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% *

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

ON THE

PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

METHOD OF INSTRUCTION HECENTLY ADOPTED

GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND

DESIGNED FOR SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES.

BY ROSWELL C. SMITH,

iUTBOR OT ' VBACTICAI. AZTD XSHTAI. ARITHMETIC/ ' IKTBLLSCTUAK Alf D
PRACTICAL GRAMHAB,' AITD ' INTROBX7CTORT ARITHMETIC.'

CINCINNATI:
PUBLISHED BY W. T. TRUMAJN.

1849.

^ * ■ 1

ff^-^^cid'xsi^'^^tff^yi^i^ r ^ •

l^i^jETICAL COURSE.

' ¥r9fft ^g'^eWWftWJ of Louisville Academy.

l t iw p ^ 'B "Ani'PiiMDffi gi nr ai good books, and particularly
commendable in point of economy. D. £. GODDARD.

From Professor Telford^ Cincinnati College.

I have had occasion, in the preparatory department of
our institution, to use Rat's Eclectic Arithmetic ; and
r take pleasure in commending it as a clear, simple, me-
thodical, and complete Text Book. C. L. TELFORD.

From Madisonville .Academy.

Having been employed m teaching, both in Europe
and America, for a number of years past, I have had
ample opportunity of examining most of the Arithmetics
in publication, as well in Europe as in this country ; but
of them, I can confidently state, that I have seen none
possessing equal merit with Rat's Eclectic Arithme-
tic. With such views, I cheerfully recommend it to the
public. W. COLLIS,

Teacher of AAthmdie in Madisonville School.

From Mr. Carpenter^ Teacher of Arithmetic.

I have used Rat's Arithmetic since its first publica-
tion ; and though I have met with many good treatises on i
this subject, and have taught twenty years, yet, I give c
this (Ray's) a decided preference over any other that I j

have examined. I. CARPENTER,

Teacher of Arithmetic.

From Hillsboro* .Academy.

I have, for the last eighteen months, been using Rat's
Eclectic Arithmetic in my school, and take pleasure
in saying, that I believe it to be the best text book on
that subject, now in use. J. A. NELSON,

• Principal of HiUaboro* Academy,

From Mr. Boggs, of Springdale Academy.

After having used almost all the popular modem trea-
tises on Arithmetic, I unhesitatingly pronounce the work
of Professor Ray, decidedly the best I have ever seen.

J. BOGGS.

Entered according to Act of Congrese, in the year 1832, by

PERKINS & MARVIN,
In the Clerk's Office of the Di irict Court of Massachusetts.

r'irt^<iA/V>/^^W/tfW</>^^v^W«^>#^<«v^V^s#'4

i^WW»<»#»A<»#^^#^»J

PREFACE.

THE Mlmnng wore wu oompand, at ■ oidicated bjr the tiOe. on what it ilylcd ia Qmrmmtai 8iri^
leriani fbe ** ProductiTe Syttem of Intructioii.'' It w in theM oountriei that the nbject of Etneatioo h«
beea deemed a matter of paramount importanoe. The art of teaching, particularly, haa then been mraft
ably and mibotely investigated. To five a brief account of the different tfitaaa which hav« prevailed
tbare, may not be irrelevant oo the preaeot occaaioo, aa they aa'wt in <bnnim| an opiaioa of the eompantive
neriti of the <* Ftodudive Sjmtem," on i^iich thii work is prioeipaiiy baaed.

" la reference Id intelleetaal educatioii, the peraooa who were inatraiueBtal in prodoeiiiK the ratmiatiaB
in Khoob, in the laat century, in then eountriea, may ha divided into ftwr rlww the Hniwniati^ niila»
thiopisti, Feabloszian and the Productive SchooliL

" At the restoration of learning, in the fifteenth and nzteenth centaria^ the chMrici were broQght oal tnm
the tibraries of (he doiaten in wnich they lad been buried. At they prewated the ouiy examples of exal-
ted Katimeats and elevated rtyle which the secular literature of the age affoided, they wen regaided aa thn
only means of acquiring enlarged viewa and a litwral education f the study of them received the proud title
of Annantty.-andtbenealoosand meritarioBB men who employed thia meaoa for tb<) revival of laaraiag»
were sobsequeutiy termed HumuniatB.

■*Tbe rigid Hnarianists maintained that *the Greek and Latin aathon an the only soarea of sound lemw
nr. whether in philosophy or rhetoric, in poetry or histanvia mediciae or law, aad evea ia the elemeato
oTreligi'in : all has come tn m from Greece aad Bome.' * The leamiag of tlie uraek and Latia bnguagea
b the only lonndation of a tfaforoqgh educatioB ;' the knowledge of the grammar ou^t to precede all other
knowledre ; ' and philologists are the only thoroughly learned men.*

" The Humantsa maintiined the eatin svray or the learned world until aieut the midine of the lait ceft>
tmy, when the school of the PkOaathnpiitf arasn. Diagasled with the exhnvacant manner in which tha
ancient Languages were extolled, they were led to examine into the foundatioai of their pretensioas. Whil*
they yielded the palm to the ancients in all that relates to matten of taato and beauty, they maintained that
this iuperiority arose from the fact, that the andeals derived their views directly tnuu the inspection of bik
tore and the observatioD of man, iasiead of ODeapyiog themselves^ aa we do, wiih the mere pictures of them
drawn by othen ;— they pointed to theobvioos lniui,lbat the world ia older and vastly mora expcneoccd
than it wu two thousand yean.aco ; that in regani to all thaTnlates to human koowledfe, the present gen»
ration are really the aocieatk Taey b e lhwd that much time was lost by the indtcertimnote ud exeluiiv*
ass of the daasies as the foundation of educatioo, which ought to be spent ia aequisitioB of practical koow*
ledge : and that by this tedioos aad lahorioos task, without aay perceptible advantage to the pupil, they wan
often olagQsled with every species of iatelleetnal effol They al» poinled out the otoral corruplioo which
anscs (ram maay of the exampiea aad sentinieatB of the aaeienis, aiu especially dimpproved that discipliaa
of eomoolsioa and vidrienee, by which children have beea fbrced to mia oqpiteful eoiploymeot They
urged the in|ioi1aaca of leadiag by the attraetiaii of kaowledge itself, father than by nree. They paid
much attentioB to the devetopment of the bodily oonatitatioD and powen, and proCesMd to aim it finaiaf
men, aad not men sebolan.

** But, with the ordinary weakness of human nature, in avoiding one enrtreme, fhey ran iato the oppoaita.

They fiwget the valuable influeaca of these atudies^ properiy roguutod, upon the faotlUeaand habili of tha

mind.

** Notwithstanding their amr, the Riilanthnnigli unqoeatioaably exerted much iafluenee on the impiovi^

eat of edneatioo. The extravagant views ot the Humanists were eonaiderably modified ; aad altaoogh

aiaay still retain the exehisive masims of their predecessors, many admit, aa stated ia the Oermaa *Cod-

venalioQB Lasiooa,' that 'oil should be embraced ia educatioa which can pnmwU tht formation ef tht

mor^ and fv^ore mm /grfAedarnaidbaf my of Mj|Hn(.' The Philanthropists also prmared the way for

thdr MicceHors of the Se/ioal of PtttaiaaL This remarkable man adopted many of the opiniona of hit

predecesson of the Philanthropic school, especially those «rbich related to the development of the bodily

powera, and the methods of discipline, and relicious instruction. He perceived however, that, in assimiing

practical utility aa the eeekuim Uat of the vuue of particular ol^ects of iastruction, they had too much

B^ectad the asadopmenl i^ the mmd tucf/l Ih seeking to avoid this error, however, he did not entirely

escape the other extreme. He assumed, as a Audamental principle^ that a certain development of miad

was ne c e s s a ry for every ruk and eveir occupation. The means or this deveiopmeat he sijpposed himself

to have found, so &r as the intelle^rtual fiiculties were conceraed, ia the demuUt of form and numter,

which are combined in the science of MathemtUia, in LanguoA and in NatttrlU HiMory. The Math^

matics appear to have aasusud a preponderaaee ia practice, whicn waa unfiavanbie to the regular and hai^

monioos eultivatioo of other powem The senses and the bodily powen he endeavored to devdop, in

aooordanee with the riews of the Philanthropic school, by the careful examination of the various objects of

nature and art, which surround the pupil, by means of music, and by cyronaatic exercises, alternated or

eombliied with labor. PeslalozEi himseir waa remarkably the creature oTpowerfal impulses, which were

anally of the most mild and benevolent kiad, and preserved a cbiM-like cnaracter in this respect, even to

old age. It waa probably this temperament which led him to eatimate at a low rate the impornnce of posi*

live relicious truth ia the education of children, aad to maiataia that the mere habit of faith aad tove, if

cultivated towards earthly parents aad benedMtore, would of coarse be transferred to our beavenlv Fadier,

whenever hie character sbouid be exhibited to the mind of Oie child. The fundamental tanor of this view

was established by the unhappy ezperieoce of his own institution : and his own example afforded the moat

striking evidence that the noblest impulses, not directed by estaUahed principles^ may lead to imprudence

and ruo, aad thus defeat their owa ends.* This |HiBcipIe, oombiaed with Qie waat of tact in reference to

the affairs of common life, materially impaired his powen of useftjineia as a pnctical iutroctor of youth.

The rapid progress of his ideas rarely allowed him to execute his own plans ; and, according to hn own

system, too much time was employed in the profound development of principles to admit of much attention

to their practical application. But, as one of his admirera observed^ ne seemed destined to educate ideaa

and not children. He combated, with uii8hrinkin| Iwldness, and unttring perseverance, through a long life,

both by his example and by hie auBMroua publicatioos, the prejudices and abuses of the age, in retiBrence to

education. He attacked, with neat vi^r and no small degree of suoeess, that favorite maxim of bigotry

and iynuiy, that obedience and devotion are the legitimate adi4>ring of ipioranoe. He deoounced that

degpading sniem which c&OMden it enough to enable man to procure a subsntence for himself ud his off-

^inug— and in thia manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of the forest ; and which deems

every thing lost whose value cannot be *«*imai»»l ia money. He urged upon the consciences of rarents and

of nilera, witlT an energy approaching that of the ancient prophets, the solemn duties wbidi Divtoe Provw

denoe had imposed upon them, in oommittinc to their charge the present and ftiture destinies of their leHow

beings. In this way he produced an impulse, which pervaded the continent of Europe, and which, by

means of his popular aiid theoretical works, reached the cotla^^ of the poor and palaces of the great. Hn

institution at YverJun was crowded with men of every nation, not merely thom who were led by the aime

benevolence wliich inspired hira, but by the agents of kings, and noblenien,and public institutions, who canit

to make tbenuelvea acf;Baint«d with his principles, in oi^er to become fenow4aboren f ' '

olence.

I in his plans of beney*

* As an example of this, it anay be mentioned that, on oae of those occasions (freqoeatly occnrrin
rbieh he was reduced to extremity for want of the means of supplying his laigo family, he borrowed

' occnrriiK) on
rbieh he was reduced to extremity for want of the means of supplying his laigo family, he borrowed 9400
ftom a friend for this purpose. In going home, he met a peasant wrinring bis bands in deapah for the kMs
of his cow. Festaknzi put the entire bo^ of money into bis banda, and ran off to escape hn thanks.

PREFACE.

** It b to thew enmpanioDt of his labon, mnt of whom resided in Gerauny or Switzerland, that we owe
Oie (bmatiOD of another acfaool, whidi haa been atylod the Productive Selioot, and which now predominalee
in Germany and Switzerland. It might, perhapi with equal propriety, be termed the EeUetie School : Cor
it aima at embodying all the valuable principles of previooa qratems, without adhering tlaviahly to the dic-
tates of any master, or the views of any party. It rejects alike the idolatrous homage to the classics, which
was paid by the HumanistB—the unreasonable prejudices of the Philanthro]^al> aguoat classical and merely
literary ponniits— and the undue predilection for the mere ejipansioa of mind, to the neglect of positive
hnowledge and practical application, which characterized too many of the Festaloodan school.

'* The leading principle or this system^ is that which its name inaicatet— that the diild should be regarded
not as a mere recipient of the ideas of others, but as an agent capable of collecting, and originating, and
producing most of the ideas which are neceaaary for its education, when preaented with the objects or the
facta finom which they may be derived. While, on the one hand, tbey are carafql not to reduce the pupil
to a mere machine, to be moved bv the will of his instructor in an assigned direction, or a mass of passive
matter, to be formed by him acoordinc to his own fiivorite model, tbey are equally care<\il to avoid the n-
tranoe, into which si^me of the meceding school have fUlea, of lenvmg him to .wander indefinitely in a
wrong direction in search of truth, in order to secure to him the merit of diaoovery. They consider a ooune
of educatton as divided into two parts— lAe period of deodtgHnatt and (As period qf acmiititian. In the first
period^ which they consider mpartiadarty devoted to dtedapmg Me /awUim and fanning Um habitt of
the mmd, in oider tof»apa*« it aeon initnmuni for ftUun apemtiom, they employ the inductive process
chiefly. Time is not h«na of so much importance as the habit of investigatioo and effort, which can only
be acooired by meeting and overcoming difficultiea. Tliis period, which must be made longer or sbortw
acooraing to the eharsicter of (he pupil, or the necessity that his arcumstancea in life may impose, is suc-
ceeded by the period of aequMtion, In which the mind is more especially ooUerf upon to saxrnas thepouh
trewhichhame been pnotouabf deoOope d and euttiuuleBE, in the acqutritton of eucK paeitive knowUdge en
msy prepare the inaioidual for Ufe and action. The inductive process is stiil employed as much as possi-
ble, not only because it has become, for many eases, the ahortest and moat agreeable, but because it is
inmortuit to maintain the habits it has produced, and invigomte the ihculties it has served to develop.

** But sUU it is far less employed tliaa previously, and the pupil is never suffered to waste his time m
attempting to create a science for himaelr, and thus deprived oi the benefit of the experience of sages
and cmturieft On the contrary, they deem hia mind capable of beinc elevated even more rapidly by
following the praceaea of patient invesligatiaii, by whidi the mast eaolted minds have arrived at results
tiiat aatonish and delight him, and of tfaua learning to imitate atrides^ which aeem to him like thoac of
a gianL and to cultivate those habits of untiring attention, which the {pwateat philasophen have declared
to be the principal source of that telescopic glance, that almost onennng power of discrimination, which
seems to others ao nearly miracukne.

*< Such b the Productive System, 1^ which the powan of the papil an called into oomplete oiereisa
by requiring him to attempt a buk onaided, and Ihen aariattng him in correcting his own ernnv, or n-
tuminz from his own vranderings, before he is discouraged by the waste of time and the fhiitlessneas d
his eooits. They distinguish carabdhr between knowlMge ead the mearn of obteining it To cultivate
the senses, and present the (Ajeeti which tlkoy are capaJue of examining, ia to open to the child the
•ounce* qf knowledge— to place before him a book which is ever open, and in which he nay every
moment read. This tlwy amiutaln, is flie fint and moat obrions nut of education, according to the
dictates of common sense. It ia one in wbidi nothing but train is presented to him, and which,
by calling hia powara into constant easrciM^ euarea their improvement, and eultivataa a spirit of
investigatMrn." ^

The precedinr eKbraeli are taken fimm Art L VoL L No. YLotltie Jlnnrican JotmalW Education,
New Series, Toe author avails himself of thia opportunity to express his obligations to the conductors
of this valuable periodieaL ▲ eonstent perusal of its pages has afiorded him many valuatde ideas on. (he
siil^Ject of educatioi^ and he chenfully acknowledges material assiatence derived fh«n it in the prep*
ntxn of the <* Produotiva System of English Gnnunar," which ia now respedfiiUysubmitted to the
candid examination of the public. THE AUTHOR.

700,000 ECLECTIC SCHOOL BOOKS.

^%^%/%^%«^^N^h^^X^>/^^^'H/^^^^^N/S/\/^

The pablishen of the Eclectic Seriet of School Bookg are*now supplied with large
qoantitiet of the yarious Book* comprised in the series ; and are prepared to supply
orders for them to any extent. The following are the works embraced in this serier-

ECLECTIC PRIMER.
ECLECTIC SPELLING BOOK,
ECLECTIC FIRST READER.
ECLECTIC SECOND READER.
ECLECTIC THIRD READER. ♦
ECLECTIC FOURTH READER,
RAY'S ECLECTIC ARITHMETIC.

RAY'S LITTLE ARITHMETIC
RAY'S RULES AND TABLES,
MLS8 BEECHER'S MORAL IN-
STRUCTOR.
MANSFIELD'S POLITICAL GRAM-
MAR.
MASON'S YOUNG MINSTREL.

The above works have been prepared by a few untiring laborers in the cause of
Education (President M'Gufiey and others.) for the purpose of furnishing the South
and West with a complete, uniform, and mprmietf set of school books, commencing
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South. Published and sold in any quantities by TRUMAN & SMITH.

Cincinnaii.

r^<n/>/w\^ww^

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

I. OF THE NOUN.

€1, What is yoor name ?

Q. What is the name of the town in which yoa. livo f

Q. What does the word noun mean 7

Ans. The word noun means name,

Q. What, then; may your name be caJled f

1. A NOUN.

Q. What may all names be called f

2. Nouns.

Q. Boston is the name of a place i is BotUm a noun f and if lo, iHiy f

3. Boston is a noun, because it is a name.

Q. Hudson is the name of a river t is Hudson a noun, and why f

Q> Book is the name of something to read in i is book a nottn, and wlijr I

Q* Will you now inform me what a noun is 7

4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thii|g

Q* Will you mention two nouns the names of persons 7 two, the namet
of things 7 two, the names of different places 7

Q. will you tell me which words are the nouns in the follcwmg sentencM-
■s i read them to you 7

*' Thomas and Joseph are in the house."

** The horse and cow are in the lot"

*' The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain.''

*' Trees, corn, potatoes and apples grow in the fields."

II. NUMBER.

Q. What is the meaning of the word ffutnber ; as, '' The nimiber W but-
I on your coat" 7

5. Number means a sum that may be counted,

Q. What docs the word singtdar mean 7

6. It means one,

Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chairs what namber li It 7

7. Singular number.

Q. What, then, does the singular number of nouns denote 7

8. The singular number denotes but one thing.

9 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Q or what niiinber ii bookf and why 1

9. Book is of the singular number, because it means
but one.

Q. Of what number is <Juar, and why ?
Q. What does the word plural mean 1

10. It means more than one.

Q. Of what number is /amps, and why 1

1 1 . Lamps is of the plural number, because it means
more than one.

Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why 1

Q. By adding s to dove, we have dovesy and es to ^ocr, we have boxe^
How, then, is the plural number of nouns usually formed 7

12. By adding « or e« to the singular.

Q. Will you spell the plural of ounce ? glass 7 window ? theatre ? antsce-
dent 7 church 7 labyrinth 7

Q. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they T

13. Two, the singular and plural

Q. Will you name a noun of the smgular number? one of the pluraJ
Dumber f

111. GENDER.

Q* What does the word jTcmfer mean f

14. Gender signifies «ea?.

Q. What does tlie word masculine mean 1

15. It means maie.

Q. Jfihn is the name of a male i of what gender or sex, then, is John?

16. Of the masculine or male gender.

Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the masculine gender 7

17. The names of males.

Q. What gender, then, is man, and why f

18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is
tlie name of a male.

Q. Of wliat gender is uncle, and why 1 /other 7 why 7
Q. What does/endnine mean 7

' 19. It means yemaZe.

Q. Susan is the name of a female : of what gender, then, is Susan 7

20. Of the feminine gender.

Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the feminine gender 7

21 The names of females.

Q. What gender is tconum, and why ?

22. Woman is of the feminine gender, because it is
j\e name of a female.

Q. Of what gender is aunt, and why 7 daughter 7 why 7
Q. What does the word neuter mean 7

23. It means neither,

Q. Cludr is the name neither of a male nor a female : what gender, tlien
may it properly be called 7

24. Neuter gender.

Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the neuter gender 7

NOUNS. 9

25. The names of ol)jects that are neither males noi
females.

Q. Of what gender is inkstand, and why ?

26- Neuter gender, because it is the name neithe.
of a male, nor female.

Q. Of what gender is bench? wliy ? chair? why?

Q. Parent, you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it if
a name common to both : of what gender, then, shall we call such nouns a
pm ent, bird, &c. 1

27. Common gender.

Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender 7

28. The names of such animals as- may be either
males or females.

Q. Of what gender is sfieep, and why ?

29. Sheep is of the ^common gender, because it is
the name either of a male or female.

Q. Of what gender is robin, and why ?

Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they 7

30. Four — the masculine, the feminine, tlie neuter,
and the common.

• Q. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender 7 one of the feminine T
©ne of the neuter 7 one of the common 7 ^

Q. Will you name the gender and number of each noun in the following
sentences, as I read them to you 7

" James and William." »* Slate and pencil."
** John and the girls." " Women and birds "

IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS.

<^. What is the meaning of the word common ; as, " A common con»-
Dlaipt" 7

31. Common menns general,

Q. Although there are a vast many male children in the world, each (Hie
may be called by the general name of boy : what k'md of a noun, then, would
jou call boy ?

32. A common noun.

Q. When, then, is a noun called common 7

33. When it is a general name

Q. What does the word proper mean 7

34. It means ^^ or particular.

Q. John, you know, is -the particular name of a ooy i wnat kind of a noun,
then, may it be called 7

35. A proper noun.

Q. When, then, may a noun be calletl proper 7

36. When it is a particular name.

Q. What kmd of a noun is Susan, and why 7 ^ ^

37. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a particu-
lar name.

Q. What kind of a noun is John^ and why 7

10 ENGLISH eRAMMAK.

Q. What kind >f a noun is nter, and why 7

38. River is a common noun, because it is a gene
ral name.

Q. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they T
Q. What kina of a noun is girls ? Mary ? town ? New York ? London T
boat? chain?

Q. Will you now tell me which words are the nouns in the following^ sen-
tences i which are proper, and which common ; also their gender and numbcsr 1

"Thomas and John." " King and queen."

" Susan and Mary." " House and barn."

V. PERSON.

Q. When a person, in speaking^, says, '' I, John, will do it/' what penoi
do grammarians call John ? *

39. The first person.

Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person?

40. When it is the name of the person speaking.

Q. When I say, " Jomes, mind your studies,'' what person do grammarians
call James 1

41. The second person, being the person spoken to.'

Q. Wlicn, then, is a noun of the second person ?

42. When it is the name of the person spoken to,
or addressed.

Q. " William, James has come." What person is WUHam, and why t

43. Of the second person, because William is spoken
to;

Q. When J say, " William, James has come " I am speaking to Winiam
about James : uf what person, then, is James, and why 1

44. Of the third person, because James was spoken
of; that is, I was talking about James.

Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person 7

45. When it is spoken of.

Q. ''Thomas, Rufus is in the garden.'' What person is Tlumuu? vihy^
Is Rujus? whyt

Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they 7

46. Three persons — the first, second, and third.

Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, wtach
common ; also their gender, number, and person ?

" I, James, of Boston." ** Boy and girl."

" Henry, study your book." " WUliam and hi« iifiter.'

VI. CASE.

Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " He iff
m a good case"; and, when he is lean, that ''He is in a bad case": what
Uierefore, does the word case mean 7

47. Ca^e moans condition, state, &.c.

OASKtJ. 11

Q. When I say, " Charles strikes William/' " William strikes Charles,"
^u may perceive that the slate or condition of Charles in the former example
18 quite different from his state or condition in tlie latter : in the one, CharleH
strikes ; in the other, he is struck : what, tlien, is meant by tlie difiereut cases
of nouns 7

48. The different condition or position they have in
relation to other words in the same sentence.

<^. What does the word nominative mean 7

49. JVominatire means naming.

Q.. When i say, " John strikes/' he evidently does something i whai, thoiy
may John be called 7

60. An actor or doer.

Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading
DQun, m what case is John, when I say, " John strikes" 7

51. In the nominative case.

Q. What, then, is tlie nominative case of nouns 7

. ^ 52. The nominative case is the agent or doer

Q. Wlien I say, " The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why T

53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the
agent, actor, or doer.

Q. " The cat catches mice." In what case is cat, and why 7
Q. When I say, ''Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object here
irhich Thomas is pursuing 7

54. Thief.

Q. What does the word objective mean 7

55. It means belonging to the object.

Q. In what case, then, may Hiief be reckoned, in the phrase, '' Thomas
pursues the thief" 7

56. In the objective case.

Q. AVhat, then, does the Objective case denote 7

57. The objective case denotes the object.

Q. Wlien I say, " William whips John," in what case is John, and why 7

58. In the objective case, because John is the ob-
ject.

Q. What does the word possessive imply 7

59. Possession, ownership, property, (fee.

Q. When I say, " It is Jolm's slate," I mean to say that John owns the
slate : in what case, then, shsdl we reckon JoMs 1

60. In the possessfW5 case.

Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote 7

6 1 . The possessive case denotes possession, prop-
erty, &c.

Q, When I say, " Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife 7
Q In what case, then, is Peter's, and why 7

62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses
the knife.

Q. In the example "John's slate," you perceive that Johr^s ends in », with
a comma before it : what is the comma, ana what is the «, called in grammar 7

63. The comma is called an apostrophe, ana the *,
an apostrophic *.

Q. You also perceive that Johv^t is singular : how, then, do nouns m the
lingular number usually fonn their possessive case 7 ^

I5i KNCiLlSH GRAMMAR.

64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the
letter s following it.

Q,. "On eagles' wings." Here eagles' is plural, and in the possessive
case : how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case 7

65. Simply by talking the apostrophe without the
addition of s.

Q. But if the plural noun does not end in «, as, " men's concerns/' how is
the possessive case formed ?

66. As the same case in the singular number is
formed.

Q,. From the forego'mg remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to have,
and what are they 7

67. Three — the nominative, possessive and objec-
tive.

Q. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a word : what, then,
do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun 7

68. To tell its different cases or endings.

Q. Will you decline John 7

69. JSTominative case^ John.
Possessive case^ John's.
Objective case, John.

Q. Will \'ou decline boy, in both numbers 7

Singular. Plural.

70. JVom. Boy. JVom. Boys

Poss. Boy's. Poss. Boys'.

Ohj. Boy. Obj. Boys.

Q. When I say " William's coat," you perceive that the noun cwU followi
William's : by what is William's said to be governed, and why 7

71. By coat, because it follows WillianCs.

Q. What; then, may be considered a rule for governing the possessive
case 7

B.UZJE8 X.

The possessive case is governed by the following

noun.

Q. " William's hat,*' Is William's a proper or common noun 7 Why T
(36.)*

Q. What is its person 7 why 7 (45.}* Its number 7 why 7 (8.)* Its gen-
der? why? (17.)* Its case 7 why? 161.)* What noun follows William's?
What word, then, governs William's ? What is the rul#7

Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in sen-
tences, in the same manner as we have those of William's, above, what is the
exercise called?

72. Parsing.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.
" John's knife. ^^

73. John^s is a noun, because it is a name — ^proper, be-
cause it is a particular name — masculine lender ; it is the
name of a male — third person; it is spoken of — singular

* Me^er hark to this number.

ARTICLES 19

i«vMBER ; It means but one — ^possessive case ; it implies
possession — and it is governed by the noun knife^ accord-
mg to

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following
noun.

Knife is a noun; it is a name — common; it is a general
name — ^neuter gender; it is neither male nor female—
THIRD person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means
but one.

lllf' Let the learner parse the foregoing j till the mode of parsing the
noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily y vfUhout looking in
the book. He may then take Hie following exercises f which are to be
parsed in a similar manner.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

" Peter's cap/' «« Stephen's coat.' " Brother's knife."
- John's slate." «' Father's house." ** Boys' hats."

VII. OF ARTICLES.

Q. When I say. " Give me a book/' I evidently mean no particular book ;
but ivhcn I say, " Grive me the book/^what do 1 mean ?

74. Some particular book.

Q. Which are the words that make this difference in meaning 7

75. A and the.

Cl. What are these little words called 7

76. Articles.

Q. What, then, are articles ?

77. Articles are words placed before nouns to limit
their meaning.

Q. What is the meaning ofc the word definite ?

78. Definite means particular,

Q. " Give me the book." Here a particular book is referred to i what
kind of an article, then, shall we call tite ?

79. Definite article.

Q. What, then, is a definite article ?

80. It points out what particular thing or things are
meant.

Q. The word iw, when placed before words, frequently signifies not r what
then, will indefinite mean 7

81. J^ot definite,

Q. When I say, " Give me a knife " no particular knife is meant i wbal
kind of an article, then, may a be called 7

82. Indefinite article.

Q. Why is it so called 7

83. Because it is not used before the name of any
particular person o thing.

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Q. We say *^an apple/' ''art inksiaud/' &«. in preference to ''a apple/*
'* a inkstand/' &,c. ; why is Ihis ?

84. Because it is easier to speak, arid also more
pleasant to the ear.

Q. \Vliat kind of iellers do appU and vnkstand begin with 7

85. Vowels.

Q. In what cases do we use an Instead of a?

86. Before words beginning with the vowels a, 6, ij

Q. In speaking, we say, *^ a man/' not '' on man" i when, then, do w<t
use a?

87. Before words beginning with consonants.

Q. Which letters are consonants 1

88. All the letters of the alphabet, except the vow-
els, which are a, e, t, o, u ; and also w and y, except
at the beginning of words, when they are consonants.

Q. How, then, do a and an differ 7

89. Only in their use ; a being used before conso-
nants, and an before vowels : both are called by the
same name.

Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they f

90. Two— a or an^ and the,

Q. It is customary to say, " a boy," not " a bow^' ; also. " an inkstand,*'
not " an inkstands" : of what number, then, must tne noun be, before which
the ^definite article is placed 1

91. The singular number.

Q. What, then, is the rule for tlie indefinite article 7

BUZ.XI XX.

The indefinite article a or an belongs to noun.i

of the singular number.

Q. We can say, " the boy," and " the boys" ; using a noun either of the
sin^lar or plural number aAer the : what, then, is the rule for the definite
arUcle 7

BUXiS XXX.

The definite article the belongs to nouns m the
singular or plural number.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

" The hoy:'

92. TTie is an article, a word plaoed before nouns to
limit their meaning — definite ; it means a particular boy —
and belongs to hoy^ according to

Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the
singular or plural number.

JBoy is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general
name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — third
PERSON^ it is spoken of — and singular number ; it means
but one.

AUJECTIVKS. 15

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

"A hand." "An eagle." "The man." " The boya* hats.'

"A man." "An insect." " The men." " A man's cap

"Amite." "An acorn." "The boys." "The girls' room/'

"A month." "An ounce." "The mice." " The lady's box "

VIII. OF ADJECTIVES

Q. When I say, '' John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy,'' I use
certain words to (describe boy : which are they ?

93. Industrious^ obedient, ana good.

Q. When I say, '' a good man,'' to what word is the describing word good
joined or added 1

94. To the noun man.

Q,. What does the word adjective mean 7

95. Joined or added to.

Q. What, then, shall we call such describing words as good, obedwiif in-
dustrious, &c. 7

96. Adjectives.

Q. What, then, are adjectives 7

97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns to describe
or qualify them.

Q. " A wise man.'' Which word is the adjective here, and why 7
Q. '' Rufiis is a eood boy, but James is a better one." How are Rufus
and James spoken of here 7

98. In comparison with each other.

Q. The adjectives in the last example are good and better : can you tell
me wltich of these words denotes a higher degree of excellence tlian the other 7

99. The word better.

Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call better 7

100. Comparative degree.

Q. What, then, does the comparative degree imply 7

101. A comparison between two.

Q. '' William is tall, ThoraaA is taller, but Rufus is tlio tallest boy in school/
What is meant here by taUest ?

1 02. Exceeding all in height.

Q. What does the word superlatwe mean 7

103. Exceeding all ; the highest or lowest degree

Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call taUest T

104 Superlative degree.

Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do 7 ^ ^

105. It increases or lessens the positive to the high
est or lowest degree.

Q. When I say, " James is a good boy," I make no comparison between
bim and any other j but simply assert, in a positive manner, that James is a
good boy. What kind of a sentence, then, would you call this 7

106. A positive sentence.

Q. Of what degree of comparison, tlien, shall we call good?

107 The positive degree.

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Q. What, then, does Uie positive degree do ?

108. It merely describes, without any comparison.

Q. Will you compare great 7

109. ^^ Positive^ great; Comparative^ greater; Sw-
perlativSy greatest."

Q. Will you compare taise in the same manner 7

Q. Wise and greeU are words of one syllable t how, then, are the com
parative and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed 7

110. By addinfer or er, st or est, to the positive.

Q. Will you in this riBmer compare small ? high ? meant
Q, wan you compar^eaiUi/idt

111. ^^ Pos. beautiiul; Comp. more beautifiil ; Swp *
most beautiful." ^

Q. How many Byllablcs compose the word beautijvl ?

112. Three.

Q. How, then, arc words of three, or more syllables than one, usuaLy
compared 7 i

113. By placing more and most before the positive.

Q. Will you in this manner compare industrious ? ingenious? dutifid 7
Q. Will you compare ime, by using the words less and least 7

1 14. " Pos, wise ; Comp, less wise ; Sup. least wise."

Q. Will you in like manner compare benevolent 7 disttrtguishcd 7 dilatory ?

Q. *^ Good men, better men, best men," Which adjective here is the posi-
tive, and why? (108.) Which the comparative? why? (101.) Which the
superlative? why? (105.)

Q. Goodf you perceive, is not compared regularly, like ^rw^; beaulijid,
& c. ; and since there are many words or tliis description, I will ^ive you a list
of the principid ones, together with others, regularly comoared -^ will you re
peat the comparative ana superlative degrees, as I name uie positive 7

115. Positivt. Comparative, Superlative,

Good, Better, Best.

Little, Less, y^ Least.

Much, or man^, More, "\ Most.

Bad, ill, or evil, Worse, Worst.

Near, Nearer, Nearest, or next

Old, Older, Oldest, or eldest.

Late, Later, Latest, or last.

Q. From the foregoing, how many degrees of comparison do there a]^>e«r
to be, and what are they 7

116. Three — the positive, comparative, and super-
lative.

Q. Adjectives, you recollect, describe nouns i to what, then, do they natu
rally belong ? •

idjectives belong to the nouns which they describe

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

" A wiser child ^

117. ^ is an article, a word placed before notins to limit
their meaning — indefinite ; it means no particular child —
and belongs to child, agreeably to

Rule II. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns
of the. sins^nlnr vvmher. *•

' **— .^-^ -^^V^a'rtWd j#ii.-,v» wriin a n«un im

desonue it — **i^#«. wise ; C#mp. 'wiser ; ^Siip. wisest" — made
in the comparative degree — and belongs \m child, by

Rule IV. Adjectives hehng t§ the n9uns which they de^
scribe.

Child is a n»un ; it is a name — c«km«n ; it is a general
name— c«MM«N gender ; it may be either male •r female-^
THTRD PERS9N ; it is sp«ken •f — and singular number ; it
means but •ne.

. exercises in parsing continued.
1. 2. 3.

« A dutifiil 8«n." «« An ugly child.'* « The base mnn.'*
" An idle b«y." " An irksome taak." " The whiter cl#th "
« A f#*liflh s^n.** « A mild reply." « The mUder weather."

4. 5.

•'The greatest man." "The m«re (1) benevolent citizen."

** The wisest prince." "Themtst (1) suitable method,"

» The noblest man." " The least (1) distrustful friend."

6. 7.

" A large, convenient, and " The last choice."

(1) airy habitation." « The best man."
•* The mtelligent, industri- •* The nearest relations."

ous, obedient, and(l) " Johnson's (2) large dictionary."
docile scholar." " Murray's small grammar "

IX. •F PR#N«UNS.

Q. When I say^ " Jfhn g^s If schf>«1, J«hn learns fast, and John will ex-
cel,'' h«w can I speak sf as te aveid repeating J«/m so •ften ?

118. By using the w»rd he in its place ; thus, ^^ J^lin
g«es Xm sch^tl) he learns fast, and he will excel."

Q. What little wfrd, then, may stand fwr Jthnf^

119. He.

Q. What d«es the werd prmimm mean ? *

120. Standing fi$r, 0r instead^, a n^un.

Q. What, then, shall we call the w«rd /t£, aboye 1

121. "A PR#N#UN.

Q. What, then, is a pr«n'«un ?

122. A pronoun is a w#rd used f«r a n#un, t# avsid
a repetiti#n-«f the same wtrd.

Q. When James says, '* } will study,'' 3'«u perceive that / stands (tr the
pcrs«n spcakiug". what persfn, then, is it? (39.)

Q. When fsay, " James, y«u must study," the w*rd tfmt evidently is ap-
plied t^ Ja7nes, whf is speken te : what persen, then, vught ymt to be 2

123. The second person.

^. .. ■ ■ . I . . . — ■' ■ ■ ■ ~ -

1, To be tmitted in parsin«f. 2. J^hnsw's is gaverncd hy dictimartf, bf
iT*» I.

Q»- -

124. The third person; because n. oi.cc*. — __
place of a noun which is spoken of.

Q. If / invariably staiids for the first person, you for the second^ and he,
for the third, how can we tell the diflercnt persons of pronouns 7

125. By the pronouns themselves.

Q. W1 at have these pronouns been called from this circumstance 7

126. Personal pronouns.

dr I will now give you a list of all the personal pronouns, which you m «sa
first examine careuilly, and then answer such questions on them as may be
asked you.

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

FIRST PERSON.

127. Siug, Pbir.
Nom, I. We.

Poss. My or mine. Ours or our.

Obj. Me. Us.

SECOND PERSON.

Sing. Plur,

Nom. Thou or you. Ye or you

Poss Thine or thy, yours or your. Yours or your.

Obj, Thee or you. You.

THIRD PERSON MASCULINE.

Sing, Plur,

Nom, He. They.

Poss, His. Theirs or their

Obj. Him. Them.

THIRD PERSON FEMININE.

Sing. Plur,

Nom, She. They.

Poss, Hers or her. . Theirs or theu.

Obj. Her. k Them.

• THIRD PERSON NEUTER.

Sing. ' Plur,

Nom, It. They.

Poss. Its. Theirs or their.

Obj. It. Them.

Q. Will you tlecline / in both numbers ? thou or fou ? he? she? it?

Q. In what person, number, and case is I? we? my? mine? our or ottrt t
mt? us? than? ye? his? they? them?

Q. In what gender, person, number, and case is he ? she? it ? his? hers f
her? him?

Q. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they T

128. Two — the singular and plural.

Q,. How many cases, and what are they?

129. Three — the nominative, the possessive ind the
cbjectivc.

FIIONOUNS. • 19

Q. How many persons ?

130. Three — the first, second, and third.

Q. How many genders ?

131. Three — the masculine, feminine, and neuter.

Q. How many pronouns are there in all. of the first person 7
Q,. How many of the second^ and how many of the third ?
Q,. The pronouns of the nominative case, singular, are called leading pro*
Botms : how many of these are there ?

133. Five—*-/, thou or you, key she, it.

Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the singular and
plural numbers, also the nofninatives plural, reckoned in the number of Iba
leading pronouns ?

I'M. Because they are all considered as variations
of the nominative singular.

Q. To which of tlie pronouns is it customary to apply gender 7

135. To the third person singular, he, she, it.

Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made alwa^S|to repre-
sent a different gender ? f

136. The first and second persons being jEilways
present, their genders are supposed to be knqwin.

Q. If, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what geu^e^, number,
and person ought they to have ?

137. The same as the nouns for which they stand.

Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for the agreement of the pro-
nouns?

&UZ.S V. f i

Pronouns must agr^e icith the nouns j%r which
they standi in gender^ number ^ and /^r ?o«.

QUESTIONS ON PARSING. f

Q. How many different sorts of words have we now foimd, ana what ar4
Ihey 7 j

138. Four — the Noun, the Article, the Ap-jpcTivE,'
and the Pronoun. ^ ■

Q. The word part, you know, means division ; and 9pe«c/i,Rhl power
using words, or langtuxge ; what, therefore, shall we call these naifl divisioi
of words 1 I

139. Parts of Speech. j i

Q. WHien, then, I ask you what part of speech boy ijJ, for iij^t^ice, what
4o you understand me to mean 1 .

1 40. The same as to ask me whether boy jis p, noun
or not. i

Q. Wliat part of speech, then, is WUliaanf and why? (36.) f

1. "He went to school." j

2. « She went to her task."

3. " William went to his play."

4. " John returned from his school." '".

5. •* I request you to mind your studies."

6. " The book was mine, but now it is yours/* I

€2- Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing example?
<|. TIow manv are there in all /

CI. What is tlie gender, number, and person of those in the 6rst 1 «econd
Oiir«*7 fniirtli? fjflh? sirtb ^

90 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ku-ihl fifth? sixth t

X. 0F THE VERB.

Q. When I say, "James strikes WQliam/' which word tells what Jamas
does?

141. Strikes.

Q. The word verb means word; and as the words in all sentences, which
tel what the nouns do, are the principal ones, what shall SQch words be called f

142. Verbs.

Q. If, m the phrase " William strikes James/' we leave out the word
strikes f you perceive at once that the sense is destroyed : what reason, then^
can you give, for calling some words in a sentence verbi, and odien by a diA
ferent name ?

143. The words which we call verbs are tne most
important.

Q. ''William studies his lesson/' Which word is the verb here, aad
why?

144. Studiesy because it tells what William does.

Q. When I say, ** John dances," which word is the verb, and why 1
Q. When I say, ** James strikes John," which word shows that an action
is performed ?

145. Strikes.

Q. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call strikes f

146. An active verb.

Q. What kind of a verb is toalks, in this sentence, ''John walks/' and
why?

147. Walks is an active verb, because it expresses
action.

Q. *' He beat William." Which word here is tfae-verb 7 Is William aa

agent or an object ? ^

148. An object.

Q. When I say, " The child walks/' walks, it is true, is an active verb,
but Ik has no noun after it for an object, as beat has, in the phrase above ; nei-
ther can we supply.one^ for we cannot say, '^The child walks" any tiling i
what, therefore, is to be mferred from this fa^t, in regard to the nature of a<y
tive verbs ? n, ■

149. That some active verbs will take nOiins after
them for objects, and others will not.

Q. We will next notice this difference. The term transttive means flNi«s«
ing over ; and when I say^ " William whips Charles/' the verb whips snows
that the action which William performs, passes over to Chartes as the object. '
What kind ff a verb, then, shall we call whips?

150. An active-transitive verb.

Q. What, then, is an active-transitive verb ?

151. It is one that either H|ls, or may have, an ob-
ject after it.

Q. Walks J we found, w ould not take an objeet aft«ir t* ; and, as inlransi
tire means not passir^ o\^r what shall viie call such veH>s as walks *

VERBA, t«

ii52. Active-intransitive verbs.

Q. What, then, is an active-intransitive verb 7

1 53. An active-intransitive verb is one that exprenes
action, but will not take an object after it.

Q. When I say. '' He eats it/' " He beats him/' we immediatdy detar*
mine that beats and eats are active-transitive verbs, b^ the obiecis after tbrai i
how, then, may transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguisned f

164. When we can place him or it after any active »
> verb, and make sense, it is transitive ^ otherwise, it is
intransitive.

Q, "James remains at home— «Ieeps 9$. home— 4S at home/' Which
words are the verbs here ?

155. Remains, sleeps j and is,

Q. These verbs do not unply action, like strikes, beats, &c. i what do they
uply?

156. Existence, rest, or beiitg, in a certain state.

Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called iMitfflP
(signifying- neither) by |p*ammarians, because they are neither active nor pas*
siv«k On a future occasion, I wiir make you fully acquainted with a passive
verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose, that you perceive the reason of ^
the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ?

157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being
or existence in a certain state.

Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct defiaitioft
ef a verb T

158. A verb is a word which signifies action or

BEING.

Q. When I say, " I strike," in what niunber and p«w>tt is strike, and why T .

159. Strike is of the first person singular, because
its agent, /, is of this person and number.

•'Q. Hence you may perceive, that verbs, in themselves eonsideired, do noil
have person and number : why, then, are they said to have thaw properties al
all?

160. On account of the connection which they have
with their agents or nominatives.

Q.- We say, "I write/' and " He writes" j hence you perceive that the
ending of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, then, wiD
be tt» rule for the ncMuinative case^

7%6 fwminative case governs the verb in number'

and person.

Q. If the nominative case jgovems the verb in number and person, Inwfaal
respect miist the veib agree with its nominative case 7

A' verb must agree with its nominative case in

number anfl person.

Q. When I say, - James beats him," the ]>ronoun htm is the object of
the action denoted by beats, and is, therefore, in the ol^ective case t wha%
then, will be d good rule for the objective case after active verba f

^ictit-€'irf*nsntive verb? govern the objective cascr

ENULlJSH GilAJVMlAR.

Q. 1 wjl) now give yon the difierent endings of the verb love, in its diffi
aambera and persons. Will you repeat them 1

Singular. ' Plural,

161, First person, I love. First person, We love.

Second person, Youlovo. Second person, You love,

T^rd person, He loves. Third person. They love
Q. Will you repeat the variations of am 7

Singular. Plural.

' 162. 1 Pers. I am. 1 Pers. We are.

2 Pers. You are. 2 Pers. You are.

SPers. Heia. 3 Per*. They are.

Q. Will you repeat, in the same manner, the variations bf hate ? desire 7 rtttd t

£X£RCISES IN PARSING.

" 1 study my lesson.^^

163. J is a PRONOUN, a word used instead of a noun — per-
sonal ; it always denotes the same person, (the first) — first
person; it denotes the speaker — ^singular number; il
means but one — ** Nam. I " — made in the nominative case
to study, according to

Rule VI. The nominative case governs tlie verb tn manr
her and person.

Study is a verb ; it expresses action — transitive ; it ad-
mits an object after it — "1 Pers. I study*' — ^made in the
i-iRST person — SINGULAR NUMBER, becauso its nommative 1
is, with which it agrees, agreeably to

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its namtnative ease in
number and person.

My is a pronoun, a word used for a noun — personal ; it
always represents the same person — first person ; it repre-
>9ents the person speaking — "iVow. I : Poss. my, or mine" —
made in the possessive case — and governed by the noun
lesson, according to

Rule I. Tlie possessive case is governed by the following
noun.

Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name — ^neu-
ter gender ; it is neither male nor female — ^third pER^o^r ;
at is spoken of — singular number; it means but one — ^and
in the objective case ; it is the object of the verb study^
and governed by it, according to '

Rule VIII. Active4rans%tive verbs govern the objective
ease.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

Transitwe Verbs.
I lamervt my fate." ** He found a dollar."

\'ou r<»gard your friends." ** She atteniis the school.**

Wfi desire your improverooDt* *• It retards the work."
A V^e love our children.' ** They shun vice."

Vou make a kniffe." ** Yo cffirive comfort."

VERBS. 23

* 1 love him." " She forsook you ."

" I lament her." " They annoy nie.**

« You assist them." " We took it."

** He struck her." " She relieved us."

" John reads his book,^^
His as a pronoun, a word used insteafl of a noun — per
flONAL ; it uniformly stands for the same person — mascdlinb

LENDER, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, beCaUSC tllO

noun John is, with which it agrees, agreeably to

Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which

they stand, in gender, number, and person.

" Nmn he ; Poss. his'' — made in the possessive case —

and governed by the noun book, according to

Rule 1. The possessive case is governed by the following

noun, *

2^^ The remaining wnrdi, book, reads, and Jokn^ are parsed as before.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

" Mary studies her lesson." " Virtue rewards its followers."

** The girls love their books." "A disobedient j»on grieves hia
"Good children mind their parents."

parents." " The intemperate man loves his
" Sin deceives its votaries." dram."

^f:^ In parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns lor
which they stand are expredsed.

Intransitive Verbs,
4.
" I walk." " You smile." " John swims."

"James runs." "They wink." "Birds fly."

" William hops." " We dance.** " Lions roar."

JSTeuter Verbs,
" William is (1.) discreet." (2.) " John's wife is fortunate."
" James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy."

" He was studious." " The eagle's flight was sudden."

"He bec€une intemperate." " 'I'he scholar's duty is plain."
** Thou art wise." . " The judge's pay is sufficient"

XI. INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE.

Q. When James says, ** I will leam/' he evidently means, by his manner
of speaking, to express his intention to learn j but when he says, " I can learn,"
w^hat does Tie mean ?

(1.) Is is a VERB 5 it implies being — neuter ; it is neither active nor pas-
sive, hill expresses bein^, merely—" 1 pers. I am ; 'z pers. You are j 3 pers. lie,
or William is '* — made m the th ird person, singular, because WiUiam, its
nominative, is, and agrees with William^ according to

Rule VTI. A verb mnst agr-ree with its nominatire case in mtmher and periMi

(i.) Ihsrrpet l»etimgs lo William, by Hiilo IV

34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

166. That he has the ahUity to learn

Q. What does the word mood mean ?

166. Mood means manner,

Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote 7

167. The different manner of representing actions

Q» What does the word indicative mean ?

168. Declaring or shotoing.

Q, When I say, "William has studied" I declare some fact: ia whai
mood, then, shall we class has studied t

169. In the indicative mood.

Q. When I say, "Has William studied V* the only difference between thi»
phrase and the fore^in^ consists i» a change in the order of the words, w> as
to show that a quesUon is asked i in what mood, then, shall we call has WiL
Uam studied ?

170. Indicative mood.

Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for 7

171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, in-
dicating or declaring a thing, or asking a question.

Q. In what mood is « They do sing" ? Why t (171.)
Q. What does the word tense mean ?

172. Tense means time.

Q. Whai does present mean 1

173. Present means now,

Q. When I say, "The bird sings," I mean thai the bird siofs dowi ib
what tense, then, is sings ?

174. In the present tense.

Q. What, then, is the present tense used for ?

175. The present tense is used to express what is
now taking place.

Q. In what tense is " The dog runs" ? Why ? (176.)
Q. " James wrote." " James has written.*' These phrases denote what
is past : in what tense are they ?

176. In the past tense.

Q. WUat does the wordyMft«re mean ; as, " At some future time" ?

177. Future means yet to come.

Q. In what tense are the {Airases, " I will come," " I shall have come" T

178. In the future tense.

Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what
are they ? '^'^

179. Three — the present, past, and future.

Q. When I say, " John wrote," is the action here spoken of past and
finished? '^

180. It is.

Q. What does imperfect mean?

181. Unfinished or incomplete*

Q. ** John was writing when I saw Llm." This denotes an action on
finished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in
Latin the imperfect tense : hence the origin of the name selected by English
grammarians to denote action past and finished ; a term not all significant oi
an action finished in past time : what, then, does the imperfect tense express 1

182. The imperfect tense expresses what took place
m past time, however distanb^

Q, "Peter wrote ^^esterday, and has written to-dny. Tlore botli nets of

VKHJ»9. 9ft

wniing are past and ftnuthed j but which has more unmediatt ref^venct.to the
present time 7

183. Has written.

. Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, grammarians have called
it the perfect tense : what^ then, will the perfect tense express t

184. The perfect tense expresses what has taken
place, and also conveys an allusion to the present
time.

Q. *' James had read before I wrote." Here, both acts are past and
faiahed ; but which took place first ?

185. The act of reading.

Q. What does the word jduperfect mean 7

186. More than the perfect,

Q. What tense, then, shall we call *< James had read ?**

187. The pluperfect tense.

Q. What, then, docs the pluperfect tense express 7

188. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken
place at or before some past time mentioned.

Q. '' John will come." This, you know, was called the future tense i caa
TOO tell me why 7

189. Because it implies time to come.

Q. What, then, does the future tense express 7

190. The future tense expresses what will take
place hereafter.

Q. " I shall have learned my lesson hy noon.'' Here, an action U to tak«
place at a future time specified or mentioned ^ and since we already have one
luhire tense, we will call that the first, and this the second future tense i wfaiU«
attesk, will the second future tense express 7

191. The second future expresses what will have
taken place at or before some future time mentioned

Q. What does syn^ipsis mean 7

192. A concise and general view,

Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the diflerent tenses, iUuf
tinted by die verb learn : will you repeat it 7

SYNOPSIS.

193. Pres. tense, I learn, or do learn.

Imp, tense, I leaned, or did learn.

Perf. tense, I have learned.

Plup. tense, I had learned.

1*/ Fat, tense, I shall or will learn.

2d Fut. tense, I shall have learned.

(O* You shall next have the diflTercnt variations of the foregoing verb, '
•ach tense of the indicative mood t these I wish you to study very car^iilly
Aat you may be able to answer the questions which will then be asked you

194. To learn,

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.

Singtdar. Plwmt,

1 Pars. I learn. 1 Pers, We learm.

2 Pers. You learn. 2 Pers. You leam.

3 Pers. He she, or it learns. 3 Per 5. Thvy learn.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

OR,

When we wish to express energy or positivenessj thu»>
Singular, Plural.

h I do learn. ^^ We do learn.

2. Tou do learn. ^, Yon do learn.

3. He does leaxn. 8. They do learn.

IMPERFECT TBNSB.
Singvlar. Plural.

1. I learned. 1. We learned.

9. Tou leiumed. 2. Tou learned.

S. He learned. 3. They learned.

ORy

Singular Plural.

1. I did learn. 1. We did learn.

2. Tou did learn. 3. Tou did learn.

3. He did learn. 3. They did learn

PERFECT TENSE.
Singular, Phtral,

1. I have learned. 1. We have learned.

2. Tou have learned. 2. Tou have learned.

3. He has learned. 3. They have learned

PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.

1. I had learned. 1. We had learned.

2. Tou had learned. 2. Tou had learned.

3. He had learned. 3. They had learned.

iPIRST FUTURE TENSE.
Sin^ldr. Plural.

1. I shall &r will lealn. 1. We shall or will Icarn.

2. Tou shall or will learn. 2. Tou shall or will learn.
3^ He BhkW or Will learn. 3. They shall or will learn.

SECOND FUTURE TENSE.
Singular. Plural.

1. I shall have learned. 1. We shall have learned.

2. You will have learned 2. Tou will have learned.

3. He will have learned. - 3. They will have learned.

*^* For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second person sitii^
lar, as given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted.

SYNOPSIS.

19S. fid Pera, Sing. Pres. Thoa leamest, or dost learn.
fid Pera. Sing. hip. Thou leamedst, or didst leani.
2i PerS' Sing. Per/. Thou hast learned.
2d Pera* Sing. Plup. Thou hadst learned.
2d Pera. Sing. IH FuJt. Thou shalt or wilt learn.
2rf Pera* ^ng. 2rf Put. Thou wilt have learned.

Q. In what mood is " I learn" ? Why ? ^171.) Jn what tense 7 Why 7
1175.) In what mood and tense is ''He leaxW? ''We learn" 7 "I did
leaftt"7 "1 have learned"? "I had leamei^'? " I shall or will leara" 7
" I shall have learned" 7

Q. In what person and number is "I leail"7 "You leam"? "We
team" 7 "Theyhadleame<i"7 "He shall lean V' 7 " We had learned" 7

Q. What does the word jtucdliarv mean 7

196. Auxiliary means helping.

VEKHS. 99

Q. In Uie phrase, ^'1 will tm^," vriUf you perceive, is used to help
Ibnn the future tense of tvng : will is, therefore. caJled an auxiliary verb, ^and
the verb sit^ is reckoned the principal verb i wnat, then, are auxiliary verbs 7

197. Auxiliary veros are those by the help of which
are formed the difTerent: tenses, moods, <bc. of the
principal verbs.

Q. The auxiliary verbs are not nnfrequently denominated the signs of the
lenses, because each tense has, in general, an auxiliary peculiar to itselti
i^iat, then, is the sign of the second future ?

198. Shall or will have.

Q. What is the sign of the first future 7

199. Shall or will.

Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect 7

200. Had.

Q. What is the sign of the perfect 7

201. Have.

Q. What is the sign of the imperfect 7

202. Did.

Q. We can say, " I did strike yesterday," or, " I struck yesterday" 7 how,
then, can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign did ?

203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and
make sense, it is in the imperfect tense.

Q. What is the sign of the present tense 7

204. Do, or the first form of the verb.

Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicative mood appear
to have, and what are they 7

205. Six — the present, the imperfect, the perfect,
the pluperfect, the first and second future tenses.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

" They have arrived.*^

206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead ot a noim —
personal; it always represents the same person — third
PERSON ; it denotes the persons spoken of — plural ; it
means morg than one — " Nom, he ; Poss. his ; Obj, ' him.
JPbiral. Nam. they" — made in the nominative case to
hiwe arrived, according to

Rule VI. IVie nominative ease governs the verb.

Have arrived is a verb, a word that implies action or
being — active ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does
•lot admit of an object — indicative mood ; it simply indi-
ates or declares a thing — ^perfect tense; it expresses
vhat has just taken place — ** 1. I have arrived ; 2. You
have arrived ; 3. He has arrived. Plural, 1. We have ar-
rived ; 2. You have arrived ; 3. They have arrived" — made
in the third person plural, because its nominative they is,
and agrees with it, according to

Rule VII. A vc^h must a^ree with its nominative case in
number and person.

98 RNGLliSH GRAxMMAIl.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED,

" They had come." " The sun has nsen."

•« We did go." " Dogs will fight."

" The bird will return." •* Lions will roar."

2.
" James loves William." " Columbus discovered Amc Tica."

" Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness.*

** I have beaten them." " He will learn his lesson."

*She had beaten us." "John did make great progress."

You shall assist him." " They do study uieir lessons."

" It did disturb me." " Boys love sport."

3.
" Do T disturb you ?" " Shall I expect your assist-

•* Did they learc their lessons ?" ance ?"

•* Have they recited ?" " Will a virtuous citizen commit

" Does the instructor teach us ?" such ( 1.) acts ?"

" Had he dismissed him ?" " Have you found your knife ?*

XII. POTENTIAL MOOD. ,

Q. What docs " He may write'' imply ?

207. Permission or liberty to write.

Q. What does "He must write" imply 1

208. Necessity of writing.

Q. What does " He can write" imply 7

209. Power or ability to write.

Q. What does " He should write" imply ?

210. Duty or obligation to write.

Q. What does " He would write" imply ?

211. Will or inclination to write;^ ' _

Q. What does the word potential mean ?

212. Able, OT powerful. ^

Q. In what mood, then, do grammarians reckon ccm learrif may tonte, and
also rtust write, should write, &c. 7

213. In the potential mood.

Q. Why are all these diffbrent forms of representing- actions considered Ic
be in the potential mood, a name, as we have seen, peculiar only to that form
of the verb which implies power ?

214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and
almost numberless extent.

Q. What, then, does the potential mood imply?

215. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty,
power, will, obligation, or necessity.

Q. What are the signs of this mood ?

21$. May, can, rmist, might, could, would, and should*

Q. What docs the word confugation mean ?

(1.) Adjective,

VlfiKBa. «>

217. Uniting^ combining^ ox joining together,

Q. You recollect that, in varying the verb, we joined the pronouns with it
hence this exercise is called conjugaSion : what, then, do you understand by
the conjugBtion of a verb ?

218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular com-
bination and arrangement of its several moods, tenses,
numbers and persons.

219. CoT^tigaiion of the verb Learn.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plwral.

1. I may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or must learn.

2. Tou may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn.
8. He may, can, or must learn. 3. They may, can, or must learn.

IMPERFECT TENSE. *
Singular. Plural.

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or

should learn. should learn.

2. Tou mi^ht, could, would, or 2. Tou might, could, would, or

should learn. <w should learn.

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or

should learn. should, learn.

PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural,

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must haye

learu<)d. learned.

2. Tou may, can, or must have 2. Tou may, can, or must have

learned. learned.

3. He may, can, or mast have 3. They may, can, or must have

learned. ' learned.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular. * Plural.

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or

should have learned. should have learned.

2. Tou miffht, could, would, or 2. Tou might, could, would, or

should have learned. should have learned.

8 He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or
shouM have learned. should have learned.

Synopsis of the Second Person Singular^ with Thou

220.
Pres, Thou mayst, canst, or must learn.
hnp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst learn. •
Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must have learned.
P/up. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have learned.

Q. In what mood is " I may learn" ? Why ? (215.,

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with I? Uvou? fur we? ye? you? they?

Q. In what mood, tense, number and person, is " I can fearn" ? " You
may learn" ? " You might assist" ? " They could have learned" ? " He
must study" ?

Q. In what mood and tense is " I have learned" 1 '' He shall run" ? "Wil-
Gam did sine^' ?

Q. Willyou conjugate learn in the present tense, potential mood? Will

99 BNGLmU VliAMMAK.

you c*n}np^ate love in the same mood, and imperfect teuM ? Strike, in Ui»
perfect tense t Come, in the pluperfect tense 1
Q. liow many tenses has the potenti^ mood ?

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

" He may retumJ*^

221. He is a pronoun, a word used instead pf a oouii-r-
PERSONAL ; it invariably represents the same person — mascu-
line GENDER ; it represents a male — third person ; it de-
notes the person spoken of — singular number ; it implies
but one — and in the nominative case ; it denotes the agent —
" Nom. Ac" — nominative case to may return, by

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb.

May return is a verb ; it implies action or being — ^ac-
tive ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does not admit
an object aner it — potential mood ; it implies possibility,
liberty, &c. — ^present tense; it denotes what may be
now — ^< 1. I may or can return ; 2. You may or can return ;
3. He may or can return" — ^made in the third person, sin-
gular, because its nominative he is, with which it agrees .
according to

Rule VII. A verb must agree unth its nominative case ir
nuu^er and person.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

" He may come." " Boys may learn arithmetic.''

^ He might retire." " The wind may have shaken
<^ John can assist me." the trees."

*< William must obey his in- '^ The lady could have procured

structer." her fan."

•* We may have erred." "James may catch the thief."

"John's father would go." " They might learn."

** I do rejoice." " The committee will visit the
"We do learn." school."

"John will resume his task." "An idle boy will find pov-
"An industrious boy will be erty."

rich."

XIII. . CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB

To, be.

^ 222. When I say, '' I am at home/' you know that am is a verb, because
it implies being or existence 5 and since to be means to exist, the verb am has
been called the verb to be»

228 INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular, Plural

1. I am. 1. We are.

2. Tou are 2. You are.

3. He is. 3. Thoy axa

IMPSRFVCT TEN9B

Singufar, Fluro?.

1. 1 was. 1. We were.

2. Ton were. 8. Tou were.
'3 He wag. 3. They were.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singukw, " PhtrdL

1. I have been. 1. We have been.

9. Tou have been. « 2. Tou have been.
3 He ha« been. 3. They have been.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular, Plural.

1. I had been. 1. We had been.

2. Tou had been. 2. Tou had been.
A. He had been. 3. They had been.

FIRST FUTURE TENSB.

Singular, Plurai.

1. I shall or will be. 1. We ihall &r will be.

2. Tou shall or will be. 2. Ton shall or wiU be

3. He shall or will be. 3. They .shall or will b<i{

SECOND FUTURE TENSE.

Singular, Plural.

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been

8. Tou will have been. ~ 2. Tou will have been.

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been.

POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.

SinguloT. Phural,

1. I may, can, or must be. 1 . We may, can, or n&ust !>•.

2. Tou may, can;Or must be. 1^. Tou may, can, or must be.

3. He may, can, or must^be. 3. They may, can, or must be.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular, Plural,

1. I might, eomd, would, or 1. We might, could, would, «r

should be. should be.

2. Tou might, could, would, or 2. Tou mieht, could, would, or

should be. should be.

3. He might, could, would, or 8. They might, eouM, would, ar

shouM be. should be.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural,

1. I may, can, or must have been. 1. We may, can, or must have

2. Tou may, can, or must have been.

been. 2. Tou may, can, or must hanw

3. He may, can, or must have been.

been. 3. They may, can, or must have

been.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular, Plural,

\ might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or
\ have been. should have been,

eu might, could, would, or 2. Tou might, could-, would, or
should have been. should have been,

might, could, would, or 3. They mieht, could, would, or
Tura have been. should nave been.

98 fil^GLlSU GRAMMAR.

224. Synapsis of the Second Person Singular with Thou.

INDICATIVE MOOD. POTENTIAL MOOD.

Prea Thou art Pres. Thou mayst, cauRt, or must be.

Imp. Thou wast Imp, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,

Per/ Thou hast been* or shouldst be.

Plup. Thou hadst been. Perf» Thou mayst, canst, or must

1 Iut» Thou shalt or wilt have been.

be. Plup, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,

3jF\il Thoa wilt have or shouldst have been. -

been.

XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION.

Q. Why is am a verb ? (156.) What is it sometUhes called 7 (222.) Whj
kit so called 7 (222.)

Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to be with / through the indica-
tire mood 7

Q. Will you conjugate am in the present indicative ? Imperfect 7 Per«
feet T riuperfect 7 1 Future 7 2 Future 7 Present potential 7 Imperfect 7
Perfect 7 Pluperfect 7

Q. In what mood, tense, number and person is ** I am" 7 ** Am 1 1" " You
were" 7 " I have been" 7 " Have you been 7" " He may or can be" 7 " We
should be" 7 '' He may have been" 7 '' They should have been" 7 "Tboa
ihottldfct have been" 7 ** Thou mayst be" 7

Q* Will you repeat the synopsis with thou ?

