, ango, 2
anxious, ango, 2
aperture, aperio, 2
apprehend, prehendo
appropriate, proprius
arrest, ad + res + sto
article, articulus
aspirate, spiro, 2
assent, sentio
assert, sero, 2
assign, signum
assort, sors
astringent, stringo
attend, tendo

444

VOCABULAKY I.

attest, tester
audience, audio
audit, audio, 2
augment, augeo
aunt (Ft.), amita
avail, valeo
avenge (Fv.), vindico

benefit (Fr.), facio, 2
biennial, annus

cape, caput
case, p. 184
cash, p. 184
censure, eenseo, 2
charm, carmen
Chester, castra
circumspect, specto
circumstance, sto
circumvent, venio, 2
classification, classis
clause, claudo, 2
cognate, nascor, 2
tjognition, nosco, 2, c
coincide, cado, c
collate, latum
collect, lego, 2
colony, colo
-command, mando
commerce, mercor
committee, mitto
commotion, moveo, 2
community, munus
compete, peto
compile, pilo
complex, plecto, 2
composition, p. 202
composure, pono, 2
compunction, pungo, 2
conceit, capio, 2, c
concession, cedo
concise, csedo, 2, c
concourse, curro, 2
concur, curro
concurrent, p. 202
condition, do, 2, c
condole, doleo
conduct, duco, 2
conference, fero
confirm, firmus
confusion, fando, 2
congenial, genus
congregation, grex
^congress, gradior, 2

conjunction, jungo, 2
conquer, qusero
consecutive, sequor, 2
consistent, sisto
consols, solidus
consonant, p. 203
consort, sors
conspicuous, -specio, c
constitution, sto, 2, c
construction, struo, 2, c
contend, tendo
contingent, tango, c
contortion, torqueo, 2
contraction, p. 203
contradiction, p. 203
contrast, sto
controvert, verto
convenient, venio
converse, verto, 2
convey (Fr.), via
convince, vinco
corporeal, corpus
covenant (Fr.), venio, 2
coy, p. 184
credit, credo, 2
crest, crista
culpable, culpa
cultivate, colo, 2
curious, cura
current, curro

daunt, p. 184
defer, fero
deficient, facio, c
defy, fides
dejection, jacio, 2, c
delay, latum
delectable, delecto
delegate, lego
deluge, diluvium
denote, nosco, 2
dental, dens
dependent, pendeo
deponent, pono
deposit, pono, 2
depot (Fr.), pono, 2
depreciate, pretium
derive, rivus
descant, canto
describe, scribo
design, signum
despond, spondeo
desultory, salio, ?, c
detest, testor

devote, voveo, 2
diary, dies
differ, fero
diluvial, diluvium
diminish, minuo
direct, rego, 2
discern, cerno
disciple, disco
discrete, cerno, 2
discursive, curro, 2
dismiss, mitto, 2
dissent, sentio
dissertation, sero, 2
dissimilar, similis
dissimulate, similis
distil, stillo
distinct, -stinguo, 2
distinguish, -stinguo
diurnal, diurnus
divert, verto
divulge, vulgus
doleful, doleo
donation, dono
doubt (Fr.), dubito

elect, p. 203
eligible, lego
enormous, norma
enrapture, rapio, 2
enterprise (Fr.), pre-

hendo, 2
evolve, volvo
excerpt, carpo, 2, c
exciise, causa
exempt, emo, 2
exhibit, habeo, 2
exigent, ago, c
expansion, pando, 2
expire, spiro
explicit, plico, 2
explosive, plaudo, 2, e
export, porto
expunge, pungo
exquisite, qusero, 2, o
extant, sto
external, externus
extraneous, extraneus
exude, sudo
exult, salio, 2, c

fact, facio, 2
faction, facio, 2
fate, fari, 2
fealty (Fr.), fides

VOCABULARY I.

445-

feat(Fr./aii!), facio, 2
feature (Fr.), facio, 2
feeble (Fr.), fleo
finish (Fr.), finis
flower (Fr.), flos
foible (Fr.), fleo
font (of types), fundo
frail (Fr.), fragilis
future, futurus

gender, genus
general, genus
gentile, gens
grade, gradus
gradual, gradus
gratuity, gratia
gregarious, grex
gust ( = gusto), gustus
guttural, guttur

habit, habeo, 2
haughty (Fr.), altus
honour (Fr.), honor
hospital, hospes
hostile, hostis

impinge, pango, c
incipient, capio, c
incision, csedo, 2, c
inclusive, claudo, 2, c
inexorable, oro
infinite, finis
infinitive, finis
inflexion, flecto, 2
infringe, frango, c
infusion, fundo, 2
ingratiate, gratia
inhabit, habeo, 2
innate, natus
innocent, noceo
inquest (Fr.), quaero, 2
inquisition, quaero, 2, c
insidious, sedeo, c
insolent, soleo
inspect, specto
instigate, -stinguo
instil, stillo
insurgent, surgo
insurrection, surgo, 2
intellect, lego, 2
intent, tendo, 2
interjection, jacio, 2, c
intervene, p. 203
interview (Fr.), video

intestate, testor, 2
introduce, duco
intrusion, trudo, 2
invective, veho. 2
involve, volvo

joiner (Fr.), jungo
journey, p. 184
juncture, jungo, 2

labial, labium
league (Fr.), ligo
lecture, p. 203
legation, lego, 2
levity, levis
ligament, ligo
local, locus
lucifer, lux + fero

maintain (Fr.),manus +

teneo
manoeuvre (Fr.), manus

+ opus
mansion, maneo, 2
manual, manus
marble, marmor
mariile, mare
master (Fr.), magister
mend, emendo
mercer, mercor
merchant (Fr.), mercor
minute, minuo, 2
mirror (Fr.), miror
mission, mitto, 2
mistress (Fr.), magistra
mitigate, mitis
mixture, misceo, 2
model, modus
modify, modus
mortify, mors + -ficare
munificent, munus +

facio, c
mustard (Fr.), mustum

nation, natus
nature, nascor, 2
navigation, navis
nefarious, fari
net (Fr.), nitidus
noble, nobilia
nondesci%)t, p. 203
normal, norma
noun (Fr.), nomen
nuisance (Fr.), noceo

objection, jacio, 2, c
obviate, via
officer (Fr.), facio, c
officious, facio, c
obsequious, sequor
ominous, omen
omission, mitto, 2
opinion, opinio
oral, OS
oration, oro, 2
oriental, orior
orifice, os

pagan, pagus
pall, pallium
palliate, pallium
parent, pario
parse, pars
part, pars

participle, pars + capio, (^
particular, pars
pass, passus
pasture, pascor, 2
pay (Fr.), paco
peace, pax
peer(Fr.), par
pellucid, lucidus
perfect, facio, 2, c
peril (Fr.), periculum
perish ( Fr.), pereo
permanent, maneo
persecute, sequor, 2
pert (Fr.), aperio, 2
pertinent, teneo, 2, c
pervade, vado
petition, peto, 2
picture, pingo, 2
piscatorial, piscis
pity (Fr.), pietas
plausible, plaudo, 2
poignant (Fr.), pungo, 2
point, pungo, 2
polish (Fr.), polio, 2
pollute, luo, 2
poor (Fr.), pauper
pork (Fr.), porcus
porpoise, porcus + piscis
port (harbour), portus
position, pono, 2
possible, posse
postpone, pono
potent, potens
praise (Fr.\ pretium
precious (Fr.), pretium

446

YOCABULARY I.

prelate, latum
premier (Fr.), primus
prepare, paro
preposition, pono, 2
prerogative, rogo, 2
prescribe, scribo
present, ens
president, sedeo, c
pressure, premo, 2
presume, sumo
prevent, venio, 2
prime, primus
primer, primus
prince, princeps
prize (Fr.), pretium
proclaim, clamo
profane, fanum
prohibit, habeo, 2, c
projectile, jacio, 2, c
pronoun (Fr.), nomen
property, proprius
propriety, proprius
propulsion, p. 203
prorogue (Fr.), rogo
proscribe, scribo
protest, p. 203
providence, p. 203
pugnacity, pugno
punctual, pungo, 2
punctuation, pungo, 2
pungent, pungo
puny (Fr.), post + natus
pursue (Fr.), sequor
purvey (Fr.), video

query, qusero
quiet, quies
quit, p. 184

rally, re + ad + ligo
rapacious, rapax
rapid, rapidus
rapine, rapio
rase, rado, 2
reason (Fr.), ratio
rebel, bello
rector, rego, 2
redeem, emo
redolent, oleo
refer, fero
reference, p. 203
refractory, frango, 2
refund, fundo
regal, rex

rejoinder (Fr.), jungo
relate, latum

relation, p. 203
remain, maneo
remorse, mordeo, 2
remote, moveo, 2
remove, moveo
remunerate, munus
render (Fr.), reddo
repast, pascor, 2
repose, pono, 2
reprieve (Fr.), probo
repugnant, pugno
reputation, puto, 2
request, quaero, 2
requite (Fr.), quies
resent, sentio
resign, signum
respire ; spiro
respond, spondeo
responsible, spondeo, 2
retentive, teneo, 2
retrograde, gradus
revenge (Fr.), vindico
revolution, volvo, 2
ritual, ritus
river (Fr.), rivus
routine (Fr.), rota
royal (Fr.), regalis
rule (Fr.), regula

sacrament, sacer
sacred, sacer
salary (Fr.), salarium
saline, sal
sauce (Fr.), sal
sausage (Fr.), sal
savage (Fr.), sylva
saviour (Fr.), salvo
scale, scalse
scarce (Fr.), carpo, 2
scholar, schola
sect, seco, 2
secular, saeculum
secure, cura
sensual, sentio, 2
sensuous, sentio, 2
sequel, sequor
series, series
sessions, sedeo, 2
sever (Fr.), separo
sexton (Fr.), sacer
sibilant, sibilo
siege (Fr.), sedeo
sign, signum
signal, signum
silence, sileo

sinecure, cura
sirloin (Fr.), longus
sluice, claudo, 2, p. 184
sojourn (Fr.), diurnus
soldier (Fr.), solidus
sole, solus

solstice, sol + sto, 2, o
sorcerer, sors
source, surgo, 2
spectacle, specto
spital, hospes
squire (Fr.), scutum
stable (Fr.), p. 184
statute, statuo
store (Fr.), instauro
strait (Fr.), stringo, 2
strange (Fr.), extraneus
stranger (Fr.),eitraneu3
street, stratus
subsidy, sedeo
succour (Fr.), curro
sue (Fr.), sequor
sufficient, facio, c
suffix, figo, 2
summons (Fr.), moneo
sumptuous, sumo, 2
supervene, venio
suppose, pono, 2
surfeit (Fr.), facio, 2
surrogate, rogo, 2
suspense, pendeo, 2

tangible, tango
tarry (Fr.), tardus
tavern, taberna
tense (Fr.), tempus
tense (tight), tendo, 2
tincture, tingo, 2
traitor (Fr,), traditor
transit, itum (eo, 2)
transitive, itum (eo, 2)
trite, tero, 2

umbrage, umbra
use, usus (utor)

valid, validus
vale, vallis
veil, velum
verb, verbum
verse, verto, 2
very, verax
vice (Fr.), vitium
vocation, voco, 2
voice (Fr.), vox

VOCABULARY I.

