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K.RWENDT LIBRARY
UW COLLEGE OP F^"^'^

215 N. RAND.a! I A""

MADISOr^' " ' ■''^•'

INTERNATIONAL
LIBRARY OF TECHNOLOGY

A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS POR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING

PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE

INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED

AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL

EXAMPLES AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

ENGLISH GRAMMAR
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION

LETTER WRITING

SCRANTON:
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY

Copyrifirht, 1899. by The Collikrv Engineer Company.

Entered at Statiooers' Hall. London.

Bofflish Grammar. Parts 1, 2, 8, 4. 5. 6: Copyrigrht. 1899, 1900, by The Colliery
Engineer Company. Copyright. 1905, by International Textbook Com-
pany. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

English Grammar, Parts 7 and 8: Copyright, f905, by International Textbook
Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, Loiidon.

Punctuation and Capitalization: Copyright, 1899. by The Colliery Engineer
Company.

Letter Writing: Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company.

Printed in the United States. 04

104423

MAR 3 0 1907

S B

'IH32L

PREFACE

The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth
of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the
Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence
Schools on the part of those who are not students of the
Schools. As the volumes composing this Library are all
printed from the same plates used in printing the Reference
Libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary
regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted
to the students of — and the class of students taught by —
these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of
their salient and unique features.

The only requirement for admission to any of the courses
offered by the International Correspondence Schools, is that
the applicant shall be able to read the English language and
to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to
the questions asked him intelligible. Each course is com-
plete in itself, and no textbooks are required other than
those prepared by the Schools for the particular course
selected. The students themselves are from every class,
trade, and profession and from every country; they are,
almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation,
and can spare but little time for study, and that usually
outside of their regular working hours. The information
desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so
that the student may be enabled to exchange his present
vocation for a more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level
in the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to
obtain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in
the shortest time and in the most direct manner possible.

• • •

iv PREFACE

In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of
books that in many respects, and particularly in the general
plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of
subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is
limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu^
ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe-
matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough,
practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table.
To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are
omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given
regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any
particular rule, formula, or process should be applied; and
whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be
likely to arise in actual practice — together with their solu-
tions— are given to illustrate and explain its application.

In preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant
endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint,
and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him
trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and
correct any and all ambiguous expressions — both those due
to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufficiency of statement
or explanation. As the best way to make a statement,
explanation, or description clear, is to give a picture or a
diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used
almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases
been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec-
tions and sections or outline, partially shaded, or full-shaded
perspectives, have been used, according to which will best
produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used
rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general
effect is desired rather than the actual details.

It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men-
tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything
heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled
value for reference purposes. They not only give the
maximum of information in a minimum space, but this infor-
mation is so ingeniously arranged and correlated, and the

PREFACE V

indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be
made available to the reader. The numerous examples and
explanatory remarks, together with the absence of long
demonstrations and abstruse mathematical calculations, are
of great assistance in helping one to select the proper for-
mula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when
it should be used.

The question whether or not a volume containing our trea-
tises on English grammar and faulty diction, pimctuation,
and letter writing should be added to the International
Library of Technology is one that has received most care-
ful consideration and has been decided in the affirmative.
These . treatises were written for the student who is not in
touch with a teacher. The objects to be realized, therefore,
were that they should be so presented as to be easily under-
stood and easily applied; that the subject of grammar espe-
cially, which is ordinarily so unattractive and difficult, should
be divested of its dulness and be made an instrument of
practical use. The grammar. includes a treatise on faulty
diction, in which nearly every species of error in composi-
tion is illustrated and the method of avoiding or correcting
it is explained. This section on faulty diction, taken in con-
nection with the punctuation and capitalization, so enlarges
the scope of the grammar as to make with it a very satis-
factory Course in grammar, composition, and rhetoric. The
volume concludes with Letter Writing, which is, perhaps, the
best practical treatise on the subject in print. We consider
the volume, as a whole, to be one of the most useful of
reference books, and one which engineers, business men,
and others can consult regarding any difficulties arising
when writing or speaking the English language.

The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc.
is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided
into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order
to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each
subject or part a number. This number is placed at the top
of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number,
and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by

vi PREFACE

the printer's section mark (§). Consequently, a reference
such as § 16, page 26, will be readily found by looking along
the inside edges of the headlines until § 16 is found, and
then through § 16 until page 26 is found.

International Textbook Company.

■•

CONTENTS

English Grammar Section Page

Language and Grammar 14 1

The Sentence 14 5

Sentential Elements 14 10

Classes of Words 14 16

Parts of Speech Grouped 14 33

Functions of Sentential Elements .... 15 1

Phrase Elements 15 10

Clause Elements 15 13

Forms of Sentences 15 20

Sentential Analysis 15 28

The Noun 16 1

The Adjective 17 1

The Pronoun . . .* 17 19

The Verb 18 1

The Adverb 18 69

The Preposition 18 79

The Conjunction 18 83

The Interjection 18 89

Correct and Faulty Diction 19 1

Punctuation and Capitalization

General Considerations 20 1

Grammar in Punctuation 20 6

Rules for Punctuation 20 8

The Comma 20 9

The Semicolon 20 22

The Colon 20 24

The Period 20 27

The Interrogation Point 20 29

• • •

111

iv CONTENTS

Punctuation and Capitalization — Cont'd Section Page

The Exclamation Point 20 31

The Dash 20 32

Marks of Parenthesis - . . 20 35

Brackets 20 36

Quotation Marks 20 37

The Apostrophe 20 39

Letters and Characters 20 40

Systems of Type 20 40

Miscellaneous Marks 20 43

Use of Capital Letters 20 45

Letter Writing

Historical Introduction . - 21 1

Definitions: Importance of Letter Writing 21 8

Framework of the Letter 21 10

Materials 21 11

Parts of a Letter ' . . 21 14

Titles: Forms of Address and Salutation 21 38

Abbreviations and Contractions 21 61

Postal Information 21 73

Composition of Letters 22 1

Invention and Expression 22 2

Style in Letter Writing 22 19

General Suggestions 22 23

Analysis of Business Letters 22 29

Analysis of Social Letters 22 54

Model Business Letters 23 1

Telegrams 23 15

Model Social Letters 28 21

Notes and Cards 23 41

Public Letters 23 49

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(PART 1)

INTRODUCTION

liANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

I^ANGUAGE

1. The word language comes from the Latin word lingua^
meaning: **the tongue.'* Ages ago, the only language used
by man was spoken, but in course of time, need arose for
some means by which thought could be recorded and pre-
served. This need slowly led to better and better forms of
writing, and centuries later to printing.

At first, writing was a mere succession of rude pictures,
called hieroglyphics. Later, letters were invented. Most of
those letters were, at first, imitations of the pictures that
had been used in the earliest efforts to record thought.
These letters represented sounds, and when placed together
in certain ways, they formed words. When the sound repre-
sented by each letter in a word was known, the word could
be spoken or pronounced; and if words were arranged together
in certain orders, they could be made to represent the thoughts
of men. When words are so arranged, we have written or
printed language ^ and when pronounced in the order in which
they are arranged, we have spoken language.

Definition. — liang^ua^e is the body^ of uttered and written
signs used by man to express thought.

2. Lietters and Words. — A letter may be regarded as
the visible symbol of a sound, and a written or printed word

For notice of copyright, see Page immediately following the title Page

2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

does for the eye exactly what a spoken word does for the
ear. Consider what happens when the ear hears a spoken
word, or the eye sees one that is written or printed. Sup-
pose that the word horse is heard or seen. At once some-
thing like a pictured horse is formed in the mind; this mental
picture or image is called an idea — a word that means "an
appearance** or **a thing seen.*'

These mind pictures of things that we see often, such as
cat, dog, boy, house, moon, seem almost as real to us as the
things themselves. Not every word, however, whose mean-
ing and uses we know causes so clear a mental picture as do
the names of things familiar to us, yet every word produces
some effect in the mind, and this effect is called an idea.

Definition. — A letter is the symbol or representation of an
oral sound.

Definition. — A word is the symbol or representation of an
idea or mental image.

3. Definition of Sentence. — When words are arranged
in proper order, and when all the words that are needed to make
a complete meaning are taken together, we have a sentence.
In a properly constructed sentence, the mental pictures or
ideas expressed by its words follow in a kind of procession,
and form a complete thought. A sentence is, therefore, the
symbol of a thought, just as a word is the symbol of an idea.

Definition. — A sentence is a collection of spoken or written
words so arranged as to express a thought or a complete meaning.

Or, putting the definition in a form to correspond with the
definitions of letter and word, we have the following:

Definition. — A sentence is the oral or written symbol
of a thought or a complete meaning.

GRAMMAR

4. When a person tmdertakes the study of any subject,
it is important that he should know exactly what the
subject is about — what it is. The study or science called
English Grammar really includes everything that is known

§ 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3

about English letters, words, and sentences. But no gram-
mar contains all this information; most of it is found in
books having other names — spellers, dictionaries, etymolo-
gies, rhetorics, etc.

Definition. — Eu^^lisli Grammar is the science that treats
of the correct use of the English laiiguagCy oral and written,

5. Divisions of Eni^lisli Grammar. — The subject of
the grammar of our language was formerly divided into four
general heads:

1. Orthography: the grammar of letters, spelling, and
pronunciation.

2. Etymology: the grammar of words — their origin, his-
tory, composition, and the changes or modifications in form
and use that they undergo.

3. Syntax: the grammar of the sentence — its forms,
varieties, and the dependence and relation among themselves
of the parts that compose the sentence, as well as the
arrangement of those parts.

4. Prosody: the grammar of verse, including everything
relating to poetical composition.

6. Unit of Thoujjrht in Grammar. — Every subject has
some central point of interest — some object or matter of con-
sideration that is of higher importance than any other and
to which everything else is secondary. Thus, in orthography
the word is the central idea; in geography it is man — where
he is, his surroundings, his wants and how they are supplied;
everything belonging to the science gets its importance
from its relation to the central figure, man. So in grammar
there must be some leading idea or unit of greatest interest
and importance. What is it? Let us consider.

In orthography and etymology it is the word that fixes the
attention. But these divisions of grammar are only prepar-
atory to the study of a very much more important branch of
the subject — syntax, the science of the sentence. Grammar
deals primarily with thought and the forms in which thought
is expressed by speech and writing. It is true that words
are necessary to the expression of thought; but about words

4 - ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

there is nothing fixed or constant. The words we use have
been divided into classes, and although there are in the
English language nearly or quite 250,000 words, they have
all been placed in eight classes. Now, there are many
thousands of words that cannot be classified until it is known
what office or function they perform in particular sentences.
The same word may be used in several different ways, and
it will then belong in as many different grammatical classes.
Consider the word school in the following sentence:

When in school you should school yourself to obey the school teacher.

The word school is here, first the name of a place or building;
secondly, it denotes action; and in its third use, it describes —
tells what kind of a teacher is meant. For each different use
or function, the word belongs in a different grammatical class.

It is clear, then, that words cannot be grouped in classes
or studied in relation to one another until they take their
places in sentences. It is in the sentence, therefore, that
words perform the functions for which they were devised;
it is in the sentence that they have their usefulness, their
interest, and their full significance. They are the materials
of which men construct the wonderful edifice of thought.
The sentence is, therefore, the unit of thought in grammar.

7. The Domain of Grammar. — The principal function
of grammar, therefore, is to investigate the sentence. This
includes the consideration of its nature, varieties, forms, the
parts of which it is made up, the relations of these parts to
one another, and the laws and principles by which the cor-
rect forms of sentences are regulated.

Sentences combined give the many varieties of composi-
tion in prose and poetry. The various questions arising
with reference to the best possible construction of these com-
binations of sentences are discussed in other branches of
grammar, such as Composition, Rhetoric, Philology, and
Linguistics in general. The student should carefully note
that, in the sense in which the word grammar is here
employed, the science deals mainly with the sentence.

§ 14 ENCiLIStt GRAMMAR

THE SENTENCE

CliASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE

8. The Arrangrement of Words. — There are two ways
in which words may be arranged:

1. Independently y or out of relation to one another.

2. Dependent ly, or in relation to one another.

Thus, we may utter or write a number of words so that
they shall convey no thought:

the the of in its lays some nest bird cuckoo other one egg

Here, whatever meaning the words may have separately,
they are all used independently, just as much so as a column of
words in a spelling book. They are entirely out of relation;
that is, the meaning of no word has any influence on that of
any other. They do not help one another to express a thought.

Let us now place them in relation; that is, so that each
one shall do its share in expressing a thought.

The cuckoo lajrs its one egg in the nest of some other bird.

The words used here are the same as those above, but the
result is different. The words are now in relation, and they
have a meaning, not only individually, but collectively.
They are joined in such a way as to express a thought,
and the thought is complete. Words, therefore, are arranged
in relation when by their union they help one another to
express some meaning different from any of the meanings
expressed by the words taken separately.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Arrange the following words in such order that each group will
express a thought, and will be therefore a correct sentence:

(a) The one of of the is rose flowers loveliest

(b) August 5 telegram the Atlantic first the ocean was sent 1858 across

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

(d) Albany from New York arrived 1809 first the August 9
steamboat at

(e) You exactly the when century tell twentieth can began?

(/) More beautiful in spring in the fall the are colors than
trees of the

{^) To sing birds rose the the all sun began when

9. Words Implied or Understood. — Sentences some-
times seem to consist of but one word; as, Look, Come, The
student will observe that these words express action. Now, it
is clear that every such word requires us to think of an or/or,
although the word denoting the actor is not expressed.
Words not expressed, which are necessary to the com-
pleteness of a thought, are said to be understood. If, in the
one-word sentences just given, every necessary word were
expressed, the sentences would be. You look. You come.

In order, therefore, that a sentence may express a com-
plete thought, it must consist of words arranged in proper
relation; and that this shall be possible, at least two words
are required. Of these two words, one may be understood,
but it must be clearly implied.

10« Different Uses or Funettons of Sentences. — In

the communication of thought among men, there are only
three different uses or purposes that are served by sentences:

1. To Make a Statement or Declaration, — If a person has

some knowledge or information that he wishes to convey to

others; that is, if he wishes to tell something, he makes use

of a form of sentence called a statement or declaration.

The earth and the moon are both spherical.

An honorable boy is likely to become an honorable man.

I slept and dreamed that life is beauty;

I woke and found that life is duty.

2. To Ask a Question, —A person may desire some infor-
mation that he believes another person can furnish. In order
to obtain it, he employs a form of sentence called a question
or interroj^ation.

Does every man really meet his Waterloo at last?

Is it possible to obtain too much of a good thing?

Are you always able to say no when you ought to say no?

§14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 7

3. To Express a Command or aii Earnest Wish or Entreaty,
A person may wish to impose his will on others, or to
have it known that he has a strong desire that something
shall or shall not be or be done. To accomplish this object
he expresses his thought so as to indicate that it is a com-
mand or a wish.

Study your lessons.

Do not abandon me here to my enemies.

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man.

Sentences, then, may be used to tell or declare^ to inquire
or question^ and to comma?id or entreat.

W* Sentences Defined With llespect to Use. — The

fact that there are three ways in which sentences are used
has led grammarians to divide sentences with respect to use
into three great classes:

l>efinitiou. — A declarative sentence is a sentence used to
tell or declare somethinj^.

Definition. — A71 interrogative sentence is a sentence used
to ask a question.

Definition. — An imperative se^itcTice is a sentence used to
express a command ^ a wishy or an earnest entreaty.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Write sentences as directed below:

(a) Five declarative sentences.

(b) Five interrogative sentences.

12, Kxelamatory Sentences. — The thought expressed
in a sentence may be so mingled with strong feeling or
emotion of some kind as to give the sentence an appearance
of serving an entirely different use from those described
above. Thus, a person may make a statement, ask a ques-
tion, or express a command under the influence of such
earnestness, anger, sorrow, or other emotion that the sentence

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

becomes an exclamation. But feeling in uttered thought
does not change a statement, a question, or a command into
something else, for the emotion affects the sentence only in
the manner of utterance. The use made of the sentence is
still the same.

Some grammarians, however, have divided sentences with
respect to their use into four kinds — the fourth being the
exclamatory sentenc^e. Others have given them double
names; as, exclamatory-declarative, exclamatory-interroga-
tive, and exclamatory-imperative. Others again have taken
no account of the feeling expressed, and have classified sen-
tences only as expressing thought.

This last is clearly the best; for a sentence shows feeling
not so much by the words composing it as by the manner in
which they are uttered. But the manner of utterance is
dependent entirely on circumstances. A printed sentence
becomes exclamatory only when the manner and tones of
the person that reads it betray emotion. Moreover, there is
nothing constant about the extent or degree in which this
exclamatory quality of sentences is indicated by their utter-
ance. For example, every variety of excitement may be
shown in speaking such sentences as the following:

The Kremlin is on fire, sire.

Do you imagine that I will submit to such extortion?

Leave the city and the country at once.

But in whatever manner these sentences are uttered,
they are still respectively a statement, a question, and a
command.

13. Punctuation and Capitalization of Sentences.

Besides the words that compose sentences, certain points,
or marks of punctuation, are necessary. These points, or
marks, are just as necessary to the completeness of a
sentence as the words are. If a sentence is very long, one
or more of these marks of punctuation may be needed
within the body of the sentence to separate some of its
parts from one another; but whether it be long or short,
some kind of point must be placed at its end. One of the

§14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9

following: three marks of punctuation should be used at the
end of every sentence:

The period (.)

The mark of interrogation (?)

The mark of exclamation (!)

Every sentence, whether long or short, must begin with a
capital letter.

14.- Rules for Punctuating: Sentences. — The follow-
ing rules should be carefully observed in punctuating at the
end of sentences:

Rule. — Place a period at the end of every declarative and
every imperative sentence^ unless it is very strongly exclamatory,

Rule. — Place a mark of Interrogation at the end of every
question unless it is very strongly exclamatory.

Rule. — Plcue a mark of exclamation at the end of every
sentence intended to be uttered with very strong emotion.

There is a growing practice of using a period or a question
mark at the ends of sentences, and of avoiding the mark of
exclamation as much as possible. When there is doubt con-
cerning what mark should be used, the student must decide
for himself.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Of the following twelve sentences, four are declarative, four
interrogative, and four imperative. Copy and punctuate them prop-
erly and write *'Dec.** after the declarative sentences and **lmp.*'
after the imperative sentences.