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

" The girls were industrious.^^
235. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being — ^neu-
ter ; it is neither active nor passive, expressing simply be-
ing — INDICATIVE MOOD ; it Simply indicates or declares a
thing — IMPERFECT TEr^sE ; it expresses past time — <* 1. I
was ; 2. You were ; 3. He was. Phir. 1. We were ;
2. You were ; 3. Tliey were, or girls were" — ^made in the
THIRD PERSON pLUPjUi, bccause its nominative girls is, with
which it agrees, agreeably to

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in
number and person,

Industriof's is an adjective, a word joined with a noun
to describe it — " industrious, more industrious, most industri-.
ous" — ^in the positive degree ; it describes, without any
comparison — and belongs to the noun girls^ according v>
] Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which ihey d'

cribe.
inr For the and girls, apply RuLSs III. &nd VI.

/•,

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINrED.

** William is attentive." " Am I young ?"

" John is studious." ** Was I wrong ?"

" We are jealous." " Have we been wicked

• Thou ort dutiful." " Were they penitent ?

AUVEKBb. 83

'• Mary has been intelligent" " Washington was patridtic.**

•* The boys will have been du- " Columbus was enterphsing."

tifiil." " My wife's motlier is sick."
'* Their estate was small."

XV. OF THE ADVERB.

Q. When I say ; '' The bird flies swiftly ,'' I do not mean by smJUy to d*
cribe bird : what does suoifUy describe 7

226. The manner of flying.

Q. To what part of speech is awiJUy ^o'ua&i in the phrase, ** The Dird flUf
wrifUy"?

227. To the verb files.

Q. What does the word adverb signify ?

228. Joined to a verb.

Q. What, then, shall we calf all such words as stoi/Uy ?

229. Adverbs.

Q. " John runs very swiftly/' Which word here describes or showg how
swiftly John runs?

230. Very.

Q. What is the word very called, and all such words as quah'iy or describo
adverbs ?

231. Adverbs.

Q. ** Industrious; more mdustrious, most industrious." What are more
and Tttosi called here, and wbv 1

232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify ad-
jectives. •

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be a proper definlUovk
of adverbs ?

233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives,
and other adverbs, to qualify or describe them.

Q. " John visits me q/ten, but Thomas o/ieTier" In tliis example, we see
that adverbs may be compared : will you, therefore, compare soon/

234. " Soon, sooner, soonest."

Q. Will you compare unsely ?

235. " Wisely, more wisely, most wisely."

Q. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared 1

236. By the adverbs 7nore and most.

Q. "Will you in this manner compare admirably 7 foolishly 7
Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as soon
above ; but there is a very considerable number, the comparison of which is
not re erul^-^H by any general rule. The follo\%ing list emnraces adverbs va- , .
p^t^c. ^,^*-^'- - . -, 'Uo comjiarative^d soj^eriattve-olleach, a« Z**

34 LJNGLllSa URAMMAK.

S38. AVrtC/— Adverbs, though very nameroua. may nevortlieJeM be ndUfMd to a frit
Alaases. You will now read with attention the roUowing list, and I will (hen ask jtta
•ome qnestiong respecting each clan.

I. Of number r as, ** Ouce, twice, thrice,*' &c.

5. Of order: as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally,'* &e.

3. Of place.* as, ** Here^ there, where, elsewhere, anywhere. somewhere, nowhertt
herein, wfaithw, hither, thither, upward, downward, forwara, backward, whenoa.
hence, thence, whithersoever,* * &,e

4. Of time.

Of time present f as," Now, to-day,** &.c

Of time past t as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, kmf
•ince, long ago,** &c

Oftims to come t as, *^ To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, heiioefoilh, henoeforwiurd,
by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways,*' &c.

^ Of time ind^mUt as, " Oft, often, ofttimes, oftentimes, flometimee, eoon, MAdom,
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again,** &c.

d. Of^utnUty: as, "Much, little, sufllciently, how much, how great, aaough,
Abondantly,** &c.

6. Of manner ot quality i as. "Wisely, foolishly, iustly, unjustly, quickly, slowly,"
Ibc. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ^ and they are geoeratly formed
bjy adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing U into ly t as,
'^Bad, badly : cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably j admirabfe, admirably.'*

7. Of doum I as, " Perhaps, peradventure. possibly, perchance.**

• 8. Of tfffirmatiant as, " Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yas
surely, indeed, really,'* &c.

9. Ot negation: as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise," 8u).

10. Of mtem^^atiimt as, "How, why, wherefore, whether,** &c.

II. Of eomjNirMon.* as, "More, most, better, best, worse, worst, leaa, kaat, tok^,
almost, little, alike^** &c.

When a preposition sutfen no change, but becomes an adverb merely by ite appli-
cation: as when we say, " He rides about i" "He was near falling;" "But do not
iffter lay the blame on me.'*

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the letter a uead
instead of at, on. &c. : as, " Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed,
aground, afloat. **

Q. Will you name two adverbs of number Y two of order T two of place f
two of time present 7 two of time past 7 two of time to come 7 two of time
indefinite 7 tiwo of quantity 7 two of manner or quality 7 two of doubt 7 two
of affirmation 7 two of negation 7 two of interrogation 7 two of comparison T

Q. Adjectives descril^ as well as adverbs t how, then, can you tell one
from the other 7

239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe
Dr qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Q. This fact should be remembered 5 you shall, Uierefore, have it in the
form of a rule : will you repeat it t

Adverbs qualify verbsj adjectives^ and othet

adverbs.

Q. From bad we »^.»rm the adverb badly : how, then, may a large class 01
adverbs be formed 7

240^ By adding ly to adjectives.

" — — • -^ y .. n il fnam on nHir o r h fmm uris* ? frnm irre/it? finm

FKEPOSSlTlONfl.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

Adverbs qualifying verbs,
"The soldiers marched slowly," " They will return soon."
"The girls sing delightfully." "The boys write admirably.**
"Henry improves rapidly." " Susan dances elegantly.**

Adverbs qualifying adjectives.
"He was very attentive." "James is more studious."

"John is quite busy." " Walter is most studious.**

* William is really studious." " Ellen is less happy."

Adverbs qualtfying verbs and other adverbs,
' Ycu learn grammar very " James writes most eleg^tly."
well." " I will assist you most cheer

" The boys write too fast" fully."

" He will come much oftener."

Adverbs promiscuously used,
" He has read once." " John is not happy."

'* T will first remind you." " Whither shall I fly ?*'

" I saw him yesterday." " My brother sends mo the pa-

" I have eaten sufficiently." per monthly,"

XVI. OF THE PREPOSITION.

Q. To say, " The cider i»--cellar/' would make no sense i can you infom
nre what wouJcl make sense 7

242. " The cider is in the cellar."

Q. By placing the little word tn after cider isj and before cellar, the wa
tence is rendered complete : what office, then, does tn perform 7

243. It connects words, and thereby jshows the re-»
lation between them.

Q. What does the word p eporition mean 7

244. Placed before,

Q. What, then, may those words like in be called, as they are placed be-
fore other words to connect them with words precedii^ 7

245. Prepositions,

Q. What, then, are prepositions 7

246. Prepositions are words used to connect words,
and thereby show the relation between them.

247. List of the principal Prepositions.

Amon^ at concerning near

arouna by down of

amidst below except ofT

athwart between excepting on

after beneath for over

about behind from •ut of

against betwixt in respecting

across beside into to

above beyond instead of towards

according to before notwithstanding through

Q. Will you mention the prepositions beginning with a? with^f cf df
«?/7»f nf o? r? t? uf wf

throughout

touching

upon

under

underneath

unto

with

within

without

3ft ENGLISH GKAMMAR.

Q. Will yoa now repeat all the prepositions 7

Q. Do we say, " He works for I/' or, " He iVorks for me" I

Q. In what case is im 7 (127.)

Q> What case, then, follows prepositions T

248. The objective case.

Q. This fact is of sufiicieut importance to constitute a rale : will you,
iierefore, repeat

HtrZaS 2C>

Prepositions govern the objective case.

kxERCISES IN PARSING.

" John f<yand his hat in the roadJ^

249. In i^a preposition, a word used to connect words,
and show tlie relation between them ; it here shows the rela-
tion between hat and road.

Road is a noun ; it is a name— common ; it is a general
name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female —
THIRD person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it
means but one — objective case ; it is the object of the rela-
tion denoted by the preposition in, and governed by it accord-
ing to

Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective caseJ^

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

" John ran through the house " I will search the house dili

into the garden." gently for him."

•* We have deceived him to our " We might learn the lesson

sorrow." before them."

•*We came in season." "According to my impression,

" You study grammar for your he 'j in fault"

improvement in language." " No^ withstanding his poverty

* From virtue to vice the prog- iie was the delight of hiai

rcss is gradual." acquaintances."

^ They travelled into France " On all occasions she behaved

through Italy." with propriety."

** He lives within his income." " Of his talents we might say

*« Without the aid of charity, he much."

lived very comfortably by " We may expect a calm aflei

his industry." a storm."

XVII. OF THE CONJUNCTION.

Q. Wlien I say, " John his book," the >flense. you oerceive, is incom

plete. Can you put a word into the blank whicii will complete the seiase 1

250 " John reads his book."

* The remaiiiing^ words are parsed a3 before.

CONJUNCTltWS. 3?

Q. Can yoa hifonn me what the foregoing expresakni is called f

251. A sentence.

Q. What, then, is a sentence 7

252. A collecti on of words, forming a complete sense.

Q. " Life is short/' This expression is called a sentence : can you tell me
wbai kind; and why ?

' 253. It is a simple sentence, because it makes senset
and has but one nominative and one verb.

Q. What does the tenn compotmd mean 7

254. It means composed of two or more things.

Q. " Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of two sim
pie sentences i what, therefore, may it be called 7

255. A compound sentence.

Q. What, then, is a compound sentence 7

256. A compound sentence contains two or more
simple sentences connected together. ^

Q. What does the term conjunction signify 7

257. UnioUy or joining together.

Q. In the compound sentence, " John writes, and MTlIliam learns,'' the
simple sentences are joined together by the word oftd : what word, then, may
am he called 7

258. A Conjunction.

Q. " The king and queen are an amiable pair." In this sentence, dwords
and not sentences are connected by and : can you point out tl>e words so con-
nected 7

259. mng and queen.

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the coi»>

lURction 7

260. A conjunction is used to connect words and

sentences together.

Q. When I say, " Five ajpd four are nine," what do I mean 7

261. Five added to four make nine.

Q. VVliat, then, is implied by and?

262. Addition.

Q. When 1 say, " I will go, if j'ou will accompany me," what does the
conjunction if imply 7

263. Condition or supposition. p

Q. What does the word copulative mean 7

264. Uniting, joining, or linking together.

Q. And, iff &c. are called copulative conjunctions : can you tell me why 7

265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or
continues a sentence by expressing an addition, a
supposition, a cause, &c.

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class i will you re
peat ihem 7

266. " And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided,
since, then, that, therefore, wherefore."

Q. WHien I say, " James and John will come," I mean both will come.
nut wlien I say, " James or John will come," what do I mean 7

267. That either James or John, one of them, wi

<*onrie.

36 l£NGUSil GKAMMAR

Q. Are the words in this scmtence, then, jinned or di^aed f

268. Disjoined.

Q. What word is it that expresses the di^oining ?

269. Or.

Q. What part of speech is or ?

270. Conjunction.

Q. What does the word duftmetwt mean T

271. Disjoining or separating.

Q. What kind of a conjunction; then, shall we call or f

272. A disjunctive conjunction.

Q. ** James wiU come, but Henry will not'' Here the two daasM of ths
sentence are opposed to each other m meaning^, and the word but separaiea
these two clauses : what, then, does this word imply T

273. Opposition of meaning.

Q. From toe foregoing, what appears to be the use ofi^ disjmictiTe con-
lunction 7

274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sen
tences, by expressing opposition of meaning in van*
ous degrees.

Q. The fdlowing are the pniicipal coi^jnnctions of tins class i wifl yoa r^
peat them 7

275. '< But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, nei-
ther, nor, less, yet, notwithstanding."

Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as weD as confunctians i
how, then, can you tell the one from the other ?

276. Prepositions show the relation between words,
but conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a
3anse, or an opposition of meaning.

Q. ** He and she write/' In what case \she? she?

Q. The pronouns ke and «^. vnu perceive, are both in the same case, and
connected by the conjunction ond: when, tnen, may nouns and pronouns
be connected 7

277. When they are in the same case.

Q. ** She will sing and dances." How may this sentence be corrected 7

278. " She will sing and dance."

Q. In what mood and tense is ** She will sing'' ?

Q. To say, '^he dance," is incorrect ; dance, then, m this example, Cft^
not be in the present tense : will you, then, inform me wBat " She will sing and
dance" means, when fully expressed 7

279 " She will sing and she will dance."

Q. Here toill dance is in the future tense, as well as will sing : when, then,
may verbs, in^ncral, be connected 7

280. when they are in the same mood and tense.

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for the use
f conjunctions, in connecting words 7

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same
mood and tense^ and noUns or pronouns of the
same case.

INTERJECTIONS.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

** Jokn asiists his father and mother.^*

281. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect
words and sentences — copulative ; it connects father and
m^her.

Mother is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general
name — ^feminine geftder ; it is the name of a female —
THIRD PERSON ; it is spokcn of — singular number ; il
means but one — and it is one of the objects of assists, and
is, therefore, in the objective case, and connected with
father by the conjunction and, according to

Rule XI. Cor^unciions usually connect verbs of the same
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same cast,

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

" I will reward him and them at

some future time."
•* We in vain (1.) look for a path

between virtue and vice."
** Reproof either hardens or

softens its object"

* In the morning of life, we ea-

gerly pursue pleasure, but
oftentimes meet (2.^ with
sad disappointments."

* A good scnolar never mutters

nor disobeys his instructer."

^She reads well, dances (3.)
elegantly, and pliqrs admi-
rably on the piano-forte."

^ Intemperance destroys the
mind and benumbs the
senses of man."

** You may read this sentence
first, and then parse it."

" He has equal knowledge, but
inferior judgment."

" John rises early in the morn
ing, and pursues his ^tud
ies.'

itNlll, -OF INTERJECTIONS.

Q. When I exclaim, " Oh ! I have rmned my friend/' " Alas ! I fear fbi
life/' which words here appear to be thrown in tetween the sentences, to ex.
press passion or feelinff ?

282. Oh I Alas !

Q. What does inUrj'eciion mean 7

283. Throvm between.

Q. What name, then, shall we give such words aaoh! alas ' &c. ?

284. Interjections.

Q. What, then, are interjections ? <

285. Interjections are words thrown in between the
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden
feelings of the speaker

(1.) In vam means the same zsvaifdy. It may, therefore, be called aa
adverbial phrase, qualifying looky by Rule IX.

(2.) meet agrees witn toe understood, and is, therefore, connected with jour
rue by the conjunction bid. according to Rule XI.

(3.) Dances fiXiA plays ooth agree with shCf understood, and are, therefor**-
connected, the former with reads, and the latter wth davres, by Rule XI.

«0 fiNGLISH GRAMMAR.

LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.

1. Of earnestness or grief; as, ** O ! oh ! alas ! ah '"

2. Of wonder ; as, " Really ! strange !"

3. Of c<illing ; as, " Halloo ! ho ! hem !"

4. Ofaitenlton; as, "Behold! lo! hark!"

5. Of disgust ; as, « Poh ! fy ! fudge ! away !"

6. Of silence ; as, « Hush ! hist !"

7. Of contempt ; as, « Pish ! tush !"

8. Of saluting ; as, " Welcome ! hail !"

Q- "^U you examine the foregoing list, and then name an interiection of
grief? One of wonder? One of catlinf? One of attention? Chieof dib
gust ? One of silence ? One of salutine 7

Q. How may an interjection generally be known ?

286. By its taking an exclamation point after it.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

" Oh ! I have alienated my friend^

287. Oh is an interiection, a word used to express pas-
sion or feeling.

O* The remaining words are parsed as before.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

'^Oh! I must go and see (1.) <* Strange! I did not know

my dear faSier before (2.) you."

he dies." ^ Hush ! our instructer is at the

•* We eagerly pursue pleasure, door."

but, das ! we often mistake ** Py ! how angry he is !"
the road to its (3.) enjoy-
ment"

(I.) The sense is, ** I must go, and I must see f the verb sUf then, a g r wo i
widi A understood, and is, therefore, cpnuected with fwutt gOy atccoraing tt
Rule XI.

Before, an adverb.

Apply, fint, Rule V.; then Rule L

}il

RECAPITULATION.

CRITICAL REMARKS.
ooxcposiTxoxr.

XIX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

288. English Grammar teaches us to speak and whl0
lie English language correctly.

289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely,

290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax,
2. Etymology, 4. Prosody.

XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature
and power of letters, and teaches how to spell words correctly.
This*part of grammar is usually learned from spelling-books
and dictionaries.

292. Orihcgroq)hy means toord^making, or speUing.

XXI. OF ETYMOLOGY.

293. Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words
in the English language, several grand divisions or sorts,
commonly called Parts of Speech.

294. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of
words — also their diiFerent changes and derivations.

295. Etyniology signifies the origin or pedigree of words.

XIX. What doea Englieh grammar How is a knowledge of orthography
leach? 288. usually obtained? 291.

Into how many parts is it divided ? 289. What does orthography mean r 292.
What are they f 290. XXI. VV^hat does etymology teach ? 293

XX. What does orthography include What does it include ?.294.

•ad teach ? 291 What does the word signify ? 805

43 ENGLISH GRAAIMAR.

XXII. OF SYNTAX.

296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words italA
sentences correctly.

^97. It includes a knowledge of the rules of composi
tion, formed from the practice of the best writers and
speakers.

298. Syntax si^^es arrangtr^ or placing togeiher ; or, as used in gram-
mar, sentence-maJttr^.

XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED.

299. The words of the English language are usually
divided into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech,
namely,

Noun, Pronoun, Preposition,

Article, Verb, Conjunction,

Adjective " Adverb, Interjection.

XXIV. OF NOUNS.

300. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing ;
as, man, Ltondon^ knif^-

301. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common.
Common nouns are general names ; that is, they are names

common to all individuals of the same kind or sort; as, liotLse
city, river,

302. Proper nouns are particular names ; that is, they
are the names of particular individuals of the same kind or

sort; as, George, Jioston^ Mississippi,

SOS. When proper names have an article placed before them, they are used
as common names ; as, '^ He;,is the Cicero of his ag«/'

304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it oecomes a common noun ;

^— T r I ■ ■ 1^ ■ I ■■ ■ I - ] ■ I

XXII. What does syntax teach ? 396. What does the word common mean ?
What does it include ? 297. 31.

What does the word signify ? 298. What is a common noun ? 301. Give

XXIII. How many different sorts of an example.

words are there ? 299. What does proper mean ? 34.

What are they ? 299. What is a propei noun ? 302. Give an

What are these sorts of words com- example,

monly called ? 299. When proper nouns have an article be-

XaI V. What does the word noun fore them, how are they used ? 303. Give

mean ?* an example.

What is a nonn ? 300. Give an exam- Are proper names used as such in the

pie. plural i 304.

How many different kinds of nouns are Why cannot proper names have a plu

there, f*^ what are they.' 301. ral ? 304.

• Sm L i«t

■mwor.

NOUNS. 43

as, " The twelve CoRsars, * or, " The seven Jameses." This is obvious from
the fact, that a proper name is, in its nature, descriptive of one object oalj,
and, therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns Spamardf Euro-
pecMy American, Sec. are common nouns, as well as their plurals, SpamanU,
Europeans, Amiricans, &c.* ^

305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by the addi-
tion of articles or pronouns ; as " The boy is studious '," ** Tnalgirl is dis-
creet."

3d6. When a noun signifies fftoam. it is called a noun of multitude, or a col-
lective noun ; as, " The people J^ " The army."

307. Abstract signifies taken from : hence an abstract noun is the name of a
quality abstracted from its substance 3 as, knotoled^f goodness^ virtue, dec.

fUbS. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case.

XXV. PERSON.

309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own
name, it is the first person ; as, " I, James, of tbe city of
Boston, do give," &c.

310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second
person ; as, " James, come to me.'*

311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about
is the third person ; as, " James has come."

XXVI. GENDER

312. Gender is the distinction of sex.

313. Nouns have four genders — ^the masculine, the femi-
nine, the common, and the neuter.

314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males ;
as, man, boy, &c.

315. The feminine gender denotes the name of females;
as, woman, girl. ^

What do they become when so used .' When is a noun of the second person '

3(Vt. Give an example. 310. Give an example. '

What kind of nouni are S^aniardf When is a noun of the third penosf

Smer leans y Spaniards? 3D4 311. Give an example.

What enoct does the use of articles XXVI. What does the word grndsr

have on common noana ? 305. mean ? 14

What is a noun of multitude, or a col- What is gender as applied to noans '

let'tive noun i 306. Give an example. 31S.

VVhat is an abstract noun? 307. Give VVliatdoesthe word ma«e«2jiis mean? 15.

&n example. What does tho masculine gender of

What belong to nouns? 308. nouns denote? 314. Give an example.

XXV. Whon is a noun of the first What docs /eminiiM mean? 19.

persocJ 301). Give an example. What does the feminine gender denote?

315. Give an example.

* Spahi if the inoper name of a country, and apaniaird has, bf mnne (p^mmaritnt, been caHed the props'
Dunr of a )>finp1e ; but the latter is » generic tenn, chaiaqteriang anir one of a g.'vat number of penena, Igr

toi'ir r'lnov^imi with ^wr\.—Eitcyrtofimiiui.

)

ENGLISH eiUMMAK

316. The common gender denotes the names of such
animals as may be either male or female ; as, parent, bird.

317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects
which are neither males nor females ; as, chmrf table.

318. Some nouns, naturally neater, do, by a figure of speech, as it is called
become masculine or feminine ; as when we say of the sun, '^ Ht is settin|^,^

and of a ship, " She sails well,'' &c.

fll9. The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, viz i

319-1. By different words ; as,

MaU.

FemaJU.

MaU.

FemaU,

Bachelor,

Maid.

Husband,

Wife.

Boar,

Sow.

King,

Queen.

Boy,

Girl.

LaJ;

Lass.

Brother,

Sister.

Lord,

Lady.

Buck,

Doe.

Man,

Woman.

Bull,

Cow.

Master,

Mistress.

Bullock or /
Steer, \

Heifer

Milter,
Nephew,

Spawner
Niece.

Cock,

Hen.

Ram,

Ewe.

Drue,

Bitch.
Duck.

Singer,

( Songstresa or
I Sineer.
Madam.

Earl,

Countess

Sir,

•Father,

Mother.

Sloven,

Slut

Friar,

Nun.

Son,

Daughter

Hind.

Aunt.

Gander,
Hart,

Goose.
Bx)e.

Stag,
Unde,

Horse,

Mare.

Wizard,

Witch.

319-2. By a difference of termination

jas.

MaU,

Female,

MaU,

FemaU,

Abbot,

Abbess.

Enchanter,

Enchantress.

Actor,

Actress.

Executor,

Executrix.

Administrator,

Administratrix.

God,

Goddess.

Adulterer,

Adulteress

Governor,

Governess.

Ambassador,

Ambassadress

Heir,

Heiress.

Arbiter,

Arbitress.

Hero,

Heroine.

Baron,

Baroness.

Hunter,

Huntress.

Brideffroom,
Bene»ctor,

Bride.

Host,

Hostess.

Benefactress

Instnicter,

Instructress.

Caterer,

Cateress.

Jew,

Jewess.

Chanter,

Chantress.

Landgrave,

Landgravine.

Conductor,

Conductress

Lion,

Lioness.

Count,

Countess.

Marquis,

Marchioness.

Czar,

Czarina.

Mayor,

Mayoress.

Deacon,

Deaconess.

Patron,

Patroness.

Duke,

Duchess.

Peer,

Peeress.

Elector,

Electresd.

Poet,

Poetess.

Emperor,

• Empress.

Priest,

Priestess.

What does the common gender denote ?
816. Give an example.

What does nettter mean ? 23.

What doei the neuter gender denote ?
317. Give an example.

What ia said of nouns naturally nea-
ter, in respeet to gender ? 318. Give an
example.

How many genders do nouns have, and
what are they ? 30.

How many methods are there in Eng-
lish of distioguiRhingsox? 319.

Which is the first j as, hoy 1 girl ? 319-1.

Will you spell the feminine correspond-
ing to brotherl 319-1 to boy 1 n^fJuwJ

viiardl firiar7 nr7 drakel earll gandgrf
hart Ikmgl ladl man ? mtuUrl singer
sUvenI »on1 sta^l wulel

Will you spell the masculine corre
q>ondlng to nuddl girl 7 madam ? daugkr-
Ur ? nisce ?

What is the second method of distin-
guishing sex ; as, abbot ? abbesa ? 319-2

Will yoQ spell the feminine corra
aponding to abbetf actor 1 administrator ?
baron ? bentfactor ? bridegroom 7 conduct-
or! etarf dukel emperor! executor 7
god 7 governor 7 heir 7 hero 7 host 7 hunt-
er 1 mstrueterl Jew! lionl marmusf
patron 7 peer 7 proprietor 7 thtpherd 7 eor-

NOUNII.

4ft

Molt*
Pnnoe,
Prior.
Propoet.
Protector,
Proprietor,
Shepherd,
Songster,;
Sorcerer,

Princets.

Prioress.

Prophetess.

Protectress.

Proprietress.

Shepherdess.

Songstress.

Sorceress.

MaU.

Sultan,

Tiger,

Traitor,

Tutor,

Viscount,

Votary,

Widower,

(Sultanesf,
; Sultana.

Tigress.

Traitress.

Tutoress.

Viscounifli

Votaress.

Widow.

31J-<3. By prefixing a noun,

A cock-sparrow,
A man-servant,
A be-coat,
A he-bear,
A male duld.
Male descenoants.

pronoun, or adjective j as,

A hen-sparrow.
A maid-servant.
A she-goat.
A she-bear.
A female child.
Fci ^e descendants.

XXVII. NUMBER.

320. Number shows how many are mevnt, whether one
ur more.

321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the
ulural.

322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, hoy.

323. The plural number implies more than one ; as, hoys,

324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only ;
18, wheats gold^ sloth, pride, dutifulness,

325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only ;
as, bellows, scissors, kings, riches, &c. «

326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers; aSt
deer, sheep, swine,

927, The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by

adding a to the singular ; as, sing, dove, plur, doves.

328. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows i when the noaa
nngular ends in x, ch, th, or w, we add es to form the plural ; as, box, boxeM ;
dtmvh, chwxJus ; Uuh, lashes; kiss, kisses.

9S9. Nouns ending in / or /e, change these terminations into ves to fbrra
Ifae plural 3 as, loaf, loaves; tei/e, t

wives.

tergri sulUmI ligtrl tutor? XMeovrntl
uuary ? widower 7

Wif. you ape'l the maseuline eorre-
•{MHiding to tMesa 1 etarma 1 dttduss 1
mbasMuress ? heroine 7 kv/ntrese 7 poet-
IM Ivrophetess 7 widow 7

What if the third method of distln-
guishinff sex ; as, a numnservtaU 1 a maUt-
tervanti 319-3.

Will jou spell the feminine eonre-
■ponding to vuih ekUd 7 nude descendanta 7

XXVII. What does the word ntmber
mean f 5.

What does the number of noons show?
390.

What does Hngular mean ? 6

What does the singular arnnber «f
nouns imply ? SSSL Give an ezanqito.

What does j><«raZ mean ? 10.

What does the plural number of nona
imply ? 323. Give an example.

How are wheats geld, Jte. nsed ? 9SI4.

How are heUowa, '*tVf) ^^ m*^ ^ ^^ <

What ifl said of i<0er, fJiMp, &c. ? 3M

How many numbers do nouns haTO, and
what are they ? 331.

How IB the plural number regularly
formed? 3S7. Givo an example.

Vi hen do we add ea to form the phiral i
328. Giro ai\,example.

What is the plural otUi^ 3S9.

What !■ the role for It ?'^ISO.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

330. When a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the phiral is
fonned regularly; as, Arey, ketfs; deUoff delays; ralJey, valleys. Hji if the y
does not have a vowel hefore it, the plural is fonned by changing y into ies;
•By^VfJlUs; beauty^ beauties.

331. The following nouns form their plurals rot according to any g«iera2
rules:—

Sing.
Man,
Woman,
ChUd,
Ox,
Tooth,
Foot,
Goose,

39S.

Plur.

Men.

Women

Children.

Oxen.

Teeth.

FeeU

Geese.

1 Sing.

I Mouse,

Louse,

Cow,

Penny,

Die,

Pea,

Plur, I Sing. Plur.

Mice. Fish, Fishes. (3.)

Lice. Cupful. Cupfuls.

Cows or Spoonful, Spoonfuls.

Kine. Brother-in-law, Brothers-in-law

Pence. (1.) Court-martial, Oourts-martial.

Dice. (2.) T>^.u^- i Brothers or

l(3.J ^^^^'f ^Brethren.

Peas.

Mathematics, metavkyaies, pneumatics, ethics, politics. Sec. are reck
oned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally true of meanSf
alt^, amends. Antipodes, credenda, minutia, Hterati, Sot. are always pluraL
Bandit is now considered the sin^ar of banditti. The r.ovn news is always
singular. Many nouns form their plurals according to the laws of the Ian
guage from which they are derived. The following ore of this class h-

Singular.
Antithesis,

Appondiz,

Apex,

Arcanwn,

Automaton,

Axis,

Beau,

Basis,

Calx,

Cherub,

Crisis,

Criterion,

Patum,

Diseresis,

Desideratum,

Effluvium,

Ellipsis,

Emphasis,

Encomium, •

Erratum,

Pharal.

Antitheses.
( Appendixes or
\ Appendices.

Apices.

Arcana.

Automata.

Axes.

Beaux or Beaus.

Bases.

Calces.
J Cherubim or
\ Cherubs.

Crises.

Criteria.

Data.

Disereses.

Desiderata

Effluvia.

Ellipses.

Emphases.
( Encomia or
I Encomiums

Errata.

Sii^gular.
Genius,
Genus,
Hypothesis,
Igius fatuus.

Index,

Lamina,
Magnus,

PbiraL

Genii. (4.)

Genera.

Hypotheses.

Ignes faloi.
( Indices or
( Indexes. (5.)

Laminne.

Magi.

Bfemorandum, ^ wlSo^dHms.
Metamorphosis, Metamorphoses.

Parenthesis,
Phenomenon,
Radius,
Stamen,

Seraph,

Stimulus,
Stratum,

Thesis,
Vertex,

Vortex,

Parentheses.

Phenomena.

Radii or Radhiaes.

Stamina.
( Seraphim or
( Seraphs.

Stimuli.

Strata.

Theses.

Vertices.
J Vortices or
f Vortexes.

tke singular of bmukttif

Will you Bpell the plural of iMov ? 330.
valley 1 ^Vhat is the rule for rorming
these plurals? 330.

, Will you spell the plural of fly 1 330.
' hsavty 7 Rule for the plural ?

Do man, wnnan, form their plurals reg-
ularhr, or irregularly ? 331.

Will vou spell the plural of num ? of
vomav 1 ehUdf ozl tooth! foot! gooael <^
ntonse ? louse ? hrotker 7 diel fshl spoort-
fiitl eourt-martiall

Will you spell the' singular of liee?
IHnel emosi bretkreHl oxent teeth!
pence ? pennies 1 peas 1 fishes ? eupsfutt
brothera-in-lato 1

Wlmt is the plural of om, whrn we re-
fer to quantity .' Offish /

(I.) /»rnmV«, when th« coin is mrant, (2.) Diet AH* coinins- (^-^ Peatt a;;!! /jA, meaninjj qnantitiea •
bii* ptns and ftiAttf when number is nse.int,

(4.> (."iTift. ti'hcn dftiotiiie "••nal j.r iniaTtn.T-r 5)ilirTii; rrni'iLtf*, wb«n (leTiotin!» prnsoM of pmlnt. (S.) ftt-
dcra m1i»'U 'I«ii"tiin5 |>oinlcr» m !al>lri (»f coufi-ids; m/iVft. w ttrn referring to aUrbntir ijiiantilirt. .

What
333.

In accordance with what laws does an^
titheais torm the plural ? 339.

Wilt you sx»ell the plural of spexl op.
pendix"* areaawml oMUrmalon! axis? cri-
sis ? basis 7- criterion 1 dntum 7 desidertL-
turn 7 iff.umum7 encomxum.7 erratum 7
gemius7 index 7 meimora'ndum7

Will you spell the singular of bassa t
bettnx7 ehentbs? dlipses7 genii 7 theesaJ
parentheses? stinutli? strata?

How are wathematics, opfi«»j&c. con-
sidered in regard to number ? 332.

Of what number is means? 332. alms ?
awmdsl antipodes? literati? news?

NOUNS 47

XXVIIl. CASE.

333. Case means the different state, condition, or relar»
tion which nouns have to other words in the same sentence.

334. In English, nouns have three cases — the nominative
the possessive, and the objective.

335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer,
and always thft subject of the verb.

336. The subject is Uie thing chiefly spoken of; as, ''John assists Wil

am :" here, John is the subject spoken of, or the nominative case to the verb

•uists.

337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership,
property, &c. ; as, ** William's book." This case may be
distinguished from the other cases by the apostrophe or the

letter 5.

338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by
taking the apostrophe and the letter 5 afler it ; as, " John's

hat."

339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case sim-
ply by taking the apostrophe ; as, " On eagles' wings." •

340. When the plural of nouns does not end in s^ they form their possessive

case bj taking both the apostrophe and the letter s ; as, '' MenU houses.''

341. When the singular ends in sSy the apostroplie only is added ; as, '' For

gooebtess^ sake :" except the noun vntiiess ; as, " The witnesses deposition.''

342. Nouns ending in nee form this possessive by adding the apostrophe

only 3 aS; " For conscunce? sake :" because an additional s would occasion too
much of the hissing sound, or iiicrease the difficiQty of pronunciation.

343. The objective case denotes the object of an action
of relation.

344. In the sentence, ** John strikes him," him is the ol^ect of the action

denoted by strikes ; and in the sentence, " He went from London to York,'
York is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to.

345. DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

Singular, Plural. Singular. Plural.

Nominative castTf* Mother. Mothers, Man, Men.

Posstssive case J Mother's, Mothers'. Man's, Men's.

Objective case. Mother, Mothers. Man, Men.

*^^— ^ , ■■ - I I B ■ II ■ I — ' 1 ■ "^

XXVIIl. What is the meaning of the How do nouns in the plural? 339.
vord ease 1 47. When the plural noun does not end in^

What i« me.int by the ease of nonns ? s. how is its possossivo formed ? 340

£?''. Give an example.

How many caser have nouns, and what When the singular ends in as, how ia

Vethey? 334. the possessive case formed? 341. Give

What does nominatioe mean? 49. an example.

What is the nominative ease ? 335. How ia the possessive ease of noumi

Give an example. ending in nee formed ? 343. Give an ex-

What do ^ou understand by the sub- amnio.
ject of a verb .' 336. Illustrate it by an Why is not the s added ? 3^.
example. What does the word otjeetioe mean ?

What does possessive, mean ? 59. 55.

What does the possessive ease denote ? What does the objective case of

337. Give an example. nouns denote ? 343. Give an ex

(low may this case be distinguished ample.
''rotn the other cases ? 337. What does the declension of noiBi

Mow do nouns in tlie singular form mean ? 68.
t'leir poBsosflivo raso ? 338. Give an ox- Will vou dncline mofhsr ? 345, man ?

mniili,. brother^ hat!

40 ENGLISH HKAMMAK.

Binua z.

The possessive case ts governed hy the follotnng noun

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

" John's wife returned J*

346. John's is a proper noun, of the mx9cvi^ink gender, the

THIRD PERSON, 8IN6DI.AR NUHBSR, POSSESS f^E CASE, Bud gOY-

emed by mfe^ by Rule I. *

Wife is a common noun, of the feminine oender, the thhid

person, SINGULAR NUMBER, RQd NOMINATIVE CASE tO reltomed,

by Rule VL

Returned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood,
IMPERFECT TENSE — ^ 1. I returned; 2. You returned; 3. He
returned, or wife retumed^-^made in the third person, sin-
gular, and agrees with u^e, by Rule YII.

MORE EXERCISES IN SYNTAX

" William's mm has come." '* William's wife's sister remain-

«« John's brother died." ed in town."

** John makes (1.) boys' hats." ** Rufus studied Johnson's Diction-

*< John lost his kmfe." ary."

*< The boys neglected their les- ** Mary's bonnet is old."

sons." " Virtue's reward is sure." (2.)

• Intemperance ruins its votaries." ** Ruftis's hat is new."

SENTENCES TO BE- PARSED AND CORRECTED.

" Brothers estate"

347. If you examine the foregoing example, you will find it di£5cult to as
certain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more ; if of one
only, an apostrophe should precede the s, thus : ** Brother's estate i^ but if it
belongs to moro than one, an apostrophe shoula follow the Sj thus ; " Brothers'
estate.-^' Mistakes of this sort oAen occur ; hence you perceive the importance
m wriUng, of attending to the subject of grammar.

*' Mans* hapjfiness"

348. Incorrect, because mairUi^ is in the possessive case, sin-
gular number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be placed
before the «, according to the observations above, and Art.39B.

Will you repeat the rale for the pes- Why cannot you tell ?

■euive ease ? Rule I. If only one brother is meant, hov

In the sentenee, "John's wife return- ihonld the apostrophe be placed ? How.

ed*," will you parse John's ? wife ? r*. if more than one ?

ternerf? 346. In the phrase, <* Mans* happineas,"

VK^y is John's in the possessive case ? why is it incorrect for the apostrophe to

337. follow the s ? 348.

What kind of a verb is retmnud 1 34S. What is the rule for forming the pos-

Why ? 153. sessivo cose of nouns ? 338.

In what case is wife ? 346. Will jron now parse man's?

Why ? 335. We spell the posBeRsive ease of mmn

9^ 7^ |M<ptI fMty next ptwH tAe adii- thus, fii-a-n-(apofltropho) a ; will vou in

Uonal exercises in syntax, like manner spell the possessive of John ?

In the phrase, ** Brothers estate," does WUUam ? Rv^fits 1 women 1 boys 1

one brother, or more than one, own the ^CT "The renumang exercises are to be

estate ? 347. corrected as veil as parsed.

(1.) 4stiTe-tnuiMUTe nrb. (9.) AdJcctiTe, and belomp tn nuwrrf, hj Rnlc IT.

aATICLM. 19

8BNTENCS8 TO BE PARSED ANIi CORRECTED» CONTINVE9.

"Johns 80ta departed.*' " I discovered Mariaa faults."

** Susans sister will learn." << Susam made little Harriets boo-
" Charles task is too difficult." net."

'* I have read Willi's poem.^ *' Johnson makes mens shoes.**

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.*

349. Will joxK write down two sentenceSf each eontahmg a
flrbper nioariy as for example, " William leama grammar'' ? Cm
contaimng a coamion noun ? One, containing a Bonn of ^e third
person singular ? One, of the third person plural, and in th^
Dominatiye case ? One, having a noun of the second person
singular and of thdf femimne gender ? Okie, having a noun tho
mm» ef scMie artidd of food ? One, having a notin llie name of
some quality ? One, having a noun of multitude ? One, havingf
your owrk name associated wiCh htkfk; aM, <^John Griacom's
hook"?

XXIX. OF ARTICLES.

350. Articles are words put bofore nonnd, to point them
oat, or to limit their meaning.

351. Thtere are two articles, a or an, and the,

352. A or an is called the indefinite article.

353. The is called the definite article.

364. The article a is called indefinite, because it meabsno particular per-
MO or thino' ; as, *' a house/' ** a man/' that is^ any hoase, any man. The artide
Ae is called definite^ because it means some particular persoa or thing ; as,
" the house/' " the man/' meaning some particular house, some particular man.

S56. A becomes on before a vowel, and before a silmi h; an, '* a« acorn."
"an hour." But if the h be sounded, the a only is used j as. *' a hand^" "a
heart :" except when the word before which the article is placed^ has its ac-
cent- on the seecmd syllable ; as, <' an' heroic acUon/' '' on historical account."

396. Before words beginning with » long, a is used- mstead of an; as, "a
anion," " a university," " a useml thinff."

957. A is' also used* for an before we Word one, beieaujie, in prononnciilg
9ne, we sound it as if written vnm,

358. The article a or an means one ; as, " an ounce," " a pound/' that ii,
«ne ounce, one pound.

XXIX. What is an article ? 350. But if the h is sounded, which is to be

What does i^niu mean ? 78. used ? 355. Give an example.

What ie tte ealled f 353. Whj ? 354 What exception to this ? 355. Give an

iir« an exaaipl». example'.

What doer iw ii ^iei mean .'' 91. Do we tay, « a anion," or " m on-

_WhAt is a or <m calfed* ? 368. Why ? ion" ? " a university ," or " M univer-'

IM. Give an exnaple. sity" ? Why ? 358.

How many articles are there ? 351. Do we say, " a ons," or ** an one" i .

Rame thenr. - Why f 357.

When doer A become mt 355. Give What does the aitiele a mean f SSB.

*■ evampie. Give an example.

^^^^^^— **^— ^*** ■■ ■>■■■»■■■■■ ■■■» Bp. ^ — . » I ■■ .^^^11^—

• Either on t ttore or in a mill manoicriiit bonk kept (br ii^m "^fVWh

CNGLISH G-tiAMMAK.

nXTLM xz.

T%« indefinite article ▲ or an belongs to nouna of the mi-

gular number.

The defimte article the belong$ to nouns of the singulaf

or plural number,

969 ExreptUm, Wben the adjectives few, great many, dozen, Ati«-
4Md. tkouecmdj &c. come between the noun and artide, the nooi to
wtncn the indefinite article belongs, if phiral } as, '' a few men," " a great an
wr men."

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" The bird flies swiftly:*
360. The is a DEFimTX articlb, and belongs to IML^ accord-
ing to Rule III.

Bird is a common noun, of the common obnobr, the third

PERSON, SINOULAR NUMBER, ROd In the NOMINATIVE CASE tojltes^

by Rule VI.

Flits is an actiye-intransitiye verb, indicative mood,
PRESENT TENSE — ^ 1. I fly ; 2. You fly ; 3. He flies, or bird
flies" — ^made in the third person, singular, and agrees with
kM, \ij Rule VII.

Sw^Uif is an adverb, quaJiiying^tcs, by Rule IX.

EXERCISES in SYNTAX CONTINUED.

** The hoft have arrived seasona- <* Children attend the school.*'

bly.'* " William founded a university.*'

M Qaltiijeo invented the telescope.'* " The grass is green."

** The boy had an ulcer.*' ** Fanners carry hay into the

*< William gave an historical ac- bam."

count (1.) of the transaction." *< The good scholar obeys Ids in-

'* Columbus discovered the conti- structer."

nent of America."

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.

" He had a ulcer:'
961. Incorrect, because we use an before a vowel, except u
long : a should, therefore, be an ; thus, " an ulcer."

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED.

** A enemy approaches." " Three barley c<Mm8 make s
« James procured a inkstand." inch."

'* He conferred a honor." " Eight drams make a ounce "

*' An unit figure occupies the low- " They formed an union "

est place in whole numbers." ** He quoted an hard saying.

/ " Thomas has lost an horse.

What li the rul« for the indefinite or- 0^ 7^ remammg eaemrdMe mrt next Is

»!■<• f Rule n. htvarsedfrcm the boiJL

What exception to thii rule ? 359. Wonldyou eay. *< a uloer,*' or ** ea uI

What is the rale for the indefinite ar- cer** ? Why I 361.

Uele ? Rule III. Q^ The jmptf Oould now take the re^

lo the sentence, " The bird flies swift, nuumiw seeUneee te he eerreeted, Hk

If,^ how do yoa parse the 1 bird 1 fliee 7 HouldM rtfuired to peree ae well ae eer-

§wV^, T S60 rea theeu

(1.1 A|>p<y Sol* Vlfl-

A0JECTIVEB. §1

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

S62. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definifOi
and in the other ilie indefinite article ? One, containing a correctly used
before u long ? One, having a definite article correct^ used before the
consonant h7

Will you write two nouns, the names of different things in tha
school-room ? Two, the names of different cities ? One sentence, hav-
ing a proper noun used as a common noun ?

XXX. OF ADJECTIVES.

363. An adjectitb is a word joined to a noun, to d^
scribe or define it ; as, " An obedient son."

364. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the
degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of com-
parison — ^the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

365. The positive degree simply describes an object ; as,
" John is good"

366. The comparative degree increases or lessens the pos«
itive in meaning ; as, '< William is better than John." It
implies a comparison between two.

367. The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi«
tive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, ** Thomas is the
best ;" " Walter is the worst.''

368. It implies a comparison between three or more.

369. Tlie simple word, or positive, if a monosyllable, (1.) becomes tht

comparadve by adding r or er, and tlie superiative oy adcung at or est, to the
end of it J as, ime, tower, wisest ; great, ^eater, greatest.

370. hi words of more than one syllable, the comparison is usually made

oy placing the adverbs more and tnost before the positive} as, benevolent, mart
benevolent, most benevolerd.

371. The comparison is sometimes formed by the adverbs less and least ;

as, wise, less wise, least wise.

372. Dissyllables (2.) ending in y. as. happy, lovely, and in le, after a mute,

^3.) as, abU, ample, or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite, easily

XXX. What ii the meaning of the What does it imply ? 368.
word adjective 1 95. What ii a monosyllable ? 369.

What is an adjective ? 363. Give an How are monosyllables compared ? 369

example. Oive an example.

How many degrees of eomparison are How are dissyllables compared ? 37S.
here ? 364. What effect do less and least have oa

Will you name them? adjectives ? 371.

What does the positive degree do f What is a dissyllable ? 375t
365. Give an example. Will you spe]] the comparative and in-

Whatdoes the comparative degree do? perlativo degrees of ablel loveiyl m»-

866. Give an example. plel eUscreetJ polite7 372.

What does it imply ? 366. Which are the mutes ? 379.

What does svp&rleiive mean ? 103. How do words of more than two sylla*

What does the superlative degree do ? bles almost invariably form their eompar-

967. Oive an example. ison ? 379.

(1.) A word of OM ■jrllable. (2.) A word of two ijrllablet.

(3.) .fe, k, p, * «im1 < and I hard, ire miitM.

SI ENGLISH QJUUttHAR.

•dmit of <r and ett ; m> kappierf hofpSuC; «Mer, MeH, 9tt. WMdt o^
Uiaii tivo sylhiblM bardly ever admit of tliese fcenoinalioiifl.

373. la some worda, the superlative is formed by adding the advert)
lo the end ef them > aa, nethennogtf uUermogtf uppennort.

374. Soma adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, do
not admit of comparison ; as, extreme, parftd, rights wrongs iafidUy ceoMoem^
ntpretnef tommipcttntf etetJuxL

376. By aoding uh to adjectives, we have a slight degree of eempwiioir
below the positive ; as, Uack, blaekkh; mU, aaliUh.

376. Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest j as, '' good,''
" '* ^g Pod.^^

3t7. Words used in countinr and numbering are caUed numeral adfeeHoeMt
9M, one, two, three ; firtA, second, third. These ai^ectives are not compared.

378. Aji adjective put without a noun, with the definite article before it,
becomes a noun in sense and meaning, ana may be considered as such in pan^
mg ; asy '' Providence rewards the ^>od, and punishes the bad,"

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they iescribe^,

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
**Jokn is stncere,"

379. Joihn is a proper noun, of the third PBRSorr, bivqu
ulk number, btasculins gender, and in the nominative cask
to it, hj Rule YI.

. l9 is a NEUTER TERB, in the INDICATIVE Hi>OD, PRESSIW

TENSE — *^ 1. I am ; 2. You are ; 3l He ar John is,'* — made in the
TMiBiD pERsoi^ aiNGULAR^ and agrees with Johny according to
Rule VIL

Sincere is an adjective, — " sincere, more sincere, most sin*
cere,'* — made in the positive deobee, and belongs to JoAii, by
Rule IV.

EXEBJCISES IN STNTAX CONTINUED.

'^ Yoa are studious/' ** One man has come.''

** John is more studious." " Two men have departed."

" William is most studious." " Twenty men will sail."

** Mary is intelligent." " James wrote his name on the first

" James is active." page."

** Thomas is less active." " Here comes a great man."

" Charies is happv." " Here comes a greater man."

" Mary is tall. Susan is taller." " Here comes the greatest man."

" No composition is perfect." ** The first fleet contained five hundred

** Religion makes its votaries happy." men."

UperfBct ooiripared ? Why ? 374. perlative degrees of good f itt 7 miuA f

Will you name serend others that are UtUe ?

not compared ? 374. When is an adjective to be considered

How is the superlative formed in the a noun ? 378.

word apper ? 373. What is the rule for the a^eetive ? TV.

What is the effect of ish added to ad- In Uio phraie, " John is sincere," how

jectivea? 375. Give an example. do you parse John! is 7 «titc<r«7 379

What is the force of vsry in compari- Why is sineero in the positive degree ?

son ? 376. 365. Why do yon call u a neuter verh i

What are nnmerol adj<}ctivo8? 377. 157.

Give an example. Are they compared ? ^ji^Let the pvpU next take the eauremm

877. that follow, end paroo as brfore.

Win you ipell the comparative and au-

FKOMCMUN8. flt

XXXI.

380. D9able comparatives and superlatives, since they add
BOtliin^ to the sense, should be avoided ; as, toorser^ more wiser
fcc ; dso, lesseTf supremesl^ fnost infinite^ &c.

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

Q. Will yoQ. write down two sentences, each containing a dillerent
adjective in the positive degree ? Two, widi adjectives in the compara-
tive degree ? Two, with acyectives in the superlative degree ?

Q. Will you supply sudi adjectives in tne foUovring aentsnces as
Vill make sense ? " A — — boy studies his lesson.'* <* A — — boy
eserves punishment.*' " A •— -<- man helps tiM — man.*' ** Mer
chants own — -* ships." "The instructor loves — ^- scholars.'*

** William is a scholar, Rofus is a — •« one, but Thomas is tlw

one that I ever saw."

XXXIL OF PRONOUNS.

381. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, to
avoid a disagreeable repetition of the noun.

382. A PERSONAL PRONOUN is SO Called, because it invari-
ably represents the same person. There are five personal
pronouns — ^I^ thou or tou, he, she, it. They have per-
son, number and case, like nouns ; and those of the third
person have gender also.

383. / is die first person, thmt the secmid, A«, she or tt^ the
third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter.

384. Pronouns* like nouns, have three case»*-tht nomi-
native, the possessive and the objective ; and two number^-*-
the singular and plural.

385. dSm and thiuf instead of my and th^ ware formerly used in the
solemn style, before nouns and adjectives baginoing with a vowel or silent A ^
as, " Blot out all mine iniquities."

XXXI. Ii it correct to My, "A leuer XXXII. What does the wosd wrp*

OTil ?" Why not ? 380. nmai signiQr ? ISO.

Will yoa eoneot the f<rilowing ioaoea- ' What is a pronoon t 381.

raeiea in eonpaiiioii as I read thasi to Why if a penoaal ptooana so eaJlad '

yoa? 383.

« He ia intellf genter.'* How many personal pronovu are thera

" She ia the moat wiaeat " and what are they f 389.

** A woraer evil." Why ii thif nnaibor said to iooluda aD

** William is a bad boy ; Joseph is a the pronouns ? 134.

wofsor one*** Which is the first person f the seeondf

** He gare a more stronger proof of the the third ? 383. i

flict than the other." To^whieh of the pronouns do we applf.

** The pleasures of the mind are more gender ? 383. I

(1.) preferable than thoae of the body." VIHiy is not gender awlied to the first

** That table is round, bat this is a and second persons ? 136.

founder one, and that is the roundest of Which is masculine ? 383. which IhoH

the three." inlne ? 383. which neater f 383.

** This is more square." How many cases have pronouns, sad

<* A more greater concern." what are they f 384.

'* The moat fairest of all the daughters How many nnmben ? 384.

of Eve." Will you decline /f tkou ? As ? sjks f

*» His mo ther's ertremest joy." U1 187.

5 *

94 ENGLlMU ORAMMAIL

XXXIII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

386. Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding
the word self^ in the plural selves, to the simple pronouns,
himself, themselves, &c.

rsRsoir.
First,

Second,

CASS

Nom
Pass.

OM,
Nam.

P098,

Ofy\

Nom,

Pots.

Obf,

Nom.

Pots.

Obf.

Nom,

Post.

Obf.

SINGULAR.

Myself,
iVanting.
Myself,
Thyself or 7
Yourself, >

Thyself, or 7
Yourself, >
Himself,

Himsdf,
Herself,

Herself,
Itself,

lUelf,

PLURAL.

Ourselves.

Ourselves.
Yourselvea.

Yourselves.
Themsdves.

Themselves.
Themselves

Themselves.
Themselves.

Themselves.

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they
standi in gender^ number and person^

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" John found his knife,^\
387. John is a proper itoun, of the mascitline gender, the

THIRD PERSON, SINOULAR NUMBER, and NOMINATIVE CASE tO

found, hy Rule VI.

Fomtd is an actiye-transitive verb, in the indicative
MOOD, IMPERFECT TENSE — ^ 1. I found ; 2. You found ; 3. He
or John found" — ^made in the third person .singular, and
agrees with John, hy Rule VII.

His is a personal pronoun, of the third pe&son singu-
i*AR, MASCULINE GENDER, and a^OGS with JoAn, according to
Rule V. ; in the possessive case, and governed by knife, by
Rule I.

Knife is a common noun, of the third person singular,
neuter gender, the objective case, and governed hy found,
according to Rule VIII.

Of what number and penon is miMl
ours ? mel w»1 tiujf 7 thins 1 you 1
fours 1 137.

Of what get)der, number and person is
Ae? she! iti

Of what number, person and case is
tiufu 1 oura 1 Hal hera 1 mine ?

In what style were mine and tians tot-
merly u^ed ? 385.

XuIII. How are the compound per-
fouil pronouns formed ? 386.

What is the rule for the agreement ol
personal pronouns in the phrase, '* John
found his knife" ? V.

How do you parse Jokm ? 387.

Will you pane John in the phrase.
" John found hia knife" ? 387.

Will you parse found 7 kisi faMfe ?
387.

fj^ 7*A« laarner should nsrt paraa the re*
matning ezsrdaea in Sjfotax fi-om the book^
and tksn take the exeraaea to be wriiten.

PRONOUNS. 9»

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

1.
** James obtained his request" *' Te despise reproof.**

<* I will assist you.*' *< They mend their pens "

** He will receive his reward." *< Mary tore her handkerdritl**
«* She misused him." *< Virtue has its reward."

** Sin ruins its votaries." ** She deceived them."

«.
"An indulgent lather will reprove <*John is in distres, and 1 will

his son when (1.) he deserves assist him."

it" *' I found Mary and her mother la

" A dutiful son gladdens the hearts trouble, anid (2.) eomfiirted (1.)

of his parents." them."

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different peisonal
pronoun of the first person ? One, having a pronoun of the first per*
son plural ?

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable proiiouiia«
10 as to make sense ? ** — lost my hat, but found — again. ' ** Let
Harriet have — book, for — will need — to eet her lesnn." ** Th«
travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes.*'

^. Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitabla

words to make sense ? '* lutemperance evil." ** Washington

< father of his ." « Columbus America." ** Boston

inhabitants." *< The ocean is miles wide." ** -r—

- first man.

XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

388. In the sentence, '^ Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; Aai
tends to excite pride, AU discontent ;" you TOrceive that the word that rspre-
tents wealth, and tiie word this poverty. 7%u and that do, tiierafore, resem-
Ue monouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns

389. MHien I sav, ** This bouse is mine, that bam is yours," the words CUt
and that are jomea to nouns like adjectives, to define or specify tliem i th&y
may, on this account, be called adjectives.

390. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemUa
both pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are som^
times called pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives*

391. The ADJECTiYE PRONOUNS may be divided into three
sorts — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite

392. The distributive are those that relate to persons or
tfiings, taken separately and singly.

XXXIV. What are a4jeetiTe pro- Oiia in whieh they resemble t^J^^^^M f

noani? 390. 389.

Why are they so called 7 388, 389. Into how many sorts may these pie-

By what other name hare these pro- neans oe divided, and what are theyr

Doans been called ? 390. 391.

Will yoa give an example in whieh Wha*.'is a distribotire pnmonn ? 308.
these words resemble pronouns? 388.

O.) Idvwb. 9.) C«M«iaKHoB. (1.) Apply aok XL

10 BMaUSH CUUMMAK.

898. DISTRIBUTIVE (1.) PRONOUNS.
Each, every, either, and sometimes neither.

894. Each relales to two or more fenooa or UMDgi,t«)L«n M|»«nt#i> i My
" JSocA of his brothen U domg w^U.''

995. Etsrt relates to several pe^ons or thui|j^, aod signifies each cue qI
IhraLtaken separately ^ as, " Every man must account fi>r nimself.^'

896. EiTHKR relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, an4
■nifies the one or the other ; as, '' I have not seen eUher,** Hence to say,
'' Either of the three/' is incorrect.

997. IjIjdTVSB means not either; that u, aot one nor the ether | mm,
s" Neither of my friends was ttiene."

986. The demonstrative {2.) pronouns are those which
preciiely poJnt out the things to which they relate.

899. DEMQN^T^TiVJp: PRONOUNS.
Sing. plu.

This, These.

That, Those.

Former, Former.

Latter, Latter.

400. TTrir and thete refer to the nearest persons or things,— tAoi and tk(^ |o
Ihf }DQti distant ; as. ** These gloves are superior to thote, ** Both wealth a|id
poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent."

401. The INDEFINITE are Uiose that refer to things in an
indefinite or general manneir.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

402. Some, other, any, one, au., such, none. CM
these pronouns, one and other are decliaed like nouns. An*
other 18 declined in the singular, but it wants the plural.

408. Norn, Other. Others.

Poss, Others, Others'.

Obf. Other, Others.

. £1^. Piu,

404. Nam, One. Ones.

Poss, One's, Ones'.

Obi. One, Ones.

Wesay, ''This pook,'^ but << These books $" also, <<Oneman," "Tweoif
nent" hence,

406. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals most
agree in number with the nouns to which they-belong.

Why is it so called ? 383 Which are •usuhur I WI9, Which plu

Which are they ? 393. ral ? 399.

What does #004 refer to ? 394. fiire What do Otis and thsas refer to ? 400.
.■example. Whni do t^at ajxd these jfifu U> i Give

What does every relate to? 385. Give an example.' 400.
4. n example. Wbut oooe in4le0nU mean f 81.

What does sUhsr relate to ? 99Q* QiJ9 What is an indeAnite pronoon ? 401
an example. Which are they? 403.

What does meMsr mean ? 397. WiU you decline other 7 403.

What does demonslretivt mean i 398. Wih you decline one 1 404.

What are demoiastratir^ pronoons % Whrjt note do you apply in pfrsing a4

K. jectiTe pronouns^ NoTB 1.

Which are they ? 399.

^) ^ glM fr» diatiaiite, todtoidi omaoff Mivnii.

i^amoiufk^ lojMM«rMoMjM'i

£X£iiG18ES IN 8VMTAX.

^' 7%ej€ ^ti;o 6oo/fs belong to tne"
408. jf%e9e is an adi ECTirE pronoun of the demon si aATiYK

bod, 14 th9 P1.U11AJU NUtf B£A, and belongs to booki^ according to

Note J.
Two is a NUMSiiAL APJ£jCTivE, and belongs to hookSy by Notx I
4Mc<» tf»Blongf Sf^' a^JB psxsed as before.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED.

** Every man performs his part in " These men might remain wid

creation." us."

** Each man arrived at his station." ** Tliose men make many pre*

" Either party can i^poif the in- tences to religion.^

jury." ** All rational beings desire happi>

*^ Borne peiaoos cannot acquire neas."

wealth.'' ** By application almost any boy

" Muiy people obtain riches with may acquire an honorable

appaMntly little exertion.'' rank in his claas.**

■* One boy labors for hia MnpuQve- ** Good and virtupuf men wiii|«

menu" sooner (1.) or later (1.), puttinn

** This man neglects his affairs." to happiness."

♦* Th0 old bird feeds her young one$"
407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds ; ia
the common e^NDEK, tjeiird pjsrson plural, in the orjectivs
CASE, and governed hy feeds, agreeably to Rule VIIL

EXERCISER IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

"One boy influences many oth- others spend their time in idleness;

ers." the former will receive praiae, the

" None act their part too well." latter censure."
** Some scholars study diligently ;

We caoaot sa^, " Them ruu," but " Tbey fup" : bence,
Note II. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of the
verb, it should be in the nominative case.

It U very common for persons in conversation to say» '*Them books/'
« Them kmves," 4tc. instead of " Those books," " Those knives/' &c. The
incorrectness here alluded to consists in substituting a personal in t|ie place of
an adjective pronoun : hence,

NoTiB IIJ. The pronpuQ them should oot be used in tbe
place of these or those.

In the phrase, " These two books/' ** Them will go.**
kc. will jrou pfLrs« tU«s 7 tiyw 7 4A6. ^ Him and me went to akufcii."

Will ;pi| no\v take th? bpok, aotl parM " Art thee well ?"
Uie remaining exercises updor Note ti " Him who is diligent will improT0."

In the phrase, "The old bird feeds her Would jrou say, *' Thetk knives/* o

y<Huur ones," will yon pMfl ones 1 407. " TheJse knives*' r Why ? III.

Will you correct by Note !• the follow- , In what does the incorrectness een
isf examples, as I read them to you ? sist ? III.

" He will itot come this two hours." Will you correct the foUomng ezpiea

** I dtslike those sort of books.'* sions ?

'* I hare two canes ; you may have any " Them boys are very idle."
of thera." " Bring me them pens.**

De we say, ** Thn ran,** or ** Than " Which ot them three things do yfM
iM*'? Why ? Note II. prefer ?"

Will you now eorreet, by Note 11. the ff^Th» pupil mmy next tafts the
following examples as I read them to you ? eises to be written.

— — ■ - " " ■■ *-• ■ ■'■ ■

(1.) Advei^.

M CNGLIiSU GRAMMAR.

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a dififerent adjecfiTe
pronoun ? One, having a demonstrative pronoun ? One» having an in-
definite pronoun used as a noun ?

Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense die follow-
ing phrases ? " When Harriet found — book, — tore — ,and then flung
— away." *' — man likes — farm, — merchandise,"

Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule I. ? One under
Rule II. ? Rule III. ? Rule IV . ? Rule V . ? Rule Y I. ?

XXXV. OP RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

408. In the sentence. '' Thai man is happy, who Hves virtuoiisly,'' the
wwd who is a pronoun, oecsSise it stands for a noun (the noon man)f and it la
a relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in the same sentence : hence,

409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands foi
Bome noun before it in the same sentence.

410. There are three relative pronouns, viz.

411. Who, which, and that.

412. Who is used in speaking of persons ; as, " The man
who came."

413. Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as.
*« The bird which sings," " The tree which I planted."

414. ^^achf however, is used in speaking of person}, when we wish to dis-
tinguish one of two individuals, or a particular person among many others
as, " Which of the two is he 7 " Which of them has gone t"

415. That, as a relative, is oflen useo, in speaking eithef
of persons or things, in the place of who or which ; as,

" The boy that reads," or, " The boy who reads ;" " The bird that flew," or
« The bird which flew 5" " The bench that was made," or, " The bench whicl
was made."

J%at is used m preference to who or which, in the fdlowing cases >—

1. hi speaking ooth of persons and things ; ac, " The man and the beav
that I saw, perished."

2. hi speaking of children 3 as, ''The child that I met"

3. After tho adjective same ; as, " He is the same man that we saw yester-
day."

4. After the supertative degree; as, " He is the wisest man that the worid
ever produced."

6. After the relative who ; as, '' Who that reflects."

416— I. Exception. TluU, as a relative, cannot take the prepontion im
mediately before it ; as, " He is the same man wiUi that you were acquainted."
For toith thaif read with whom. It is remarkable, however, that, when the ar-
rangement is a little varied, the word that admits the preposition ; as, " He if
the same man that you were acquainted with."

X XXV . In the sentence, ** That man is ' speaking of persona ? Oive an example ■

happy, who lives virtaoasly," what part 414.

of speech is vka 1 Why f 408. What When may tlUa be osed ? 415.

kind ? Why ? 408. Ig it correct to say, «« The child who" ?