447

Some examples of Old French words and their English
-forms have been given (pp. 184-5). Others may be noticed
in this place. The French words are set in Italic.

Old French Words.

achieve, achever, caput
acquaint, acointer, ad + cognito
advance, avancer, ab + ante
agree, gre, gratus
allow, allouer, ad + laudo
ancestor, ancessor, ante-cessor
assail, assaillir, assilio
astonish, estonner, attono
aunt, ante, amita
avenge, vanger, vindico

benefit, bienfait, bene-factum

chamber, chambre, camera
chastise chdtier, castigo
cider, cidre, sicera
cinder, cendre, cinerem
cinque, cinque, quinque
city, cite, civitas
cloister, cloistre, claustrum
xjomfort, confort, conforto
convey, conveier, con + via
corpse, cors, corpus
count, center, compute
covenant, covenant, convenio
covetous, coveitous, cupidus
cruel, criLel, crudelis

dame, dame, domina
damsel, damoiselle, domina
defeat, desfaire, dis + facio
defy, deffier, fides
demesne, demeine, dominium
deny, denier, denego
despite, despit, despectus
destroy, destruire, destruo
disdain, desdaigner, dis + dignor
dishevel, chevil, capillus
ditty, ditte, dictum
doubt, douter, dubito
dowager, doairiere
duchess, ducheise, dux

enterprise, emprise, prehensum
•entice, enticer, excito
entire, entier, in + tango
estate, estat, statam
expound, eicpondrC' expono

feature, /(zec^wre, factum
feeble, foible, flebilis
Fitz,^^5, filius
fiavour, flair, fragro
foible, foible, fiebilis
foison, foison, fusionem
foreign, forain, foraneus
ix\2ij:,freiere, frater

gin (snare), engin, ingenium

impair, empeirer, pejor
impeach, empescher, impedio
indenture, endenter, dentem

joust, jester, juxta

lanthorn, lanteme, laterna
loyal, loial, legem

marvel, merveille, mirabilia
maugre, mal-gre, male + gratum
menial, meignial (meignee = houB6'

hold)
mischance, mes-cheance, minus ca-

dentia
miscreant, mecreant, minus + cre-

dentem
mistress, maistresse, magistra
moiety, moitie, medietas

nephew, nevod, nepos
noun, nom, nomen

oriflamme, oriflambe, auri fl

perish, perir, pereo
yity, pite, pietas
poverty, poverte, paupertas
powder, pouldre, pulverem
■prey, preier, praedor
prize, pris, pretium
provender, provende, prsebenda
prowess, 2>rc?«^, probus
puny, puisne, post-natus
purvey, porvoir, provideo

448

YOCABULART I.

rear, rier, retro

reprieve, refruver, re + probo

river, riviere, rivus

rule, reule, regula

sausage, saucisse, salsisia
savage, salvage, sylvestris
saviour, saveor, salvator
sever, sevrer, separo
sir (sire), sires, senior
sovereign, soverain, superanus
store, estorer, instauro
strange, estrange, extraneus
succour, soucourre, subcurro
summons, semonse, sub-moneo

tarry, tarier, tardus
traitor, traitor, traditor
treason, trdison, traditio
trespass, trespasser, trans + passus

uncle, uncle, avunculus

vail (yield), avaler, ad vallem
veal, veel, vitellus
veil, veile, velum
vessel, veissel, vascellum
vice, vice, vitium
villain, vilain, villanus
visage, visaige, visus
voice, vois, vocem

There are words employed in English and in French of
which the sources are not readily found in classical Latin.
They may be found in Old French and in Late Latin. Of
their stems several are Roman — for example, civilisatio.
Others have a Teutonic origin. Among the latter some were
introduced into France, and afterwards into England, by the
Northmen (the Normans), who were originally barbarians^
not unlike the first Teutonic invaders of England, or the
later invaders called ' Danes.' The words here noticed are
closely connected with the history of the people by whom they
were spoken. The Roman popular tongue spread itself in
Gaul and in Spain, and was there made generally pre-
dominant, as it remains to this time — sure evidence that those
countries were made thoroughly subject to Rome. At a
later time Rome, though decaying, made great efforts to
repel the numerous hordes of Teutonic barbarians that, urged
on by a thirst for spoil, were made strong by the weakness of
a falling empire. Those efforts failed. The barbarians
asserted their independence, or rather their rights of conquest.
They remained unsubdued, and one consequence was, they
kept their own yernacnlar tongues — all essentially alike, and
sometimes collectively called ' German.' This result had the
greatest importance for the history of Europe, and its effects
are seen at the present time.

The Normans were in one respect unlike other barbarous
hordes of their own race. They were hardy, adventurous,
and rapacious, but soon displayed their capability of culture.
While the Carlovingian dynasty was waning, they seized
Normandy. Their power in that country, as in other lands,
was firmly established, just as their invasion of England was
subsequently encouraged, by the sanction of the Church to
whose teaching they had submitted themselves. Meanwhile

TOCABULARY I.

44 U

they had gradually been accustomed to employ the Roman
language of Normandy, and for the most part they had forgotten
their own rude speech. Among their higher classes a love of
poetry was prevalent, and gave rise to the songs and stories
chanted by their minstrels. Their language was the Old
French, sometimes called Norman, and from this many of our
words are borrowed. They are chiefly Roman, especially
those indicating a fair degree of civilization. This word
itself belongs to the late or monastic Latin of their time.
Other words, not found in classical Latin, are seen in
dictionaries of Late Latin. Some examples have been given
(p. 184). In the following list Old French words are set in
Italic, and are mostly followed by their equivalents in Late
Latin, of which the stems are here and there Teutonic.

Old French and Late Latin Words.

abbey, abbeye, abbatia
age, edage, setaticnm
ague, agu, acuta
archer, archier, arcarius
array, arroi (roi = order)
attorney, atorne, atornatus

baboon, babouin, baboynus
bachelor, bachelier, baccalarius
barber, barbier, barberius
bargain, bargagne, barcanio
bay (bark), abater, ad-baubari
beverage, beuvrage, biberaticum
boundary, bonne, bonnarium
budget, buuge, bulga
bushel, boisel, bustellus
butcher, boucher, buccerius

carpenter, carpentier, carpentarius
charge, charger, carricare (load a car)
chattels, catel, capitale
cheer (noun), chere, cara
cheque, eschequer (mark as a chess-
board)
coffer, cofre, cofrus
constable, connetable, comes stabuli
count (title), cumie, comes
cowardice, coardise {cow = cower)

dpDgeon, donjon, dongio
embroil, broil, broilus

feud,/aw?e, faidium
forage, /orre, fodrum

herald, heralt, heraldus

jewel, joel, jocale

maim, onahain, mahemio
manger, mangeoire, manducatoria
m&uov, manoir, manerium
marquess, markis, marchio
mastiff, mastin, mansutinus canis
messenger, messagier, messagarius
morsel, morccl, morsellum
mutton, molton, multo

nun, nunne, nonna

outrage, oultrager

palmer, palmier, palmerius
partner, partinaire, parti onarius

reward, revoer doner, wider-donum

sovereign, soverain, superanus

treasure, tresorier, thesaurarius

vessel, veissel, vascellum
iricar, vicaire, vicarius

wager, wage, vadium
GO

450

VOCABULARY I.

There were preserved among the Normans many of their
own native words, some denoting matters of everyday life,
others — more noticeable — belonging to the harsh vocabulary
of warfare, so copious among the fierce Teutonic hordes of an
earlier time (p. 114). Hence there are found in Norman-French
some words of which the stems, though disguised, are
obviously Teutonic. Of these altered forms several, having
changed also their meanings, are still employed in Modern
English. It is hardly thought of now that such words as
(funrd and warn^ or the forms ' garish ' (made poetical by
Milton) and ' garnish^* once had very strong meanings, that,
strictly speaking, belonged chiefly to battle and devastation.
The word helfry was in old times applied to a watch-tower,
and had then no association with peaceful thoughts of
worship. In the following list Old French or Norman words
are set in Italic, and are followed by Teutonic words similar
or equivalent in meaning. The stems in some of these
Teutonic words are seen in First English. It will be re-
membered that gu in Old French often takes the place of w
in a Teutonic word. [§ 39, Old French Words. ']

Teutonic Stems in Old French Words.

aghast, agacer, xis-gaisjan
attack, taicher, tacan

belfry, herfroit, berc-vrit
bivouac, bivouac, bi-wacha
brand (sword), brant, brandr
bruise, bruiser, brysan

champion, campion, cempa

defile, defoler, fylan
descry, escrier, scrian

embark, embarquer, barkr
enamel, esmail, smelta
eschew, eschiver, sciuhan

farm,/tTm^, feorm
iee,fieu, feoh (cattle)
fvLvhish,forbir, furban
furnish, fornir, frurnjan

garnish, guarnir, wearniaTi (guard)
garrison, gamison, wars (wary)
gnurd, guar de, weard
guide, guider, witan (watch)
guile, guile, wile
guise, guise, wise (way)

hauberk, hauberc, heals-beorg
haunt, hanter, hiemta
herald, heralt, heri-walt

march (boundary), marce, mearc

perform, parfomir, frumjan

rifle (v.), riffer, hrifa
rob, rober, rouben

seize, saisir, bi-sazian
spy, espier, sprehon
strive, estriver, streben

target, targe, targa
towel, touaille, duahila
turn, torner, turnan

waj^er, wage, wedd (a pledge)
wait, waite, wacan (wake)
war, werre, wyrre
ward, guarde, weard
warn, guarnir, wearnian
warren, garene, warjan
warrior, guerreur, wyrre
wicket, guischet, wic (a recess)
wizard, guiscart, wiskr (sly)

VOCABULARY II.

451

The meanings of several compounds are seen when a few
Greek words and particles have been noticed. [§§ 38,40;
Vocabulary III.]

Greek Compounds.