(a) Please do not forget the teacher's advice

(b) A white tiger was recently killed in India

(c) Should a man ever forget the mother that loved him so well
(</) In your dealings with others always observe the Golden Rule
(^ ) 1 wonder whether the expedition to the south pole will ever return
(/) Will there be a total eclipse of the sun in 1920

{g) Remember always to chide with kindness the erring
(A) How many miles wide is the Amazon at its mouth
(i) If you would have your secrets kept you must keep them
yourself

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

(/) Why should the spirit of mortal be proud
(k) Trust in the Lord but keep your powder dry
(/) Perhaps no one will ever know what t>ecame of Andr^e the
explorer

2. Copy and punctuate the following exclamatory sentences and
tell which are declarative, which imperative, and which interrogative:

{a) O where shall rest be found

{d) Strike for the green graves of your sires

{c) My very soul in deep disgust is stirred

(d) Up guards and at them

{e) How glad I am that we escaped with our lives

(/*) You should be very much ashamed of yourself sir

{^) Is thy servant a dog that he should do this thing

(h) How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood

3. Write two declarative, two interrogative, and two imperative
sentences.

4. Write two exclamatory-declarative sentences, two exclamatory-
imperative sentences, and two exclamatory-interrogative sentences.
Punctuate them properly.

5. Write two sentences that must be punctuated with marks of
exclamation.

6. Write two exclamatory sentences that do not require marks of
exclamation.

7. Write two declarative sentences aud then change them into
interrogative sentences by merely rearranging the words. Thus,
A good soldier will always do his duty. Will a good soldier always
do b's duty?

SENTENTIAL! ELEMENTS

8UB.TECT ANI> PREDICATE

15. Essential Parts of a Sentence. — We m^y say

of nearly everything that it is capable of beinj^: or doing
something or other; or, we may deny that it has any such
power.

Thus, of the things denoted by the words iAe earth and
the boyy many things may be stated.

I is round. f is not studious,

turns on its axis. y,^^. ^^^^ I loved his teacher,
is the abode of man. I can swim,

is lighted by the sun. twill not come.

§14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11

These are declarative sentences; by some slight and easy
changes they may be made interrogative.

I round?
turn on its axis?
the abode of man?
lighted by the sun?

not studious?
love his teacher?
swim?
not come?

In the imperative sentence, words are used in such way as
to denote that some person or thing is ordered or entreated
to do or be, or not to do or be, something or other.

{Vou) Be quiet. (Vou) Do not go. (Vou) Give the poor fellow
some food.

In each of the sentences given above there are two parts.
The part printed in Italics represents something that is
capable of being or doing something or other; the part
printed in Roman type tells what this being or action is.
As long as these parts stand alone, they represent only ideas,
or groups of related ideas that declare, ask, or command
nothing completely; but when they are properly joined they
express thoughts — they form sentences.

The first of these parts, when used in a sentence, is the
subject of the sentence; the second part is the predicate.

In the declarative and interrogative sentences given above,
the subjects are the earth and the boy; you, understood, is
the subject of the imperative sentences. The predicates in
all the sentences are in Roman type.

16. Subject and Predicate. — It is extremely difficult,
if not impossible, to give a perfect definition of these two
necessary parts of every sentence, because there are several
kinds of sentences, and the functions of the subject and the
predicate are not the same in all. The definitions usually
given refer only to the declarative sentence, and while, in
different grammars, they are nearly all slightly different, they
are in substance about as follows:

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

Definition. — The subject of a declarative sentence is the
word or words denoting that of which something is affirmed
or denied.

Definition. — Tfie predicate of a declarative sentence is
the word or words denoting what is affirmed or denied of that
which the subject denotes.

Although it is impossible to give faultless definitions of
subject and predicate, the student may learn to recognize them
without difficulty; and that, after all, is the important matter.
The subject and predicate of a sentence are called its prin-
cipal parts.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. As shown in (<z), copy and underscore the subjects of the fol-
owing declarative sentences and dou biy underscore the predicates:

(a) Dogs bark. (/) Clothing protects

(d) Water fr^^s. <f) Spring will come.

(rf) Boys study. ^^ Men have been killed.

{.e) Horses neigh. ^ Parents should be obeyed.

2. Copy the sentences given below; underscore the subjects and
doubly underscore the predicates as in the example above. Supply the
missing subjects of imperative sentences.

(a) Listen. (g) Is honesty practiced?

{b) Do you hear? (h) Were you instructed?

(</) Make. haste. (/) May we be seen?

(e) Has war beg^n? (/t) Has he been elected?
(/*) Can Jupiter be seen? (/) Should he have gone?

17« Questions, Exclamations, and Inverted Sen-
tences.— It is sometimes not easy to pick out the principal
parts — the subject and predicate — of interrogative, inverted,
and exclamatory sentences. But if the question or the
exclamation be changed into a statement, and if the inverted
sentence be restored to the regular order, the difficulty will
disappear. How this is done is shown below:

Is the lion the king of beasts?

§ 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 13

Changing this sentence to the declarative form, the subject
is easily seen to be the part in Italics; thus,
The lion is the king of beasts.

Again,

How sweetly the birds are singing!
The birds are singing how sweetly.

How quiet and beautiful is the night!
The night is how quiet and beautiful.

Bright shone the light over fair women and brave men.
The light shone bright over fair women and brave men.

EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE

Change into the interrogative form the first ten sentences in
Examples for Practice following Art. 16; then enclose the subject in
marks of parenthesis and the predicate in brackets.

Model. — Declarative. — Years pass. Interrogative,— [JDo] (years)
fpass?]

18. What Modifiers Are and What They Do in
Sentences. — The words modify ^ modifier^ and modification
are so much used in grammar that the student should under-
stand their exact meaning. These terms all contain the
JLatin word modus^ **a measure." We may conclude, then,
that they all have in them some idea of measuring, not as
Strain is measured, but as thought is measured.

When we hear a class name like animal^ there comes to us
at once a mental picture or idea of a vast unmeasured class
that includes every creature, dead or living, or yet to live.
Now join to the name a measuring word — a modifier — such
as four-footed. Consider what has happened to our idea or
mental picture. An immense number of animals are shut
out, and the class is much smaller and more definite. Let
us add another modifier, Sdiy grass-eating^. Again the class is
reduced. All animals that eat flesh are now shut out from
the class of four-footed grass-eating animals. Thus, each
added modifier reduces the measure of the class, and we
may continue adding modifiers until the animal meant is
separated from every other in the great class of animals.

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

Definition. — A modifier is any word or expression used
with another word to narrow its application and to denote its
meaning more exactly — to reduce or lessen the measure or extent
in which its sense is to be taken.

MoDiFiBRS Modified Word Modifiers

for cooking.

from a tree in the orchard.

Red \

Large red [apples.

Large, red, sweet
Very large, red, sweet

bought in the market,
.that you gave me yesterday.

Other words besides class names may take modifiers.
Thus, with glad ox sour we may use very^ extremely^ moderately ^
always, too, never, and many others.

So, also, a person may swim well, fast, slowly, in the
ocean, up stream, for life, when he goes to the seashore, if
the day is pleasant, etc.

19. The Modified Subject. — In speaking or writing,
we usually employ more than one word to denote the subject
of a sentence. Descriptive words are added, so that the thing
denoted by the subject may not be mistaken for something
else. As has been explained, these added words are called
modifiers. Without modifiers, the subject is simple or unmod-
ified; or more briefly, it is the subject. With the modifiers,
the subject is called the entire or modified subject. For
example, modifiers such as those shown below, might be
used with such subjects as boy and horse.

The, my, a,
good, studious,
bright, diligent

•

That, his, our,
boy learns the grocer's black,

sorrel, young

horse runs

With these modifiers we can form such sentences as the
following:

The diligent studious boy learns.
The grocer's young sorrel horse runs.

§ 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 15

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Copy the following sentences, and aft shown in (a) below, enclose the
simple subject in marks of parenthesis and underscore the modifiers of
the subject:

(a) A studious (boy) will succeed.

(d) A beautiful black horse neighs.

{c) My pretty little blue-eyed sister is calling.

(d) Will the far-off icy pole ever be reached?

(e) Can an idle, careless, uneducated man succeed?
(/) A gentle, loving, little fairy came.

{^) A beautiful, high-stepping, black horse led the herd.
(A) A large piece of buttered bread made his breakfast.

20. The Modified Predicate. — By means of modifiers,
the predicate of a sentence may be made to denote differences
of many kinds in what it declares or asks or commands con-
cerning the subject. When such modifying words are added,
we have the entire or modified predicate; without them, there
remains only the simple predicate^ or more briefly the predicate.

These modifiers denote time^ place, manner, direction, and
various other circumstances.

I swiftly f diligently

5^*^*""^ We should study 1^""""^
today I frequently

now I systematically

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Copy the following sentences; underscore modifiers of the
predicate, and decide what each modifier denotes, whether time, place,
manner, etc. ; enclose the simple predicate in brackets and the simple
subject in marks of parenthesis.

{d) Pronounce your words distinctly and correctly.

(b) Never speak angrily or hastily,

(r) My book lay here yesterday.

(d) Do you now know clearly and precisely ray meaning?

(e) He frequently strokes the cat's fur gently and lovingly.
(/) Gayly and sweetly sang the little bird today.

{^) You should act promptly, wisely, and firmly.

(A) Yesterday a vicious dog attacked me fiercely and suddenly.

(/) When and why do you leave us?

{j) Where will you go tomorrow?

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

2. Copy the following sentences, and as in (a) below, enclose the
simple subjects in parentheses and the simple predicates in brackets.
Then underscore the modifiers of the subjects and overscore the modi-
fiers of the predicates.

(a) [Will] the beautiful (birds) [return] to us again in the spring?

(d) Many dark clouds of threatening appearance gathered along
the mountain.

{c) Did you ever read about the Sleeping Beauty?
{d) All the idle boys of the village roamed about with Rip Van
Winkle.

(e) Great quantities of gold have been found in Alaska.

(/) The natural fear of children is greatly increased by ghost
stories.

(^) How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood.

(A) The President of the United States will certainly come to the
city tomorrow in the morning.

(/) At last her pretty pleasure boat was seen far away at sea.

(j) The two windows on the west peeped down between the
willow branches into the orchard.

CLASSES OF WORDS

21. Eli^ht Parts of Speech. — All the words in our lan-
guage are included in eight classes called parts of speech.
These classes of words correspond to the eight ways in
which words are used in expressing thought. The class in
which a word belongs cannot generally be known until that
word is actually used in a sentence. Even then we can
know only what part of speech the word is in that particular
sentence, for it may be used in some other way the next
time we meet it. One of the chief things that the student
must learn to do quickly and with certainty is to tell what
each word does in the sentences he studies — to determine
its use or hiJiction, When he has rightly decided this in the
case of any word, he can be sure in which one of the eight
classes the word belongs; that is, he can say what part of
speech the word is. It is this necessity for constantly and
carefully discriminating the functions of words — what they
do and how they are related — that makes the study of
grammar so valuable a means of mental discipline.

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 17

THE NOUN

22. Function of the Noun. — We cannot look in any
direction without seeing things that have names. All words
that are used as the names of things are called nouns. Some
names of things that we can see are sky^ tree^ house^ star^ boy.
Some other things we learn about by touching, or feeling; as,
coldnesSy heat^ air^ weighty warmth^ dampness. The sense of
hearing enables us to learn about other things that have
names; as, musiCy laughter^ conversatio7iy singings speech. In
like manner, by tasting and smelling we become acquainted
'with sweetness,, bitterness ^ fragrance y odor^ and many other things.

Besides the thousands of things that we may learn about
by using our eyes and our other senses, there is a multitude
of things that we cannot touch or hear or see; we find out
about them by thinking. Some examples are truths honor ^
love^ kindnesSy hatred.

Most nouns consist of but one word, but many others are
made up of two or more words taken together; as, railroad^
steamboat y sky -rocket y paper-weight. Indeed, any collection of
two or more words that can be used as the subject of a
sentence may be regarded as a noun, for it is the name of
something. Thus, in the following sentences the expres-
sions in Italics are used as nouns:

Sawing wood made him tired.

To have tried and failed was no disgrace.

Why he went was a great mysteiy.

To do one*s duty is sometimes not easy.

Definition. — A noun is any word or expression used as the
name of something y and capable of being the subject of a sentence.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Make lists of nouns as follows:

(fl) Five names of things good for food.

(b) Five names of trees.

{jc) Five names of tools used by workmen.

(d) Five names of flowers.

(^) Five names of animals.

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 14

(f) Five names of parts of the human body.

(^) Five names of parts of a house.

(A) Five names of objects that you have seen on the dinner table.

[i) Five subjects that are studied in school.

(J) Five names of trades or occupations.

2. Write two sentences, each of which shall contain three nouns.

3. Write sentences, each of which shall contain three of the
following words used as nouns: wagon, window, watch, lesson,
honesty, snow, milk, sky, city, patience, life, sport, village, light,
crowd, diflBculty, success, fort.

4. Make a list of the thirty-five nouns in the following sentences:
{a) Some animals sleep all through the winter in a tree or a cave

and wake up in the warm days of spring.
(d) Kind hearts are more than coronets.

(c) I see the lights of the village gleam through the rain and mist,
And a feeling of sadness comes o'er me that my soul cannot

resist;
A feeling of sadness and longing that is not akin to pain,
And resembles .sorrow only as the mist resembles the rain.

(d) We should not lose courage from failure, nor should success be
followed by boasting; for life is too short for any kind of fortune
to have long continuance.

{e) Laziness goes so slowly in the race of life that poverty is sure
to be ahead long before the end is reached.

5. Write a list of the fifty-two nouns to be found in the following
selections:

(a) Great thoughts, like great deeds, need no trumpet.

(d) The truth, the real life and sunshine, lay far out in regions
beyond the horizon.

{c) Tell me not, in mournful numbers, life is but an empty dream.

{d) That divine unrest, that old stinging trouble of humanity, that
makes all high achievement and all miserable failure, inspired and sup-
ported these barbarians on their perilous march.

(e) "They are worlds like ours," said the young man; "and some
of the least sparkles that you see are not only worlds, but whole clusters
of worlds turning about one another in the midst of space. In them
is perhaps the answer to all our difficulties or the cure of all our
sufferings; and yet we can never reach them; not all the skill and craft
of men can fit out a ship for the nearest of these our neighbors, nor
would the life of the most aged suffice for such a journey."

(/) "I am a natural law," the visitor replied, "and people call me
Death. I am a physician; the best healer that ever was, for 1 cure
both mind and body with the same prescription. I take away all pain
and forgive all sins, and where my patients have gone wrong in life,
I smooth out all complications and set them free again upon their feet."

§ 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 19

THE PKONOUN

23. Functiou of tlie Pronoun. — Little children just
learning to speak refer to themselves aUd to others whom
they know by using nouns:

Katy's mama is a good mama.
Katy's mama gave Katy a penny.

Speaking of strangers they use bay^ girl, lady, gentleman^
and they repeat the names of things as often as the objects
are referred to:

The lady gave Katy an apple.

The apple was on a tree by the lady's house.

But children soon learn the use of certain words that take
the place of nouns, such as /, we, he, it, they, etc. These
are called pronouns, a word that means **for nouns.** Pro-
nouns enable us to avoid the awkward and frequent repetition
of nouns. With their help we can talk to persons, and about
persons and things without knowing their names. Thus,
meeting a stranger, we may say:

Will you be good enough to tell jne whether / am in time for the
train ?

/ do not see it, and they told me at home that you would inform me
when it leaves.

If the student should make the experiment of using nouns
instead of these little words that take their place, he would
see how serviceable pronouns are.

Definition. — A pronoun is a word used to denote persons
or things without naming them.

24. Tlie Antecedent of a Pronoun. — The antecedent

of a pronoun is the word for which the pronoun stands or to
which it refers:

Mary said to her brother that she would help him with his lessons
if he would help her with hers.

Here Mary is the antecedent of her, she, and hers;, while
brother is the antecedent of him, his, and he.

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

The word antecedent means going before.** The word
referred to by a pronoun usually comes in the sentence before
the pronoun does. In asking questions, Jiowever, the pro-
noun is generally found in the question and the antecedent
in the answer following.

Who is he? He is the doctor.
What is that? That is an orange.
Which is the prettier? The violet.

Here doctor is the antecedent of who and he^ orange^ the
antecedent of what and thaty and violet is the antecedent
of which.

Some pronouns denote the speaker; as, /, we^ me, us; some
denote the person spoken to, or addressed; as, you, thou, thee,
yours; but most of the pronouns are used to denote that
which is spoken of; as, he, him, she, her, it, they, them, who,
which, etc.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Improve the following sentences by substituting pronouns for
nouns used awkwardly and write the amended sentences:

(a) Harvey saw Harvey's sister fall into the river, and Harvey
saved Han^ey's sister from drowning.

Model. — Harvey saw his sister fall into the river, and he saved
her from drowning.

{b) Mary hurt Mary while Mary was jumping Mary*s rope.

(r) Susie and Susie's brother took Susie's and Susie's brother's
skates to school.

(</) My sister was sewing and my sister pierced my sister's finger
with the needle.

(^) Louis said, "Give Louis Louis's ball and bat."

(/■) The children ate the children's lunch under a tree that threw
the tree's pleasant shade over the children.

(g) The teacher complained to Willie's mother that Willie's lessons
were neglected although Willie had been asked to study Willie's lessons.

2. Write a list of the pronouns and their antecedents in the follow-
ing sentences:

(a) "I'm not so haughty as you," said a violet to a daffodil, "but
many people tell me that they think me prettier and sweeter than you."

(b) "How selfish you are," said the ox to the dog; "you will not
cat the hay yourself, nor will you permit me to eat it."

§ 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 21

{c) The sun did his very best to make the sea as bright as it
^vranted to be.

(d) Narcissus was a beautiful youth. He dearly loved to stand on
the bank and admire himself as he appeared in the image reflected
from the mirror-like surface of the water. Venus saw him, and in her
anger she changed him into a flower condemned always to stand, just
as he was then standing, and admire his own beauty.

(e) Volcanoes get their name from Vulcan, who was fabled to
have his forge far down among the roots of the mountain. Here,
with a Cyclops to help him, he forged the thunderbolts used by Jove
when he wished to smite the earth.