What is a relative pronoun ? 409. Why not ? " The same man who»» ? Why

Will yon name them ? 411. not.' " The wisest man which" ? Why

When do weusewAo 7 Give aa exam- not ? ** Who, who reflects" i Why not

pie. 412. 415 : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
When do we use tMek 7 Give aa ex- What exception is mentioned * 415^-]

ample 413. Give an example. 415—1.
fn what eases do we use wUcA, in

rHONOUMS. W

vlf I. We can say, ''The man who/' or "The men who/' iiftof the
rdative wh 9 in speaking either of <Hie man or more than one : w/iOy tbeOi if id

both numbers, and is thus declined :

Singular, PharaL

Nom, Who, Who.

Pass. Whose, Whose.

Ohf, Whom. Whom.

417 Which and that are of both numbers, but they are not declined, ei-
cept that whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which; aa, " Is
Ihere any other doctrine tohcse followers are punished V*

418. Whose, used in the manner last described, is made to repfo s en t three
irords ; as, ** Philosophy whose end/' for " the end of which."

419. AnUcedeni signifies goin^ before.

^20. The noun or pronoun w^ch goes before the relative, and to which the
le'^tive refers, is therefore called the antecedent of the relative 3 as, ** John,
wbo has erone.'' Here, John is the antecedent of who,

421. When you are told that toho, which, and that are relatives, you
ihould not get tlie impression that the last two are always relatives ; for ihal is
a relative only when it is used in the sense of who or which ; that u, when who
or which may be used in its place, without destroying the sense ; as^ '' Here is
(he knife that I found," which can be altered to " ilerc is the knife which I
found/' without injury to the sense.

4S2. TTiatf when it points out or specifies some particular person or thing,
is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not usea as a relative, nor as an
adjective pronoun, it is reckoned a conjunction ', as, ** He studies thai he
may learn."

4»23. Hence it appears that the word that may be used som^imes as a rdai-
tive pronoun, sometimes as an ac^ective pronoun, and sometimes as a conjunc-
lioa.'

434w Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, as well as personal pronouns,
tfaey should therefore agree with nouns in the same particulars and by the same
role. RvLX V. will therefore apply to both. '

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

" That man is happy who lives virtuously,^*
425. Tlutt is a demonst&atite fronouiy, of the 8iireuLit&
iniMBER, and belongs to man, by Note I.'

Hlio is a reultive pronoun, of the masculine gender, third
PERSON SINGULAR, and agrees with man, by Rule'V. It is in
the NOMINATIVE CASE to Uves, according to Rule VI.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED

'* That man is fortunate who es- " I met the same man in the mar-
capes censure." ket to-day (1.), that I met
" The girl whom I saw, perished." yesterday in the street."

How many namben has toAo ? 416. When ib that an adjoctire pionooa f

Will you decline it ? 416—1. Give an example. 4S23.

How many numbers have wMeh and When a conjunction ? Give an exam

Oat 1 Are they declined ? 417. pie. 433.

What exception to this ? 417. How many different parte of speedb

When whose ia naed as the possessive may that represent ? ^13.

Mkse of whieh^ bow many words does it What is the rule for the apeement Ot

represent ? Give an example. 418. relative pronouns ? 434.

What is the meaning of anleeedsnt f Will you parse that in the phiase,

419. ««That man" ? 435.

What ia the antecedent of a pronoun ? In the sentence, " That man Is happy

Give an example. ^0. who lives virtuously," will yon parse

Is that always a relative ? ^1 who 7 425.

When is it a relative ? Give an ex- Will you now take the book, and parse

•mpW ^. the r emaining exercises ?

GO ENGUflU ISllAMMAR.

** Y«u, who came firit, should re- ** That house, wlrich itan^ on (he

tire first." hill, once (1) belonged to me."

*< You taught the boy whose hat I " The boy whom I instruct ie&rns

fouud.^' well."

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.

" Tftc man which I saw.*^
426. Incorrect ; because, in speaking of persons, whOf whoat
or whom is generally to be used. It should therefore read, ^ Tbe
m«a wham I saw.''

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED.

** The bird whom I tailed had made ** Thou who are in prosperity must
her nest." assist me in adversity."

** The man which visited me has '* He which shuns vice does gen-
left town." erally practise virtue."

<( That man is happy whom is vir- " I, who lives by your cbaiity
tuous." should be gratenU."

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative who 7 One,
sontainine which 7 One, containing thai 7

Q. Wiliyou fill up the following sentences with relatives correctly

used ? ** The man sins shall die." " The boy studies will

learn.** " The bird sung so sweetly has flown." Will you fill

up the following with one or more woids that will make sense ? ** In-
ten^perance evils." " If truth sorry."

Q. Will you embrace in different sentences, each of the following
words? Washington,* Columbms Captain Cook, IndiOM^ Wwdomt
Miches, James Monroe.

XXXVI OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE

PRONOUNS-

487. " 1 tooJfi what you gave me/'

'' I took that tohich you gave me."
** I took thi (Mn^ which ^oa gave me.''
" I took those things which you guve me."
4fi8. Bv examining the foregoing s«iienoeSy you wiH see that the word
vshatf in toe 6r8t example, means ioe same as the words in italics in the sue
cessive ones : the word wheU, then, is cleariy a pronoun ; and because it stands
^ 'or more than one word, it is called a compound pronoun. The word before
^ the relative whichf ui the phrase " that which," or ** the thing which," is the
antecedent of which. Hence,

429. What is a compound relative pronoun, including
both the antecedent and the relative, and is generally equiva-
lent to THAT WHICH.

Intte^d of saying, < < The man which I tances which mean the aamo as ** I tool

■aw," what Bhouldl say ? Why? 4S6. what you gave me" ? 437,

Will you correct and porae the remain- ^Vhat words, then, does what stand for t

• Ing exercises, and then toko the exercises 4Si8.

to be written ? Why is what a prononn i 4SB,

XXXV{. Will yon repeat those sen- Why a oorapouad pronoun? 408.

J I.) Advork
>riiw, ''WHhingtonwMa true ftttriot,** fce. 1%$ fu^a may wnU tmmral mnUncm gnMdkteorA

PRONOUNS. 6t

430. 14^%^, whkk, mad i^hat hav« lonotimes tiw werdi cmt or toever an
Mxed (1.) to them : and each combinalion of this sort is called a compound
refative ; a», whoeeetf whoaeeoer, wkiehever, iokicksoeverf &c. They ara no*
often used.

431. Who, wkidi, and iohat are called intenogatives, or relatiTes of the m
terrosative kind, when they ave used in asking questions ; as, ** Who is he V
*" Which is the book 1" " What are you doing V^ These relatives, you pes
edve, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase contained in
the answer, which is called a Jiifaey wul , because it follows aAer the relative
■s, '' Whom did you see V* Ana. " John.'-' Here fo/m is the aubaequent to
wnick u^unn refers.

43S,. Hence it follow?, tkat anSeetdeia and atAaeqmm are opposed to each
other in meaning ; the former signifying ^o»^ be/are, the \aXieT foUounng after

433 WhethtT was formerly made use of to express interrogation 3 as
**W h e taer of these shaD I choose V but it is now seldom used, the interrogative
vihich, sufypWioe its place.

434. Wachy what, and, as we have already seen, thatf when joined im
nouns, are aci^ective pronouns ; as, '' unto which promise our twelve tnbes."

495. When u>hat an4 wUeh are jomed to nouns in asking questions, dier
are called interrogative adjective pronouns ; as, ** Which horse did he take V*

436. In some mstances,. we find what used in the sense of an interjection
as, ** What ! take my money, and then my fifb ?"

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

" J wiU leave what is iLseless,^

437. TVhat^ in the example above, means the same as " that which,'' or
" the thing w uch'' : we will, therefore, in parsing it, bear in mind that it haa
the government and agreement of two separate words. We wiH first pane il
B» stamfing' for things and secomtty for to/rick.

What VB a GO«pot7ifD R£XnAT1¥b pRONOurr^ and is eqaiyalent
to '^that which," or " the Uiing which.** In representing things
it may he considered a raoNOUN of the third person smou
LAR, NEUTER GENDER, in the OBJECTIVE CASE, and govemed by
feft»e, according to RuIiK VIH.

What, in representing whichj may be considered a rekatiye

PRONO0N of the TmRD PERSON SINiHTLAR, NEUTER OfENDER, find

relates to thing for its antecedent, according to Ruj.£ V. and nt

the NOBITNATITE CASE tO 19, bj RUUS VL

/« is a NEUTER TERR, in the indicative mood, present
TENSE — " 1. I am ; 2. You are ; 3. He orti^^c^is" — ^madeinthe
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, and agroGs with which, the relative
part of the pionoon whatf according to Ruub VII.

Useless is an adjective, in the positive degree, and belongv
to whatj by Rule IV.

How may what be described ? 429. When are what^ 10/ktcA, and that nditt^

WiJI you give three examples of com'' tive pronouns ? Give an axanq>le. 434.

foand pronouns formed by annexing mar Which of the relatives are sometiuMs

ir Mwer* ? 430. interrogative adjective pronouns ? When?

What is the meaning of aim«ssil ? 430. 435.

When are wAo, wAa^ and lahal called When I say, " What ! rob nai of my

isterrogatives ? 431. racmeyy and then take my life "* in what

What are th« no^as called, to which sense is wkat used ? 436.

interrogativee refer ? 431. .. In the sentence^ ** I will leave what is

What ii the meaning of Mtesffumt? useless^" how do you parse whati tsf

433. uaeleaa ? 437.

Whv so called ? 431. What does what stand for ? 437.

In the phrase, ** Whom did you see ?" Do you parse it as one word or two?

4m. *<Joha*'; whichwoidiathesabse- What two f 437.

qient ? 431. {fCT The pupU may now parae tha re>

mainmg exercises on the prenoun what.
(lAHKHU wiWt.

en UINUIJSH GRAMMAR

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

- James will do what is proper." '* William demands what I eaiiiwt
•• You heanl what I said." give."

• Whatever improves delights ** They advocate what if excel-
him." ^ lek"

XXXVII. OF THE VERB.

438. A VERB is a word that expresses action or being.
Verbs are of three kinds — ^active, passive, and neuter.

439. An active verb expresses action, and the actor m
always the nominative case ; as, '^ John runs." Active verba
are either transitive or intransitive.

440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or
may have an object after it, on which the action terminates ;
as, ** John beats William."

441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has
nor can have an object after it

442. Passive means suffering or receiving,

443. When I say, " John is beaten by William/' i» beatenia a verb, because
it expresses action ; and it is a passive verb, because it expresses tne acdon
received by Jolm } and if John receives the action, then he is the object of it !
hence,

444. A passive verb expresses action or effect received.

445. The object is always its subject or nominative case

446. Active nominative, or CKtor, ** John strikes William.'*

447. Passive nominative, or object, ''"V^iam is«struck
by John."

448. B^ examining the foregoing examples, yoa will see that when the verb
fi active, its nominauve is likewise active ', and when the verb is passive, its
nominative is likewise passive.

448. The passive voice is a convenient mode of eipression on occasions
when we wish to state what has been 4one, without exp&Ane the author t thus^
instead of saying, " William struck John/' 1 can, to e,V«kid aUuding to Wuliara,
say, " John was struck.^'

XXXVII. What is the meaning of In the example, " John is beateti bf

99rh7* William," which is the venb? Why?

Why so called .' 143. What kind? Why? 443.

What is a verb ? 438. Which word is the object ? Why ? 443.

What is an active verb ? 439. What, tlien. is a passive verb ? 444.

. What is alwravs its nominative? Give Which is the nominative to apeseive

n example. 439. verb, the agent or the object ? 445.

What is the meaning of trandtive ?f of Is the nominative to an active verb act

imtranritite 1% ive or passive? Give an example. 448.

How may active verbs be divided ? 439. Is the nominative to a passive verb ao*

When is an active verb transitive ? Give tive or passive? Give an example. 448
an example. 440. In what particular is the passive voics

When is an active verb intransitive? a convenient form of expression? Give an

Give an example. 441. example. 449.

What is the meaning of patsive 7 443. What is the meaning of nsvter 7$

— ^~' ' ' . ■ »^— ^

e Sm quwtkNi Id 148. t Be* qoMtlon to 160. | Sm qsMtlae to ISt. SesovMtles to IV.

MOOD 03

450. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor paa*
are, expressing simply being or existence in a certain
state ; as, '< He sits," '' He is at home."

XXXVIII. MOOD, OR MODE.

4q1. Mood, or mode, is the manner of representing action
or being.

452. The indicative mood is used simply for indicating
or declaring a thing, or asking a question ; as, <« I walk ^^
"Do I walk r

453. The potential mood is used for expressing possi-
bility, liberty, power, will, or obligation, either with or with-
out asking a question ; as, *' I may go ;" '* May I go V ** He
most read," &c.

454. Of the subjunctiyk mood. The term tubfunetwe ngnifies wbfoined

or addeu to.

456. When I say, " I wiD jg^o, if he desire it/' the phrase '' if he desure it'' is
added to the one before it : hence we say, ** if be desire it" is in the sub-
imctive mood. The term', however, is limited to such sentences as are pr^
ceded by the conjunctions iff unlesSf alUumgh, ^cqpt, lest, &c., which imply
doubt or some uncertainty.

456. The subjunctive mood is used for expressing doubi
or uncertainty.

457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two (imTerent
forms, it is equally correct to s^ " If he is poor, he is respected," and '* If
he be studious, he will excel." The v^bs be ana is are both in the preseni
toise ; and since each has the conjunction t^before it, each is in the subjunc
tive mood.

458. The phrase '' If he 6« studious" means the same as '' If he vnU ba
stadious ;" it therefore plainly implies future time.

459. On the contraiy, in the phrase ** If he is poor," the sense plainly ia,
'' If he is now, at the present Ume, poor," without any reference to future time.

460. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, doubt only is implied)
and in the other, botn doubt vaA future Hme.

What is a neater verb ? Give an exam- How is the term tubnmcline limited #

pie. 450. 455.

How many kinds of verbs are there, and What is the subjonetive mood osed fitr ?

what are they ? 438. 456.

XXXVIII. What is the meaning of How many difibrent forms has it f 4S7

? 166. Give an example of each. 457.

What is iiUNNi? 451. In what tense are the verbs (s and iff

What is the meaning of nuKealivs? 457.

168 In what mood is each with the eoa*

What is the indicativamood naed for ? jonction if before it ? 457.

Give ao example. 45Q. What doea " If ho be studious" mean.

What ie the meaning of jfoeeiilial ? 913. as it reapects time ? 456.

What is the potential mood used for? What tense, then, is referred to ? 498L

Give an example. 453. What doea " If he ia poor" mean, in

What is the meaning of mipmctice 1 reirpect to time ? 459.

454. What idea, then, ii implied in the one

In what mood is ** If he dssire it" ? form ? 460. . . ^ ^ ,

455 What two ideas in the other form? 460

6i ENGLISH GRAMMAR

461. The wtb U corresponds wkh Uw cobdiboh fom ef iIm vero to ie 4i
the indicau've mood, present tense ; as, '' I am, you are, be is :''— ^e wid
therefore, when die verb is varied as usual, call it Oke tommon form of the sub
junctive mood ; and when the verb is not varied in the dilfereni persons, we
will call it the si*bfunciive form, since this form is peculiar to this mood. You
should here be informed that this distinction relates only to the present tense .
it beings customary to vary the temMMtieiis of the verb in the remaning tenses,
as usual.

462. The following general rules w31 direct you in the proper use of the
subjunctive mood :

463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present
tense, has^ a reference to future iime, we should uiM the

SUftJUNCTIYE FORM.

Preseni Tenu.

46'k Singitlar, PbtraL

1. If I love. ]. If we love.

2. If thou or you love. 2. If ye or you love.

3. If he love. 3. If they love.

465. When a rerb in the subjunctive moodi, present tense
fMB no reference to future time, we should use the

COMMON FORM.
Singuletr, PUtral.

1. If I love. 1. If we love.

2. If thou lovest, or) 2. If ye love, or }
If vou love. J If you love. J

8. If he loves. 3. If they love.

466. Other conjunctions, besides (^ ar6 used before the subjunctive mood
if is perhaps used most fre^cntly, because it implies doubt more strongly thaa
most others.

467. By the foregoinj?, you may perceive that when the verb is in the sub*
innctive form, some auxmarv verb is alwavs understood ; as, " He will not be
pardoned* unless he repent,''' that is, '' unless he will repent ;" " If tfiou ever
return, thou shouldst be thankfiil," that is, '' if thou shouldst ever return."

468. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive^ com
mon form, simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, before it 5 as,
"I walk," the mdicative mood, becomes subjunctive by pfemdng if; thus,
*''lflwalk."

469. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be 4lianged to the sub-
vnctlve ; as, '' 1 can go" is the potential ; '' I^ I can go," the sul^uncUve.

470. Of the IMPERATIVE MOOD. When I say, " John, raina your book,
I command John to do something ; and because tmperative means eommand-
tnjg, we say that mxiuf, in the phrase above, is in the imperative mood.

With what does the verb is correspond ? fireqaentlr in the sabjnnetive mood ? 466.

461. Whst dloei « He will not be pardoned

Uow is the verb varied in the commoa onieeshe repent" mean ? 467.

ftmn of the aobjunetive mood ? 46L What, then, is andentood ? 467.

called common ? How varied Al " If thou ever return, thoa shouldit be

Whv
#iesttbji

bjunotiva form? Why called sub- thankful:" what doee this mean f 467.
janetive ? 461. Whatv then, is nndemtood ? 467.

How is this distittotion limited ? 461. What is always understood in this form /

How are the' remaining tenses varied i 467.
461. How may a verb in the indicative mood

When do we nse the snbjonctiTe form ? be eonveited into the subjanetivQ ? 468.
468; How can the potential be chaofod to

Will yon conjugate the vei1> Um$ in this the lubjunctive ? Give an eMmple. 469.
form, in the present tenge? 464. In what mood is **John, mind your

When do we use the common form? studies?" Why? 470.
465. What is the meaning of isiMrsfies

Why is the eoajanetion if used most 470

MUOU. 6^

471. This mood, for reaioaft taugned before, S14.) enbfioee Uie foUofdi^

purliciilarsi

1. Command; as, '' John^ sit up/'

2. Entreaty ; as, ** Do visit me/'

3. Exiiorting ; as, '^ Remember mv counsel/'

4. Permitting ; as, " Go in peace."

472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commauding,
entreating, exhorting^ or permitting.

473. The application of this mood u limited to the second peraon $ ai
"John, come to me;'' because, in uttering^ a command, making an entreaty,
fee. we must necessarily address some one } hence you can see the reason
^y this mood has but one person, viz. the second.

474. We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or in pres
est time, to do any thing in past tmie, yesterday for mstance 3 consequently a
rerb in diis mood camiot have any past tense.

475. When I command a person to do any tiling, the performance of the
command must take place in a period of time subsequent to that of the com-
mand ; that is, in future time ; out the command itself must, from the very
nature of the case, take place in present time : this mood, therefore, cannot,
slrictiy speaking^ have any future tense : hence,

476. A verb m the imperative mood must be in the present tense, and in
the second person.

477. Of the infinitive mood. In the phrases, " John begins to sine,"
'* The boys begin to sing,'' " Thou be^nnest to sing,'^ you perceive that the
rerb to sing is not varied to correspond with the number and person of its
different agents, John, the boys, and mou: hence to sing is said not to be
limited either by person or number.

* 478. This mood, then, is properly denominated infimtivef signifying not
limited: hence,

479. The infinitive mood is used to express an action
DQt lim'ited either by person or number.

480. TOf the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood ; as, ** Let

me go/' instead of Let me to go ;'' ** I heard him say it," for ** I heard him
to say it.'' This little word to, when used before verbs m this manner, is not
I. preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing, should be so con-
sidered.

481. From the foregoing, it appears that there are five
moods — ^the indicative^ the imperative, the potential, the
subjunctive, and the infinitive.

How many partieulan doeg thn mood What is the meaning of ti^nitivs?

embrace? 471. Why so many? 914. 478.

What, then, is the imperative mood In vhat mood is sine, in the phrases,

used for ? 472. Give an example of com- " John begins to ping," "The hoys bertn

mandins? one of entreating? ono of ex- to sing," "Thou beginnest to sin^'/

honing ? one of permitting? 471. 477, ^8.

How many persons has this mood ? 473* In what partieutam is this mood reekon-

Wh&t person is it ? 473. ed not to be limited ? 477.

Has this mood any past ^ense ? Why f What, then, is the infinitive mood used

474. for? 479.

Wlien I command a person, when, if at . What is the qsnal sign of this mood?

all, mast the performuice of tlie command 480.
takeplaee ? 475. Is it always expressed ? Give an exam

When, or in what time, must the con>* pie. 480.
Band itsrtf be given ? 475. How is the sign to to be parsed ? 480.

Has this mood, then, any fntaio tense ? Why parsed with the verb ? 480«

475. How many moods are there, an wlitt
How many tenses, then, has it ? How are they ? 481.

fltany persons ' 476.

60 £NGLI8H GRAMflAA.

XXXIX. OP TENSE.

482. The present tense expresses what is now taking
place ; as^ '' John swims."

483. This tense is often employed to express the actions of persons loog
since dei^il ; as, " Seneca reasons and morahzes well.''

484. The present tense, preceded by the words whenj hefort, after^ as soon

cur, &c., is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action; as,
** When he arrives, he will hear the news."

485. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and thines which are ir

tlieir nature unchaugeal)Ie ; as, ** Truth is eternal i" " William boldly asserted
there was no God 'y properly, " is no God."

486. In animated (1.) historical narrations, (2.) this tense is sometimes used

for the imperfect 3 as, '^ He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabitajits )
-he fights and conquers, takes an unmense booty, which he divides among his
soldiers, and retunis home to enjoy an empty triumph."

487. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in
time past, however distant ; as, " John died."

4dici. The perfect tense expresses what has taken phice,
and conveys an allusion to the present time; as, '* I have
finished my letter."

489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded to, we
use the imperfect tense ; as, '' John wrote yesterday ;" but when no particular
past time tt .specified, we use the perfect tense ; as, '' I have read Virgil many
times."

490. The perfect tense and the imperfect tense both denote a thing that is
past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually re-
maining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has
been done \ whereas tlie imperfect doiotes the thing or action past, in such a
maimer, that notliing remains of that time in which it was done. If we speak
of the present century, we say, ** Philosophers heme made great discoveries in
the present century y but if we speak or the last century, we say, '' Philoso-
phers made great discoveries in the last century."—'' He has been much
afflicted this year." " I have this week read the king's proclamation." '' 1
have heard great news this morning." Li these instances. He has been, I have
read, and heardj denote things that are past ; but they occurred in this year,

XXXIX. What is the meaoing otfres- What does the pnrfeet tense express i

snt 7 173. Give an example. 488.

What does the present tDose express ? **• John wrote yesterday." What tense

483. Give an example. 462. is the verb in here ? 489.

" Seneca reasons well." What tense is Why is thiff tense used ? 489.
employed here? Why? 483. " I have read Virgil many times. " Wh>

In the phra«e " When be arrives,*^ is the perfect tense used here ^ 489.
fhture time is alluded to : why, then, is What do both the perfect and imperfect

the present empluved ? 484. denote? 490.

Do wo gay, " There is," or " there was How does the former denote it ? .400.
00 God.'" Why? 485. How does the latter ? 490.

What it the meaning of animatedl 486. Do we say, " Philosophers tiuuie,** 01

Meaning of narrationa 1 486. ** have madey great discoveries in tlie pre**

" He enters the territory," &c. Why is ent century ?" Why ? 490.
*llie present tense usti4i ? 486. Which tense do we oae in speaking oi

What is the meaning of imper/eet 1 181. the last century ? 490. Give an example.

How came this terra to lie used, to de> 490.
note an action paMt and finished ?* " I have this week read the king's proo-

What does the imperfect tense express ? lamation." "1 have heard ^reat news

467. Give an example. 487. this morning." Which are the voAa usee

Meaning of perfect 7\ in these two sentences? 490.

(1.) Lively. (2.) Dewription, or telling wbai hsa been dons

• ace q lealinD to IRS. f pioiiitMcl, or coin|iletc.

TEN8fi8. PAKTlOlFLi:^. Hff

in Uiis week, and to-ctay ; and gtill Uieie femains a pari of tlu year^ noek and
day, whereof 1 speak.

430^-1. In ^ea&nAf the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action
is coimecled with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the author
or of tile work, though it may liave been performed many centuries ago ; but
if ncitlicr the author nor the work now remains, it caimot be used. We may
say, " Cicero has vrritUn orations j" but we cannot say, " Cicero has itritten
poems i'* because tiie orations are in being, but the poems are lost Speaking
of priests in general, we may say, '' They hart^ m all a^s, claimed ^preat
powers ;'' because the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if we
speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which does not now
exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot sa^, '' The Druid priests hav4
claimed great powers ;" but must say, " The Druid priests claimed great pow-
ers ;" because that order is now totally extinct.

491. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place
at some past time mentioned ; as, ''I had finished my letter
before my father returned."

492. lHhB first future tense expresses what will take place ;
as, " John will come."

493. The second future expresses what will have taken
place, at or before some future time mentioned ; as, '* I shall
have finished my business before the steam-boat starts."

494. Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six
variations, namely— the present, the imperfect, the perfect,
the pluperfect, and the first and second future tenses.

XL. OP PARTICIPLES.

495. In the phrase, " I found a man laboring in the field,'' the word labor'
ing shows what the man was doing, and tlierefore resembles a verb. When 1
say, "The laboring man should not be wronged," laboring la joined to the
noun man, to describe it, and therefore resemUes an adjective.

486. The word laboring, theu^ partakes of the nature of two different parts
of speech ; and since participle signifies partaking ofy we will call such words
as laboringf participles.

VtHmt do they denote I When did these Give an eJcample. 499. Why called firat

things occur ? 490. future ?*

To what may the perfect tenM in gen- What does the second future express f

eral be applied .' What exceptimi is men- Give an example. 493.

tion«d ? 490 — 1. How masiy tenses are there in all, ana

Do we pay, " Cicero wrote," or " has what are they ? 494.

vrtCtex, orations ?" «' Cicero wrote," or In what mood is " He runs" ? Wliy ?

*♦ has vrrdUsn,^ poems ?" Why ? 490—1. 452. " Does he run ?" Why ? 452. " 1

In speaking of priests, in general, why may run" ' Why ? 4S3. " Bhould I have

»}o we say, "They have in all ages siudiod ?" Why? 453. ** If he accept"?

claimed great powers." 490—1. Why^ 456. " If he accepts" ? Why ?

Can we say, " Tlie Druid priests have 456. •' To sing" ? Why ? 479.

e/oimed great powers" ? What should we In what teiiae is " He sings" ? Why ?

say ? Why ? 490—1. 482. « Did he sing ?» Why ? 487. « tie

What 18 tho moaning of vlwMrfeetl has read"? 488. Why? "Had he writ-

186. ten"? 491. Why? "Shall he go .>»»

Wiiat does the pluperfect tense ex- 492. <* I shall have gone" ? Why ? 493.

press? 49i. Give an example. 491. XL. What parts of speech does Zoior-

Meaning of future 1 177. mg resemble ? Give an example. 495.

What dees tho first future express? what is the moaning of ;»artie^Ze? 496

*8ae qutfttion to 191.

M ENOUSH eOLAMMLAMU

407. AU pariioplefl are <lefiv«d Intt vartM j Uma, from iakor

ittg ; from beatf beating ; r^oictf refoicingf Slc. i hence,

498. The participle is a word derived boiii a verb, and
partakes of the nature of a verb and adjective.

499. Whei) I say, '' John is writing/' the participle lorduyf ffaowi what
John is Qow domg, but has not finished 3 writi$^f then, may he called a prot-

eut participle : hence,

500. The present participle expresses what is now taking
place, but not finished.

501 — 1. This participle always ends in isig; as, tinning ffi^hixng, weeping
loving J &c. There are many words of this termmalion, wluch are not parti-
ciples ; as, ntormngy evening, which are nouns ; tadnleresHng. unscUisAfing,
wtiich are adjectives. The fact that these cannot be formed from vei^ imll
ftunish you witli a certain rule for distinguishing the participle from all other
words of the same termination ; a&, for instance, uninUreHingf we know, is not
a participle, because there is no such verb as uninterestf from which to form it.

601. '^ The letter is written.'^ Here the participle written shows that the
act of writing is past and fini«faed 3 it may then be called a perfect participle 1
hence,

502. The perfect participle expresses what is past and fin-
bhed.

fiOS>— 1. This participle m^y always be distingnuished by its making sense
with having ; thus, havtng wrzUen, having sung, &c. Here vsritten and sung
are perfect participles.

o03. *^ John, having written his letter, sealed it/' Here you doubtless per
ceive that the act of writing took place before that of sealmg ; also, that tlie
participle is composed of tA¥o w<M!(u, having and vainiUn ; it may then be call
ed a compound participlef and because it denotes also an action past and finish
ed, it may very properly be called a compound perfect participle : hence,

504. The compound perfect participle expresses what took
place before something else mentioned.

604 — 1. This participle is formed bv {facing the present participle hwoine
before the perfect participle of any vero ; as, Iwvvng foughif having cipherea

KU. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB.

605. Struck is a perfect participle, from the verb strikej and this you know
because it makes sense joined with fiaving ; as, having struck.

From what are all participles derived? Having written^ having smug. Which

iSn, Give an example. 497. axo the perfnot paxticiples here ? 502.
What is a participle ? 49d. '* Joha, baying written his letter, seal-
When I tay, "John b writing," what ed it." Which took place first, tli<»

ioes writing show ? 499. writing or tealiog / 503.
What, then, may it be called f 499. Of what is thb participle compoaed *

What, then, is a present participle ? 503.

500. VVhat, then, maj it be called r 603

What does this participle alwars end What does Aaoim|r tsrittm denote in ref-

ia ? 500 — 1. Giro an example. 500^-1. erence to time and action ? 503.
Are all words ending in ov ps^rticiples ? What may it thence be called ? 503*

Give an example of nouns or this termi- What does a compound perfect parti

aation ? qf adjectives ? 500—1 e!p1e express .' 504.
How, then, can the participle be dis- llow is this participle formed ? 604

tinguishbd? Give an example. 500—1. Give an example. 504.
" The letter is written." What dees XU. Strikingt 9trmk, homing atrudt

the participle wriiUn show here ? What, Here are three dmerent pvticiples : can

then, may it be called ? 501. yon tell which is the present ' Why .

What IS a perfuct participle ? 509. 500. Perfect ? Why ? SOS. Compounl

How may this partictplo always be perfect ? Why ? 503.

known ? Givf. nn eiompio. 505^—1. What kind of a iiarticiplo Is sCrvcft

503 llow ()o T011 knnw tins? !i05

VKftlllS. to

foa are lie is :" now. byjoiaing is with struck, we can fonn the passive verb
struei; ''John strikes Joseph^ is active 3 but " Joseph is struck by Jdni''
is passive.

fi07. In these two examples, you perceive that ti^ sense of each is the
same : bonce, bv means of Uie passive verb, we are enabled to expreu, in a
cbiTereDt fonn, vie precise meamng of the active, whk^, you will oftentimea
find, coatnbuti3s not a little to the variety and harmony of the hMOua^

d06. By ejcamining the coi^ugatioaof the verb to ke, you iviU discover that
it has, in all, ten variations : V12. am, cart, is, are, was, toast, were, been, be^ and
ifeifig. "Every passive verb must be composed of one of these tea vanatioo^
and the pei£s<:t participle of a|iy active transitive verb. Thus, taking totts, tina
joining' it with the perfect participle of the verb beat, namely, beaten^ we form
the passive verb was beaten, to wnich {H^&nng an object, o)r nominative casei
we have the phrase, " Wiiliam was beaten/'

509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb always
felons the same mood, tense, number, and person, that the verb to be has. bt^
fore it is incorporated with tiie participls j tnus, ** He has been" is the inaica
live perfect, third person singular ; then, ** He has been rejected," is likewiaa
the indicative perfect, third person singular, passive. It cannot, therefore, be
d fficult to tell the mood, tense, number, and perswi of ff^y passive verb, if yoa
8 t familiar with the conjuffation of the verb to bfi.

From the foregoing parficiilars, we derivia the following general rule !

510. All passive verbs are formed by adding the p^fect
participle of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb^ir be.

XLIL OF THE AUXILIARY VERB.

* •

511. Auxiliary verbs, are those by the help of which tlw
principal verbs are conjugated.

512. The auxiliary verbs are may, ctm, must^ fnighi, couH
would, should, and shall. The following are sometimes aux*
Oiaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do^ be, have, and mU.

613. When, in the formation of any Cense, we use an auxiliary verb, thai
teose is called a cmnpound one ; and the tense fonaad fa|y the pnncipal verb
limie is called a simple tense.

XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS.

514. The indicisiive mood may be known by the aense, or
oy its having no sign excq>t ia 4Lskiog g^quiestioii; fMI» " Who
co mes here V* t

Of what verb is the veri» is a varia- What hat is mentioasfdas worthy of

ttmi ? 506. notice i 509.

Will yon foim a imMvi* wpj^ vUh is yV\»% mefsd, tease, nmaber, aa4 mn^

Md ttrwk 7 506. son it " He has been*^? 5<kd. Is *< JlelMi

« JetbB itrjilces ^ossph.'' HQiprnuiJthe haea reieiBted>' ? 509.

•eose of this sentence be exp^eued ojr a Whal ijriU 9iake the mpod, te^sai k^

psifive vQrh f 508. ofrnM^iyp T,erhs fim>iUar ? 500.

What advantage does th.e aia of Mmi How are all passive verba Bbrmejl? 5li

psisive verb qftep afford us ? 507. XLU What is the meaniag of eiiftf*

To what does it contribute I 507. iary ? 196.

Howjpuuiy variations has the verb ts What are fuixiiiary verbs f 511.

fe in all ? 508. What are they i 50jBi. Will yon name them ? 519

What will always compoae one part of What verbs are osed both as anziUaiy

t patsire verb ? $0^ Wh^ the other and principal verbs ? 519.

peat? 508 XLHI. What is the signof the ladlMi*

tive mood / 514 Give aa example.' tff4

70 RNULISU GRAMMAR.

515. The potential mood has for its signs the auxiliaries
may, can^ must, might, could, would, and should; as, ^* 1
could love," &c.

516. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the
conjunctions (/*, though, unless^ except, whetlier^ and lest ; as,
*' Unless he repent," d&c.

517. The infinitive mood has usually for its sign the word
to ; as, to sing,

518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its
always being in the second person, and by its agreement
with thoUf or ye, or t/ou ; as, '* Depart thou," &c.

XUV. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE

INDICATIVE.

519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of
the verb ; as, weep, remain, &c. ; excepting the occasional
use of do ; as, '* I do learn.'*

520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, ex-
cept did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb is
not in the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows that
it is in the imperfect; as, 'VI fought"

521. The perfect tense has for its sign the word have ,- as^
have loved.

522. The pluperfect has for its sign had ; as, had loved.

523. The first future has for its sign shaU or wiU ; ts,
shall or will love,

524. The second future has for its sign shaU have or wiU
have ; as, shaU have loved, or will have loved.

525. The indicative mood has six tenses.

526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses.

527. The potential mood has four tenses.
. 528. The infinitive mood has two tenses.

' 52d. The imperative mood has one tense.

What it the sign orthe potential mood ? B\gn of the perfect ? 581. GiTo an «x

615. Give an example 515. ampre. 581.

i What is the sign of the sobjonetiTe Sign of the plQperfeet ? SB. Gave an

■ikood ? 516. Give an example. 516. example. 509.

What is tlie sign of the infinitive mood ? Sign of the first Aiture f 533. Give as

517. Give an example. 517. example. 523.

VIHiat is the sign of the imperative ? Sign of the second future I 594. Give

518. Give an example. 518. an example. 534.

XLIV. VVIiat is the sign of the pros- How many tenses has the indicative
•vl indicative ? 519. Give an example, mood ? 585.
Mv. How many the subjunctive ? d6t>*

Siji,nn of tlie imperfect f 520. Give an How many the potential ? 597.
example. 590. How muny the infinitive t 596.

Hnw miinv the imperative f 599.

v£ai«. 71

XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS.

530. When I ask you to raise your noietf m reading, yoa readily under*
stand what 1 mean by voice ; but in grammar, its application is somewhat pe-
culiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive naturi
of verbs.

531. The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combiuap
tion and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods
«nd tenses.

532. The conxugation of an active verb is styled the
ACTiTE ToicE, and that of a passive verb the passive voice.

533. Verbs are called regular/ when they form their im-
perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti-
ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense,
or d only when the verb ends in e; aa,

Pres, Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle.
I favor. I favored. Favored.

I love. * I loved. Loved.

534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and
perfect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular
VERB ; as,

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Pa^f^eipie.
I am. I was. Beea

535. The regular verb lave^ and the irregular ver^ to b€,
are conjugated as fellows : —

CONJUGATION.

TO LOVE AND TO BE.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE CONTRASTEl

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
ACTIVK TOICE. PASSIVS VOICE. HEnTKB

Singular. Singular Singular.

Pert, I love. 1 Pers, I am loved.. 1 Pen. I am. •

t Pers. Vou love. 8 Pers, You are loved. 2 Pers, You are

3 Pers. lie loves. 3 Pers. He is loved. 3 Pers. He is.

Plural. Plural. ' PUtroL

1 Pers. We love. 1 Pers. We are loved. 1 Pers. We are.

i Pers. You love. 2 Pers. You are loved. 2 Pers. You are.

3 Pers. They love. 3 Pers. They are loved. 3 Pers. They are.

XltV. Whatdoesvoie* mean ingrain- When are verbs ealled regular?

nar ? 530. Give an example. 533.

Meaning of eanjugatiou 7 217. Will you repeat after me the preaent

What ia the conjiigatioa of an active tense, and name the imperfect tense and

verb styled ? 532. perfect participle, of the verba fstMr f

What the conjugation of a paasive love 1 533.

rsrb .' 533 When is a verb called irregular t 034*

Give aa exai^^Ie 534. ^

fiNGLiaU GRAMMAR.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

BuumUtr,

Singular,

£bW«ibr.

1. I loved.

1. I was loved.

1. I was.

S. Yoa loved.

8. You were loved.

t. You were.

3. He loved.

3. He was loved.

3. He was.

Plural.

PluraL

1. We loved.

1. We were loved.

1. We were.

S. You loved.

S. You were loved.

2. You were.

9. They loved.

3. They were loved,
PERFECT TENSE.

3. They were.

Singular,

SingtUar.

Singular,

1. I have loved.

1. I have been loved.

1. I have been.

t. You have loved.

2. You have been loved.

2. You have been.

3. He has loved.

3. He has been loved.

3. He has been.

FluruL

Plural,

Plural.

1. We have loved.

1. We have been loved.

1. We have been.

J. You have loved.

2. You have been loved.

2. You have been.

3. They bav« loved.

3. They fcave been loved.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.

3. They have been

£111^:11^.

Bu^gular,

Singular.

1. I had loved.

1. I had been loved.

1. I had been.

2. You had loved.

2. You had been loved.

2. You had been.

3. He had loved.

3. He had been loved.

3! He bed been.

PhtraL

PluraL

1. We had loved.

1. We had been loved.

1. We had been.

ft. You had loved.

2. You had been loved.

2. You had been.

3. Tboy had loved.

3. They had been loved.

3. They had*bee|i

FIB8T FUTURE TENSE

Bk^vhr,

Singular.

1. I shall or will love.

1. I shall or will be lov-

1. I shall or will be.

S. You shall or will love.

ed.

2. You shall or wiU be.

3. He shaU or wiU love.

2. You 8haU«rwfl be

loved.

3. He shall or wiii be

loved.

3. He shall or will be.

PluraL

1. We shall or will love.

1. We shaU or v'.. be

1. We shall or win be.

S. You shall or will love.

loved.

2. You shall or will be.

3. They shall or will

2. You shall or will be

3. They shall or WiU be

love.

loved.
8. They shaU or will be
loved.

SECOND FUTURE TENSE.

Sh^iular,

Singular.

1. I shall have loved.

1. I shall have been lov-

1. I shall l^ve been.

S. You will have loved.

ed.

2. You will have been.

3. He will have loved.

1. You will have been

loved.
3. He wiU have been

loved.

3. He win have been

PlwaL

PluraL

• PbiraL

1. We shall hava loved.

1. We shall have been

1. We shall have been.

2. You will have loved..*

loved.

2. You will have been.

3. They will have loved.

2. You will have been

loved.

3. They will have been

3. They will have beea

loved.

Will you eonjn^ato love in the pi'esont perfect f flrflt futare ? second (iitaxt *
Bso active Toice, Indicatirp mood? present pRssivel imperfect? perfect'
535 In the inperroct ? perfect ? plu- plaporfoct? firet future ? second future

TBN8B8.

lingular,
1. Imay or can love.
1 You may or can tove.
S He may or can love.

PJural.

|. We may or can love.

1 icMi may or can love.

S. fliey may or can

love.

I. I mig^t^couldyWould,

or should love,

t. You might, could,

would, or should

love.

I. He might, could,

would, or should

Jove.

Plural,

1. We might, could.

would, or shoula
love.

2. You might, cdold,

would, or should
love.

9. They might, could,

would, or slioula
love.

Su^hxr,
1. I may or cao have

loved.
S. You may or can have

loved.
3. He may or can have

lovea.
PluroL
I We mav or can hkve

loved.
1 You may or can have

loved.
S They may or ean'

have loved.

POTENTIAI. MOOD

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular,

i. I may or can btf lov-
ed.

S. You ni9y or ean be

* loved.

3. He may or can be
' loved.
Plmtd,

I. We may or eati be
loved.

S. Vou may or ean be
loved.

3. lliey may or ean be
loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

SingtUar.

1. I might, could, would,

or should be loved.

2. You might, could,

would, or should be
loved.

3. He might, could,

would, or diould be
loved;
PUtral,

1. We might, could,

would^ or should be
loved.

2. You might, could,

Would, or should be
loved.

3. They might, could,

would, or should be
loved.

PERFECT TENSE.
Sn^vldr.

1. I may or can have

been loved.

2. You may or can' have

been loved.

3. Re may of can have

been loved.
PluraL

1. We mar or casr have
" been Wed.

2. You mav or ca» have

been loved.

3. They may or can

have been loved.

1. I m^J or ean be,
%f You may or can be.'
3. He ney or eat be.

Plural.

1. We may or can be.

2. You may or can be.

3. They may orcen be

BSngtUar,

1. I might, could, wouM,

or should be.

2. You might, eoukL

would, or ibould
be.

3. He might, could,

would, or pIvNila
be.

Phiral,

1. We might, could.

would, or shoula
be.

2. You . might, coold^

woidd, or tfabuki
be.

3. They mighty- could.

would, or thouUl
be.

Singnlaf

1. I may or calk' hkv4

been.

2. You may or em hav*

been.

3. He may or can have

been.
PhtMt,

1. We may or can- have

been.

2. You may or can hav»

3. Th2.y«c«bav

been.

Will rou eorijugale the verb to he, or
ant. in the present ? the imperfect ? per-
fect? pluperfect? first future? second
ftikure .'

Will you name the first penoo singu-
lar, of the oresent indicative, active and
passive, oflov^ and the first person sin-
fttlar or tha vorb to be?

The second person u like manner? the
third ? the first person plural ? MCOQd

Crson plural? third? first person sia(pi«
r, imperfect? second person? thiM?
first person plural ? seooad person pioiml
third ? first person sincnlar, porfeet
second person ? third? first person pJe-
r^l ? second ? thin} ?

ENGLISH GRAMMAIL

Sb^gulm.

I. I might, could,
or should
loved.

S. You might,
would, or
have loved.

3. He might,
would, or
have loved.
PbmU.

1. We might,

would, or
have loved.

2. You might,

would, or
have Joved.
S. They might,
would, or
have loved.

would,
have

could,
sboula

could,
should

could,
shoula

could,
riiould

could,
shoula

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Sir^gtdar,

1. I might, could, would,

or should have
been loved.

2. You might, could,

would, or shoula
have oeen loved.

3. He might, could.

would, or shoula
have been loved.
FUtral.

1. We might, could,
would, or shoula
ha^^ been loved.

S. You might, could,
would, or shoula
have been loved.

3. They might, could,
would, or shoula
have been loved.

Su^gUuxr,
1 I might, could,
or should
been.
% You might,
would, or
have been.
3. He might,
would, or
have been.
PluraL

1. We might,

would, or
have been.

2. You might,

would, or
have been.

3. They might,

would, or
have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Smgukar,

1. If I love.

2. If voulove.

3. If he loves.

PluraL
1. If we love.
2L If you love.
3, If theylovoL

Angular.

1. If I love.

2. If you love.

3. If Be love.

PluraL
L If we love.

2. If you love.

3. Iftbejlove.

1 IfllovSl.

2. If you loved.

3. If Be loved.

PluraL

1. If we loved.

2. If you loved.
Si If they lovedt

Com/mon JPorm.

Singular,
L If I am loved.

2. Ifyou are loved.

3. If he is loved.

Plural,
L If we are loved.

2. Ifyou are loved.

3. If they are loved.

SuJtjunelive Form.

Singular,

1. If I be loved.

2. Ifyou be loved.

3. If he be loved.

PluraL

1. If we be loved.

2. If you be loved.

3. If tney be loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Cotrvmon jphrtn*
Singidar,
L If I was loved.

2. Ifyou were loved.*

3. If he was loved.

Plural.

1. If we were loved.

2. If you were loved.

3. If they were loved.

would,
have

could,
shouki

could,
shooic

could,
should

could.
ihooM

could.
■houU

Singular.

1. If I am.

2. Ifyou are.

3. If ne is.

Plural.

1. If we are.

2. Ifyou are.

3. If they are.

Singular
L If I be.

2. Ifyou be.

3. If he be.

PluraL

1. If we be.

2. Ifyou be.

3. If they be.

Singular.

1. If I was.

2. If you were.

3. If he was.

Pksral,
1. If we were.
2i If3rouwerei
3. If they weret

Will yoa conjufate loea in like man-
ner, throuffh each penon and voice of
th« ploperteet f fint and second (htnrei ?
preaent potential? imperfect? perfect?
ploperlhct? preient Bubjunctive, eom-
■wm ftn« ? rabjnnetive form ? imperfect,
eommou Ibrmr rabhmetive farm? per-
tktt* plvperfeet? nrat and second f^-

Will you eonjunte love in the preBenf
indicative active? imperfect? perfect?
pluperfbct ? fint and eocond tutures '
preeent passive ? imperfect ? oerfect
pluperfect ? first and second ratures ?
present indicative of to hel imperfhct?
perfect ? plnperftc^ ? fiMt and second Ah
turee?

TENSES.

1 If I loved.

2. If yoa lovect

3. If ne loved.

Plural.
1. Sr we loved.

Sijdfjuncthe Form,

SWgulOT,

1. If I were loved.
S. If you were loved.
3. If he were loved.
Plural.

1. If we were loved.

2. If yoa were loved.

3. If they were loved.

2. If you loved.

3. If they loved.

J%e renudmng Unset are all of the Common Form,

Bbtgtdar,

1. If I were.

2. If vouwere.

3. If De were.

Plural.

1. If we were.

2. If you were.

3. If they were.

Singular.

1. If I have loved.

2. If you have loved.
5 If he has loved.

PbaraL
1 Ifwe have loved.

2. If you have lov^

3. If they have loved.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

1. If I have been loved.

2. If you have been

loved.

3. If he has been loved.

Plural

1. If we have been

loved.

2. If you have been

loved.

3. If they have been

loved.

Singular.

1. If I have been.

2. If you have been.
3 If ne has been.

Plural.

1. If we have been.

2. If you have been*

3. If they have been.

Singular,

1. Iflhadloved.

2. If vou had loved.

3. If he had loved.

Plural.

1. Ifwe had loved.

2. If you had loved.

3. Ifthey had loved.

Singular.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Sif^tUar.

1. If I had Deen loved.

2. If vouhadbeenlovedi

3. If he had been loved.

Plural,
It Ifwe had been loved.

2. If you had been lov-

ed.

3. Ifthey had been loved

FIRST FUTURE TENSE.

Singulars
li Ifl had Deen.
2» If vou had beeni
3. If ne had been.
Plural.

1. Ifwe had beeui

2. If you had beeui

3. Ifthey had been*

t. If I shaff or win love. 1. If I shST^'wiU be 1.

2. If you shall or will loved. 2.

love. 2. If you shall or will be

3. If he shall or will love. loved. 3.

3. If he shall or will be
loved.

Singular.
IflshalTorwillbe.
If you shall or will

be.
If he shall or will be.

Will yoa conjugate lov9 through each
penon of the present indicatiTe active ?
passive ? the neuter Terb to bel also in
the imperfect? perfect.' pluperfect ? first
and second futures? present potential?
imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect ? present
subjunctive, in both forms? perfect?
pluperfect ? first and second futures ?
What is the present infinitive active of

ovel present passive? present of to ds?

erfeet active oi'lov 7 perfect passive ?

erfect of to is 7 present participle active
of 2o«s 7 present passive ? present of to
be? perfect of loee? perfect of to bel
compound peifeet of love, in the active ?
in the passive of Co is 7

In what voice and mood is " I love*' ?
" They love»» ? " They are loved" ? " Are
they loved ?»» " I do love" ? What is the
force of do 7 In what voice, and mood is

*The man loved"? " He has loved"?

"He has been loved"? "Has he been
loved ?" " She had loved" ? " She had
been loved"? " We shall love"? " We
shall be loved" ? " Shall I have b»3n
loved ?" " May I love ?» " Mav I be
loved ?" " She may have loved" ? '^ She
may have been loved" ? " If I love" ?
" If he be lovod" ? " If he is loved"? « If
I love" ? " If I were loved" ? " Ifl was
loved" ?

In what tense is «« They love" ? ** Ye
are loved" ? ** She did love" ? " We were
loved" ? " They shall love" ? " They
shall be loved'^' "I maybe loved"?
** If she has been loved'*?

In what number and person is "I
love" ? " We love" ? " He does love" ?
" The man did love" ? " The men were
loved" ? " If he love" ? " If I was" ?
« If I wore'- ? " If ye have been" ? " If
ye have loved"' " You may be loved** .

99 SNGLIIM ORAMMAR.

Plural. PluraL Plurou

1 If we ghall or will 1. If we shall.or willbe 1. If we shall or will be

love. loved. 2. If you ahall or wH

2. If you shall or wiQ 2. If you shall or will be be

love. loved. 3. If they shall or wil.

3. If they shaH or will 3. If they shall or wiU be

love. be loved.

8BC0ND FirrURE TENSE.
Smgidoar. Sirifftdar. Svngtdar,

1. Iflshalfhawce.oved. t. If I shfidl have been 1. If I ahalfhave been.

S. If you shall have lov- loved. 2. If you shall hav«

ed. 2. If you shall have been been.

3. If he shalMiave loved. loved. 3. If he sheO-have been

3; If he shall have been
loved.
Piitral. Plural. Pharai,

1. If we shall have lov- 1. If we shall nave been 1. If we shall havebeeOi

ed loved. 2. If you shall have

2. IT yon- shall have lov- 2. V you shall have been been.

«d: loved. 3. U they shall have

3 If tfaev shall have 4. If fhev shaH have been.

lovedL been loved.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PBfiSENT TfiN»B.

SingulaTk Singular, Sin^ular^

2. Love you or do you 2. Be you loved^^or da 2. Be you, or do yt>ii' bo.
love. you be loved.

Plural. Plural, PluraL

2. Love yoUy or do you 2. Be you loved, or do 2. Be you^ordoyou be.
love. you be lovea.

INTINITIVE MOOD.
Pret. To love. Pres. To be loved. Pres. To be.

Per/. To have loved. Per/. To have been lov- Per/ To have been.

ed.

PARTICIPLES.
pres. Loving. Pres. Being loved; Pres* Beings

Per/. Loved. Per/ Loved. Per/ Been.

Compound Per/ Hav^ Compound Per/ Hav- Compound Per/ Har-

mg loved. ing been loved. Jng been.

536. For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thou, in the
eoBJugatioR of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The pupil can take it
ieperately, or be tanght it in connection with the other persons of the verb, by
•UDsrituting thou for you, in the foregoing conjugation.

U love^ as. "They love,'* a regular or aive? imperative present active? passive,

irregular verb ? why? 533. active or pas- perfect infinitive active? passive' present

rive? 439. What mood is it in? why? subjunctive active in both forms ? passive?

458. tense? why? 482. number? person? perfect infinitive? future active? passive?

What does love acree with ? Rule Vll. What kind of verb (that is, regular or

Is are, as, " They are," a regular or irregular), what voice, mood, tense, num*

inegolar verb? why? 534. passive or ber, and person is "I sing"? "We are

neuter? why? 450. What mood is it in ? formed"? "He is"? "You are deter-

«rtiy? 453. tense? why? 482. number? mined"? "It rains"? "It has happen-

person ? Rule for its apeement? VII. ed" ? "The man was respected" ? "The

What is thb present I'^iperative of love 7 boys did study" ? " If he improve" ? " Un-

present infinitive? less he repent"? " Although she be dis-

What mood and teiise is " Love you"? appointed"? « He may depart" ? " De-
li " To have been loved" ? part now"? "To love"? "To sing"?

Will you conjugate learn in the present "To be sun^"? " To rejoice'* ? " To have

Indicative active .'^ passive ? perfect act- wept"? "To have been seen"? "To hav*

Ive? perfbct passive? present potential been found"?
actfv* ' pasai^-« ? imperfect active ? pas

TEN8BS.

Prea, TIkmi lovest.

Imp. I'hoa lovedst

Per/, Tbxm hast lov«d.

Pbi^, Thou hadst lov-
ed.

IFuL Thou Shalt or
wilt love.

XFuL Thou wilt have
loved.

537.

Pres^ Thou mayat or

canst love.
hnp. Thou migfatst,

couldst, woulds^ or

shouldst love.
Per/. Thou mayst in*

canst have loved.
Plup. Thou mightst,

Qouldsty wouldst, or

shouldst have loved.

jS^^nop9» wUh Thou.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Thou art loved.
Thou wast loved.
Thou hast been loved.
Theu hadst been loved.

Thou«rt
Thouwaat
Thou hast been.
Thou hadst been.

Thou Shalt or wilt be Thou shalt or wilt be.

loved.
Thou wilt haye beea Thou wilt have beau

loved.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Thou mayst or canst be

loved.
lV>u mightsty eottldfft,

wouldst, or shouldst

i>e loved.
Thou mayst or canst

have been loved.
Thou migfatst, couldst,

wouldst, or shouldst

have been loved.

Thon ma/it or canst be

Thou mightsty couldst,

WQuUsty or shouldsl

be.
Thou awjs^ or cansi

have been.
Thou migfatsty couldit,

wouJdsC or ihiwildsl

have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

538.
Pres. Ifthoulovest
Imp, If thou lovedst.

539.

Pres, Ifthoolfyve.
6np. If liioa loved.

540.

Per/, If thou hast loved.
PluD, If thou^hadst lov

X.PnL If thou Shalt or

wilt love.
2 Put. If thou Shalt have

loved.

CfOmtnon Phrtn,
1i Ihou art loved.
If thou wast loved.

SuIyuncHve Ibrnu

If Ihou be loved.
If thou wert loved.

Onm/umForm*

If diou hast been loved.
^mou hadst been loved.

If thou shah or wih t>e

loved.
If thou shall have been

loved.

hAerrogaiivt jFVmk

Ifthouajrt
If thou wast

IfthOttlM.

If thou wert.

If thou hast been.
If thou hadst been.

If thou shalt or wilt h^.

IftbouahakhaJiiabMa.

541.

8iimular.
1. Do I love f
8. Do you lovef
3. I>oes he love ?

Plural.
1. De we love ?
S. Do you love 7
3. Do they love 1

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

Singular.
1. Am I loved I
8. Are you lov edf
3. Is he loved 1

Plural.

1. Are we loved ^

2. Are you loved 1

3. Are they loved f

Bmguusr,
1. Amit
S. Are you t
3. Is he t

Plural.
1. Are we?
S. Are you?
3. Are they?

64S. You will find, on eacammation of the foregoing coijugation, that Hie
tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding ones,
of the indicative, excqpt the following/ narodyy the present and imperfect

Will yoe rivethosynopm of 2om joined
with than tiirovgh tiw.-ipdieatiTe active f
passive i Neater verb tobel

Will joQ name the tynopeis of iMnt in
the first person in the aetivte^ voice, through
each mood and tense t Will you repeat
tte two tenaes of the infinitive and the
Dues paxtioiplM f ^ynoMis of homm in

like manner through the passive P also the

ropsisoftheveroCefte? GiTetheevnoe
or desire in the aetive, like lave ; in tm
passive ; verb to be f first person plaiA
active ; passive; tob»f thud ponoo aoi'
ive: passive i toH.

What mood does the snlilwistlvs i
blehiitstaMoaJMfi.

70. BNGLISU GKAMfilAR.

of the verb tobe; itud present and imperfect of the passive , the present and
the second future active. The last^ however, corresponds in termination, but
not in formation. Among the exceptions should be reckoned the use of the
conjunction if. There are mstances. hovever, of the subjunctive form, when
DO conjunction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly understood : as,
** Were I to ^, he would not follow^ " Had he known me. he would have
treated me differently ;'' that is, ** U I were to go,'' and '' If De had known.
ESxamples of this description are conjugated as follows i

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM.

549. UfPKRFECT TENSE.

Singular, PluraL

1. Were L 1. Were we.

2. Were vou. 2. Were you.
9. Wereoe. 3. Were they.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Similar. Plura*.

1. Had floved. 1. Had we lovedi

X. Had vou loved. S. Had you loved.

3. Had he loved. 3. Had they loved.

644. The second person singular of all verbs* formerly (1.) ended in tt
as, *' Thou hast," " Thou wast," &c. This form is still retamed by that re-
•pectable class of persons denominated (2.) Friends, and in the Sacred (3.)
Scriptures. (30

646. £Uh. for the termination of the third person singular, obtained (4.^ veiy
generally till within a recent (6.) period, especially on grave {S^ and didactic (7.)
aobjects ; as, '* He that haUt ears to hear, let him hear ;" " Simple multiplier
tion teaeheih to repeat," &^, But the custom of the present day is decid-
edly (8.) against the usage. (9.)

646. Tm Scriptures abound (lO.j with instances of the use of the pronomi
ye for yov; as, ''Ye are the salt or the earth 3" bat it is scarcely to be met
with in uiv btandard works of modem date.

647. llie following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of the verb

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

Singular, Singular, Singular,

1. I love. 1. I am loved. 1. I am.

2. Thou lovest. 2. Thou art loved. 2. Thou art.

3. He lovetfa or loves. 3. He is loved. 3. He is.

- — —

What exceptions? 64SL By whom is this -termination still i»-

How does the teoond futore difftr f 54SL tained ? 544. In what writingt ? 544.

Will you explain the difference ? 5^ Meaning ot Soared SeriptMres 7 544.

What is the sign of the subjunctive What form of the third pemon aingulaf

mood? 518. Is it alwayi expressed? 543. obtained till recently? 545. Give an ex

Give an example. 5^ Will yon supply ample. 545.

the conjunction ? Meaning of dUabudl 545. Of reemi f

Will ytm conjugate the verb to (e in the 545.

subjunctive mood, imperfect teqse, without On what subjects was the termination

its usual lign ? In like manner conjugate etk uaed in writing ? 545.

Um* in the pluperfect. Meaning ofgv%me7 ofdidaetiel 545.

Will vou conjugate love in the proaent In what writings do we find ye used for

active, interrogative form? passive? neu- yoa? 546.

ter verb tobel Is it common in modem works ? 546.

In what voioe, mood, tense, number Will you conjugate love in the present

and person is "Do I study?" "Did she active, according to the ancient usage?

jtodv ?** ** Were they dismissed ?" ** Are 547. passive ? neuter verb tobel

we?'' In what number and person is ** Ha

In what did the second person sbigular hath"? " He hates" ? " Thou lovest" .

af all verbs formerly end? 544. Give an « Thou hast" ? "He learneth"? «Ye

example. 544. learn'* ? He rejoiceth" ? " Thou art re

Meaning of /orwurtf? 544. joiced"? " Thou art'*? "He weepeth"

a Ezoepting ori.

n.)8onstMaMO. CI.)Cdlrf.^, (S.) m Bible. (4.)Fi«TaIM. A.)Ute. (e.)8Mi(Ni

a.)Abo«B4lD|lBpf«ea|its«rimlracttTe. (8.) FMittvolv. |9.)D^ (10.) Hava Mnv.

VlfiKIM.

PbrnraL PhanL Plmr^,

I. W«iove. 1. We we loved. 1. We era.

i. Ye orjWL love. 2. Ye or you are loved, t. Year yoa tie.

8. They love. 3. They are loved. 3. They aie.

548. IO*For a further illustration of these obsolete conjueations,

is referred to those treatises cm grammar in our schools, woich profru to ftv-
nish him with a sure and infalliSle guide to the true and proper use of the
English language.

HtFXiE VX>

Tht nominative case governs the verb in number an

person.

A verb must agree with its nominative case in number

and person.

Ajctive-4ransitive verbs govern the objective case.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.
** WilUtmi was admired for his prudence.**

549. Wmiam is a proper noun, of the third PERsbify sin-
WJJ4AB, iruMBER, MAscni.iNE OENPER, and in the nominatitx
CASE to w(u admired^ agreeably to Rule VI.

Was adawrtd is a regular passive verb, from the veib to
admire — ^ Pres. admire ; hnp. admired ; Perf, part, admired. 1. 1
was admired ; 2. You were admired ; 3. He or William was ad-
nured" — ^made in the iiydicative mood, imperfect TEirsEy
THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, and agrees with fftUiamf
according to Rule VII.

For is a preposition.

JJtf is a PERSONAL pronoun, of the third person, SINtfULAH

NUMBER, masculine GENDER, and affToes with WtUtam^ accord-
ing to Rule V. — ^^JVom. he ; Poss. his*' — ^made in the possessite
CASE, and governed by prudenccj by Rule I.

Prudence is a common, noun, of the third person, singular
NUMBER, neuter GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govemcd by
foTf by Rule X.

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUEl).

*< John was applauded for his elo- << The girl was ridiculed by het
quence." companions."

** The king was crowned at West- ** Susan was respected for her vir*
minster Abbey." tuous conduct

« Thomas has been esteemed." <* James will be rewarded by his

^ The business will be regulated." instructer."

•* Addition teaeheth"? "He that hath was mbniredf 549. /iir? 549. Mf ? Stf.

eai9»? "Be that lianeth'* ? "Thou pnuienea? 549.

lovedst" ? " Thou mightst, eouldst, What ie a paaeive verb ? 444. How

wooldat, er ehooldst hare lamented'*? formed? 510. Why ie udmbrad regular

What ifl the rale for the agreement of 533.
theTerb? rale for the nominative? rule Why ii /or a preporition? 946. Why

by which rerbe govera the objective cam ? ii Au a pronoan ?

« William -waa admired for hie pro- WiU yoa now parM the

denes." Win yoa parM HVIuml 549. ereieae?

IPt SNGLISH QfUMMAK.

fi.

« We may be Mteemed." <' lostiee may have been fltayed.*

•• He might l^v« been promoted." ^ The task must be performed."
«« William would have been de- ** We should not (1.) be easily (1.)
Ihraned.'* disheartened in a good canse.^

"ijf Ac be learned"

550. jjTifl a COPULATIVE COIWUIfCTION.

Be kamed is a regular PASsry^ TYliB, from the verb to learn
— ** Pre$. Jeflm ; Imver, learned ; Perf, part, leanied. 1. Jf I b9
learned ; 2. If you oe learned ; 3. If he be learned'' — ^made in

the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, SUBJUNCTIVE FORM, PRESENT TENSE,

THIRD PERSON, SINOUI.AR iruwB|Ui| Riid agroes with ike, accord
ing to Rule VII. #

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

<*lf John be rewarded." "Although you will be disap-

«« If I am noticed." pointed."

*< Unlepi he be punisl^d." " If the man had been elected."

" Although they are respected." « Except he repent."

** Columbus discovered America." ** Susan assisted the little girl."

« America was 4ise9V(Bred by Co- .'< The )iiAtb girl was assisted by

lumbus." Susan."

•• John wounded his brother." " Pain follows pleasure."

*• John's brother was wounded by ** Pleasure is followed by pain."

bun."

** 4li ojbediant son is deservedly *f Unless great labor had been be-

req»|Bcted by his friendp." stowd on William, he would

^ An idle boy will be punished." have disappointed ^o expect

** Without )akowledge» a man is tations of his parenjts."

commonly (1.) oespised." "He will not(l.) mind withoui

V corporal 'punishment."

«< The boy viho visited me in Sep- ** They that seek knowledge will

tomberdiedintheeityoffies- find it."

ttm" *^ That lien which was exhibited

" The man whom I found perished in this town has been killed

la a sjtprm of snow." by his Icee^r."

4.
M 1 found(2.) John and William (8.) " I have assisted hym and his sister
in the garden with their father in many difficulties, to no (4.)

and mother. (8.) purpose."