Acropolis, akron+polis
anatomy, ana + tofm
antipathy, anti+ pathos
antithesis, anti+ thesis
apostle, apo + stellein
apostrophe, apo + strophe
apothecary, apo + theke

barometer, harm + metron
barytone, barus + tones

catastrophe, kata + strophe
cyclopaedia, kuklos + paideia

deacon, dia + oikos
demagogue, demos + agein
diagonal, dia+gonia
diameter, dia + metron
diaphanous, dia + phainein
doxology, doxa + logos

eclectic, ek + legein
economy, oikos + nemos
ecstasy, ek + stasis
epistle, epi + stellein
epitome, epi + tome
etymology, p. 27
euphemism, eu+phemi
exodus, ek + hodos

ge + logos
geometry, ge + metron
grammar, gramma

heliotrope, helios + trope
horologue, hora + logos

kaleidoscope, kalos + eidos + skopein

liturgy, leiton + ergon

monachism, monachos + ismos
monogram, monos •{■ gramma
monopoly, m/)nos + polein
monotone, monos + tonos

orthoepy, p. 19
orthography, p. 19

panacea, pan + akeomai
parochial, para + oikos
perimeter, peri + metron
periphery, peri + pherein
phantasmagoria, phantasma + agora
pharmacopcsia, pharmakon +poiein
philanthropy, philein + anthropos
philosophy, philein + sophia
phonography, phone +graphe
physiology, phusis + logos
pseudonym, pseudos + onoma
psychology, psuche + logos

stereotype, stereos + tupos
stethoscope, stethos + skopein
sympathy, sun + pathos
synonym, sun -^^ onoma
syntax, p. 218
synthesis, sun + thesis

tautology, tauton + logos
taxidermy, taans + derma
technology, techne + logos
telegraph, tele + grapkein

Utopia, ou + topos

VOCABULARY II.

l^he first list of Latin words contains nouns, adjectives,
«,nd verbs. Their meanings ve shown so far as short words
avail. The second list contains supine-forms ; the thirds
examples of vowel-changes made in composition,

G G 2

452

VOCABULAKY II.

ago, act
altus, high
amita, aunt
amo, love
ango, A-ex
anima, breath
animus, soul
annus, a year
aperio, open
articulus, a small joint
audax, bold
audio, hear
augeo, increase
avunculus, uncle

bello, wage war

cado, fall
csedo, cut,
-caudo, glow
cano, sing
canto, sing
capio, take
caput, a head
carmen, a song
carpo, take
castra, a camp
causa, a cause
cedo, yield
censeo, rate
cerno, discern
certus, sure
clamo, call
clarus, clear
classis, a fleet
claudo, shut
Colo, cultivate
corpus, a body
crista, a crest
culpa, a fault
cura, care
curro, run

delecto, please
dens, a tooth
dice, say
dies, a day
dignus, worthy
diluvium, a flood
disco, learn
diurnus, daily

Latin Words : Nou7is, Adjectives, Verbs.

humilis, low

do, give
doleo, grieve
domus, a house
dono, give
dubito, doubt
duco, lead
duo, two
durus, hard

edo, eat

emo, buy *

(s-)ens, being

eo, go

esse, to be

externus, outward

extraneus, outward

facio, make
fanum, temple
fari, speak
fero, bear
fides, faith
finis, an end
figo, fix
firmus, firm
fiecto, bend
fieo, weep
flos, a flower
fluo, flow
folium, a leaf
fons, a fountain
fortis, strong
fragilis, weak
frango, break
fundo, pour
futurus, about to be

gens, a nation
genus, a kind
gradus, a step
gratia, grace
gratus, pleasing
gravis, heavy
grex, a flock
gustus, taste
guttur, the throat

habeo, have
honor, honour
hospes, a guest
hostis, a foe

lens, going
instauro, prepare

jaceo, lie (down)
jacio, throw
jungo, join

labium, a lip
laudo, praise
lego, send
lego, read
lentus, slow
levis, light
levo, lift
ligo, bind
locus, a place
locutus, spoken
longus, long
loquor, speak
lucidus, clear
ludo, play
luo, lave
lux, light

magistra, governess-
mando, bid
maneo, stay
manus, a hand
mare, the sea
marmor, marble
mercor, buy
minuo, lessen
miror, admire
misceo, mix
mitis, mild
mitto, send
modus, a measure
moneo, advise
mordeo, bite
mors, death
moveo, move
munus, a gift
mustum (n.), must

nascor, am born
natus, born
navis, a ship
nepos, grandson
nitidus, neat

VOCABULARY II.

453

noceo, hurt
nomen, a name
nonna, grandmother
norma, a rule
nosco, know
notus, known
noxa, harm

oleo, breathe
omen, a sign
opinio, opinion
opus, a work
orior, arise
orno, adorn
oro, pray
ortus, arisen
OS, a mouth

paco, appease
pagns, village
pallium, a cloak
pando, spread
panis, bread
par, equal
pario, bring forth
paro, get ready
pars, a part
pasco, feed
passus, passive
patior, suifer
. pauper, poor
pax, peace
pello, drive

pendeo, hang (intrans.)
pendo, hang (trans.)
pereo, perish
pes, a foot
peto, seek
pietas, piety
pila, a pillar
pilo, pillage
pingo, paint
piscis, a fish
placeo, please
plango, beat
plaudo, clap hands
plecto, bend
plenns, full
plico, fold
plus, more
poena, pain
* polio, polish
polliceor, promise

poUicitns, promised
pono, put
porous, a pig
porto, carry
portus, a harbour
posse, be able
potens, able
prehendo, seize
premo, press
pretium, a price
primus, first
princeps, prince
probo, prove
prope, near
proprius, proper
pugno, fight
pungo, prick
punio, punish
puto, think, cut

quadra, a square
quaere, seek
quies, quiet

rado, shave
rap ax, greedy
rapidus, rapid
rapio, snatch
rancidus, rancid
rarus, scarce
ratio, reason
reddo, return
regalis, royal
rego, rule
regula, rule
res, a thing
rex, a king
ritus, a rite
rivns, a river
rogo, ask,
rota, a wheel

sacer, holy
seeculum, an age
sal, salt
salarium, pay
salio, leap
salus, safety
salvo, save
sancio, ordain
sanus, hale
scalse, a ladder
schola, a^chool
scribo. write

scutum, a shield
seco, cut
securus, sure
sedeo, sit
senior, older
sentio, feel
separo, sever
sequor, follow
sero, insert
sibilo, hiss
signnm, a sign
sileo, am still
similis, like
sisto, stay
sol, the sun
solidus, firm
solidus, a coin
soleo, am wont
solve, solve
solus, alone
sors, a lot
-specie, look
specto, look at
spire, breathe
spondee, promise
statue, place
Sterne, strew
(di)-stinguo, stamp
sto, stand
stratus, flat
stringo, bind
struo, build
sudo, flow
sumo, take
surge, rise
sylva, a wood

tango, touch
tardus, slow
tego, cover
tempus, time
tenax, holding
tendo, stretch
teneo, hold
tergo, wipe
tero, rub
terra, the earth
testatus, attested
tester, attest
tinge, dip
telle, raise
torqueo, twist
traho, draw

454

VOCABULARY II.

tres, three

valeo, avail

vir, a man

trudo, thrust

validus, strong

viso, visit

veho, carry

vivo, live

umbra, shade

venio, come

voco, call

iinda, a waye

verax, true

voluntas, will

unguo, anoint

verto, turn

volvo, roil

unus, one

via, a way

voveo, vow

urbs, a city

victus, food

vox, a voice

usus, use

video, see
vinco, conquer

vulgus, the people

vado, go

vindico, avenge

Supine-Forms.

actum, ago

latum, faro, tollo

rasum, rado

amatum, amo

lectum, lego {read)

rectum, rego

apertum, aperio

legatum,lego {send)

rogatum, rogo

auctum, augeo

auditum, audio

mansum, maneo

saltum, salio

minutum, minuo

sanctum, sancia

caesum, csedo

missum, mitto

scriptum, scriba

cantum, cano

mixtum, misceo

sectum, seco

captum, capio

morsum, mordeo

secutus, sequor-

casum, cado

motum, moveo

sensum, sentio

censum, censeo

sertum, sero

(ac)-censum, cando

-olitum, oleo

sessum, sedeo

cessum, cedo

oratum, oro

solutum, solvo

clausum, claudo

spectatum, specto

cretum, cerno

pansum, pando

(in)-spectum, -specia

cultum, colo

paratum, paro

spiratum, spiro

cur sum, curro

partum, pario

sponsum, spondeo

passum, pando

statum, sisto

datum, do

pastum, pasco

statutum, statuo

dictum, dico
ductum, duco

pensum, pendo

(di)-stinctum, -stinguo

petitum, peto

stratum, sterno

pictum, pingo

strictum, stringo

placitum, placeo

structum, struo

emptum, emo

planctum, plango

sumptum, sumo

plausum, plaudo

surrectum, surgo

factum, facio

plexum, plecto

fatu, fari

plicatum, plico

tactum, tango

fixum, figo

-plicitum, plico

tectum, tego

flexum, fleeto

positum, pono

tensum, tendo

fluxum, fluo

prehensum, prehendo

tentum, teneo

fusum, fundo

pressum, premo

tersum, tergo

pulsum, pello

tinctum, ting(u)o

habitum, habeo

punctum, pungo

tortum, torqueo

punitum, punio

tractum, traho

itum, eo

putatum, puto

trusum, trudo

jacitum,jaceo

quaesitum, qusero

unctum, unguo

jactum,jacio

junctum, jungo

raptum, rapio

(e)-vasum, vada

VOCABULARY III.

455

vectum, veho
ventum, venio
versum, verto

victum, vinco
victum, vivo
visum, video

vocatum, voco
volutum, volvo
votum, voveo

In the appended list compound verbs are followed by
nonns (n.) and adjectives (a.) set within curves.

Examples of Vowel-Ohanges in Compounds.

Compounds.

Simple
Verbs.

Compounds.

Simple
Verbs.

acquire {a. acquisitus)

qusero

excerpo {n. excerptio)

carpo

adjicio (a. adjectus)

jacio

excipio {n. exceptio)

capio

ascendo {n. ascensus)

scando

exigo (a. exactus)

ago

explode (a. explosus)

plaudo

condemno (a. condemnatus)

damno

conspicio {n. conspectus)

-specie

incendo {n. incendium)

-cando

constituo {a. constitutus)

statuo

contineo (a. contentus)

teneo

occido {n. occasus)

cado

contingo (w. contactus)

tango

corrigo (w. correctio)

rego

perspicio {a. perspicuus)

-specio

prsesideo {n. prsesidium)

sedeo

decipio (n. deceptio)

capio

projicio {a. projectus)

jacio

eflBcio (a. efficax)

facio

soligo (a. selectus)

lego

eligo (w, electio)

lego

supprimo (?^. suppressio)

premo

VOCABULARY III.

The Greek words and suffixes imperfectly represented by
the forms shown in the list appended are incorporated in several
of our compounds, mostly in those employed in writing
on the sciences. [§ 40.]

These forms are not intended to indicate the true pronunciation of their
originals, but are treated as elements making certain words called English,
though not popular. The prefixes mostly employed in our Greek compounds
have been noticed. [§ 38.]

ago, lead, do
agdgos, a leader
agdn, strife
agora, a meeting
akeomai, heal
akron, the top
alios, another
anthrdpos, man
arche, a beginning
archo, begin, rule
astron, a star
autos, (my)-8elf, etc.

ballo, throw
bapto, dip
barus, heavy
bios, life

cheir, a hand
chronos, time

demos, the people

derma, tffe skin

doxa, an opinion, glory

eidos, a form
eleemosune, alms
eremos, alone
ergon, a work

ge, the earth
gonia, an angle
gramma, a letter
graphe, a description
graphd, write

helios, the sun

456

VOCABULAKT III.

heteros, another
hieros, sacred
hodos, a way
hudor, water
hugieia, health
hugros, moist

-iakos (suffix), p. 159
idea, an idea
-ikos (suffix), p. 159
-ismos (suffix), p. 159
-ites (suffix), p. 156
-izein (verb-ending), p.
162

kalos, beautiful
kame, hair
kosmos, order
kratos, strength
kuklos, a circle

lego, say, select
leitos, public
lepsis, a seizure
logos, a word, reason
lusis, a loosing

metron, a measure
mimos, a show
monos, alone

nomos, a law

ode, an ode
oikos, a house
olos, whole
onoma, a name
opsis, sight
orthos, right
-otes (suffix), p. 1 56

paideia, teaching

pais, a boy

pan, all

pathos, feeling

phaino, show, appear

pharmakon, a medicine

phasis, a saying

phemi, say

phero, carry

phileo, love

phone, a voice
phos, light
phu5, produce
(ta)phusika (pi.), phy-
sics
phusis, nature
phuton, a plant
planad, wander
poieo, make
poleo, sell
polis, a city
politeia, government
(oi) polloi (pi.), many
poros, a passage
presbus, old

pseudos, false
psuche, the s^^^l

rheo, flow
rheuma, a flux

skope5, view
Sophia, wisdom
sophos, wise
speira, a spiral line
stasis, a station
stello, send
stereos, solid
stethos, the breast
strepho, turn
strophe, a turn, a
stanza

tauton, the same
taxis, order
techne, art
tele, afar

teleos, the end, the aim
theke, a depot
thesis, a position
tome, a cutting
tonos, a tone
topos, a place
trope, a turning
tupos, a type

zone, a belt
z5on, an animal
zume, yeast

INDEX.