(/) "Where are you going, my pretty maid?**

**Vm going a-milking, sir," she said.

(^) There lies the sea as flat as my hand and as innocent as a
child; but they say that when the wind blows it gets up into water
mountains bigger than any of ours, and it swallows down great ships
bigger than our mill, and makes such a roaring that you can hear it
miles away on the land.

(A) They told me that they saw the fair girl sitting in a boat with
its head pointed toward the falls, and that as she drifted past her lover
watching her from the cliffs, she waved her hand to him and smiled.

THE VERB

25. Function of the Verb. — In our langfuage, the
most important class of words is the verd; for without this
part of speech, no statement or question or command can be
fully expressed. Every sentence must contain at least one
verb. The noun names things about which statements may
be made or questions asked, but nothing can be stated or
asked about things without the help of a verb. Thus, s/ars,
birdsy John, are names, but they tell us nothing. Now, if
suitable verbs are used with them, thoughts are expressed —
sentences are formed.

Stars shine. Birds can fly. Will John come?

Such expressions as shine, can fly, will come, when they are
used in forming complete sentences, are verbs.

26. Meaning of Predication. — Grammarians say that
the verb predicates being or action of the person or thing
named by the subject of the sentence. The word predicate
comes from a Latin word that means **to say'* or **tell,''

22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

to declare in public.'* But as predicate and predication are
used in grammar, they mean much more than this. The
fact is that there is much need of a word that has all of the
following meanings: to assert, to deny, to question, to com-
mand, to wish, to entreat; for the verb is the chief word in
sentences that express all these forms of thought. The fol-
lowing are examples:

To assert: John runs. Birds were sinf^np^. We did fio.
To deny: Mary did not ^o. We have not been walking.
To question: Have you seen him? When did the hoys, f^of
To cofnmand: Study your lessons. Sit erect at your desk.
To wish: Would he were here. May he soon succeed.
To entreat: O, do not be so cruel! Forgive the poor fellow!

All the different uses of the verb in these sentences are.
expressed by the one word predication. Of course the Latin
word from which predicate is derived does not have all these
meanings; but as the word is used in grammar, it must be
understood to have them all.

Definition. — A verb is the predicating^ word or words in a
sentence.

27. Verb Phrases. — The simple or unmodified predi-
cate may consist of one word, or of as many as four words.
When the verb or predicate contains two words or more, it
is called a verb phrase. The following are some examples
of sentences in which the predicates are verb phrases:

The fire will not bum. May he not soon f!^of

He might be killed. You had not been suspected.

The child should not have been punished.

. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Copy the following sentences; then underscore the subjects and
doubly underscore the verbs.

(a) Did the teacher accept your excuse?

{b) Better things might have been expected of so sensible a boy.

(d) The mists on the banks of Newfoundland are caused by the
warm waters of the Gulf Stream.

(e) No army so large had ever before been assembled.

Model. — A small boy-

§ 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 23

(/) White light may be separated into a band of different colors.

(j^) A ship had long been seen on the horizon.

{A) An honest man may be benefited by the advice of a knave.

(/) Was ever a man so abused before?

{/) I will, with patience, hear your story.

2. As in the model, fill each of the blanks with three suitable verbs,
(a) A small boy . . . down the hill.

ran ]

coasted [down the hill.

walked J

{d) The general . . . the soldier for bravery,
(r) The teacher . . . the work of the pupil.
(d) Beautiful flowers ... in the meadows.
(^ ) . Mary ... at school until her brother . . . his lessons.
. (/) The children . . . their teacher very much indeed.
(x) The kitten ... on the rug until Susie . . .
{/i) The policeman ... by the mayor of the city.

3. Construct sentences containing the following used as verbs:
{a) Send, comes, surprise, loved, wander, wonder

(d) Believed, saw, delayed, lingered, hurried, stayed, went

{c ) Will repay, has depended, were relieved, can promise, have gone
(</) Has been tried, will be rescued, should have obeyed, may have
sailed

(e) Should have been presented, might have been expected, could
have been seen, will have been finished, may be trusted

THE ADJECTIVE

28. Function of the Adjective. — When the noun apple
is used, it may mean any apple wrhatever. But it is often
necessary to indicate some particular apple as the one meant.
This may sometimes be done by pointing to it, touching it,
or by some similar act. This, however, is not often con-
venient and cannot be done at all in writing; but the thing
intended can be pointed out easily and exactly by means of
language. This is done by joining to the name of the thing
meant, words that describe it in some way — that tell some
quality it has. Thus, apples may be described by the use of
such words as sweety large^ redy pretty; their number may be
indicated by manyy severaly somey six; and we may do some-
thing very much like pointing to an object by using thisy thaty
thesey those, they yonder.

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

When words are used for this purpose — to modify the mean-
ing of a noun or a pronoun — they are adjectives. The word
originally meant ** thrown near/* and this part of speech is so
named because it is usually placed beside the noun:

sour apples, happy children, several days, the boy, an ^%%

Sometimes, however, the adjective stands at some distance
from the noun or pronoun to which it belongs.

The APPLE is extremely sour.

Mary sat in the shade of a beautiful tree, happy and contented.

Even in such cases, it is easy to decide with which noims
or pronouns the adjective modifiers belong.

Most adjectives denote qualities. Thus, an honest boy is a
boy that has the quality of honesty; a strong man is a man
that has the quality of strength. Adjectives that denote
qualities are called gualifyiftg adjectives.

Many adjectives are used to denote the material of which
an object is made. Some examples are:

Si gold watch, a leatlier apron, a cotton dress, a silver simoon

Definition. — An adjective is a word used to modify the
meaning of a noun or a pronoun.

29. Compound Adjectives. — Adjectives are often com-
posed of two or more words joined by hyphens.

Sweet-scented flowers, rosy-fingered morning, a never-to-lfe-forgotten
event.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. As shown in the model below, write in sentences each of the fol-
lowing words, preceded by two or more adjectives.

Model. — Rain — A cool refreshing rain fell in the evening.

tree, wind, flower, time, ocean, health, grove, storm, road, rest,
forest, soldier, stream, dog, day, house, picture, business, cloud, bird,
work, city, orange, fortune.

2. Copy each sentence following, and then underscore the adjec-
tives and doubly underscore the words they modify.

Model. — (a) My father brought twelve beautiful sweet oranges
from the city market.

§ U ENGLISH GRAMMAR 25

{d) The arbuttts is a fragrant delicate flower that blooms daring
the early days of spring.

{c) A beautiful butterfly spread its wide fragile wings fn the
golden sunlight.

(d) Once there lived in the bottom of the deep dark sea a
beautiful goddess whose home was a wonderful silver palace.

{e) A cunning fox stole up to a lazy careless goose one still
dark night and found her in a deep dreamless slumber.

(/) The whirling snowflakes covered with a soft white blanket
the saddening nakedness of the autumn landscape.

THE ADVERB

30. First Function of Adverbs. — The word adverb
means **to a verb** (ad, **to**). This part of speech is so
named because it is usually placed near the verb. Its use
as a modifier of a verb is to denote when, where, why, or in
Tvhai manner the action expressed by the verb takes place.
The adverb does for a verb exactly what the adjective does
for a noun or a pronoun — modifies its meaning. Thus,

ADjBCTrvBS Advbrbs

hasty

agp*eeable

pleasant

speech He spoke

hastily

agreeably

pleasantly

Besides showing the time, the place, the cause, or the man-
ner of an action, the adverb may denote any one of a great
many circumstances relating to the action. Whenever we
find in a sentence any word that modifies a verb, any word
that makes us know more exactly the manner in which the
action was performed, we may be sure that the word is an
adverb. The following are examples of adverbs that modify
the meaning of verbs, which is the first and most important
function of this part of speech:

The clock runs

quietly When "l

regularly Where I

always Why "« y«« going?

.slowly How J

31. Second Function of Adverbs. — Adjectives are
mostly words that denote qualities. There are numerous
degrees of most qualities, and in order to denote these

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§14

different degrees, adverbs are joined to the adjective so as
to show in what measure or degree the quality is to be
understood. Thus, different degrees of goodness among
good boys might be indicated by using with the adjective good
various adverbs of degree ^ such as very, extremely^ quite ^ and
many others. We should then have expressions like the
following, in which the meaning of the adjective is modified
by the adverb that precedes it:

VKVi^ good boys, extremely good boys, remarkably good boys

This is the second function of adverbs — to modify the
meaning of adjectives. The following are additional illus-
trations:

The banker was -

'moderately

comfortably

iudepeudently

exceedingly

surprisingly

rich The apple is-

too, quite

somewhat

slightly

decidedly

extremely

sour

32. Third Fiiiictlou of Adverbs. — Adverbs are some-
times used to modify the meaning of other adverbs. Not
many adverbs are used in this way; a few of the most com-
mon are so, too, not, just, almost, most, very, more, less, quite.

so nearly done, almost completely open, somewhat sourly told,
NOT entirely happy, i^xni'e. recently arrived, very prettily said

Defiiiitiou. — An adverb is a word used to modify the
mea?iing of a verb, a7i adjective, or anotfier adverb,

33. Phrase Adverbs. — There are many adverbial
expressions consisting of two or more words that are called
plirase adverbs; these are easily recognized from the use
made of them in sentences. Some examples are the follow-
ing: by and by, sooTicr or later, time and again, far and near,
to and fro, backward and fonvard, again and agaiyt.

The end will come sooner or later.

Time and ai^ain he was reprimanded for misconduct.

The italicized phrases in these sentences are phrase
adverbs denoting time. Such expressions should be treated
as if they consisted of but one word.

§ 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 27

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICB

1. Write a list of the adverbs used in the following sentences, and
tell what each adverb modifies:

(a) The rain fell steadily and heavily yesterday.

{d) Why should one man judge another hastily or harshly?

(d) **Do your work neatly and carefully,*' the teacher always said.
(^) 1 never before saw a rainbow quite so brilliant.

(/) Why did you go there, and where had you worked before?

Of) He walked much faster than I, but 1 was not so very much
outstripped

(A) When we go to the beach I sometimes find very great pleasure
in collecting the exquisitely beautiful shells.

2. Write five sentences in each of which two or more of the follow-
ing words shall be used as adverbs: once, then, sooner, brightly,
sometime, presently, never, thus, early, lightly, otherwise, everywhere,
ever, most, lately, steadily, afterwards, somehow, soon, rather,
yonder, strongly, eastwards, occasionally, always, forward, nowhere,
perhaps, probably, frequently.

3. Write sentences in which shall occur the following words used
as adverbs: rightly, gladly, kindly, openly, frequently, occasionally,
sweetly, gleefully, gracefully, beautifully, neatly.

4. Use in sentences the following words as adverbs: entirely, often,
vrhen, where, how, why, however, whence, whither, so, as, very, quite,
almost.

5. Use the following as adverbs: today, tomorrow, yesterday, for-
ever, one by one, in groups, side by side, back and forth, up and down,
now and then, by and by, as .soon as possible.

6. Construct five sentences in which adverbs modify adjectives, and
five in which adverbs modify adverbs.

THE PUEPOHITION

34. Word Bridges. — Words may stand tojj^ether without
bearing to one another any relation in meaninjj — without
helping one another to become useful in expressing thought.
The words in a list for spelling are of this kind; they are
without connection or relation in meaning.

But words may be so arranged that, if their meanings are
suited to one another, they seem to belong together. They
form what may be called a compound idea, and without
rearrangement may enter a sentence as one of its elements.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§14

This is the case when suitable modifiers are joined to nonns,
adjectives, or adverbs; as, good boy, very sorry y quite soon.

Again, ideas may seem to be so widely separated — so
unlike — that nothing could ever bring into relation the words
denoting these ideas. Yet they may often be joined and
brought into relation by means of a kind of word bridge
between them. Examples of this are shown below:

about

A palace ^

above

under

over

near

across

► the sea Write •

concerning

against

for

among

> the Indians

These word bridges are called prepositions. They are
so named because they are nearly always placed before
(pre, before) the noun or pronoun to which they connect some
preceding word. The work done in sentences by preposi-
tions is twofold: (1) they connect words; (2) they bring
words into relation.

The preposition, with the noun or pronoun joined to it,
forms a prepositional phrase. The noun or the pronoun in a
prepositional phrase is called the object of the preposition.

Phrases of this kind are used as modifiers, just as if they
were adjectives or adverbs consisting of only one word.
Thus, in the expressions a silk dress and a dress of silk, silk
and of silk are both adjective modifiers of the noun dress.
Again, in Examine with care and Examine carefully, the verb
examine is modified in meaning both by the adverb carefully
and by the prepositional phrase with care. The functions of
these two modifiers are the same — they are both adverbial
in the work they do.

The number of prepositions is considerably less than one
hundred, but they form a very useful class of words. Indeed,
it is not easy to see how we could get along without them,
for some of the shortest of them, such as, to, for, in, with,
from, by, at, on, of, occur in nearly ever sentence.

Definition. — A preposition is a word used to conruct
words and bring them into relation.

§ 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 29

Just as adverbs sometimes consist of two or more words
used as one word, so also do prepositions. In the follow-
ing, the expressions in Italics are phrase prepositions:

The Gospel according to St. Mark; done in spite of opposition;
respected in proportion to his wealth; acted with respect to his interests;
decided in accordance with the evidence.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. By several suitable prepositions establish a relationship in mean-
ing between each of the following: rode . . . the forest, sailed .
the ocean, spoke . . . him, died . . . sunrise, acted . . . the enemy,
lived . . . the sea.

2. Find prepositional phrase modifiers of the following words used
as adjectives: hopeful, polite, disobedient, confident, courageous,
revengeful, faithful, sorry, smooth, sad.

Model. — Every father should be hopbful of the success of his
children.

3. Construct ten sentences in each of which appear two nouns
connected by a preposition.

Model. — My sister gave me a book of poems ^

4. Construct sentences containing the following used correctly as
prepositions: from, before, against, below, under, around, opposite,
toveard, within, without.

5. Make a list of the prepositional phrases contained in the follow-
ing stanzas:

Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean,
Tears from the depth of some divine despair
Rise in the heart, and gather to the eyes.
In looking on the happy autumn fields,
And thinking of the days that are no more.

Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail
That brings our friends up from the under world,
Sad as the last which reddens over one
That sinks with all we love below the verge;
So sad, so fresh, the days that are no more.

Dear as remembered kisses after death,

And sweet as those by hopeless fancy feigned

On lips that are for others; deep as love,

Deep as first love, and wild with all regret,

O Death in Life, the days that are no more. — Tennyson.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§14

TUlfl CONJUNCTION

35. Fuuctlon of Coujuuctious. — Like the preposition,
the canjutution is used for connectinj^. Between these two
parts of speech there are some differences that are easily
seen.

1. Conjunctions usually connect clauses; prepositions
never do.

Mary went to the picnic, but Kate remained at home.

Here the conjunction but connects the two clauses of the
sentence, in each of which there is a preposition connecting
words. In the first clause, to connects went with picnic; in
the second at connects remained with home,

2. Conjunctions connect words belonging to the same
part of speech or words used in the same way; prepositions
usually connect different parts of speech and words used
differently. This may be seen from the illustrations below:

Conju nctiofts . — bread

Noun Noun Adj.

and

or \ butter poor
nor

Adj.
yet I

but [proud
andj

Prepositiovs

Adj.

tired

of, by, from,

because of,

in consequence of

Vkrb

slept

in, by, near,
inside, under,
on, upon, beside

Noun
the house

3. A conjunction does not take after it a noun or a pro-
noun to form phrases that modify the meaning of other
words; a preposition forms with its object an adjective or
adverbial modifier, or an expression used as a noun. Thus,
in the examples under 2 above, of play, by play, etc. are
adverbial modifiers of tired. No such use can be made of
the conjunction and the word that follows it.

§14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 31

The most important work of conjunctions is to connect;
that of the preposition is to bring words into relation.

The conjunction a7id is used more, perhaps, than all the
other conjunctions taken together. This word has been
called the plus sign of language; for when it is placed between
two words or phrases or sentences it denotes that the sum of
their meanings is to be understood. Other conjunctions that
are much used are but, if, unless, yet, though, although,
bccnnse, therefore, however, moreover, henee, lest, whether, pro-
vided ^ for (meaning herojtsr) .

Some conjunctions go in pairs: not only . . . but also, both
. . . and, neither . . . nor, or , . , or, nor , . . 7tor, either
. . . or.

Conjunctions used in pairs are called eorrelative eonjunctimis.

definition. — A conjunction is a word used to eonnect
elauses, or sentential elements that are used alike.

Conjunctions frequently stand at the beginning of sen-
tences; they are then said to introdtue rather than conneet.

And I have loved thee, ocean.

EXAMPL.RS FOR PRACTICE

1. By using five diflferent conjunctions, form five sentences of the
following:

He trusted in me ... I had no confidence in him.

2. Separate each of the following sentences into three others that
shall together be equivalent to the separated sentence:

(a) Cherries, plums, and pears succeed well in the United States.
(^) The boy can read, write, and cipher very well indeed.
{c) The drover purchased sheep, calves, and oxen from the farmers,
(rf) The President spoke of a government of the people, by the
people, for the people.

3. Construct sentences in which shall occur the following words
used as conjunctions: because, hence, or, notwithstanding, unless,
except, although, if, yet, whereas.

4. By tistng conjunctions, make one sentence of each of the follow-
ing groups:

. . I Rome was not built in a day.
\A fortune is not made in a vcar.

32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §14

(*)

(c)

The Spani^ fleet entered the harbor of Santiago.

The Spanish fleet tried to escape to the ocean.

The Spanish fleet was destroyed by the blockading vessels.

The great prizes of life are won by ability.

The great prizes of life are not won by trickery.

The great prizes of life are not won by indolence.