XLVL OP UlREGULAR VERBS.

J. Irregular verbs are those which do not form theii
UDperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d ox
ed to t)ie present tense ; ja^,

« If he be learned.** Will yon pane i/1 Why in the »ul>junctiyi9 form ? ^(51.
5S0. b€ leamtd 7 250. Way in tlie ^|i)»- wMi jrou parse the r«)ini^iau^ ofkercices
Jonctive mood? 456. ia those Icasoos ?

(I ) Adverfh ' (S) Irrcsalur veib. (1) fbr tVUHam and incthtr apply Ra1« Xl. (V) ^djactiv*.

iRUKC^ULAK VKH.H».

Pres, tense.

Imperf,

tense.

Per/. Participle,

Go,

Went,

Gone.

Be^iu,

Began,

Begun

I^IST

OF IRREGUIiAB Y£^3S.

Those marked r admit likewise a

regular form.

abode.

Frtaent.

iTftftrftct.

Pof» or Pwim Apd

Ab, wis,

Hang,
Bear,

bung, r.
heaiS,

nearo.

Aiiie, amae,

arisen.

Hew,

hewed,

hewn. r.

Awake, a»qiu, r.

awaked.

S?^»

hid.

bidden, hid.

%C »'*»ju»,

bora.

Hit,
Hold,

hit,
held.

bit
held.

Bear, toe«yT«L ban,

bema.

Hurt,

hurt.

hut

Beat; b«t.

beaten, beat

Keep,

kept.

bS' ar

ftsr

Knit,
Know,

knu,r.
knew.

knit,rv
known.

iKi'uvSy Mrcfif r*

bereft, r.

Lad^'

iaded,

bdea.

Beieecb, beaoi^cbt,

beaoogbl.

Lay,

laid,

l%id.

Bid, bid, bad«,
Bind, boond.
Ilia, bit.

Wddaa, bid.

Lead,

led,'

led.

boond.
bitten, bit

Leave,
I.end,

1ft

lent.

Bleed, Med,

bled.

Let,

let,

let.

Bknr, bleir,

bkiWB.

LictoMii

»»>S)*7.

lain.

■mk, brake,

brakhu

Load,

loaded,

laden, r.

Breed, bred,

bred.

Low,

kMt,

loat.

Biinr, brougbt,
Bay, bougit.

hwigoi.

Make,

Biadfl^

made.

i\\

Meet,
How,

met,

mowed,

paid.

met.

mown. r.
paid-

Cast. cast.

caaU

caugbt* >"•
chidden, dlid.

Read,
Rend,

read,

rent,

put

refd.

rent

^'*«^. -.^^ >.'*'**»

fhomit

Ring.

rid,

lid.

^'^xr*}'^-

rode,
nu>e»MBg»

nxle, rtddflD.!
mug.

Clean, to vltf, clove or deft,

deft, dovea.

Ri2r

row,

riaeti.

Qiog, ehug:

elans.

Rive^

rived,

ritan.

Clothe, dotbed,

cbd.r.

Run;

wa.

run.

Coaaa, cama,

coma.

Saw,

•aw.

aawn.r.

Cort, OCMl,

coaL

B>y»

laid.

iaid.

Crow, creir, r.

AfOVpd*

mw.

9CCII«

Cream *"!*»

fnpL

sf-

■ought

Cot, cot.

cot

Si,

■old.

nan, toomtuni dimt,

dared.

■C9t,

■ent

Iltf^ to dkoA-J.

Set,*

■d,*

■at

Shaka,

ahonk,

■ba^n.

Dal, daall,r.

daalLr.

Shape.

ahaped,

shaped, •bapaa.r

t *'•

diig.r.
dona.

Shan;
Shear,

•heaxo3.

■haven. r
■horn.

Dnw, draw,

drawn.

Shed,

•had.

■bed.

ttif^ toT&

amnk.

Shin^

HMHM, fV

■hoqa. fw

Dr^ diank,

Show,

allowed.

ahown.

Dwell, dwelt, r.

dv^t r.

Shoe,

•hnd.

abod.

Eat, cat or ata,

eaten.

Shoot,
Shrink,

■hot,

■hot

V^ ¥h

Mien.

■hnink,

■ibrunk.

Fe3, fed.

fed.

Shnd,

ihred.

ahnd.

Feel, fell.

»*.

Shal,

abut.

abut

Fight, fcHM,
Find, foood,

fought
found.

Sing,

sung,
■unk.

Flea, fled.

liod.

Sit,

■at, '

■at

Fliag, flupf,

0««B>

SI37,

■law,

■lain.

Fly, ilew,

flows,
forgotten, brial.

ss^

•fiStab

foraken

Sling,

i'lst, .

•lunc.
•look.

Freeae, fnne.

flnoaan.

Slink,

£?! «!^

»t»

Slit,

■lit, r.

■lit, or dittad.

6iU, gilLr.
Gild, girt, r.

cilt. r.
^rt.r.

Smite,
Sow,

■mote,
■owed,

aowa.r.

Gj»a, gave,

given.

Speak.

•poke^

Ifinkt^

Go, want,
Gn«, F»*«A>.
Gnad, grovnd,

gooa.
ganraibr.

aped,
■pent.

aped,
■pent

giouod.

Spll,

apiH,r.

apilt r.

gj,. gjw,

grown.

Spn,
SpI^

•p'fWt

»pua.
■pit,apittc94

XL VI. When is a verb called irrefu-
larf fi61.

Will you Dame the pfeeent and imper-
feet ienaee, alao the perfeet participle of

(to carry.) bidt hiUl Ireakl choose
aol drmki eat 1 forget 1 kavel knownl
lUI (to lie down.) mow 7 riael aul
tHrotoJ weave 1 write 1

• Oottm ia near y obadete. IlBeompowid,/arfe««n, b still la good naa.

t RkUm b aonr^ oboolelab t ^iltoi b nearly ebeoleta.

ENGLISH QKAJCMAK.

■pmd,

fitrft or Piutm Ptrtm
qiUtr.
qiread

Fmma

gl»n'*.

■prune ipniig,

^lnaf.

Tejr,

Blaad,

■tood,

■tood.

Tdl,

StnV

•tole,

■lOliiB.

Think,

?}**.

■tufk,

■tuok.

Tiiriv«,

sia;

•tBnc.
■tunk.

Throw,
Thnut

Btrids,

■tridd«&

TnS;

Strike,

itrw*.

■truck or ■trkken.

H""

!S"«»

■truBf,

itniag.

S«"»

ftrin,

Mtnva,

■tnveo.

Weav«k

Strew or

^-- f ■trowed or
**^l rtrwed,

Catrown, itrowsd,
I ■tnwed.

WeepT

Swear,

■WUIQi

■worn.

Wind,

•wet, r.
•weliad.

■wet r.
swollen, r.

Wotk,

•warn, iwsiD,

■wun.

Wrint,

Swii^b

smutf.

wnnag.

Writ?

ton. tarn.

toM,
thooght,
throw, r.
threw,
tbrwt,

QOda

wnxad,
wore,
wo«e,
wept,

WDD,

told.

tturivea.
fbrowB.

{"^SSST

wrote,

wntiib

fi63. We say, ** I have seen,'' " I had seen/' aad '' I am seen/' using Uia
participle ieen instead of the vert) scao : hence,

Note YI. We should use participles, only, after have, aiid
had, and the verb to be.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
'* John has toritten his copy"

554. Has unitten is an irregular active-traitsitite vbrbi
from the verb to vnite — " Pres. write ; Imperf, wrote ; Peif. pctrL
written. 1. 1 have written ; 2. You have written ; 3. He or Johai
has written" — found in the indicative mood, perfect tense,
THIRD person, binoular NUMBER, ahd ci^rees with JbAn, by
Rule VII.

John, copy^ and his are parsed as before.

exercises in syntax CONTINUED.

** Job has struck Jobn."

** John has been struck by Job.

<* The men caught the thief in the

tavern.*^
"The thief was caught by the

men in the tavern?*
'* A wise son will make a glad

fiither." .
** The^ict was done by William."

« James (bund his little brother in

the boat."
**The instructer makes good

pens."
*< The farmer ploughs the ground

in spring."
*'l may spend my time in the

country."

Will Tou eoneet, in ftccordaneo with
WoTB VI., the following ozamplM from
Uie list above ?

**John has wrote."

<* He done it well."

**TheBanhRanMe.**

** Tlie ran risen yesterday in a cloud."

•* I see him yesterday."

"HehasdidhisUsk."

** The birds have flew awav "

** The birds flown or flew.*'

*' The post is drove into the ground."

** Ho began or begun to write."

•* The task is began."

•* I had went with him."

'* My brother has not spoke."

*• The cloUi is wove."

" The boys run swiftly.

*Tne thief has stole my watch "

•* Hia copy was wrote well."

<* He was smote on his cheek."

** John was awoke by the naiM."

** My fkther has came."

** He come yesterday."

" Mary has chose tlie better part.*

" Re fflrunk to excess."

" The book was gave to me.**

" His friends have forsook him >*

** He was not forsook b? his children.**

**The laborer workoil lor me fiirty

davs."
" He was took and bonnd."
"John has written his copy." li^^

yon parse Am writtsft 7
Whv is has wrictew an imgnlarvwb?

S51. WhyaeUvo>430. Why tianeiUve ?

440

KXEIICISB8. 8S

'* John is at home." " He abode in peace.*'

** Rufus rode into the country." " They would be cruel."

" The sun will shine." " We may have been negligent*

" The thief was confined in jail.'* ** The boys should haye been itu
'The horse ran with great vio* dious.*'

lence." " WUliam was in town."

3.
*If he wUi asdst me, I shall be faults, still he would not recora

much (1.) obliged to him." pense me."

" If he be virtuous, then he will " I will write him, lest he neglect

be happy." my business."

'* If he is happy, then I am con- *' Should I be disappointed, 1 sh^^

tented." despair." ^

*' Had he mentioned that circum- ** Unless he repent, he will not be

stance, I should have avoided pardoned."

my present calamities." '* Were I* in your place, I would
** Although he acknowledged his relieve him."

^ Thou hast benefited me." << Dost thou hear me ?"

'* Te make no pretensions." " Hath he many advisers V

" This doctrine hath no follow- '' Ye do always err."

era." « Thou shalt surely die."

" Jf thou love me." " If thou hadst obeyed me, thou
' If thou art more comfortable, 1 wouldst not have been disap-

heartily rejoice." pointed."

** If ThomaB, who is at school, << The task which the instrucier

return in season, I will visit imposed was performed with

you." reluctance."

^ The boys whom I admonished ^ The measure which he adopts

have reformed." will succeed."

" The man whose life was in dan- " I have known a little- child that

ger returned in safety." exhibited the prudence of mar

ture years."

XLVII. GOVERNMENT OP THE INFINITIVE

655. When I say, '' John begins to read/' U> read is a verb in die infinitive
mood ; and it follows, as you perceive, the verb begins i oence we say that
It is governed by begiru.

**He is be^nning to read/' Here, the infinitive follows the participle
beginning ; it is, therefore, governed by^ begirtmng.

" He IS eager to learn." Here, the infinitive follows the adjective tagtr ;

we tlicrefore say that it is governed by taetr.

" He has an opportunity to learn." Here, the infinitive, to Ucanij is gov-
erned by the noun opportunUyy because it follows the noun.

In like manner the infinidve may be governed by pronouns \ as, " There is
t fine opportunity for him to learu :" hence,

XLVII. **John besins to read." la "He has an opportunity to learn?*'

^at mood is to readl 555. Why? 479. What part of speech foverns to learn in

By what is it ^verned ? 555. Why ? 555. this example ? 555. Why ? 555.

" He is beginning to read.** What gov- " opportunity for him to Jeam.**

eriM to reoif in this ease ? 555. What does the inftniuve here follow/

** He is eager to learn.*' What gOTema By what, then, is it governed ? 655*

to laons i n this case? 8M. Why f 555.

ENGLiSfl GRAMMAR.

7%e infinitive mood may be governed by vtrbs^ jparUct'
plcSf tuijectivesj nouns^ and pronouns,

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
^^ James9 begins to ham"

556. To learn is a reoulab, transitive verb — " PrtM. learn ;
Imperf. learned; Per/, part, learned" — ^made in the inpixvitive
MOOD, FBESEZYT TENSE, ODil gfoverned by beginSf agreeably ta
Rule XII.

JmmeM and. bfginsy are parsed as before.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

" G«orge desires to learn." grammar teaches mm to write

' He is eager to learn." correctly."

" He has a desire to study." <^ He ahonid seek to obtain

" It seems to please John." knowledge."

*^ William has come to see us.*' " We may he taocht to write,

" They are determined to excel." read, and spell.

** A knowledge of the rules of

Omisaion of to, the usual S^ of the hifinUive.

** John saw the man strike (1.) ** I heard the cloak strike.*'

the boy." « The tutor bade him do it '

'* The instructer made him sub- ** The soldiers dare not rebel.'

mit." " My uncle let the boys p^y in

" They need not proceed in such the garden."

haste." " See (2.) the blind beggar dance.'

Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed
by conjunctions or adverbs ; rs, ** The summit of a mountaia
so high as to be invisible.*'

EXAMPLES.
*< They are about (S.) to depart" <* He desired no more (4.) than (6.)
** He is wise enough (8.) to study.'* to know his duty.'*

XLVIII.

A97. We have before seen, that participles partake of the nature of two
parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance
which participles have to odiectives, is m referring^ to some noun in the sen-
tence in which they are used ; as, '' The sun is setting :" here, the participle
tetHng is said to refer to the noun sitn : hence,

What, then, may be regarded as a rule " They are about to depart." By what

for the goremment of the infinitive f XII. is the infinitive here governed ? Vlrhat ii

"John begins to loam." Will you the note for this .^ Vlf.
parse U> Uam ? James 7 begku ? 556. XLVIII. What is a paitipiple i 498.

Is to ever omitted? 480. "The son is setting." What is «#-

Will you now parse the ezereisea in tmgl 557. To what, thoa, does

the lessons which follow ? refer? 557. Rule? XIII.

What IS the infinitive mood used for ? Will you now parse settmg in full?

(1.) Strike is nvernad by Rul* XIL —————————————

2'1 ^i!J? ^ unpmli*)!, Mwi^ with 6kMior yns wdentood, by Hal* VH

l*AKTlCiri.GS

Participles refer to noum

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
** The wind is rising^

558. Rising is a present active participle, from the ir-
rcgtdaf verb to rise — ** Pres. rise ; hw, rose ; Perf part risen
— «Dd it refers to toindy according to Rule XIII.

EZERCTSES IN SYNTAX eONTimjE1>.

1.
" The moon is Betting'." <* Mary was playing.*

" The Bnn is rising." " I have been writing.**

" The trees are grrowing.** " I found him crying.'

** Jolin was dancing.*' ^ I left him rejoicing.'*

PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES.
" The rising sun cheers us"

559. Ilising is a pabthcipial adjective, from the verb to
ftfe*-^^ JPre#. rise ;. Imp, lose ; Perf. parL risen^—and belongs to
mf% by BifTdUB IV.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

'* The setting sun reminds us of " We view with pleasure the
declining years." twinkling stars/'

" The roaring winds alarm us.'* ** The roaring cataract strikes us

'* The rippling stream pleases with awe.*'

us.*' ''The laboring man should not

" The singing-master visited me.** be defrauded."

" Having dined, I returned to " Having slept, he recovered his

school.*' strength. '

* Having fought bravely, they " Having retired to rest, he was

were at last (1.) overcome." seized with violent pain."

" John, having exercised too vio- " The thief, having escaped, was

lently, fainted." never afterwards seen in that

region."
4.

" William returned, mortified at " A child left to follow his own

his loss." inclinations is most common*

' The stream, swollen by the ly ruined.*'

rains, oversowed its banks." " Admired and applauded he te*
*^ The man accustomed to his came vain.'

glass seldom reforms.**

Will you parse tlio next lesson / What kind of a participle is " Having

Will you parse rmiup, in the sentence, dined" ? 504. Why ? 504.

"The rising sun"? 559. Why is it call- Who dined, in the phrase, "Havinf

ed a participial adjective ? Atu. Because dined, I returned to school" ?

it doseribes, like an adjective, and im> To what, then, does AavuifiltiMil refer.

plies action, like a participle. Bale XIII. Will you now parse the rA>

Will yf>u now parse the next lesson ? malning lessons f

(1.) JtlatHtn advwbial plow*.

66 BNQL18H OKAMMAR.

"A dinnpated son grieves his youth into his own house

p arents.** and rendered to him deserved

'' We must not neglect any known assistance."

duty." " William befriended the deserted

<< My &ther took the forsaken ^ man."

'' The men, being fatigued by la- fect^ was severely and justly

" bor, sought rest in sleep. punished."

** William, TOing dismissed from ** The tree, having been weighed

college, retired to the coun- down for a long time by aSun-

try." dance of fruit, at last (1.) fell

** Thomas, after having been re- to the ground."
peatedly admonished to no ef-

Active pariiciplesj from active-transitive verbs^ govern

the objective case.

" James is beating John"

560. John is a proper noun, of the third person, bikoutsAM

NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and gOVemod by

beatingj by Rule XIV.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

'' John is striking William." inunediately set off for Sos

** Susan is studymg her lessen." ton."

** Mary has been repeating her ** I spied the cat watching* a

lesson to her mother." mouse."

" The teamster, seeins the stage " Having given directions to his

upsetting, ran and prevented servants, he lefl his family

it." and took the stage for Wash-

** Having obtained my request, I ington."

" He delights infighting"

561. Fighbtng is a participial noun, in the objective case,
and governed by the prepositio n, according to Rule X.

EXERCISE8 in SYNTAX CONTINUED.

*< Job was exhausted by vnrest- '' Job j^ractises fencing daily.*'

ling." " The instrucfer teaches reading.

'< Mary acquired a livelihood by writing, and spelling, in his

sewing." school."

" Walter excels in writing." " Whispering is forbidden in

" Fishing delights me." school."

** Beating John.*? WiM you parse ticipial noun ? JSna. Beeaune It implie*
AAn?560. Beaixngi SS&. action, like a participle, and baa, also, the

Will yoH parse the remaining exercises sense of a noun,
in the lesson above ? Will you parse the rest of tbe ezercitet

" In fightinff.*' Will you parse figU^ in this lesson ?
nv 7 561. Why wfiglUxng called a par-

').) At kut isra adTMUal pbni*.

EXERCISES. 87

562. " You win much ohKge me hy sending those hooks,**

Sending is a participial ifouir, in the objective case, and
governed Dy the preposition by, according to Rule X.

Books is a COMMON noun, of the third person, plural num-
ber, NEUTER OENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govomed by the
active participle sending, according to Rule XfV.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

" James dmves pleasure from '< Mary's reading has been oseiiil

reading useful books." in improving her taste in

''John is above doing a mean composition.

action.*' '' I am discouraged from under-

** Parents are pleased at seeing taking this study."

the progress of their chil- '< A ^food instructer takes no de-

dren." bght in punishing."

The present participle, when used as a noun, often has the definite article
the before it, atfa the preposition of after it ; as, " By the observing of truth,
yon will command respect." With equal propriety, however, it ma3r be said.
** By observing truth," &;c., omittuig both the article and the preposition. It
we use the article without the preposition, or the preposition without the arti-
cle, the expression will appear awkward : hoice,

Note VITI. The definite article the should be used be-
fore, and the preposition of after, participial nouns, or they
should both be omitted.

EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.

*^ By the observing these rules, <* In the regarding his interests, he

he wiU avoid mistakes." neglected the public affairs."

" He prepared them for the event *^ He was sent to prepare the way

by the sending to them proper by preaching of repentance.

information. ' ' " Keeping of one day in seven (1 .)
" In writing of his letter, he made is required of Christians.

some mistakes."

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

^* William calls Greorge." ** John will be punished for his

"John's father will reward his insolence."

industry." *' We may in>Drove under our in-

" Oeorge's father's carriage pass- structer, if we choose."

ed the tavern." " He who would excel in learn-

** If William return, he will be iiig, must be attentive to his

disappointed." books."

" John has beaten his little brother " She begins to improve."

most shamefully."

** By tending thoie bookB." Will you Instead of saying, " By the observinf

pane amimg f 569. hooka ? 569. these rales," what should I say? Whyl

Will yon pane the remaining exercises Note^ VIII.

tn this lesson ? Will yoa now pane and correct the

From what are present participles ezercisos under Note VIII. ?

formed f 497. Will you pane the promiscuous ezer

How may participles in ing be distin- cises in Syntax ? Next take those to ha

gnished fhmi other parts of speech of the written,
same termination ? 500.

(I.) Smn b a mnncn) «i!]«ctiTe, belonKins to (f«yt, undentnod, by Nota I

m ENGUSU GKAMMilK.

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

563 Will you eompoM a sentence, oontatning an avtrre-trtaiixtire
verb ? One, containing a neuter verb ? One, containing a passive
terb ? One, expressing the same sense as the lost in an active form?
Will you compose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood i
One, in the subjunctive mood ? One, m the impe^tive Bdood ? One,
in the infinitive mood ? One, having an adjective in th« superlative
degree ? One, haying the article an correctly used before a vowel r
One, having an adjective in the positive degree that has in itself a
superlative signification ? One, containing the relative whose f One
containinj^ which f One, with what used u a compound pronoun.'
One, havmg who used u an interrogative pronoun ? One, haying a
verb in the subjunctive mood, common form ?

Will you construct one or more sentences, which will make sense,
with the word truth contained in them ? One, with the word wisdom
contained in it? One, witii the word hufwUdgef One, with the
word learning f One, with the word science f

Will you construct a sentence about prudence f One about his-
toty f One or more on the foUbwing subjects, namely, geography ^
gardening J farms J oreJuLrdsf

Will you fill up tlie following phrases with suitable words to make

sense, namely, " Industry liealth" ? " By — we acquire " ?

" In youth characters *' ? " Arithmetic bosiness'* ^

" Washington live beasts of his " ?

XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS.

564, The veibs hace, be, vnU and do, when they are unconnected with a
prineipal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal

verbs; as, " We have enough f " I oatt gretefiH f " He witts it to" be so f
^^They do as they please/' In this view, they also have their auxiliaries 3 as,
" I shall ha\^ enoufh j" *' I wiU be gratend." dtc.

565. The peciuiar force of the several awdliaries will appear frnm the
following account of them.

566. Do wad' did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater en-
ergy and posiliveness ; as, "I do speak truth }" **ldid respect him ;*' ** Heie
am I, for thou didst caJI me.'' They are of great use in negative (1.) sen-
tences 5 as^ "I do not fear ;" "1 did not write." They are almost umversallv
employed m asking questions ; as, " Does he learn ?" " Did he not write ?^
They sometimes also supply (2.) Uie place of another verb, and make the rep-
etition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary : as, " You
attend not tb your studies as he does r (i. e. ** as be attends," &c.) ** I shall

He might have improved more than he has ;" *' He can write much belter
tfian he could last year."

XL[X. Which are the auxiliary verbs? What effect have do and did in aen-

61S. tenees ? 566. Give an example. 566.

What u an auxiliary verb ? 511. Will you five an example ra which the

What a principal one ?• repetition of the principal verb is un-

When are have, be^ toiU, and do princi* necessary ? 566.

pal verbs f 564. Give an example of What do «iay and mtflt ezpresa f 567

each. 664. w s r

UODvirinc. (Olatnop. •SwiiaMHoD to |»T

568. 3Iust is sometimes enRed ia fer a helpef, and denotes necessity) b%
" We must speak the tniUiy wkenever we do speak, and wa most nsi prewi-
caie."(l.J

569. tilUt in the first person sineular and plural, intimates (t.) lesolutioo
and promising ; in the seooad and iMrd person, it oaiy forateHs : as, '^ I will
reward the g'Md, and will punbh the wicked ;" ** We will wmemher benefits,
and be gratefiil ;" ** Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that foUj f ** Yoq, or they,
will have a pleasant walk.''

670. Bhailf on the contrary, m the first person, snnply foretells ; in the
lecoad and tiiird persons^ it promises, commands, or threatens ; as, '^ I shaA

K abroad ^' " We shall dine at home f ' " Thou sluitt, or you shall, mherit the
id f* ** Ye shall do jostice, and love mercy f ** They shall account for their
nisconduct.'' Hie following passage is not translated (3.) according to the
<Ustinct and proper meanings of the words sheM and will : " Surely goodness
and mercy snail follow me ul the days of my life : and I will dwell in &e house
of the Lord for ever.'' It ought to be, " wUl follow nse," and " I thaU
dwell." — ^The foreieiier who, as it is said, feU into the Thames, and cried out,
" I vaiU, be drowned ! nobody shall help me !" made a sad misapplication oi
these auxiliaries.

671. These observations respecting the import (4.) of the verbs toill and
fAo^, must be understood of eamicative sentences ; for when the sedlence is
interrogative, just the reverse, (5.) for the most part, takes place : thus, ** I
vkall go," ''You vjUI go," express event (6.) only; but, ** Will you go t"
imports intention; ana '' Shall I b[o?'' refers to the will of another. But
** He shall go." and " Shall he go 7" both imply will ; expressing or referring
to a command.

572. When the verb
auxiliaries likewise underi

perceive by a few examples : " He shall proceed^ " If he shall proceed p
'^Tou shall consent :" "If you shall consent." These auxiliaries are some-
times interchanged (8.) in the indicative and subjunctive moods ; to convey Ae
same meaning of the auxiliary ; as, " He lotu not return ;" '' If he ihaU not
return ;" ** £te shall not return :" " if he will not return."

573. Wmdd primarily (9.) denotes inclination of will ; and shouldf obliga-
tion ; but they both vary tneir unport, and are often used to express simple
event

574. Do and hceoe are sometimes used as principal verbs, according to the
following

SYNOPSIS.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Pres, i do. I have«

Imp, I did. I had.

Per/. I have'done. I have had.

P/»p. I had done. I had had.

1 F\U. I shall or will do. I shall or will have.

t Put. I shall have done. I shall have had.

What is th« nse of mtutl 968. all the da^ of my Ilfh ; and I will dwell

What does mil intimate in the first In the house of the Lord for ever." 570.

person singular f plural.' 569. Give an In what eonsista the mistake in the

example. 5(S9. In the second and third expression which the foreigner made

persons ? 569. GiYO an example. 569. when he fell into the Thames? 570.

What does shall intimate In the first What do shaU and iriU denote In inter

perwMi? 570. Oire an example. 570. ronitive sentences; as, "Shall I go?*

In what particular is the translation of " Will you go ?»» 571.

the following passage incorrect ? ** Sure- What do isoaldl and «JkimM primariljr

Ij goodness and mercy shall follow me denote? 573. *

(DToslMiawtralk. (B.)8h0frs. fit.) E ipru s m! . {4.)Mmaia§. fB.)Ocmtnw

(«.) Wtaat teppem. 0')Mtn, (a)lb«zclaB|eoasrarQisol]Mr. 9>) b fks irtl f«iM

dO BN^LIAU ORAMUAK.

575. POTENTIAL MOOD.

Preff. I may or can do. I may or can liave.

hmp, I mi^t, could, would, or should I might, could, would or should havs.

do.

Ferf: I may or can have done. I may vr can have had.

Fbxp, I mi^ty could, would or sluNild I might, could, would or riiould have

have done. had.

576. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pre«. 1. If I do. If I have, d&c.

676—1. IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Prta, Do you, or Do you do. Have you, or Do you have.

577. INFINITIVE MOOD.
FrtM, To do. To have.
Parf, To have done. To have had.

578. PARTICIPLES.

FrM. Doing. Having.

Ftrf, Done. Had.

Covitp, jperf. Having done. Having had.

L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS.

570. Defective verbs are those which are used only in
some of the moods and tenses.

590. The followmg are the principal ones :

Pres. Tense, Imp, Tense. ^^' ■P^'^^jo^*

May, Might, (Wanting.)

Can, Could, _^_

Will. Would, .

Shall, Should,

Must, Must, .

Ought, Ought,

Queth,

581. Of these, ought and miutf you perceive, are not varied.

582. Ou^ht and ^uoth are always used as principal verbs. Ought is the
same in the unperi'ect tense as in the present, and is always followedby an in-
finitive ; as, " He ou&^ht to study 3'' " He ought to have read.'' In this last
example, ought is in the imperfect ; and in the first, it is in the present. This
we determine by the infiniUve, which follows the verb, thus : when the preaoit
infinitive follows ou^htj ought is in the present tense 5 biit when the perfect in-
finitive follows it^ it IS in the imperfect tense.

583. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and intransitive,
or neuter signification. Thus, toJUtttetif when it signifies to make even or levelf
is an active-transitive verb 3 but when it signifies to grow dull or msipidf it is
an intransitive verb.

Will you repeat the BvnopsiB of do Which are not varied ? 581.

throuffh all the moods ? ot have 7 How are ought and gwth alwaya vaodt

Will you conjugate do in the present 58S.

tense f have in the perfect tense ? How can you tell when ought is in the

Wfaet is the perfect participle of (io ? present tense? 583.

of have 7 the compound perfect of do 7 of When is it in the imperfect tense ? 583

have? Give an example of each tense. ^8.

L. What are defective verbs? 579. When is Ui flatten transitive, and when

Will you mention the principal ones, intransitive ? 583.

with their imperfect tenses ? 580 How, then, are verhs often used ? 583

DfifECTlVE V£KBS. 91

681. A neuter or intransitive verb, by tne addition of a prepoatioOy may
uecome a compound active-transitive verb ; as, to sndle is intransitive ; it can-
not, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be changed into the pas-
sive form. We cannot sav, " She smiled him," or ** He was smiled ;" biU
we say, very properly, " She smiled on him ;" " He was smiled on by her."

585. Prepositions afiect the meaning of verbs in different ways. To caM
means to throw ; as, " He cast a stone at her." To coat up, however, meam
to compute ; as, " He casts up his accounts." In all instances in which thi
preposition follows the verb, and modifies its meaning, it should be considered
a part of the verb, and be so treated in parsiug.

586. There are some verbs, which, although they admit an otgective cas€
after them, still do not mdicate the least degree of action 3 as^ '^ I resemble
my father." This seeming inconsistency may be easily reconciled by reflectf-
h^ that, in all such cases, tlie verb has a direct reference to its object. Of
this nature are the verbs retain, rtsembU, own. have, dec.

SSI. Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive fonn. and are
thence called neuter passive verbs 3 as, *' John goes home to-night" Hert
goes is an intransitive verb. But in the sentence, '' John is gone home," w
^one is a neuter passive verb. Ag%in, in the phrase, '' William comes," comet
is an intransitive verb j and in the phrase, ** William is come," is come is a
neuter passive verb.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

< William had had manj advan- <' He haa had many precioiu op-
tages before he . miproved portunities."

them in a proper manner." '' Jonn will do as his instmcter

<* A ffood scholar will not do directs."

what (1.) is forbidden by his << He may have had time "
instructer."

* 1 own this book." " I cannot believe him."

" Charles resembles his parents." << His father does not hesita e to
*' He retains his place." trust him."

3.
' The fanner casts seed into the " She smiles sweetly."

ground." << She smiled on John."

' The merchant casts up his ac- *' John was smiled on by fortune

cotmts often." in every undertaking."

'^ The instructer has come." '^ Mary was ffone before her moth-

*■ Our instructer has' come." er came. '

*■ William has gone to visit his " When they came to town, they

parents." made many purchases."

*■ Susan has gone.'

»»

How can an intranflitive verb become Ii resemble^ strictly ipeaking, a tnuiu-

transitive.' 584. Give an example. 584. tiveverb? 586.

What does to coat mean? 585. Why does it admit an object after itf

Meaning of to east up ? 585. 586.

When may the preposition be reckoned There are stiveral verbn of this elais

\ part of the verb ? 585. will vou name some of them/ 586.

How should it be considered in pare- What is a neater passive verb? 567

ing ? 585. Give an example. 587.

Will you now parse the next lessons/

(I.)fr'Aa<staiidifnr«ttiatw]iieh,"flr"aMtkiiigwbicb." ApiilyBiilMV VLaodVIU.

ENCOJSH a&UMilR

LI. OF ADVERBS.

686. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles
adjectives, and other adverbs, to qualify them.

S69. Expressions like the folloivingf; namely, a few days ago, lor^ tmee.
mone at all, at length, in vainf by no meant, a great deal, &,c., are denomhiatea
odverHal jihra»es, when they are used to qualify verbs or parUciples, by ei«
pressing the manner, time or degree of action.

590. The definite article ike is frequently placed before adverbs of the
comparative and superlative degrees, to give the expression more force ; at,
" The mare he walks, the betterne feels.*^ When tne article is used in tfaif
Muse, both tfae^urticle and adverb may be reckoned an adveibial phrase, and
be so considered in parsing.

S9\. You have doubtless noticed that most words ending m ly are advcvbs.
The reason of this is that ly ia a contraction of the advero like : thus, from
Mon/tfe We form manly : gentlemanly is a contraction of gentlemamiktj-*-
Hence,

d9S. If you meet with a word ending in ly, isn^ying in its significalioo lh«
idea of like, you may conclude at once that it is an adverb.

Adverbs qualify verbs^ participles^ adjectives^ and other

adverbs.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

'' In vain we hokfor ptffut happiness"

593. tn vain is an adVekbiai. ptiRASfi, and qualifies hbk^ ac-
cording to RUJLS IX.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

^ John h«a ^ome a^n, but Wil- <' William acted vety nobly."

liam has not." <' I will by no meanfi consent."

<< Ver^ many persons fail of hap- <^ He wrote a long letter a few

pmess.*^ days a^."(l.>

<< A vast many evils are incident " John was writing carelessly."

to man in his wearisome jour* ** I have adaiyeiiiiihed her once and

nejr through liie." again."

" The instmctress has at length <' A few days ago, there was much

arrived." excitement in town."

LI. What la the meanihsf of ttfvarfr ? When are they to be eonsidered td-

B. vetbial phraiei ? 589.

To what is the adverb joined ? 588. Ii the article Uu ever Joined to aa ad-

For what purpose f 588. verb ? 590. For what purpose ? 590.

How many different parts of speech What do the article and adverb fenn

does it quatify ? 588. in sue4i cases i 590.

VIThien sre they I teS. H«w is it to be considered in parsiag ?

What is the definition «f an adverb? 590.

8W. How caind most words ending in (^ to

Are adverbs compared ?* be considered adv«rbs f 591. CFive ao

Will yoD M>mpare viniy f 880. MM ? example. 591.

SI34. How can we determine between worda

How are they eompared ? 936. ending; in {«) whether or not they are ad-
Will you compare the adverbs sradlf verbs i 593.
tseU? hadi mi S37. What ru.e do yoo apply when yoa

Some adverbs are not regular in tneir paiee an adverb } tX.

eompariscn ; will yon name one? 987. *< In vain we look.'* Will you pane

will you name four or five adverbial n» mnn 7 593.
phrases? 589.

(D^/kwdavtofo^DulTeitialplinM. • 8ae i|aM(ioB to »4.

MiS'osiTioim. Hi

y&tn m. To qualify verbs, {>articiphsls, &(y«etiv«8» -and
otbef adverbs, we should use adverbs ; but tx> qualify noiilM
ve should use adjectives.

SENTENCES TO Bfi PARStD AND CORRECTED.

" ^/illiam writes good/** " On conditionii suitably lo hifl

<< i usan studies duigent." rank.'

" Ue speaks fluently and leaaonB << He speaks oorrect."

correct." << Mary sings admirable.*' i

* John writes tolerable well, but ** Hb writes elegant.'* 1

readbt miserabte." << He reads and spelli ytitf bad.'
' Harriet dresses neat"

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

594. Will you write down a sentence, containing a compoQud
kctive-transitive verb ? One, having a neuter-passive verb ?

Will you compose two or more sentences about a lion t Two or

K oe, about stage acddetUs f

LII. OF PREPOSITIONS.

S95. Prepositiokis are used to 6ohnect wbrds, and to ahdw
the relation between them.

d96. We not unfrequently meet with verbs compounded of a prepositioB
•Bd verb ; as, '' to tipbold,'' '' to tnvest/' '^ to overlook /' and this corajxaKion
sometimes gives a new sense to the verb : as, ''to tmcterstand/' ** to vaitk'
draw.'' But the preposition more firequenUv occurs (ifUr the vero, and Mpo-
rau from it ; as, "to cast up,'' ** to fan onr The sense of the verb, in this
case, is also materially aftbcted by the preposition.

698. The prepositions afierj bef&rt, above, henect^f and several othen, some-
times appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered ; as, " They had tbsir
reward soon after f* " He died not lon^ htftn-t f* " He dwells <t*twt /' bai
if the noun time or place be added, they lose their adverbial foim } »> " H«
died not long before" [that time], ^c.

599. There is a peculiar propriety m distinguishing the correct use of the iaS-

Will Tou next pane the remaining ex- compounded ? 596. 6iv& an example,

eicisea r 590.

When sfaonld we uM adtsrbs .' Note Where i« «h^ praposHlott mere IVe-

IX. qntotlir placed ? 596. Give an ezanpls i

When adjectives ? Note XX. 596.

" William writei good." Wherehi is Will yon name four piepoeitieai wbtSli

this sentence ineorreet ?* in nany iastaaees appear to be adverbs ?

Will yon now pane and ooireet the re- 698.

fflaining exercises ? How may they be converted into pre^

LII. What is the meaninf vXfrtipo^ esitions again ? 598.

Hon 7 944. " He walks by a stan with moonlight."

What are prepositions ? 585. Will you correct this sentence* and thea

Will you repeat the list ? 347. repeat the phrase >

With what are verbs not anfrequeatly

• For ttie »diactiv« Mod, we abould om fba uiTwi kmI^ •coordioK to Kola DL ...

#> ENGLISH GKAMMAK.

a staff with mooolieht }" '' He waa taken wUk slratagem, and killed bff a
aword ^ and it will appear that they differ in signification more than on*
It first view, would be apt to imagine.

MJTLB Z.

Prepositions govern the objective case.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
" John lives within his income"

600. WUhin is a preposition.

Income is a common noun, of the third person, sinoular

HUMBER, NEUTER GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and gOVemed by

within^ according to Rux<e X.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

** Thomaa made his fortune by He made the sun to shine by

industry." day, and the moon (1.) to give

** Susan labors with her needle . light by night.*'

for a livelihood.*' " Beneath the oak lie acorns in

" Respecting that affair, there was great abundance.*'

a controversv." << John, who is at all times watch

*' In six davs God made the world, fill of his own interest, will

and aU things that are in it. attend to that concern."

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

601. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable prepo*
ntions to make sense ? ** John was — the house when he was seized
— a fit." " The busv bee — summer provides food — the approach
ing winter — the prudence — a rational being."

W^ill you supply the objects to the following ? " James was catch
in^ ." "He was beating ." " He supports ."

Will you supply agents or nominative cases to the following t
" was runmnff." " was dancing."

Will you suppfy verbs in the following ? " A dutiful child

his parents." " Grammar us correctly."

Will you compose two or more sentences about hoys f One, about
wkdUat One, alK>ut shoAks/ One, about /oze« / One, about jiarentsf
One, about brothers f One, about sisters f One, about undes f One,
s^xiXmaUst

. LIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS.

602. A CONJUNCTION is a word that is chiefly used to con-
nect sentences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to make
but one.

Will you repeat the rule respeetinc the What is a eiinple eentenee ? 353. OIt*

government ofnountbjjr preposition!? X. an example. A compound •onlenoe «'

** John liveB within hiB income. " Will 856. Give an example,

yon parse witAttt ? oOO. tneoiiM 7 600 Why called compound ? 354.

Will yon now take the remaining ex- LIII. Meaning of c«i^imctuna 7 957

ereiBei to be paraed ; after which, those What is a conjunction ? 603.

to be written ? Meaning of eeptdatint ? 964.

(U) Tba Hwa U, ** Ba Bade the umob." Moon, tbqn, w id the objeenve cmM, governed br ma4» «atf »
•Miod, and enBiMcled with tun, bt Hule XI.

iNTERJEGTlOMS.

608. Relative pronoons, at well as conjunctioiifl. Mrve to connect ten
peaces -y as, '* Ble&sed is the man wAo feai^eth the Lora."

604. Conjunctions rery often unite sentences when they amMar to unitp
only words ; as in the following sentences : " Duty and mierest forbid vicioui

; 1.-1 ti //^•■r-.j _ ^ii_^ •• i/S • o .1 j» *

fovems us ;" ** Folly governs us.''

Conjunctions conned verbs ofiht same mood and tefiff
and nouns or pronouns of the same case.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

605. ^ " William writes and ciphers"
And is a copulative conjunction.

Ciphers is a regular active intransitive vEBBy from tbe
verb to cipher — ^Prts, cipher; Imftrf, ciphered; Per. part
ciphered. 1. I cipher ; 2. You cipher ; 3. He or ffiUiam
ciphers" — ^made in the indicative mood, present tense,
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, Rod RgTces with WOliam understood,
and is connected to vrriies by the conjunction amd^ agreeably to
Rule XI.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

' John ciphers rapidly, and reads << Though he is lively, yet be is
correctly." not too volatile."

^ If we contend about trifles, and ^ If he haa promised, he should
violently maintain our opin- act accoroingly."

ions, we shall gain but few '^ He denied that he circulated
friends." the report."

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

606. Will you compote a sentence containing the conjunction jft
One, containing andf Ab many sentences as there are conjunctions
which follow ; each sentence containing one ? Mthough. Unpegs.
For. Beeaiuse. Therrfore. Or. JVeitAer. Jfor.

Will you compose a sentence about Jackson f One, about Clayf
One, about Monroe t One, about Madison f

LIV. OF INTERJECTIONS.

607. Interjections are words thrown in between th*
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings
of the speaker.

What ia the use of the copulative con- Do conjunctions ever connect sen-
junction ? 2^. tences when they appear to connect words

Will you repeat the list of copulative only ? 604. Give an example. 604.

conjunctions ? 266. ** William writes and ciphers." Will

What does dts^nctive signify .' 271. you parse and ? 605. dphera 1 605.

What does- the disjunctive conjunction Will you, in the next place, take tha

eopiect ? S74. exercises to be parsed and written, and

Will you repeat the list of them ? S75. dispose of them ?

What is the rule for connecting words LIV. What is the meaning of «{sr>

by conjunctions ? XI. jeetion 7 S83.

' What other words, besides epniunc- What arc inteijectiom f 60T
lions and prepositions, connnct f '603

•6 ENGLISH ORiUniAR.

bOa W« do not iay, " Ah, 1 1" "Oh,I!" but •'Ah,**!* -Oh,!!!©?^
nsmg the objective case after the mteijectioB. The pronoim here spoken of
> Ml perceive, is of the first person : heace,

Note X. Pronouns of the first person are put in the
objective case, afler the interjections Oh ! Of 4A I &0O,

609. We my, '* O thoa persecutor \** " Oh ye hypocrites V* " O choa who
dwellest,'' &c. : hence,

Note XI. The interjections O ! oh ! and ah ! require
the noBninatiye case of pronouns in the second person.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

610. ''Ah me! I must perish:'

•^ is an INTERJECTION.

Mt is a PERSONAL PRONOUN, Of the FIRST PERSON, STNOVlJLll,

OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by ah^ agreeably to Note X.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

« O, thou (1.) who hast murdeied deaf (3.) to the ealk of doty

thy friend !" and honor."

" O, thou who hearest prayer !" " Oh ! happy (4.) us, auirounded

*< Ah me ! must I endure all this ?** with so many blessing'*
** Ah ! unhappy (2.) thou, who art

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

611. Win you compose a sentence containing ddasf One, con-
taining oh? One. about volcanoes f One, about lakes f One, about
itimndsf One, about WAster the statesman? One, about a good
geholar t One, about a poor scholar t One, about a good instnuler f

LV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS.

612. Apposition, in gprammar, signifies the putting of two noons m the
tame case.

613. When I say, " John the mechanic has cone.'' I am speaking of only
one person ; the two nowis, John and mechanic , both meaning or referring to
tiie same person ; consequently they are put, by apposition, in the same case i
hence.

When two or more nounSf in the sam^ sentence^ ^g^ify

the same things they are put^ by a^^sition^ in the
same case,

Will yo4 repeat from the liit six inter- Will you now take the remaininf ex-

JeetionB ? 985. ercisei to be parted and writtea ?

How mar an interjeotion generally be LV. Meaning oiapposUian 7 619.

mown ? S!86. **John the mechanic." How many

" Ah me !" In what eaie is im T 610 pertoni are here spoken of? 613. Should,

What rule or note applies to me ? X. then, the two nouns, Jokn and meehMue,

** O thou,'* &e. What note applies be in the satne, or a different case ? 613.

to thou 1 XI. What is the rule for this agreement .

*• Ah me !»» Will you parse oA ? me T XV

610.

Jl'l K '**^ •W^y ??£ ?•«. (*) "Mi^ with tkaut by BuU IV.

CXBI108SU. m

ifXERCiSES IN SYNTAX.
614. *' Webster the statesman has left us,"
Statesman is a common moun, mabcdmns eiiVDBii, miRP

PERSON, »IN6ULAR NUMBER, KOMINATITB CASE, Uld pCIt ill RppO-

fiitioQ with ffebdter^ by Rule XV.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED.

** Jolmtiie Baptist was beheaded." << Cicero, the orator, flourished m
^ David, the thief, wa^ appre- the time of Catiline, the oon

bended." apirator.'*

" JohnBon, the bookseller, has <' I visit Thompson, the profts-

failed in business.'^ sor, often."

** I consulted WilUams, the law- ** John, the miller, died ycster

yer." day."

** If John will not go, I will go " We will inspect the goods oui^

myself." (1.) selves."

<* Tou yourself are in fault." << I, I am the man who ixunmitted
** They themselves were mis- the deed."

taken."

Remark 1.— For the same reason that one noun agrees wth aaoUielr in case»
t agrees with it in number and person also.

" I, Alexander, by the ffrace of " We, the representatives of the
God, emperor of ajl Uie Rus- people or these colonies, do

sians, promulgate this law." make this declaration."

Remark 2.-— When one noun describes or qualrftes aftotfaer, the One so
i}ualiiying becomes ar acyective in sense, and may be so considered in pars-
lug. Accordingly. TVenumf, in the phrase ''TremoiA Home," is aa Rqfec-
live belonging to t^tse, by Rule iV.

616. EXERCISES IN SimTAX.

^ The Marlborough Hotel is situ- << John Dobson was in town yes*

ated in Washington-street." terday."

" The firm of Messrs. Williams *' ^hn Johnson, the blacksmith,

& Sons, has failed." has broken his leg "

Remark 3. — ^When the nouns ^ich refer to the same person of thing are
separated by verbs, as, " Webster is a statesman,'' it is customary to appljr
one or more of the following rules :

i. Arm verb may have t^ same ease a/hr U at hefcm % «0ft«M Mk Hotrrdt
refer to me same thing.

2. TJu verb to be. through aU iU voriaHena, has the same case s/Ur it as
that which next •precedes it.

•^ Webster the stiUeBman." Will you <*l*remont Honte." What part of

ftne stateamant 614. Speech n TVemont? Reroark 9. How

Will you now parae the succeeding ex- ased here ? RemarfS. Will yon parse

meksvi f it in full ?

'* I will go myself.'* Will you parse Will you now parse all the ezereisss

■yMl/ ? under Remark 2 *

How is the oompound personal pronoun What is the rule or rules usnallT gir«

fcrmedin the singular? 386. How in the en for parsing ttatsaman, in the phrase,

pliirA. / 386 ** Webster is a sUtesman'* ? Remark 3 ^

Wbenenite noun is put in apposition 1,2,3,4.

with another, in what particulars does it tn the Same sentence, do Webster cad

agree with it ? Remark 1. statesman both mean or refer to the

Will yon now parse the next exer- person ^ In what case, then^ought they

eises

? to bo ? 613. By what rule ? XV

(1.) MtmfU^r»% onmpound ptnowl pvpDOun, flnt pMwn, MnguUr, inHnimtiTe caw, ud put ia app^Qip
itb 1, by fhiU -~

KNGLUSU ttlUMMAR.

3. FoMttot vtrht of fuanrngf judging^ SfC, hoot the mmt com after tkem m
kefore them,

4. Neuter verbs heme ^ same case after tfiem as htfore ihem,

616. The foregoing niles^ in the opinion of the writer, are wholly unneoet-
•arVi iendinff merely to connue the mind of the learner by requinng him to
make a distmction in form, when there exists none in prmciple. In conroborA-
iion of this fact, Mr. Murray has the following remark >—

617. '' By these examples it appears, that the verb to be has no n>vemmeal
of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the cases : so tnat the twe
cases, vdiich, m the ccmstruction of the sentence, are the next oefore and after
H, must cJways be alike. Periiaps this subject will be more intelligible by ob-
serving that the words, in the cases preceding and following the verb to A»
may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, ' 1 ua
derstood it to be him/ the words it and him are in apposition ; that is, they r»*
Ur to the same thing, and are in the same case."

618. EXERCISES IN SYNl'AX.

" Webster is a statesman." " Julius Caesar was that Romaa

** John is a good scholar.*' general who conquered the

** William will become a distin- Grauls.'*

guishedandTaluable citizen." <* Tom struts a soldier." (l.^
«* She walks a queen." (1.) " Will sneaks a scrivener.

*< He is styled Lord (1.) Mayor (1.) ''Claudius Nero, Caligula's un

of London."
'' He was named John." (1.)
** She moves a queen." (1.)

cle, a senseless fellow, obtain
ed the kingdom."

%sf

« Susan took her to be Marj.*
" I took him to be John (3.

den."
« We at first took it to be her, but

afterwards were convinced

that (3.) it was not she."
^ He is not the person who (4.)

it seemed he was."
'' I understood it to be him (1.)

who is the son of Mr. (2.) Johm

Qmney (2.) Adams." (1.)
'' She is not now the person whom

they represented her (1.) to

have been "
'' Whom (5.) do you fancy them

to be?"
*' The professor was appointed

tutor to the prince."

Remark 3.^*It not unfrequentl^ happens that the connecting verb is omit-
ted j as, '' They made him captam i** that is, to be captain.

^ They named him John." <' They proclaimed him kln^.'

^ The soldiers made him gen- ** His countrymen crowned him
eral." emperor.

619. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.

" It might have been him, 06.) but '' She is the person who I under*
there is no proof (7.) of it." stood it to have been. '

<' Though I was blamed, it could " Who do you think me to be ?"

not have been me." *' Whom do men say that I am ?*

^ I saw one who I took to be she." " Whom think ye that I am ?"

What office does the verb to be perform
between cues f 617.

Are the eaiei next before and after it,
alike, or different i 617.

What is the opinion of Mr. Murray
fespeetiog the caies before and after ts
••f 617.

How does he think it and ktn should

be parsed in the phrase, " I underatood H

to be him" ? 617.
Will you now parse lessons 1, S and 3 '
Is the verb to bo always expressed ?

Remarks. Give an example. Remark 3.
Will you now take the sentences to be

parsed and corrected ; also those to be

wntten r

(L.) Amir Bida Z\

•r aafxv: (5.) »

^porli^toauteXV.

ZV. (9.)B«BMrkS.
i^hom anoM with
(T.ripply Rah

VI.

(S.) CoBtanetkMi.
kf RahZV

r4.) Who ia pot in apiwitMB with h»t
(1.) JKm AoM b« Ai, to ipM with if,

NCHJNfelL

m. SENinSNCES TO BE WRlTTkN.

Will you compose a sentence haying nouns in apposition ? One,
haying nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb ? One, having
a noun used as an adjective ?

Will you construct a sentence having in it the word toho t One,
having wkase f One, having whom f One, having what f One,
having that f One, having man f One, having tooman f One, having
hty f One, having girls 7 One, having parents t

LVI. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY.

6fil. To addreM9 signifies to speak to ; as, ** James, vour father has come."
t\» name of the person addressed must ahirays be of ue second person ; aii<j|
a Domi in this situation, when it has no verb to agree with it, and is wholly dis
connected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be independent Hence,

When an address is made^ the name of the person or
thing addressed is in the nominative case independent.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.
622. ** John^ will you assist me ?"

John is a proper noun, of the second person, singular

NUMBER, MASCtJLINB GENDER, and NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPEND-
ENT, according to Rule XVL

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED

My lords, (1.) the time has come " Ruins, you must improve your
when we must take some de- time,

cisive measures." " Gentlemen of the jury."

In making this appeal to yon, ** James, (1,) study (S.) your
my fellow-citizens, I rely en- " book.

tirely on your candor." " William, do try to get your lea-

son to-day."
2.
" Boys, attend to your lessons." " My dear children, let no root of

* Girls, come into school." bitterness spring up among

* Did you speak to me, girls ?" you."

LVI. " Jamei, your fother has come." When is a noun independent ? 691.
Which vrord here IB the name of the per- What is the rule for a noun put indo-

■on addressed ? pendently ? XVI.

What is the meaning of to address 1 In the sentence, "John, will vou aa*

631. sist me ?" will you parse John 1 K22.

Of what person is a noun when an ad- Will you next parse the rest of the ex

dreas is made ? 691. ercises m this rule ?

<L) Bals XVL (9.) ImpanUf* inosd, mi •S'eM with (Aoit or you andcntood, hj Rui« VIL

157410

MO ESQ jH ORAMMAIL

LVIl. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTR

623. In the phrase, " 'Hie sun beings risen, we set saiy the first daose at
Ibe sentence, namely, " The sun being risen,'' has nothing' to do with the re-
mainder : the noun and participle may, therefore, when taken toeether, foe said
lo be in the nominative case indepenctent ^ but as we have already one nuM of
Jiis nature, we will^ for the sake of makmg a cBstinctsoD, call tnis (tbc onun
•oined with a participle) the nominative case absolute. Hence,

4. noun or pronoun before a participle^ and indepevidenl
of the rest of the sentence^ is in the nominative case
absobUe,

6S4. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

< Th/e Sim (1.) being risen, (2.) we " Weltington kavingr returaed to

departed." England, tnnqniltity was re-

** EgyP* being conquered^ Alex- stored to France."

ander returned to Syria." ** Bonaparte being conquered, ibe

^ Shame being lost, all virtue was king was restored.'*

lost." " The conditions being observed,

** The soldiers retreatiBg, Tictoiy the bargain was a mutual

was lost." benefit*^

625. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.
** Him (3.) only excepted, who ** Him being destroyed, the re*

was a murderer." maiaiBg robbers made their

<' Her being dismissed, the rest of escape.

the scholars behaved well.'

LVIII. OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD.

Note XII. — A verb in the infinitive mood is sometime*
placed independently ; as, ** To be frank, I own I have in
jured you."

626. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

'< To confess the truth, I was in ** To tell the plain truth, I pei-

fault." suaded him to stay."

** To display his power, he op- '< To convince you, I will con-
pressed nis soldiers." tinue here till you return."

LVIX. «< The sun beinc risen, we Nt LVIII. "T« confesa the troth. I

•ail." How many wordti in this sen- waa," &e. How is to eautfeas used ?—

tenee, wed independently, are taken to- Note XII.

fether ? eS3. What is the rule for it ? Note XII.

Why is this eaae denominated the ease What is the infinitive mood oaed finr /

absolute? eSQ. 479.

What ie the rale for the ease abaolnte ? How many teniea has it ? 598

XVTI. What is its usual sign ? 517.

Will yon new take the parsinf exei^ Will yon now parse the exerciiei at

elses nnder Rule XVIl., and then the der Note XII.?
sentences to be corrected ?

5L-> 11.5* «mia»tf" »" »»>iolnte with bmf rten, by Rnl* XVU. (2.) Rale Zm

.-.^i^.^'^SiSSL* i*^ '* '" tb« cuealMolote, M ibimld ks in ttw BoniintiTe am. Sim dKMld tlNntae ks ib

fT Hois XYtL

Moou. lai

■' To play is pleasant." What is pleasant T " To play.'' The infinitive
to jdmf is, then, the nominative case to U. " Thou sbalt not kill, is required of
all men." What is required 7 ** Thou shalt not kill." The verb ia required,
then, agrees with " Thou shalt not kill/* as its nominative. Ueoce,

626-1. Note XIII. — The infinitive mood^ or part of a
sentence, is frequently put as the nominative ease to a verb
of the third person singular.

627. EXERCISES m SYNTAX.

< To excel reqidreff mach ezer- ^ Thoa sbalt not kUl, u the eon»>
tionJ' mand of God."

* To abandon friends wiU aink a << Honor thy father and thy moth-
man's character." er, is required of all men."

*' To practise religion is our da- " To write a fkir hsnd seqnires
ty.'* practice."

Remark Iv— 7\> excel is the nominative case to regtare» by Note XiO. ;
and requires agrees with to excel by Rule VII. In parsing '^ Thou shalt not
Idll,^' we first apply Rules VI.. VII. and IX. The whole phrase is considered
the nominative to is required, hy Note XIII.

S. The infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, is frequently the oHect of a
transitive verb ; as, " Boys love to play." What do boys love 7 " Tx) play."
Hie object of love, then, is to play. " Children do not eonsidor how much has
beea done for them by their parents." Consider what 1 **Ho»s muck has heen
done for them by their parents /* indudiDg for the object of the verb the wh<^
{^urase in italics.

Note XIY .— ^The infinitive mood or part of a sentenoe,
may have an adjective or participle agreeing with it, when*
there is no noun, either expressed or understood^ to whieh
the adjective may belong.

658. KXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

** To see the sun is pleasant.** " Defraud not thy neighbor^ is
** To practise virtue wiU be pro- binding on all.'*

dnctive of harness." *< To do g^od to our enemies, is
" To be ridiculed is unpleasant." not natural to our hearts."

Renusrks-. — Pleasant screes with '' to see the sun," by Note XIV. Biasd^
ing agrees with " Defiraud not thy neighbor^" by the saaie authority. To it
apply Bule VXL3 to sun, Rule VUL ^ to the mfimtive to see. Note XUT.

659. SENTENCES TO BE WBJTTEN.

Will you Qompose one or more sentences ha¥iBg an infinitive jrov-
emed by a participle ? One, usingf an infinitive t&er a noun ? One,
deseiibiiig the manner of plaj/iw ball f One, or more, on the man-
ner of pmying tag t One, on the dutv of children to mind their pa
rents ? One, <» move, on vaidnstry f One, on the business you inlend
to pursue for life ^

" Toplay is pleasant.*' What ii pleas- Since we hsve a rule for to lovSy as a

tot ? what, then, is the nominative to verb, there is no aecessity for considering

tf ? 626-1. Role ? Note XIII. it the object in parBing: what rule, then,

" Thou ihalt not kill, is required ofall willyon apply to it f All.

men » What ia required ? Will you name an example in which

What is the nominative to is reqwredl there is port of a sentence used as the

626-1. Rule? Note XIIL objectof averb ? 697. Remarks.

Will you now parse the remaining ex- ** To see the sun is pleasant." Wilt

ereises under this rale ? you parse pUaaant 1 to seel tie 7 svn 7 w ?

" Bovs love tonlay." What is the oh- Vfall jou now pane the remaining ec-

ject oflefve * 6S77 Remark 2. ereises under Note XLV

MB KNGUSH GRAMMAR.

LIX.

630. In the phrase, ** John and James are here/' the sense is that "John
and Jaines are hoOi here ^ two persons are therefore spoken of, which ret
oert it necessary to use the plural verb aart, to agree with two nouns which in
dividually are singular : hence,

Tioo or mare nouns or pronouns^ of the singular num'
ber^ connected together by and, either expressed 01
understood^ must have verbs^ nouns^ and pronouns
agreeing with them in the plural number.

631. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

" William and Jaines run." '' John and Joseph can get their
** Mary and Harriet study, and lessons."

they will therefore excel." '' Time and tide wait for no man."

** You and I are in. fault." " My coat and pantaloons were
** John and Thomas say they in- made by Watson."

tend to study Latin?'

Remarks. — Vf^UUam is one of the nominatives to the verb run. James is in
the nominative case to the verb rutif and is connected with the noun WUUam,
by Rule XI. Run agrees with WUHam and James by Rule XVIII.

63S. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.

'^ Mary and her cousin has come." ** The ftrmer and his son is is
^ You and I makes progress in town."

our studies." ** Susan and her sister is deceit-

MLife and health isbothnncer- ful."

tain." <' William and John both writes a

good hand."

Remarksj-^For has eomtf. we should read have come, that the verb may be
l^ral, when it has two nominatives connected by €md, according to Rule

ExcqoHon !.•— When and connects two or more nouns in the singular, which
refer to the same person or thing, the veib must be smgular ; as, " Pliny the
philosopher and naturalist has greatly enriched science.'^

633. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.

** That superficial scholar and ** In that house live a great and

critic nave given new evi- distingmshed scholar and

dence of his misguided judg- statesman."

ment." " Mr. Cooper, the sailor and nov-
'< There go a benevolent man and elist^ visit La Fayette, the

scholar." patriot and philanthropist."

IJX. When I lay, ** John and James Will you pane the succeeding ezer-

are here,*' of how many penoni do I cises?

speak ? " Pliny the philosopher and naturalist

Should we, then, uie it or are f 630. has ereatly enriched science.*' Why

What is the rule for are 1 XVIII. Bhoiild we use Aos, in this sentence, in-

Will you now pane the exercises an- stead of have ? Exception 1.

dsr Rule XVIII. r " That Buperficial scholar and eritio

** William and James run.'* Will you have given." Why ia have given incor

pano ffUUam in full ? and 1 James 7 rect ? Exception 1.

run 1 What is the rule for has eomel Ezcep-

Will you pane the next ezerciaes i tion 1.

** Mary and her couain has come."— Will you correct and parse the renain

Why is thii incorrect ? 632. ii^^ exercises

EXfSKClSES lot

ExLjptUm 2.—- When two or mora nouns in the tmgulart CMoected by emd,
have earn or every joined with them, the verb must be in the tnigal ar number \
88, " Every persoUi every house, and every blade of grass, was destro^'ed."

634. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED

" Every man, and every woman, ** Each man, and each woman,

and every child, were taken." were particularly alluded to

' Every tree, stick and twig, were in tlie report of the affair."
consumed."

Remark.^^Were, in the first of these examples, should be changed for toot-
because reference is had to each person, individually considered, which, in r^
^lect to the verb, is the same in meet as if one person only was spoken of.

Note XY. — Every is sometimes associated with a plural
noan, in which case the verb must be singular ; as, ** Erery
hundred years constitutes a century.*'

635. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.

** Every twenty-four hours afford *< Every four years add another
to us the vioissitudes of day dfly to the ordinary number

and night." of days in a year."

Remark. — Afford, in the example above, is a violation of the note i it should
be affords J in the singular number. The reason of this is, that '' every twenty-
four nours,'' signifies a single period of Hme, and is, therefore, in raality sin-
gular.

Note. XVI. — A verb in the plural will agree with a col-
lective noun in the singular, when a part only of the indi-
viduals are meant ; as, *' The council were divided in their
sentiments." When the noun expresses the idea of unity,
the verb should be singular ; as, '« The council was com-
posed wholly of farmers."

RenuMrks.^~ln the foregoinf example, we use the plural verb were dioidedf
because we refer to the individuals composing the council $ but if no allusion
of this sort had been made, and we haa spoken of it as one entire bodv^we
should have used the singrular verb, accorcung to the common rule ; as, ^ The
council is composed wholly of farmers."

We apply to council^ in the first example. Note XVI. ; to voere dioided, the
same note : and to coimcil, and was conmosedf in the second example, RuLKS
VI. and VII. .

636. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

** The council were divided in " My people do not consider."
their sentiments." " The multitude eagerly pufsne

*' A part of the men were mar- pleasure as their chief good.'
dered."

In the first example, under Exception *' The council were diyided." Whjr

9, why use wu destroped, rather than notwasl Note XVI. Remarlu. Rols?

loere destroyed ? Exception 2. Note XVI.

Will you parse the remaining exereiiei When is a noun called eaUeetxot ? 306

under thiH exception, ai\er having cor- In what circumstances would it be

reeled them ? proper to use the singular verb ? Not*

** Every twenty-four hours afford to X VI. Give an example.

us." What does *« every twenty-four How do youparse eouXetl? Note XVI

hours*' signify, one period of time, or Remarks. Were dioided 1 Note XVX

more ? What is wrong, then ? Why ? Remarks. Wag eonwoeedy in the second

635. Remark. example i Note XVI.

What is the rule for this? NoU XV. Will you now parse and eorreetthe

Will you correct and paise the other remaining exeroues under this note
•xample ?

ItH BNGLiaH QfUMMAK.

637. S£X«T£NC£fil TO BC PAIt8£I> AND CORR£Cl'£D.

<* My pei^le doth not consider.*- '< The committee was divided in

'< The people rejoices in that their sentiments, and has re-

which should give it sorrow." ferred the business to a gen-

^ The multitude rushes V> oertaim eral nMsting '

destruction."

LX.