Compared with the book itself, this Index may seem brief. The book
is so planned that each of its sections contains several or many references
to others. For example, the numbers respectively following the initials
■0. and R. refer to rules of order and to other rules of syntax. To each of
these rules references to observations are appended, and the same number
that refers to observations refers also to examples. To find these readily,
students should notice the numbers following 0. and R., and referring to
rules for the following elements of sentences: — subjects, attributes, verbs,
complements, adverbials, objects.

Initial words are mostly nouns. The comparatively few individual
words inserted here are such as represent classes, or have some reference
to history, or are noticeable in connection with some rules of syntax.

Names of authors do not fully represent the numerous writers from
whose works excerpts have been taken.

Particles {of and in) are mostly omitted ; and these words are often
implied, not expressed : — ' case,' ' denoting,' • language,' ' relating to,'
* words.'

' Ablative' = ' Ablative case ; ' ' Warfare ' = ' words relating to ' warfare ;
' Culture ' = ' words denoting ' culture.

Since x has marked Adverbials of all classes, ' Time, x ' = Adverbials
of time.

Asterisks have marked errors. Accordingly, * Which * ' and ' Who * '
will refer to errors in placing relatives ; ' Adverbs * ' will refer to errors
in placing adverbs, and ' Concords * ' will refer to errors respecting con-
cord ; ' Ambiguity * ' to errors suggesting doubt.

Some words are set with quotation-points. These words are not chosen
by the writer, but are found in many books.

Words used as titles in this Index, and referred to, are set in Italic.
Thus ' Old French words ' refers to ' Words.'

Single letters (n, for example) are set in Clarendon type ; individual
words, suffixes, and prefixes in Italic.

E.I. = First English
E.IL = Old English
M.E. = Modem P^nglish
E.D. = English Dialects
•O.F. = Old French
O.N. = Old Northern
C!ym. = Welsh

Abhreviations,

Lat. =3 Latin
L.L. = Late Latin
Gr. = Greek
Voc. «= Vocabulary
v. = Verl^
Obs. = Obsolete
suf. = Suffix

pref. = Prefix
0. = Rules of Order
R. = Rules of Syntax
x= Adverbials
* marks errors

458

INDEX.

ABBOTT, E. A., 198,
278, 294, 296
Abbreviations, 90, 123,

275, 395, 457
Ablative, 64, 334, 355
Abstract Nouns, 33, 72

— Precis
Abstraction, 219
Accentuation, 24-5,

153-78, 200-03,

210-15

Accusative, 64-5, 237,
346

Addison, QQ, 239, 255,
266

Adjective Phrases, At-
tributes

— Clauses, Attributes

— Pronouns, 31, 35,
81

Adjectives, 28, 39

— E.I., E.IL, 83, 84

— M.E., 86

— adverbs, 46, 330

— comparison, 86

— compound, 166

— 0., 412; E., 372
Adverbials, 230-33,

327-44, 355-56

— words, 'adverbs,' 28,
46, 148-9, 329, 334,
347, 355

adverbs, 333

— phrases, 229, 334,
347, 355

— clauses, 232, 340

— 0., 413 ; E., 376,
378

JElfred, 6, 11, 18,436
JElfeic, 11, 115, 182,

436
Affirmation, x, 48, 51,

329, 336, 369
A^e, golden, 206
Alight, 133
Allow, Voc. I., 197
Alms, 309
Alphabet, E.I., E.H.,

— written, 19

— spoken, 20

— faults of, 23, 204,
216

Alterations of words,

204
Am, 107, 144

— come, E., 375
Ambiguity, 278, 291,

296, 298
American words
An, 40, 43, 284
Analysis, minute, 383-

— sentences, 220
simple, 220, 383

— — complex, 224,
386

compound, 235,

389

periods, 390, 393

tabular, 383, 386,

389
And, 57, 305, 311, 362,
•364, 427,' 428; E.,

374, 381

— he, 38, 294 ; E,,
373

— it, 294 ; E., 373
Anent, 53, 190, 250

' Anglo-Saxon,' 2, 17,

182
Anon, 48, 170
Antithesis, 241, 249,

429
Aphseresis, 206
Apocope, 206
Apostrophe, S, &&, 74,

77, 280
Apposition, 221, 276,

283, 308, 395; E.,

372
Apprehension, x, 343
Arabic words
Are come, E., 375
Arnold, 260, 406, 409
Art, 256, 406, 430
Articles, 42-3, 284
Aryan words
As, 364 ; E., 382

— it were, x, 329, 344

— regards, x, 329

— to, X, 270, 329

— well as, E., 381
AscHAM, 247, 424, 433
Asseveration, 63, 369
Assimilation, 206, 132

At home, 34, 355, 422
' Athenaeum,' 297, 315
Athwart, 53
Attebburt, 166
Attorney, 197, 449
Attributes, 28, 220, 274,.
283, 348

— words, adjectives,-
E.I., E.IL, 40, 83

M.E., 39, 283

verbal, 29,.

43, 283

vague, 43,

284

comparison, 83,

86, 286

double compari-
son, 85, 283, 286

— — false comparison,.
86, 286

— phrases, 225, 290

— clauses, 226, 292

— words, 0., 412 ; E.,
372

— phrases, 0., 412 ; E.^
373

— clauses, 0., 413 ; E.,
373

Authors English, 244-

73
Age, 47, 49, 51

BACON, 249, 420
Bad grammar, 278,.

286, 287, 291, 297^

298, 311, 312, 333,.

341, 365, 366, 421

apparent, 311

Bailey, 198

Bailiff, 157, 205

Bain, 294

Bale, 189

Bang, 187

Barbarous hordes, 4,

183, 186, 207, 434-6
Barber, 449
Bargain, 449
Barnes, 182
Barque, 187
Barrow, 253, 266, 268,,

INDEX.

459-

Be, 108, 142, 144, 145,

228, 317
Beaconsfield, 401,404,

417
Become, 322
BelfvT/, 450
♦Beowulf,' 7, 352, 435
Berkeley, 256, 403
Bestead (make staid),

187, 192

Bible, 15, 38, 49, 81,
116, 145, 147, 148,
197, 198, 245, 247,
269, passim

Bid me discourse, 352

Blue and yellow, 307,
363

Bondemen, obs., 187

BOSWORTH, 182

Both .... and, 368

Bound, 124, 187, 192

Box, 205

Boy, 198

Brackets, 407

Brag, 189

Brat (apron), E.D., 189

Bring, K., 378

British culture, 3, 9,

188, 435

— language, 4, 9, 188

— people, 3, 8, 9, 435
Brook (endure), 192
Brougham, 361
BroWxXk, 282, 312, 338,
Bruise, 450
Buchanan, 115, 306
Budget, 449
BuNYAN, 18, 332
Burke, 258,287
Burnet, 278

Busk, 187

But, 39, 62, 367, 406,
429; E., 381

— (that .... not),
39, 382

Buj^onmess, 160, 196
Btiy cheap, 34,. 331
Bu the V^e"(^hing, 351
eave, x, 181,

328
Byron, 99, 281, 287,

311, 333, 339

CiEDMON, 7, 325
Cesar, 3, 4
Camp, 191, 195, 200,

444
Can, 108, 146,307; R.,

374 .
Canute, 11, 338, 436
Carew, 354
Carp (v.), 198
Case (the word), 184

— Nominative, 64, 65,
80

— Genitive, 64, 65, 222

— Dative, 64, 80, 302,
324, 334, 346, 347

— Accusative, 64, 65,
346, 348

— Vocative, 64, 80,
369

— Ablative, 334, 355

— Instrumental, 65,
284, 289

— Objective, 65, 334,
335, 346, 348, 357

Cases, E.I., Nouns, Qo,
66, 358

Pronouns, 78

Adjectives, 83

— E.IL, 14, 66, 84

— M.E., 64, 65, 76, 77,
80, 81, 334, 346, 347,
355

— Latin, 64, 65, 334,
346, 347, 355, 358

— names of, 222, 347

— 'oblique,' 80, 355,
441

— ' petrified,' 347

— uses of, 65, 80, 222,
334, 346, 347, 355

— translations of, 334,
355, 358

Causality, x, 219, 330,

336,339,341, 343
Causation, 345
Cause (the word), 452
Causeway, 205
Caxton, 246
Censure, 197, 444
Century, fifth, 6, 436

— sixth, 6, 9, 435

— sevenfti, 11,200,436

— eighth, 11. 186, 436

Century, ninth, 11, 187,
436

— tenth, 11, 187,436

— eleventh, 11, 12, 13,
183, 437, 448

— twelfth, 12, 13,182-
86, 448-50

— thirteenth, 115, 182-
86, 200, 437

— fourteenth, 14, 15,
116, 186, 244, 245,

272, 437

— fifteenth, 14, 116,
246, 272, 433, 437

— sixteenth, 14, 15,
116, 200, 238, 247,
249, 266, 268, 272,
437, 438

— seventeenth, 16, 116,

196, 197, 251, 253,
265, 268, 269, 272

— eighteenth, 255, 258,
268, 273

— nineteenth, 16, 17,
116, 117, 206, 239,
259, 266, 267, 268,

273, 431, 432
Chaucer, 14, 63, 116,

188, 245, 293, 351,.

360, 370
Chine, E.D., 114
Chinese words
Chivalry, 13, 158, 338
Christianity, 7, 11, 156,

179,182-85,195,196,

197, 200, 435, 436,.
442

Church, 11, 179, 183-85,

207, 448
Churchmen, 183, 195,

437
Civilisation (the word),.

448, 449

— 13,15,179, 184, 185,
196, 200, 434, 436,

448
CULRENDON, 243, 253,

265
Classification, 27, 179,

197, 434

— historical, 178-9a

— nouns, 32

— pronouns, 34

4t)0

INDEX.