THE INTERJECTION

36. In addition to the seven classes of words already
described, there is another class commonly reckoned by gram-
marians as forming the eighth part of speech. Some exam-
ples are the following: oh! alas! hark! ha! While it is
convenient and perhaps better that words of this kind should
be regarded as forming another part of speech, it should be
remembered that they have no place in sentential structure.
They are thrown among {inter^ among, and jecius^ thrown)
sentences to indicate feeling only, not thought. In language,
they are as much out of grammatical relation with the real ele-
ments of sentences as the figures that are used in numbering
chapters and paragraphs. Some authorities say that interjec-
tions represent entire sentences condensed into single words.
By this they mean \}[iz\, pshaw ! for example, is a kind of equiva-
lent for What you say is absurd, and hist! for Be quiet and listen^
for I hear a strange noise, or the like. A sigh or a groan is, in
a sense, an interjection, and while these generally convey a
hint of the thought appropriate to them, they do not express
thought in the precise way required in the sentences of which
grammar takes account. We often hear imitations of the
noises made when we cough or sneeze or laugh or weep, and
these sounds may be represented in print; and the cries of
certain animals are indicated by such words as mew! bow-wow!
cluck! baa! whippoorwill! These may be classed as interjec-
tions when so used. Since we do not need such words as oh!

alas! ugh! ha! fie! fudge! hem! heigh-ho! he! etc. in expressing
thought, an interjection may be defined as follows:

Definition. — An interjection is a word that has no
relation to other words in a sentence, and is used to express
feeling or emotion.

§14

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PARTS OF SPEECH GROUPED

37. The parts of speech, considered with respect to the
importance of the work each does in expressing thought,
may be placed in two groups:

1. The Indispensable Parts of Speech. — These are
the verby the nou7i, and its substitute, the pronoun. With
the verb and the noun or the pronoun, a complete sentence
may be formed; but these are the only parts of speech with
which this can be done.

2. The Auxiliary or Helping Parts of Speech.
These include the five remaining classes of words:

(a) The Modifiers, — The adjective and the adverb.

(b) The Connectives, — The preposition and the conjunction.
{c) The Interjection. — These words serve to indicate the

feeling intended to be associated with expressed thought.

It will hereafter appear that words are sometimes used in
such manner as to make it difficult to decide in what class they
belong; also, that some words do double duty in the sentence.
Thus, there are many words that modify in the manner of
adjectives and at the same time have the function of pronouns;
others again modify as adverbs and connect as conjunctions.
These cases, however, will be considered in the proper places.

c8 ^

* E

I-

GO ^

Indispensable

Auxiliary

1. Modifiers

SYNOPSIS

1. Noun — Names something.

2. Pronoun — Refers to names.

3. f^r^— Expresses what is or is done.

{a) Adjective — Modifies

meaning of nouns and pro-
nouns.
(b) Adverb — Modifies mean-
ing of verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs.
'(a) Preposition — Brings
words into relation with
noun or pronoun.
( b ) Conjunction — C o n n e c t s
similar elements.
3. Interjection — Colors thought with feeling.

2. Connectives*

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(PART 2)

FUNCTIONS OF SENTENTIAL ELEMENTS

WORD EL.EMENTS

THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN

1. Various Uses of Nouns and Pronouns. — So far

as has yet been considered, the only work done in sentences
by nouns and pronouns is to stand in the relation of subject.

Nouns as Subjecis: The fPioon lights the earth. William was hurt.
Pronouns as Subjects: We saw the President. Who inquired for me?

But besides filling the office of subject, nouns and pronouns
have other uses in sentences. Their most important func-
tions are as follows:

1. As Absolute y or Independent, — We have seen that the
interjection is used apart from, and independent of, the sen-
tence with which it occurs. In a similar way, a noun or
a pronoun, with its modifiers, used independently, may be
omitted without destroying the grammatical completeness of
the sentence. There are several varieties of the independent
use of nouns and pronouns:

{a) With a verbal to express a cause or an independent
fact. (A verbal is a word derived from a verb, but not used
with predicating force; that is, to make assertions, agk ques-
tions, or express commands. Verbals may be used as nouns
or as adjectives, but they retain some of the characteristics
of the verb in that they may have subjects, objects, and
adverbial modifiers. When used with an independent noun

For notice of copyr(g^Ai. see Page immediately following the title Page

115

2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

or pronoun, verbals are generally used as adjectives. The
following are types of verbals that are often found in inde-
pendent constructions: beings loving^ having been, having
finished^ having been suspected, etc.)

The earth being round, it can be circumnavigated.
He being the older, they gave him the preference.
The clerk having been suspected of dishonesty, an investigation was
ordered.

The example hamng been solved, the teacher read another to the class.

Here earth, he, clerk, and example are independent or abso-
lute, for the phrases in which they occur might be omitted
without destroying the grammatical completeness of the
sentence. The subject and predicate would still remain.

It can be circumnavigated.
They gave him the preference.

(b) Nouns and pronouns may be independent by direct
address.

Go home, my child.

Come here, you.

Friends, /Romans, countrymen ^ hear me for my cause.

As before, the sentences here make complete sense when
the independent words with their accompanying modifiers
are omitted; as, Go home. Come here. Hear me for my cause.

(r) Nouns and pronouns may be independent h^ pleonasm.

The boy, O where was he?
He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.
Shakespeare; he was the greatest poet that ever lived.
The sea; it is the greatest thing God ever made.

This construction is used for the purpose of emphasis. It
consists in the separate mention of that concerning which an
impressive complete statement or question is to follow.
The word pleonasm is derived from the Greek word pieon,
meaning **more.'' The notion is that more words are used
than are needed.

( d) Nouns and pronouns may be independent by apposition.

Socrates, the philosopher, drank poison hemlock.
Did you see him, the savior of his country?

§ 15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3

Here philosoplur and savior are independent by apposition.
A noun in apposition denotes the same person or thing as
the word it explains. Thus, Socrates and philosopher mean
the same person, as do also him and savior. The word
appositio7i means * 'placed near." The name implies that
the appositive is placed close to the word it explains.
This is usually, but not always, the case.

(e) Nouns and pronouns may be independent by
exclamation,

O liberty! How many of earth's oppressed have yearned for thee.
Poor fellow! The paw he holds up there has been frozen.

2. As Predicate Complement, — A complement is something
added to complete or fill out something else. In nearly
every sentence the predicate has with it a noun or a pronoun
to complete its meaning. A noun or a pronoun so used is
called the predicate complement. There are two varieties of
this construction:

{a) The predicate noun ox pronoun, after such verbs as be
(am, is, are, was, etc.), seem, appear, become, etc.

He was a scholar. It was she,

John became an engineer. He seems 2i gentleman.

The earth is a planet. He has been mayor,

A predicate noun or pronoun always denotes the same
person or thing as the subject. Thus, in the sentences above,
he and scholar represent the same person. The same is
true of John and engineer, of earth and plariet, of it and she,
of he and gent lent a7t, ot he and mayor,

(^) The object noun or pronoun — usually called the object
of the verb. The object of a verb is the noun or the pronoun
that answers the question What? or Whom? Thus,

The boy obeyed his father. The boy obeyed whom? His father.

The dog ate the meat. The dog ate what? The tneat.

The boy ate his dinner.

William sawed the wood.

Did you see the elephant?

We met him by the schoolhouse.

He whom they trusted has deceived them.

In the last sentence the pronoun whom precedes the verb

4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

trusted, of which it is the direct object. The usual place of
the direct object is after the verb, but the position is some-
times reversed.

Her they loved but him they hated = They loved her but they
hated hitn.

3. As the Object of a Preposition,

We rowed across the lake.

The babe is asleep in the arms ot its mother.

Can you throw the ball over the steeple?

The preposition is often understood; as,

The teacher gave John a book = The teacher gave a book to John.
Mary's father bought her a kitten = Mary's father bought a kitten
for her.

A noun or a pronoun used as the object of a preposition
generally follows it, but sometimes in poetry it precedes.

The rattling crags among, leaps the live thunder.

The prose order of this sentence would be,
The live thunder leaps among the rattling crajs^s.

4. As Fcutitive Object, — After certain verbs, a noun may be
used as a complement of the direct object; that is, to com-
plete the direct object. Verbs that in this way take two
objects are such as mean to make, to name, to choose, to call,
to think, to cotisider, and some others. The following are
examples of this construction:

Washington called Lafayette his friend.

Pharaoh made Joseph governor of Egypt.

The people elected McKinley President.

The boys nicknamed him Tom.

The President appointed Grant general of the army.

They deemed him a coward but they found /r/w a hero.

Every one thinks war a dire calamity.

In these sentences, the factitive object is in small capitals
and the direct object in Italics.

The word factitive comes from the Latin word facere, mean-
ing **to make.** The term implies that the necessity for
using a second object is made or caused by the verb; that is,

§ 15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5

the meaning expressed by the verb is completed by the
factitive object.

Some authorities regard this use of a noun as a mere case
of apposition with the direct object. It differs, however,
from an ordinary appositive in that it is not an independent
element, although, like an appositive, it stands near the
word it explains, and it denotes the same person or thing.
An ordinary appositive with its modifiers may be omitted
without destroying the complete sense of the sentence, but
the factitive object must usually be expressed or the sentence
becomes meaningless.

Grant, the silent soldier^ became President.

Omitting the appositive we still have complete sense:

Grant became President.

The French called Napoleon the little corporal.

If the factitive object with its modifiers is omitted, there
remains only, The French called Napoleon — an expression that
means nothing. The factitive object is therefore not a true
appositive.

5. As a Modifier Denoting Possession or Origin,

the boy's shoes, our horses, the world's productions, the sun's heat

The first two modifying words boy's and our denote posses-
sion; the last two indicate the source or origin of the things
denoted hy productions and heat. Unlike words in apposition,
a possessive modifier denotes something different from the
meaning of the word that is modified.

6. As the Equivalent of an Adverbial Phrase,

He is six feet tall = He is tall by six feet.

The meat weighed five pounds = The meat weighed to the extent
of fiv^ pounds.

The book is worth a dollar.

The enclosure is a mile long.

He studied his lesson a whole hour.

Here the adjective tall is modified by feet used as an
adverb; and the verb weighed is modified in a similar manner
by pounds^ used as the equivalent of an adverbial phrase.

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

A noun so used is merely the remnant of a prepositional
phrase used as an adverbial modifier; it usually denotes
measure of some kind — quantity, height^ distance^ time,
value, etc.

7. As the Equivalent of an Adjective.

My soldier cousin is taller than your sailor lover.
The labor leader and the merchant tailor live on the same village
street.

In these sentences the nouns in Italics have the value of
adjective modifiers. Nouns used in this way often become
permanently joined to the nouns they modify, forming solid
or hyphenated compounds; as, steamboat, railroads sky-rocket ^
prayer-book.

The foregoing are the principal uses of nouns and pronouns.
It is important that the student should learn to recognize them
quickly and with certainty. This subject will be resumed
later in connection with the Cases of Nouns.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Tell in which of the foregoing ways each noun printed in Italics in
the following sentences is used:

(a) She was the pet of her class in school.

(b) Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again. I hold to you
the hands that once I held to show they still are free.

(c) Had I but served my God with half the zeal
I served my king, he would not in mine age
Have left me naked to mine enetnies.

{d) Of earthly goods, the best is a good wife; a bad, the bitterest
curse of human life.

(e) Loud wind, strong wind, sweeping o*er the mountains, pour
forth from airy fountains, drafts of life for me.

(f) Experience and reason show that affairs confided to many
persons rarely succeed.

(;?•) They carried us five miles, and for the service we paid fifty
shillings.

(A) Time, you thief, who love to get sweets into your list, put that in.

(/) Wealth; that is a burden carried by human donkeys; it is gener-
ally supposed to be of great value.

(j) There are two worlds; the world that we can measure with
line and rule, and the world that we feel with our hearts and
imaginations.

§ 15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB

2. Functions of the Adjective. — As we have seen, the
adjective is a word used to modify the meaning of a noun or
a pronoun; that is, to measure, restrict, or narrow its applica-
tion. In doing: this work, the adjective has the following
varieties of position and use:

1. The Adjective May Be Used Attributively, — In this use
the adjective precedes the word it modifies and is a mere
adjunct or epithet.

Cf7£w/ weather; blue-eyed ^x\\ several persons; wise, earnest, thought-
ful citizens

The word attribute means ** ascribed to.'* To say thab a
word is used as an attribute means that the quality it denotes
belongs to the person or thing named by the modified word.
Thus, in the expression honest boy, the word honest denotes
that the quality or attribute honesty is possessed by the per-
son denoted by the word boy.

Several attributive adjectives may modify the same noun
or pronoun, and some of them may be compound.

Long-winded, tedious, ratnbling speaker; left-handed penman

2. The Adjective May Be Used Appositively, — Adjectives
may be used in a way similar to nouns in apposition. They
are then said to be used appositively.

A lady, graceful, beautiful, and ivinning conducted the party.
Young, chartning, and talented, the girl was a general favorite.
We saw him busy, contented, hopeful.

In these examples, the adjectives are said to be used
appositively because they are joined to the nouns or pro-
nouns in much the same way that an appositive noun is
joined to the word it explains.

3. The Adjective May Be Used as the Complement of the
Predicate,

The merchant was honest, shrewd, and successful.
Great is Diana of the Ephesians.
I am sorry that you have been so ill.

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

This use of the adjective is common after the various
forms of the verb be (am, is, was, has been, will be, etc.).
So used, it expresses a state or condition of the person or
thing named by the subject.

4- The Adjective May Be Used as a Noun,

The flood are said to die young.
The gay will laugh when thou art gone.

The beautiful is not always the best^ neither is the ugly or defortned
the worst.

Some understood word may usually be supplied after adjec-
tives used as above; for example, persons after good and gay^
and thhij^ or object after the adjectives in the other sentence.

5. The Adjective May Be Used Factitively,

They made her happy.
The lightning struck him dead.
The teacher considers John truthful.
The Athenians thought Socrates ivise.
The evidence proved him innocent.

<< 1 • It tti

The word factitive means doing'* or bringing about."
In this construction, the action expressed by the verb has an
effect on the person or thing named by the direct object, and
this effect is denoted by the adjective. It is a use of the
adjective similar to that of the noun as factitive object.

3. Functions of tlie Adverb. — The usual function of
the adverb is to modify or restrict the meaning of the follow-
ing sentential elements:

1 . Verbs,

Walk slowly.

Softly and tenderly he spoke her name.

In the first sentence the adverb slowly tells the manner in
which the walking is to be performed. It is therefore said
to modify the meaning of the verb walk. In the second
sentence there are two adverbs, softly and tetiderly, and they
both modify the verb spoke,

2. Adjectives,

I have been seriously ill.

He showed us his extremely beautiful captive.

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9

Here, seriously modifies the adjective ///, and extremely
modifies the adjective beautiful. These modifiers are adverbs,
because they modify adjectives.

Even when an adjective is used as a noun, it may be mod-
ified by an adverb.

There is not so much difference as is generally supposed
between the exceedingly good and the extremely bad.

3. Other Adverbs,

They came very early, and stayed so long, that quite gladly we saw
them depart.

Here the adverbs very, so, and quite are modifiers, respect-
ively, of the adverbs early, lojig, and gladly. It will be seen,
therefore, that any modifier of a verb, an adjective, or an
adverb must be an adverb.

The forms and the usual functions of the other word ele-
ments of sentences have already been explained.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Pick out the adjectives in the following sentences and tell what
each adjective modifies; '

(fl) She is pretty to walk with, and witty to talk with, and pleasant
to think about.

(b) These things we know are neither rich nor rare.

{d) Young men are fitter to invent than to judge; for new projects
than for settled business.

(/•) A lucky man is as rare as a white crow.

(/") Be not a generous man to yourself and a parsimonious man to
your friends.

2. Mention the adverbs in the following sentences and tell what
each adverb modifies:

(a) Too much of anything is nearly always bad.

(b) You should never permit yourself to speak ill of the absent,
(r) Money that is easily obtained is usually very soon squandered.
{d) Sweetly but sadly the bell was tolling in the distance.

(e) Nothing is said nowadays that has not often l)een said before.
(/)^ The more virtuous a man is, the less easily does he suspect
that others are vicious.

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

PHRASE EliEMBNTS

DEFINITION OP A PHRASE

4, Phrases With Respect to Use.— In sentences we
very often find groups of two or more words that seem to
belong together, very much as if they were parts of a com-
pound word. They consist of several closely related ideas
expressing a compound idea, and this does the duty of
a single word in the sentence where it occurs. This duty or
function is to modify like an adjective or an adverb, or to
name some object or some action in the way that nouns do.
Although the uses of prepositional phrases as adjectives and
adverbs have already been touched on, the importance of
the general subject of phrases is so great as to require fur-
ther consideration.

There are two special marks by which a group of words
may be known to form a phrase:

1. It must do the work that is usually done by one word.

He was busy in his oflfice during the whole day.
Reading good books is a profitable method of passing the time.
To have visited Paris seemed to the speaker a reason for boasting.
Seeing the multitude, he went up into a mountain.

The nine phrases in these sentences are used exactly as if
each were a single word. Two of them, readijig good books
and to have visited Paris, are iiowi phrases because each is the
subject of the sentence in which it occurs. Both phrases in
the first sentence are adverbial phrases, being modifiers of the
adjective busy, hi his office tells where he was busy and
during the zvhole day tells how lojtg he was busy. Other
adverbial phrases are to the speaker, which modifies the verb
seemed, and into a mountain, which modifies the verb went.
The adjective phrases are of passing time, modifying the noun
method; for boasting, modifying the noun reason; and seeing
the multitude^ modifying the pronoun he,

2. It must not contain a verb that predicates; that is, a
verb that actually asserts, denies, etc.

§ 15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11

In the sentences above, the expressions readings passings
to have visited^ boastings and seeing are verbals^ since they are
derived from verbs; but they are not in a full sense verbs.
It is impossible with them alone to make a statement or ask
a question. Predication by verbals is only assumed or taken
for granted — not actually made. This will be more fully
explained in another place.

Definition. — A phrase is a group of words used as a single
part of speech^ but containing no word of real predication,

5. Plirases Witli Respect to Form. — We have seen
that when phrases are considered with respect to the work
they do in sentences, they are of three kinds: nouny adjective,
and adverbial phrases. When they are examined with regard
to their form or structure, the three kinds of phrases men-
tioned above can be reduced to two general classes:

1. Prepositional Phrases. — Such as begin with a prepo-
sition. The following are examples:

in the morning, by the seashore, above the falls, against the evidence,
according to the best dictionary, in spite of good counsel

Prepositional phrases may contain verbals:

for being present, of passing counterfeit money, in having disobeyed
the teacher, against wasting words

2. • Verbal Phrases. — Such, as are introduced by a verbal.
The following sentences have verbal phrases in Italics:

Fearing a riot, the mayor called out the police.
Having been elected President, he promptly took the prescribed oath
of office.