638 Negative meana denying ; and affirmative^ asser^n^ or declarir^ jwH
HMfy. A sentsnce in which seraethiiig is denied is a negative one, anda sen
tence in which something is affinned or j^ositiveljr asserted, is aa affimiativ«
5Mie. " Vice degrades us,'' is an affirmative sentence, and " Labor does not
injure us/' is a negative one. Noty nothings none at all, by no means, no, in no
toure, neUhtr, no, nont, 4^., are negative terms.

The phrase, "I have uothmfi\" oas one negative, and means, " 1 have not
mty thing." The phrase, **l have not nothing," cannot mean the same
fs M have aodiiog,'' but must\nean, on the contrary^ ** I have something.''
This last, you perceive, is an affivmative sentence, and signifies the same as the
foregoing one, ** I have not nothing." Two negatives, inerefbre, are equal to
an affirmative. Hence, ^

Two negatives in the same senlence, are equivalent to

an afirmative.

639. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED.

'* He spends all the day in idle- " Be (1.) honest, nor (2.) take (3.)

ness, and I eannot pievail on no ahape nor semblance ol

him to do nothing. disguise."

*' He cannot set no employment '* He is so (4.) indolent} thai lie

in town.*^ will not do nothing."

^ I eannot by no means consent." ** I did not say nothing."

^ I shall not take no interest in '< He cannot do nothing accepta

the affair." ble to John."
" I never studied no gFammaf ."

JSaNorAs.'— For nothing, in the ^hore examples, read anyUwitg, m accord
ance with Rule XIX.

LX. What is the meaning of n^folfos? What ia **Ihave not nothing" w^aaA

638. tiffxmatioB 1 638. to in e^presaion ? 638.

What ia a negative lentenee ? 638. What, then, can we say of two neg»-

An aflnn&tivs one ? 638. Give aa sx- iivea ? Rule aIX.

aaaplo of each. Will yoa next take the exeveiaea andw

Will you name a few negative terma i Rule XIX. f

•38. What ia a noun ? 4. article ? 350

How many . negatives has the phrase a^ective ? 363. pronoun ? 381. verb i

*' I have nothing,'* and what does it 43S. participle ? 498. advorb ? 588

ean ? 638. prepoiition ? 595. conjunction ? BQ3

' Meaning of ** I havs not nothing" f interjection ? 61)7. common nouo ? 301.

698. proper noun .' 302. definite a/ticio ?

How many negatives has it .' - indefinite article ? 83.

What kind of a sentence is ** I hsYS How many properties in gramiuar hava

something" ? 6^. nouna ? 308. How many have v«rb«

{\.)ae»gnm w]thMo«oryMtiiiidanlood,b]rauleVn.
(8.) For mor, raad and.

(S.) Takt ia tn tbe impentiv* mopd, and igrom with thuu or fOH nndentood, mi '» Aw»fiM« MnnectaS
Id Ic, acoordiu to Rule XI.
(4-1 A4vflrt>w

fc;xiJu;i8K8.

640. PKOAIISCUOUS EXGKCISEUS IN SYNTAX.

Deep nvers move with silent " Power discovers the disposition

of ftian.

** Quarreis are eafiilj be^un, but
with difliculty ended.

majesty ; but small brooks

are noisy."
*< Deeds are fruits ; words are buX

leaves." " Force without forecast is of lit-
It is a bad horse indeed that tie worth.

will not carry his own piov- " Rome waa not built in on

ender." ^ day."

* Tlie hog never looks up to him ** In youth and strength think of

who threshes down the a- old age and weakness."

corns." *^AU are not saints who go t
*Add not trouble to the grief- church."

worn heart."

^ If the counsel be good, it is no

matter who gives it."
" By others* faults wise men cor-
xect their own."
When the world says you are
wise and good, ask yourself
if it be true."
Sin and misery are constant

" To say well is good, biit to do
well is better."

<' No fear should deter us from,
doing good." ••

" Pride, perceiving Humility hon-
orable, oflen borrows her
cloak."

" Sa^ what is well, but do what
IS better."

companions. ^

641. SENTENCES TO B£ WRITTEN.

Will you compose one sentence describing the business of an in«
structer t One, the business of a docUnr f One, the business of a law-
yer f One, of a dentist ? One, of a surgton? One, of vl farmer ? One,
of a blacksmith f One, of a miller f One, of a merchant t One, of a
frrocer f One, of an apotfiecary f One, of a legislator f One, of a judge f
One, of a colonel f One, of a captain ? One, o£a general f One of an
agent in a factory f One, of the directors of a bank t

LXI.

MS. When I say, '' He taught me grammar,'' I raeaii. " He tanglit gram-
mar to me :" grammar, then, is the object of the verb, and m« is govenicd by
the preposition to, understood. In the first example, we have two oblecUve
cases after the verb tatt^ht ; and since there are maay instances hk» the pre-
ceding', in which transitive verbs are followed by two objective cases— 4ience
the following

are the signs of the present tense ? 519.
imperfect ? 520. perfect ? 521. pluper
fe'^t .^ 563. first future ? 509. aeooa
future ? 524.
Will you now parse the promiscnou

How many participles are there f*
What are thoy ? 600, M2, 504.

When is a reth active ? 43d.

When transitlTe ? 440. Whoa if»Dran-
sitive ? 441. How may it be known ?
154.

Win yon decline 11 thou 7 htl 9ke7
HI 127.

Of what person is /? myl nsl tAeir 1
foul 137

What is mood ? 451. the indicative ?
453. potential I 453. subjunctive ^ 456.
mfinitive? 479. imperative .' 472. How
many teosos has the indicative ? 525.
snbjunct ve ? 926. potential f 527. in-
finitive : 538. imperative .' 529. What

exercises .''

Will you next take the sentenee* to b
written ?

LXI. " He taught me ^ammat.*
What does this mean? 6^ What, then
is the object of the verb, and by what i
grmnrtar governed f 643. By what is Mi
l^bve rned? 642.

How many objective cases^ then, fbl
low the verb tavght 7 642.

•TbrM^

t(Mi ENGLISH ORAMMAR.

Two objective cases^ the one of a person^ and the other
of^ a things may follow transitive verbs^ of asking
teachings giving, fyci; a preposition being under^
9tood. V c . 'I ^r^ -

'* He taught me grammar ^

Remark 1.—- In the f&regoioeexamjpiej me and grammar are both gOTemetf
by taugfii, accordinfif to Rule AX.

643. EXAMPLES IN SYNTAX.

' He taught me grammar." ** My instructer gave me a yalaa
William aaked me some ques- ble book, for my attention to

tions.** study."

My mother wrote me a precious " She forbade him the presence of
letter in the month of May." the emperor."

< They allowed him his seat in ** The French denied him the
Congress." priyilege of an American citi

' John gave me a detailed account zen."

of the whole transition."

•\

LXII.

644. The natural construction of the passive voice requires the object of the
active verb to become the nominative to the passive verb ; as, *' He taught me
grammar f* " Grammar was taught me.'' In some few instances, Just the re-
verse takes place ; as. '' I was taught dammar 3" here the object, grammarf f
is placed aAer the verb : we therefore derive the following

An objective case may follow passive verbs of asJcing,
teaching, and some others ; as, '' I was taught gram-
mar."

QTir Apply to /, Rule VI. ; to wu taught, Rule VII. • to grammar, Rule
XXL

645. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX

« John taught me music." '< I was tauglit grammar.!!

** Music was taught me by John.'* << The presence of the emperor
'' A question was asked me." was forbidden Theresa.

** Theresa was forbidden the pres- << Reading is taught in almost ew
ence of the emperor." ery school."

What rale ii given for caaea of thia the object ? 644. Give an ezamplo.

dsscription ? XX. 644. Give an example where the ro-
ll/ what are me and grammar govern- verse takes place. 644.

•d ? 642. Remark 1. Where is the object placed ? 644.

Will yoa next parse the exercises un- ** I was taught grammar." Will jov

der Rule XX. ? parse / 7 wu taught 1 gra mm ar 7

LXII. What is the natural eonstroo- Will you next take the exercisee un

tioQ of the paaaivo voice in reference to der Rule XXI '

EXERC1S£». 107

LXIIl.

646. When I say, " He came home last May/' the sense is, when ililly ex-
pressed, " He came to Ha home in last May/' " John continued four yean at
the university ;'' that is, *^ during four years/' ** The horse ran a mile j'' that
is, " over the space of a mile/' ** John went that way f that is, " over thai
way/' From these facts we derive the following

tlome, arid nouns signifying which way, how far, how
long, or time when, fyc.j are in the objective case ; a
preposition being understood, '^ <? .^ /?

647. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. ')* ^^

** He came home last May/' " Susan rides out every day."

'^ John continued four years at " William sleeps comfortably al

the university/' ^ night."

*' John went home once a month." '< John was absent from home sax
** Charles studies six hours every years."

day.' *' James lived six years at Boston,
" John rode tlyit way." twelve years at Dedham."

<* He ran a mile."

Note XVII. — After the words Uke and unlike, the prep-
osition to or unto is frequently understood; as, "He is* like
his father ;" that is, '* like to his father." '* She is unlike
her sister ;" that is, ** unlike to her sister."

648. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

^ He is like his brother." '* John behaves like a man in a

' William, unlike his father, fal- violent rage."

sified his word." << He is unlike any othermortal."

Note XVIII. — ^Nouns signifying duration, extension,
quantity, quality or valuation, are in the objective case,
without any governing word. The following are examples :

<The Atlantic ocean is three " The cart weighs fifteen hundred

thousand miles (1.) wide." pounds."

" William's knife is worth eight- << The wall which separates China
een pence, or twenty-five from Tartary, commonly call-
cents, ed the sreat Chinese wall, is

« For that article, which is richly fifteen hundred miles long,

worth a dollar,(2.) we cannot and from twenty to thirty

iJways get fifly cents." feet in height."

" The chasm is fifly feet broad."

Remarksj—il,) The noun miles is governed according to Note XVIII.
(2.) Apply Note XVIIl.

LXIII. " He came home last May." Will you parse the exercisea under

What doe* this mean, when more fully Rule XXII. ?

expressed? 646. Will you parse Aom« 7 What ia the note respecting Uke and

Mayl wUikel XVIT.

" John continued four years at the uni- " He is like his fkther." How is

Tersity." "The horse ran a mile." /oiAsr parsed? Note XVII.

What do these sentences mean, when Will you next take the remaining sx-

fhWj expressed ? ercises under Note XYII. ?

lOo ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Note XIX. — The conjunction as^ after such, many, and
satnej is generally considered a relative pronoun ; as in the
following examples :

*< He receives hitD his school as " He took such books as pleased

manj seholars as (1.) apply.* him/'

'' Our instructer, who is scrupu- " He exhibited the same couraa

lously exact in the execution of conduct as was once before

of justice, punishes severoly e-xhibited on the same occa-

all such as disobey his com- sion.*'

xaands."

Remarks. ^h) As is a, coDJunctioo^used here as a relaUve, aceordiog^ to the
Note preceding ; of the third person pltxral, masculine gender, agreeing with
scnolars, according to RuL£ V. } and m the nominative case to apply f accord
ing to Rule VI.

Note XX. — The conjunction than seems to have the
force of a preposition before the relative whom, in a sentence
where a comparison is made ; as follows :

<^ Which, when Beelzebub per- *< ALQred, than whom, SoIomoD

ceived, than whom, (1.) Satan excepted, a wiser king never

(2.) excepted, (3.) none higher reigned, was one of \£d eaxU*

sat." est English kings."

Remarks.'-^l.) Whom is governed by the conjunction than, used as a prep-
ogition, accorduig to Nx>TS XX.-— (20 Apply Rule Xyil.*--{3.) Participle,
agreeing with Satan, bv Rui^E XlII.^t is somewhat remarkable, thai if, ia
the last two examples, tne personal pronoun he were substituted for whom, it
would be in tlie nominative case 5 as, '' A wiser king never reigned tlian he .-'^
that is, " than he was."

649 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

Will you eooipofle a sentence haying a proper example under Rulk
I.? II..? III..? IV.? v.? VI.? VII.? VUL? IX. rx.? XL? XII.?
XIII.? XIV.? XV.? XVI.? XVII.? XVIII.? XIX.? XX.? XXL?
XXII. ?

Will yon constmct a sentence descriptive of the calamities arising
Jromfiref one, en losses by sea f one, on the fatal effects of lightning' f
one, on the character of our forefathers f one, on each of the seasons f
one, on the effects of rain f one, oa the mann^ of making hay f one,
on the appearance of soldiers when training f one, on the celebration
of the fourth of July f one, on \h.e utility (^ fire? one. on the utilittf
of wood f one, on the usefulness of the cow f one, on fruit f

When is the conjunction as used as a What doea English grammar teach ?

elative pronoun ? Note XIX. Si88. How many parts of speech are

Will vou parse as, in the phraM '* He there in English f 299.

receivea into his sehool as many scholafs What does erthographf inelade I S91

as applied" ? Note XIX. What does it teach us ? 291.

Will you parse the remaining exercises What does etymology teach ? S93.

under this Note ? What are propei nouns ? 302.

When is than considered a preposition ? What are common nouna / 301.

Note XX. Give an example. In what manner may proper names be

Wliat would be the effect of usin^ the used as common names ? 303.

personal pronoan instead of the relative? How may common names be used t«

Observation under Note XX. Give an represent individuals ? 304.

example. What is a collective noun ? 306.

Will you now take the sentences to be What four things belong to nouns ? 308

parsed and written f What is gender? 312. Masculine gen-

llow many articles are there ? 351. der ? 314. Feminine gender ? 315.

Wilt you nama them ? 351. Wlien do Common gender ? 31ff. Neuter gender '

we use a 7 87, 3S7. When an 7 86. 317.

1*AKT8 OF SUPKSCH. itti

LXIV. OF WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT

PARTS OF SPEECJI.

650. That is a relative,

When who or which may be Bubstitated for it, and make Benie
10, *^ The man that [who] srrired yesterday. "

651. That is a demonstraiive prtmtntn,

When it is joined with a noon to point it out; afl, ^ Tliat man is
inteliigent."

652. That is a conjunction.

In all cases when it is neither a relatiTe nor a demonstratiye prck
noon ; as, " He stndies that he may leam."

653. But is k preposition,
When it has the sense of eictpt; as, << All but [except] John

came.**

654. But is an adverb,

When it has the sense ofonty; as, << This is but [only] doing our
duty."

655. But is a eor^unctiim,

In all cases when it is neither an adyerb nor preposition ; na," He
called, but I refused to ffo."

656. As is a relative,

When it follows manv, siuih, or «ame ; as, " I^t such as heai take
heed."

657. As is an adverb.

When it is joined to an adverb or adjective in the sense of ^; as,
" He does as well as he can."

658. As is a conjunction^

In all cases except when it is an adverb or relative ; as, " He did
as I directed him."

659. Either is a conjunction,

When it corresponds to or; as, " Either the one or the other."

660. EiTHEit is a distributive pronoun.

When it means " one of the two ;" as, " You can take either,
road."

661. Both is a conjunction.

When it is followed by aiid ; as, " We assisted him both foj his
sake and our own."

How may nonm, nftturally neuter, be noon ? 651. Give an example. When a

converted mto the mascuiiae or feminine conjunction ? 65S. Give an example,

gender ''319. When is frut a preposition ? 653. Giw

What )m the feminine eorrefponding to an example. When an adverb ? 654.

huehelvr 1 319. How is the feminine Give an example. When a conjuaction ?

here formed ? 655. Give an example.

Will yoo spell the feminine eoR«»- When iaas a. relative ? 656. Give an

S>nd3ng to lad 7 long 7 battfactor 7 319. example. When an adverb ? 657. Give

ow is the foninine here formed? an example. When a cocgunction ? 658

Will you spell the feminine corret- Give an example,

pondinir to baron 7 poet 7 frtiest 7 Jew 7 When is either a conjunction ? 659.

twtaryl tutor 7 hero 7 diike7 ijutrueter7 Give an example. When a distributivs

319. pronoun ? 660. Give an example.

LXIV. When it that a relative ? 650. When is both a conjunction ? 661. Oiva

Gi ve an example. A demonstrativ* pro- an example. When an adjective pronoun f

P6S. Give an exarapio

1«

ilO ENGLISH GRAMMAK.

662. Both is an adjective pronoun^

When it means <* the two ;" as, << Both the men are guilty. *

663. Yet is a conjunction^

When it follows though ; as, " Though he reproves me, yet 1
esteem him." In all oi&t cases, it is aM^adverb; as, ** That even,
has yet to come."

664. For is a cof^imction,

When it means the same as beeeaise ; as, '' He trusted him, for fais
knew that he would not deceive him."

665. For is ^preposition.

In all instances except when it is a conjunction ; as, '' He worka
for me."

666. What is a compound relative^

When it stands for " that which ;" as, " 1 will take what [that
which] you send me."

667. What is an interrogative relative pronoun.
When used in asking questions ; as, " Woat do you want ?"

668. What is an adjective pronoun.

When joined with a noun ; as, << What strange Uiings he said !"

669. W HAT is a compound adjective pronoun.

When joined with nouns, and has the sense of two or more words;
as, '^ In what manner he succeeded, is unknown to me ;" that is,
'* The manner in which he succeeded, is unknown to me."

670. What is an interjection,

When used to express wonder ; as, '' What ! take my money ?'

671. Then is a conjunction.

When it has the sense of therefore ; as, " If he has commanded it
then I must obey."

672. Then is an adverb,

When it refers to time ; as, '< Did you hear it thunder then ?"

673. Much is a noun.

When it stands for quantity ; as, '< Where much is given, maoii
wiU be required."

674. Much is an adjective,

When it is joined to nouns ; as, " Much labor fatigues us."

675. Much is an adverb.

When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does ,
as, '^ Thou art much mightier tiian I.

676. More is a noun.

When it implies quantity ; as, " The more we have, the more we
want."

When is yet a conjunction ? 663. Give When an interjection ? 670. Give aa ax-

an example. When an adverb ? 663. ample.

Give an example. When is tkm a conjunction ? 671. Give

Whon is for a conjunction ? 664. Give an example. When an adverb ? 673.

an example. When a prepoeition ? 665. Give an example.

Give an example. When is mnah a noun ? 673. Give an

When is tohM a compound relative? example. Wlien an adjective ? 674. Giva

666. Give an example. When an inter- an example. When an adverb i 675.

rogative relative pronoun ? 667. Give an Give an example.

example. When an adjective pronoun .' When is mor^ a noun f 676. Give an

668. Give an example. When a com- example*
Dound pronoun 7 668. Give an example.

iI}C£KClS£8.

677 More and most are a4J^ective9^

Wlien they qualify a noun ; as, *' The more joy I have the more
sorrow I expect ;" ** Most men are mistaken in tlieir pursuit of hap-
piness."

678. More and most are adverbs^

When used in comparisons ; as, '' This boy is more obedient than
that/' « The soil of Cuba is most fertile."

679.

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

' They perfume their garments."

* A perinme is a sweet odor."

*They rise early in the morn-
mg."

''A rise sometimes signifies the
beginning."

"Rufus speaks the langfuage of
tmth.^

** James performed his part well."

'* A well is a fountain of water."

** A well man is one who enjoys
his health."

*' We frequently walk in the gar-
den."

»* The Jews fast often."

" He walks very fast."

" The refuse signifies the worth-
less remains."

" Desert not a friend."

"Joseph's brethren came and
bowed down before him."

" William went after his slate."

** The man that I saw, was ex-
ecuted."

"That man that you met yester-
day in the street, was taken
and sent to Boston, that he
might have an impartial trial."

^' We assisted him both for your
sake and our own."

** His elder brethren came befoA
Benjamin did."

<< John left after William came."

" Evil communications corrupt
good manners."

" Corrupt conversation is very
fooHsh."

*^ A walk in th% fields in the sum-
mer season is delightful."

'< A true fast is abstaming fh>m
iniquity."

** Sin is a moral evil, and the
cause of natural evils."

" Protest not rashly, lest thou
have to repent or it."

'' A protest is a solemn declara-
tion against a thing."

" Do notmng rashly, lest thou
precipitate thyself into inex-
tricable diflficulty."

<< Hasty promises are seldom
kept.'

•

" Did you hear the report of the

cannon then ?*'
" Where much is given, much

will be required.
" Future time is yet to come."
<<He trusted him, for he knew

that he would not deceive

him."

When are more and most adjectives?
677. Give ezamplM of eaeli. When ad-
rerbe ? 678. Oive examples of each.

What is number 1 5. What does the
•ingnlar Dumber denote ? 8. What the
plural ? 10.

What noans have the singular form on-
*f ? 334. What the plural / 395. What
ue the same in both numbers ? 396.

How is the nlural number of nouns feo-
erally formed r %7.

When nouns end in ch, thy &c., how do
they form the plural ? 3S8.

How do thoee ending in/or jk f 389.

How is the plural formed, when the sin-
gular ends in «, with no other vowel in
the sanne syllable ? 330.

What is ^ase ? 333. The nominative
CMB ? 335 Possessive case ? 33ni. How

formed ? 338. How formed when the sin
gular ends in »s 7 341.

What does the objective ease express ?
343.

Will you decUne man? book 7 346.
ehtur7 345.

Will you parse the promiscuous exer-
cises ?

What U an adjective? 363. What
does the positive state express ? 365.
Comparative? 366. Superlative' 367.
How is the comparative formed in mono*
svllablea ? 369. How in more syllablea
than one ? 370.

How do you compare the following ad
ibtitivwf—good7 bad7 wiss ? imlel
omall 7 virtuoua 7 many 7 old 7 115.

When does an adjective become a noun
in parsing .'' ^8.

112

fclNaLlSU OKAMMAK.

' Both the men are guilty."
*' Although he reproves me, yet I

esteem him."
" All but John came."
" This is but doing our duty."
<< He called me, but I refused to

go-
'' Let such as hear take heed."
" He did as I directed him."
^* You may take either the one or
the other."
" Either road will conduct you to

the right place."
** If he has commanded it, then I

must obey."

" Susan is determined to learn."

** By framing excuses he prolong-
ed his stay."'

" The man who is faithfully at-
tached to religion may be re-
lied on with confidence."

*^ James, do visit me."

** He works for me."
<' He refused what was sent him.*
" What strange things he saw !"
" In what manner he succeeded

is unknown to me."
" What ! will you take my life ?*
" The more we have, the more

we want."
** The more joy I have, the more

sorrow I expect."
** The most dutiful children are

the iiappiest children."
" Much labor fatigues me."
" Thou art much mightier than I

am.

•

" Virtue and vice are oppoeites.*
" When John's father asked him
that question, he heard him,
but refused to answer hina."
<' The wall is sixty feet high."
" To meet our friends altera lone
absence affords us mueh joy.

LXV. CONTRACTIONS.

They'd determmed to let him

680. Of the Amiiarg Havx, aUo of Had.

" TheyVe forsaken him." " I've satisfied myself.'

" I'd gone when you came " " They*d *<'>♦'»»•»"•*»«»'* ♦
"They'd just returned from go."

town."

681. Qf WiiiL and Would.

< I'll finish ray work first" << He is still determined that he'll

'< They'd sing songs till midnight, not forbear."

if they were urged." << He'll at last mind me."

WiU yoQ mme a few mljectivei which
liave in themMlvM a •aperlative ligaifica-
tion ? 374.

What M a iwoBoun ? 381. A penonal
pronoun ? 382. Why called perBonal ?
388.

How many porsoni have {ironoiina in
tach namber ? 383. How many nam-
ert ? 384.

To which of the proaouni ia fender ap-
Idied ? 388.

How many eaaes have prmioanf ? 384.

Will you decUoe / 7 than 1 kel aiul
«7 137.

What kind of a pronoun iemyttflf 7 386.
How formed ? 386.

What ia a relative pronoun ?
Why called nlative ? 408.

What ia said of the relative wkab 7

How ougta who to oe appliod?

409.

429.
419.

How vkkh ? 413. ' How may tkmt to
need? 415.

Wlien are prcmooiu 'eaUed interroga-
tive ? 431.

What are adjeetiva pronoona? 890.
How many kincb of adjecUv« ^onoum
are there r 391.

Which are the demooatrative ? 998.
Why eo eaUed ? 398. The distributive ?
393. Why >o called? 398. The iadefi
nice ? 408. Why ao called ? 401.

To what do tku and that refer ? 400

Will yon declino em 7 404. ether 1
403.

What is the rule by which pronouna
agree with their antecedents ? V.

Which worda in sentanees are antaea-
dents ? 4S0.

What are snbieqiients ? 431.

Will you parse the oxercises markN 9

CONTRACTIONS. 113

^«2. Of Am and In.

*• Th&t uiuui's rich. ' '' 'Tis straxiffe thai ihe will not

" T\a true she's dead." regard the kind aasistance of

" I'm sorry that you have mis- her friend."

spent your time."

683. Of GAinroT amd Will not.

*' He can't endure such afliic- << He won't disobey me.

tions." *' You won't mistake the direo
*'Tou can't be absent at such tion."

times."

684. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Jkdem^aHve

Sentence, *

<< Who will assist me ?" " John" « What will make me respectable
[will assist me]. and happy ?" " Virtue."

** Wnat sent our forefathers to " Who taught him grammar ''
this country .?" " The love of " Mr. Williams."

liberty." '

685. Omissions qfthe Principal Verb after an Auxiliary,

" Stephen will go if John will" " He received me in the same
[go]. manner that I would you."

" Susan shall walk, but John " I will do it as soon as I can."

shall not." << The work is not completed, but

" I have recited ; have you ?" , soon will be."

686. Omissions of the Principal Verb after Than and As.

" Thomas is a better scholar than " Johnson is richer than James."

William" [is]. *' Susan is not so beautiful as

" He was more beloved than Gin- Mary."

thiai but not so much ad- " She is more plajrfld than her
mired." brother."

687. Omissions of the verb To be.

" Sweet the pleasure, rich the ** Delightful task, to rear the ten^

treasure." der thought,

" A child of freedom thou." To teach the young idea how to
" Sweet the music of birds." shoot."

« Dear the schoolboy's sport.'

What is a verb ? 438. live ? 473. Sabjunctive ? 456. Infini-

What u an active verb ? 439. tive ? 479.

When is an active verb tranritirtt? 440. What are pvrtioiples ? 486. How may

When intransitive ? 441. the participles in ing be distinguished

What is a passive verb? 444. How from other words of like termination?

formed ? 510. 500.

How may a transitive verb be known ? How many, and which are the partici-

154. pies ?{ What does the present express ?

How an intransitive ? 154. 500. Perfect ? 503. Compound perfect ?

What is a neuter verb ? 450. 504.

Will y on next take the exercises mark-. LXV. Will you next parse the coo

id 3 ? tractions ? 680.

What belong to verbs ?* Wnat is tense ? 494. What is the pros

How many numbers have,they ? How ent used for ? 482. The perfect ? Impor

many persons ?t feet ? 488. Pluperfect ? 491. First fu-

What is mood ? 451. How many are ture ? 492. Second future ? 493

there ? 481. Will you name them ? Under what circumstances do we nso

What is the indicative mood used for ? the present tense to denote the relative

453. The potential .' 453. The impera- time of a future action ? 484.

~ III. I . 1 I M

• Mood, tone, oanber ud p«non. t Three. t Thne— the pmeat, per<tet,ud oompoaad perfcet

10*

114

ENGLISH' GKAMMAll.

688. OnUsnona ^Mat, Mighst, Could, Would, and Should

** liive* lon^ snd be hsppy." ** He might not weep, nor laugh
< Who will entreat the Lord that nor sinf ."

he spare oiir lives ?" '' Should I totj^ve you, and allow
' I could nut think, nor speak, you to depart, you would not

nor hear." reform."

689. Omdssi&m of the Cbr^vnctUm before Gi/e Ferh in tte Suh^

junctive Mood.
*■ If he will repent and reform, I << Had I improved my time as 1

ought to have done, I should
have been well qualified foi
business."
<^Weite Uiere n» ftltemattre, >
would not do that."

will assist him."
< UttlesB ffood' order be restored,
and the former officer8l>e re^
eleoled, there will be an end
to the administration of jus-
tieo."

690. Omissions of Tot. etfUr Verbs implymg the idea of serving

** Make me a pen." '* Brin^ me some water."

<' Order me a carriage. << Purchase him a knifb."

691. Omissions of the hderjettum,

" Sweet child ! lovely child ! thy " Thou Preserver and Creator of
parents are no more." all mankind."

" Sweet blossom ! precious to my '< My beloved Ulrica ! hast thou,,

heart." • too, forgotten me .^"

692. Omissions of the Relative,

* Several men are there come " I trust that he I desire to see sn
from Europe." much, will speedily return "

LXVI. INVERTED SENTENCES.

693. 7%i J^Tominative Ccue placed after the Verb.

' Smack went the whip, round * guished for his learning and

went the wheels ; politeness."

Were ever folks so glad ?" " And in soft ringlets waved hei

'^ There goes a man alike distin- . golden hair."

In what lort of descriptions do we use
the present for the past tense i 486.

What is the conjugation of a verb ? 531.

What is the conjugation of an active
verb styled ? 532. A passive verb? 532.

How many tenses has tlie indicative ?
995. Potential? 527. Subjunctive? 526.
Imperative ? 529. Infinitive ? 528.

What is the sign of the present indica-
tive? 519. The imperfect? 520. Per-
fect? 521. Pluperfect? 522. First fu-
ture? 523. Second future? 524. The
gatential mood ? 515. Infinitive ? 517.
ubjunctive ? 516. How many persons
has the imperative ? 518. How many
tenses ? 829. How thany forms has tlie
•ubiimetive meed i 461. In whaC do they
diflbr ? 461 ' ^

Will you now parse the omiMiona ?
684. &c.

How is the passive verb formed .' 510.

Will you decline fees in the indicative
present, passive ? and the verb to be in the
imperfect ? Perfect ' Pluperfect f First
future ? Second foture ? Present poten*
tial ? Imperfect ? Perfect ? Pluperfect ?
Present subjunctive, conunon form ? Im-
perfect ? Perfect ? Pluperfect ? First fu-
ture ? Second future ?

In what voice, mood, tense, number and
person, is " I love" ? « We love" ? " They
are loved" ? « Youare" ? « I did leam>» ?
" John was instructed" ? ** He

was

»» 9

"They have returned**? "Have they
ono?"^» "They have been"^ «I had
ad" ? " They had been distinguished" '

SENTJfiNCEB TRANSl^lJfeED. 115

6i>4. i%e Ofgeefhe Casts hefirte ffie Verbi

* Tyrants no mol^ their savage " Me glory sammons>to the mar-
nature kept, tial scene."

And foes to virtue wondered how ^^ The rolls of fame I wiil not now
they wept.'* explore.'*

695. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.

Will you compose a sentence ezempUfying Rule VIII. ? Ooe,
Rule IX. ? X. ? Xi. ? XII. ? XIII. ? XIV. ? Will you compose a
sentence on the Mse of the dog f One^ on the clouds f Otre, en nighi f
One, on wind f One, on snow f One, on hail f One, on ice t One,
071 skatinff f One, on fishing t One, on courage f One, on cotoardice 9
One, on filial d'Uty f One, on indolence f One, on schooli t

696. SENTENCES TRANSPOSED.

'* Here rests his head upon the lap of earth,
A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown

Transposed.

<' A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, rests here his head
upon the lap of earth."

" When, young, life's journey I began,

The glittering prospect charmed my eyes i
I saw along the extended plain,

Joy after joy successive rise
But soon I found 'twas all a dreamy

And learned the fend pursuit to shun, .^^

Where few can reach the ptirposed aim,

And thousands daily are undone."

Trtmsposed,

" 1 began liJe'» journey when young, and the glittering prospect
charmed my eyes ; I saw jpy after joy successive rise, along the ex-
tended plain : but soon I found it was all a dream ; and learned to
«>hun the fond pussuiC, where few can reach the purposed- aim, and
thousands are daily umione."

" Jfcedful austerities our wills restrain.
As tbornfr fenee in the tender plant from hsirm

Transposed.

'^ Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the ten
Qcr plant from harm."

" Thou hadst been** ? '* Yon Bhall be Will ^ou give the lynopaii of iemr* in

toiifffat''.' " Bhall I be punished ?" "Ho the active voice, with the particij>)es ?

■hall have been" ? Of the same in the passive ? Of <ioin the

LXVI. Will you pane the inverted active ? In the passive .'
sentences? 693, &c. When is a verb called regular? 533

In what voice, mood, tense, nnmber and When irregular ? 534.
person, is " Love thou" ? " I may go" ? Will you repeat the present and imper

" You may be regarded" ? " You might feet tenses, also the perfect participle,

he rejoiced"? " She may have been re- of ami aeel hearl dol weq» ? sink?

fused" ? " We should have been" ? " If «wm ?

I have" ? *^ If thou have*' ? " If thou Will you next take the sentences to be

hast"? *« To have**? " To have been'* ? written/

Will you give the synopsis of leam^ What are auxiliary verbs ? 511.
through all the moods, tenses, &e., in the How many and which are they ? 51S.
first person, including the' participle ? What are defective verbs ? 579.
Uarn, in like manner, in the passive? What is an adverb ? 588 Why so call-

Tbe verb to be in the same manner? ed ? SS8.

116 ENGLISH 6RAMB1AR.

** On some fond breast the parting mnl relies,
Some pious drops the closing eye requires ;
E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries,
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires."

DranspoaefL

*'The parting[ soul relies on some fond breast; the clomngr
requires some pious drops ; the voice of nature cries, even from
tomb ; and their wonted fires live even in our ashes.**

<< From lofty themes, irom thoughts that soared on high.
And opened wondrous scenes above the sky,
My IMuise ! descend ; indulge my fond desire ;
With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire,
And smooth mv numbers to a female's praise ;
A partial world will listen to my lays,
^hile Anna reigns, and sets a female name
Unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame."

JVanaposed,

** O my Muse ! descend thou from lofty themes, and from thoughts
that soared on hij?h, and opened wondrous scenes above the sky ,
indulge thou my tond desire ; and do thou inspire xny melting soul
with softer thoughts, and smooth my numbers to a ^male's pruse ;
a partial world will listen to my lays, while Anna reigns, ana seta a
female name unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame."

In what maDoer are adverbt compared ? What is the rule for the agreement of

S36.S34. nouns? XV. Artielet? U.. lU. Ad-

what are the phraaei which do the of- jectivea ? IV. Pronouna ? Y. Verbe ?

fice of adverbs called ? 589. Vll. Participles ? XIII. Agreement of

WiU you name a few ? 589. a verb plural with two nouns singular ?

What is a preposition ? 595. XVIII. Adjective pronouns and numer

Will you repeat the list of prepositions ? als ? Note I.

947. What as the rale bT which a verb agrees

What is a conjunction ? 609. Con- with a noun of multitude, or collective

Junction copulative ? 365. Wh^ so call- noun ? Note XVI. Bule for the objective

ed ? S64. Coniunction disjunctive ? 374. case after a transitive verb ? VIII.

Why so called ? 871. What is the rule for the objective ease

Will you repeat the list of copulative after a preposition ? X. After a partioi-

conjunctions f 266. Of disjunctive eon- pie ? XIV. Rule for the adverb ? IX

junctions? 275. Rule respecting tlie interjections O! oht

What is an inteijection ? 607. Why ah.' kc.f NoteX.

io called ? 383. Bfention a ftw ? 985. Will yoa pane tbe Mnteooes marked

What is syntax ? 396. What s a sen- transposed ?
tenee ? 9S3 A simple sentence ? 9S3.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

SYNTAX.

That part of Grammar which treats of the formation and lound
of the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and syl-
lables into words, is called Orthography.

That part which treats of the different sorts of words, their
various changes and their derivations, is called Etymology.

That part which treats of the union and right order of words
in the formation of sentences, is called S^tax.

Grambiar may be considered as consisting of two species,
Universal and Particular, Universal Grammar exj^ains the
principles which are common to alji languages. Particular
Grammar applies those principles to a particular language, modi-
fying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the
^established practice or the best writers and speakers by whom it
is used.

Lanouaoe, in the proper sense of the word, minifies the ex-
pression of our ideas, and their various relations, oy certain ar-
ticulate sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas and
relations. An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice,
formed by the organs of speech.

Letters are £e representatives of certain articulate sounds,
the elements of the language.

The letters of the English Language, called the English Al-
phabet, are twenty-six in number, each of which constitutes the
first principle, or least part of a word.

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants.

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself.
The vowels are a, e, «, o, u, and sometimes to and y. W and y
are consonants when they begin a word or syllable \ but in eve-
ry other situation they are vowels.

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded with-
out the aid of a vowel ; as, 6, (i, /, I. All letters except the
vowels are consonants.

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of n vow-
al. They are 6, p, ^ d^ k, and c and g hard.

118 ENGLUSH GRAMMAR.

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves.
They &re /, lym^n,r, v, s, z, x and c and g soft.

Four of the semi- vowels, namely, 2, fii, n, r, are called liquids,
because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, aia it
were, into their sounds.

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a sin-
gle impulse of the voice ; as, ot in voice, on in ounee^

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in Ake
manner ; as, eau in 6eau, iew in view.

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are
sounded ; as, ot in voices on in ounce.

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ,
as, ea in eagUj oa in boat,

A Sti^lable is a sound> either simpte or compounded, uttered
by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part
of a word ; as, a, arij ant,

A word of one syihible' is called a Monosyllable ; a word of
two syMaWes', a Dissyllable ; a Word of three syllables, a Trisyl-
lable ; a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.

Wor^ are articuliate sennds, used by common consent as
signs of our idetfs.

Words are of two sorts, f^rimitive and derivative.

A primitive word isr that which cannot be reduced to a simplet
W6ftaitQ the language ; to, nuth, good.

A derififaike 'Werd i» that whieh may be I'educed to a shnpler
Word ; «s, nuui^i g^ddkess.

The elemsntarysotfndii^^ under theit smtflSest combination, pro-
dace a syUMe ; syllablies, properly coimbined, produce a word ;
tlioi<dsv duly eentbcned, pioduee a sentenee ; and sentences^, Prop-
erly combined, produce an orcrfton, or discourse,

A fll<entence is t^ assemMage of words, forming compl«t<>

S01!Slftl

9ei«feenees «»« of tw6 Miydb, simple itiyd- eominound.

A simpto sentenee has in it blit! one subject, and one finite*
verb ; as, " Life is short"

A eompeund sentence eon^ists'of two or mere simple sentences
connected togetlier ; as, ^ Life is short, and art is long."

As setitefices tfaemselres am divide'd into simple aiid compound^ so the
i smt befs of muMhom may be dividecl- likewise into simple and compotincl
members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compowid, may become
members of other saotencefL by meana of some additional connectMni ; as is
tka following^ examplie : ** The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's
crib 'j but Israel dbth not know, my people doth not consider." TTils sentence
cttnMtt of twacompeundedmenro^rs, each of in^ch is subdivided intb two
simple mesibsrs, wkiek afe properly eaUed* oIau««i.

A phrase is two or more wotrffl rightly put together, making
sdmietiinefl ft part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sen-
tence*.

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject, the
attribute, and the object.

« Finite verbi are thoee to whicb number and penon appertain Verbs in the
lofioitive mocd have no respect to number ind person.

The subject i» the tMng chiefly' spoken of; tile sttribtrte is the
things or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the object is the
thing affected by such action.

The noramathre case denotes the subject ; and iisoalljr goes
before the verb or attribute ; asnd the wofd or ^xrase denotix^
the object, follows the verb ; as, ^ A vise man governs his pas-
eions." Here a wise man is the subject ; fovems, the attiibate
or thing affirmed ; and his passiimsj the oligect

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Coneord and GfoMm*

lent. Concord is the agreement which one word has irith

nother in gender, number, case,, or person. Government is that

power which one part of speech has over another, in direGtiiig

its mood, tense, or Case.

What is Orthography ? Etymoloey ? Syntax ? How many kinds of
^prammar are there ? What are Uiey 7 What is universal grammar ? Par-
Ucular grammar T What is language 7 What is an articulate sound t What
are letters 7 What are the leUers of the English language called 7 What'
does each constitute T How are letters divided 7 What is a vowel 7 Which
are they 7 How man^ do they make 7 When ture to and y consonants t
when vowels 7 What is a consonant 7 Give an example. Which letters are
consonants 7 How are the ct>nsonant8 divided 7 Whftt is » mate 7 Wfaick
are they 7 What is a semi-vewel 7 Which are they 7 Which of the semi-
vowels are called liquids, and wby 7 What is a diph thong 7 Give an exam
pie. What is a triphthoo^ 7 Give an example. What is a proper (fiphthone 1
Give an example. What is an improper diphthong 7 Give an example.
Whatt is a syllabic 7 monosyllable 7 dissyllable 7 ti'lsyllable 1 po1;^syllable 1
What are words 7 Of how many sorts are they f Wnat is apnmidve word 7
Give an example. What is a derivative^ word 7 Give an example. What
does an elementary sound produce 7 What do syllables produce 7 Words 7
Sentences 7 What is 9 semence 7 How are soitences divided 7 What is a
simple sentence 7 Compound »entence 7 Give an example of each. How
are the menbers df seBteoces dividied 7 Give as example. What is a phrase 7
What are the principal parts of a simple sentence 7 Whe^ is the subject 7 the
attribute 7 the object 7 What does tiie nominative case denote 7 and where
is it usually placed in a sentence 7 Give an example. Of how many parts
does Syntax consist 7 What are they 7 What is concord 7 Government 7

The right construction of sentences may perhaps
be best learned by correcting examples of wrong con-
struction. Exercises in false syntax for the pupil, as-
sisted by rules and notes to paosse and correct, will
therefore now be given.

The following contain all the notes and observations
in Murray's lairge Grammar, together with all his ex
ercises in false syntax. ^

&trzjB -m.

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE I.

A verb must agree with its nominative case in number

and person.

The following are a few instances of tlie violation of this rule : " What rftf-
miies good opinions, when our pracUce is had 7" ".what s^fyJ* ^ Theie'i

190 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.

two or three of ut, who have seen the work f " there artJ* ** We may sup-
pose there was more impostors than one •" *^ there were more." " I have con
sidered what have been said on both sides in this controversy 3'' " what hoi
been said.'' " If thou would be healthy, live temperately f " if thou wouldst.*
" Thou sees how little has been done ;" ** thou seest," ** Though thou canno
do much for the cause, thou may and should do something^;'' ** canst not
ntayst, and shouldatJ^ " Full many a flower are bora to blush unseen -" " i$
bora/' " A conformity of inclinations and cjualities prepare us for friend-
ship ;" "prepare* us.'' "Avarietjr of blessings have been conferred upon
OS y' " has bieen." " In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man ;" ** con-
tiaU»** ** To these precepts are subjoined a copious selection of rales and
maxims f ** U subjoined.''

" If thou would be healthy, live temperately." Which word is wrong in
this example t In what particular, wreng 7 Why 7 What is the Rule for
It ? How, then, would you correct the example 1 — " There was more equivo-
cators." SVhicn word is wrong here ? What c(Jhrection should be made ?
Whyt

03* T%e pupil is Jhrtt to answer the questions on each Rule or Note, then to
correct and parse the subsequent exercises. It is su^ested to the teacker, that
Vie pupils should direct their attention first to the Rules and exercises under
them, exclusively, omitting the Notes, 4*c., /or a review, when all may be taken
in course.

'< Disappointments sinks the heart credit than Plutarch, (14.) or

of man ; but the renewal of any other (15.) that (11. ^ write

hope give consolation." lives too (12.) hastily.

*' llie smiles that (1.) encourafe " The inquisitive (16.) and cu

Beyerity of judgment hides rious (11^ is generally talka

malice and insincerity." tive." (17.)

** He dare not act (2.) contrary (3.) " Great pains has been taken to

to his instructions." reconcile the parties."

^ Fifty pounds of wheat canUuns '' The sincere (16.) is always es-

forty pounds of flour." teemed."

^ The mechanism of clocks and *' Has the goods been sold to ad«

watolies toere totally un- yantageP and did thou em

known (4.) a few centories brace the proper season ?"

ago.'* (5.) '' There is many occasions (6.) in

'< The nmnMr of inhabitants in life, in which silence and

Great Britain and Ireland, do simplicity (11.) is true wis-

not exceed sixteen millions." dom."

" Nothing (6.) but yain and fool- << The generous (16.) never re-

ish pursuits (7.) delight some counts minutely the actions

persons." they have done ; nor the pru*

'< A variety of pleasing objects dent, (7.) those (15.) they wiL

charm the eye." do."

<So(8.;) much (9.) both (10.) of << He need not proceed (2.) in such

aoiuty and merit (11.) are sel- haste."

dom (12.) found . « The business that (1.) related to

In the conduct of Parmenio a ecclesiastical meetings, mat-

• mixture of wisdom and folly ten (11.) and persons, (11.)

(11.) were very (8.) conspicu* were to be ordered accord-

ous." ing ri8.) to the king's direc-

He is an author (13.) of more tion.

(1.) See 650. iS.) Apply Rule ZU. Bee 480. (3.) AdjecUve. (4.^ Rule
^11. (5.) ^fnS centuries ago — aa adrerbial phrase, 589 ; or api^y Note XVIIL,
•48,toe«nturte»,andRuleIX.to<vo- (6.) Rule VI. (7.) Rule XI. (8.) 339
i9.) 673. (10.) 661. (11.) Rule XI. (12.) Adverb. (13.) Rale XV. 613.
jl4.) " Plutoieh M «• (15.) Note I 405,and Rule XI. (16.) 378. (17.^ Rule
IV (18)947. m

SYNTAX. »ai

** lo lum were liappUy bUnded When our abundance make* us

true dignity with loftness of wish (12.) for more."

manners." "Thou shalt love thy neigrhbor

** The support of so (1.) many (2.) as (13.) sincerely as (14.) thou

of his relations, were a heavy loves thyself.'*

tax (3.) upon his industry; "Has thou no better reason for

but thou knows he paid it censuring (15.) thy friend and

cheerfully." companion ?" (IG.)

«* W)iat (4.) avails the best senti- « Thou, who art the Author (17.)

vnents (5.^ if persons do not andBestower (]6.)of life,ean.

live suitaoly to them?" doubtless restore it also : but

" Not one (6.) of them whom thou whether thou will please to

clothed (7.) in purple, restore it, or not, that thou

aro completely happy." only knows."

** And the fame of tnis person, " O thou my voice (18.) inspire,

and of his wonderful actions, Who touched (19.) Isaiah's hal*
were diffused (d.) throughout lowed lips with fire."

the country." " Accept (20.) these grateful tears ;

" The vcariety of the productions for thee they flow ;

of genius, like (9.) that (10.) For thee, that ever felt^l.) anoth-

of the operations of nature, er's wo."

are without limit." . " Just to thj^ word, in every

' In vain (11 .) our flocks and fields thought smcere ;

increase our store, Who knew (22.) no wish but what

the world might hear.'*^

1 . Tlie infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as the nom-
inative case to the verb ) as, " To see the sun is pleasant |" " To be good is
(o be bappv ;'' " A desire to excel oiliers in learning and virtue is commenda-
ble ;" ** Tnat warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body,
and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe ;'' ** To be temperate
in eating and drinking, to use exercise in open air, and to preserve the mind
free from tumultuous emotions, art the best preservatives or health."

" To see the sun are pleasant.'' Which word is wronr in this example T
Tn what particular, wrong 7 What is pUasufU ? What, taen. is the nomine*
live case to is ? Is there one thing, or more than one, Iwre spoken of, as being
pleasant ? Why, then, should we use is in '^reference to are f What is the
Rule for U ? (23.) Rule for " To see/* or ' To see the sun" ? {U.)

O* When examples are re/erred to ¥ Hhout being quoted, Hue teacJur may
read them to Hie pupil.

" To be temperate in eating,'' &,c. How many things are here spoken of
as being the best preservatives ? Sb iuld we, then, use the singular or plural
verb ? Rule for it ? (26.)

1
" To do unto all men, as we " From a fear of the world's cen-
would that they, in similar sure, to be ashamed (24.) of

circumstances, should do unto the practice of precepts, whioh

as, constitute the great prin- the heart approves and em-

ciple of virtue." braces, mark a feeble and im*

perfect character.'

TiT^. (2.) 378. (3.) Rule XV. 613 (4.) Hule VIIL (5.) Rule VI
6 ) Note I. 405, and Rule VI. (7.) Rule XIH. (80 SIO. (9.) Rule IV

(10 ) '( that «aHe<y**— Note I. 405, and Rule X. See Note XVII. 647. (11.) Ad
rerbial phrase. (Vt.) Rule XII. 555. See 480. (13.) Adverb. (14.) Con
junction. (15.) Participial noun. (16.) Rule XI. (17.) Rule XV 613
(18.) Rule VIII. (19.)" Whotoir«Ae<fot or did^ t4mek." (20.) " Acoftpt

lio«»'-imp. mood. (21.) " didH feel." (22.) " Who knswBst or didH knov. "
(«3.) Rule VTl. (24.) Note Xfll. 096, or Note l^thw pn-e. (35.) W^ <VUf.

--1

]»

£NGLi&}H UHAMJMAK.

^'The erroneoua opiniona which
we form concerning ^l.)^ap-
pineM and misery givts rise
to all the mistaken (2.) and
danfferous paaeions that ma-
krauM our life."
To Uto soberly, righteously, and
piously, are required of all
men.'

< That (3.) it is our duty to pro-
mote the purity of our minds
and bodies, to be just (4.) and
kind to our fellow creatures,
and to be pious and faithful
to Him that made us,, admit
not of any doubt in a rational
and well (5.) informed mind."

*'To be of a pure and humble
mind, to exercise beneyolenee
towards others, to cultivate
piety towards €rod, is the
sure means (6.) of becoming
peaceful and happy."

^ It is an important truth, that
religion, vital religion, the
leligion of the heart, are the

most powerful auxiliaries of
reason, in waging war with
the passions, ana promoting
that sweet composure which
constitute the peace of God."

<* The possession of our senses
entire, of our limbs uninjured,
' of a sound understanding, of
friends and companions, axe
often overlooked; though it
would be the ultimate wish
(6.) of many, who, as far as
we can judge, deserves it as
much as ourselves."

<' All (7.) that make a figure on
the great theatre of the world,
the employments of the busy
the enterprises of the ambi<
tious, and the exploits of the
warlike ; the virtues which
fbrms the happiness, and the
crimes which occasions the
misery of mankind ; origi-
nates in that silent and secret
recess of thought, which are
hidden from every human
eye."

2. Every verb^ except in the infimtive mood, or the participle, ought to have
a nominative case, eitmsr expressed or implied ; as, ** Awake 3 arise •" that is,
" Awake ye ; arise ye."

We sliall liere suld some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the verb
wnthout its nominative case. ** As it hath pleased him of his goodness to give
you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the ^at denser,'' &c. The
verb hath preMerved has here no norainaUve case, for it cannot be properly sup>
plied by the preceding word, fnm, which is in the objective case. It ought to
be, " and as ne hath preserved you ;" or rather, ** and to preserve you.*' ** If
the calm in which he was bom, and lasted so long, had continued ;" '' and
wAtcA lasted," &c. ** These we have extracted from an historian of undoubted
eredit and are the same that were practised," &.c. ; ** and tiuy are the same."
'' A man whose inclinaticms led him to be corrupt, and bad great abilities lo
manage the business ;" " and tofio had," &c. " A cloud gathering in the
north; which we have helped to raise, ana may quickly break m a storm apoi
our heads ;" " and which may quickly."

** As it hath pleased," &c. What correction should be made in this exam-
pleT WhyT Recite the Note.

'If the privileges to which he similar to those which were

has an undoubted right, and some time ago brought from

he has long enjoyed, should Africa."

now be wrested from him, (8.) ** Will martial flames forever fire

would be flagrant injustice. thy mind,

"' These cnrioBities we have im- And never, never (9.) be to

ported from China, and are heaven resigned ?

PreposiUon. (fi.)RttleXin. (3.) ConjaDctioD (4 ) •^ jiiNt 0«rMM.>«
(6.) Adverb. 7e.) Rule XV (7.) Note 1. 405, Rule VI

9.) " And itUt tk»u never bs 7"

SYNTAX. ia»

3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an address
is made to a person, should beloof to some verb, either expressed or implied ;
as, *' Who wrote tms oook ?" " James '/' that is, " James wrote it." " To
whom thus Adam,'' that is, " spoke."

One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, without
any verb, expressed or imphed, to answer it, may b«^ufficient to illustrate tb«
usefulness of the preceding* observations.

** Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring' prince would hava
wanted a great deal of that incense which hath been offered up to him." The
pronoun ii is here the nominative case to the verb observed ; and which rule is
left by itself, a nominative case without any verb following it. This form of
expression, though improper, is very common. It ought to be, '* If thit rw/lt
had been observed," glc, "Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, and
such from which others as well as lumself might receive prom and den^ht, yel
they are all within his own breast." In wis sentence, the nominative mtm
stands alone, and unconnected with any verb, either expressed or hnplied. It
should be, '' Though vum has great variety," &c.

" Which rule, if it," d&c. What is the nominative case to observed? Has
the noun nde any verb following it, to which it may be the nominative case 1
Is this form of expression much used ? Is it not proper 7 What correction
should be made ? Why 1 Recite the Note.

' (1 .) Two substantiyes, when " Virtue, howeyer it may be neg'

they come together, and do iected for a time, men axe so

not signify the same thing, constituted as ultimately to

the former (2.) must be in the acknowledge and respect

genitiye case." genuine merit."

•«. •

4. When a verb comeS between two nouns, either of which may be under-
stood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them j but
some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, as
also to that which stands next to the verb ; as, ** His meat was locusts and wild
honey ;" '' A great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put
upon it ;" ** The wages of sin is death."

" The wages of sin is death," or, " Death is the wages of sin." What is
the nominative case to is 7 Is this nominative, in the first example, before or
after is ? Wwat is the rule for wa^es ? (3.) Recite the Note. What do you
mean by the subject of^ affi.rmatwn ? (4.)

4.
'^ The crown of yirtue is peace *^ His chief occupation and en-
and 'honor." joyment were controversy.''

^ 5. When the nominatiye case has no personal tense of a verb^ but is put
before a participle, inclependently on the rest of the sentence, it is called the
C3»e absolute j as, ** Shame being lost, all virtue is lost}" ** That having been
discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it."

As, in ihe use of^ the case absolute, the case is, in English, always the nom
native, the following example is erroneous, in making it the objective. " Sol
mon was of this mmd ; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true prov
•bs, as any body has done since ; him only excepted, who was a much great-
er and wiser man than Solomon." It should be, " he only excepted."

What is the rule for the case absohitc ? (6.) " He only excepted." Which
word is wrong in this examj^le 1 In what particular, wrong ? What correc-
tion should be made 7

il.) " fFhen tuo svhstaiKliou come together.''* U.) "tA« first of «A«» '»

12A Bale XY. 613. (4.) The nominatire case. ^5.^ Rule XVII. 633

134 1:N<UJSH (2RAMMAK.

5.
" Him destroyed, All this (2.) will toon follow."

Or won to what (1 ) may work ** Whose gray top

his utter loss, Shall tremble, him descenaing.'

The nominative case is commonly placed before tlie verb ; but sometimes
<t is put ai\er the verb, if it is a simple tense ; and between the auxiliary and
the verb or participle^ if a compound tense ; as,

1st. VVbeu a ouesUon is asked, a command given, or a wish expressed :
■s. " Confidest tiiou in me V " Read thou !" " Mayst thou bo happy \"
'* Long live the king I"

2d. When a supposition is made without the conjimction if; as, " Were it
»ot for this j" " Had 1 been there."

3d. When a verb neuter is used } as, " On a sudden appeared the kine.

4th. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs hertj thertf then, thence,
\etw.t, thus, &.C. ; as, " Here am I j" " There was he slain f* " Then cometh
the end ;" " Thence ariseth liis grief;'' " Hence proceeds his anger ;" " Thus
was the affair settled."

dth. When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be coupled with
another sentence : as, '' Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest y^
die."

Some grammarians assert, th« phrases as foUovos, as cmpears, form what
are called im^jersonal verbs ^ and should, therefore, be confined to the singular
nimib^r J as, "llie arguments advanced were nearly asjhllotpsf^ "The
positions were as ajrpears incontrovertible *," that is^ " as it folk>ws," ** as it
appears." if we give (say they) the sentence a difierent turn, and. instead of
as, say such as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal ; but properly agrees
with its nominative, in the plural number ; as, ** The axgumeiits advanced
were necu'ly sttch as folUyw ;" ^ The positions wer«> such as appear incontro-
vertible."*

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, " That as, how-
ever and whenever used in English, means the same as it, or t/mt, or vkich ;'*
and who are not satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned,
should be in the sintpilar or the plural number, may vary the form of expres>
sion. Thus, the sense of the preceding sentences may be conveyed in th** fol-
lowing- terms >— " The arguments advanced were nearly of the following na-
ture j" " The following are nearly the arguments which were advanced ;*'
'* The arguments advanced were nearly tliose which follow ;" ** It appean
that the positions were incontrovertible ;" " That the positions were incnntro
vertible is apparent ;" *' The positions were incontrovertible is apparent f*
** The positions were apparently incontrovertible."

Where is the nominative case usually placed ? Mention a few instances in
vrfaicfa the nominative follows the verb. What do some grammarians say of
the phrases as fMowSy as appears 7 What is Dr. Campbell's ophiion con
cismiiig them 7

( 10 " tAot vhieh, " 437. (9. ) Note I. 405.

* These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the authority of an
eminent critic on .angoage ana composition. " When a verb is used impersonally,"
says Dr. Campbell, in his Philosofihy of Rhetoric, " it ought undoubtodlv to be hi
(he singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood.'*
For thii> reason, ana.ogy and unage favor this mode of expression ; "The conditions
of the agreement were as follows,** and not ** as foUow." A few late writers have
Inconsiderately adopted this last form, through a mistake of the constnictioa. For
the same reason, we ought to say, " I shall consider his censuies so far onlv us
eems my firiend-s conduct,*^ and not < so far as eamssm.**

SYNTAX. 185

ConespMnduig with Mnrray^t Grftminar
RULE U.

Thoo or mare nouns or pronouns of the singular number ^
connected together by and, either expressed or^nder^
stood, must nave verbs, nouns and pronouns Agreeing
with them in the plural number.

This rale is often violated ; some instances of wliicfa are annexed. ** And
•o was also James and John, the sons of Zebedeej, who were partners with Si*
mon ;" '^ and so were also.'^ ** All joy, tranquillity and peace, even for ever
and ever, doth clwell ;" '' dtoell for ever." '' By whose power all good &nd
evil is distributed ;'' " are distributed." ** Their love, and their hatred, and
their envy, is now perished ;" " are perished." " The thoughtless and intern*
peraie enjoyment of pleasure, the cnuiiital abuse of it, and the forgetfulness of
our being accountable erranires, obliterates every serious thourht of the proper
business of life and effaces the sense of religion and of Gk>d y' it ought to be,
« obUUraU" and '* efface."

" All joy, tranquillity, d&c., doth dwell." Which word is wronff in this ex-
ample ? In what particular, wrong 1 What correction, then, should be made f
Why 7 Recite the Rule.

' Idleness and ignorance is the iterance under costly at-

W par e7i< of many vices.'* tire." |

isdom, virtue, happiness, ** The planetary svstem^ bound-

dwelU with the golden me- less space, and the immense

diocrity.'* ocean, affects the mind with

" In unity consists the welfare sensations of astonishment."

and security of every so- '* Humility and love, whatever

ciety." (3.^ oDscuhties may involve

*' Time and tide toaits for no rehgious tenets, constitutet

man." the essence of true religion."

** His politeness and good disposi- ** Religion and vL tue, our besl

tion waSf on failure of their support (4.) ami highest hon

eifect, entire! V changed." or, confers on tlie mind prin

** Patience and diligence, like (1.) ciples of noble independence."

faith, (2.) removes moun- '< What (5.) signifies tne counse*

tains." and care of preceptors, whcB

^ Humility and knowledge, with youth think they have no (6.^

poor apparel, excels pride and need of assistance ?"

1. When the nouns are nearly related, orscarcely distinguishable in sens*
and sometimes even when they are very diflerent, some authors have thought
it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the singular number } as,
^ Tranquillitv ssd peace dwells there ;" " Ignorance and negligence has pro
du«": ' «rfiect j" ' The discomfiture and slaughter was very great." But it
is evidently contrar} to the first principles! of grammar, to consider two dis
tinct ideas as one, however nice may oe their shades of difference ; and if
there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be re
jected.

To support the above construcUon. it is said, that the verb may be under
stood as applied to each of the preceding terms ; as in the following f^xainple i
** Sand, ana salt, and a mass oi iron, is <^asier to bear than a man without un- *
derstanding." But besides tb^coufiision, and the latitude of applicatsou, which

1.) Adverb. (SI.) Rule X. See Note XVIl. 047. (3.) NoU I. 405.

[4.) Rale XV. (5.) Rule VIIL (6.) 889

196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

such a construction would introduce, it appears to be more proper and ana-
logicaJ, in cases wliere the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the
tenns, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, wtiicb grammatically refers
the verb to one or other of the preceding terms, in a separ^e view. To pre-
ser\'e the distinctive uses of the copulative and aisjunctive conjunctions, woula
render the rules precise, ccMisistent and intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly ob-
serves, that " two or more substantives, joined by a copulative^ must abojoft
require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be placed m the plural
number.''

** Tranquillity and peace dwells there.'' What dwells 7 Is it not, then, a "^
violation of Rule X Vlll. to use dtodU in the singular number 7 When do
<Nne writers think it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pnmouns in the
ingular number 7 Is this usage grammatical f In what does the incorrect-
ness consist ? If there be no aifference in the meaning of terras, are both
necessary ? What oug^t to be done with the superfluous one 1 How do
some attempt to support the above construction ? How would they read, on
this principle, the example beginning with, ** Sand, and s^t, and a mass of
iron, if easier." &c. 7 (l.J In examples like the last, what conjunction can we
substitute in the place or and^ whicn will better eiqiress the sense 7 What
does Dr. Blair say on this subject 7

^ Much does human pride and <' Pride and aelf-snfficiency stifles

self-complacency require cor- sentiments of dependence on

rection. our Creator; levity and at-

<' Luxurious living, and high tachment to worldly pleasures

.pleasures, btgUs a languor destroys the sense of gratitude

and satiety that destroys all to him."
enjoyment." '

S. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to determine,
whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nominative
case : and, consequently, whether the veib should be in the singular or the
plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a nimiber of vanea examples
of this nature, which may serve as some government to the scholar with re*
spect to sentences of a similar construction. '' Prosperity, with humility, ren-
atr» its possess* If truly amiable." '' The ship, with all her Auniture, vsas de>

stroyed." ** Not only his estate, his reputaticm too has suffered by his miscon-
duct" ** The general, also, in conjunction with the officers, hoM applied for
redress." ** He cannot be justified ; for it is true, that the prince, as well as
the people, teas blameworthv." ** The king, with nis life-sniard, has just pass-
ed through the village." ''In the mutual innuence of bodv and soul, there if
a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we caxmot fathom.'' " Virtue, honor,
nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend the measure." " Patriotism,
morality, eveir public and private consideration, demand our submission to
just ana lawnil government." " Nothing delights me so much as the works
of nattire." •

In support of such forms of expression as the following, we see the authority
of Hnme, Priestley, and other wniers j and we aiinex them for the reader^s con-
sideration ! ** A long course of time, with a variety of arcidents and circum-
stances, are requisite to produce those revolutions." ** The king, with the
lords and commons,ybf'm an excellent frame of government." " The side A,
mith the sides B and C, compose the triangle." " The fire communicated it-
self to the bed, which, with the furniture of the room, and a valuable library,
were all entirely consumed." It is, however, proper t > observe, that these
modes of expression do not appear to be warrantea by the just principles of
.construction. The words, " A long course of time," *' The king," ** The side
A," and *' which," are the true nominatives tp the respective verbs. In the
last exampl*^ the word a!l should be expunged. As the preposition with gov-
erns the ehfeuive case in English, and, if translated into Latin, would govern

tl,^ «* Band if easier, and salt w easier, and a mass of iron is easier,*' &e.

SYNTAX. 1SI7

tbe ablcEtboe case, it is mauilest, tbat the clamses fbUowing %oUh, in the preeedii^
sentences, cannot form any paut of the nominative case. They cannot be ai
the same time in the objective and the nominative cases. The following sen
teace appears to be unexceptiouabie, and may serve to explain the others i
" The lords and commons are essential branches of the Bntuih constitution i
&e king, with iineakf forms an excellent frame of government''*

" The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the trianele." b this soi-
tence, what is the nominative case to compost 7 Shoold the verb, tfam, be
singular or plural 7 What difficulty is mentioned in the beginning of * '
Note 7

^ Giood order in oar affidn, not a verr limited inflnenoe, mA

mean savings, produce great are onen despised."

profits." <<That superficial scholar and

" The following treatise, together critic, like some renowned

with those that accompany it, critics of our own, have (2^

toere written many years afo, famished meet decisive proofs

for my own private satisrac- that they (3.) knew not the

lion." characters of the Hebrew Ian-

♦'That great senator, in concert guage."

with several other eminent <' TI^ buildings of the institution

persons, loers the projectors have been enlarged ; the ez-

(1.) of the revolution." pense of which, added (4.)