Classification, adjec-
tives, 39

— vague words, 276,
284

— verbs, 44

— old verbs, E.I., E.IL,
88-96

M.E., 121-30

— new verbs, E.I., E.
IL, 101-05

M.E., 132-36

— adverbs, 49, 329-31

— adverbials, phrases,
338-39

■ clauses, 342-43

— prepositions, 53

— conjunctions, 56

— suffixes, 153-63

— compounds, 164-68

— prefixes, 169-78

— elements of sen-
tences, 218-20, 274-
75

— sentences, 220, 224,
234

— styles, 239-44, 271
Olause-links, 364
Clauses, 58

— subjects, 224, 282

— attributive, 226, 292

— complements, 327

— adverbial, 232, 340

— objects, 224, 353

— dependent, 357, 361

— 0., 412, 413; K.,
373, 374, 376, 378,
380, 381

Clearness, 241, 242,

265, 267, 416, 422,

430
Cleland, 306
• CY«^i! ' (' y-clept '), 189,

193
CoBBKTT, 71, 277, 282,

361
Cognate objects, 45
Colchester, 9, 191
Coleridge, 72, 280,

311, 416
Colon, 402, 406, 410,

411
Combinations of letters,

23, 24, 216

Comfort, 197, 251, 447
Comma, 401, 402, 404,

406
' Common Prayer,' 197,

361
Compare, 359
Comparison, adjectives,

83-87

— adverbs, 148-50

— double, 85, 86, 286

— false, 85, 286

— R., 372

— X, phrases, 339
clauses, 342

' Complaynt of Scot-
lande,' 116, 247, 248
Complements, 227-29

— words, 227, 228, 229,
322

— particles, 302, 361

— phrases, 326

— secondary, 290, 326

— clauses, 327

— 0., 412, 413; E.,
375, 381

Complex sentences, 224,
386, 403, 410, 425,
426

Composition, English,
422-32

— French, 432

— German, 344, 432

— Latin, 237-40
Compounds, 163

— English, 15,16, 164-
69, 170

— Latin, 15, 16, 173-
78, 199, 212-15, 455

— Greek, 203, 451

— Keltic, 166

— local names, 191

— proper names, 166,
171

Concession, x, 343
Concords, 303-07

— special, 307-12

— *, 311

— R., 373, 374
Conditional clauses,

314, 343; R., 376,

377
Conjugations of verbs
Conjunctions, forms, 55

Conjunctions, uses, 56

— subordinative, 59,
363

— co-ordinative, 67,
366

— correlative, 56, 367

— omitted, 366, 405,
427

— repeated, 247, 363

— R., 381, 382
Connective words, 59,

364, 400
Conquest, Norman, 11,

12, 13, 183, 437, 448
Consonants, 19, 20, 21,

22, 23

— mutations, 206, 441
Constrain, 211
Construction, 215

— bad, 418
Contraction, words, 132,

204, 205

— sentences, 42(), 421
Controversy, 267

' Coping,' 189

Copula, 28, 299, 304,

323
Cornish language, 4, 9
Cornwall, 9, 436
Cough their own knell,

303
Could, 146, 377
Cower, 189, 449
Cowley, 252, 409, 420
CowPER, 234, 297, 322,

422
Coy, 184

Craven, 4, 9, 189
Crude forms, 151
Cruden, 198
Cull, 198
Culture, 179, 184, 196,

199, 200, 433, 437
Cumbrous sentences,

292, 424
Cunning, 108, 349
Curious, 111, 198, 444
Curves, 407
Cymraeg language, 3,

4, 188

— people, 3, 4, 8, 9,
435

— words

INDEX.

DAN MICHEL, 289,
306
Dandled into a legislator,

303
Danes, 11, 115, 186,

187, 435
Daniel, 293, 295
i)ar«, 109, 146,307,309,

374
Dash (in punctuation),

406, 407
Dative case, 64, 65, 80,

334, 346, 347, 367,

378

— uses, 302, 303, 334,
346, 347; R., 378,
379

— whom, B., 380
Daventry, 9, 189
Debonere, 196

Decay of inflexions, 14,
66, 78, 84, 85, 98

— — meanings, 181,

188, 190, 197, 200,
450

Declensions, E.I., nouns,

65, 66

pronouns, 78

adjectives, 83

Dedications, 418

De Foe, 265, 309, 317,

333
Degree, x, clauses, 342
Deign, 204
Delacrymation, 196
Delight, 133
Dentals, 20, 21
Deosculate, 196
DbQuincey, 298, 406,

408, 417, 430
Debby, 297
Derivation, 151
Derivatives, primary,

151, 152

— secondary, 152

— English, 153, 164,
160, 162, 163

— Roman, 155, 156,
157, 158, 169, 161,
162

— Greek, 169, 160
Despond, 211, 444
Destroy, 211, 447

Dialects, English, 14,
114-16, 187, 189,
304, 305, 442

— French, 183, 207
Dictionaries, 182, 189,

19,5, 196, 198, 344,
449
Die, 187

DiEFFENBACH, 188

DiEz, 186
Digraphs, 216
Diminution, degrees of,

86
Diminutives, 154
Diphthongs, 19
Disdain, 447
Disguise, 205, 329, 370,

434
Dissent, 359, 444
Dissyllables, 24
Divided between, 359

— into, 359
Divisions of syllables,

210-15
Do, 108, 145

— auxiliary verb, 106,
323, 325

— emphatic verb, 143,
316

— interrogative verb,
316, 417

— (avail), 323, 325

— what you can, 342
Double comparison

— meanings *, 278,
291, 298

— negation, 49, 330,
332

Doubts, 314, 317, 376
Drtdkn, 253, 254, 268,

358, 359, 368, 408
Dual number, 78
Dunbar, 116
Duncan comes to-night,

320
Duration,

case, 76, 283, 286

— X, phrases, 338

clauses, 342

Dutch, 7, 17

— wor<^

~PACH, 35, 43, 276,
-^ 279, 284, 287, 374

— have * {see ' have
each'), 279, 311,374

Ease in vowel-sounds,
442

East Midland dialect,
14, 110, 116, 194

Eaves, 309

Ecclesiastical words

Economy in vowel-
sounds, 442

— (the word), 451
Either, 35, 39, 82, 276,

279, 284, 287, 308,
367, 368, 381
Elementary sounds, 20

— rules of syntax,
397

Elements of sentences,
27, 218, 220, 274;
0., 412

Elision, 206

Ellipses, 235, 374, 419

— false, 421
Elyot, 247, 248
Emphasis, 143, 242,

316, 324, 416

— X, 330, 332, 339
England, 6, 11, 204
Eiigle (Englishmen), o,

205
English, Aryan, 4, 206-
9

— Teutonic, 5, 6, 7

— composite, 1, 17, 186,
195-98

-- and French, 183-86

— predominant, 2, 12,
33, 186

— — in poetry, 199,
200

— one language, 18,
115, 116, 192

— but slightly inflected.
13, 66, 80, 85, 09,
237, 300, 301, 304,
305

— extensive, 17

— First, 2, 17, r-2
realistic, 1, 13,

32, 33, 114. 153,160,
178, 179, 435

462

INDEX.

English, Old, composite,

190
transitional, 2, 90,

111, 112, 113, 114,

116, 190

— Modern, 3, 14, 186,
196, 199, 437

— Literature, 17, 237-
73

— Spelling, 17, 19, 23,
90, 204, 216

— Dialects
Englishmen, 6, 6, 437,

448
Enter into, 303
Epenthesis, 206
Errors *, 278, 291, 298.

311,333, 366, 373
Ettmulleb, 182
Etymology, 27
Euphony; 176
Euphuism, 114, 443
Ever, 49
Every, 43, 279, 284,

374

— Tneans was used, 309
Evolution, 200
Examples, value of, 270,

271, 371
Except it die, 317

— these abide, 361

— you like, 360
Exception, x, 343

— against, 369

— to, 359
Exclamation, note of,

369, 407, 408
Expansion, 220
Expletives, 302, 329,

370, 400

PABIAN, 246
Fairfax, N., 16,

116
Eangs, 114, 181
Fare, 113, 172, 181
— thee well, 45, 79,

303
Farmers' words, 32, 33,

153, 179
Fears intimated, 315,

376

Feat, 184

Feature, 447

Feet, 66

Fell, 187, 189, 191,

205
Fellow, 187
Feminine, 67-72
Feudal words, 13
Fey, E.D., 187
Fielding, 265. 303
Finality, x, 339
First, 41, 84, 87

— English
FiSHEE, 247, 293
Fishing-rod, 165

Flay (scare), E.D., 187
Elite (scold), B.!)., 114
Fond (silly), E.D., 187
Foot (infantry), 74, 309

— (measure), x, 338

— it, 303

For, 54, 58, 367, 368,
381

— all that, 328, 339

— envy, causality, x,
339

— that end, 369

— the sake, 64, 127,
187

— to see, purpose, x,
245, 339

Fore, prefix, 171

Foremost, 84, 87

Forlorn, 95, 129

Forms, decay, 46, 50, 65,
66, 78, 83, 99, 106,
237, 301, 303, 304,
305

Forsake, 93, 127, 199

Forsooth, 49, 63, 246

FORTESCUK, 246

Forth, 87, 150,171
Fortitude, 195, 452
Forty-seven sail, 309
Forum (forensic words),

200
Forward, 171
Four mile like, E.D.,

329

— of the clock, 360
Frame (show skill), E.

D., 114, 190
Fraught, 136, 193

French, Norman ( = 0.
F.), 448, 449

— Old, 12,183-85,207,
437, 447

— Modern, 17, 198

— Literature. 432
Friar, 447

Friars' Latin, 115, 184,

195
^Fret, 193

Frisian language, 7
From Burdeux ward,

360

— going to and fro,
318

— heaven, 334, 338,
355

— hence, 332
Froward, 171
Fudge, 63, 369

Full stop (in punctua-
tion), 381, 400, 401,
429
Fuller, 252, 253, 266
Future, E.I., E.II., 88,
107

— M.E., First,
119, 143, 319,
322

Second, 118

fy (verbal ending)
168, 441

118,
320,

322
162,

GAELIC language, 3,
187
Gain (near), E.D., 187
Gambrel, 189
Gang (go), E.D., 108
Gaenett, 189
Garnish, 450
Grate{\fQ.y), E.D., 163,

187
Genders, E.L, 67
^ E.IL, 66
— M.E., 67-70

poetical, 70-72

Genitive case, E.I., 65,

66, 77, 78, 84, 345,

358

Latin, 64, Qb, 222

German languages, 6,

7,8

INDEX.