He was reported to have resigned his position.

Verbal phrases are of two kinds: participial and iyifinitive.
The verbal phrases in the first two sentences above are parti-
cipial phrases; the phrase in the third sentence is an infinitive
phrase. The meaning of these names will be explained later.

Infinitive phrases begin with the preposition to. The
following are some examples:

to study his lesson, to have written a letter, to be loved, to have
been seen, to be walking, to have been walking

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

The student should notice the diflference between the
infinitive phrase and the prepositional phrase consisting of to
followed by an object noun or pronoun. Some examples
follow:

to a good boy, to the city, to church, to them

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Construct sentences in which shall occur the following phrases:
during the rain, upon the hill, over the sea, according to law, by an
honorable life, through a dark wood, of the people, beside his sister,
behind the wagon, across a wide river.

2. Separate the following compound phrases into the simple
phrases of which they are composed: at the bottom of the sea, with
his sister by his side, in a boat on the river, during a trip through
Europe in vacation, earning money by the hardest kind of labor,
observing the time by the clock in the steeple of the old church
on the hill.

3. Use the following phrases in sentences, and decide what is the
function of each; that is, tell which you use as nouns, which as adjec-
tives, and which as adverbs: to study, to be answered, to have been
chosen, seeing a procession, eating an apple, to write a letter, to earn
his living, having built a home, having been sick.

4. Write sentences and use in them the following words each of
which is modified by a phrase: loaf, kind, caught, fun, black, skate,
run, river.

5. Use each of the following as the first part of a phrase: against,
between, without, upon, pushing, having reached, in reply to, with
regard to, down, to earn.

6. Pick out the noun, the adjective, and the adverbial phrases in
the following sentences:

(a) Years steal fire from the eyes as vigor from the limbs.

(b) Know when to speak; for many times it brings
Danger to give the best advice to kings.

{c) . But I doubt not through the ages one increasing purpose runs,
And the thoughts of men are widened by the process of the suns.

(d) He drew his bridle in the shade

Of the apple trees, to greet the maid.

And ask a draft from the spring that -flowed

Through the meadow, across the road.

(e) If wisdom's ways you wisely seek.

Five things observe with care:
Of whom you speak, to whom you speak,
And how, and when, and where.

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 13

(/) You must get int6 the habit of lookinjjj intensely at words, and
of assuring yourself of their meaning syllable by syllable — nay, letter
by letter.

(j^) Being entirely right and adhering to your opinion in spite of
all temptation to do otherwise, will be found more difficult than being
a hero in battle.

CliAlTSE EL.EMENTS

DEFINITION OF A CLAUSE

6. How Sentences Become Clauses. — Two or more
sentences may be made into one by means of conjunctions.
After the union of these elements, they are no longer
sentences, but clauses of a sentence. Thus, take the two
sentences:

The earth is round.

Men can sail around the earth.

These two sentences may be united into one sentence by
using as a conjunction any one of the following and making
some slight changes in the wording: and, if, so, then, because,

for, since, inasmiich as, seeing that, etc.

The earth is round, for men can sail around it.

Here we have a sentence consisting of two clauses con-
nected by the conjunction for, each clause having a subject
and a predicate.

When separate sentences are united, slight changes are
usually necessary. This happens in such cases as the
following:

1. When subjects in two or more of the sentences denote
the same person or thing.

The sun rises in the east. The girls stayed at home.

The sun moves across the sky The girls did the housework.

The sun sets in the west. The boys went to the picnic.

The sun rises in the east, moves across the sky, and sets in the
west.

The girls stayed at home and did the housework, but the boys went
to the picnic.

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 15

Here we still have three statements, in which the omitted
subjects are clearly implied.
2. When two or more of the predicates are alike.

Spring returned once more. The day is dreary.

The birds returned once more. The world is dreary.
The flowers returned once more. My life is dreary.
Spring and the birds and the flowers returned once more.
The day and the world and my life are dreary.

In such cases the predicate usually appears but once in the
final sentence, making a structure without clauses. It being
impossible to say anything completely without using a predi-
cate, this element is the most important part of a sentence.
A sentence is considered to have only as many clauses as it
has different predicates; for, if it be rightly constructed, the
subjects that are not expressed are plainly implied. More-
over, the imperative regularly omits the subject, but the
predicate cannot be omitted without destroying the sentence.

Definition. — A clause is otie of the Predicating parts of a
sentence that has two or more such parts or elemefits.

7. Varieties of Clause Connectives. — Besides being
joified by regular conjunctions, clauses may be united by
adverbs and by certain pronouns. An adverb used for this
purpose is called a conjunctive adverb^ and a pronoun so
employed becomes a relative br conjunctive pronoun.

Adverbs that are much used as connectives are wheny
where, while^ why, how, as, since, and many others. The
following are some examples:

He left for the city when the clock struck ten.

They buried him on the field where he had fought so well.

One half the world does not know how the other half lives.

No one has been here since you went away.

It was easy to understand why he left so suddenly.

Conjunctive adverbs may be distinguished from regular
conjunctions by the fact that they connect and at the same
time denote place, time, or mariner, while conjunctions con-
nect and nothing more. The following will illustrate:

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 15

{I shall leave tomorrow if the day is fine.
You will succeed provided you are faithful .
You may go unless you prefer to stay.
. fl shall leave tomorrow after I have dined.

^dv^bs\ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ y^" ^®'*® sitting.
I You should have done as you were told.

The pronouns who^ which ^ what^ whose ^ whom^ and that are
frequently used as connectives.

Can you tell me who solved this example?
I cannot imagine whom you mean.
Do you know whose horse ran away?
Yonder stands the house that my father built.
Who committed the crime was not known.

When pronouns are used as connectives they always per-
form some other work in the sentence. Thus, who in the
first sentence connects, and besides, is the subject of the
second clause. In the next sentence whom is the direct
object of the verb mean — You mean whom. The pronotm
whose is a modifier of horse^ denoting possession or owner-
ship; that is the object of the verb built — My father built
that; in the last sentence, who is the subject of the verb
committed^ and at the same time it introduces the sentence.
Sentences consisting of clauses connected by conjunctive
adverbs may often have their clauses inverted so as to place
the connective at the beginning. In this position the con-
junctive adverb has the same connective effect that it has
when in the body of the sentence.

When the clock struck ten he left for the city.
Since you went away no one has been here.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Decide what clauses compose the following sentences, and mention
the connectives:

(a) The days were warm, but the nights were very cold.

(^) Be very quiet and listen attentively to the teacher's explanations.

{d) The Cossack prince rubbed down his horse and made for him
a bed of leaves.

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

{e) The man was thoroughly honest although he was very poor
indeed.

(/) Spend the days of youth wisely, or you may in age regret your
neglect.

(^) The Tartar's horse looked as if the speed of thought were in
his limbs.

(A) I had heard that voice l)efore though I could not have told where.

(i) Byron died in Greece when he was only thirty-six years old.

(j) Sir Isaac Newton proved that the path of every planet must be
an ellipse.

FUNCTIONS OF DEPENDENT CI^USES

8. Dependent clauses do a work in sentences exactly like
that done by phrases; that is, they are used as nouns, adjec-
tives, or adverbs.

1. A Clause May Be Used as a Noun, — When used as a
noun a clause may be:

{a) The subject of a sentence.

What became of Henry Hudson was never ascertaiKed.

After the horse has been stolen is not the time for locking the stable.

That the prisoner was j^uiily appeared very doubtful.

The clauses in Italics are the subjects, respectively, of the

verbs in small capitals.

(h) The predicate noun.

The place to study music is where nothinf^ but tnusic is taught.
The critical moment for Caesar was when he crossed the J^ubicon.

In the first sentence, the clause beginning with where
denotes the same thing as place; that is, it is the predicate
noun. The same is true of the italicized clause in the next
sentence.

(^) The object of a verb.

Do you know when the train leaves for Boston?
He did exactly what he was told.

Here the verbs have as direct objects the clauses in Italics.
{d) The object of a preposition.

The child wondered about why the sky is so blue.
He spoke of what causes the tides.

Why the sky is so blue is the object of the preposition about ^
and what causes the tides is the object of the preposition of.

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 17

(e) In apposition with a noun or a pronoun.
The FACT, wAo had done the damage, was soon known.

The clause in Italics is in apposition with the noun in
small capitals; that is, the clause explains what is meant by
the noun fact.

2. A Clause May Be Used as an Adjective,

The island that we discovered was inhabited by savages.

The spot where John Brown* s body rests is in the Adirondacks.

The clause, that we discovered is an adjective modifier of
the noim island^ and the clause, where John Brown's body rests
modifies the noun spot,

3. A Clause May Be Used as an Adverb,

They buried him where he fell.

Busy when he called, I could not see him.

Exactly when the clock struck, our train started.

The first dependent clause modifies the meaning of the
v^xh buried; the second, that of the adjective ^wjy/ the third
modifies the meaning of started.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Of the italicized clauses in the following sentences, state in which of
the classes illustrated in the preceding article each clause belongs.
Mention the connectives and tell to what parts of speech they belong.

(a) Peggotty diedyW/ as the tide went out.

{b) The steamer reached her destination before she was expected.

(d) His firm belief was that all men are created equal.
(^) Have you ever ascertained why the sky is bluef

(0 The land where oranges flourish must be a sunny land.
(g) It is an ill wind that blows no man good, .
(h) He that is convinced against his will, is of the same opinion still,
(t) Time was when the little toy dog was new, ,
And the soldier was passing fair;
And that was the time when our Little Boy Blue^
Kissed them and put them there.
(/) He knew whose gentle hand was at the latch, before the door
was opened.

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

THE RANK OF CLAUSES

9. With respect to rank, there are two relations in which
clauses may stand to one another.

1 . Clauses May Be of Equal Rank, — When two or more
sentences are united into one, the relation of the clauses in
the resulting sentence is entirely dependent on the kind of
conjunction or other connective word used. If such words
as and^ or^ but, also^ moreover^ yet, still, and others of the class
called C0ordtnatm£ conjunctions are used, the resulting sentence
will consist of clauses equal in rank — each clause being of just
as much importance as any other. Clauses connected by con-
junctions of this kind are coordinate clauses.

He finished his work and then he received his pay.

The moon is not very distant, but we shall never succeed in reach-
ing it.

Helen Keller is deaf and blind; yet she has become a fine English
scholar.

2. Clauses May Be of Unequal Rank, — Clauses may be so
joined in a sentence as to have unequal importance as sen-
tential elements. For example, a clause may be nothing
more than a noun in the function it fills, or it may be a mere
modifier, doing the work of an adjective or an adverb.

Noun Clause: He told me how I should enter a room.
Adjective Clause: The castle that we now own was built during
the period when Queen Elizabeth ruled England,

Adverbial Clause: Do not strike until the iron is hot.

In the first sentence, the clause is the object of the verb told,
just as secret would be in the sentence. He told nte a secret. In
the next sentence, the first clause modifies the noun castle, and
the second, the noun period. These are therefore adjective
clauses. In the last sentence, the verb do strike is modified
by until the iron is hot, an adverbial clause denoting time.

Clauses so used may often be omitted without destroying
the main sense of the sentence, for they usually serve only
to add some circumstance or explanation to the meaning of
a more important element. Such are called subordinate,
dependent, or secondary clauses, because of their inferior

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 19

importance as sentential elements. The clause that expresses
the main thoug^ht and has attached to it one or more helping
or subordinate clause elements has been called by various
names; as, principal^ leadings primary^ or independent clause.
Subordinate clauses may be of equal rank, but in order to
be so they must be connected by coordinating conjunctions.

After the sun has set and the moon has risen, we shall take our
departure.

SUBORDINATING CONNECTIVES

10. The words used to unite independjent with dependent
clauses are of the three kinds mentioned in Art. 7; conjunc-
tions, conjunctive adverbs, and relative or conjunctive
pronouns. Some examples of these connectives are the
following:

1. Subordinating conjunctions; as, z/, unless^ except^ pro-
vided^ lest^ because, whether, etc.

2. Conjunctive adverbs; as, when, while, why, where^
whither, whence, after^ before, as, how, since, etc.

3. Relative or conjunctive pronouns; as, who, whose, whom^
which y that^ what^ whoever, etc.

clauses:

We shall depart

exampl.es for practice

1. By using suitable subordinating conjunctions or conjunctive
adverbs, unite the following so as to form ten sentences, each con-
taining an independent clause and one or more adverbial dependent

'the sun rises
the day is fine
we are not welcome
our money is all gone
the game has been killed

2. Make sentences of the following, and let each contain three or
more clauses; state also the office of each dependent clause:

whose word had been doubted
that the officer arrested
that smiled so pleasantly
that caught the burglar
that we met yesterday

3. Mention the independent and the dependent clauses in the fol-
lowing sentences, and describe fully the function of each dependent
clause:

The traveler^

was allowed
to proceed.

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

(a) I concluded from what he said that he had never been to Europe.

(d) When we were sailing up the Hudson we noticed the Palisades.

{d) Work while the day endures, for a night is coming when no
man can work.

{e) *'What Will He Do With It?" is the title of one of Bulwer's
novels.

(/) She sang a song that was called *'Comin* Thro' the Rye.**

^) Pleasure, with a winning smile, said, *'Come with me and 1
will make thee happy.**

(h) He was glad when he noticed how the fish kept their heads up
stream.

(0 Very soon the young philosopher finds that things which roll
so easily are very apt to roll into the wrong comer and get out
of his way when he most wants them.

FORMS OF SENTENCES

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

!!• Twofold Classification of Sentences. — We have
seen that sentences considered with regjard to the use that
is made of them are divided into three classes. If used to
make statements, they are declarative: if they express a
question, they are inter roj^ative; if used in commanding,
entreating, or wishing, they are imperative. We have .seen
too that any one of these three classes may become exrlam-
atory. Various combinations of two or more of these uses
may occur in one sentence, as is shown in {c) above.

We come now to consider another and very important
classification — one that has no regard to the use that sen-
tences serve, but is based on their form or structure.

12, The Simplest Sentential Strnetiire. — The sim-
plest possible structure that a sentence can have is the
form composed of two words: one the subject, the other
the predicate.

Birds fly. Water flows. Perseverance succeeds. Who caibe? They
retreat.

§15

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In the imperative sentence, the subject is generally omitted,
but if it were not clearly implied there could be no thought
expressed, and therefore no sentence.

( You) Come. ( TAou) Behold, or Behold thou. ( Ve) Go, or Go ye.

I>efliiitlon. — A simple sentence ts a sentertce composed
of one subject^ expressed or clearly implied^ and one predicate,

13« Otlier Ulemeuts in a Simple Sentence. — The

simple sentence without modifiers is not often met with in
actual use; some other elements are usually added to the
subject, or to the predicate, or to both. These elements may
be words or phrases, but not clauses. When clauses enter,
the sentence is no longer simple.

Subject Modifibrs Prbdicatb Modifiers
raany rcontiDually

beautiful in the tropical forests

of varied colors from tree to tree

of sweetest song I of Central Africa

In the tropical forests of Central Africa many t>eautiful birds of
varied colors and sweetest song fly from tree to tree continually.

Subject Modifiers Predicate Modifiers Object Modifiers

Birds

(that
thoughtful
from the city

learned

with care,
always, before
school time,
in the morning

lessons

rhis
hardest
for that
day

In the morning before school time that thoughtful student from the
city always learned with care his hardest lessons for that day.

When a sentence contains many modifiers, especially if
some of them are phrases, the arrangement and punctuation
of its various parts require both care and taste.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1 . Using such connectives as are required , fit the following modifiers
to the principal parts so as to form simple sentences. Endeavor to
get the best possible arrangement and punctuation.

our ring, promptly,
answer

i \ ^^ 1 (pretty, a. with blue eyes,l [to

(a) Girl{ f.,^, ^ , ' \ came \ .

' ihttle, very, charming J I in

!of our country,
many, wild,
interesting

{playing in captivity, hy
the river, on pleasant
days

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§15

, . . f for children, thel . f wh

risely, to learn,
use, bow, time

(/i\ PI ■ 1 /"°<i®r tb® autumn sky, with its great cities,
Ithe, with its silver river, before him, broad

{with an iron constitution', with a friendly voice,
down, six feet three in his stockings, a kind,
young man, talkative
2. By adding word and phrase elements, as in the preceding
examples, expand the following simple sentences. The expanded sen-
tence must still be simple.

{a) The song died. The days passed. The roses faded. The

time will come. The leaves have fallen. The work has been finished.

(d) Who discovered? Did Crusoe live? Does his heart beat?

Should nobody praise? (You) Come. (You) Continue. (You) Be.

14. Compound Members. — Two or more simple sen-
tences may often be contracted into one sentence, which is
itself simple. This is done by joining their like members
by means of conjunctions.

John goes to school.

His sister goes to school

Is the earth round like a

ball?
Is its moon round like a

ball?
Are all the other planets and

their moons round like a

ball?

.1-

{John and his sister go to
school.

Are the earth and its moon
and all the other planets
and their moons round
like a ball?

The foregoing
subjects.

are simple sentences with compound

We gathered walnuts.
We gathered chestnuts.
We gathered beechnuts.

l-{

We gathered walnuts, chest-
nuts, and beechnuts.

Here we have a simple sentence with a compound object

Mr. Blaine was an orator.
Mr. Blaine was a statesman.
Mr. Blaine was a patriot.
The boy has been honest.
The boy has been truthful.
The boy has been industrious.

Mr. Blaine was an orator, a
statesman, and a patriot.

{The boy has been honest,
truthful, and industrious.

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 23

In the first of these sentences, the predicate noun is com-
pound; in the next, the predicate adjective is compoimd.

Modifying words and phrases, either adjective or adver-
bial, may be compounded in the same manner as the more
important members. If a sentence that contains compound
elements has only one predicating verb, it is* a simple
sentence.

The cunning and treacherous znsitor arrested by the guard strongly
and earnestly insisted upon his innocence.

That handsome doy and his sister arb alwa3rs polite and respectful
in their bearing toward others.

Simple sentences are often very long. There is one con-
dition necessary in order that a sentence may be simple — it
must contain J)ut one predicating verb:

THE COMPIiBX SENTENCE

DEFINITION OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

15. A sentence may be composed of two clauses of
unequal rank, one being the principal or independent clause
and the other used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
A sentence of this kind is called a complex sentence.