^ The reUgion of these people, ae to the increased price of pro-
well as their customs and visions, render it necessanr
manners, were strangely mis- to advance the temui of ad
represented." mission."

'^ Virtue, joined to knowledge and << One, added to nineteen, make

wealth, confer mat influ- twenty*."

ence and respectability. But << What (5.) black despair, what

knowledge, with wealth unit- horror, fills his mind i"
ed, if virtue is wanting, have

3. If the sing[u]ar nouns and pronouns, which are jomed together by a cop-
nlative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plurafpronouns agree
with them m person, the second person takes place of the third, and the first of
both ; ~as, " James, and thou, and I, care attached to our country ;" '' Thou
and he shared it between you,"

" James, and thou, and I, am attached to our country." What is wrong b
this example 7 In what particular, wrong 7 What correction should be
made ? Whv 7 ** Thou and he shared it Mtween him/' Will you corred
this example i Why use you instead ofkimt Will you repeat the Note 1

*' Thoa, and the gardener, and " Mv sister and I, as well as my
the huntsman, moat shar^ brother, are daily employed

the blame of this business in their respective oceapa-

amongst them.** tions."

* Thonglr the eonstraetion will not admit of a plural verb, the leatence wonM
•ertainly stand better tliiu : ** The kiuf , the lords, and the eommons, J^rm an
•xcellent constitution.*'

(1.) Rale XV. 613. (8.) 639. ExeepCion 1. (8.) ** As lOumJ*

(4.) Rule XIII. 557 (5.) 434.

194 ENGLISH ORAMMAH.

Corrasponding with Murray^s Grammar,
RULE m.

The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary
to that of the conjunction copulative ; for as the
verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding
terms taken separately, it must he in the singular
number ; as, " Ignorance or negligence has caused
this mistake ;" '^ John, James, or Joseph, intends
to accompany the ;" " There is, in many minds,
neither knowledge nor understanding."

The following sentences are variations from this rule : '^ A man ma^ sco
a metaphor or an alleg^ory in a picture^ as well as read them in a description ;"
" read it" " Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood ;" " was
y^eC* ** It must indeed be confessed, that a lami>oon or a satire do not carry
m them robbery or murder '," ** does not carry in it J' " Death, or some worse
misfortune, soon divide them ;" it ought to be, " divides.^*

** Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood/' What is wrong in
this example ? Why ? Will you correct it 7 What is the Rule for this cor
rection 7

" Man's happiness or misery aref " When sickness, infirmity, or

in a great measure, put into reverse of fortune affect us,

his own hands." the sincerity of friendship is

" Man is not such a m^hine as a proved.*'

clock or a watch, which move " Let (1.) it be remembered, (2.)

merely as tkey are moved." that (3.) it is not the uttering.

** Despise no infirmity of mind or or the hearing of certain

body, nor any condition of words, that constitute the

life ; for they are, perhaps, to worship of the Almighty."

be your own lot.** " A tart reply, a proneness to re

*' Speaking impatiently to ser- buke, or a captious and con-

vants, or anything that be- tradictious spirit, axe capable

trays inattention or ill-humor, of imbittering (4.) domestic

are certainly criminal.*' life, (5.) and of setting friends

'* There are many faults in spell- at variance."
ing, which neither analogy
nor pronunciation justify.**

1. Whoa smgular pronouns, or a noun and pronoon of different oersons, are

disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that person whicn is placed

nearest to it j as, '' I or thou art to blame ;" " Thou or I am in fault -f" ** I,

thou, or he, u the author of it i" ** George or I am the person.'' But it would

e better to say, ** Either I am to blame, or thou art,'' oz.c.

^ ^' I or thou am to blame." How should this be altered 7 What is the RuU
'Xit?

1.
" Either ^6.) thou or I art greatly " I or thou am the person (7.
mistaicen, in our judgment on who must undertake the biisi

this subject." ness'proposed."

(1.) Imperative mood, agreeing with thou or you understootl, hv Rule VI
e.) Infinitive, 4H0. (3.) Conjunction. (4.) Rule X. (5.) Rule XIV .S«it)

C.) 6«». (?.<> Rule XV. CI3.

2. When a disjiiactivv occurs lietwet'ii a «iiig:ii«r noun, or pruuoutit and*
plural cue, the verb is made to agree wiili the |)liiraj nouu aud pronoun } as.
" Neitherpoveriy uor riches wer*' injurious to liini ;" •• 1 or ihc}' were otrcndcd
by it.'*' But in this ca^c, tJie plural aoun or prouuuu, vvlicii it can cuuvenieuUjf
be done, should be placed next to the verb.

" I or they was oiTended/' What a wruug iii \\us example 7 WUai is iIm
Rule for the correction 1

*Both (1.) of the Bcholan, or one "Whether one person or mor

of them at least, was present wus concerned in the bun

at the transaction." ness, does not appear."

* Some parts of the ship and cargo "The cares of this hfe, or th

were recovered; but neither deceitfulness of richen, ha

(2.) the sailors nor the cap- choked the seeds o£ virtue in

tain was saved." many a promising (3.) mind.'

270TB ZVX.

Curreipondinj; with Murray's Grammar,
RULE IV.

A verb in the plural will agree with a collective noun
in the singulai , when a part only of the individuals
are meant; asy " The council were divided in their
sentiments." When the noun expresses the idea of
unity y the verb should be singular ; as, " The council
was composed wholly of farmers."

We ought to consider whether tlie term will immediately suggest the idea
if the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of the
Arhole, as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought lo be plural ; in the
latter, it ought to 1^ singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, '' I'he peasant*
ry goes barefoot, and tlie middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." it would
be better to say, " The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use,''
&c., because the idea, in both tiiese cases, is that of a number. On the con-
trary, there is a isarslmess in the following sentences, in which nouns o^ Mum-
berhave verbs plural, because the ideas they represent seem not to ttc suifi-
ciently divided m the mind : " The court of Rome toere not without solicitude."
*' The house of commons were of small weight." " The bouse of lords loere
so much iufluenced by these reasons." ** Stephen's party were entirely broken
up by the captivity of their leader." " An army of twenty-four thousand were
assembled." " What reason hat^e tliechnrch of Rome for proceeding in this
manner V* " There is mdeed no constitution so tame and careless of their
own defence."—" All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fin
gers, but his follies and vices are innumerable." Is not mankind^ in this place
« nouu of multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to oe m the
plural number, their 1 •

** The peasantry g^es barefoot," &c. What correction is necessary in Ihi
example 7 Why ?

*' The people reJoUes in that *^ The court have just ended, after

which should give it sor- having sat through the trial

row." of a very long cause "

' The flock, and not the fleece, " The crowd were so great, that

are, or ought to be, the ob' the judges with difficulty made

jects of the shepherd's care." their way through them."

no 407. (9.) Conjunction when followed by nor. (3.) Rule XIU

UM) ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Tbe corporation of York cons%8l '' Thui people draweth near to me

of a mayor, aldermen, and a with their mouth, and honor

common council." etk me <with their lips, but

' The British parliament are com- their heart is far from me."

posed of king, lords and com- ^* The committee was divided in

muns." its sentiments, and it has re-

'' When the nation complain, the ferred the business to the gen-

rulers should listen to their eral meeting."

Toice." " The committee were Tery fiill

** In the days of youth, the mul- when this point was decided ;

titude eagerly pursues pleas- and their ludgment has not

ure as its chief good." been called in (]^uestion."

< The church have no power to " Whj^ (6.) do this generation

inflict corporal puni»iment." wish tor greater evidence,

<' The fleet were seen sailing (1.) when so much (5.) is already

up the channel." given .^" ^

<' The regiment consist of a thou- ^* The remnant of the people were

sand (2.) men." persecuted with great severi-

<' The meeting have established ty." "

several salutary regulations." " Never were any people so (6.)

<< The council was not unanimous, much (6.) infatuated (7.) as

and it separated without com- the Jewish nation."

ing ^3.) to any determina- " The shoal of herrings were ot

tion.' an immense extent.'*

** The fleet is all arrived and " No society are chargeable with

moored (4.) in safety." -the disapproved (8.) miscon-
duct of particular members.**

Correspondinff with Mnrray'i Grammar,
RULE V.

Pronouns must agree with the nowas for which they
stand y in gender^ number and person.

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few of which may
be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. ** Each of the sexes should keep
within its particular bounds, and content themselves with the advantages oi
their particular districts :'' better thus ; " Tbe sexes should keep within their
particular bounds." &c. '' Can any one, on their entrance into the world, be
fully secure that they shall not be deceived 1" ** on his entrance/' and ** that
heahsW." ''One should not think too favorably of ourselves/' ''of one's
self." " He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles ;" " ¥>ho
poisoned."

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either expressed
or implied : as, " Who is fatal to others, is so to himself ;" tlwt is, " the man
who is fatal to others."

WhOf which, tohatf and the relative that, though in the objective case, are
always placed before the verb ; as are also thQ[^ compounds, whoeoer, tshosO'
ever, &c. ; as, " He whom ye seek ;" " This is what, or the thing which, or
that you want ;" " Whomsoever you please to appoint."

iVhat is sometimes applied in a manner which appears to be exceptionable ;
as, " All fevers, except what are called nervous,'^ d&c. It would at least be
better to say, " except those which are called nervous."

" One should not think too favorably of ourselves." How should this sen-
tence be altered ? What is the Rule for it ? Are the relatives placed before
or after the verb 7

(l.)RuleXin. (2.) Note I. 405. (3.) 561. (4.) Rale XI. (5.) 673

(6.) Adverb. (7.) "tpcte tn/ot«a««*.»» (8.) Rule XIIl

8Y«ITAX. 131

** The exercise of reason appears '< What is the reason that our Ian-

as (1.) little (2.) in these g^age is less refined than

sportsmen, as in the beasts Siose of Italy, Spain, or

whom they sometimes hunt, France P"

and by whom they are some- '' I do not think any one should

times hunted." incur censure for being (4.)

^ They which seek Wisdom will tender (5.) of their reputa^

certainly find Aer." tion."

*^ The male amongst birds seems " Thou who hast been a witness

to discoyer no beauty, but in (6.) of the fact, can glye an

the color of its species." account of it."

** Take handfuls of ashes of the '^ In religious concerns, or what

furnace, and let Moses ^7.^ is conceiyed to be such,

sprinkle U towards heayen, f8.) eyery man must stand or

in the sight of Pharaoh ; and fall by the decision of the

it shall TCcome small dust." great Judge."

" Rebecca took goodly raiment, " Something Tike (9.) what (10.)

which were with her in tlie haye been here premised, are

house, and put them upon the conjectures of Dryden."

Jacob." «« Thou great First Cause, (11.)

" The wheel killed another man, least understood ! (12.)

which is the sixth which have Who all my sense confined, (13.)

lost their Ztve^ by this means." To know but this, that thou art

^ The fair sex, wnose task is good,

not to mingle in the labors of And that myself (11.) am blind :

public life, has its own part Yet gaye (14.) me in this dark

assigned it to act. * estate, &c.

"The Hercules man-of-war found- " What (6.) art thou, (11.) speak,

ered at sea ; she oyerset, and that, (15^ on designs un-

lost most (3.) of her men." known, (16.)

' The mind of man cannot be lonff While others sleep, thus range

without some food to nourish (17.) the camp alone ?"
the actiyity of his thoughts."

1. Personal pronouns, beinf used to supply the place of the noun, ars not
employed in iho same part of a sentence as the noun which they represent ;
for it would be improper to say, " The king In is just :" " I saw her the
queen ;" " The men tliey were there ;" " Many words tJuy darken speech ;"
" My hanks they are furnished with bees.'' These personals are superfluous,
as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the same part where the
principal word is present. The nominative case thetfj in the following sen-
tence, is also superfluous : ** Who, instead of going about doing good, t/icy are
perpetually intent upon doing mischief/'

" The kmg he is just.'' Will you correct this sentence, and tell why it is
wrong 1

'* Whoeyer (18.) entertains such often choke the growth of

an opinion, Ac judges errone- yirtue."

ously." " Disappointments and afflictions,

''The cares of this world, they howeyer disagreeable, they

often improye us."

8. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to things
but after an adjecUve in the superlative degree, and after the pronominal ad-

(1 ) Rule IX. (8.) Adverb. (3.) 676. (4.) 561. (5.) Rale IV.

(6.) Rale XV. (7.) " tho$e whieh,^^ 437. (8.) " such ccmctfriM," Rule IV.

9.) Rule IV. (10.) Rule VI. and X Note XVII. (11.) Rule XV. (12.) Rule
Xlfl. (13.) " «<w»Aji«bt,"^ (14.) «* ^«»Me." (15.) Conjunction

16 ) Rule XTtl. (17.) «* dast range »» (18.^ ** He who.**

13^ CNGLlSli GUAMMAR.

icctive »ainaf it n {generally used in preference to who or ttfiich ; as^ " ChaiiM
All. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever
saw ;" " Catiline's followers were the most prollie-aie that could be found in
any city j" " He is the same man tJiat we saw l>etore." There are cases
wherein we caimot couveniently dispense with this relative as applied to per-
sons : as, first, after who, the interrogative ; " Who, that has any sense of rcli-
S'on, would have argued thus 1" Secondly, when persons make but a part of
e antecedent ; " The woman, and the estate, tfiat became his portion, were
too much for his moderation/' In neither of tliese exsunples could any otiier
relative have been used.

To what is the pronoun that applied ? and when is it used in preference to
»ho or iohich ? (416. 1, 2, 3. 4, 5.) Give an example.

** Moses was the meekest man ** They are the same persons who

wftom we read of in the Old assisted us yesterday.'*

Testament." '^ The men and things which he

'' Hmnility is one of the most has studied, have not improT

amiable virtues which we can ed his morals."

possess."

3. The pronouns tohichsoeiyer, whosoever . and the like, are elegantly divided
by the interposition of the corresponding substantives : thus, " On whichsoever
side the king cast his eyes/' woiud have soimded better, if written, ** On wfaicb
side soever," &c.

Will you ^ve an example in which the compound pronoun widchsoever may
oe divided with proprietv i

" Howsoever beautiful they ap- " On whichsoever side they are
pear, they have no real mer- contemplated, they appear to

it.* advantage."

*• in whatsoever light we view " However much he might de-
him, his conduct will bear in- spise the maxims of the king's

spection." administration, he kept a total

silence on tliat subject.'*

as, " Observe them three there." We also frequently meet with those insteaa
of they, «t the beginning of a sentence, and where there is no particular refer-
ence to an antecedent ; as, " 7%ose that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy '"
** They that, or they who sow in tears."

It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal pronoun or a de-
monstrative is preferable, in certain constructions. " We are not unacquaint-
ed with the caliminy of them [or those] who openly make use of the warmesi
professions."

^* Give me tliem books." Why is this sentence incorrect ?

<< Which of them two persons has fer injuries, than those (2.)

most distinguished himself?" that are most (3.) forward in

" None (1.) more impatiently suf- doing (4.) them. (5.)

6. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, and some-
times we find it in this sense in writing ; " They will never believe but what I
have been entirely to blame." " I am not satisfied but what," &c., instead of
* but tluit." The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used
miproperly : " These punishments seem to have been exercised in somewhat

n ) Ru]« VI. (2.) Noit I. 405. (3.) 077. (4.) 561. (5.) Rwle XIV.

SYNTAX. 133

tn arbitrary muiner/' Sometimes we read, ** In somewhat of/ The mean-
ings is, '^ in a manner which is, in some respects, arbitrary/'

Will you give an example of the improper use of tofuU instead of that T

5.
'' He would not be persuaded but ** These commendations of hia
what (1.) I was gpreatly in children appear to have been

fault." mBjde in 8omeu)/uU {2.) an in^

judicious majmer.**

b The pronoun relative toko is so much appropriated to persons, that there
m generally harshness in the application of it, except to the proper names of
persons, or the general terms man, tooman, &c. A term which only implies
the idea of persons, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will
hardly authorize the use ot it ; as, " That the faction in Engiand who most
powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions/' " That faction which" would
have been better ; and the same remark will ser\e for the following examples :
" France, who was in alliance with Sweden/' " The court who/'oLc. "The
cavalry who" &c. " The cities who aspired at liberty/' " That party
among us who" dee. ** The family whom they consider as usurpers/'

In some cases, ;t may be doubtnil, whether this pronoun is properly applied
or not : as, " The number of substantial inhabitants with whom some cities
abound." For when a terra directly and necessarily implies persons, it may in
many cases claim the personal relative. " None of the company whom he most
affected could cure nim of the melancholy under which he labored." The
w >rd acqitaintance may have the same construction.

How is the relative who used ?

" He instructed and fed the *^ He was the ablest minister
crowds lo/io (3.) surrounded which James ever poRpessed/'

him/* " The court, who gives currency

" Sidney was one of the wisest to manners, ought to be ex-

and most active governors, emplary." (4.)

which Ireland had enjoyed *^ I am happy in the friend which
for several years." I have long proved."

7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives us
ihe idea of reason and reflection ; and, therefore, the application of the person-
al relative who^ in this case, seems to be harsh : " A child who." It is still
iiore improperly applied to animals : " A lake frequented oy that fowl
'^hom nature has taught to dip the wing in water/'

Do we say, "A child who," or "A child which"? Will you repeat
he Note for this?

7.
* The child whom we have just " He is like (4.) a beast (5.) of
seen, is wholesomely fed, and P^^Yt who destroys without

not injured by bandages or pity."

clothing."

8. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does
1 M refer to the person, the pronoun who ought not to be applied. " It is
nj wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of oucen Elizabeth,
who was but another name for prudence and economy. Better thus i
" whose name was but another word for prudence." &c. The word whose
begins likewise to be restricted to persons ; yei it is not done so general-
ly, but that good writers, even in prose, use it when spesJcing of things.
The construction is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may see in Uie
following instances : " Pleasure, whose nature," &lc- " Call every produc-
tion, whose parts and whose nature," &c.

■■■ — ■ ■■■■»■■■■»■■■ ■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■ I ■^^■^— — — i^^ I 1 MM Ml !■! ^— ^^i^W^

H.) *• mot.*' Conjunction. (2.) ^^ina manner wkieh is, in some respeetSj intw>

'Hcittvs." (3.)"tA««.»» (4.) Rnl« rV. (5.) Rule X. Note XVri

lai £NGLJJ9H GRAMMAR.

In one case, liowevery cuttooi aiMhoikas ut to use wkkh, mIUi roBped
to persons ; and that is, idien we want to distinguish one person of two,
or a particular person amonr a number of others. We should thai say
** Which of the two/' or " Which of them is he or she 1"

" The court of queen Elizabeth, who/' &c. Will you correct tins sentence
and firive the Note for it T ^

^ 8.

^ Having once disgusted (1.) him, decelTe and betray, should be

he could neTer regain the fa- aToided as tho poisonous ad

Tor of Nero, who vhu indeed der."

another name for cruelty." '< Who of those men came to hk
*' Flattery y whose nature (2.) is to assistance ?"

9. As the ptronoun relative has no distinction of number, we sometimes find
an ambiguity in the use of it j as^ when we say, " The disciples of Christ, vAom
we imitate/'^ we may mean the unitation eitbler of Christ, or of his disciplos.
The accuiacy and clearness of the sentence depend very much ij^mmi the
proper and cteterminate use of the relative, so that it may readily present its
antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any obscurity or am*
Kguity. ,

What is remarked m this Note on the use of the relative pronoun 7

9.
^ The king ^3.) dismissed his min- << There are millions of people in
ister without any inquiry; the empire (4.^ of C5hina,

who had never oefore com- whose support is derived al*

mitted so unjust an action." most entirely from rice."

10. Mt is and it utaa are oflen, aAer the manner of the French, used m a
plural construction^ and by some of our best writers ; as, " His either a few
g[reat men who decide for the whole, or it t« the rabble that follow a seditious
ring-leader /' " It is they tliat are the real authors, though the soldiers are the
actors of the revolution ^* ** It voas the heretics that first beg^ to rail,'' &c. ;
*' ' THs these that early taint the female mind.'' This license m the construction
e>{ Uia. fif it be proper to admit it at all.) has, however, been certainly abused
in the following sentence, which is thereoy made a very awkward one : '*Rit
wonderftil the very few accidents, which, in several years, happen from this
practice."

How arc it is and it voas oflen used 7 Give an example in which they ars
used incorrectly in this sense.

10.

'' It is remarkable his continual << It is indisputably true his asaer
endeavors to - serve us, not- tion, though tt is a paradox*

withstanding our ingrati- (6.)

tude." (5.)

11. The interjections O! oh! and ah! require the objective rase of a (no-
noun in the first person afler them ; as, '' O me ! Oh me ! Ah me !" but the
nominative case in the second person ; as, '' O Aou persecutor i" ** O ye hyp-
ocrites !'' " O thou who dwellest^'' &c.

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, is fie-
uently joined, in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pronoun of tne mas-
uline or feminine gender ; as, " It was 1 1" " It was the man or woman that
did it.''

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood ! thus we say.
" As appears, as follows," for " As it appears, as it follows /' and *' May be,''
for" It may be."

(1 .) " Having disgusted,*' Rule XIII. (2.) «* the nature ofwhiek,** ( 3.) « Ths
Ativ, vh4> had never," &c (4.) «* TTure are in the emvire,-' &e. (5.) " His m».
ttnual," &c, , endiD£ the ii9nt«nc« with, ** are remarkaUe," (6.) *« JKr assartwiu
though jtaradoritaly 9lg.

»f

ndinf with Marray't Grammar, ^ ' / * y

SYNTAX. ia»

llie neater pvonouii u is sometimes emfrioyed to express,

1st. The subject of any discourse or inauiry j 84, ** It happened on n sum-
mer's day '** ''who is it that calls on me r'

2d. Tne state or condition of any person ot thinjf 3 as, '' How is U with
you?"

Sd. The thin^, vrhatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event ; or
any person considered merely as a cause ; as, ** We heard her say U was nol
he f ** The truth is, U was I that helped her.'^

Why is it incorrect to say, " Oh 1 'M Why incorrect to toy, " Oh thee''

11.
** Ah ! unhappy thee, who art ** Oh 1 happy we. surround
deaf to the calls of duty and with lo many bfeaainga."

of lionor."

0. i" r'^ ^ jjULE Yi.

The relative is the nominative case to the verby when
no nominative case comes between it and the verb ;
aSy " The master who taught us ;" ** The trees which
are planted."

IVhen a nominative case comes between the relative and
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its
own member of the sentence ; asy " He who preserves
me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, and whom
I serve, is eternal."

hi the several members of the last sentence, the relative performs a differert
<^ce. In the first member, it marks the agent : in the second, it submits to
the ^vemment of the preposition ; in the third, it represents the possessor j
and m the fourth, the object of an action : and therefore it must be in the three
different cases, correspondent to those offices.

Whm both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each to differ
ent verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and the antecedent to
the latter verb ; as, " True jihilotophy, tohich is the ornament of our nature,
consisU more in the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than in great
talents and extensive knowledge."

A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both branches of
the sixth rule. The three ftSllowing rrfer to the first part : ^* How can we
avoid bdng grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved
themselves our real friends ?" '' These are the men whom, you mignt sup-
pose, were the authors of the work.'' " If you were here, you would find three
or four, whom vou woul^ say passed their time agreeably." In all these
places, it should be loAo, instead of whom. The two latter sentences contain
•a nominative between the relative and the verb: and^ therefore, seem to
contravene the rule } but the student will reflect, tnat it is not the nominative
of the verb with which the relative is connected.— The remaining examples re-
fer to the second part of the rule : " Men of fine talents are not always the
persons vAio we should esteem." *^ Tlie persons who you dispute mth are
precisely of your opinion." '' Our tutors are our benefactors, who we owe
obedience to, and who we ought to love." In tliese sentences, vihom should
be used instead of who,

" These are the men whom, you might suppose, were/' &.c. Will you eof^
rect this example, and fi:ive the mle for it 7

196 KNGLISH GRAMMAR.

' We are dependent on each ** They who have laoored to make

others' assistance : whom is us wise and good, are the per

there that can subsist by him- sons who we ought to love

self?" and respect, And wJio we

<' ]f he will not hear his best ought to be grateful to.'*

friend, whom shall be sent to '' The persons, who conscienee

admonish him ?" and virtue support, may smile

''They who Q..) much is given at the caprices of fortune."

to, will have much (2.) to an- " From the character of those

swer for." (3.) who you associate with, your

^ It is not to be expected that own will be estimated."

they, 10/uim in early life have '' That (4.) is the student who ]

been dark and deceitful, should ffave the book to, and whom,

afterwards become fair and 1 am persuaded, deserves it.'
mgenuous."

1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun or pro.
noun containing the answer, must be in the same case as that which contains
the question ; as, " Whose books are these 7" " They are John's J* " Who
gave tliem to him ?" " We." « Of whom did you buy them 7" " Of a book-
seller ; him who lives at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did you see there ?"
'* Both liim and the shopman." Tiie learner will readily comprehend this
nile, by supplying the words which are understood in the answers. Thus, to
express the answers at large, we should say. " They are John's hooks ;" " We

fave them to him ;" '' We bought them or him who lives," &c. ; ** We saw
oth him and the shopman." As tlie relative pronoun, when used interroga-
tively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the answer to the
question^ that word or phrase may properly be termed the subsequent to the in-
terrogative.

" Of whom did you buy them ?" " Of a bookseller ; he who lives," &c.
What is wrong in this sentence, and how may it be corrected ? What is the
Note for it ?

1.
" Of whom were the articles " Who was the money paid to ?"

bought f" " Of a mercer; he "To the mercer and his

(5.) who resides near (6.) the clerk."

mansion-house." " Who counted it .?" " Botli the

" Was any person besides (6.) the clerk and him."

mercer present ?" " Yes, both '

him and his clerk." **^'

Cotf esponding with MurrAy'a, Grammar,
RULE vir.

When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of
different persons^ the relative and verb may agree m
person with either^ according to the sense : asy " I am
the man who command you ;" or, " I am the man
who commands you."

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences expresses the meaning
rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say, '' I, who commana
you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of meaning produced by referring
tl.e relative to different antecedents, will be more evident to the learner in the

si.) «« to whom." (9.) 673. '3.) ma. (4.) Noto T. 405.

(5.) Rule XV /fl.") ^7.

bVMTAX. 1S7

fhUowiog senlences : ^' 1 am the general wbo gwa the orders to^tay ;" '' I em
the general, who gke the orders to-day i" that is, ** 1, vifao give tte orders to-
day, am the general/'

When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with other
of the preceding noromatives^ that agreement roust be preserved througrhout
the semencc j as in the following instance : " I am the Lord, that makeUi all
Ihin^ ; that stretcheth forth the heav^ alone/' Ita. xliv. Sii. Thus far is
consistent : the Lordf in the third person, is the antecedent, and the verb agrees
with the relative m the third person : '^ I am ^ Lord, wluch Lord, or he, thai
wuUteth all thii^/' If / were made the antecedent, the relative and verb
should agree with it in the first person ; as. '' / am the Lord, that v^aJce all
things ) that stretch forth the heavens alone.'' But should it follow, " thai
tpreadeth abroad the earUi by myself," there would arise a confusion of per-
sons, and a manifest solecism.

" 1 am the man who command yoti.^' '' I am the man who commands you."
What is the nominative to command in the first sentence 1 What to commandt
in the second ? Rule for each 1 Why is the verb of a different person in
(UfferenC sentences ?

" I acknowledge that (1.) I am '< I perceive that thott art a pupil

the teacher, (5.) who adopt who possesees bright parts

that sentiment, and maintains but wno hast cultivated them

the propriety of such meas- but (3.) little." (4.)

ur58." (2.) " Thou art he (5.) who breathest

* Thou ext a friend (5.) that hast on the earth with the breath

oflen relieved me, and that of spring, and who covereth

has not deserted me now, in it with verdure and beauty."

the time of peculiar need." '' I am the Lord (5.) thy God, (5.)

* I am the man who approves of who teacheth thee to profit,

wholesome discipline, and and who lead thee by the way

who recommend it to others ; thou shouldst go."

but I am not a person who " Thou art the Lord who did

promotes useless severity, or choose Abraham, and brought-

who 4^ect to mild and gen- est him forth (4.) out of (6.)

erouB treatment." Ur of the Chaldees."

ZV.

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE VUL

jd^eciives belong to the nouns which they describe

Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerab must agreo
in number with the nouns to which they belong.

1. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited : '' I have not
travelled this twenty years ;" " tliese twenty." " I am not recommending
these kjnd of sufferings j" " this kind." " Those set of books was a valuable
present f " thai set."

" I have not travelled this twenty years." IIow should this be altered T
Why?
•^ T%ese kind of indulgences soft- playing (9.) this two hours."

en and injure the mind." (10.)

'< Instead (7.) of improving (8.) " Those sort of favors did real in-
yourselves, you have been jury, under the appearance of

Kindness."

(1.) 6^. (ft.) " adopts and nuiiittatJM," or ** adopt and mamtain,** (3.) 654.

/4.) Adverb** (5.) Rule XV. (6.) W7. (7.) 347. (8.) 561. <0.) RuU
kli[. (iO.^ RuU XXII 646.

12*

laa ENGLISSl GItAMMAR

^Tke chMDi made (1.) hj the *< How man^ a sorrow (5.) sluMild
earthquake waa twenty feet we avokl, if we were not in

(2.) broad, (3.) and one hun- dustrious to make them !"

ired fathom (4.) in depth." " He saw one or more nersons (6.)

enter (7.) the garaeu."

1. The word meoHSf m the singular nuihber, and the phrase *' by tfat
meant f" " by that means,** are used by our best and most correct writers ;
nameiv, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterburv, AdWison, Steele, Pope, &c.* They are,
mdeed. in so ^nerad and approved use, that it would appear ai^icward, if not
fleeted, to apply the old singular form, and say, " by this mecai f ^* by that
memi ;" ** it was by a mean r although it is more agreeable to the ceneral
analogy of the lansHage. " The word vieans {says Priestley) belongs to the class
of words, which clo not change their termination on accomit of number ; for it
a used alike m both numbers."

The word am^ds is used in this manner, m the following sentences t
** Thou^ he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country ; and
with tku amends he was content.'' " Peace ot mind is an honorable amends
Ibr the sacrifices ef interest.'' ^* In return, he received the thanks of his em
oloyers, and the present of a large estate : these were ample amends ibr all his
Abors.'^ " We nave described the rewards of vice : the good man's asaends
are of a different nature."

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the word meansX
nad formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derivea
from the French amende, though now it is exclusively established in the plural
form. If, therefore, it be alleged, that mean should be applied in the singular,
because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kmd of argument may
he advanced in favor of the singular amende ; and the general analogy of the
langQi^ may also be pleaded in support of it.

Campbell, in his Philosophy of Khetorie, has the foUowiag remark on the
subject before us : " No persons of taste will, I presume, venture so far to vio-
jate the present usage, and consequentlv to shock the ears of the generality of
re.aders, as to say, * By this mean, by that meanj "

(1.) Rule XIII. (2.) Note XVIII. 648. (3.) " oAmm— *r«tti.*' Rule IV.

4.) Rule IX. (5.) " «Mm« ssrnnos.** (6.) " mu person^ or wutstka* one."

^7.) Rule XII.

* " By tkia means he had them the mora at vantage, being tired and harassed witk
a long march." Bacon.

" By this means one great restraint from doing evil would be taken away." " And
this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." " J9y that means they have
rendered their duty more difiieult." Tillotsov.

" It renders us oareleas of approrlag ourselves to God, and by ihat means secnring
the continuance of bis goodness." " A good character^ when established, should
aot bo rested in aji an end, bat employed as a msans of doug still further good."

Attkrburt.

" By this means they are happy in each other." " He hy that msans preserves Ui

superiority." Addison.

" Your vanity hy this means will want its food." Stkelb.

** By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pops.

. " Which custom has proved the most efiisctual means to min the nobles."

Dean Swift.
" There is no means of escaping the persecution." '* Faith b not only a means ol
obeying, but a principal act of obedience." Da. Touno.

" He looked on nooney as a necessaryinean« of maintaining and increasing power."

Lord Ltttlxton's Hbnrv II.
**John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means aflTorded for hit
safety." Goldsmith.

" Lest this means should fail." " By means of skip-moneyt the late khie," &.e.
' The only means of securing a durable peace.** Hoiu

" By thu means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland,*' 4fcc.

Blackstonb.
•• By this means so many slaves ^scaped out of the hands of their masters.**

Dr. Robertson.

" By this means they bear witness to each other." * Burkx.

*« By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself." Da. Blair.

" A magazine, which has, by this means, contained," tec " Birds, In general»

procure tlmir food by means of their beak.** Da. Palbt.

tlYNTAX.

ii<i«rili aad JohMon ttmk to be agaiiHt thb ise of mtcuu in tibe iiSKUlat
Manber. The^ do not, however, speak decisiuel^ on die point ; bni mher
tiubiously, as ii thcy^ Imew that they were questioning emic«[it authoritiee as
weH as ffonenX pfactiee. That diey were not decidedlj against the applica-
ti(Mi of this word to the singular number, appears from tMir own lanffuage i
** Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become members of
e^er sentences by means of sodm additional comnection,"'^DB., LowTs's A^
troduction to Eriglish Cframmar.

" There is ao other method of teaching tint of which any one is ignoRuty
hnt b^ means of »iymelfan^ already Ioowu/'-^Dr. JoHirBoif . Idler,

It IS remarkable that oui present version of the Scriptures nukes nd use^ as
Atf as the compiler can discover, of the word mean ; Uiough tbere are several
Bislaiices to be found in it of the use of moans, in the sense and connecti<Mi con-
tended for. ^* By this means tkou diall have no portion ao this side the river/'
Esra iv. 16. " That by means of deoUh," &c. Heb. ix. 15. It will scarcely
be pretended, thai the translators of the sacred vcdumes did not accurately ua-
dorstand the English language ; or that they would have admitted ax form <^
tliis word, and rejected toe other, had not their determination been conforma-
ble to the best usage. An attempt, therefore, to recover an old word, so long
since disused by Uie most correct writers, seems not likely to be successful j
especially as the rejection of it is not attended with any inconvenience.

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great majority of
them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its continuance, the stand-
ard of lan^age ; especially if, in particular instances, this practice continue
after objection and due consideration. Every connection and application of
words and (Erases* thus sup^rted, must tlierefore be proper, and entitled to
respect, if not exceptional^ in a moral point of view.

■ f' 8i volet ttsns

" Quern penes urbi^^m est, et jus, et nefrma lofHsnii,*' HOR.

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating from the
general analog of the language than those before mentioned, are to be con-
sidered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are Uie following \
" None of them are varied to express the gender 5" and yet none originaUy
signified no one. '* He hxmadf sfaaH do the work V here, what was at first
appropriated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative cases
" You have behaved yourselves well r' in this examine, the word you is put in
the nominative case plural, with strict propriety ; though formerly it was con-
Hued to the objective case, and ye exclusively used for the nominative.

With respect to anomalies and variaUons of language, thus established, it is
the grammarian's business to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously
opposing the decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes
ot expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sa^city ; and,
in some degree, obscure }>oints that are sufficiently clear and decided \ but he
caimot reasonaMy hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the learner,
in discovering and respecting'the true standard and principles of language.

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the gra.>^.-marian's
province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the gpround of derivation,
anal(^y, and propriety r and his reasonings may refine and improve the lan-
gtiage : but when authority speaks out, and decides the point, it were perpetu-
ally to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies, then,
under the limitation mentioned, become the law, as dearly as the plainest
anatog^es.

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the word
mean 111 the old form has a very uncouth appearance : '^ By the meoti of ad
versity we are often instrocted." " He preserved his heami by mMoi of exer-
cise/' " Frugality is cme mietm of acquiring a competency.'' They should
lie, " By liveans of adversity," &c. 5 " By means of exercise," &c. j "FrugaKf
\y is one means^^ &c.

Goou writers do indeed make use of the substantive (1.) miean in the singu-
lar number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, middle rate, dec. ,

(1.) JWuiw are sometimeB called svbsUimixets.

Ut ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ts, '"This If a mean between the two enremet." Bat in tlie tense of initin
mentality, it has long' been <lisused by the beat authon, and by almost cveiy
writer.

Ifiit means and that mecau should be used only when they refer to whia is
singular ; tiuse meant and ^wae meoiw, when they respect plurals : as, ** He
fived temperately, and by Oaa meatu preserved his bealtli f ' ** Toe scholars
were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; and by thete fneatts
acquired knowledge/'

We have enlai^ed on this article, that the young student may be led to re-
flect on a point so miportant as that of ascertaining the standard of propriety
in the uAe of language.

In what number is the word meane used 7 What does Dr. Priestley remaiic
concemmg the use of this word 1 What odier word is used in this mamier f
What does Dr. Campbell remark in regard to the use of die jdirase, *' By this
mean" ? Do Dr. Lowth and Dr. Johnson approve of the use of means m the
singular number ? Do good writers make use of the substantive (1.) mean in
the singular number 1 &ive an exanM>le. When should '' This means'' and
" That means" be used 1 When ** These means" and " Those means" 1

" Charles wag eztrava|[ant, and " This person embracedevery op

by this mean became poor portunity to display his ta)

and despicable." ents; and by these means

'< It was by that un^nerous mean rendered himself ridiculous."

that (2.^ he obtained his end." <' Joseph was industrious, frugal

'* Industiy is the mean of obtain- and discreet ; and by this

ing competency." means obtained property and

* Though a promising measure, it reputation."
is a mean which I cannot
adopt."

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and there is
occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that is used in refer-
ence to the former, and this, in reference to the latter : as, ** Self-love, which
is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for ih(U, man would
he inactive 3 and but for thiSf he would be active to no end."

How are the pronouns that and tJas used 1

'< Aeliffion raises men above them- upon the earth in those than

selves ; irreligion sinks them in these ; because there is a

beneath the brutes : thai (3.) much slower evaporation. '
binds them down (4.) to a " Rex and Tyrannus are of very

poor, pitiable speck of perish- different characters. The one

•able earth ; this opens for (3.) rules his people by laws

them a prospect to the skies." to which they consent; the

*' More rain falls in the first two other, (5.) by his absolute will

summer months, than in the and power : this is called free*

first two winter ones; but it dom; thai (5.) tyranny."
makes a much greater show

3. The distributive adjecUve pronouns each, every, eiiher, agree with the
nouns, pronouns and verbs, of the singular number only; as, ''The king
of Israel, and Jeboshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on hie throne y
" Every tree is known oy its firuit ;" unless the plural noun convey a col
lecUve idea ; as, ** Every six months ;" " Every nundred years." The fol
lowing phrases are exceptionable : '' Let eaai esteem others better than
themselves;" it ought to be, ** himself,'* ''The language should be both
perspicuous and correct : in proportion as eitfier of these two qualities are
wanting, the language is imperfect ;" it should be, " is wanting/' " Ever^

(1.) Note 1, p. 130. (9 ) 652 (3.) 407. Rule VI. (4.) Advorb

(5.) Rule XI. 407

SYNTAX. i41

•oe of thio letters bear r^fular dales, and contain proofs of al l a cl ii nawi f*
"hexrs a r^^ar daUf and containt," ** Every town and village were
burned) every grove and ex>try tree were cut down^' **mo(u burned, and
voas cut down.''

Eitfier is often used improperly, instead of each ; as, " The kinf of Is-
rael, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat eUher of them on his tnrone jT
''Nadab and Abmu, the sons of Aaron, took eiihtr of them his censer.''
Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately ^ eiiher properly
ugnifies only the one or the other of them, taken disjunctively.

" The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sa^ either of .
them on their throne.'' Will you correct this, and give the rule for it 1

^ Each of them, in their (1.) turn, is productive of much (7.) in*

receive the benefits to which ward joy or bitterness."

ikey Tare entitled." *' Whatever f8.) he undertakes^

** My counsel to each of you is, either (9.) his nride or his

that you (2.) should make it folly disgust us.

'wmr endeavor to come to a '< Every man and every woman
friendly agreement." were numbered."

^ By discussing what (3.) relates '< Neither of those men seem to
to each jMurticular, in their have any idea that their opin

order, we shall better imder- ions may be ill founded."

stand the subject." '^ When benignity and gentlenesfli

* Every person, whatever ^4.) be reign wimin, (7.) we are al*

their station, (5.) are Dound ways (7.) least (7.^ in hazar4

by the duties of morality and from without : (10.; every pez^

religion." son and every occurrence axe

* Every leaf, every twig, (6.) beheld in the most favorablo

every drop of water, teem light."

with life." << On either side of the river WM
■' Every man's heart and: temper there the tree of life "

4. Adjectives are some&nes.improperly applied as adverbs ; as, ** Indiffer-
ent honest ; excellent weH 3 miserable poor )'' instead of '' Indifferently hon-
est : excellently well 3 miseraU^ poor/' *^ He behaved himself confonnable
to that great example 3" '' cfrnfornhobbuP ** Endeavor to live hereafter siulft*
Die to a person in thy station :'' ^' suUdhlyJ* ** I can never think so very mean
of him ;'' " meanly." " He describes this river agreeable to the conunon read-
5" "agreeably." '* Agreeable to my promise, I now write 3" " agreeaUy,"
hy exceeding great reward 3" when united to an adjective, or adverb nol
ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly added I'o it 3 as, " exceedingly dread«
ful, exceedingly great 5" " exceeding well, exceedingly more active :" but
when it is joined to an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the ly is
omitted 3 as, ** Some men think exceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forci*
bly3" "She appeared, on this occasion, exceeding lovely."—" He acted io
this business bolder than was expected." " They behaved the wriest, because
they were disinterested." They should have been, " more boldly j most nobly*'
The adjective pronoun such is often misapplied 3 as, " He was such an extrav^
agaiit young man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few years 3" it should
be, " so extravagant a young man." " I never before saw such large trees;"
'' saw trees so large." When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the
word such is properly applied 3 as, '' Such a temper is seldom found r' but
when degree is signified, we use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom
ound."

Adverbs are lixewise improperly used as adjectives 3 as, " The tutor ad-
dressed mm in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence 3" " tmtableJ*

(!.)"««." (2.)«A«.'» (3.) 437. (4.) Rule XV. (5.) Kal« VI

(6.)ZaIeXI. (7.) Adverb. (8.} Bulo Vnl (Q.) 658. (10.) "Am»

wUJknit,**i e. " ecteriurfly." 589.

iP-

lit ENGLlim aKAJMMAlL

"Tkey WMe seen wiuideriiig^-aiMMit sdlltBrily and distftssed ;" ** toliiary.'*
^ He lived in a nrnimer agreeably to (be dictates of nrason and reUgicw 3"
** mgr€9akU,** ** The atHdy of syntax should be previoosly to that of punctoa-
tionj" **pra)unu,"

Young persons who study grammar, find it difficult to decide^ in particulai
(ibngtnictions, whether tm aojective, or an adverb^ ought to be usea. A few
observations gd this point, may serve to inform their judgment, and direct their
iletermination. They should carefully attend to the definitions of the adjecjdve
and the adveib ; and consider whether, in the case in question, quality or man-
nmr ii indicMcd. In the former case, an adjective is propter j in the latter, an
adverb. A namber of examples will iUusirata tins direction, and prove usefid
en other occasions.

^ She looks cold— €he looks ^oldly on him."
** He Mi» warm— He feels warmly the insult oflered to him.''
** He.beeame sinoere and viituous'— He became einccrely virtuous/'
^* fiiia Hves free from case— He lives freely at another's expense."
** Harriet always appears neal^-She dresses neatly."
'* Charles has grown great by his wisdom-— He be^ grown gwatiy in reputa
lion."

" They now appear happy—They now appear happily in earnest"
'** The statement seems exact — 'f)a» statement seems exactly in poiuL"

The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word im
mediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and^ conse>
quently, when this verb can be imbstituted for any other, without varying the
sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with an ad-
jective. The following sentences elucidate these observations : '* This is
agreeable to our interest." '* That behavior was not suitable* to his station."
''Kiqles albould be eonformable to sense." "The rose smells [isj sweet."
^ iiovr sjveet the liay smeHs fis] !" " How delightful the country appears
fkl!" ''How pleasant Ae fields look [ar^l" <' l%e etonde look [are] dark."
" How black the sky looked [was] !" " Tba apple tastes [isj soar !" " How
bilteMbe plums tasted [were] !" "He feels [is] happy." In all these sen-
tences, we can, with perfect propriety^ substitute some teases of the veibto be,
for the other verbs. lBut in tlie fbllowms' sentences we cannot do this : " The
dng smells djsaipeeab^." "Geeige Jeels exquisitoly." "Heiv pleasantly
she looks at us !"

The (Erections contahied in fSsoB Note are ofllbred as usefbl, not as complete
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us 3 bvA
«e must not rgeet rales, because they are attended with exceptions.

Why is " indifierent honest" an incorrect expression ? Do we say, " ex-
ceeding dreadful," and " exceeding great " ? What, then, do we use in the
place of exceeding t When, tlicn, do we use exceedingly^ ? When exceeding 7
" The tutor addressed him in terms rall^r warm, but smtablv to his offence.'*
Why is. this sentence wrong 1 Correct it. How can we tell whether an ad-
^"lecfive or an adverb ou^t to be used ? Which do we use, when quality is
indicated 7 AVhich, when maimer is indicated 7 Which does the verb to be
generally require to be connected with it, the adjective or adverb 7 To illus
vate the distinct and proper use of both the adverb and adjective, I will give
you some examples. Would you then say, " He is diligently and attentive
ly" or "diligent and attentive "7 "She will be happy," or " happily "1
"He looks cold," or " coldly" 7 " She looks coW on him." Can we use ii
for took3. and make sense 7 Would you, tlien, say, " She looks cold on him,"
or"colcByonhim"7 " She Kves freely [is] from care" 7 Whv7 "He lives
(Vee at another's expense" 7 " He feels warmly" 7 " He feels warm the in-
iult offered him" 7 '? He became sincerely and virtuously" 7 *• He becam<*
^ncere virtuous" 7 Why 7 " Harriet always appears neatly— »^he dresses
neat" 7 " Chiirles has grown great by his wisdom — ^He is grown ^reat in his
reputation" 7 " They now appear happily— They now appear happy in
earnest" t "The statement seems exactly— The statement seems exact m
point** t "How sweetly the hay smeMs!''^7 *-How delightfiil ihe country
lippears !" 7 " How pleasant the fields look !" 7 " The cloudslook A rkly" 7
" The npplcs taste sonrly" 7

SYNTAX.

'She leads proper ^ wntes yery
meat, mnd oompoiiies aeenrmte.

** He was extreme prodigal, and
his property is now near ez-
haustea."

•* They generally succeeded ; for
they lived conformaJble to the
rules of prudence/'

' We may reason very dear and
exceeding strong, without
knowing that there is such a
thin^ as a syllogism."

^ He had many virtues^ and was
exceeding bdoved.**

" The amputation was exceeding
well performed, and saved the
patient's life."

** He oame agreeable to his prom-
ise, and conducted himself
suitable to the occasion."

** He speaks very fluenl, reads
excellent^ but does not think
very coherent."

" He behaved himself submissive,
and was exceeding careful
not to give (1.) ofience."

" They rejected tne advice, and
oonducted themselves exceed-
ingly indiscreetly."

** He is a person of great abilities,
and exceeding upright; and
is like to be a very useful
member (2.) of the commu-
nity.''

»t

^ The ooospiracy wm the aider
(3.^ discovered, from its (4.)
bemg Xnown (5.) to many/'

** Not bems fiilly aequaiated with
the subject, he oould i^lrm
no stronger (6.) than he Hid.'*

^ He was so deeply impiMMd
with the subject, that few
could speak nobler ufran it**

" We may credit his testimony,
for he says express, that he
saw the transaction."

" Use a little wine for thy atom
ach's sake, and thine oflen
(7.) infirmities."

" From these ^vorable begin-
nings, we may hope for a
soon (8.) and prosperous is-
sue."

" He addressed several ezhorta^
tions to them suitably to their
circumstances."

" Conformably to their vehe-
mence of thought, was their
vehemence of gesture."

*^ We should implant in the minds
of youth such seeds and prin-
ciples of piety and virtue, as
(9.) are likely to take soonest
and deepest root."

" Such (10.) an amiable disposi''
tion will secure universu re-
gard."

« Such distinguished virtues sel-
dom occur.

5. Double cQmpaniUves and superlatives should be avoided ; such as '' a
worser conduct -" " on lesser hopes j*' " a more serener temper 3" *' the most
straitest sect;" "a more superior work." They should be, "worse con-
duct;" "less hopes;" "a more serene temper;" " the stradtest sect ;" "a su-
perior work."

" A worser conduct."
for it?

WHl you c o rre c t this 8«itence, and give the Rule

^ 'Tie more eaner to build tw«
chimneys than to nuiintain
one."

** The tongue is like Ql.) a race*
horse, (12.) whicn runs the
faster (13.) the Usser weight
it carries."

"The pleasures ot the under-
standing are nu>re pr^erabU
than (14.) those of the imagi-
nation, or of sense."

" The nightingale sings : hers is
the most sweetest voice in the
grove."

(1.) Rule Xn. (3.) Role XV.

(&) '* bein^ Anoion" — ^participial noun.
(7.) " % fi-eqiunt.^* (8.) " ^M4y,[*

(3.) " more easily."

(4.) Rale T.

m amiailef" &e See the

12.) Rule X.— Note XVII. 647

(6.) " not t^prm more otrofi^J*

rO.) 656. (10.) «« A dispoHtioa

ote, a few lines befoio the close. (ll.') Rule IV.

(13^500

tU.)*'pr^e»Uto.»

144 ENGLISH tJRAMMAK.

<< The Most Highest hath created " The Sapreme Being is the most
lis for his glory, and for our wisest, and most powerildlest,

o^n happiness. and the most best of beings."

6. Adjectives that have in theioselves a superlative . signilication, do not
imperly admit of the superlative or comparative form superadded ; such as
^dtff extreme^ perfectf rightf universal, supremef &-c. ', wuich are sometimes
improperly wntten chzefestf extremest, perfectesty Tightest j most unioersal, most
supreme f &c. The following expressions are, therefore, improper : " He
sometimes clauns admission to the chiefest offices." '' The quarrel became so
taduersal and national.'' ''A metnoa of attaining the rigntest and greatest
happiness." The phrases " so perfect," /* so right/' " so extreme," "so imi-
versal," d&c., are incorrect 3 because Uiey imply that one thing is less perfisct,
?es8 extreme, du:., than another, which is not possible.

Is it proper to say, " The most perfect work " t Why not t

'* Virtue confers tAs«tf^S7iies£(l.) ''His work is perfect; (4.) his

dignity on man ; and should brother's, more perfect ; and

be his chiefest desire." his iather*8, the most per&ct

'' His assertion was more true (3.) of all."

than that of his onponent ; '< He gave the fullest and most

nay, the words of me latter sincere proof of. the truest

wer^ most untrue." (3.) friendship."

7. Inaccuracies are oflen found in the wav in which the degrees of com-
paiison are applied and construed. The following are examj^es of wrong
construction in this respect : " This noble nation hath, of all others, admit-
ted fewer corruptions.'' The word fewer is here construed precisely as if
It were the superlative. It should be, " This noble nation hath admitted
fewer corruptions than any other." We commonly say, ** This is the weak-
er of the two," or, " the weakeM of the two ;" but the former is the r^u-
.ar mode of expression^ because there are only two things compared. " The
vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other.''
'' He celebrates the church of England as the most perfect of aU others."
Both these modes of expressioir are faulty: we should not say, "the best
of any man," or " the best of anv other man," for •' the best of men.''
The sentences may be corrected oy substituting the comparative in the
room of the superlative: ''The vice, d&c., is \«mat enters deeper into the
soul than any other." '' He celebrates, d&c, as more perfect than any oth-
er." It is also possible to retain the superlative, and render the expression
grammatical : " Covetousness, of aU vices, enters the deepest into the soul."
''He celebrates, &c., as the most perfect of all churches." These sen-
tences contain other errors, against which it is proper to caution the learner.
The words deeper and deepest, being intended ifor adverbs, should have
beat more deeplyj m,ost deeply. The phrases mtrre perfect aud nwst perfect
are improper ; because perfection admits of no degrees of comparison.
We may say, nearer or ntartsi to perfection, or more or less imperfect.

In speaking of two persons, snould we say, '' The weaker of the two,"
or " The weiest of the two " ? Why 1

'' A talent of this kind would, " He spoke with so much pro

perhaps, prove tlie likeliest priety, that I understood him

of any other (5.) to succeed." the best of all the others (6.)

" He is the strongest of the two, toha spoke on tlie subject."

but not the tnsest." " Eve was the fairest of til hci

daughters."

(1.) « the supremestrsupreTM." (2.) " better founded." (3.) »* not true."

(4 ) « teeU ezecuUd—stiU better— best." (5.) «* oW.»' (6.) " of all who.**

aiVNTAX. 145

8. In tome cnset^ at^ecuves should not Oe separaied from Uieir substaa-
iiveS; even by words which modify their <ncaiiiug. aud make but one seme
with them 5 as, " A large enough number, surelj/' It should be, '* A number
brge enou^i/' '' The lower sort of people sure good enough judges of one
not very distant from them."

The adtective is usually placed before its iubstantive ; as, ^ A geturom
man ^" " How amiable a woman !" The instances in which it comes alV v \\m
substantive, are the following :

ler
me
troops fiflv thousand str&t^ /' '** The torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt.^

2d. Wnen the adjective is emphatical ; as, ** Alexanaer the Ortai ;"
« Lewis the Bold /' ''^Goodness injnite /" " Wisdom unsearcliaJbUr

3d. When teveral a^ectives belong to one substantive j as, "A man just,
wise, and charitable;" " A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous."

iOL When the adjective is preceded bv an adverb 3 as, '' A boy regularly
siudiaus f " A giil unafibctea);y modest."

dth. When the verb to be, m an^ of its variations, comes between a s«l>-
ilantive and an acgeclive, the adjective may frequently either precede or fol-
low It ; as, " The man is happy/* or. ** fiajmy is the man, who makes virtue
bis choice :" ** The interview was dehgktfttl ;" or, ** Delightful was the inter-
view."

6th. When the aclfective expresses some circumstance of a substantive
placed after an active verb ; as, ** Vanity often renders its possessor despica'
oUJ* In an exclamatory sentence, the aojective generally precedes the sub-
stantive ; as, " How despicable does vanity often render its possessor !"

There'is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in ptaciuc the adjective
before the verb, and the substantive immedifltelv after it j as, " Great is tho
Lord ! just aad true are thv ways, thou Kuig of saints !"

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particulars
comprehended under it. '' Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred." Some-
times a 'Substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding particulars, is
used in coi^uncdon with this ac^ective ; as, " Royalists, repUDucans, churcff-
men, sectaries, courtiers, all parties, concurred in the illusion."

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes properly asso-
ciate with a singular noun ; as, " Our desire, your intention, their resignation."
This association applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, than to those
which are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule.

A substantive with its atMective is reckoned as one compounded word ;
K^ience they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on }
4t, " An old man ; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good old man."

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in many in-
stMneet, put as if it were absohite ; especially where the noun has been men
tioned before, or easily imderstood, though not expressed ; as, '^ I often sur
vey it."

Is it correct to say, " A large enough number " t How should it be alter-
ed ? What is the Mote for it Y Should the adjective be placed usually befii»fe,
or after the noun t

" He spoke in a distinct enough pair of gloves: he is the siN

manner to be heard by the vantof an old ri6b(2.) man.'*

whole asaembly." " The two first (3.) in the row afe

**' Thomas is eanipped with a new eherry-trees, the 1100 «<Aer#

(1.) pair of shoes, and a new ere pe&r-trees."

U <' a r^ tf 1MW «Aoe«." (9.) *' rich old." (3 ) Not* I Wch Vt

146. KNGLlflH QUAMMAR.

BtTUS ZS.

CorrMpODding with Murray's Gittmmu,
RULE IX.

The indefinite article^ a or an, belongs to nouns of the

singular number

The definite article^ the, belongs to nouns of the sing¥f

lar or plural numbers.

The ftrtic.es are often properly omitted i when used, they shottld bo justly
applied, according to their distinct nature j as, ** Gold is corrapting ; toe set
if green : a lion is bold/'

It is tne nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thinf spoken of.
A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it stOl uncertain
which 3 the determines which it is, or, if many, which they are.

The following passage will serve as an example of the different uses of a
and the, and of the force of the substantive wiuout any article : " Man was
made for society^ and ought to extend his good will to aU men^ but a man will
naturally entertain a more particular Idndness for Ou men with whom he has
the most frequent intercourse 3 and enter uito a still closer unicm with the man
whose temper and disposition suit best with his own.*'

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to exhibit
a few instances i " And I persecuted tnis way unto the death.^' The apostle
does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general : the definite
article, therefore, is improperly used : it oug^t to be, " unto death,'' without
any article.

'' When he. the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth ^*
that is, according to tiiis translation, " into all truth whatsoever, into truth of
all kinds 3"— very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and finom the
original, " into all ^ truth 3'' that is, " into all evangSical truth, all truth
necessary for you to know."

" \f\io breaks a butterfly upon a wheel 7" it ought to be " the wheel," used
as an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals. " The A\-
mighty hath given reason to a man to be a light unto him :" it should ratlier
be, ** to man^ in general. ** This day is s^vation come to this house, for-
asmuch as he also is Hie son of Abraham :" it ought to be, *'a son of Abra-
ham."

These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the proper use
of the article, and the excellence of the English lailguae^ in this respect ;
which, by means of its two articles, does most precisdy ^termine the extent
of signincation of common names.

What is the nature of the articles ? What does the article a determine 7
What the article the ?

'' The fire, the air, tht earth, and <' (4.) Wisest and best men some-

the water, are four elements times commit errors."

(1.) of the philosophers." '^ Beware of drunkenness : it im-

*< Reason was given to a man to pairs understanding ; wastes

control his passions." an estate ; destroys a reputa-

<' We have within us an intelli- tion 3 consumes the body 3 and

gent principle, distinct from renders the (5.) man of the

(2.) body and from matter." brightest p&rts the (5.) com-

'•« A man is the noblest work of mon jest (6.) of the meanest

(3.) creation." clown."

(1.) " Piro, air," &c. " the four," &e. (9.) «« ih» body;" (?.) " the

■reatlon.** (4.) " Th* wiaert »» f5.) <« a.»» (6.) Rule XV

SVNTAX.

147

** Be is a much better writer than

a reader/'
" The kin^ has conferred on him

the title of a duke."
*' There are some evils of life

which equally affect prince

and people."
''We must act our part with a

constancy, though reward of

our constancy be (1.) distant."
** We are placed here under a trial

of our virtue."
''The virtues like his are not

easily acquired. Such quali-
ties honor the nature of a

man."

1. A nice distiDction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis-
sion of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little reverence/' my
meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved with little reverence/' my mean-
ing is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be used in
the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dis-
praise him. For the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we
may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a before nouns of num-
ber. When I say, " There were few men with him," I speak diminutively,
and mean to represent them as inconsiderable : whereas, when I say, " There
were a few men with him,'' I evidently intend to make the most of them.

What is the difference in meaning between the expressions " We behaved
with a little reverence," and " We fehaved with little reverence " ?

" Purity has lu leat hi the heart,
but extends its influence over
so much of outward eonduct,
as to form the great and nut-
ter iai part of a character."

" The profligate man is seldom or
never found to be the good
husband, the good father, or
tAe beneficent neighbor."

" True charity is not the meteor
which occasionally glares, but
the Imninary which, in its
orderly and regular course,
dispenses benignant influ-
ence."

" He has been much censured for
conducting himself with a lit-
tle attention to his business."

" So bold a breach of order called
for (2.) Uttle severity in pun-
ishing the offender."

'' His error was accompanied with
so little contrition and can-
did acknowledgment, that he
found a few persons to inter-
cede for liim."

" The,re were so many mitigatir4g
(3.) circumstances attending
nis misconduct, particularly
that (4.) of his open confes-
sion, that he found (5.) few
friends who were disposed to
interest themselves in his fa-
vor."

" As his misfortunes were the
fruit of his own obstinacy, a
few persons pitied him."

2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of two
words in the same construction ; though the French never fail to repeal it in
this case. " There were many hours, both of the night and day, which he
could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It might have been " of
iJie night and qftlie day." And, for the sake of emphasis, we of\en repeat the
aiticle in a series of epithets. " He hoped that this title would secure him an
ample and an independent authority."

Is the article to be repeated before two words in the same construction ?

" The fear of shame, (6.) the de- " He was fired with desire of

sire of approbation, prevent
many bad actions."
In this business he was influ-
enced by a just and (7.) gen
erous principle."

was
doing something, though lie
knew not yet, with distinct-
ness, either end or means."

(1 .) 464. (2.) " a little." (3.) 559. (4.) « tTiat (it caw^fance. "Note I.-—

Riil« XIV (f>.) " a fflw." aw. (H.) *» aitd th« " '7. ) '« a i^n«rou«."

148 KNOL18H GRAMMAR.

3. In commofi <*onvenatio«i. «id in famfliar style, w« tttqamilky^ ooul tie
■rticlefl, whidi night be inMitea with propriety in wnUn|^, especially ij a grave
•tyle. '* At wont, Uim miefat be gained by Uii« expeikenL^ " Al the wont"
would have beea better in Uiis place. ** Give me here John Baptist's heaJL"
There would have beea more dignity in saying, ''John the Baptist's besMl;''
or, '' The head of John the BapttfU'^

The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person by
an epithet. " In the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we are
surprised at not finding him the great man/' " I own I am often surprised that
he should have treated so coldly a man so much the gentleman."

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the FVench, for the
pfonoon possessive ; as, °* He looks him foil m Ifce faee ;" that is, " m ft»t
thee." '' In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the groiiBd ;"
that is, ** their foreheads."

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article,
when the adjective, on account of any clause depending i;^n it, is put after
the substantive. " Of all the considferable governments among the Alps, a
commonwealth is a constitution the most Mapted of any to the poverty oi
those countries." *' With such a specious title aa that of blood, which, with
the multitude, is always a claim tiu strongest, and the most easily compre-
bended." '' They are not the men in the nation the most dUlcnk to be ra>-

olaced."

•

" At worst, time might be gained," &c. What word may properiy be
hiserted in the beginning of this sentence T What is the Note for it ?

3.
" At worst I could but incur « '' At beat, hia gift was but & ^oei
gentle reprimand," offering, when we consider

his estate."

nJUJBL z.

Cerrespending with Mnrray*! Gnunnur,
RULE X.

The possessive case is governed by the following novn

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, there is
no variation of case ; as, " George, king of Great Britain, elector of Hano-
ver," &c. : " Pompey contended with Ccesar, the greatest eeneral of his
time ;" " Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." ^ Nouns thus
circumstanced are said to be in apposition to each other. The interposition
of a relative and verb will sometimes break the constnicUon j as, " Pompey
contended with Csesar, toho toas the greatest general of his time." Here the
word general is in the nominative case, according to Rule XV., or Note 4,
under Rule VIII. » -»

The preposition q^, joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to the
possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can be converted into the
regular form of the possessive case. We can say, " the reward of virtue,"

and " virtue's reward ;" but though it is proper to say, '' a crown of gold,"
we rannot convert the expression mto the possessive case, and say, '* gold's
crown."

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the {iossessive ease tas,
* Every tree is known by its fruit ;" " Goodness brings its reward ;" " That
desk is mine."

The genitive {I.) its Is often improperly used for 'Ks or Hit; as, ** Its my
book j" instead of " It is my book."

The pronoun his, when ^tached from the noun to which it relates, is to be
considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the per-
sonal pronoun ; as, " This composition is his." ** Whose book is that 7"
■ tfis." If we used the noun itself, we should say, * TMs composition is

/I.) Or pot«eiiBrv«

STNTAX. 149

John's.'' *' WhoM book is dial V " Eliza's " The position will be stifl mora
evidttit, wfaen we consider thai both the pronouns in the following sentence!
must have a similar constraction t ** Is it her or hu honor that is tarmshed V
" It is not hers, but his,"

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case stands alone,
Ihe latter one bv which it is governed being understood 3 as, '' I called at the
bookseller's/' that is, " at tl^ bookseller's shop."

" Religion^ the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." What is said of
Ihe nouns rebgion^ and support, in respect to each other ? When b the prep-
osition o^ joined to a substantive equivalent to the possessive case t Give an
fzample.

My ancestors virtue is not *' A mothers tenderness, and a

mine." (1.) fathers care are natures giili

" His brothers ofibnce will not for mans advantage."

condemn him." " A mans manners' frequently in*
" I will not <toitroy the city for fluence his fortune."

ten sake." ** Wisdoms precepts' form Um
** Neyerthelese, Asa his heart (2.) good mans interest and hap

was perfect with the Lord." piness."