463

-German, Old High, 8,
116

— Middle High, 8

— Modern, 8,

— Low, 8, 208

— theories of culture,
434, 438

— involution, 344

— translation from,
432

Oerunds, 97, 301, 335,

351
Getting and spending,

363
OiBBON, 258, 311, 312
Gin (begin), 90, 124
■Giving, verbs denoting,

378
Gladstone, 402
Glm, 10, 189
Glossaries, 186, 188,

192, 195, 198, 439
Golden age, 206
Goldsmith, 258, 286,

291, 292, 294, 317,

342, 348, 419, 421
Good books and bad

books, 363
Good-bye, 370
Gos'pel, 115, 164
Gospels, Old, 183
Gossip, 166
GossoN, 249
Gothic language, 6, 7,

84, 116,129
Goths, 5
Government, 222, 357,

395

— direct, 344, 345, 377

— indirect, 346, 378
Grammar, English, 2,

13, 32, 33, 180
Grammars, English,

182, 186, 195, 198
Gray, 296, 417
Greek compounds, 199,

203, 415

— translation from, 432

— words
Grkin, 182

, GaiMM, 182
GHpe, 113, 114
Guard, 183, 460

Guillemets, 408
Gust (gusto), 445
— (squall), 187
Gutturals, 20, 21, 22,
23, 441

TTAD, 107,315,343,
J^ 377

— joys no date, 317
Haldkman, 198
Hall, Basil, 291, 405

— Rob., 260, 261,
430

Hallam, 260, 262, 410
Hamper {y.), 198, 205,

447
Hampolb, 306, 324
Handbook, 16, 164
Handiwork, 16, 164
Handy, 164, 190, 196
Hard to read, 45
Harmony, style, 244,

256
Harbison, W., 249
Harrow (harry), 182,

193
Have, 107, 228, 323,

325

— each, 310, 374

He, 47, 69, 78, 8i, 254,
278

— began to flee, 98,
352

— felle on slepe, 360

— helps you more than
me, 366

— is, 145, 228, 299

— keeps aloof, 45

— saw them flee, 352

— will by no means, 339
Hearne, 186
Hebrew style, 428

— words
Held, 129, 229
• Heliand,' 7
Hemlock, 155

Hence, 47, 50, 163, 332
Her, 35, 42, 77, 81, 237
Here's the pen and ink,

311 ^
High-minded, 16, 167,

'290

Hight (named), 193
Him, 78, 237, 247, S77,

379
Himself, 276, 378
Hindu words
History and language,

114, 200, 433, 434,

435, 438, 448, 450
Home, 34, 422
Hood, T., 407
Honourablest, 287
Hooker, 237-39, 249,

251
Horse (plural), 74, 309
House to let, 45, 98,

302
Household words
How a score of ewes?

327
Hume, 258, 317, 343
Humility, 442, 452
Hundred, 41
Hunt, L., 307, 310,

312
Husbandman, 168, 187
Hybrid forms, 158, 159,

180
Hyphen, 164, J 65, 211

Jam as lam, 327
— possessed, 361

— builded me hotises, 303

— did me hie, 325
send you, 325

— fall on weeping, 360

— had fainted, 316, 377

— thought to have slain
him, 362

— like hearing music,
362

— saw the bat flit by, 362

— schal (I owe), 325

— wdl that they be with
me, 147

— would submit, 318
Ic sceal (I owe), 323
Icelandic language, 7,

186
Identity, 39, 42

— formal, 10, 46, 60,
133, 135, 188, 205,
301

464

INDEX.

Idioms, 335, 336, 359,

360, 422
If Junius lives, 317

— no man has, 317

— such there are, 317 ;
R., 377

El news rides fast, 309
Imperative mood, 117,

314, 316; 0., 417;

R, 374
Impersonal verbs, 44,

303
In forhering of, 351

— jpacient sufferaunce
of, 352

— suffering paciently
wrong es, 352

Incapable of treachery,

360
inde (able), 161, 289

— ende, or
i-=ing). 111, 112

Indexes, glossarial, 195,

439
Indefinite pronouns, 36,

43, 276, 284
Indicative mood, 117,

313,316
Indirect government,

378
'— objects,' 227, 346
Indo-European (or Ary-
an) languages, 4,

209
Induction, 270
Indulge, 359
Inexpert in thai art,

360
Infinitive forms, 98, 316,

345
Inflexions, lost, 65, 78,

83, 84, 85, 98, 99,

106, 237, 300, 301,

304
ing, words ending in,

111, 112, 275, 316,

318, 351 ; R., 377
Insoletit, 16, 445, 453
Instrumental case, 65,

284
Instrumentality, x, 338
Insulation in style,

425

Insulation of particles,

335, 355
Intention, x, 343
Interjections, 63, 368;

R., 382
Interrogation, 143,313,

316, 369, 370, 431
Interrogative pronouns,

36, 82

— uses of verbs, 143,
313, 316, 417

Invasions, English, 5,
435

— Danish, 11, 435
Inversions of order, 416,

417
Irish language (Erse), 3
Irony, 49, 369, 370
Irregular verbs, 107-

10, 145-48
Irreverence, 63, 329,

369, 370
Ieving, W., 260, 385,

425
Is any merry? 316
ish (verbal suffix), 162,

440
It, 35, 37, 78. 241, 282,

303, 305, 307

— reads badly, 45

— was along of you, 232
Its, 37

Iwis, 171, 193
ize, verbal ending, 162,
441

TACKS ON his book,
^ m, 285
Jeffrey, 260, 287,

325
Johnson, Sam., 198,

258, 296, 429
JoNSON, Ben, 198, 363
Journey, 184

KEATS, 280, 303,
339
Keeping holy the day,

318
Keltic languages, 3, 4,
10, 166, 188

Kennedy, 304, 392, 39»,

421
Kersey, 198
Kine, 75, 306
King, 111, 154

KiNGLAKE, 409

Knowledge, 155
Knytting together, 352
Koch, 192, 198

LABIALS, 20
Laden, 127
Lady, 204
Lamb, C, 72, 401, 430,

431
Landscape, 155
Langland, 14, 116,188,

285
Language and history,

8, 9, 114, 200, 433-

38, 442, 448-50

— mutable, 98, 99,
113-14, 116, 269,
442

Languages, analytic, 65

— synthetic, 65

— Aryan, 4, 206-9

— European, 209

— Teutonic, 6, 7, 8,434,
448, 450

— various, 17, 198
Last, 47, 87, 148

— not three oaks, 338
Latch, 114, 193
Late, X, 47

— Latin

Latham, 182, 198
Latimer, 247, 248
Latin, classic, 183, 206

— ecclesiastic, 183, 195,
200, 207, 442, 449

— rustic, 183, 207

— Late, 184, 207, 449
Latin syntax, 236-40

— words

Lay (transitive), 135,

302, 320
Layamon, 183
La yard, 407
Layke (play), 190, 193
Lending (verbs of), 378
Lest, 61, 377

INDEX.

465

Letters classified, 19,

20
Lewes, G.H., 370, 401,

406
Light (bright), 133

— (not heavy), 133
Like, 35, 46, 152, 329,

379
Limitation, x, 339
Lion-hearted., 167, 168,

290
Liquids, 20
Lists oi words
Literature, English,

236-71

— French, 432

— Latin, 183, 206
Loaden, 127

Local names, 4, 9, 166,

191,192
Long, X, 60

— sentences
Lord, 205
Lording, 111, 154
LowTH, 361
Lukewarm, 189
Lurk, 189

(y (suffix), 46, 152
Lydgatb, 325
Lyly, 249, 250
Lytton, 303, 406

MACAULAY, 237-
42, 261, 264, 265,

268, 312, 313, 317,

339, 340, 344, 409,

passim
Macphebson, 242, 389,

425
Made, 104, 134
IVIatzner, 186, 198
Mahn, 198
Mainmast, 181, 205
Maintain, 205
Make, 229, 234, 325;

R., 375 ; 0., 412
Malay words, 198
MA.NDBVILLE, 245, 306
Manning, R., 14, 324
Marsh, 329
Martial, 3
Masculine, 67-72

Mason, 0. P., 198, 348,

363, 366, 403
Mattock, 154
May, 109, 147, 307,

319, 375
Me, 80, 302, 377, 378.

379
Mean, 103, 135
Meanings, primary, 181,

190, 197, 200, 442,

450

— secondary, 181, 190,
196, 197, 199, 200

— variable, 197, 269,
442, 443

Means, 73, 309

— X, 338
Measure x, 338
Memoranda, 75, 423
Memorandum, 424
Menial words, 10, 189,

435
Metathesis, 206
Mid, 53, 360
'Middle English,' 17

— High German, 8
Midland Dialect, 14,

111, 115, 194
Might, 109, 141, 147,

315, 319, 375, 377
Million, 41
Milton, 188, 251, 253,

293, 361, 424
Mi7ie, 35, 78, 80, 84
Minstrels, 12, 449
Modem English, 14, 17,

196, 198, 264-71,

437. 438
Monastic Latin, 183,

195, 442, 449
Monosyllables, 24, 180
Monotone, 25
Moods, 117, 141, 142,

313-18. 376
Moore, T., 310
Morality, 179
More, 87, 149, 150, 276,

284, 286

— sinned against,
361

— to be dmred, 318
MoRK, Sir T., 247,

248

MoBELL, 260, 292, 316,

361
MOBLEY, H., 182
MoBRis, R., 183, 186,

195, 198
Mortals, 44
Most, 84, 87, 149, 150

286

— straitest sect, 85
Mother Church, 72
Mould me man, 325
MiJLLEB, Ed., 198

— Max., 210
Multiple numerals, 42
Murray, 194

Must, 110, 148, 374
Mutability of words
Mutations of conso-
nants, 206-9
iWy, 31, 35, 42, 77, 81

— very self, 37, 79, 279
Myself, 37, 79, 82, 276

NAMES, 31, 33
— local, 154,166,
191, 195

— personal, 154, 166
171

Nash, 249, 250
Nature, words, 13, 179
taught, 49, 276, 279
Navigation, words
Nay, 49, 63, 332

— more, 63, 339

Ne (prefix), 48, 172,
193

— I ne say not, 332
Near, 46, 87, 149, 150,

379
Need, 307, 309
Needs, x, 47, 307, 321,

360
Negation, 48, 49, 172

— double, 49, 329, 332,
376

— X, 49, 329, 332, 339
Neither, 66, 67, 311,

367, 381
Nephew, 68, 447
ness (in local names =

nose), 191

— (suffix), 33, 155,
196

H U

466

INDEX.

Neuter, 67-72, 78, 81,

298
Never, 49, 332, 333
New English ( = M.E.)

— High German, 8

— forms of old verbs,
114

— rules, 49, 85, 316,
351, 376

— verbs

Newfangled, 168, 181
Newman, J. H., 260,

263, 361
News, 307, 309
Next, 84, 87, 149, 160
Nim (take), 114, 435
No, 49, 172, 284, 287,

310, 329

— doubt, X, 339
NoaJces, 171
Nomenclattire, 27, 32,

220, 274, 334, 346,

347, 355, 357, 395
Nominative case
None, 39, 172, 276,

279
Nor, 56, 57, 305, 311,

367, 368, 374, 381,

417

— did they not per-
ceive, 332

Norm &n-French.
Normans, 11, 12, 183,
448, 450

— (the word), 76
Normandy, 12, 448
Norse = Old Northern
North, X, 47
Northern, E.D.
Northmen, 11,186,187,

435, 448

— (the word), 76
Not, 48

— a straw, x, 329

— a whit, 49, 339

— but, 332

■ — despaired of, 45,
302

— for your life, 339

— impossible, 332

— making a will, 281,
330

— much to boast of, 861

Not only .... but also,

367, 368
Nothing, 39, 277, 279
Nought, 49, 276, 279,

311
Noun Clauses, 224

Subjects, 282

Objects, 353-54

E., 374; 0., 412-

— Phrases, 223

Subjects, 281

Objects, 350-52

R., 374; 0., 412-

13
Nouns, 27

— classified, 33

— abstract, 33, 34

— concrete, 33, 34

— common, 33, 34, 284

— proper, 33, 34, 74,
284

— collective, 33, 308,
309

— compound, 164-66

— dependent, 29, 356,
357, 379

— inflexions, 65-6
Now, 46, 321, 322

— I see, 45, 301
Nowadays, 47
Number, nouns, 65, 72-

6, 305-11

— pronouns, 78, 80, 82,
306-11

Numerals, 40-2
Nun, 449

r\ ( = a = one),43, 288
^ 'Objective Case,'

334, 335, 346, 348,

357
Objects, 344

— direct, 345

— 'indirect,' 227, 324,
346, 348

— enlarged, 353, 409

— serial, 386, 409

— in inverted order, 418
-- words, 345-50

— phrases, 350 52

Objects, clauses, 353-54

— R., 377, 378, 379;
0.,413

Obsolete words

Odd, 189

Odds, 309

Of force (needs), 360

Official words, 13, 157

Officious, 197

Oqilvib, 198

Old English, 17, 190

— French, 183

— Northern (Norse), 7,
186

— Saxon, 7

— rules, 49, 85, 244,
245

— spelling, 90, 110,
245, 246, 247, passim

— verbs

On, 50, 51, 370

— a larger scale, 339

— account of, 232

— the day that, 295
Once, 163

One, 40, 43

— verb, 299

— need only read, 309
Ones, 82, 279
Onespritte ( = a spirt-
ing), 196

Opinion, 197

Or, 55, 56, 57,305, 367 ;

R., 374, 381
Orchard, 168
Order, 412-13

— subjects, 412

— attributes, 412-13

— verbs, 412

— complements, 412-13

— adverbials, 413

— objects, 413

— inversions, 416-18
Ordinal numerals
Orm, 14,115
Orthoepy, 19
Orthography, 19

O's and Macs, 74, 280
Other, 39, 279
Others, 39, 82
Otuht, 109, 147, 374,

375
Our, 37, 77, 81

INDEX.