Cotne when you have time.

IVAo believes that the earth is flat?

Lucy was the sweetest child that ever brightened a home.

He quoted the proverb, "Honesty is the best policy."

**Who are you?" he inquired.

In these sentences, the principal clauses are in Italic, and
the subordinate clauses in Roman, type. When you have time
is an adverbial clause modifier of the verb come; that the
earth is flat is a noun clause used as the direct object of the
verb believes; and that ever brightened a home is an adjective
clause modifier of the noun child. The clause, Honesty is
the best policy ^ is used as a noun in apposition with the noun
proverby the meaning of which it explains; in the last sen-
tence, Who are you f is the object of inquired.

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

A sentence may contain several subordinate clauses. In
such case, if there is only one principal clause, the sentence

is still complex.

{when the sun has gone down,
and
while the air is damp.
While youth lasts

and let us be happy ^ if we can.

our friends are many,

In the first sentence. // is dangerous to be abroad is the
principal or independent clause. This clause standinjj alone
would make complete sense, but neither of the two on the
right would do so. They are adjective clauses modifying
to be abroad^ and are for this reason subordinate. The sen-
tence is therefore complex. In the second sentence the
imperative clause in Italics is the principal or independent
clatise. The subordinate clauses. While youth lasts, (while)
our frie7ids are manyy and // ive can are mere modifiers. While
is understood before the second subordinate clause. The
coordinating conjunction and connects the two dependent
clauses. While youth lasts and {while) our friends are many.

Definition. — A complex sentence is a sentefice coTisist-
ifig of 07ie principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Combine the following groups of simple sentences into complex
sentences, and underscore the principal clause. Change as few words
as possible.

(a) The birds go south. The snow falls. The weather becomes cold.

Model. — When the weather becomes cold and the snow falls, the
birds go south. Or^ The birds go south when the weather becomes

cold and the snow falls.

The conjunctive adverb when is expressed before the first sub-
ordinate clause and understood before the second. These two
subordinate clauses being of equal rank are connected by the coordi-
nating conjunction and.

{b) The sky falls. We shall catch sparrows. We are alive at
that time.

(r) "Who killed Cock Robin.J»" The school assembled. The
master inquired.

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 25

(d) He might become a scholar. He was seventeen years old.
Harry's father sent him to college.

{e) The foolish man became angry. The goose laid golden eggs.
He killed the goose.

2. Write complex sentences as follows, and underscore the subor-
dinate clauses.

(a) Two sentences, each of which has an adjective clause.

Model. — No one ever saw the house that Jack built.
The exact time when gunpowder was invented is not known.

(d) Two, each of which has an adverbial clause.

(d) Two, each of which has for its subject a noun clause.

(e) Two, each of which has for its object a noun clause.

(/) Two, each of which has a noun clause as the predicate noun.
Or) Two that have noun clauses in apposition.
(h) Two that have clause objects of prepositions.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

DEFINITION or THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

16. If by the use of subordinating: connectives clauses
be joined in such relation that one of them is more important
than any of the others, the sentence is, as we have learned,
complex. But if coordinating connectives be used, the
clauses thus joined will be of equal rank. If these clauses
do not stand in an inferior or dependent relation to some
more important clause, the sentence is coin pound.

The simplest possible form of the compound sentence
consists of two imperative clauses of which- the subjects are
understood.

Go and see. Cotm: or /j'o. Call or Tvrite. Sleep and rest.

Other and longer compound sentences having two clauses
of equal rank are as follows:

Sit still and study your lesson.

Who fnet and repulsed the enemy?

I neither know nor do I care.

The farmer plowed the field and sowed it with wheat.

The farmer pioived and so7ved in the sprinp.

Dare to do right, dare to be true.

26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 15

In the last sentence the conjunction is omitted and its
place filled by a comma.

Compound sentences may be lengthened by the addition
of subordinate clauses:

The rain was falling when we started, but the sky was clear before

we reached our destination.

The good die young is an old saying, but the saying is not true.
Do not trust him that makes many promises, nor doubt him too

much that makes few.

In all the foregoing sentences the independent clauses are
in Italic, and the subordinate clauses in Roman, type. When
we started is an adverbial clause modifying the verb was fall-
ing; before we reached our destination also is an adverbial
modifier of clear. The good die young is a noun clause, the
subject of the verb is; that makes many Promises is an adjec-
tive modifier of him; and that makes few modifies him in
the last principal clause.

Definition. — A compound sentence is a sentence com-
posed of two or more independent clauses, with or without subor-
dinate clauses.

Such sentences as the following are by some grammarians
clashed as simple senterues with compound predicates:

The winds blew and beat upon that house.

The children rode, walked, drove, or played in the park every day.

Mary washed the dishes, polished the silver, and dusted the furniture.

In this work, however, such sentences are regarded as
compoimd. The reason for this is that the verb is by far
the most important element in every sentence. It can never
be omitted from a simple sentence, but any other element
may be lacking. The subject of an imperative sentence is
regularly omitted, while, without a verb, there can be no
sentence — no expressed thought. A sentence is therefore
regarded as containing as many clauses as there are in it
verbs that predicate.

17. Connectives May Be Understood. — When we
wish to unite words into a series, it is common to omit

§ 15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 27

some of the connectives when they may easily be under-
stood and supplied.

Apples, pears, peaches, and other fruits are found in the market.
Busy, happy, contented, charming, were those children.

In a similar way, the connectives between clauses are often
omitted; or, the arrangement of the clauses may be such that
the connective serves to introduce rather than to connect.

I promised him I would visit him = I promised him that I would
visit him.

Should he come I would go = I would go // he should come.

While we live let us live = Let us live while we live.

Where do you think he has gone? Whom do you imagine I saw?

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Write the following compound sentences, underscore the verbs
of the independent clauses, and mention the connectives.

(a) Sorrow was dead indeed in her, but peace and perfect happi-
ness were born.

(b) Once upon a time a good many years ago, there was a traveler,
and he set out upon a journey.

(r) When it rained, they remained within doors; but when it was
fine weather, they wandered all day long in the woods.

(d) The sky was so blue, the sun was so bright, the water was so
sparkling, the leaves were so green, the flowers were so lovely, and
they heard so many singing birds and saw so many butterflies, that
everything was beautiful.

(e) He called many times but there was no reply, and when he
passed out of the wood and saw the peaceful sun going down upon a
wide purple prospect, he came to an old man sitting upon a fallen tree.

(/) The whole journey was through a wood, only it had been open
and green at flrst, like a wood in spring; and now it began to be thick
and dark, like a wood in summer.

(g^ I consider the noble savage a prodigious nuisance and an
enormous superstition; and his calling rum **flrewater'* and me a
* 'paleface" wholly fail to reconcile me to him.

(h) The day is done, and the darkness falls from the wings of night
As a feather is wafted downward from an eagle in his flight.

2. Tell which of the following sentences are simple, which com-
plex, and which compound; tell also the kind of clauses, and mention
^he connectives.

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

(a) When I die, put near me something that has loved the light,
and had the sky above it always.

(d) In the preface to his collected works, De Quincey has fully
defined his own position and claim to distinction.

(^r) While William of Orange lived, he was the guiding star of a
whole brave nation; and when he died, the little children cried in the
streets.

(d) The place where shining souls have passed imbibes a grace
beyond mere earth.

{e) With smoking axle hot with speed, with steeds of fire and steam.
Wide- waked Today leaves Yesterday behind him like a dream;
Still, from the hurrying train of Life, fly backward far and fast
The milestones of the fathers, the. landmarks of the past.

(/") '*To do the best for yourself is finally to do the best for others,"
said the lecturer on political economy.

{g) To him who in the love of nature holds communion with her
visible forms, she speaks a various language.

{k) Death is the end of life; then why should life all labor be?

SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS

ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES

18. The Meauing: of **Analysls." — The word analysis
means **a taking apart**; it is the opposite of synthesisy **a
putting together.*' With regard to sentences, analysis is any
scheme of representing the relations and functions of their
words, phrases, and clauses. This is usually done by means
of diagrams, and of these, many systems have been devised
by different authors.

19. Dismemberment of Sentences in Analysis.

The most serious objection that has been urged against
analysis by diagrams is that nearly all methods of analysis
so separate the sentential elements that the student is
unable to put them together again. This objection is obvi-
ated in the scheme that will now be explained.

20. Subject and Predicate. — The subject of a sen-
tence is enclosed in marks of parenthesis (); the predicate
verb is enclosed in brackets []. When the subject or any

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 29

other element is to be represented as understood, the fact is
indicated by a caret A .

(Birds) [fly]. (A) [Make] haste.

(A) [Tell] A me the truth. A (storm) [is coming].

In a complex sentence, the marks of parenthesis and the
brackets should be heavier in the principal clause than in
the subordinate clauses.

The (tree) [must lie] where (it) [fell].

(What (he) [thinks] about it) [concerns] me not.

When the predicate is a verb phrase with intervening
modifiers, the brackets should be as in the following sentences:

The (clouds) [will] soon [have rolled] away.
The (result) [might] easily [have been foreseen] .

21. Ppo<1 lento Coniplomonts. — That a noun or a pro-
noun is th? direct object of a verb is indicated by two
parallel lines below it, =. If this object is a phrase

or a clause, the parallels are extended to include it.

(They) [counted] the stars.

My (sister) [means] to return.

(He) earnestly [desired] to be thought honest.

The (boy) [cried] , "The (wolf) fis comingt"]

**[Can) the (leopard^ [change] his spots?" ( he) [asked].

In the last sentence, the predicate verb asked is preceded
by a noun clause used as the object of the verb.

A predicate noun or pronoun is denoted by two parallel
lines above it, and a predicate adjective by a straight line
above a wavy line, .. The lines denoting a predi-
cate adjective may be either above or below the adjective.

The (stranger) [was] assuredly a gentleman.
(Cherries) [are] ripe.

The (roses) [were] in bloom.

The (battle-ship) [wa.s] about to he tested.

so ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

22. Modifying: Elements. — A modifier is connected by
an arrow wi£h the element it modifies.

( ^__

(He) [was) a manly, intelligent boy.

T — T— I t

Here hey is the predicate noun.

\ — -^

X — *
My (dog) [is] by no means vidoua

Vicious is the predicate adjective.

I ~:e=^ n= _ .

(liberty), within doe limits, [is] an inherent right of all mea

i I T \ f 1

Right is the predicate noun, and denotes the same thing
as liberty — is only another name for the subject.

23. Independent Elements and Connectives. — Inde-
pendent elements are indicated by a wavy line, .%xn..w>.^^, and
connectives by the plus sign +. If a connective has any
other function, this fact may be indicated as already explained.
The following analysis will illustrate these points:

The king, (he) [can do] no wrong.

(Jack), the Giant Killer, [performed] some wonderful exploits,
t ^^^^^^^ t ^=

-^■^^^ 71 _1 L_ J I

John, lean] (you) [explain] to me the true cause of the tides?
t t ""^ ^P= ~«=^-*

* + V. __xz:— f + 3=

The (warp) and (woof) of man's life [are! past and future time.

^ * +

[Did] (I) not, sir, carefully [explain] to you what (I) [wanted]?

I T -r t -^=^ — '

In the first sentence, king is independent by pleonasm; in
the second, Giant Killer is independent by apposition; in the
third, John is independent by address.

§15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 31

Besides being a connective, what, in the last sentence, is
the object of wanted; what I wanted is the object of did
explain.

t —J— ♦ ^ i i 1

In every deed of mischief^ (he), the Spirit of Malevolence, [had]

I * I i I I . 1 * I

a httid to contrive^ a heart to resolve, and a hand to execute.

MODELS OF ANALYSIS

24. If the student finds any of the following analyses
difficult, he should review them frequently. He will see
their difficulties clear away as he reconsiders them in the
light of what he learns after first studying them. The abil-
ity to solve all doubtful questions concerning the functions
and relations of sentential elements is the best evidence of
thorough grammatical knowledge. Analysis of sentences,
therefore, should be persisted in as the best possible prep-
aration for understanding and writing good English.

X 1 ^_

1. Sydney Smith's (namej (is] a synonym of wit; but (he) [has left]

' t I t I t

! IT

14= 1

behind him evidences of far higher powers.

1 1 -f I IL--i I

2. (Bi^teqiwiieea) [exalteth] a nation, bat (am) [is] a reproach to any people.

-i= — T \ — ;; 1

3. Now [fades] the glimmering (landscape) on the sight.

"T I _ J ni t

^ _n *

And all the air a solemn (stillness) fholdsl.

TTT-L=IIll-J " '

Note. — The author's meaning may have been that air holds still-
ness, or it may have been the reverse, as in the diagram.

32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

(l) then fletl myself down and\' [swam] acroes the channel

^ c

(which) [lay] between the ship and the sands.

f nz t "iz — J

I I

^=-^f

5. (He) [spoke] of Bums : (men) rude and rough

[Pressed] round to hear the praise of one

Whose (heart) [was made] of manly, simple stuit

— ^~~ — * T ■ ' ^

. 1 1 -:^=r — 1

o. Oft when the (wine) in his glass [was] red.

i \ — ' . — I

(He; [longed] for the wayside well instead;

t ■ — ' —

+ ( ) -H"^ 1 t^ - — 1

And ^ [closed] his eyes on his garnished rooms,

t "1= I

j=^m

To dream of meadows and clover blooms.

t I i

Instead has of the wine understood after it. This word is in
reality a prepositional phrase, in stead, written as one word.
There are many such; as, iiideed, aboard^ astern, toward, etc.
When so written, they are commonly used as adverbs.

-f ' ^ — — I

7. The .(world) [will] little [note] nor [a] (a) long [remember] what (we) [say] here;

"T= — t t_^rz — t. n=_ t =F= f

+ + I — —1

but (it) [can] never [forget] what (they) [did] here.

§15 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR 33

The first what is the object of say — we say what; the
second is the object of did — they did what, InMike manner,
what we say here is the object of will note and (will) remember y
and what they did here is the object of can forget,

8. (She) [retired] within the wails of her capital,

t I "C t

(a) [made] every preparation for a v^rous resistance, and (a) [declared],

♦ = ! , T I 1 I

th the intrepidity of a heroine, that the last (moment) of her reign

+ r^ =c

and of her life, [should be] the same.

9. The old (manj, as (he) C nods J over the solemn verse of Wordsworth,

I ,jr— T

[will recognize] the affinity between the singer and the calm sheet

t .^= -^^-^ -^-^ t

(that) [lay] before him as Qie) [wrote].

-h.

10. A wandering harper, scorned and poor,

r~T Tin — ;

(He) [b^sged] his bread from door to door;
t =T= I

And ItunedJ, to please a peasant's ear,

tt -TT~ 3=

— d — I J. X — I

The harp T a (king) [had loved] to hear.

3r t — =j—_

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§15

11. A litde (learning) [is] a dangerous thing;

XJZEZ—J T I f

(a) [Drink] deep, or w [taste] not the F

lenan spring.

=D —

Deep is usually an adjective, but here it is an adverb.

12. But (grief) [should be] the instructor of the wise;

(Sorrow) [is] knowledge : (thej) (who) [know] the roost

1 ^ ^=

[Must mourn] the de^>e8t o^er the fatal truth,
t

The (Tree) of Knowledge [isj not that of life.

-r- t \ -n t — I —

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Make detailed diagrams for the following sentences:

(a) Habit is the memory of the bodily organs.

(b) Indian summer is caused by the decay or slow combustion of
the leaves.

(d) I am monarch of all I survey, my right there is none to dispute;
From the center all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl

and the brute.
{e) If you should talk to him of Jacob's ladder, he would ask how
many rounds it had.

(/) A little child will place a shell to his ear and will hear in it the
roar of the distant ocean.

{g) It is not linen you are wearing out, but human creatures* lives.
(A) Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll;

Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain,
(f) Upon this hint I spake;

She loved me for the dangers I had passed,
And I loved her that she did pity them.

§15 ENGLISH GkAMMAk S5

(J) And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor,

Shall be lifted nevermore.
{k) The reward for discharging one duty is the power to perform
another.

(/) Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;

I come to bury Csesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones.
(m) Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control,

These three alone lead life to sovereign power,
(if) As Ceesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate,
I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but as he was ambi-
tious, I slew him.

{o) On a lone barren isle, where the wild roaring billows
Assail the stern rock, and the loud tempests rave,
The hero lies still, where the dew-dropping willows
Like fond weeping mourners lean over his grave.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(PART 3)

THE NOUN

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE NOUN

1 • Classes of Nouns. — Any word or expression, whether
long or short, that is used in speech or writing as the name of
something, is a noun. Nouns are divided into two great
classes: (1) common nouns and (2) proper nouns.

COMMON NOUNS

2. Generic, or Class Names. — Most of the nouns in
our language are class names; that is, names applied in
common to classes of things, each class being made up of
objects of the same kind. The word common is derived from
two words meaning **bound together.*' The things denoted
by a common noun are united or bound together in one
group or class by certain likenesses — certain common qual-
ities. Thus, the word 'boy is not a name given to one
particular thing and to no other; it is a name of any one of
a great class composed of millions of objects that are alike
in certain particulars. These class names are common nouns;
as, stone y tree^ cloudy day.

Definition. — A common noun is a noun tised to name a
class of things,

3« Varieties of Common Nouns. — Common nouns
have been variously subdivided, but all of them may be
included in two great classes:

For nolict of copyright, see Page immediately following the title Page

il6

2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

1. Names of Things Sensible. — This class comprises the
names of things that may be perceived by the senses of
sig:ht, hearing, etc. Some examples are:

tree, desk, noise, thunder, sweetness, brightness, odor, weight,
roughness, music

2. Names of Things Rational, — This class of nouns
includes the names of things that cannot be perceived by
the senses — things that arp merely conceived or thought of
as existing:

goodness, truth, fear, hatred, patriotism, ambition, absence, neat-
ness, thought, candor, loss

4. Some of the common nouns included in the two
classes mentioned above have been grouped as follows:

1. Collective Nouns, — These are sometimes called nouns
of multitude, because they denote many things united in one
group. Some examples are:

army, jury, congress, flock, assembly, tribe, nation, regiment,
family, drove, covey

2. Abstract Nouns, — These are words that name qualities,
conditions, or states considered ai art from the persons or
things that have the qualities, conditions, or states. Such
nouns are called abstract, because they name something that
is drawn away or abstracted from the real things that have
the quality named. Thus, we may think and talk about
happiness or bravery or weariness or sorrow without giving
any thought or attention to the persons or things that are
happy or brave or weary or sorrowful. Other examples of
abstract nouns are:

rudeness, thought, anger, solidity, drowsiness, truth, honesty,
weight, emptiness

Many abstract nouns end in ness. For nearly every
adjective denoting quality there is a corresponding abstract
noun. The following pairs of words are illustrations, the
first word of each pair being an adjective, and the second,
a noun:

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3

ang^ — anger brief — brevity

heroic — heroism witty— wit

beautiful — beauty agile — agility

true — truth spherical — sphericity

high — height stupid — stupidity

3. Verbal Nouns. — Some words derived from verbs are
called verbal nouns and are used to name actions, just as
tree and moon name real things. In the following sentences
the expressions in Italics are verbal nouns:

Walking is better exercise than riding.