'' They slew Varus, he that was '' They slew Varus, who was hliv
mentioned before." tliat I mentsonod before."

1. If several noons come toffetfaerin the genitive (3.) case, the apostrophe
wiUi 9 is amiezed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as^ ** SkAxjo. and Eli
sa's books ^" ** Tliis was my father, mother and uncle's advice." But wh»
any words intervene, perh^s on account of the increased pause, the sign of
the possessive shoald oe annexed to each \ as, ** They are John's as well as
Eliza's books 3" " I had the physician's, the suigeon's and the apothecsury's
assistance."

" John's and Eliza's books." Will you correct this sentence, and give the
Rule for it T

1.
' It was the men*8^ (4 ) women^s '< This measure gained the king,
f5.) and children s lot to suf- as well as the people's appro

xer great calamities." bation."

* Peter' Sy John's and Andrew's « Not only the counsel's and at-

occupation, was that of 6sli^ tomey's but the judge's opin

ermen." ion also, favored his cause."

2. In poetry, the additional a is frequently omitted, but the wostrophe re-
tained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural numoer ending in
s; as, " The wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in prose,
which the followine^ erroneous example will demonstrate : " Moses' minister ',
" Phinehas' wife 3'° '' Festus came into Felix' room 3" " These answers were
made to the witness' questions." But in cases which would give too much
of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, ^e omission
takes place even in prose 3 as, ** For righteousness' sake 3" ** For conscienee'
Bake.''

Is the addidonal a ever omitted 7 Give an ezunple.

9.
« And he cast himself down at '' If ye suiSfer for righteousness's
Jesus feet." sake, happy are ye.'

* Moses rod was turned into a <*Te should oe subject for con

sen)ent.'* science's sake."

'' For Herodias sake, his brother
PhiUps wife."

(1.) Rule I. (2.) " Asa's heart." (3.) Or poBseMive. (4.) « JITeii" i« hers
In the poMeMive eun, the apottrop h e being anderstood ; therefore apply flvle 1

18*

150 BNGLUSli GKAMMAlt.

3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between •
renilive case and the word which usually follows it ; as, '' She beg«ai to ezttil
the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding.''' It ought to bm,
** the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him."

** She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him; excellent luiderstand
mg." Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule for it ?

" They very justly condemned " They implicitly obeyed the pro-
the prodimd's, as he wajs call- tector's, as thev called, him,

ed, senseless and extravagant imperious mandates "

conduct." (I.)

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or
of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the oth-
er, it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case
should be aimexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus,
some would say, '' I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller 3" others, " at
Smith the bookseller's ;" and perhaps others, '' at Smith's the bookseller's."
The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom \ and if the
addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less dubious ;
as, " I left tlie parcel at Smith's, tlie bookseller and stationer." But as tlils
subject requires a little ftirther explanation, to make it mtelligible to the learn
ers, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its prmciples.

A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit
of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sign at or
near the end of the phrase : as. ** Whose prerogative is it 7" " It is the kii^
of Great Britain's 3" ''That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal j" ''The
bishop of Landaff's excellent book j" '* The Lord Mayor of London's author-
ity :" " The captain of the guard's house."

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems
also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sijgn of the genitive a similar sit-
uation ; especially if the noun wnich ^vcms the genitive be expressed 3 as.
" The emperor Leopold's y* " Dionysius the tyrant's ;" " For David my ser-
vcmt's sake j" " Give me John the Baptisfs head ;" " Paul the apostle's ad-
vice." But when a pause is proper, and the goverr^ng noun not exprv^^ssed ;
and when the latter part of the sentence is extended ; it appears to be requi-
site that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and understood to the
other; as, ''1 reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor;"
** Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar's, the greatest general
of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very awkward to place
the sign either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter pne
alone : ** These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jew-
ish people ;" " We staid a month at lord Lj'ttleton's, the ornament of his coun-
try, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of the genitive case may very
property be understood at the end of Aese members, an ellipsis at the latter
part of sentences being a common construction in our language ; as the learn-
er will see b^' one or two examples : " They wished to submit, but he did
not ;" that IS, " he did not wish to submit." ** He said it was their concern,
but not his ;" that is, " not his concern.'*

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only, we
shall perceive that a resting-place is wanted, and that the connecUng circum-
stance-is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable; as.
'' Whose glory did he emulate 7 He emulated Caesarj the greatest eeneral or
aritiquity's ;" " These psalms are David, the kin^, pnest, and prophet of the
Jewjsh •pt&jplt^s." It is much better to say, '' This is PcvuTs advice, tlie Chris-
tian hero, and great apostle of vhe gentiles," than " This is Paul the Christian
hero, ana great apostle of the gentiles' advice." On the other hand, the ap-
plxation of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would
Deffenerally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incorrect : as,

" The emperor's Leopold's ;" " King's George's ;" " Charles's the Secontl's ;**

^■^—^-^—^— - . , , ^

a.) ** tAe «mM2eM." Jbc. " qf iA< froHgnl^ at he ww solM.**

SYNTAX. 161

"The pareel wus left at Smith's the bookseller's and stalioner's.^' The rulee
which we have endeavored to elucidate will prevent the inconvenience of
both these modes of expression ; and they appear to be simple, oerspicuoui,
and consistent with the idiom of the language.

Which is most agreeable to the English idiom, to say, ** Smith's the book-
seller/' or " Smith the bookseller's "1 When the wonls are cumiected and
dependent, where is the genitive (1.) sign to be placed 7

When words in apposition follow each other in quick waceeaaioa, wheie
should the sign of the genitive be placed ? What enect is perceived if wt
aonej( the sign of the genitive to the end of the last claufe only of the sen*
lence ? Give an example. What is the effect of applying the genitive aiga
to both or all the nouns m apposition 7 Give an example.

« I bought the knives «t John- << I will not for David's thy fath-

son'a (2.) the cutUr's, ' (3.) er'a sake.'

** The silk was . purchased at '' He took refuge at the goyemor.

Brown's the mercer's and the king's representative's."

haberdasher's." " Whose (5.) works are these f
''Lord Feversham the general's They are Cicero, the moat

tent." (4.) eloquent of men's."

** This palace had been the grand

sultan's Mahomet's."

6. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound $ so that we dailjr
make more use or the particle qf, to express the same relation. There is
something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method has not
been taken : " The general, in the army's name, published a declaration ;"
'' The commons' vote :" *' The lords' house ;" '' Unless he is very ignorant
of the kingdom's condition.*-' It were oertainly better to say, '' In the name
of the army ;" " The votes of the commons -," ** The house of lords f* " The
condition of the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use two English geni*
tives with the same substantive ; as, ** Whom he acquainted with the pope's
and the kine's pleasure." ** The pleasure of the pope and the king," would
have been better.

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another^
and connected by the preposition of applied to each of them ; as, " The 8»»
verity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation j" but this
mode of expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to say,
'' The severe distress of the king's son touched the nation." We have ■
striking instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the following «ea*
tence : " Of some of the books o^each o^ these classes o/ literature, a calfr>
logue will be given at the end o/ the worK."

'' In the army's name." How may this expression be altered for the bet*
ter7

5.
^ The world's goremment is not <' It was necessary to have both
left to chance." (6.) the physician's and the sur-

** She married my son's wife's geon's advice." (9.)

brother." (7.) " The extent of the prerogative

* This is my wife's brother's part- of the king of England is suf-

ner's house." (8.) ficiently ascertained."

6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the prepositioe
of; as, ** It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Sometimes, indeied, un-
less we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely neces-
sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strict-

(1.) Or posfleBsive. (3.) ** Johnson's thop," Rule I. (3.) ** eutUr,** See

Note I. ander this Rule. (4.) " 7%« text nflord** A.c. (5.) 431. (6.) " TU
rmfemmmU of the iM»rU." (7.) « Oe hrotker tf my »<m*« wife." (8.) " TUs

ItfUM belongM to th9 partMr ^my i9^'« krother " (9.) " tJU mivici both if.**

154 KNUL18H ORAMMAA.

1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter or intransitive verbs as u
they were transitive, putting after them the obiective case, agreeably to the
French construction of reciprocal verbs j but tnis custom is so foreign to the
idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The
following are some instances of this practice : ** Rtpentmg him of his design."
** The kmg soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous
enemies.'' ** The popular lords did not fiiil to enlarge themselves on the sub>
ject." " The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." ** GOfJUe
tnee away into the land of Judah.'' ** I think it by no means a fit.and decent
thing to vie charities.'' d&c. ^* Thev have spent their whole time and pains to
j^ee the sacred with the profane cnronology."

** Repenting him of his design." Will you repeat the note which showi
ihis sentence to be incorrect 7

* Thouffh he now takes pleasure before hiiUi the hoinbler he

in Uiem, he will one day (1.) grew."

repent him (2.) of indulgences <' It will be very difficult to a^rree

so unwarrantable." his conduct with (3.^ the prin

^ The nearer his virtues approach- ciples he professes. '

ed him to the great example

2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter or m
transitive ; as, '' I must premise with three circumstances i" '' Those who
think to ingraiiaJte wWi him by calunmiating me."

** I must premise with three circumstances." Will you correct this sen-
tence, and give the rule for it 7

" To ingrratiate (4.) with some by ** I shall premise vnlh two or
traducing others, marks a base three general obserYations.

and despicable mind."

3. The neuter verb (5.) is varied like the active ; but, having, in some de-
gree, the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form,
retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some sort
of motion, or change of place or condition ; as, '' I am come ;" " I was gone ;"
'* 1 am grown ;" " I was fallen." The folIowin||[ examples, however, appear
to be erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, mstead of an active
one : " The rule of our noly religion, from which we are infinitely swerved."
** The whole obligation of that law and covenant teas also ceased. '* Whose
number toas now amounted to three hundred." ** This mareschal, upon some
discontent, teas entered into a conspiracy agsunst his master." " At the end
of a campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed." It should be, ** have
swerved/' "had ceased," &c.

"I am come." Why should not this be ' I have come" T

" If such mpjcims and such prac- '' The mighty riTahi are now at
tices (6.) prevail, what has length agreed."

(7.) become of decency and <<The mfluence of his cermpC
virtue ?" example was (8.) then entire

" I have come, according to the ly ceased."

time proposed ; but I have '' He was entered into the eon
fallen upon an evil hour." nection before the conse

quences were considered."

(1.) Rule XXII. (3.) *« repent tf.» (3.) '* to make agree toitA," &c

(4.) " ingratiato oureelvs." (5.) By neuter and active, Mr. Murray hcie meant

what in thi« work are ityled intrangUioe and transitioe vc lb«. (6.) Rol« XI

;7.)"wb«coino." (8.)"*arf.»»

SYNTAX. 155

Rule XV. When two or more nouns, or njuus and pronouns,
signifying' the same thing, come together, they are put by appo-
sition in the same case.

QIT' 7^ exampUs which/oUow may be corrected by this Rule or the /oUoW'
mg Note.

4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as
that which next precedes it. ** I am he whom they invited/' ** It may be
[or, it mi^t have been) he, but it cannot be ((tt, could not have been) I." **It
IS impossible to be they.*^ " It seems to have been fie who conducted himself
so wisely.'' " It appeared to be she that transacted the business." '' I un
derstood it to be him." " I believe it to have been them." " We at first took
it to be fier ; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she" " He is
not the person who it seemed he was." ** He is really the person who he ap-
peared to be." " She is not now the woman whom they represented her to
nave been." *' Wliom do you fancy him to be ?" By these examples, it ap-
pears that this substantive verb has no government of case ; but serves, in all
Its forms, as a conductor to the cases ; so that the two cases which, in the con-
struction of the sentence, are the next before and after it^ must always be alike.
Periiaps this subject will be more mtelligible to the learner, by observing, that
the words in the cases preceding and following the verb to be, may be said to
be in apposiiion to each other. Thus, in the sentence, " I understood it to be
him," the words it aad.him are m apposition ; that is, " they refer to the same
thin^, and are in the same case."

The following sentences contain deviauons from the rule, and exliibit- the
pronoun in a wrong case. ** It might have been Aim, but there is no proof of
it." *' Though I was blamed, it could not have been me." " I saw one whom
I took to be she." " She is the person, who I understood it to have been "
" WTio do you think me to be 1" ** WJwm do men say that I am 7" " And
whom think ye that I am ?"

Passive verbs, which signify naming, &c., have the same case before aai
after them ; as, ** He was called Ceesar :" ** She was named Penelope ,"
" Homer is styled the prince of poets •" "James was created a duke ;" " The
general was saluted emperor i" ** The professor was appointed tutor to the
prince."

'' I am him whom they invited." Will you correct this sentence, and give

the rule for it ?

• " Well may you be afraid ; it is them (2.) who conducted the

him indeed." business ; but I am certain it

"**! would act the same part, if I was not him."

were him, (l.)r or in his situa- *^ He so much resembled my

tion." brother, that, at first sight, 1

" Search the Scriptures, for in took it to be he."

them ye think ye have eternal " After all their professions, is it

life ; and they are tlicm which possible to be them ?"

testify of me." " It could not have been her, for

* Be composed : it is me : you she always behaves discreet-
have no cause for fear." ly."

•< I cannot tell who has befriended '^ If it w^ not him, who do you

me, unless it is him from imagine it to have been ?'

whom I have received many " Who do you think him to be ?"

benefits." " Whom ao the people say that

« I know not whether it were we are .?"

* When the verb to be is vnderstood, it has the same case, before and after it, as
when it is expressed ; as, " He seams the leader of the party ;" " Ho shall con-
tinue steward ;" " They appointed me executor ;" " I supposed him a man oi
leouiing ;" — that is, " He seems to be the leader of the party," Ac. Noons in appo-
Bitlon are in the same case ; as, "We named the man Pompoy ;" " They may term
Charles a visionary, but they cannot eall him a deceiver ;'* " Hortensius diad a
martyr ," " The gentle Sidney lived the ahepherd's friend."

(1.) Ruto XV. (2-) " t*«y »•»•« «*« P«r»*»a »•

196 GiNGLlSH GRAMMAR.

6. The wixUiary let govenw the ot^tive case ; as, " Let }Jm bewaw f

** Let tu judge candidly ;'' " Let them not presume 3" " Let George study w
lesaoa/^

'^ Let us judge candidly.'' In what case is im / What is the rule f

5.
^ Whatever (1.) othen do. lei (2.) '* Let them and we unite to op
thou and / act wisely. pose this growing (3.) evil.'^

Oone^pooAinf with Mamy'a GraoMnar,
RULB XII.

The infimtive mood may be governed by verbsj partid'
pies, adjectives, nouns and pronouns.

The (Heposition tOf though generally used before the I^ler verb, is some*
times properly omitted } as, "1 heard aim say it :" instead of " to say it."

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them, in wb infini'
tive mood, without the sign to, are, bid, darey needj makef tee, hear, -feelj and
also let, not used as an auxiliary : and perhaps a few others } as, " I bade him
do it j" " Ye dare not do it ;'' " I saw him do it ;'' " I b^tfd him say it ;''
*^ Thou lettest him go.''

Will you name the verbs which have commonly other verbs in the iitf aitiye
mood after them, without the sigO'io t

<' It is better (4.) Uve on a lit- *' I need not to solicit him to do a

tie, r5.) than auJtixoe a good kind action."

deal. " I dare not to proceed so hastily,

<' You ought not walk too hastily." lest 1 should give oflSsnce.'

'< I wish him not vmartJe with " I bare seen some young persons

his happiness." to oonduot themselves yery

discreetly."

1 . In the followinr passages^ the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood,
where it is distinguished by Itahc characters, is superfluous and improper : ** I
ha\'e observed some satirists to use," &e. " To see so many to make so little
conscience of so great a sin." '' It cannot but be a delightfiuspectacle to God
and angels, to see a young person, besi^ed by powerflu temptations on every
side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out against the most
violent assaults ; to benold one in the prime and flower of his age, that is
courted by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the bewitching vanities -
of the worla, to reject all these, ana to cleave steadfastly unto God.'^

This mood has also been improperly used in the following places : " I am
not like other men, to envy ^e talents I cannot reach." '' Grammarians have
denied, or at least doubted, them to be genuine." " That all our doings ma}
be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy si^t.*'

The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and parti
ciples ; as, " He is eager to learn ;" " She is worthy to be loved j" " They
\have a desire to improve ;" ** Endeavoring to persuade."

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, expressing the
action itself which the verb signifies, as the participle has the nature of au ad
jective. Thus the infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in diflerent
cases >-^n the nominative ; as, " To play is pleasant :"— in the objective j as,
*' Bovs love to play ;" " For to will is present with me j but to perform thai
whicn is good, I find not."

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the
rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the coujunction that widb the po-
tential mood : as, " To confess the truth, I was in faultj'' '< To begin with
me first 5" « To proceed j" " To conclude 5"— 4hat is, " That 1 may confess '•
&e. ^

(1.) %.v\m VHL (1 ) Imp. Rule VI. (3.) 568. (4.) " to «w." Rule JCIL.

SYNTAX. 1S7

*' I bare sbMrved soma wtizi^te to nse/' See. What is uieomet m tfn
•enteoee ?

in th« expression, " He is eager to learn/' will you pane to Ucem f Whal
M the rule 7(1.) ''To play is pleasant.'' Will yoa parse to platff and giv*
a rale for it 7 (1.) ** To confess the truth, I was in YaHlt/' How is 29 con
feat parsec ' What b the rule for it ? (2.)

< It is a great support to virtue^ are courted by health and

when we see a good mind to pleasure, to resist all the

maintain (3.) its patience and allurements of vice, and to

tranquillity , under injuriesand steadily pursue virtue and

affliction, and to cordially for- knowledge, is cheering and

ffive its oppressors.'^ deliffhtfiu to every good

' It IS the diiference of their con- mindi^'

duct, which makes us to ap- ^ They acted with so much re-
prove the one, and to reject serve, that some persons
the other." doubted ikem to he nneere,'*

' We should not be like many (7.)

persons, to (4^ depreciate the '< And the multitude wondered,

virtues wo (5.) do not pos* when they saw the lame to

sess." walk, and the blind to see."

' To see (&) yovng persons who (8.)

in.

Correipoading with Murray's Grammayr,

RULE xm.

Ivr the use of words <md phrases which^ in point of time
relate to each other^ a due regard to that relation
should be observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord
hath given, and the Lord hath taken away/' we
should say, "The Lord gave, and the Lord hath
taken away." Listead of " I remember the family
more than twenty years," it should be, " I have re-
membered the family more than twenty years."

It it not easy to give particular rales for the management of the moods and
««ses of verbs with respect to one another^ so that they may be proper and
iCMisistent. The best rale that can be given, is this vefv general ono'-^'' To
^erve what the sense necessarily requires." It niay, however^ be of use to
4ive a few examples of irregular constraction. ** The last week I intended
to hcm€ written" is a very common phrase ; Uie infinitive being in the past
time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong ; for now
long soever it row is since I thought of writing, to vyriU was then present to
me, and mast still be considered as present, when I bring back that time, and
the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, " The last week I intended to
write." The following sentonces are also erroneous : " I cannot excuse the
remissness of those whose business it should have been, as it certainly was
Jheir interest, to have interposed their g'od offices." " There were two cir-
cumstances which made it necessary for them to have hat no^ime." ** Histo-
ry painters would have found it dimcult to have invented such a species of be-
ings." Tliey ouehl to be, to interpose, to lose, to invent. " On the morrow,
because he would have known the certainty wherefore he was accused of the
Jews, he loosed him." It ou^t to be, " because he wotdcTknow," or, rather,
" bemg tpilling to know." ''The blind man said unto him. Lord, that I might

(1.) Rule XII. (2.) Note XII. LVIII. (3.) For to mahaain read motntam.

(4) " wka." (5.) *• tAay." (6.) Note XIII. (7.) " tlmir AitMrOy.'*

'8.) << versoju who had heem lomt, w^Omg; «W Ukttf mk» kmi teM Hud. ttski^.**

158

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

receive my tieiit/' " U hy any means I might attain unto the reiurreclicMi ol

the dead.'' _Mayy in both places, would have been better. " From his bibli-
cal knowledge, he appears to study the Scriptures with ^^reat attention;" " to
have studied, &c. " I feared that I should have lost it, before I arrived at
the city ;" " thuuld lose it." " I had rather walk ;'' it should be, '* I would
rather walk." ** It would have afforded me no satis&ction, if I could perform
it ;" it should be, ** ii* I could home performed it j" or, ** It u>ouid afford me no
satisfaction, if I could perform it."

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recoUect that, in the
subjunctive mood, the present and imoerfect tenses often carry with Uiem a fu-
ture sense ; and Uiat tne auxiliaries should and would, in the imperfect times,
are used to express the present or future, as well as the past.

" I intended to have written." Will you point out the incorrectness of Una
sentence, and give a rule for it 7

'< The next new year*a day I shall
be (1.) at school three years."

" And he that was dead (2.> sat
up, and began to speak.

'* I should be obliged to him, if
he toiU gratify me in that
particular."

' And the multitude wondered,
when they saw the dumb to
speak, the maimed to be whole,
the lame walk, and the blind
seeing." (3.)

' i have compassion on the mul-
titude, becauiie they contintLe
with me now three days."

'* In the treasury belonging to the
cathedral in this city is pre-
served (4.) with the greatest
veneration, for upwards of six
hundred years, a dish which
they pretend to be made of
emerald."

** The court of Rome gladly laid

hold on all the opportunitiesy
which the imprudence, weak-
ness, or necessities of princes
afford it, to extend its author-
ity."

'< Fierce as he movedf his silver
shafts resound."

** They maintained that scripture
conclusion, that all mankind
rise from one head."

" John will earn his wages when
his service is completed.' '

" Te will not come ;anto me that
ye might have life."

*^ Be that as it wiU, he cannot
justify his conduct."

^* I have been at London a year,
and seen the king last sum-
mer."

*^ After we visited London, we
returned, content and thank*
ful, to our retired and peace-
ful habitation "

1. It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the mfinitive mood m tne
following form-— to torite, to be writing, and to be written— ^ways denote some-
thing contemporary ttrith the time of the jg-overning verb, or subsequent to it;
but when verbs of that mood are expressedas follows— ^o have been writing, to
have written^ and to have been writter^-^hey aJways denote something antece»
dent to the time of the governing verb. This remark is thought to be of im-
portance ; for^ if duly attended to, it will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct
us in the relative application of these tenses.

The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed : " I found
him better than I expected to find him." " Expected to have found him," is
irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive of
hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the pres-
ent, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive an er-
ror in this expression-—" It is long since I commanded him to have done it ;"
yet " expected to Iiave found," is no better. It is as clear that tlie fnding
must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be posterior to
the command.

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the perfect
tenso of the infinitive mood : " It would hsfve afforded nie great pleasure, as

^.)^^nh9M have been." (2.J " Aod *Mn dead." (3.) See the lait example under
the preceding Role ^4.) *' ik diiih luut freen prenerved."

SYNTAX. 159

often' as 1 reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence/'
As the messdige, in this instance, was antecedent to t£e pleasure, and not con
temporary with it, the verb expressive of the message mus^ denote that ante-
cedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If the message and the
pleasure had been referred to as contemporary, the subsci^uent verb would^
with equal propriety, have been put in the present of the uifinitive ; as, " U
nroald have afforded me great pleasure, to be the messenger of such intelli-
gence." In the former instance, the phrase in question is equivalent to these
word» — " If I had been the messenger ;" in the latter instance, to this ezpres-
sion— '' Being the messenger.''

It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the past time
li^th the deflective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive must always he
used ; as, ** He ought to have done it." Wlien we use this verb, this is the
only possible wgy to distin^ish the past from the present.

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce the
sentiments of eminent grammarians ; amongst whom are Lowth and Camp-
bell. But there are some writers on grammar who strenuously maintain, that
the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when the verb
which governs it is in the past time. Though this cannot be admitted, in the
instances which are controverted under this rule, or in ^y instances of'^a sim-
ilar nature ; yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases,. in which the thing
referred to preceded the governing verb, ii would be proper and allowable.
We may say, " From a conversation I once had with him, he appeared to have
studied Homer with great care and judgment." It would be proper also to
say, " From his conversation, he appears to have studied Homer with great
care and judgment ;" " That unhappy man is supposed to have died by vio-
lence." These examples are not only consistent with our rule, but they con-
firm and illustrate it. It is the tense of the governing verb only, that marks
what is called the absolute time ; the tense -ofthe verb governed marics solely
its relative time with respect to the other.

To assert, as some writers do, tliat verbs in the infinitive mood have no
tenses, no relative distinctions of'^ present, past and fiiture, is inconsisient with
just erammatical views of the subject. That these verbs associate with verbs
m all the tenses, is no proof of their having'no peculiar time of their own.
Whatever period the govemtng- verb assumes, whether present, past, or fa-
lure, the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period, and its
time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, af*
ter, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing sig-
nified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, afler, or present with the thing
denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great propriety, that
tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time from
which they are computed, is of no consequence ', since present, past, a^d fu-
ture, are completely applicable to them.

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking, that,
though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive aAer the govemuig
verb, yet there are particular cgses in which it would be better to g^ve the ex-
pression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, H I wish to have written
to hira sooner," " I then wished to have written to nim soener," " He will one
day wish to have written sooner }" it would be more perspfcuous and forcible,
as well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say, " I wish that
I had written to him sooner," *^ I then wished that I had written to him soon-
er," '' He will one day wish that he had written sooner." Should the justness
of these strictures be admitted, there would still be numerous occasions for the
use of the past infinitive ; as we may perceive by a few examples : " It would
ever afterwards have been a source of p'easure, to have found him wise and
virtuous." " To have deferred his repentance longer, would have dis(]nalifi-
ed him for repenting at all." " They will then see, that to have faithfully
performed their duty, would have been their greatest consolation."

" I expected to have found him." Will you correct this sentence, and ^ve
a rule for it ? What tense of the infinitive must be used to express past time
with the defective verb ottght? Give an example. Is it proper ever to use
the perfect of the infinitive aflpr the governing verb ? Give on example.

UiO

KNOLISH GRAMMAR.

^ I purpose to ^ to London in a
few months, and afler I shall
finish (1.) my business there ^
to proceed (2.) to America."

^ These prosecutions of William
seem to be the most iniquitous
measures pursued bj the
court during; the time that
the use of parliaments was
suspended."

*From the little conyersation I
had with him, he appeared to
fiave been a man of letters.'*

'^ I always intended to have re-
warded my son accordingr to
his merit.

< It would, on reflection, haye
giyen me ^reat satisfaetion,
to relieve him from that dis-
tressed situation."

** It required so much care, that 1
thought I should liare lost it
before I reached home."

<< We haye done no more than it
was our duty to have done."

** He would haye assisted one of
his friends, if he could do it
without injuring the other;
but as that conld not, have
been done, he ayoided all in-
terference."
' Must it not be expected that he
would have defended an au-
thority, which had been so

long exercised withoi<^ con
troyersy ?" (3.)

« These enemies of Christianity
were confounded, whilst they
were expecting to haye found
an opportunity to haye be
trayed its autaor."

'< His sea-sickness was so great,
that I often feared he Would
haye died berore our arriyal.*'

^ If these persons had intended
to deceiye, they would haye
taken care to haxe avoided
what would expose them to
the objections of their oppo-
nents.^

" It was a pleasure to haye re-
ceiyed his approbation of my
labors, for which I cordially
thanked him."

" It would haye afforded nie still
greater pleasure, to receive his
approbation at an earlier pe-
riod 'f but to receiye (4.) it at
all, reflected credit upon me."

<< To be censured by him, would
soon haye proyed an insuper
able discouragement."

" Him portioned maids, appren
ticed orphans blest,

The young who labor^ and the
old who rest"

<^ The doctor, in his lecture, said,
that feyer always produoed
thirst"

stirziB znr.

Corresponding with Mtirray'i Gimmiiiar,
RULE XIV.

Active participles from active transitive verbs govern

the objective case,

^* Esteeming (5.) theirsdves wise, enemies to me ; and he as a

they became fools." susoicious friend."

" Suspecting not only ye, but thty . <* From naying exposed (7.) hisseli

also, I was studious to ayoid too freely, in di^rent cU-

all intercourse." mates, he entirely lost his

< I could not ayoid considering, health."
(6.) in some degree, they as

1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the present parti-
ciple, with the definite article me before it, becomes a substantive, and must
have the preposition of aAer it ; as, " These are the rules of grammar, by the
obs«»rving of which, you ma y avoia mistakes." It would not be proper to

(1.) " akall ka!09finiahed.\' (2.) Rulo IJC . (3.) " Might it not hne bun,** ^.
.4 1 " to kave receivod." NoteXlIl. (5!) RuleXIfr. (6.) Ru^e Vm. (7 )Ui]

SYNTAX. 16J

iay, **bylhe observiug which," nor, "by obseiving^ oF which;" but
phrase, without either article or preposition, would be right : as, " oj obS4
tag which." The article a or on has the same effect ; as, '' Tnis was a

but the
>y observ-
Rras a be-
traying of the trust reposed in him."

This rule arises from the nature and S3iom of our language, and from as
plain a principle as any on wb^h it is founded ; namely, that a word which
nas the article before it^ and the possessive preposition of after it, must be a
noun 'y and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to
have the reg[imen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort of
words, that is apt to deceive us, and make is treat them as if they were of an
amphibious s[>ecies, partly nouns and partly verbs.

The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule : " He was
lent to prepare the way bv preacning orrepentance ;" it ought to be, " by (he
preaching of repentance," on " by preaching repentance." " By the contin-
ual mortifying our corrupt affections j" h should be, '' by the continual morti-
fying q/"," or, " by continually mortifying our corrupt affections." " They
laid out themselves tovrards the advancing and promoting the good of it 3"
** towards advancing and promoting the good." " It is an overvaluing our-
selves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities ;" " it is
overvaluing ourselves," or, " an overvaluing of ourselves." " Keeping of
one day in seven," &,c. ; it ought to be, ** <^ keeping o/one day," or, ** keep-
mg one day."

A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, and the pos-
sessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same
meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and
preposition. '' He expressed the pleasure ne had in the hearing of the philos-
opher," is capable of a different sense from, " He expressed the pleasure be
had in hearing the philosopher." When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of
harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we
should previously consider whether they are perfectiy similar m the sentiments
they convey.

" By the observing of which." Will you parse observing f Rule for it ?
What words in this sentence may be omitted with propriety ? Would it be
oroper to omit one of them only ?

* By observing of truth, you will idtuated for gaining of wi«-

oommand esteem, as well aa dom. Poverty turns our

secure peace." thouffhta too much upon tlM

* He prepared them for this event, supplying our wants; and

' by the sending to them proper riches upon the enjoying our

information. superfluities."

' A person may be great or rich " Fliny, speaking of Cato the

by chance ; but cannot be wise Censor's disapproving th(

or good without the taking Grecian orators, expressed

pains for it." himself thus."

" Nothing could have made her " Propriety of pronunciation is

so unhappy, as the marrying the giving to every word thai

a man who possessed such sound, which the most polite

principles." usage of the language appro

" The changing times and seasons, priates to it.'

the removing and setting up " The not attending (1.) to this

kings, belong to Providence rule, is the cause ^2.) of a

alone." very conmion error.

** The middle station of life seems '^ This was in fact a converting

to be the most advantageously the deposite to his own use.

2. The same observations which have been made respecting the effect of
Jie article and participle appear to be applicable to the pronoun and partici-
^e, when they are similarly associat^ ; as, '* Much depends on their observ'

00 Hole VT. (8.) Rule XV

74 #

us ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ing of the rule, and error will be the consequence of iknr negU^mg of it ;
instead of *^ tfieir observing the rule, and wir ntgLecting iXj* We shall per-
ceive this more clearly, if we substitute a noun tor the pronoun ; aa, " Aluch
depends upon Tyro^s observing of the rule/' ^c. But, as this construction
sounds ralncr harshly, it would in general, be better to express the sentiment
in the foUoM ing, or some other form : " Much depends on the rttl^s being ob-

expre:

they axe contended for as strictly correct, are not always the most eligible, on
account of their unpleasant sound.

We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : " In forming of
bis senteu'^s, he was very exact ;" ** From calling of names, he proceeded'
to blows/-'' But this is incorrect language ; for prepositions do not, like arti-
cles and jironouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substan-
tive ', as we have shown above in the phrase, " by observing which/' And
yet uie participle, with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase
m the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or un-
derstood 'f as, " By promising nvuchy and performing but littUj we become
despicable j" " He studied to avoid expressing himsey^ too severely.**

" Much depends on their observing of the rule.'' Would this sentence be
correct if the preposition of were omitted 7 Will you repeal the note 7

''There will be no danger of f^eir ing the directione, that we

(1.) spoiling their faces, or of lost our way."

their gaining converts." " In tracing of nis history, we dis-

*' For his avoidin^r that precipice, cover ntUe that is worthy of

he is indebtea to his friend's imitation."

care." " By reading of books written by

« It was from our misunderstand- the best authors, his mind

became highly improved."

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes different
in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is
freauently said, " He begun," for " he l>e^an ;" " He run," for " he ran ;"
*' He drunk," for " he drank ;" the participle being here used instead of the
imperfect terse : and much more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the
participle ; as, " I had wrote," for " I had. written ;" ** I was chose," for " I
was chosen ;" *' I have eat," for " I have eaten." *' His words were inter-
wove with sighs ;" " were vntertnoven." " He would have spoke j" " spoken.''
" He hath bore witness to his faithfiil servants ;" " borne." " By this means
he overrun his guide 5" " overran." " The sun has rose ;" " risen." " His
constitution has been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be shook by
such causes 3" *' sfiaxen/* in both places. "They were verses wrote on
glass j" " wiHtten." " Philosophers have often mistook the source of true
ham)iness ;" it ought to be, " mistaken."

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by chancing ed
mto t ; atf " In good behavior he is not surpast by any pupil of the school ;"
" She was much distrest ;" they ou^t to be," surpassed/' " distressed."

Is it correct to say, " He begun" 7 What is wrong in the expression T
Will you repeat Note 3 7 Can the participle ending in ea be contracted to t,
with propriety 7

* By too ea^er pursuit, he run a " He was greatly heated, and

great risk of being disappoint- drunk with avidity."

ed." (2.) " Though his conduct was, in

•* He had not long enjoyed repose, some respects, exceptionable,

before he beoran to be weary yet b«». dared not commit so

of having iiu Jiing to do." great an offence as that which

_^ m was proposed to Ijim."

(1.) Omit " ihw." <2., pr09, pass. part, usod u a noun Role X

SYNTAX.

163

'* A second deluge learning thus

overrun,
And the monks finished what the

'6roth8 begun."
" If some events had not fell out

very unexpectedly, I should

have been present."
" He would have went with us,

had he been invited."
•* He returned the goods which

he had stole, and made all the

reparation in his power."
•*Tbey have chose the part of

honor and virtue."
'' His vices have weakened his

mind, and broke his health."
^ He had mistook his true interest,

and found himself forsook by

his former adherents."
*< The bread that has been eat is

soon forgot."
" No contentions have arose

amongst them since their re-

conciliation."
*' Tlie cloth had no seam, but was

wove throughout."
' The French umguage is spoke

in £urope.
was too strong

un-

the
he

m every state

" His resolution

to be shook by slight opposi^
tion."

" He was not much restrained
afterwards, having took
proper liberties at first."

" He has not yet wore off
rough manners which
brought with him."

" You who have forsook youc
firiends, are entitled to no
confidence."

" They who have bore a part in
the labor, shall share the re-
wards."

" When the rules have been wan-
tonly broke, there can be no
plea for favor."

'^ He writes as the best authors
would have wrote, had they
writ on the same subject."

** He heapt up great riches, but
past his time miserably."

" He talkt and stampt with such
vehemence, that he was sus
pected to be insane."

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XV.

Adverbs J though thetj have no government of case, tense,
Sfc.j require an appropriate situation in the sentence,
viz. for the most part, before adjectives, after verbs
active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary
and the verb ; as, " He made a very sensible dis-
course ; he spoJce unaffectedly and forcibly, and was
attentively heard by the whole assembly."

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate
the rule. " He must not expect to find study agreeable always ;" " always
agroeable," " We always nnd them ready when we want them j" " we find
tlu'iii always r^ady/' &c. " Dissertations on the prophecies which have re-
markably been fulfilled j" " which have been remarkably." " Instead of
looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should
look up thankfully to God, who hath made us belter ;" " Instead of looking
riovvn contemptuously^ dec, we should thank/idly look up^" Sec. " If thou art
blessed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it ;" " naturally
blessed,*' &c. " exercise it continuaUy." *'

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some
distance afler it 5 sometimes between the two auxiliaries ; and sometimes af-
ter them both 5 as in the following examples : " Vice always creeps by de-
grees, and inatnsihly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we
are at last completely bound." " He encouraged the English barons to carry
their opposition _/arm«r ;*' " They compelled him to declsure that he would ab-
j»ire the realm forever f* instead of, *^ carry farther their opposition *," -and

164 fSMGLlSH GRAMMAR.

** to abjure forever the realm/' '' He has gentraUy been reckoned an hon-
ett man ;'' ** The book may tdtoayB be had at such a place )" in preference
to ** has been generally," and '' may be always.'' '* These rules will be
cUarly understood, after they have been diligently studied/' is preferable to,
** These rules will cUarhf be nnderstood, aAer they have drngently been
studied.''

From the preceding remarks and examples, it u>pears that no exact and
determinate rule can be ^ven for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions.
The G^eueral rule may be of considerable use; but the easy flow and pospicu
ity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded.

The aaverb thert is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds
nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the verb and the nominative
noun ; as, ** There is a person at the door ;" '' There are some thieves in the
house ;" which would be as well, or better, expressed by sa^ng, " A person
is at the door ^' ** Some thieves are in the house." Sometunes, it is made
use of to give a smsJl degree of emphasis to the sentence ; as, " There was a
man sentTrom God, whose name was John." When it is applied hi its strict
sense, it principally foUov«^ the verb and the nominative case 3 as, " The man
stands there,"

What word is misplaced in the sentence, '' He must aotex])ect to find study
agreeable always" ? Will you correct the sentence, and give the Rule for
the position of 'adverbs 7 How is the adverb sometimes placed with respect
to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary 7

" He was pleating not ofUn^ (1.) gntX hopes to his friends.'

because he was vain." '' Not only he found her employ-

<< William nobly acted, though he ed^ but pleased and tranquil

was unsuecessfUl." also."

** We may happily Uve, though ** We always should prefer our

our possessions are small." ^^^^7 ^ <>ur pleasure."

*' From whence (2.) we may datd " It is unpossible continually to

likewise the period of this be at work."

event.' '^ l^he heavenly bodies are in mo-

* It cannot be impertinent or ri- tion perpetual^.'*

diculous, therefore, to remon- ** Haying not known, or having

strate." not considered, the measures

** He offered an apology, which proposed, he failed of sue-
not being admitted,he became cess."
submissive." ** My opinion was given on rather

** These things should .be never a (5.) cursory perusal of the

separated." book."

*' Unless he have more govern- '< It is too conunon with mankind,

ment of himself, he will be to be engrossed, and over

always discontented." come totally, by present

J^ever (3.) sovereign was (4.) so events."

much beloved by the people." " When the Romans were pressed

"He was determined to invite with a foreign enemv, the

back the kin^, and to call to- women contributed all their

gether his friends." rings and jewels voluntarily,

'^ So well educated a boy gives to assist tlie government."

]. The adverb never generally precedes the verb; BSf **\ never was
there 3" ** He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is used, it
is placed indiflerently. either before or after this adverb ; as, " He was never
seen (or never was seen) to laugh firom that time." rieoer seems to be im-
properly used in the following passages : '' Ask me never so much dowry and
gift." " If I make my hands never so clean." ".Charm he never so wisely."
The word evier would be more suitable to the sense.

C5.) «'«ra/A«r,»»~Ku]elX.

SYNTAX. 161

How is the adverb never generally placed with respc et to the verb f Give
an example. Give an example where the word never is improperly used in
stead of ever,

1.
** Thej could not persuade him, ** If some persona* o^K>rtuniti«i
though they were never so were never so favorable, they

eloquent." would be indolent to improv*

them."

2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of pjace u)here is often nsfd
mstead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. ''They framed a protestfti
tion^ where thev repeated all their former claims ;" i. e. "in which they re
peated.'^ " The king was still determined to run forwards, in the same coarse
where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally advanced i" i. e.
" in which he was." But it would be better to avoid this mode of expressioa.

The adveibs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition $ for they sigai-
fv " from this place,'' " from that place/' " from what place." It seems,
therefore^ strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with then,
because it is supernuous ; as, " This is tne leviathan, fit>m whence the wits or
our afe are said to borrow their weapons j" " An ancient author prophesies
from nence." But the origin of these words is httle attended to, and the
preposition from so often used in construction with them, that the omission of
it, m manv cases, would seem stiiT, and^be disagreeable.

Tlie aoverbs here, there, where, are oflen improperly afoplied to verbs sigw
nifying motion, instead of uie adverbs hither, thither, whimer ; as, " He came
here hastily :" " They rode there with speea." They should be, ** He came
kiiher f' " They rode thither*' Sec.

" They framed a protestation where diey repeated all th«r former claims.''
Will you correct this sentence, and repeat Note St

* He drew up a petition, K^Aere he << George is active; he walked
too freely represented bis own there in less than an hour.'

merits. (1.)

'< His follies had reduced him to " Where are you all gmag in snch
a situation wfiere he had much haste ?**

to fear, and nothing to hope." « Whither have they been sinoe
<< It is reported that the pnnce they left the city ?"

will come here to-morrow."

3. We have some etamples of adverbs being used for substantives f '' In

their while;" i. e. "it deserves their time and pains." Bat this ose of the
word rather suits familiar than grave style. The same may be said ef the
phrase, " To do a thing anyhow /' i. e. " in any manner :" or, " eomehow f*
I. e. *' in some manner." " Somehow, Worthy as these people are, loey aie
under the influence of prejudice."

WiU you repeat this note, and give aa example under it f

<• Charles left the seminary too *< Nothing is better worth the
early, since when he has while (3.) of ymuig pmnsonf,

macte very little impror^ than the aei||msition<»kiiowl*

ment." (2.) edge and nrtue."

•^mm

ri RuleXXU. (3.)"aii4A<n»tAattiiiMh6,"&c.:or,((aiMrAM«in6fSUMlf,*'*Sc

<3.) *< tike ttss antf attention of," 4ee

166 UNttLISH URAALMAK.

Ckrrespeiidiiig with Hurray'a Grammar,
RULE XVI.

Two negatives^ in the same simple sentence^ are cqutva
hilt to an affirmative ; a«, " Nor did they not per-
ceive him ;" i. c. " They did perceive him."

It is better to express an affirmation by a re&^lar affirmative^ than by two
ae|>arate negatives, as in the former sentence ; But when one of the negatives
is joined to another wonl, as in the latter sentence,^ the two negatives form a
pleasing and delicate variety of expression.

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one ; as
in the following instances : ** I never did repent of doing good, nor shall not
now j" " nor shaU I nou>,*' •* Never no imitator grew up to his author 5"
** never did any," d&c. " I cannot by no means allow him wnat his argument
must prove j" " I cannot by any means/' &c. ; or, " / can by no nuafisJ'
** Nor let no comforter approach me j" " nor let any comforter," &c. " Nor
is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we common-
ly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes '" it should be^ '' any more."
** Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born m republics ;"
" Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was bom in a
republic."

Should we express an affirmation by an affirmative, or by two~~separate
negatives 7 Will you give an example of the improper use of two negatives 7

** Neither riches nor honors, nor " Do not interrupt me yourselves,
no such perishing goods, can nor let no one disturb my re-

satisfy the desires of an im- tirement." ^

mortal spirit." " These people do not judge wise

*^ Be honest, nor take no shape ly, nor take no proper measure

nor semblance of disguise.' to effect their purpose.**

** We need not, nor (1.) do not, " The measure is so exception-
confine his operations to nar- able, that we cannot by no
row limits.'* means permit it.'*

** I am resolved not to comply '^ I have received no informatiou
with the proposal, neither at on the subject, neither from

present, nor at any other him nor from his friend."

time." ** Precept nor discipline is not so

" There cannot be nothing more forcible as example."

insignificant than vanity." " The king nor the queen was

** Nothing never affected her so not all deceived in the busi-

much, as this misconduct of ness.

her child."

Corresponding with Hurray's Grammar,
RULE XVII.

Prepositions govern the objective case.

The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of
the objective ; " Who servest thou under V " Who do you speak to 7"
•• We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to." " Who dost thou
ask for 7" '' Associate not with those who none can speak well of." In all
these places, it ought to be " whom.**

The prepositions to and /or are often understood, chiefly before the pro- ,
nouns : as, " Give me the book ;" " Get me some paper j" that is, " to me,"

(1.)" and do."

SYNTAX. 107

'*for me." " Wo » me ;* i. e. " to me." " He wai tMnifhed Engiand f

:. e. **Jrom England."

" Who do you speak to 7" WiU you correct this sentence, and eicplaiii
why it is wrong ? " Give me the book.'' What is understood in this sen-
tence 7

"We are all accountable creatures, to? Who does be offer such

each for hisself." language to T"

" They willingly, and of theiraetves, " It was not he that they won so

endeavored to make up the difier- angry with."

ence." ** What concord can subsist be t w w

" He laid the suspicion upon some- %hose who commit crimes, and

body, I know not who, in the they (2.) who abhor them V*

company." "The person who I travelled with,

I hope it is not I who (1.) he is has sold the horse which be rode

displeased with." on during our journey."

*' To poor we, there is not much hope " It is not I he is engaged with."

remaining." '' Who did he receive that intelligence

* Does that Soy know who he speaks from ?"

1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it governs :
as, " Whom wilt thou give it to 7" instead of. *4 To whom wilt thou ^ve it ?"
" He is an author whom I am much delisted with ;" ** The world is too po-
lite to shock authoDrs with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the nrst
that inform them of." This is an idiom to which our language is strongly in-
clined ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with uie fa-
miliar style in writing : but the placing of the preposition before the relative is
snore graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the
lolemn and elevated style.

Will you repeal this Note, and g^ve an example under it 7

' To have no one whom we heartily " He is a friend whom I am highly
wish well to, and whom we are indebted to."

warmly concerned for, is a de-
plorable state."

2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to eooneci
JUfferent prepositions with the same noun ; as, ** To suppose the zodiac and
planets to be efficient o/, and antecedent to,^ themselves." This, whether
in the feuniliar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should general-
ly be avoided. In forms of law. and the like, where fulness and exactness
of expression ihust take place of every other consideration, it may be admit-
ted.

Is it correct to separate the preposition from the noun which it governs t
When may it be admitted 7

2.
'* On these occasions, the pronoun is "They were refused entrance into, an<f
governed by, (3.) and consequently forcibly driven from, the house."

agrees with, the preceding word." <,

3. DifTerent relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different
prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus we
say, " To converse with a person, upcn a subi<»ct, in a house," &c. We also
say, " We are disappointea of a thing," when we cannot get it, " and disap-

S)inted m it," when we have it, and find it does not answer our expectations,
lit two different prepositions must be improper in the same construction, and
in the same sentence ; as, " The combat bettoeen thirty French against t^TJity
English."

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to wh'ich of two prepositions the prefet
ence is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and custom has not de
cided in favor of either of them. We say, " Expert at," and " Expert in a
thing ;" " Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes j" " Expert in decep
tion°'

(1 .) " vritA whom." (8.) " Uum. (3.) ** bj the praoediuf word, and eanmqumOit 00tm wUk iU*

1(>6 ENGLISH QEAMMAiL

When prMMiitioiH we subjoined to nouns, Ibey are generally the same that
are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived ; as, " A compE-
ance mih," '' to eomply with /' ** A disposition to tyranny/' " disposea to
tyrannize.''

Do we express different relations and different sense by the same, or a dif-
forant praposilioa S

'' We aie often disappointed ^things, pnny, bat have always hitherto

which, before possession, {Mrom- been disappointed in that picas

ised much eniojrment." ure."

'' I have fi«quenUy desired their eom-

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of i^eat impor-
tance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety in the
application of this part of speech.

Ist, With respect to the preposition ofi " He is resolved of going to the
Persian court /' <* on goine/' Stc. ** He was totally dependent of the Papal
crown ;" '' on the Papal." &c. " To call of a person," and ** to wait of him ;"

fiat it would have been better omitted in the following sentences : " The em-
ulation, who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among them,
bat o^who sfa{>uld obtain the most lucrative command." '' The rain hath been
ftlline of a long time f " falling a long time." " It is situation chiefly which
dedctes of the fortune and characters of men f " decides the fortune," or,
*' tomcendng the fortune." '* He found the greatest difficulty of writinjg- ;" '' in
writing." " It mi^t have given me a greater taste of its anticjuibes." A
taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste for it, mipilies only
a capacity for enjoyment. ** This had a much greater share of inciting him,
than any regard amr his father's commands 3" ** diaie m inciting," and " re-
gard to his lather's," &c.

Sd, With respect to the prepositions to Bad for, ''You have bestowed
your favors to the most deserving persons ;" '' upon the most deserving," &.c.
" He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch j" " of having betrayed."
"His abhorrence to that superstitious figure:" "o/" that," &c. ''A great
change to the better j*' **for the better." " i our prejudice to my cause ;"
"ogatTut."' " The English were very different people then to what they are
at present 5" "Jrom what," &c. " In compliance to the declaration 5" "toithf"
&c. " It is more than they thoucht for 5" " thought of." " There is no need
for it ;" ** of it." For is superfluous in the phrase, '' More than he knows
for." " No discoura^ment for the authors to proceed :" " to the authors."
«c. It was perfectly m compliance to some persons ;" "with." '* The wisest
princes need not think it any diminution to tneir greatness, or derogation to
their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel ;" " diminution of," and " derogation
from."

3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon. " Reconciling himself
with Uie kin^." " Those things which have the greatest resemblance witl
each other, frequently differ the most" " That such rejection should be con
sonant with our common nature." " Conformable with," &c. " The lustory
of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texia.*' in all the above instances, il
should be " to" instead of *^ with," '' It is a use that, perhaps, I should not
have thought on ;" " Uiougfat of." " A greater quantity may be taken from
the heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it }" '* in it." ** Intrust-
ed to persons on whom Uie parliament could coniide ;" ■ " m whom." ** H«
was made much on at Ar^s 5" " much of." " If policy can prevail upos
force 5" " over force." "1 do likewise dissent with the examiner ;" **from."

4th, With respect to the prepositions in, from, &c. " Thejr should b»; in-
formed in some parts of his character :" " aooutf" or " concerning," " Upon
such occasions as fell into their cogmzance;" "under." "That variety of
factions into which we are still engaged 5" " in which." " To restore m!*ie]f
into the favor ;" " to the favor." " Could he have profited from his repnier '
experiences f " %." From seems to be superfluous after forbear; as, '• He

SYNTAX.

lOii

could not forb«&r^from appointing the pope/' &c. " A sk :t observance after
times and fashions '" ** of times.^ " The character which ^e may now value
ourselves by drawing '" " upon drawing*/' " Neither of them shall make me
swerve out of the path j" **/rom the path." " Ye blind guides, which strain ai
a gnat, and swallow a camel 3" it ou^ht to be, " which strain out a gnat, or,
lake a gnat out of the liquor by straunmg it." The impropriety of the prepo-
Mtion has wholly destroyed the meaning' of the phrase.

The preposition anwng generally implies a number of thin^. It cannot
be properly used in conjunction with the word every f which is m tlie suig^utar
■umber ; as^ " Which is found among every species of liberty }" ** The opmion
seems to gam ground among every tx>dy." i

** He is resolved of going to the Persian court." Will you correct this sen-
tence? ''You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving persons.^
How should this sentence be altered 7

'' Reconciling himself with the kin^." What inaccuracy is tliere in this sen-
tence ? " They should be informed m some parts of his character.*' Will
you correct this sentence ?

• 4.
"She finds a difficulty q/" fixing her

mind."
" Her sobriety is no derogation to

her understanding."
" There was no water, and he died

for (1.) thirst."
" We can fiillv confide on (2.) none

but the truly good."
" I have no occasion of his services."
''Many have profited from good ad-

Britain to their own

vice."

" Many ridiculous practices have been
brought in vog^e."

" The error was occasioned by com-
pliance to earnest entreaty."

" This is a principle in unison to our
nature."

part
power.

** He lives opposite the royal ex-
change."

" Their house is situated to the north-
east side of the road "

" The performance was approved of
by all who understood it"

** He was accused with having acted
unfaurly."

** She has an abhorrence to ail deceit*
fill conduct."

*' They were some distance (4.) from
home, when the accident hap-
pened."

''His deportment was adapted for
conciliating^ regard."

" We should entertain no prejudices " Mv father writes me very frequ^snt-

to simple and rustic persons." ly."

" They are at present resolved of do- " Their conduct was agreeable witli

ing tlieir duty." their profession."

" That boy is known under the name " We went leisurely above stairs, and

of the idler."

"Though conformable with custom,
it is not warrantable."

" This remark is founded in truth.'^

" His parents think on him and his
improvements, with pleasure and
hope."

" His excuse was admitted o/by {S.)
his master."

" ^Vhat went ye out for to see ?"

" There appears to have been a mill-
ion men brought into the field."

•' H's present was accepted of by his
friends,"

" More than a thousand of men were
destroyed."

" It is my request that he will be par-
ticular in soeakingto the follow-
ing points.

"The Saxons reduced the greater

came hastily below. We shall
write up stairs this forenoon, and
down stairs in the afternoon."
"The politeness of the world has
the same resemblance with benev-
olence, that the shadow has with
its substance."

" He had a taste of such studies, and
pursued them earnestly."

" Wnen we have had a true taste for
the pleasures of virtue, we cau
have no relish for those of vice."
How happy it is to know how to
live at tunes by one's self, to leave
one's self in reffret. to find one's
self a^n with pleasure! The
world IS then less necessary for

us.

" Civility makes its way among every
kind of persons."

ih)"nf.»

(3.' " ftv^"

f4.)lt fXII.

170 ENGLISH UHAMMAIL

6; Tbe prepositioii to is made um of hefora nouns of plaec^ wtien Ibflfsr M>
low verbs ana participles of motion ; as/^ I went to London y* '' I em goiog
to town" But the preposition at is generallv used after the neuter v#tfb toiei
as, " I have been at London 3'' '' I was at the place appointed ;" ** I shall be
at Paris." We likewise say, " He touched, arrived at any plaee/' The
preposition in is set before countries, cities, and lar^ towns ; as, " He lives
m France, in London, or in Binningnam." But belore viUaseSf single houees,
and cities which are in distant countries, at is used 3 as, '^ He hves at Hack-
ney }" ** He resides al Montpellier."

It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun one another ^ wlielii-
V the preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or before then
both. We may say,. " They were jealous of one another j" or, " They were
Jealous one of anotner f but perhaps the former is better.

Participles are frequently used as prepositions : as. excepting, respeetinjf^f
tauchh^, concerning f according. " They were an in fault except or excepting

How is the preposition to used with nouns of p^ce 7 Give an example.
Are participles ever used as prepositions X Give an example.

5.
** I have been to London, after having are going for Liverpool. They

resided a year at France 3 and I intend to reside some time ui

now live at Islington." Ireland **

" They have just landed in Hull, and

Correiponding with Marray** Grammar
BULE XVUI.

CmfwnctKm^ usually connect verbs of the same mood
and tense f and nouns or pronouns of the same ease.

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display its
qtility. " If he prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his professions, he will
succeed 3" " if he prefers," ** To deride the miseries of tne unhappv, is in-
huiiian } and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian i" " mdtovwU
compassion.'' " The pariiament addressed the king, and has been prorogued
the same itay f* " and wat prorogued.'' ** His w^th and him bid adieu to
each other i ** and fu." " He entreated us, my comrade and I, to live har-
moniously i" " comrade and iite.** ** My sister and her were on good terms f
" and she," ** We often overJooJc the blessings which are in our posaessioni
and are searching after those which are out of our reach)'' it ought to be«
" ana search after "

** His wealth and him bid adieu to eadi dther." Will you correct this sen
tence, and give the rule for Conjunctions 7

<*Professuig resard, and to act (1.) proceecfing temperately m the

differently, oiscover a base mind.*^ pursuit of them, is the oest way

" Did he not tell me his fault, and en- to ensure success."

treated me to forjg^ve him 7" '' Between him and I there is some

** My brother i^d mm are tolerable disparity of years 3 but none b^

grammarians." tween him and she."

''If lie understand the subject, and '' By fbrming themsdves on fantastic

attends to it industriouslv, he can models, and ready to vie with one

aearcely 'ail of success." another in the reigning follies, tlie

** You and ns enjoy many privileges." young begin with being ridiculous .

<< She and him are very unhappily and end with being vicious and

coanecied." immoral."

" To be moderate in our views, and

1. Conjunctions are. hideed, fre(]uently made to connect diftcrent moods
and tenses of verbs 3 but in these instances, the nominative must generally, il

> ictiof," or, '• TV prtiftmittmdt and tooet,*'ke.

SYNTAX. 171

nol a\w9ySf he rcp^atsd. which is pot necessary, though it may be done, uadcf
the coBstmctiffiQ to whicn the nile refers. We may say, '' He lives temperate-
ly, tatd be should live temperately ;" '' He mau return, but he wiU not continf
ue ,*" ** She was proud, though she is now humble :" but it is obvious, that, in
such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated; and that, by this means, the
latter meQ)i>ers of these sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent on the
precediD^, as those are which come under this rule. When, in the progress
of a seoteace, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, or from the
neenlive to the affirmative, the subject or nominative is always resumed ; as,
'^ He is rich, but he is not respectable.'' There appears to be, in general,
«piaL reason for repeating the nominaiive, and resunung the subject, when the
OQUfse of the seateace is diverted )»y a chaise of the mood or tense. The fol-
lowing[ sentences may therefore be m>proved : " Anger glances into the breast
of a wise man, but will rest only in the boscMn of fools ',* " but rests only -/' or,
" but it will rest only.'' " Virtue is praised by many, and would be desired
also, if her worth were really known 5'* " and me would." " The world be-
giae to recede, and will soon disappear 3" " and it wUl."

Do conjuBctions erer conaeet dllTerenft moods and tenses of verbs 7 What
case must geaeraUy be repeated in such instances ? Give an exaaiple.

'^ We have met with many disappoint- great riches, but do not command

ments ; and. if life continue, shall esteem."

(1.) probably meet with many ''Our seasons of improvement are
more." ^ short, and, whether used or not,

'^ Bank may confer influence, but ^1 will soon pass away."

(2.) not necessarily produce vir- '' He might have been happy, and is
tue." now (3.) fully convinced of it,"

" He does not want courage, but is " Learning strengthens the mind, and,
defective in sensibility.''^ if properly applied, will improve

" These people have indeed acquired our morals too."

BJJVB XXVJJXm

Corresponding with Mnrray's Grammar
SULB XJX

Hams conjwuctions require the indicative, some the sub
junctiv€y mood after them. It is a general rule, that
when something contingent or doubtful is implied, the
sulyimctive ought to be used; as, ^^IJ Iwere to write,
he would not regard it;" "He will not be par-
doned, unless he repent. ^^

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature
require the indicative mood. ^^As virtue advances,
so vice recedes ;" " He is healthy, becau&t he is tem-
perate,"

The conjunctions if, ifumgh, unless, except, whether, <$&c., generally require
he subjuniLtive mood after them ; zs, " If thou be afflicted, repine not ;"
'* Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;" " He cannot be clean, unless
he lOAsA himself j'' " No power, except it were given from above j" " WheOier
it were I or the/, so we preach." But even these conjunctioas, when the sen-
tence does not imply doubt, adaiit of the mdicative f as, " Though he %s poor,
be is contented."

The following example may, in some measure, serve to iHustrsAe the dis-

, ■■ I ll I - I ■ I I I I. 1 1 1 I III ■

(1.) "iMtAoS." 0.)«aunU.» (3.) «« atuf n«M Ai if.**

172

ENGLISH GltAlVlMAR.

tincUon between tne subjunctive and the indicative moods : " *rh&ugn oe wen
divinely inspired, and spoke therefore as the oracles of God, with supreme au-
thority ; though he wert endued with supernatural powers, and could, th««-
fore, nave confirmed tlie truth of what he uttered, by miracles ; yet, in compli
ance with the way in which human nature and reasonable creatures ara usual-
ly wrouglit upon, he reasoned/' That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and
endued witli supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted,
as not admitting the least doubt 3 thev would therefore have been better ex-
pressed in the indicative mood : " Tnough he toas divinely inspired ; thot^^
ne wcu endued with supernatural powers." The subjunctive is used in the like
improper manner, in the followmg example : ** Tmnigfi he were a son, yet
learned be obedience, by the things which he suffered." But, in a similar pas*
sage, the indicative^ with great propriety, is employed to the same purpose i
** Tnough be toas rich, yet for your sakes he became poor.''

What conjunctions generally require the subjunctive mood after them ?

" Though he were her friend, he did
not attempt to justify her conduct"
'' Whether he improve or not, I can-
not determine."
'' Though the fact be extraordinary, it

certainly did happen."
" Remember what thou wert, and be

(3.) humble."
"O that his heart was tender, and
susceptible of the woes of others 1"
'' Shall then this verse to fiiture age
pretend,
Thou wert my guide, plulosopher,
and friena ?"

" If he acquires (1.) riches, they will
corrupt his mind, and be useless
to others."

" Though he urses me yet more ear-
nestly. 1 shaH not comply, unless
he aavances more forcible rea-

sons."

" I shall walk in the fields to-day, un-
less it rains."

" As the governess were {%) present,
the children behaved properly."

"She disapproved the measure, be-
cause it were very improper."

" Though he be high, be hath respect
to ue lowly."

1. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily reqmre
the subjunctive mood ; as, " Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty :" " Re-

Srove not a scomer, Ust be luUe thee ;*' " Take heed that thou speak not to
acob."
If. with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive
mood ; as, "If he do out touch the hills, they shall smoke ;" ** 1/ hebe but
discreet, he will succeed." But the indicative ought to be used, on this occa-
sion, when future time is not signified : as, " If, in this expression, he does but
jest, no offence should be taken :" " Jfshe is but smcere, I am happy." The
same distinction applies to the following forms of expression : " If he do sub-
mit, it will be from neossity ;" " Though he €U)es submit, be is not convinced j**
" If thou do not rewan t this service, he will be discouraged ;" " If thou dosi
heartily forgive him, endeavor to forget the offence."

When do lest and that require the subjunctive mood after them 7 When
does if require the subjunctive 7 When the indicative 7

'Despise not any condition, lest it
happens 10 be your own."

■' Let him that is sanguine take heed
lest he miscarries?*

''Take care that thou breakest not
any of the established rules."

"If he does but (4.) intimate his de-
sire, it will be sufficient to produce
obedience."

" At the time of his return, if he is but
expert in the business, be will find
emplo^nnent."

" If he do but speak to display his

abilities, he is unworthy of atten*

t-on."
" If he be but in health, I am content."
" If he does promise, he will certainly

perform."
" Though he do praise her, it is only

for her beauty."
"If thou dost not forgive, peiiiapa

thou wilt not be forgiven.'^
"If thou do sincerely believe tba

truths of religion, act accord'nr

ly."

(I.)

<B.) 4fl6.

(Sk) Anders.

(4.) 664.

SYM-lAX 173

2. In the following nutances, the conjuncUQQ that, expressed or understood,
seems to be improperly acconipanied with the subjunctive mood : ** So much
she dreaded his tyrajny, that the fate of her friend she dare not lament ;" ** He
reasoned so artfully, that his friends would listen, and think Ithai] he toere not
wrong.".

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it 1

2.
" His confused behavior made it rea- rebuke, that he dare not make any

sonable to suppose that he were reply.''

guilty.'' " His apology was so plausible, thai

** He is so conscious of deserving the many befriended him, and thought

he were innocent"

3 The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive
moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a
great impropriety j as in these instances : " If there be but one body of legis-
lators, it is no better than a tyranny : if thene are only two, there will want a
casting voice." *^ If ^ man have a nundred sheep, and one of them U gone
astray," d&c.

May the same conjunction have both the subjunctive and indicative moods
after it in the same sentence 7 Give an example of this impropriety.

" If one man prefer a life of industry, '' No one engages in that business, un-
it is because he has an idea of less he aim at reputation, or hopes
comfort in wealth ; if another pre- for some singular advantage."
fers a life of gayety, it is from a '' Though the design be laudable, and
like idea concermng pleasure." is favorable to our interest, it will

involve much anxiety and labor."

4. Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language, have
arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the
sentence, and made it regular ; and it is probable^ that this has generally been
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of^ words now m use j which
will appear from the following examples : ** We shall overtake him, though
he run ;" that is, '' Uinugh he should run." " Unless he act prudently, he will
not accomplish his purpose ;" that is. " unless he ahaU act prudently." <' If
he nteceed, and obtain nis end. he will not be the happier for it :" that is, " If
he thouLd succeed, and should obtain his end." Tnese remarks and exam-

!>les are designed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive
brms of expression ; and to enable the student to examme the propriety of
using them, oy tracinj^ the words in ouestion to their proper origin and ancient
connections. But it is necessary to be more particular on this subject, and
therefore we shall add a few observations respecting it.

That part of the verb whicti jg^rammarians call the present tense of the sub-
junctive mood, has a future siniification. This is effectod by varying the
terminations of^ the second and third persons sinfi;ular of the indicative ; as will
be evident firom the following examples : " If uou prosper, thou shouldst be
thankful." " Unless he study more closely, he will never be learned." Some
writers, however, would express these sentiments without those variations ;
** If thou prosperest," d&c. j " Unless he studies/* &c. ; and, as there is great
diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few re-
marks, to assist them in distinguishing the right application of these different
forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that the changes of ter-
mination are necessary, when these two circumstances concur i 1st. When
the subject is of a dubious and contingent nature ; and, 2d. When tne verb'
has a reference to future time. In the following sentences, Doth these circum-
stances will be found to unite : ** If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself."
'' He has a hard heart ; and if he continue impenitent, ne must suffer." " He
wiU maintain his principles, though he lose his estate." ** Whether he succeed
or not, m's intention is laudable.'" *' If he be not prosperous, he will not re
pine." ** If a man smite his servant, and he die," olc. Exod. xxi. 20. In all
these examples, the thin^ signified by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to
future time. Bat in the instances which follow, fiit'ire time is not referred to $

15 •

174 ENGLISH GKAAIMAR.

alid tt«refor0 a diiliireRt constroeticm takes plac6 1 " If tbou Hveat TiHuoittlj.
tbon Art happy/' " Unless h« means what ne saja, he is doubly fBatMeM."
' rf he aUtms the excellence of Virtue, he does not regard her precepts. '
" Though he seems to be simple and artless, he has deceived us/' " 'Vlliether
virtue is better than rank or wealth, admits not of any dispute/' ** If .thou 60-
lievest with all thy heart, thou m^yest," A&c. Acts viii. 77. There are ntaoy
tenteuces, introduced by conjunctions, m which neither contingency nor futuri-
ty is denoted ; as, *' Though he excels her in ^uiowledgB^ she far exceeds h^
in virtue." ** I have no doubt of his principle* j but if ae believes the tniihs of
lelkion, he does not act according to them.''

That both the circumstances of contingency and fiituiity are necessary, a»
tests of the propriety of altering the termmations, will be evident, by inspect-
ing the following examples ; which show that there are mstances in which nei-
ther of the circumstances aione implies the other. In the three examples fol-

iestoiees. fhturity is signined, but not contingency. '* As soon as the sun
Mte, it will be cooler." ** As the autumn advances, these birds will gradually
enicrate."

n appears, from the tenor of the examples^edduced, that the rales above
mentioned may be extended to assert, that, in cases wherein contingency and
futurity do not concur, it is not proper to Uura the verb from its sienificatien of
present time, or to va^ its form or termination. The verb wouid then be in
the indicative noood, whatever conjunctbns might attend iu If these rules,
which seem ui form the true distinelion between the subjunctive aad tbe'uadic-
ative moods in this tense^ were adopted and established in practice, we should
have, on this point, a prmciple of decision simple and precise, and readily ap-
plicable to every case that might occur. It will, doubtless, sometimes happen,
that, on this occaAon, as well as on many other occasions, a strict adinerence
to grammatical rules would render the language stiff and formal ; but when
eases of this sort occur, it is better to give me expression a different torn, than
Violate grammar for the sake of ease, or even of degance.

Has die present tense of the sul^unctive mood a future signification ? fiow
is this Reeled 7 What two drciuastaaces should concur to render necessary
this chsuige of termination 7

Should the termination be changed when ftifeurity and contingency do no«
concur 7 What mood or form will the verb then be m 7

^ Unless he U&rm fmtUf he will be Persevere until thou gaiiiest the

no scholar/' summit: there, ail it or«^r^ beauty

** Though he falls , he shall net be ut* and pleasure."

fterly cast down." '' If Gharlolle desue to gMB esteem

" On condition that he comei, I will and love, she does net employ the

consent to slay." pieper means."

" However that affair termmaUs, (1.) « Unless the acecKuitant deceive me,

my eonduet will be unimpeMna- my estate is considerably improv-

We/' ed."

" If virtue rewards ns not so soon as ** Though sdf-govemment prodoee

we desire, the payment will be some uneasiness, it is tignt when

made with interest." ecmisMied with the paia m videua

" Till repeatanee composes his mind, iadmgence/'

he wiU be a stranger to peace." '' Whether he think as he speaks^ time

** Whether he confesses or not, the will discover."

truth will eertainly be discover ^ If thou censure uncharitably, tltaa

ed." deservest no favor."

^ If thou eensarest uncharitably, thoa ** Though Virtue apaear Severe, she
wilt be entitled to no favor." is truly amiable."

hough suc(

<ttd' CMg«y» *>• net '<iisc<iNrage(j[ sueeeed."

" Though, at thnes, the ascent to the " Though success ke very dcubtfid, it
temple of virtue appear steep is proper that he endeavart to

(t.) dr, «< may femWhtftk.*

SYNTAX. f75

fi. Ob Uw form of the anxilmries in the eovnpoQnd tcoiseii of tbit fttbjiuietive
mood, it seems proper to Aialcd a feiM^ observations. Borne writers express
themselves in the perfect tense as follows : ** If thou have determined, we must
submit :'' '' Unless he have consented, the writing* will be void :'' but we be-
lieve that few authors of critical sagacity write in this manner. The propef
form seems to be, ''If thou hast determined," " Unless he has consented,"
&c., eoi^rmabljr to what we generally meet with in the Bible : " I have sut-
named thee^ dioufh thou hast not known me." Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. " What ig
the hope of ^ hypocrite, though he hath gained," &c. Job zxyU. 8. SM
also Acts zxviSii 4.

" If thou have determiaed, we must submit." How should this sentence b«
altered?

6.
^ If thou have promised, be faithful to submission, he is too geiienNis to

thy enffafi^ement." exact it."

** Though he nave proved his right to " Unless be have improved, he if un-
fit for the office."

6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we somatimes meet with suck e>
pressions as these ; " If thou had apfilied thyself dihgendy, tkou wooldst kvm
reaped the advantage ;" " Unless thou ^uul speak the wnole truth, we can-
not determine ;" " u thou tDiil undertake the business, there is litde doubt ef
success." Tfaiis mode of expressing the auxiliaries mes not appear to bm
warranted bv the genend practice of correct writers. They sboiud be, hetdsi,
shaii and unit : ami we find them used in this form, in the sacred Scriptares «
<* If thou hadst known," &c. Luke xix. 47. " If thou hadst been here," duu
John xi. 21. " If thou wilt, thou canst asake me eban." Matt. viii. 2. See^
aUo, 2 Sara. ii. 27 ; Matt. xvii. 4.

" If thoa wilt undertake the business, there is little doobt of success." b thb
node of expression warranted by good authority 7 Hew alhoidd it be altered t

* If thou had succeeded, perhaps thou -of the measore, we shall net de-

wouldst not be the happier for sire thy soppoH."

it." *'Thoa;rh thdtt will net acknowfedge,

'* Unless thoa shall see the propriety ifioa canst not deny the feet."

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive,
mood, is also very frequently varied in its termination ; as, " If thou loved him
tnil^, thou wouldst obey him ;" '' Though thou did conform, thou hast gained
nothing by it." This variation, however, appears to be improper. Our pres-
ent version of the Scriptures, which we again refer to as a ^^ood graromatical
authority in points of this nature, decides against it : *' If thou knemest the
gift," &LC. John iv. 10. " If thou ^Mst receive it, why dost thou f lory 7" &«.
I Cor. iv. 7. See also Dan. v. 22. But it is proper to remark, that the foim
of the verb to be, when usCd snbjunctively in the imperfect tense, is indeed
very considerably and properly varied from that which it has in the imperfect
of the indicative mood ; as the learner will perceive by tumhig to the con-
jUgation of that verb.

Is the second person sinsuW of the imperiect ever varied in its tenniaatkin
M the subjunctive moodr WiU you give an example 7 Is this varfaiiea
oroper 7

7.
' If thou^doe liberally, thou wilt le- " Was he ever so giest and ewjAett,
ceive a liberal reijfard.*' this conduct would debase aim."

' Though thou did injure hun, he her- " Was I to enumerate ail her vhrtaw
bors no resentment." it would look like flattery."

* Jt would be well, if the report was " Though I was perfect, yet wodld I

only the misrepresentation of her not presume.'^

enemies."

8. It may not be superfluous also to observe, that the auxiliaries of the po
.ential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination
if the secona person singular. We properly say, " If thou iMOfst or canst go :"

* Though thou mightst five ;" " Unless thou eouldst read ;" *' If thou wmdm

174 ENGLISH GRAMJMAK.

learn ;''"-aua not " If thou mm/ or con go/' ice. It is sufficient, on this pouK
to adduce the authorities of Johnson ana Lowth :— '^ If thou shouldst eo f
Johnson, " If thou maystf migfUstf or couldst love ;" Lowth. Some authors
think that, when that expresses the motive or end, the termination of these
auxiliaries should be varied 3 as, '' I advise thee, that thou muy beware j"
'* He checked thee, that thou should not presume 'j but there does not appear
to be any ground for this exception. If the expression of ** condition, aoubt,
contineencv,'' d&c. does not warrant a change in the form of these auxiliaries,
why shouia they have it, when a motive or end is expressed ? The transla'
tors of the Scnptures do not appear to have made the distinction contended
for. ** Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be Uieir kin^/' Neh. vi. 6.
" There is forgiveness with thee^ Uuxt thou mayst be feared." rs. cxxx. 4.

From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears, that, with re-
spect to what is termed the present tense of any verb, when the circumstances
of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations of
the second and third persons singular : that without the concurrence of those
circumstances, the terminations shouia not be altered ; and that the verb and
the auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the first future, un-
dmtfgo no alterations whatever, except the imperfect of the verb to be, which, in
cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the persons of the sm?ular number.

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be natural for
tine student to inquire. What is the extent of the subjunctive mood 7 Some
grammarians think it extends only to what is called the present tense of verbs
generally, under the circumstances of contingency and fliturity, and to the
unperfect tense of the verb to be. when it denotes contingency, &c ; because
in these tenses only, the form of tne verb admits of variation 3 and they suppose
that it is variation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods. It is the
opinion of other g^rammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) that, besides the
two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the tnree past and the two future tenses
are in the subjunctive mood, when they denote contingency or uncertainty,
though they have not any change of termination 3 and that, when contingency
18 not signified, the verb, throng all these five tenses, belongs to the indicative
mood, whatever coniunction may attend it They think that the definition
and nature of the sub|unctive mood have no reference to chan^ of termina-
tion, but that they re^ merely to the manner ^ the being, action, or passion
si^ified by the verb 3 and that the subjunctive mood majr as properly exist
without a variation of the verb, as the infinitive mood, which has no termina-
tions different from those of the indicative. The decision of this point may
ncrt^ by some grammarians^ be thought of much consequence. But the rules
which ascertain the propriety of varying or not varying the terminations
of the verb, will certainly be deemed important. These rules mav be well
observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respecting the nature and limits of
the subjunctive mood.*

Do the auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive,
change the termination of tne second person singular ? When is it proper to
vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the present
tense 7 Do the verb and auxiliaries of the past tenses, and the auxiliaries of
tl^ first future, undergo any alteration? What exception? What is the
opinion of some grammarians in regard to the extent of the subjunctive mood ?
What is the opinion of other grammarians ? In which of these opinions does
the author concur ?

8.
'If thou may share in his labors, be " Unless thou can fairly support the
thankfiil, and do it cheerfully." cause, give it up honorahly.'^

*WelULve stated, for the ttudent^ information, the different opiniooief grunmarianB, respecting ihe Eiiglish
Ml^unctive mood : Pint, that Trhich nippoMs then is no sach mood in our language ; Seamdiy, that which
•atends it no fkrtfaer than the variations of the veri» extend ; 7*Atni^ that which we have adopted, and
explained at large, and which, in general, correal
grammar. We may add a Fourth opinion, wfe
opinion admitu the arrangement we have given,

' r } aa^ " If he (/fsirM it, F will
I contingency and futurit\ ; m,
- H DO owire 11, 1 will iicriorm lue operarion ;" tbal IS, " U ht sbonld tUTtafter desire it." This last th-or-
or Jtoe subjunctive mood cUims the merit of rendering tlie whole system of Ihe moods consistent and resnilai
of being more oonfam.able than any other to the definition of the subjuncUve, and of not referring lo tn«
i«dUaitI»exnood forms of Mcprwsion, which ill accord with its aiaplicity and oatura. Perhaiw tLls ihes
wlU mar a sVi in aamination.

t me vero exiena ; /'AtruM, inai wnicn we pave auoprea, ami
rresponda with the views ofUie most approved writers on £iiKlh.h
, vrhicb upears to possess, at least, much plauaibilitv. This
;iven, with one variation, namely, (hat of assigning to the tirtt

fciVNTAX. 177

" 'lliougfa tbou mi^l have foreseen *' Unless thou should mike a timely

the danger, thou couldst not have retreat, the danger will be una-

avoidecTit." voidable."

" If thou could convince him, he " I have labored and wearied m^^selfi

would not act accordingly." that thou may be at ease."

** If thou would improve m knowl- " He euiarg«d on those dauffers, thai

edge, be diligent." thou should avoid them."

9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjimctions belonging to them,
either expressed or understood 3 as,

Ist. Though — ya, nevertheless ; as, " 7%>uffh ha was rich, yet for our sakos he
became poor ;" ** Though powerfal, he was meek."

Sd. Whether— or ; as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell.**

2d. Either — or ; as, " I will either send it, or bring it myself.**

4th. Neither— *or ; as, " Neither he nor 1 am able to coaipass it.**

5th. jSs — at; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, *' She is as amiable as bei
lister ; and as much respected."

6th. Jte—eo ; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, ** As the stars, so shall tby
seed be.**

7tb. As — so f expressing a comparison of quality ; as, ** As the one dieth, so dieth
the other |** " As be reads, they read.*'

8th. So — as i with a verb expressing a comparison of quality ; as, ** To soe thy
glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary.**

9th. So— OS} with a negative and an adjective expressing a comparison of quanti-
tj: as, " Pompey was not so great a general as Cesar, nor so great a man.**

lOth. 80 — that i expressing a consequence ; as, ** He was so fktigued, that he
could scarcely move.*'

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal propri-
ety. ** The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor decisive,
assented to the measure." In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have been
better ; but, ii\ genera], Tior seems to repeat the negation in the former part of
the sentence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression.

Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunctions belong-
ing to them ? Give examples. *

" Neither the cold or the fervid, but " The dog in the manger would not

characters uniformly warm, are eat the hay himself,' nor suiier the

formed for friendship.** ox to eat it.**

" They are both praiseworthy, and '' As far as I am able to judge, the

one IS equally (1.) deserving as book is well written."

the other.** **We should faithfully })erform the

" He is not as diligent and learned as trust committed to us, or ingen-

bis brother." uously relinquish the charge."

" I will present it to him myself, or " He is not as eminent^ and as much

direct it to be given to him." esteemed, as he thmks himself to

'' Neither desfMse or oppose what thou be."

dost not understand.** '' The work is a dull performance,

' The house is not as commodious as and is neither capable of pleasing

we expected it would be.** (3.j the understanding, or the im-

' I must, nowever, be so candid to agination.**

own I have been mistaken." *' There is no condition so secure, as

' There was something so amiable, cannot admit of change."

and yet so piercing m his look, as '* This is an event which nobody pre-

(2.) affected me at once with love sumes upon, or is so sanguine to

and terror.** hope for.**

— — — — " I gained a son ; " We are generally pleased with any

A.nd such a son as all men hailed me little accomplishments of body or

happy." mind."

10. Conjunctions are of\en improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The
following are examples of this impropriety : " The relations are so uncertain,
as that tney require a great deal of examination ;" ** It should be, ^* that they
require," ^c. " There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend

<\A Tor ** oquang,*' ratd <* or." (l.)*'that K." (3.) " ntitlur Uu. "

178 ENGU»H tfKAMMAR

Home HI eonaeqaences ; it ought to be^ ** so tanpune as not to apprehend/'
6lc, I or, " no man, bow sanguine soever, who didnot/' Ax. " To trust in him
IS no more but to acknowledge his power/' " This is no other but the gate ol
paradise.'^ In both ofthese instances, but should be t/uxn. ** We should suffi-
ciently weigh the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as we may
reasonably expect from them what they propose/' Slc. It ought to be, " that
we may reasonably.'' dee. *^ The duke naa not behaved with that loyalty as
he ought to have aone ;" '' voith vohich he oucht." '' In the order as they lie
in his preface /' it should be, ** in order as they lie /' or, ** in the order m
which they lie." " Such sharp replies that cost nim his life 5" " as coat/' &c.^
" If be were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly punted 3" ''micA m
•carecrow," &c. ** I wish I could do that justice to his memory, to obKge Iho
painters," &c. ; " do mch justice as to obnge," ^c.

Will you repeat this Note, and g^ve an example under it f Wh^ is said
of sentences beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb 7 Give an exam-
ple. When has as the forr« of a relative pronoun 7 (1.) Give an example.

There is a pecoliar neatness in a sentenee beginning with the eonjonctiTe form
of a verb. ** nere there no difference, there would be no choice."

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent elauees of a sentenee, it BomeCimes
made use of, as, ** Had ho done this, he k4td escaped f* ** Had the limitations on
the prerogative been, in his time, <^uite fixed and certain, his Integrity had made
him regard as sacred the boundaries of the eonatltntion." The eentence in die
common form would have read thus : " If the limitation* on tiie prerogative had
been," A^c. " his integrity would have made him regard," See,

The particle «, when it is connected with the pronoun ntcJk, has the force of a
relative pronoun ; as, '* Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own
conduct :" which is e<^uivalent to, " Let them who presume," A^c. But when used
by itself, this partieie is to be considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb.

Oor language wants a conjunction adapted to a fomiliar stvle, e<{«ivalent to fuU
withstanding. The words fSr all that seem to be too low. ** The word was in the
mouth of every one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a secret."

/a rsford thai is solemn and antiquated ; because would do much better in the fol-
lowing sentence : ** It cannot be otherwise, ifi regard that the French prosody differs
from that of every other lanfuaee."

The word exe^t is far preterable to other than, ** It admitted of no effeetval case
other than amputation." JBxeept is also to be preferred to all buL " They were
happy, all but the stranger." In ^e two following phrases, the conjunction as is
improperly omitted: ** Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine to hope." " 1
must, however, be so jost . to own." *■

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood ; as, « I bog yoa
would come to me )" " See thou do it not ;" instead of** that you would," ** that
thou do." But in the following, and many similar phrases, this conjunction were
much better inserted : ** Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to poa*
terity." It should be, "Yet it is >4tt*(U the memory," fcc.

10.

''Be ready to succor such personated "He gained nothing forthef by b';

(2.) need thy assistance." speech, bat only (6.) to be com

'* The matter was no sooner proposed, mended for his eloquence."

InU{S.) be privately withdrew to ''He has little more of the schola.

consider it." besides the name."

" He has too mueh sense and prudence " He has little of the scholar Oian the

than to become a dupe to such name."

artifiees." "They had to sooner risen, bufi
" It is not sufficient thai oor conduct, they applied Aemselves to thet

a« far as it respects others, appears studies.''

to be unexceptionable." "From no other institution^ besides
" The resolution was not the less fixed, the admirable one of Junes, could

0iat (4.) the secret was yei com- so great a benefit be expected."

municated to very few." " Those savage people seined to
" He opposed the most remarkable have no ouier element but war."

corruptions ofthe church of Rome, "Such men tliat act treacfaeroosly

so 15.) as thai his doctrines were ought to be avoided."

embraced by great numbers."

n.)«». (?.)"•».» CD^thtm." (4.)«lAo«f*.*' {B.)*<undanthuaaount.» <e.)

SYNTAX 179

' Uermany ran Uie same risk as Italy <' N« errors are m> trivial, but they (i.)
had done." deserve to be corrected "

C<Mrrefponding with Murray's Grammar
RULE XX

When the qualities of different things are compared^
J the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the con^
junction than or as, but agrees vnih the verb^ or is
governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or
understood; o^'^Thou adrt wiser than I;*' that is,
" than I am." " They loved him more than me ;"
that is, "more than they loved me." "TTie senti-
ment is well exfn-essed by Plato, but much better by
Solomon than him ;" that is, " than by him."

"The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, m the precediBg as weD
M in some other forms, may be discovered, oy supftlying the words that are
not expressed ; which will be evident from tne following instances of erroneous
construction : ^* He can read better than me/' ^* He is as good as her/'
** Whether I be present or no/' '* Who did this 7 Me," By supplying the
words understood, in each of these phrases, their impropriety ana goveniing
lule will appear } as, " better than I can read ;" " as good as she is f* " pres-
ent or not present i" " I did it."

** Thou art wiser than I." Will yon parse 7, and repeat the rule for it T

'' In some respects, we have had 9s " They know how to write as well as

many advantages as them j but in him ^ but he is a much better gram-

the article of a good library, they manan than them.''

have had a greater privilege than '' Though she is not so learned as him,

us." she is as much beloved and re-

« The undertaking was much better spected."

executed by his brother than he." " These people, though they possess

'' They are much greater gainers than more shming qualities, are not so

tne by this, unexpected event." proud as him, nor so vain as her."

1. By not attendinp^ to this rule, many errors have been committed; a
number of which is subjoined, as a mrtlier caution and direction to the learner t
' Thou art a much greater loser than me bv his death." ** She suffers hourly
more than me." ''We contributed a third, more than the Dutch, who were
obliged to the same propotticMi more than us." " King Charles, and, more
than him, the duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new
schemes." " The dnft of all nis sermons was. to prepare the Jews for the
reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy
to bear." " It was not the work of so eminent an author as him to whom it
wta first nnpnted." " A stone b heavy, and tlie sand weighty ; but a fool's
wrath is heavier than them both." ** If the king give us leave^ we may per
form the office as well as them that do." In these passages, it ought lo be,
" /, toe, he, thev/' respectively.

When the relative who immediately follows than, it seems to form an ex-
ception to the 29th Rule : for, in that connection, the relative must be in the
objective case : as, " Alfred, than tohom a greater king never reigned," ^c.
** Beelzebub, tfiah tohomj Satan excepted, none hi^er sat," Slc, It is re-
markable that^ in such instances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would
be in the nominative case , as, '' A greater king never reigned than he," that
is, '• than he was." " Beelzebub, than he," &c., that is, " titan he sat." The
phrase than whom is, however, avoided by the best modem writers.

** She suffers houriy more than me." Will you correct this sentence, and
sw plnin why it is wrong 1

180 BNG/.1SH GRAMMAR

* Who belra3'ed her companion 7" '^ Whether he will be learned or no,

" Not me." must depend on his application.'

** Who revealed the secrets he oug-ht " Charles XII. of Sweden, than wh<r

to have concealed ?" ''Not^im." (1.) a more courag-eous person

** Who related falsehoods to screen never lived, appears to have been

herself, and to bring an odium destitute of the tender sensibili

upon others?'' ''Not me; it was ties of nature."

her.**^ ** Salmasius (a more learned man than

" There is but one in fault, and that him has seldom appeared) was not

is me." happy at the close of life."

Correi pondinf with Marray'i Grammar
RULE XXI

To avoid disagreeable repetitions^ and to express out
ideas in a few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some
words, is frequently admitted. Instead of saying,
'^ He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and
he was a good man," we mxiTce use of the ellipsis, and
say, " He was a learned, wise and good man."

When the omission of words would obscure the sentence^
weaken its force, or be attended vjith an impropriety j
they must be expressed. In the sentence, " We are
apt to love who love us," the word them should be
supplied. " A beautifiil field and trees," is not
proper language ; it should be " Beautiful fields and
trees," or " A beautiful fielded fine trees."

Almost a}l compounded sentences are more or less elliptical 5 some exam-
ples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech.

'' I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me." Will jou correct this sen-
tence, and repeat the latter part of Rule XXX, by which the correction \i
made?

'' I Gfladly shunned (2.) who gladly fell a victim to the madness of the

fled from mc." people, truth, virtue, religion, fell

And this is (3.) it men mean by dis- with him." (5.)

tributive justice, and is properly '' The fear of death, nor hope of IHe,

termed equity." could make him submit to a dis-

'His honor, interest, r«liffion were honest action." (6.)

all embarked in this unacrtaking." ''SAn elegant house and flimiture were^

(4.) by this event, irrecoverably jost

' Wnen so good a man as Socrates to the owner." (7.)

1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used : ''A man, woman, and child :"
that is, " a man, a woman, and a child." " A house and garden ;" that is, "tk
nouse and a garden." " The sun and moon ;" that is, " the sun and the
moon." " The da^ and hour 5" that is, " the day and the hour." In all these
instances, the article being once expressed, the repetition of it becomes
unnecessary. There is,^ however, an exception to this observation, when some
peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the following sentence : " Not
onl V the year, but the day and the hour." In this case, the ellipsis of the last
article would be improper. When a different form of the article is requisite,
the article is also properl v repealed 3 as, " a house and an orchard," instead
of '* a house and orchard."

twice more. (s.) aiia iwim. (9.) ** tftUfttr-^nor.^ (7.) "mttGAcMUv.**

8YNTAX. ISl

Will you giv« an example of the ellipsis of the artide ? Is it necessary to
•epeat the article in each of these instances ?

** These niles are addressed to none with an unimproved, or Math a

but the intelligent and the {I.) at- corrupted, mind.''

tentive/' " The more I see of l^s conduct, I like

" The g&y and Vie pleasing are, some- him better."

times, the most insidious^ and the " It is not only the duty, but interest,

most dangerous companions.'' of young persons to be studioua

" Old age wifi prove a joyless and a and diligent."
dreary season, if we arrive at it

2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner : '' The laws of
God and man ;" that is, ** The laws of God and the laws of man." In some
very emphatical expressions^ the elUpsis should not be used ; as, ** Christ, the
power of God, and the wisdom or God ;" which is more emphatical than
** Christ the power and wisdom of God."

Will you give an example of the omission of the noun ? Should this ellipsis
always be used ?

2.
' These counsels were the dictates of entertainment, when others leave

virtue, and the dictates (2.) of true us." (4.)

honor." ''Without firmness, nothing that is

' Avarice and cunning may acquire great can be undertaken ; that is

an estate, but avarice and cunning difficult or hazardous, can be ac-

cannot fain friends." (3.) complished." (d.)

'A taste ror useful knowledge will ''Theanxious man is the votary of rich-
provide for us a great anu noble es ', the negligent of plcasure."(6.

3. The ellipsis of the ae^ective is used in the following manner : ** A de-
lightful earden and orchard 5" that is, ** A delightful garden and a delightfiL
orchard/' " A little man and woman 3" that is, " a little man and a little
woman." In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought to have
exactly the same signification, and to be quite as proper, when joined to the
latter substantive as to the former ; otherwise the ellipsis should not be ad-
mitted.

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers ,
as, ** A magnificent nouse and ^aniens." In this case it is better to use
anqther adjective ; as, '^ A magnificent house, and fine gardens."

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the adjective T What rule is
to be observed in the use of this ellipsis ?

" His crimes had brought him into " That species of commerce will pro-
extreme distress and extreme per- duce great gain or loss. (10.)
plexity." (7.) "Many days, and even weeks, pass

' He has an affectionate brother, and away unimproved." (10.)

an affectionate sister, and they ** This wonderful action struck the be-
live in great harmony." (8.) holders with exceeding (11.) as*

** We must guard a^iist too great se- tonishment." ( 10. )

verity,aiid facility of maimers."(9.) ''The people of this country possess

" We should oflen recollect what the a healthy climate and soil." (9.)

wisest men have ssdd and written " They enjoy also a free constitution
concerning human happiness and and laws." (10.)

vanity." (10.)

4. The following is the ellipsis of the prorunm: "I love and fear h^n:'^
that is, " I love him, and I fear him." "My house and lands ;" that is, " My
house, and my lands." In these- instances, the ellipsis may take place witn
propriety ; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be
used ; as, " His friends and his foes ;" " My sons and my daughters."

lu some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually
oniitied ; as, '* This is the man they love," instead of, " This is tlie man whom

"TTjTl )ect 'Uht.^ (^.)"'i>irtu*andoftrus,^ (S.) Insert " tAiy in the place of two nocMi

4. J iti<c/t - tntertninmaat." (5.) loaert *^nothing.^ (6.) Imert " mofit thalJ' (7.) R^ect ao adJ«»

; i.. Kt-jtct two xrnrdi. (0.) lawrt two wonls. (10.) InMrt u aJjectivs. (11.) " eirwrfwi ft^*

181 ENGLISH GKAMMAK.

Uiejr !•«(•;'' " These we the goods %utj oonght,'' lor " These aie the gciods
whtch they bought.**

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative pronoun ez-
oressed 5 as it is more proper to say, *' The posture in which 1 lay/' than
" In the posture 1 lay 3 " The horse on which I rode, fell down/' than " The
horse I rode, fell down/'

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together ;
and, to prevent obsounty and confiision, they should answer to each other
with great exactness. ''We speak that we do know, and testify thai we have
seen.** Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplied t
as, " We speak that which we do know, and testify that which we have seen.''

Will you give an example of the eUipsis of the pronoun 7 Can this eUipaie

be properly used at all times 1

" His reputation and his estate were " He is not only sensible and learned,

both lost by gaming." (1.) but is religious too." (2.)

" This mtelligeuce not only excited " The Chinese language contaiaa an

our hopes, but fears too/' (2.) immense number of words; and

" His conouct is not scandalous ; and who would learn them must pos-
tboy is the best can be said of it." sess a great memoiv." (2.^
(3.) "By presumpUon and by vamt^, we

** This was the person whom calumny provoke enmity, and we incur

had greatly abused, and sustained contempt." (1.)

the miusuce with singular pa- " In the circumstances I was at thai

tience." (2.) time, my troubles pressed heavily

"He discovered some qualities m the upon me." (4.)

youth of a disagreeable nature, " He bad destroyed his constitution,

and to him wore wholly unac- by the very same errors that se

countable." (2.) many hftve been destroyed."

" The captain had several men died
m his ship of the scurvy." (2.)

5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the follawmf instances : " The man
was old and crafty /' that is, " The man was old, and the maa was crafty."
'' She was young, and beauUiiil. and good /' that is, " She was younf, she
was heauiiAu. and she was gooa." " Thou art Poor, and wretcheo, ana mis-
erable, and blind, and naked." If we would nil up the ellipsis in the last
sentence, thou art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives.

If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above the rfist,
(hat property must be placed last, and the eUipsis supplied ; as, " She is
young and beautiful, and she is eood."

" Iwent to see and hear him,'' that is, " I went to see. and I went to hear
him." In this instance, there is not only an ellipsis of tne governing veii>, /
went, but likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it.
DOf didf have, hady »hall. wiH, nun/f ndehtf and the rest of the auxiliaries of
the compound tenses, are nrequently usea alane, to spare the repetition of the
veib ; as. " He regards his word, but thou dost not ;" that is, ** dost not regard
it/' "We succeeded, but they did not;" "did not succeed." "I have
learned my task, but thou hast not;" " hast not learned." " They must, and
they shall be punished ;" that is, " they must be punished."

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the verb 7 Suppose we wish to
point out one property above tlie rest 1 How are the auxiliaries sometimes
used 7

5.
' He is temperate, he is disinterested, " Perseveraiice in laudable pursuits
he is benevolent ; he is an oma- wiD reward all our toils, and wiH

ment to his family, and a credit to produce effects beyond our calcu

his profession." (6.) lation." (7.)

" Genuine virtue supposes our benev- " It is happy for us, when we cao
olence to be stren^hened, and to calmly and deliberately look back

be confirmed by principle." (6. ) on the past, and can qmetly antici

pate the future." (7.)

r6.)Re|ert.l« word%«odliM«1oi«. (8.) Reject two wort* r ^ Rejflct one won! ^^

SYNTAX

168

•f virtue, not oidr would 1h^ es-
cape inHumerabie daoAen, but
command respect from me ucod*
tious themselves.'' (2.)
"Charles was a man of leanung,
knowledge, and benevolence;

more, a true

* l%e SM:n6cei of virtne will not only
be fewaided hereafter, but recom-
pensed even in this life. (1.)

' All those possessed of any office,
resigned their former commis-
sion. (2.)

" If young persons were determined
to eowluct themselves by the ivUes

6. The elli^s of the adverb is used in the following manner : " He spoke
and aeted wisely;'' that is, "He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely."
" Thrice I went and offered my service ;" that is, "Thrice I went, and thrice
I offered my service."

How is the ellipsis of the adverb used T

6.
' The temperof him who is alwaysin " How a seed grows up into a tree,

and, what is still
Christian." (£.)

the bustle of Uie world, will be
often ruffled, and be often dis-
turbed." (3.)
' We often commend imprudently, as
well as censure imprudently.'' (4.)

aad the mind sets upon the body,
are mysteries whicn we cawiot
explain." (5.)
"Verily there is a reward for the
righteous, lliere is a God tliat
judgelh in llie earth." (5.)

7. The ellipsis of the preposiHorij as well as of the verb, is seen in the foHow-
mg instances : " He went mto the abbeys, haMs, and public buildings ;" that
is, - ' He went mto the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the
[Miblic b^iildings." " He also went through all the streets and tones of the
eity ;" that is, " through all the streets, and through all the lanes," Jbc. " He
spc ke <o every^man and woman there ;" that is, "to eveir man and to every
woman." " This day, next month, \asi year;" that is. "On this day, in the
next n(mth. in the lest ysar." " The Lord do that whicn seemeth him good ;*'
that is, " wnich seemeth to Inm."

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the preposition and the verb 7

" Changes are almost continually
takm^ place^ in men and in man-
ners, m opinions and in customs,
in private fortunes and public
conduct." (6.) (3.)

" Averse either to contradictor blame,
the too complaisant man goes
along with the manners *that pre-
vail.'^ (6.)

" By this habitual iadelieacy, the vir-

gins smiled at what they bhished
before." (6.)

"They are now reconciled to what
they could not formerly be
prompted, by any considera-
tions.*' (6.)

" Censure is the tax which a man pays
the public for being eminent.'' (5.)

" Reflect on the state of human fife,

and the societv of men as mixed
Mrith good and with evil." (6.)
8. The ^tpns of the eonfttnctum is as follows : " They confess the power,
wisdom, eoocmeMi, and love of their Creator;" that is, " the power, and wis-
dom, anagoodness, aad love of." &c. " Though I love hhn, I do not flatter
him ;" that is, " Though I love him, yti I do not flatter him."

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of a conjunction ?

8.
In all stations and conditions, the

nnportaat relations take place, of
masters and servants, and hus-
bands and wives, and parents and
children, and brothers and friends,
and ciUzens and subjects." (6.)
^ Destitute of principle, he regarded
neither his family, nor his mends,
nor his reputation." (4.)

" Rdigious persons are often unjustly
represented as persons of roman-
tic character, visionary notions,
unaccpiainted with die world, unfit
to live in it." (1.)

"No rank, station, dignity of birth,
possessions, exempt men from
contributing thetr share to publie
utility." (7!)

9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common : it, however, is some-
times used ; as, " Oh, pity and shame !" that is, " Oh, pity ! oh, shame !"

(I.) luwrt tkrea vropli.
'« J Xnrnn* "w wowl.

(2.) Insert two woprti.

(S.) Reject two worda. (4.) fieleet ont <*0l4
f7 ) • -»or^fu>_-nor »iiir.''

184 ENULUSH UKAMMAR.

As the ellipsis orenn in almost every sentence in the English lancuage,
numerous examples of it might be given , but only a few more can be ad-
mitted here.

In the following instance, there is a very considend>Ie one : " He will often
argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from
on« nation ; and if another, from another ;" that is, " He will often argue,
that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one
nation ; and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain
from another nation."

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis : " Wo
18 me }" i. e. " wo is to me." *' To let blood 5" i. e. " to let out blood." " To
let down j" i. e. " to let it fall or slide down." " To walk a mile j" i. e. " to walk
through the space of a mile." " To sleep all night ;" i. e. " to sleep through
all the night." " To go a fishmg }" " To go a hunting 5" i. e. " to go on a fil-
ing voyage or business ;" " to go on a hunting party." " I dine at two
o'clock ;'^i. e. " at two of the clock." '' By sea, oy land, <» shore 3" i. e.
** by the sea, by the land, on the shore."

What is said of the ellipsis of the inteijection t

9.
* Oh, my father ! Oh, my friend ! how " Oh, piety ! virtue ! how insensible
rreat has been my mgratitude I" have I been to your charms !" (2.)

10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of ellip-
sis in some particular cases. '* The land was always possessed, during pleasure,
by those intrusted with the command :" it should be, " those persons intrusted ;"
or, " tl*ose who were intrusted." " If he had read farther, he would have fo and
several of his objections mifht have been spared ;" that is, "he would have
found that several of his objections," &c. *' There is nothing men are more
deficient in, than knowing their own characters ;" it ought to oe, ** nothing m
which men," and, "than in knowing." " I scarcely know any part of natural
philosophy would yield more variety and use '" it should be, " which would
yield," &c. " In the temper of mind he was then )" that is, " in which he then
was." " The little satisfaction and consistency to be found in most of the sys-
tems of divinity I have met with, made me betake myself to the sole reading of
the Scriptures ;" it oa?ht to be, " which are to be found," and which I have mel
wiUi." " He desirea they might go to the altar together, and jointly letun
their thanks to whom only they were due ;" that is, "to him to whom," &c.

" Ther<) is nothing men are more deficient in, than in knowing their owii
characters." Will you correct this sentence 1

10.

" That is a property most men have, " Most^ if not all, the royal family had

or at least may attain." (3.) qmtted the place." (2.)

** Why do ye that which is not lawfid " By these happy labors^ they who sow

to do on the sabbath days ?" (2.) and reap, will rejoice together/'

** The show bread, which is not lawful to (4. )

eat, but for the priests alone." (2.)

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar,
RULE XXII

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each
other : a regular and dependent construction, through^
out, should be carefully preserved. The following senr
tence is, therefore, inaccurate: "He was more be-
loved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio." It
should be, " He was more beloved than Cinthio, but
not so much admired."

II.) Reject ooBwnH. (2.Ui»rt o,,. wwd. (3.) Inwil IhiM vnnlt. (4.) liMrt Hnt «i«4i.

SYNTAX. 185

Thtt fint oxunple under this into praients a mo«t irregnlar eonitnieiion, Anely,
* H« was mora beloved at Cinthio." The words mors and sotnuek are very improp-
erly stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not
necessary to suppler the latter ellipsis 3 because it cannot lead to any discordant or
improper construction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant.

As the 31st Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may^ at the first view,
appear to be too general to be useful. But, by rangine under it a number of sen-
tences pocnliarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain the
true grammatical construction of many modes of expressiouj which none of lh«
particular rules can sufficiently explain.

** This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has. is, or shall be {lublish-
ed ;" it ought to be, " that has been, or shall be published." " Ho was prided bv
interests always dinerent, sometimes contrary to, those of the community ; " dir-
ftrent from;" or, "always difTerent from those of the community, and sometimes
contrary to them." "Will it be urged that those books aie as old, or even
older than tradition ?" the words " as old," and " older." cannot have a com
mon regimen j it should be, " as old as tradition, or even older." " It requiies few
talents to which most min are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" " or which,
at least, they may not acquire." " The court of chancery frequently mitiffates ana
breaks the teeth of the common law." In this construction, the first verb is said
to mitigate the teeth of the common law," which is an evident solecism. ** Miti-
gates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would have been grammatical.

** They presently grow Into good humor and good language towards the crown j"

** ^ow into good langua^," is very improper. " There is never wanting a set of

, evil instruments, who, either put of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are

always ready," Jcc. We say properly. ** A man acts out of mad zeal," or, " out of

Srivate hatred ;" but we cannot say, it we would speak English, " he acts out of
Ithy lucre." " To double her kindness and caresses of me :" the word kindneu
requires to be followed by either to or for, and cannot be construed with the prep-
osition of. '* Never was man so teased, or sufiferedhalf the uneasiness, as I have
done this evening :*' the first and third clauses, namely, " never was man so teased,"
" as I have done this eveninc," cannot be joined without an impropriety ; and to con-
nect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for as ; " or suffered
half the uneasiness that I have done 3" or elsO) " half so much uneasiness as I
have suffered.'*

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those such as
are hardly consistent with one another : " Hate much soever the reformation of this
degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more com-
fortable prospect of future times." The sentence would be more correct in the
following form : " Thavfh the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be
despaired of," &c.

** Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty ;
in whose hands is wickedness, and tkeir right hand is full of gifts." As the passage
introduced by the copulative conjunction artd, was not intended as a continuation
of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part,
the relative whose should have been used instead of the possessive their j namely,
** and whose right hand is fbll of gifts."

** Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither kaioe entered into the heart of man,
the things which God hath prepared tor them that love him." There seems to be
an impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity,

f»erfbrming at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases.
' Neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things," Jcc. would
have been regular.

" We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images
which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is
very proper to say, ** altering and compoundini^ those images which we have once
received, into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" but we cannot with propriety
say, " retaining them into all the varieties ;" and yet, according to the manner in
which the words are ranged, this construction is unavoidable : for retaining, aJtervug,
and compovmimg are participles, each of which ec^ually refers to and governs the
subsequent noun, thoseima^es; and that noun, again, is necessarily connected with
the following preposition, tnto. The construction might easily have been rectified,
by disjoining vhe participle retoMixng from the other two participles, in this way :
'* We have the power of retaining those images which we have once received, and
of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision :" or,
perhaps, better thus : " We have the power of retaining^ altering, and compounding
those images which we have once received, and of forming them into all the varie-
ties of picture and vision."

Why is the first example onder this rule inaccurate 7 ^* This dedication may
serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be publishi^ " Will yoa
point out the inaccuracies in this sentence, and correct them f

It«

CNGLISH GRAMMAR.

''S«vftal aliemlioiM and additioiis

haoe been made to tiu work/' (1.)
''TImb first proposal was essentially
difTerent, aud inferior to the sec-
ond." (2. J
" He is more bold and active, but not
so wise and studious as ois com-
panion.'' (3.1

* Thou liearest the sound of the wind,
but thou canst not tell whence it
Cometh, and whither it g^oeth."

'Neither has he, nor any other per-
sons, suspected to much dissunu-
lation." (4.)

''The court of France or Enrland
was to have been the umpire." (5.)

" In the reign of Henry II, all foreign
commodities were plenty in Eiu"-
land." (6.)

' There is no taJent ao useful towards
success in busintss, or which puts
men more out of the reach or ac-
cidents, than that quality gener-
ally possessed by persons <n coo.
temper^ and iSj in common lan-
guage, called discretion.'' (7.)

** The first project was lo shorten di»«
course, by cutting polysyllables
into one." (S.)

"I shall do ml 1 can to pefsoade
others to take the same measures
for their cure which I have. (9.)

"The greatest masters of critical
leaxninff diflei amouff one otir
oUur."

** Micaiah said. If thou certainly return
in peace, then hath not the Lord
spoken by me." (10.)

"I GO not suppose, that we Britons
want a genius, more than the
rest of our neighbors." (10.)

"T^e deaf man whose ears were
opened, and his tonsue loosened,
doubtless glorified the g^at Phy-
sician." (u.)

** Groves, fieldS; and BHiariowi are, tf
any season of the year, pleasant
to look upon ; but never so mueb
as in the opening of the sprin^.^'

'' The multitude rebuked them, beauiM
they should hold their peace."

** The intentions of some of* lliese phi
losopbers, nay, oi many, nuell
mud probably were good." (13.)

" It was an unsuccessfufundertaking
which, although it has failed, is ne
objection at ml to an enterprise s«
well concerted." (14.)

** The reward is his duo, and it has al
ready, er will hereafter be givm
to him." (16.)

'* By intercourse with wise and expe-
rienced persons, who know the
world, we may improve and rub
off the rust ofapnvafe and retir-
ed educatioB." (i6.|

''Sincerity is as valuaole, and even
more valusJt)Ie, than knowledce."

(17.)
** No person was ever so perplexed, or

sustained the mortifications, as he
has done to-day." (18.)
''The Romans gave not only th
fi«edom of the city, but capacity
for employments, to several towns
in Gaul. Spain, and Germany."

(19.)

" Such writers have no other standard
on which to form themselves, ex«
cept what chances to be foshtona-
ble and popular." (20.)

" Whatever we do secretly, shall be
displayed and heard in the deaf-
est light." (21.)

"To the hampiness of possessing a

S»rson of so uncommon merit,
oeUiius soon had the satisfaction
of obtaining the highest honor his
country could bestow."

kon Aif." (4.) Im r* •' Aow."

nod ** tohkh.'" {8 "* bjf rtdudnf—to words of on* fyttoMe.*

<i'

(5 ) « orthatqf.^ (8.) **^tnt^mfi (7.) hmti - «— *

iKl ma word. (f ' t laiert two word*, and raject one. (U.) hmai ** to.** (iSb) liinrt ** ham
04.) ** Mt/UM* «f MMok u, ' " " - ^

(lft.^lBHrt««teii."
(18.) loMrt ••tMi'> for **
CM. RijaetoMiionL 01.)"

(9.) inaert « pftVple. (la) Sa.

4 ** to.** (IS.) Innrt ** ham I
09.) Bad Witt , •< Mirf »ii» <^«ti I
nd «Ml with •* M* «MrtMMi
til jM rt—nf "

PROSODY.

Prosody c insists of two parts : the former teachea the tnw rmo-
•9NCIATI01V of words, dompritin^ accsnt, ^uantitTi bkphasiSi
PADsx, 4nd tons; the latter, the laws of tersific atiov

OP PRONUNCIATION

OF ACCENT.
Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice ob a cavtaia iCttflr of
nrtlable in a word, uat it may be better heard tfaaa the rest, or distkiguialiiBd
from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must b# on lb*
letter u, and second i^yUaMe mme, which take the accent.

OP QUANTITY,

The <iUANTiTY of a syllable is that time which is. occupied ia prononpeiiig
A. i;i is considered long or short.

A vowel or syllable is )«Eig, when the accent is on the vowel, which orea
«ions it to be slowly joined in pronuneialion with the ibUowiag letter ; 9B,J^f
tdUj mddd, hmue^ feature.

A syllable is short, when the accent is on. the consooant, which occasions
the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter j as, <ln<, bSrmitf h&i^ir,

A long syllable generally requiies double Uie bme of a short one in pro-
nonnciiig it ; thus mate and note should be pronounced as slowly again as
mat aa<r«tdl.

OF BMPKASIfl.

By EMPHASIS is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by ^ich w«i
distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay a parUcolar stress,
au^ to show bow tbe^ affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphalisi
words must be distmguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by %
greater stress.

OF PAUSES.

Pauses or rests, in i^eakin^ and reaifing, are a total cessation of die
voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a nteasurable spane of time.

OP TONES.

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the me4a«'
lalion of the voice, the notes or vanations wfaidi we employ in the eapressKsi
of our sentiments.

OF VEESIFICATION.

Versification is the arrangement of a certam nnmber and variety of
syllables, according to certain laws.

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the lasl
sound of another.

Wbat ia pmoilT ? How mocb mere time don the promnebtloii of •

Wlat b acceot ? Wint iy ttir quntitj of a tfi- loiif pliable oocupy, Itau atkortone) Wkat hmm-

Ithie? Wben iiaTDwal or MrlUHelbiit? WHen phasia? What an pauMi ? What an Iomb > ""

Otnrt ? Oire ignun|i«M of each. ' » versiflralioo ? What to rbyme f

ISS ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

OF POETICAL FEET.

A certain nunioer of syllables connected form a foot. They are called ,^aC,
because ]t is by their aia that the voice, as it were, steps along through the
▼erse in a measured pace.

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three syllables, and are
reducible to eight kmds— four of two syllables, and four of tliree— as follows 2

DISSTLLABLX, TRISYLLABLE.

A Trochee, — v^ A Dactyl, — v^ v^

An Iambus, v^ — An Amphibrach, >^ — v^

A Spondee, — — An Anapaest, v^ v^ —

A Pyrrhic Ky\^ A Tribrach, v^ v^ v^

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented 5 as,
^'HfttefiU, pettish.''

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented j as,
" Beu^y, consist.'^

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented; as, ''The p6le
mMn."

A Pyrrhic has both the words or .syllables unaccented; as, "&n the ta.i
tree."

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented ; as^
« LftbOr^r, p6ssrbl<^."

An Ampnibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the middle
one accented ; as, " Delightful, domestic.''

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented ;
as, " Contravene, ac<^ui6sce."

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, " Num$rSbl€, conquerable.''

come of these may be denominated vrmcipaL feet, 8» pieces of poetry may
be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee
Dactyl, and Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet, because
Iheir chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse.

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen
tences, by points or stops, for tbe purpose of marking the different
patises wnich the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Sertdcdonf a pause double
that of the comma ; the Colon, double tnat of the semicolon ; ana the Period,
dK>ab\e that of the colon.

OF THE COMMA.

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, tliongh very
closely connected ui sense and construction, require a pause between uiem.

Rule 1. — ^With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it
is composed, have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points
are requisite^ except a full stop at the end of it ; as, " The fear of the Lord is the
bespnnmg of wisdom.'^ ** Every part of nature swarms witli living creatures.'^

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one^ and the nominative case
is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause immediately
before the verb ; as, " The s;ood taste of the present age, has not allowed us
to neglect the cultivation of the English language.'' ** To be totally indif>
ferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character.''

What eomtilateB a poetical Ibot, and why is it to Wlat la panetnation ? What doea the oonuna

eaited ? or how many tyllablea do poetieal feet oon. repreaent ? the Mmieoloo ? the colon ? the period ?

aiit ? How many kinda of feet are there, and what Hiw ii tbe eomma wed ?

•rather? What ia a Trochee ? an lamfaua ? a Spon- '^ThefearoftbeLord iBthebcfinningorw{adoB.>*

tfce> aPyrrtiic? aDactvl? ao Ampliibrach ? an Does thittenteoee require a paaae in it? Will joq

Aaapaat? aTrihracb? Will you give an example give the nde for lentancea of tbit kind ? **The|ood

eC each ? Wbichara called pnneipmlfut f Which taale of the preaent age has not allowed na to oaclect

Mcmtdary T WTijr ? tl,e cnUivation of the EngliBh langlia|cc.'« Do^thii

PROSODY 189

RvLS 2.— Wheii the coniMCtion of the different parts of a simple sentence,
IS interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introouced before

unimportant, the comma is better omitted 3 as, " Flattery is certainly per-
nicious/' '^ There is surely a pleasure in beneficence/'

Rule 3.—* When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they
are parted by a comma ; as, " The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex-
tremely/' '' Thev took away their furniture, clothes, and stock m trade/'

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with r^ard to two nouns dose^
connected by a conjunction ; as, ** Virtue ana vice form a strong contrast to
each other/' " Libertines call religion big^otry or superstition/' If the parts
connected are not short, a comma majr be inserted, though the conjunction is
expressed ^ as, " Romances may be said to be miserable raapsodies, or danger-
ous incentives to evil/'

RuLX 4.— Two or more adjectives, belong^g to the same substantive, are
likewise separated by commas 3 as, " Plain, honest truth wants no artifieia!
covering/' '' David was a brave, wise, and pious man/'

But two adjectives immediately connected oy a conjunction, are not sepa-
rated by a comma ; as, ** Truth is fair and artless/' ** We must be wise or
foolish : there is no medium/'

Rule 5.— Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and im-
mediatelj^ following one another, are also separated by commas ; as, ** Virtue
supports m adversity, moderates in prosperity/' '" In a letter we may advise,
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss."

Two verbs immediateW connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the
rule 3 as, " The study of'^natural history expands and elevates the mind."

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and exception.

Rule 6.i— Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, most
be separated by commas j as, ** We are fearfiilly, wonderfully framed/' '* W9
must act prudently, steadily, and vigorously."

When iwo adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by a
tomma ; as, " Some men sin deliberately and presiunptuously."

Rule 7.— >When participles are followed by sometning that depends upon
them, they are generally separated frorn the rest of the sentence by eommas :
as, " The king, approvtng the plan, put it in execution." ** His talents, Jbrmea
for great entenorues, coiUd not fail of rendering him conspicuous/'

Rule 8.— When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sentence firom the
verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a comma at each
extremity ; as. " They set out early, anet, before the dawn of day, arrived al
the destmed place."

RuLEiO.— Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas ; as, ** My son, give me thy heart." '' I am obliged
to you, my friends, for your many favors/'

KuLE 10. — ^The case absolute, and the infinidve mood absolute, are sepa-
rated by commas from the body of the sentence ; as, " Hia father dying, he
succeeded to the estate." ''At length, their ministry performed, and race well
run, they lefl the world in peace." " To c^ess the truth, I was much in
fault."

Rule 11.— -Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the
same case, by way of explication or illustration, wfaei\ accompanied with ad-
Jimcts, are set off by commas ; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, wat

■nitenoe admit of a pann ? If to, wtwre, ind wtat it ihito what points should be placed in tkh sent

the relief " I reawoiber vitb aaUtude hia nodiMaB and tbe rale br it ? Slate the ezcepthNH.

Id me." Will yoa state how this sentence should be " The king approvinf tbe plan, pat It in axeeaUoa.*

pointed, tfti the rale for it ? Will yoa state the ex- Will you state how this sentence should be pointed, audi

eeplion to this rale ? tbe rule for it 7

>« Plai Q honest trath wants no aTttfleial eoverinf ." ** Tbej set oat earty and before the dawn of day ar •

Will foil state bow this sentence should be pointed, rired at the destined place.** Will jou state the rob

and the rale for it ? What exception is there to this for pointins thb sentence, and others of a limUar

sale? *' Virtue supports In adversity, moderates in kind?

■msperlty." Will you state how this sentence should " Mr son five me thy heart.** What h Am nib

to p^tBd, and the role for it ? State the ezeepttom br Mntiu this sentence ?

» tt s rale. ** "ul fte apostle of the 0«nHl«

" -Ve are fearf^iTly, wonderfully made.' Will ynu for his real and knowtedfe." WIH yon Hate bow

M^ ENGLISH GKAAlMAli.

^miiieot. for bi« z«al i«4 k#Qwl«dge.'' " The butlerfly, diiki of tb» sininae
fljuttera in the aim."

Bin ijt such noi4i|» ar^ ^Uelef or only form a proper name, they are sot cU
yided ; aa« " Paul the apoi&.'' ** The eonperor Anlonmus wrote an excell<ml

RuLK 12.-^iixiDle membezfl of aenfcences, cminected by conparaliveiy an
for the most part aisting^uished by a ooBMna } a^ '' As (he hart panteth i^er
the water-bJODok«y 'o cUth my 8cm pani after thee.^ ** Better is a dinner of
herK9 with love, i&a» a stalled ox and hatred with it."

If the members in comparative senlencea are short, the e<Mnina is, in g^^
raL bettjer omitted ; a^, " How macb Aefler ia it to^t wisdom than gold V*

B,I7LX 13.— When words are placed in opposition to each oilier, at with
Mine mar^d vaHety, they require to be distuguiahed by a comma 5 aa,

^ Thongh de«p, yet clear \ though gentle, yet not doll ;
9lraag» witnoni rage ; without o'erflowing, Aill.*'

*^ Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found not only in uiiioa
tntiij bat in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another."

Sametines, wdien the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single,
It is better to omit the comma before it 3 as, " Many states were in alhao<^*
«M(ft, and under the protection of Rome."

^ The -aeme rule and restrictioa must be applied when two or more nouns
refer to the same preposition ; as, *' He was composed both under the threat-
eaing, and at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death."

Role 14 -—A paraarkable expression, or a short observation, somewha^t in
the mainieit of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma ; as, *' It
hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know." " Plutarch calls lying, the vice
of slaves."

RuLB ld.">»Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit
a comma befbre th«n ; as, '' I{e preaches sublimely, who lives a. sober,
l^teoiM, and pious life."

But whu two members or phrases are closely connected by a relative, re-
straining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma
ah9uld be omitted^ as, ** Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make."

The fifteenth rate applies equally to cases in which the relative is not ex-
Massed, but understooa ; as. ** It was from piety, warm and unafibcted, thai
Dia morals derived strength."

ftuLX 1&*<*-A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, 01
following another, must be dUstmguished by a comma ; as. " To improve time
whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth the bed or sickness.^' ** Very
often, while we are complaining of the ^'anity and the evila of human life, we
fliake that vanitv, and we increase those evils."

If, however, the members succeeding each other are very closely connectod^
the «)mma is uaneeessary ; as, " Revelation tells us how we may atAin hap«
pboesa."

When a verb in the mfinitive mood follows its governing verb, with several
words between them, those words should ^^eneraln^ have a comma at the end
ci tbena ; as, '' II ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one
another."

Seveml verbs in the mfinitive mood, having a common dependence, and
socceeding one another, are also divided by commas ; as^ " To relieve the indi-

Kt, to coBsfiMPt the afl^ted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving,
faamene ajd< nobhe employments,"
RuiJB If'.-*- When the verb to be is followed by a verb m the infinitive mood,
hich, by transposition, might be mad^ the npmmatlve caM to it, the former

flrii anitnice •bould be pointod« **A Qw rale for it ? rii^eooi and piow life.** Wil foo ataita lM>*r ikm
*ii> the hart pKotetb after the wmter-lm»k» » doth watenee sboald be pointed, and the lule for it? Wifl

my Mntl pent after tbe^r" Van ihgold (hi| aeatenee yea itate when Ibe eMwmalioaU be oautted ? Doei

lt£>ii)ted, ixA what i* tharale for it? this rale anply to caaaaia whteb the relative ia vtf

**Tb«U|;h deep yet clear thcragbfentle yet not AdL" p w apsd? Oive aj» esaiople.

How ahorjld tbia sentence be pointed, and what is the ** To impsove thne wbiiat we are bleiNd vtik

rule fo^ It? State ttie excepfioq to tbia rule. **n health will unooth the. bed of ricfaMah" Howi

inrta e inanS pride to aay I dp not lEnQw.>* ^w |^aeotence be pointed, and wh«l ia the nile^v a>

•bould Uiiaaantence be pointed, and what ia the rafc W1I tpu atece the etceptimia tnftla nile>
airlt» "H^preacbe* aabltiueVr who livea a aober

PA080DY. im

II gcaeraUy separated from the latter verb by e. cowma ; w, '* Tbe noM eb-
vious remedy is, to withdraw from aH associations witn bad men.'' ** l*tw
first and most obvious remedy a§;ainst the uifection, is, to withdraw from aQ
associations with haul men/'

Rule 18.— When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and often
when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be set off by commas i
Bs," Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acta, but by
daily and repeated exertions/' ** Vices, like i^adows, towards the evening
of life, grow g^at and monstrous/'

Rule 19. — Where the verb is unde r s too d, a comma may often be properly
introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some of the
oreceding rules, will appl^r to many cases not determined by any of them ;
8, *^ ¥tom taw arises security 5 from security, cariosity ; trom curiosity, knowl-
edge/'

Rule 20.— The words nay, sOy haice, againyfirtA^ seeondl^ffbrmerhff now.
lastly, once morty above all, on tlie contrary, in uU next place, in short, and all
other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated from
the context by a comma. ««_^

OF THE SEMICOLON.

Tbe Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more
parts, not so closel v connected as those which are separated b3r a comma, nor
yet so Uttle dependent on each other as tibose v^cn are distinguished by a
cok>a.

The semicolon is sometimes used when, the preceding member of the sen-
tence does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the following
clause ; and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete
without the coaduding one ; as in the following instance : " As the desire of
approbation^ when it works aecordinf to reason> improves the amiable part el
our species in every thinff that is laudable ; so nothing is more destmctive to
them when it is govesned by vanity and folly/'

OP THE COLON.

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connect-
ed than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but not so independent as
separate, distinct sentences.

The colon may be properly applied in the three f(dlowing cases :—
*1. When a member or a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some
supplemental remark, .or further illustration of the subject : as, ^ Nature felt
ber inability to extricate herself fr<»a the consequoiees or gmlt : the gospel
reveals the plan of divine interposition and aid."

%. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greatnr pause is
necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment: as, ** A
divine Legislator, uttering^ his vmce from heaven ; an afanlfhty Graveraor,
stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; infonning us of j»eipeUial rest
prepareo hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation smd wratn awaitinc
the \^cked : these are the considerations which overawe the world, whid
support integrity, and check guilt."

3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotatioo, or a speedl
ifl introduced ; as, " The Scriptures five us an amiable r^resentadon of the
Deity, m these words t ' God is love/ "

OF THE PERIOD.

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected ia
struction with the following sentence, it is marked with a Period.

" The BMMt obTiousremndy i« to withdraw from all and what is the rule for it ? ** He feared WHit 1

tBBOCiation* witn sad men." Will mm ttale bow this be overtaJoed ricbea.** Will tou atata how tiUi a»

MotaDce ibould be pototed, and tba rule for it ? tenee ahould be pointed, and the role for It ?

•< Vicea like ■hadowa toward* the •noing of lift grow Wben ia the Mmierloa wed? Wheo h Om c^

great and auMutrotn." Wilt you giro the ruu for Ion aaed ? In what three caMa mmj flie flokn ba

ponting tbia eantoiea, and apply tt I " From law properly applied ?

ariaea Momty firom aecarity curioiity front curimity when ia th» period oaed? Alter aljbie«ln(ad

knowledca-** ' How ahnoM Uiit Mintttnec be pniutoii, wliat point ihnuM be uMd ? Oive esamplaa.

192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Tbe period should be used after every abbreviated word; 9a, M. 8., P. 8.,
N. B., A. D., O. S., N. S., &c.

THE DASH.

The Dash, thouefa often used improperly by hasty and incoherent ^Mrriten,
may be introduced with j)ropriety where the sentence breaks oft* abruptlj^ }
where a significant pause is required 3 or where there is an unexpected turn in
the sentiment ) as, " If thou art he, so much respected once— 4>ut, oh ! how
fallen! how degraded!" ______

INTERROGATION.

A Note of Interrof^on is used at the end of an interrogative sentence :
Uiat is, when a (]|uesUon is asked 3 as, ** Who will accompany me ?" ** ShalJ
we always be friends t" _____

EXCLAMATION.

The Note of Exclamation is applied to expressi<His of sudden emotion^ sur
prise, joy, grief, d&c, and also to invocations or addresses; as, ** My friend !
this eonduct amazes me V " Bless the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not all
bis benefits '"

l^ie interrogation and exclamation pomts are indeterminate as to their
quantity or time^ and may be equivalent, in that respect, to a semicolon,
a colon, or a penod, as the sense may require. They mars: an elevation of
the voiee. ______

PARENTHESIS.

A Parenthesis is a elanse containing some necessary information, or useful
remark, introduced into the body of a, sentence obliquely, and which may be
omiUea without iiyuring the grammatical construction ; as,

** Know, then, this truth, (enoofh for man to know,)
Virtue, alone, is happiness below."

Tlie parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be ac-
companied with every point which the sense wculd require if the parenthetical
characters were omitted.

DirecHoru respecting the Use sfOOPITAL LETTERS. •

It isproper to begin with a ca]ntal,

1. Tne nrst word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of
writincr.

2. The first word after a period, and, if the two sentences are totally inde-
oendciit, after a note of interrogation or exclamation.

3. The i^pellations of the Deity; as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the
Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, nvers, ships ; as
Greorge, V ork, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse.

6. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, Grecian
Roman, English, French, Italian, &c.

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a
direct form ; as, ** Always remember this ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' "

The first word of an example mav also very properly be^n with a capital.

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of bo^ ; as, Johnson's
.Dictionary of the Engli^ Lan^a^; Thomson's Seasons.

8. The first word of every Ime m poetiy.

9. The pronoun / and the inteijection O are written in capitals.

Other words, besides the preceding^, may begfin with capitals, when they
sure remarkably emphatical, or the pnncipaJ subject of the composition.

^ J^!!?'"' "^r tlw dadi be inlrodoeed with propriety ? tknpointa detanfaiftte u to their qmirtitT or fiow ?
«* Who will Mcompuiy me J» What point ■boold be What is a lareotherii ? Give an eaunple In wUA

■wd at the end of this MnteMe ? ^, . it i> und withpropriety. Should the wiee be eiovtf •

To what fa the note of ezimmMXioa applied ? Give ed or deproMd in rnMwnnciBg a parantheoit ?
an rxampio. >«i llw exclamation and iut«rni«a- When dmnld rapitallettenilie iirnd ?