467

Our not visiting, 330,

349
Ours, 37, 81
Outrage, 449
Over, 52, 172
Owe, 109, 147
Oxen, 66, 75
Oyes, 63

PADDOCK, 154
Pam5, 309
Palmer, 449
Palsgrave, 198
Paragoge, 206
Paragraphs, 236, 244,

256, 431
' Pardoneres Tale,' 370
Parentheses, 407
Parliamentary records,

12
Parsing, 32, 335, 394-

400
Participles, 43, 88, 98,

119, 120, 285, 289,

301, 323, 351, 352

— E.D., 110-12
Particles, 30, 219, 364-

65, 302, 361, 362 ;

R., 381
Parts of speech, 27,

218-20, 364
Past tenses, 118-19,

318-22
'Paston Letters,' 246,

433, 437
Patronymics, 154
Pay, 445

pen in local names
Pence, 73
Pennies, 73
Penygant, 4, 189
Perfect tense, 118-19,

319
Per a, 445
Period, full atop
Periods, 236, 243, 251,

390, 393, 410, 431

— historical, 2, 17, 198.
Werkins,' 154
Permutations, 206
Persian verbs, 227

Persian words
Personal names, 154,
166, 171

— pronouns, 36, 37, 80,
81

— suffixes, 99, 106,
300, 304-6

' Persones Tale,' 63,

351, 370
Personification, 70
Persons, pronouns, 80,

— verbs, 118, 119
Pert, 10, 188

PAee^-e (scare), 114, 193,

338
Phillips, 198
Philology, comparative,

207
Philosophy, 199, 299
Phrases, 223, 225, 229

— subjects, 281

— attributes, 290

— complements, 326

— adverbials, 334

— objects, 351

— dependent, 351

— prepositional. 355

— connected, 362

— secondary, 290, 383,
385, 399, 400

— dissected, 33&, 356,
398-99

— R., 374, 380 ; 0.,
412-13

Pickup, 302, 361
Picturesque, 159
Piecemeal, 162
'Piers the Plowman,'

14, 286
Place, X, 49, 328, 338,

342
Places, names, 166, 191
Plain style of writing,

242, 243
Plants, names of, 13,

155, 166, 178, 206
pie (suffix), 42, 161
* Pleasures of memory,'

311
Pluperfect #ense, 118,.

177, 319
Plurality, 305, 307, 374

H }I 2

Plurals, nouns, 65, &Q,
72-6

— pronouns, 77, 78, 80,
81, 82

— verbs, 99, 105, 121,
304, 306 ; R., 373

ply (verbal ending), 168,

441
Poetry, 38, 70, 80, 190,

199, 200, 280, 417,
419

Pointed out, 303
Politics, 160
Polynesian words
Polysyllables, 24, 26,

174-78, 211-15
Pope, 256
Porpoise, 214
Portrait, 177
Portuguese words
Possessed of, 302
Possessive pronouns, 37

— adjectives, 42, 84

— case, 76, 286; R.,
372

' Praeterito - Prsesentia,'

307
Precis, style, 423
Predicates, 227, 283,

304, 322
Prefixes, £., 169-73

— Lat., Gr., 173-78
Prepositions, forms, 61

— uses, 63, 334, 346,
365, 360, 396

— sequences, 336, 361,
359, 360

— repeated, 361

— R., 379, 380
Present tense, 1J8, 318
Prevent, 197, 443, 446
Price, X, 338

Pride in their port, 419
Priest, 196

Primitive meanings,
114, 181, 188, 197,

200, 432, 438, 450
Profane words, 370

* Promptorium Parvu-

lorum,' 198
Pronominal adverbs, 47,

48
Pronouns, E.I., 77-9

4b'8

INDEX.

Pronouns, M.E., 34,
80-2

— subjects, 276

— objects, 346

— dependent, 346, 357

— indefinite, 276

— ambiguous, 278

— R., 371, 372, 377,379
Pronunciation, 20, 21,

22, 195,211,215, 216
Proper names, 154, 166
Proportion, x, 339, 342
Propriety, words, 196,

432, 433, 435
Pro's and con's, 177
Prose writers, 244-64,

272, 273
Prosthesis. 206
Proverbs, Book of, 367,

428
Provincial words, ED.
Puhlick, 161
Punctuation, simple

sentences, 400

— complex ss., 403

— compound ss., 405

— long ss., 408

— periods, 410

— R., 411
Purport, 177
Purposes, x, 315, 339 ;

R., 376
Purvey, 446

PUTTENHAM, 116

QUALITIES, adjec-
tives, 31, 40
Qualm, 181
Queen's crown, 66
Quell, lU, 181
Questions, 374,« 407
Quotations, 225, 406,

408
Quoth, 193

TD AISE in local names
-^ Raleigh, 249
Bank (order), 189
— words denoting, 13,

157
Bansack, 187, 191, 200,
435

Rapacity, words
Bathe, rather, 150
Bear-guard, 177
Behels more 'prevails,

306
Reduplication, 129
Reference, x, 339
References, 275, 371

— of pronouns, 276,
278

Refinement, 114, 181,

190, 196, 200, 433,

442, 450
Reflex meanings, 37,

44,- 79, 302; R., 378
Relations, 53, 221, 334,

347, 379, 395

— connected, 275, 285,
290, 291

Relative, E.I., 39

— connective, 293

— definitive, 38, 292-
93

— inserted, 380

— omitted, 378, 380 ;
R.,372, 374, 377, 378,
380

Religion, words
Repetition, formal, 242,

266, 401, 408, 409,

425

— verbal, 410, 422, 430

— of articles, 288

prepositions, 361

con junctions, 363

Bespond,'2\\, 446
Bestrain, 211
Results, X, 343
Betire, 359

Bevel, 212
Reverence, words
Bewa.rd, 449
'Richard,' 154
Biches, 204
Biddle, 153, 204
'Rievaulx,' 192
Bifie, 450

Bight and wrong, 363
Ritualistic words
Bob, 450
ROGET, 198

Roman empire, 6, 183,
448

Roman languages, 1 83

— local names, 191

— prefixes

— (Latin) words
Roots, 151
Bounded (v.), 193
Boundly, 332
Rules, old

— new

— of syntax, M.E.
Rustic Latin, 207
RusKiN, 402, 404

^ACAN, 127, 199
^ Sad (staid), 189
Saddle me the ass, 324,

325, 379
Said he, 417
Sail (plural), 309
St. James's Square, 77
Sam, 142
Same, 42, 79
Sans, 53

Sanscrit, 209, 300
Sate, 126, 303
Save thou, 360
Saxon, Old, 7
Say est thou, 143
Scandinavian words,

186
Scarce, 446
Schawes, 193
Sched, 193
Schleicher, 210
Schmidt, 198
Schoolmen, 183
Schrift, 124, 332, 442
Science, 199, 219, 268,

345, 430
Scoff, 187 !

Scores, 41, 309 \

Scott, SmW., 125, 320, I

405 j

' Scottish ' writers, 115,

116,248 I

Secede, 359 ;

Second, 41 ;

Secure, 177 ^

Self, Zl, 79, 82, 279 i

Semicolon, 403, 405, \

409,411 \

' Semi-Saxon,' 17

INDEX.

469

Semitic languages, 209
Sending, verbs of, 378
Sentences, elements, 218

— simple, 220, 383,
400, 419, 425

— complex, 224, 386,
403, 426

— compound, 234, 389,
405

— long, 265, 266, 408,
431

Sequence, direct, 345

— indirect, 346, 378
Sequences, prepositions

— tenses, 319-22
^6Ti{b6ndi), 168, 187
Serial sentences, 401,

408, 409
Sermons, 116, 195, 196
Several, 40, 279, 287
Sex, 67

sex in local names
Sexton, 446

SHAFTESBTfKT, 256

Shakespeare, 39, 71,
188, 295, 296, 306,
312, 418, 422, passim

Shall, 109, 147, 307,
323,325

— and will, 319, 320,
322; R, 374, 37)

shape (suffix), 155
Sharp consonants, 22,

207
She lay at anchor, 71
SheHff, 205
ship (suf&x), 155
Shoon, 75

Short-hand, 416, 423
Shotten, 96, 122, 128
Should, 109, 146, 315,

319; B., 377
Showing, verbs of, 378
Shroud, 190
Sibilants, 20, 215
Sideling, 163
Sideways, 47
Silly, 190
Simulation, 205
Singular, nouns, 65, 66,

— pronouns, 78, 80, 81,
82

Singular, verbs, 99, 106,
304, 305, 309, 311 ;
K, 373

Siren, 70

Sith that, 364, 365

Skeat, 182, 183, 194

Skila, 323

Skill, 187

Skinner, 198

Slavery they can have,
418

Sleep the sleep, 45

Slow and sure wins,Z\\

— to speak, 318
Smacky (v.), 190
Smit, 193

Smith, Sydnet, 418

Snood, 189

So he made it out, 422

— to speak, 329

— wert thou born, 145,
321

Soldier, 70, 446
Some, 276, 279, 284,
287

— sixty yards, 287
some (suffix), 160
Sonant gutturals, 201
SOULE, 198

Sounds, elementary, 20,

21, 22, 23, 216
Sources of words, 178-

98
South, 253
Southern dialect, EJI.,

110

SOTJTHEY, 260
Spanish words
Speeches after dinner,

410
Spelling, 23, 90, 110,

132, 204, 216
Spenser, 14, 70, 116
Sperr (v.), 193
Spill, 114

Spoken alphabet, 20
Sprang, 125
Spurreix, 189
' Staincliflfe,' 4, 192
Standard English, 15,

Stekle,^56
Stems, 151, 162, 201

Stephens, 189
Stereotype definitions,

344
Sterile, 407
Still, X, 47
Stillingfleet, 253
Stirrup, 168
Stops in punctuation
Stour, 187, 200
Straight, x, 47
Strange, 446
Stricken, 128, 193
Strive, 128,450
Strong verbs, 120
Style, analytic, 265

— antithetic, 429

— appropriate, 424

— clear, 422

— curt, 241

— dedicatory, 418

— ' deformed,' 249

— descriptive, 425

— didactic, 428

— disconnected, 425

— French, 432

— German, 344

— historical, 433

— involved, 424

— Latin, 239

— legal, 430

— logical, 430

— ordinary, 243

— scientific, 430

— synthetic, 243

— varied, 244
Subjective meanings,

141, 314
Subjects, -words, 29, 275

— phrases, 281

— clauses, 282

— serial, 386,401, 402,
408, 409 ; R., 374

Subjunctive construc-
tions, 314-16, 376-
77

Subordination, 224, 424

Substantive words, 30,
274, 276

Such, 39, 43, 287, 297

Sue, 184

Suffixes, 153-63

Summons, 309, 448

Sunken, 124

470

INDEX.