Seeing is believing.

His having worked counted in his favor.

His having been convicted led to his discharge from work.

Sewings cookings and dressmaking are now taught in some schools.

Verbal nouns are really abstract nouns, for they name action
apart from the actor, just as goodness is the name of something
that may be thought of as separated from things that are good.

5. other Nouns Regr^rded as Cominon. — A common
noun has been defined as a name applied to a class of things,
but there are many nouns that do not name classes and yet
are usually regarded as common nouns. Such are:

1. The names of the sciences; as, chemistry^ astronomyy
physics, mathematics.

2. The names of diseases; as, cholera, pneumonia, scarlatiyia.

3. The names of drugs and chemicals; as, quinine, bromine,
camphor.

Indeed, there is much confusion among authors in classi-
fying nouns, but it is a matter of little practical consequence.
The only really important matter is that the student shall be
able to know with certainty that a certain word, on account
of the work it does, is a noun.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Classify the fifty-one common nouns in the following sentences as
sensible, rational, collective, abstract, and verbal.

(a) The pain suflfered in the act of dying is not usually of great
severity.

(^) The swiftness of the blow permitted no dodging or running
away.

4 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

{c) Books are the treasured wealth of the world » the rich inherit-
ance of generations and nations.

' {(f) When I think what that land was and what its condition is now,
a shade of sadness steals over me; my mind reverts from the degrada-
tion of the present to the glory of the past.

{e) Reason is the mistress and queen of all things.

(/) Power acquired by crime was never used for a good purpose.

(^) Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow.

(A) A small degree of wit accompanied by good sense is better in
the long run than a great amount of it without judgment.

{i) The atmosphere of home breathes rest and comfort and its
chambers seem full of welcomes.

(j) How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood,
When fond recollection recalls them to view.

PROPER NOUNS

6. Nearly all the objects that we think and talk about
belong in some class or other, and when we wish to refer to
them, their class names are generally definite enough. If
for any reason it is necessary to specify more particularly a
thing that belongs to one of these classes, we may do so by
giving its name and pointing to it, or by joining modifying
words to its name. Thus, we may say, i/tat large red apple,
ilie tall MAN with black hair^ the largest city in the world.
But this is not always satisfactory. We may wish to send a
letter, money, or other object to some person living and
moving about among millions of other persons in some great
distant city. In such cases the class name would be of little
use, for it is necessary to distinguish the person or other
object we mean from every other. This can be done better
than in any other way by using a name given only to that per-
son or thing; as, Boston, Ohio, Henry Clay, William McKinley,
Such names are proper nouns; they are so called from the
Latin word propriiis, meaning **one*s own.'* A proper
noun is usually set apart for naming one person or thing;
and if its work is to be done perfectly, the name must be
used for no other purpose. A common noun distinguishes one
class from every other class, while a proper noun is intended
to distinguish one individual or thing from every other.

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5

In both writing and printing, a proper noun should always
begin with a capital letter.

Definition. — A proper nonn is a noun used to mark or
distinguish some particular person ^ place ^ or thing.

Each country has a name of its own; so also has each city,
town, village, and street, as well as most rivers, mountains,
lakes, etc.

Germany, Paris, Broadway, Hudson, Ontario

The names of the months, the days of the week, the
planets, and the most conspicuous stars are proper nouns.

June, Monday, Satarn, Sinus, Lyra

7. Proper Nouns Used as Common Nonns. — A

noun strictly proper cannot be preceded by a or an, for these
modifiers imply that the word before which one of them is
placed names an entire class of things. Thus, a Clay, a
Lincoln, a Boston, denotes that there is a class of Clays^ of
Lincolns, and of Bostons, When preceded by a or an, these
words should be called common nouns. The following sen-
tences illustrate this usage; and the nouns, although really
common, retain their capitals:

A Daniel come to judgement.

Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest.

He is a veritable Hercules.

The sometimes precedes proper nouns used as common
nouns.

The Shakespeares have done more good than the Napoleons.
The Smiths have gone to visit the Browns.

INFJLECTION8 OP THE NOUN

8. Definition of Inflection. — The word inflection is
much used in grammar. It comes from two Latin words that
mean **in** and **a bending"; it implies that something is
bent or changed from one form or condition into another.
Thus, we speak of the inflections of the voice, meaning its

e ENGLISH GRAMMAR § i6

changes from certain tones to others that are higher or lower.
As used in grammar, inflection signifies those changes in the
form of a word that come from changes in its use or meaning.
Generally, but not always, inflections are variations or addi-
tions at the end of a word. The simplest or most common
form of a word may be called its inflectional base.

The followmg will illustrate what is meant by the inflec-
tion of nouns:

Unin fleeted: The boy ate. The child ran. The mouse plays.
The goose flies.

Inflected: The boy^ ate. The childr^w ran. The mice play. The
^eese fly.

The("'?''r'nfur The|2°°^'n wings

\xmce^s J \%eese^s J **

Definition. — Inflection is a change in the form of a word
made in consequence of some change in its meaning or use,

9. Tliree Noun Inflections. — Nouns are inflected for
three purposes:

1. To Denote Number, — That is, to show whether a noun
signifies atu of the objects it names, or more than one of them:

norse, horses; church, churches; ox, ox^/; die, dir^

2. To Denote Sex, — Many nouns have one form for males
and another for females. This, however, is not an inflection,
for there is no inflectional base. Some examples are:

man, woman; boy, girl; colt, filly; drake, duck; wizard, witch

When the distinction of sex is made by a true inflection,
the inflectional base denotes the male sex and the inflected
or changed form denotes the female sex.

Thus, lion^ actor^ count, marquis, negro, are uninflected
forms, and they name males; the inflected forms, lioness^
actress, couittess, marchioness^ 7iegress, denote females.

3. To Denote Case, — Case is the relation in which a noim
or any substitute for a noun stands to other words in a
sentence. While there are several different relations that

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR ' 7

nouns may have in sentences, and therefore several cases,
there is only one case in the English language that is shown
by inflection. This is the one that denotes possession; as,
John's hat. There are several different relations that are
shown by this case. Among them are origin; as, the sun's
rays, my father's confidence; attachment or adjunct; as, man's
duty, the earth's weight.

10. Another Function of Nouns. — When a noun is
so used in a sentence as to name or denote the speaker^ the
person or thing spoken tOy or the person or thing spoken ofy it is
sometimes said to be inflected for person. This, however,
is not an inflection at all, for an inflection is a change of form.
This function of nouns is shown by other words in the sen-
tence— the context. The noun itself remains unchanged,
whether it denotes the speaker, the person addressed, or the
person or thing spoken about in the sentence. Thus,

Speaking: I, John^ saw it.
Addressed: John^ come here.
Spoken of: I met John,

For convenience, however, it is usual to say that nouns
have four inflections, the fourth being for person.

!!• Special Names of Inflections. — Of the eight
parts of speech, five either really have inflection or are said
to have it. When some or all of the inflections of any part
of speech are arranged in an orderly way, the arrangement
has, for that particular part of speech, a special name.

1. Nouns and pronouns have declension — they are
declined,

2. Adjectives and adverbs have comparison — they are
compared,

3. Verbs have conJuKAtlon — they are conjugated.

The remaining parts of speech — prepositions, conjunctions,
and interjections — are not inflected; they have forms that
never vary whatever change may occur in the way they are
used in sentences. They are said to be unlnflected or
invariable*

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

12. Kinds of Inflection. — There are three methods of
g:rammatical inflection:

1. By Suffixes. — This is the method most in use in inflect-
ing English words.

boy, hoy*s; ox, onen; god, ^o^dess; child, chxX^en

Inflection by suflfixes often requires some change in the
inflectional base.

tiger, iigress\ duke, duchess; calf, calves

2. By Change Within the Body of the Word. — This variety
of inflection is much less common than the first, and it occurs
most frequently among certain verbs.

run, ran; sing, sang, s»ng

Of nouns, we have examples in

man, ni^n; mouse, m/re; tooth, t^^th; foot, ieet

A combination of the first and second methods is frequent,
slay, sl^2«/, slain; brother, brethren

3. By Different Words.

witch, wizard; boy, girl; he goat, she goat; man servant, maid
servant; ^m, is, was; I, we

As has been said, this is not inflection; but, as a matter of
mere convenience, most grammarians treat it as a real
inflection.

NUMBER IN NOUNS

13. Definition of Number. — Whether a noun means
one, or more than one, of the objects it names, is known
from one or both of two facts:

1. Its form.

man, men; house, houses; mouse, mice; goose, geese

2. Its use.

The SHBBp is black. The sheep are mine.
My FISH is a trout. Your fish are salmon.

Here the form of the verb shows the number of the noim.

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9

Deflnition. — The nmnber of a word is that form or use
of it by which it denotes one or more than one.

Definition* — The singrular number of a word is that form
or use of it by which it denotes one*

Definition* — Tlie plural number of a word is that form or
use of it by which it denotes more than one.

14. Rules for Forming the Plural of Nouns. — Many
nouns form their plurals irregularly, but the followinfi: rules
include most English nouns:

General Rule. — Most nouns form their plural by adding j
or es to the singular.

star, stars; box, boxes; church, churches

The ear is nearly always a reliable guide in determining
whether s should be added or whether es is required. The
following cases should be noted:

Special Rules, — 1. Nouns ending {a) in 5, sh, Xy Zy ch soft,
and some ending {b) in o after a consonant, are pluralized
by adding es; as, masSy masses; lashy lashes; seXy sexes; topaz y
topazes; larch y larches.

Some examples of (^) are calico y tornado y torpedo y innuendoy
viragOy mulattOy stilettOy wOy potatOy mangOy cargOy echOy herOy
negrOy embargOy buffalOy etc.

Many words of this kind take only s; as, cantOy juntOy solOy
guartOy tyrOy octavOy nunciOy embryOy foliOy etc.

2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel add s to form
the plural; as, chimney y valley y money y keyy playy joyy viceroy,
alley y monkey y guy, etc.

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant are plural-
ized by changing y into / and then adding es; as, //y, allyy
cityy etc.

4. Some nouns ending in / or fe change the / or fe into Vy
and then add es to form the plural; as, thief y wife, life, wolfy
sheaf y beefy loafy calfy halfy leaf. Wharf and staff have in the
plural wharves or wharf Sy and staves or staffs. Others in / and
fe add s alone; as, fifey gulfy etc.

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

5. Compounds generally pluralize the modified part; as,
brothers-in-law ^ corner-stoneSy wagoyi-loads^ etc. When the
elements of the compound are closely associated, the j is put
at the end; as, graveyards ^ pineapples y forget-me-nots ^ spoonfuls.

6. Letters, numerals, and arbitrary characters are gener-
ally pluralized by taking 's; as, 9^Sy A's, +'^, V *s.

7. The plurals of proper nouns are generally formed
regularly; as, the Dr. Browns, But we may say, the Messrs.
Howardy the Doctors King^ the two Miss Joneses^ or the two
Misses Jones. The names of two or more persons each of
whom has the same title are pluralized thus: Generals Grant
and Sherman; the Misses Jones, Smith , and Brown (if unmar-
ried); Mesdames Jones, Smith, and Brown (if married); Messrs.
Bray and Martin.

8. Nouns that have been taken unchanged from other lan-
guages, usually retain their foreign plurals. The following
are examples:

Phenomenon, phenomena; analysis, analyses; stratum,
strata; genius, genii; focus, foci; cherub, cherubim; beau,
beaux; index, indices; radix, radices.

Some words of this class form their plurals as if they were
English words; as, seraphs, cherubs, focuses, indexes, geniuses^
formulas, radixes.

9. Many nouns, on account of their meaning, have no
plural. Some of them are darkness, laziness, sloth, honesty^
eloquence, pride, meekness, gold, silver, quinine, galvanism.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Use in sentences the plurals of the following words: money,
dwarf, hero, tomato, gas, roof, checker-board, penny, fish, grouse.

2. Write five sentences each containing a noun shown by its form
to be plural.

3. Write five sentences each containing a noun shown by its use to
be plural.

4. Copy the following, then underscore the singulars and doubly
underscore the plurals: news, wages, politics, means, riches, alms,
measles, victuals, scales,' dregs, scissors, committee, audience.

5. Write the plural of handful, knight-templar, rose-tree, mother-
superior, court-martial. Miss Alexander, postmaster-general, Mrs.
Swing.

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11

GENDER IN NOUNS

15. How Words Denote Sex. — The distinction of sex^
whether real or imagined in the things denoted by nouns,
is made, when made at all, in the following ways:

1. By the form, or by the meaning, of words.

empress, girl, ruffian, witch, woman

2. By the use made of other words in the sentence; that
is, by the context.

When the sun exerted his power, the fnoon shed her beams in vain.
The ship spread her white wings and soon faded in the distance.

This giving of gender to the names of sexless things is
called personification.

Animals alone have sex in the usual sense. With the
exception of the highest classes of these, their sex is not
generally regarded as of sufficient importance to be noted in
language. The young of human kind, and even adults, are
often spoken of in terms that do not show their sex. Thus,
we say:

The child had finished its sleep.

The members of the party enjoyed themselves at the picnic.

The students were dressed in their holiday clothes.

16. Sex and Gender. — The student must carefully dis-
tinguish between sex and gender. The former is a character-
istic of living beings^ the latter of words. Thus, the word
man has gender, and the object named by the word man
has sex. We may therefore speak of the male sex, the
female sex, the masculine gender, or the feminine gender,
but not of the masculine sex, the feminine sex, the male
gender, or the female gender.

Definition. — The li^ender of a word is that form or use of
it by which sex is denoted.

Definition. — The masculine gender is that form or use of
a word by which the male sex is denoted.

Definition. — The feminine ^^wflVr is that form or use of
a word by which the female sex is denoted.

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

Definition. — The neuter ^^ender is that form or use of a
word by which the absence of sex is denoted.

Definition. — The eoinmon j^endcr is that form or use ol
a word by which the sex of the thing fiamed is left uncertain.

The sheep were grazing on the hillside.

The employees received their pay on Saturday.

17. Gender by Form or Meaning?. — There are two
methods by which gender is denoted by the forms of words:

1. By Gaider Suffixes. — The endings esSy ine, triXy and a
usually denote that the word is of the feminine gender.
When these suffixes are added to the masculine form, some
modification in spelling is usually necessary.

Masculine: Baron-, actor, master, executor, hero, signor
Feminine: Baroness, actress, mistress, executrix, heroine, signora

2. By Gender Prefixes, — By the use of prefixes or separate
modifiers, such as man^ woman ^ male, female, he, she, expres-
sions denoting gender are formed.

Masculine: Man servant, cock robin, he goat, menfolk
Feminine: Maid servant, hen robin she goat, womenfolk

By their meaning, without resoect to form, words may
denote sex.

Masculine: Man, monk, nephew, husband, wizard, uncle
Feminine: Woman, nun, niece, wife, witch, aunt

18. Gender by Use or Context. — There are two prin-
cipal varieties of this method of denoting gender:

1. The gender of words is often denoted by other words
in the sentence; that is, by the context. The following are
some examples:

The ^/^^A(7«/ performed his task.
The robin attacked nnk enemies.
The govertior married one of his clerks.

2. Things without sex are often personified; that is, they
are spoken of as if they were persons. This usage is fre-
quent in poetry. Objects characterized by energy, strength,

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 13

great size, or violence are represented as masculine; those
conceived of as tender, refined, weak, beautiful, or gentle
are treated as feminine. Thus,

Masculine: The sun, the ocean, winter, a flood, a river during a
flood, a mountain, anarchy, the various vices, actions characterized by
rage, energy, or violence, such as murder, war, riot, rapitte

Feminine: Spring, a ship, a balloon, the moon, many of the more
delicate and beautiful flowers, such as the lily, violet, rose, etc., cities
and countries, science, the gentler virtites, nature

When abstract qualities are personified in exclamations,
the nouns denoting them may be capitalized. Thus,

Lay thy soft hand upon my brow and cheek, O p>eaceful Sleep!

O Liberty! Liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name!

19. Omission of Feniiulnc Distinctions. — There is
an increasing tendency among writers to omit the distinc-
tions that mark the feminine gender. This is especially the
case with prefixes and suffixes. Thus, we apply to both
males and females such words as servafit, doctor, author,
writer, teacher, artist, pod, clerk, executor, minister, citizen.

Indeed, the inflection for gender is of very little impor-
tance in grammar; and, with the lapse of time, it is being
more and more ignored. As illustrations of the truth of
this statement, it may be remarked that most grammarians
reject the common gender, and many, the neuter gender.

20. Gender of Proper Names. — There are many
pairs of proper names similar in form for the two sexes:

Julius, Julia; Charies, Caroline or Charlotte {I.atin, masc. Carolus,
fern. Carolina); William (German, Wilhelm), Wilhelmina; Henry.
Henrietta; Francis, Frances; John, Johanna; Joseph, Josephine

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Write the feminine forms of the following nouns: abbot, gander,
Joseph, master, bachelor, marquis, John, count, heir, testator, Paul,
sir, czar, sultan, horse, king, Augustus, earl, drake, colt, hart,
Lucius (Luke); buck, ram, shepherd, Louis, monk, friar, widower,
priest, Cornelius, lad, bridegroom, beau, merman, male, peacock,
landlord, tiger.

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

2. Compose sentences personifying the following words in such
way as to show gender: Rome, Columbia, ** Maine*' (battle-ship),
Spain, ocean, Tiber, moon, sun, winter. May, December, and the
names of the planets Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.