Superlative, 85, 86, U86,

372
Supine forms, 201, 202,

440, 454
Supposition, x, 314, 376,

377
Suspend, 212
Sustain, 212
Sware, 126
Sweep, 182
Swelter, 114
Swift to hear, 318
Sw'ink, 194
Syllables, 24, 210-15
Syllogisms, 430
Syncope, 206
Synonyms, 197, 432
Syntax, rules, 371-82,

397
Synthetic prose, 242,

249,251,253,259,266

TACITUS, 3, 434, 438
Talk, 187
Tapestry whose fringes,

298
Tarn, 187
Tattoo, 198
Taught, 136
Taylor, Jeb., 251
Teacher, 69
Temple, 253
Tenses, forms, 118-19

— sequences, 319-22 ;
E.,375

Teutonic languages, 6-8

— stems in O.F., 450
Thackeray, 391
Than, bb, 365

— xuhom, 358, 361
That, demonstrative,

38, 78, 278

— definitive, 292-93,
295-96

— conjunctive, 364, E.,
372,373,377,380,381

— . . . . Ae, 293

— .... him, 293

— .... his, 293

— I could lay my hand
on, 295

That martyr who died,
298

— mercy show to me,
82, 422

— that I did, 365
that, 296

The (article), 42, 284 ;
B., 372-73

— (instrumental case),
149, 284,289

— baker and chemises
shops *, 286

— beautiful (rb Ka\6v),
289

— bishop let him go,
352

— black gibbet glooms,
303

— books that were sold,
297

— deed to he signed, 318

— Keplers of your
time, 289

— more you learn, 284:,
289

— night cometh, 88,
320

— north and south
side *, 288

— Nortons, 74, 284, 289

— number were*, 311

— old and new bridge'*,
288

— porter that the box
was given to, 361

— sage^s and the poefs
theme, 286

— ship hove in sight,
129

— sooner, 149, 284,
289

— table moves, 45, 302

— tale is hushed up,
302, 361

— then bishop, 332

— Thirty Year's War,
286

— three first books *,
287

— truth shall make
you free, 322

— which, 293, 296
Thee, 78, 80, 377

Their, 37, 81

Theirs, 37, 78, 81

Them, 78,81, 377

Theme and style, 424,
432

Themselves, 82, 378

Then, 48, 78, 332

ther (suffix), 163

There are two shorten-
ings, 277

Therewithal, 57

^% *, 278

— love to be called
'Eabbi,' 318

— sate them down, 303
Thine, 35, 80

This .... that, 278

— child looks cold, 331

— debt each owes, 325

— done, X, 339

— is 'long of you, 360

— twenty years, 288

— will never do, 323,
325

Thither, 48, 60, 163
Thomson, 361, 366
Thorpe, 182
TTiose, 82, 372
Thou, 80

— oughtest, 147
Though he slay m£, 317

— it were, 317
Thoughts and words,

416
Thou'll break my heart,

306
Thousand, 41
Three score years, 41,

300
Threpe, 114, 190
Thrice, 163
Thrive, 187
Thrust, 187
Thursday, 164, 204
Thynketh ( = seems),

303
Tide (v.), 194
Till (prep)., 360
TiLLOTSoN, 235, 236
Time, x, 338, 342
Times, tenses
Tint (lost), 187
tion, 215

INDEX.

471

Tirol belongs to Austria,

289
Titles of books, 311
To (infinitive sign), 345

— (prefix), 172

— hoot, 181

— have lost them, 318

— slowly trace *, 333

— the mind, tl, 231
sapling, 339

— tkem . ... to them,
361

— US-ward, 860

— which, 297

— wit(:»i.e.), 182

— work is mi/ pleasure,
345

— write and read, 363
Too mean to pick up,

361
Toomit, E.D., 187
Topics classified, 179,

43-1
Translation, 222, 237,

240, 432

— from French, 432

German, 432

Greek, 432

Latin, 240

Treacle, 190
Trench, 198
Trevisa, 116, 245
Trip it as we go, 303
Triphthongs, 19, 216
Trisyllables, 24, 25
Truant, 189

trg in local names, 189
Turkish words, 198
Turn we, 316
Tumeth giu, 79
Twain, 40
'Twell,' 171
Twice, 163

Two and three make
five, 363

— two makes four, 311
Two -thirds, 41
Tyndalb, 247

ULFILAS, 6
Ultramontane, 178
um (prefix), 172

Uncle, 448
Uncouth, 194
ung (suffix). 111, 155
Uu' through- fare -som,

16, 202
t7p to the sky, 361
Upon the whole, x, 339
Us, 78, 80 ; K., 377, 378
Use, 198

Uses, altered ; words
Utopia, 451
Utter, 87

TTAGUE words
Y vaulx in local

TMmes
Vener ablest, 287
Verbal forms, 318, 350,

351
Verbs, 44, 45, 299-302

— E.I., E.II., 87-114

— M.E., Old, 117-30

New, 131-140

Irregular, 143-48

— R., 373, 374, 377,
378

Veriest, 286

Verily, 49

Verse, 38, 46, 55, 70,

80, 380, 417'
Viscount, 178
Vixen, 69

Vocabularies, words
Vocative case, 64, 80,

369
Voice, passive, 138, 302,

323
Vouchsafe, 167
Vowels, 19, 20, 22

— changes, 75, 84, 88,
122, 201, 204, 455

TTTAGEB, 450
'^'^ Wales, 3, 9

Walking-stick, 165

Walton, Iz., 252

Wanhope, 173

Wanting money, 352

War, words

— wardft warn, war-
Ten, warrior, wary,
450

Was arrived, 321

— lost, is found, 368

— possessed q/", 302
Wat vor hanger, 280
Waxen (v. pL), 306
We come to play, 318

— heard the cataract
roar, 352

— shall have lived, 322

— were shown, 302
Weak verbs, 120
Weal and woe, 363
weald in local names,

192
Wealh (slave), 9
Webster, 198
Wedgwoou, 198
Wedlock, 155
Wednesday, 164
Ween, 194
Weep I cannot, 417
Weight, X, 338
Welcome, 173
Well carried out, 303
Well-head, 169
Welsh language, 3, 8,

188
Wend, 108
Were, 107, 142

— he on earth, 317
Wert, 145

What, 39, 79, 276, 284,
293

— .... what, 280

— is its use, 355

like thee, 379

writ, 120

Whafs past hope, 280

— the odds, 309
Whately, 410
Whence, 163, 332
Whens and hows, 332
Where are the Keplers,

289
Where's my hat and

stick, 31l'
Whereof {Q.noni), 261
Whethtr (pron.), 38

— (conj.), 317
Which, 38, 79, 293, 2!i8,

361, 373
Whit, 49
Whitby, 191

472

INDEX.

Whither, 163
Who, 38, 79, 82, 277,
293, 373

— came a foe, 325

• — do you speak ^o *, 36 1

— steals my purse, 297
Whole, 205

Whom, 79, 82, 347

— (dative), 380

— (objective), 377
Whose, 79, 82, 298
Why, 48, 63

wick in local names, 192
Wicket, 450
Wigwam, 197
Wight, 49, 194
Wildest of the two, 286
Wile, 183

Will, 109, 147,322,375
WiUs (coflfee-house),

419
Williams, 190
' WilliDgton,' 154
Willy-nilly, 329
Wilson, 291, 407
Win, 182
Wind (v.), 125
Winsome, 160
Wisdom, 72, 155
Wishes, mood, 318, 376
Wiste (wist), 194, 321
Witan, 182
ri^A (prep.), 51, 54,

311, 363. 381

— (prefix), 173
with in local names
Withal, 249, 360
Without (unless), 360
Wizard, 187, 450
Wo me hi-tyde, 370
Woe worth the day, 370
wold in local names
Wont, 136, 194
Worcester, 198
Words, altered forms,

90, 204, passim

— altered uses, 77, 81,
181, 197, 4:50, passim

— American, 197

— appropriate, 432

Words, Arabic, 197

— Aryan, 208

— Chinese, 197

— Christian, 185, 442

— compounds, 163-78,
passim

— (denoting) culture,
433-38

— Cymraeg, 189

— descriptive, 13,179,
passim

— disguised, 370

— Dutch, 197

— ecclesiastical, 183,
185, 195

— E.L, 40, 46, 51, 55,
65, 78, 83, 84, 87-
114:, passim

— E.IL, 40, 46, 51, 55,
89-114, 192-94, ^as-
sim

— E.D., 187, 189, 190

— M.E., 178-80, 443-
50, passim

— feeble, 114,433

— Greek, 455

— Hebrew, 198

— Hindu, 198

— Latin, 199-203, 452-
55, passim

— Late Latin, 449

— menial, 9, 10, 189,
435

— (belonging to) navi-
gation, 179

— obsolete, 114, 190

— O.F., 185, 447, 449

— O.N., 187

— pedantic, 196

— Persian, 198

— Polynesian, 198

— Portuguese, 198

— (expressive of) ra-
pacity, 114, 200, 435

— refined, 200, 442

— (expressive of) re-
verence, 179, 185

— scientific, 196, 199

— Spanish, 198

— short, 1, 18,179,180

Words, vague, 276, 284

— (belonging to) war-
fare, 114, 187, 435,
450

— too cold breath gives,
306

Wordsworth, 71, 72,
200, 261, 288, 363,
407, 422, 425
Workman, 165
Works its way, 303
Worse, 84, 87, 149, 150
Worth, 107, 110, 116
worth in local names
Wot, 194

Would, 109, 147, 375,
377

— I describe, 317
Wrake, 194
Wreak, 113, 114
Written alphabet, 19
Wrought, 136
Wycliffb, 182, 245

(the letter), 24
X (the sign), 275

X^(the consonant), 23
-^ — (verb-ending),
162, 441

— (prefix), 99, 173
Yare, 63, 369

Ye, 81, 277, 360
Yea, 49
Yes, 48, 329
Yode, 108, 194
Yon, dS, 42
You, 78, 79, 81

— (dative), 360

— (objective), 80, 81

— and not I ?vere
there *, 421

— shall see, 322

— will not, 322
Your, 37
Yours, 37
Ywis, 194

(the sound;, 22
Zeitss, 190

SpoUiswoode dt Co., Printers, Netc-str'^et Square, London.

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