3. Write sentences in which the following are personified and the
gender is indicated by the context: sun, mountain, Rhine, New York
City, England, hope, sleep, fame, death, hate.

M.oiicl.—Boslon is proud of the achievements of ker gifted sons.
Let faU do /ter worst; I care not.

PERSON IN NOUNS

Definition. — Persons in grammar are those relations and
uses of words by which the speaker, the hearer , and the person or
thing spoken of are distinguished from one another.

21. Three Persons of Nouns. — A noun is said to be
in the first person when it names the speaker.

I, William McKinley, do hereby appoint etc.
We, the undersigned, agree to pay etc.

A noun is said to be in the second person when it names the
person or thing addressed.

Thou, God, seest me.

Ye crags and peaks, I*m with you once again.

Come, John; let us go.

A noun is said to be in the third person when it names the
person or thing spoken of or mentioned.

The people told the sexton and the sexton tolled the bell,

22. Person Not a Real Inflection of Nouns. — Some
authorities assert that nouns have no distinction of person,
because they undergo no change of form to denote the
speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing mentioned. They
would say that in the sentence given above, William McKinley
mentions his own name — speaks of himself — merely to explain
who is meant by the pronoun /.

Nouns in the first and second persons are always used
independently. A noun in the first person is independent
by apposition, and a noun in the second person is inde-
pendent by address.

§ie ENGLISH GRAMMAR 16

23. Person of a Subject Noun. — Strictly a noun used
as the subject of a verb is in the third person, even though it
names the speaker or the hearer. For one may speak about
himself or his hearer as if each were a third party and absent.

Thus, Brown may say of himself, **If Brown is summoned,
he will surely go.*' **Is my old friend [addressing him],
the doctor, still enjoying life?** Here Brown, friend,' and
doctor are in the third person.

EXA^fPLES FOR PRACTICE

Tell the person of each italicized word:

(a) Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 'tis early mom:
Leave me here, and when you want me, sound upon the bugle-
horn.

(b) O, mother, your boy is so sorry; forgive him, and he will never
vex his dear mother in the same way again.

Is rounded with a sleep.

(d) And I have loved thee, ocean; and vay joy
Of youthful sports was on thy breast to be
Borne like thy bubbles onward; from a boy
I wantoned with thy breakers — they to me
Were a delight; * * *

{e) Who noble ends by noble means obtains.

Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains,
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed
Like Socrates, that f9tan is great indeed.

CASE IN NOUNS

24. Meaning of the Word Case. — The student has
already learned that a noun or a pronoun may be related in
a number of different ways to other words in a sentence —
that it may fill various uses or functions. For example, a
noun may be the subject of a sentence, it may be the predicate
noun, it may be the object of a verb or of a preposition, and
it may fill other offices. These several uses of nouns and
pronouns in helping to express thotfght make up the cases
in grammar.

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

Among all the cases of English nouns, there is found only
one real inflection or change from the ordinary simple form
of the word — from the inflectional base. This is in the form
by which ownership, origin, or adjunct is denoted; such as,
a boy's hat, the girVs story, Rome's greatness. Of the case
relations of the noun, this is the only one that may be
known by its form; all other cases must be inferred from the
way the noun is used — from its relation to other words.

The word case is from the Latin casus ^ which means **a
falling.** In that language there were formerly seven cases.
Of these, there was one case that depended for its form on
no other. This was the nominative, the form that merely
names. Since this case form could stand alone, as if erect
and independent, while the others appeared only in senten-
tial structure and in dependence on other words, the nomina-
tive was called the erect or upright C2ise {casus rectus). From
it the others — the oblique cases — were formed. From this
notion that the other cases decline (lean away) from the
nominative, came the word declension, which in grammar
means an orderly arrangement showing the nominative or
erect form and the oblique or declined cases.

In the sense that case is a falling, the nominative is not a
case at all; but this curious use of the word case has been
extended in grammar to include all the relational forms and
uses of nouns and pronouns.

Definition. — Case in grammar is that form or use of a
noun or a pronoun by which its relation to other words in a
sentence is shown,

25. Number of Cases. — Most grammarians consider
that English nouns have three cases: the nominative, the
possessive, and the objective. These include all the functions
or relations that are filled by nouns and pronouns in English
sentences.

26. The Nominative Case. — The word nominative
means **naming.'* The singular of every noun in the nom-
inative case is the forrn that is always given in dictionaries
where the word is to be defined, or where we merely mention

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 17

the word; as, man^ iree^ mountain. From this singular
nominative, the plural nominative is formed by the rules
already given. Thus, mai^ trees ^ mountains^ are plural
nominatives.

But since the objective forms of nouns are exactly like the
nominative forms, both in the singular and in the plural,
these cases must be recognized, not by their forms, but by
their work or function in sentences.

The most frequent and important use of the noun is in the
relation of subject to a verb that predicates; that is, those
verb forms that are called finite — the verb forms that state,
question, or command.

[There are certain forms, not finite, called infinitives, par-
ticiples y and verbal nouns; such are, to see ^ Jo be seen, to have
seen, havinj^ seen, seeing, etc. These verbals are not used by
themselves to predicate, but they do duty as adjectives,
adverbs, and nouns.]

When a noun stands in a sentence as the subject of a finite
verb, it is said to be in the nominative case. The nominative
subject of a verb is the word that answers the question Who?
or What?

The boy can swim. Who can swim? The boy. The word boy is,
then, the subject of the sentence.

Does the earth rotate? Does what rotate? The earth.

All the trains will have gone. What will have gone? The trains.

Dcfiuition. — The noiniuative case is the form or use of
a word in tlie relation of subject of a finite verb.

It should be understood that the nominative case, although
defined above as if employed in only one way, has several
other uses besides that of standing as the subject of a finite
verb. These, however, are of much less importance than the
use as subject. The other uses of nouns in the nominative
case will be explained later.

Definition. — The possessive case is tfie form or use of a
word by which it denotes possession, origin, or adjunct.

Possession: The girl's book. The book belongs to the girl — is her
property.

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

Origin: The sun*s light. The light has its origin in the sun— comes
from the sun. The poet*s lines. The sailor's story.

Adjunct: The boy's height. Height is a quality or an adjunct of
a boy. The earth's size. The river's depth.

27. Remarks on the Possessive Case. — Besides the
three relations mentioned above, there are several others
that are denoted by the possessive case. The possessive
case being a real inflection, however, there is no difficulty in
knowing the case by its form.

The inflected form is used mostly with the names of living
beings. Thus, we may say, the horse*s owner, but not the
tree's foliage; the snail's speed, but not the train's speed;
etc. For inanimate objects, it is better to use the uninflected
noun with the preposition of: as, the top of the tree, the
owner of the land, the speed of the train, not the tree^s top,
the land's owner, the train's speed.

We very frequently speak of inanimate things as if they
were real living agencies; in other words, we personify
them. In such cases the inflected form of the noun is to be
preferred to the prepositional phrase.

the torrent's fury, the storm's progress, the fire's hunger

There is, however, some authority for the use of the pos-
sessive case with the names of inanimate things.

In the above expressions a noun in the possessive case
takes the place of a prepositional phrase; the latter being
in function an adjective, it is clear that a noun in the possess-
ive case has the value of an adjective modifier.

Some nouns ending in s, x, ce, and es, in order to avoid too
many hissing sounds, take only the apostrophe in the pos-
sessive singular; as, Moses* laws, .Socrates' death, for Jesus*
sake, for conscience* sake, Demosthenes* safety, Xerxes* army,
the Sioux* defense, Bnllions* grammar, the Ganges* side.

The possessive should be formed in the usual way unless
the offensive sound is very noticeable.

Compound nouns add the sign of the possessive to the
last element; as, the Emperor of Germany's tour, Smith and
Brown's store. In the case of long compounds, however, it
is usually better to avoid such possessives. For example,

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 19

by the order of the commander-in-chief should be preferred to
by the commander-in-chiefs order; and the tour of the Emperor
of Germany y to the Emperor of Germany* s tour,

28. The Objective Case. — The objective case is so
named because its most frequent use is in the relation of the
object of a verb or a preposition. A noun or a pronoun used
as the object of a verb names that which receives the action
performed by some actor.

The boy struck the dog.

The policeman arrested the burglar.

The teacher praised her pupils.

When a noun or a pronoun is brought by a preposition
into relation with some other word, the relation begins with
the one word and ends with the other, very much as action
begins with an actor and ends with that which receives the
action. The preposition specifies and directs the relation,
just as a verb specifies and directs the action. Hence, the
word in which the relation ends that is specified and directed
by a preposition, is in the objective case.

The object of a verb or of a preposition is the word that
answers the question Whomf or Whatf

I saw the teacher. I saw whom? The teacher. Teacher is there-
fore the object of the verb saw.

Mary crossed the ocean. Mary crossed what? The ocean.

The boy went with his father. The boy went with whom? His
father.

He leans against the tree. He leans against what? The tree.

There are ^ome other uses of nouns and pronouns in which
they are said to be in the objective case. These will be
explained later. The foregoing are, however, the most
frequent uses of the objective case, and are usually referred
to in the definition of this case.

Definition. — The objective case is the form or use of a
word in the relation of object of a verb or of a preposition.

Object of a Verb: We visited the show. The boy recited a poem.
Object of a Pref>osition: H« leaned against the fencb. The moon
looked into his bedchamber.

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

29. Declension of Nouns. — The declension of a noun

is an orderly arrangement of its cases in both the singular

and the plural number. The declension of the common

nouns girl and mouse, and that of the proper noun Mary are

given below. Mary; like all nouns strictly proper, has no

plural.

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular

Nmninative: girl girls mouse mice - Mary

Possessive: girl's girls* mouse's mice's Mary's

Objective: girl girls mouse mice Mary

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Write expressions containing the possessive case singular of the
proper nouns, and the same case in both numbers of the common
nouns in the following list:

Model. — the horse's strength, the horses' strength; D. Appleton
& Co.'s publications

comrade, goose, deer, man servant, Jones the hatter, chitd, calf,
robin, boy preacher, Cyrus the Great, lady, hero, fish, childwife,
Claflin & Co., fly, ox, witness, shipmaster, Grant and Lee, woman,
mouse, brother, woman servant, Jack the Giant Killer, man, mother,
thief, brother-in-law, John of Anjou, chief, wolf, conscience, aide-de-
camp, Arnold the traitor

FUNCTIONS OF THE CASES

30. Use of the Noiuliiatlve Case. — The various uses
that may be made of nouns in expressing thought have
already been explained* and illustrated. We come now to
the consideration of the cases assumed by nouns when they
are employed in particular relations.

The nominative case has five principal uses or functions
in sentences.

1. A noun used as the subject of a finite verb is in the
nominative case. This function of nouns has already been
mentioned.

The teacher is sick.

The horse drew the load.

The soldier may have been killed.

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 21

2. A noun used as a predicate noun is in the nominative
case. The predicate noun always denotes the same person
or thing as the subject. The most frequent use of nouns in
this way is after some form of the verb be. Some of these
forms are am^ is, are, was, were, has been, have been, had been,
will be, etc.

The diamond is a precious stone. Grant looked a hero.
That boy will be president, Jones was chosen speaker.

He seemed a scholar. She walks a queen.

In these sentences, the same person or thing is denoted
by each of the following pairs of words: diamond, stone; boy,
president; he, scholar; Grant, hero; Jo7ies, speaker; she, queen.
The verb placed between each pair unites them so as to
form an assertion.

Diamond is carbon. Grant looked a hero.

Because is, am, and are so often serve this purpose of
connecting a subject with a predicate nominative, they are
called copulas — something that couples, joins, unites.

3. A noun in apposition with another nominative is itself
in the nominative case. This function of a noun is very much
like that of an adjective — it is explanatory and modifying.

Grant the general ended the war.
Cicero the orator was a Roman.

4. A noun may be used independently in the nominative
case. In this construction, the nominative fills the office for
which it is named — its nominating or naming function. A
word so used has no grammatical relation to other words.
It stands in an independent relation and has no other use
than merely to name some person or thing. This independ-
ence is of three varieties:

(a) By Address,

And, Saxon t I am Roderick Dhn.
Study your lessons, children,

(b) By Exclamation,

Fire! See the fire!

O Sleep/ it is a gentle thing, beloved from pole to pole.

22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

(c) By P/eoTtasm. — Strictly speaking, any noun or pro-
noun that overfills a construction is pleonastic; for this is
what the word means. But pleonasm is the mere mention
of a noun or a pronoun, not in the way of address or
exclamation, but as suggesting that about which the sentence
treats more fully. It is a use for the sake of emphasis; the
pleonastic noun or pronoun is not the subject or object of
a verb.

The sea — it is the greatest thing God ever made.

The boy^ oh, where was he?

Tears y idle tears ^ I know not what they mean.

5. A noun used absolutely is in the nominative case.
This also is a kind of independent construction. It consists
of a noun or a pronoun used with a verbal to form a phrase
that is usually the equivalent of a dependent clause. This
phrase, although it is not a necessary part in the sentential
structure, generally adds some modifying circumstance.

Dawn having appeared, we departed = When dawn appeared
=a At dawn we departed.

Our destination having been reached, we went ashore.
Autumn coming on, the nights grew colder.

31 . Use of the Possessive Case. — The possessive case
is generally regarded as having but one function in grammar.
This is to denote possession or some similar relation. Its
real use is to modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun;
for, when we say John's hat, the effect produced on the
meaning of hat by the word John's is exactly similar to that
which would be produced if an adjective such as black were
used with hat,

32. Use of the Objective Case. — The objective case
has a variety of uses each of which the student should be
able to recognize.

1. A noun is in the objective case when it is the direct
object of a verb.

They sang a hymn.
He wasted his money.
We saw the moon.

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 23

2. A noun is in the objective case when it is the indirect
object of a verb.

They taught the boy arithmetic — that is, to the boy.
I bought the GIRL a book — (or the girl.

A noun so used is generally equivalent to a prepositional
phrase used as a modifier and consisting of a noun or a
pronoun preceded by to or for. More exactly, the indirect
object, with to or for understood, forms an adverbial phrase
modifying the meaning of the verb. It is not an object of
the verb, but of an understood preposition.

3. A noun is in the objective case when it is used in
apposition with another word in the objective case.

He struck John, his brother.

We visited New York^ the metropolis of America.

He killed the fawn, our pet.

Paul appealed to Rome, the mistress of the world.

A noun or a pronoun may have an appositive to explain
or modify its meaning. As is the case with an appositive
nominative, the explaining word and the word explained
always denote the same person or thing, and are always in
the same case.

4. A noun is in the objective case when it is used as a fac-
titive object after certain verbs. The following sentences
illustrate this construction:

They made him teacher.

The people elected Washington president.

The convention appointed the mayor chairman.

The troops considered their general a coward.

The parents named their baby RuTrt.

I think lying a detestable habit.

The jury deemed the prisoner a criminal.

The president appointed him postmaster.

In these sentences, the factitive object (in small capitals)
denotes the same person as the direct object.

Factitive and appositive objectives are grammatically
independent elements, although, logically, they are closely
related to the direct objects they explain. In diagraming
they should be indicated by wavy lines drawn above them.

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

The following diagrams will show the similarity of this con-
struction to an ordinary appositive and to a predicate noun:

Factitive Objective: (Tbe^ [choee] her queen.

Predicate Noun:

\ 3=

(She) [was chosen] queen.

I 3=

. (She) [was] queen.

Appositive Objective: ^He) (showed] his weiyon, a knife.

t ~T~ IZJ-

5. Another variety of the objective case is that called the
adverbial objective. Certain words denoting time, measure,
weight, distance, value, etc. are used in the objective case to
modify like adverbs.

We went hmne and stayed a week. The river is a mile wide.

He was six feet high. He wanted a farm fifty acres

The hat is worth a shilling. larger.

The ship sailed last night. It will be forgotten a hundred

She weighs one hundred pounds. years hence.

We waited an hour.

These adverbial objectives are generally remnants of prep-
ositional phrases. Thus, the foregoing may be regarded as
shortened forms of the following:

We went (to) home and stayed (through or during) a week.

He was high (by or to the extent of) six feet.

It cost (to the amount of) a dollar.

The hat is worth (to the extent of) a shilling. Etc.

6. A noun used as the object of a preposition is in the
objective case. As we have seen, prepositions are used with
nouns and pronouns to form phrases. The noims and
pronouns in such phrases are in the objective case.

They live in the country.

He believed in government of the peoplb, for the people, and by
the PEOPLE.

He that is not with me is against mb.

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 25

7. A noun used as the object of a verbal is in the objec-
tive case. As has already been explained, verbals are
certain verb forms that cannot by themselves predicate, but
are used as adjectives or nouns. They preserve their verbal
character enough to be modified as verbs are, and to take
objects after them. Such objects are nouns or pronouns in
the objective case, or expressions used as equivalents of
nouns or pronouns.

Seeing the multitude, he went up into a mountain.

He was engaged in studying his lbsson.

The man was accused of robbing a bank.

He was arrested for having stolen some fruit.

Earning money is hard work; spending money is very easy work.

Multitude is the object of seeing^ and the whole phrase,
seeing the multitudcy is a modifier of he.

8. A noun used as the subject or object of an infinitive is
in the objective case. Verbals that begin with to are called
infinitives. Examples of their various forms are:

to see, to be seeing, to be seen, to have been seen, to have seen,
to have been seeing

In these verbals to is called the sig^i of the infinitive. The
following sentences illustrate this use of the objective case:

I told HIM to go.

They persuaded the boy to accompany them.

We expected the house to be finished before last December.

It is hard for natives of the tropics to endure a cold climate.

They sent the boy to cut corn.

It will be noticed that these subjects of the infinitive are at
the same time objects of prepositions or of predicating verbs.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. State the case of each noun in the following, and tell its use
or function:

(a) His father was a hero of the Revolution.
(^) Pizarro plundered and murdered the Inca of Peru,
(r) Believing in his innocence, the lawyer defended him.
(d) O that I were the viewless spirit of a lovely sound.
V) Gold is by no means the most costly metal.

26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

(/) The diamond is mere crystallized carbon. ^

(g) Her vacation over, she returned at once to resume her work.

(A) Death, the great leveler, comes to knock at every door.

(i) *'Time, I have lost it; ah, the treasure*'; and he died.

(/) He brought his game, a deer, on his back.

{k) "My home; I never had a home at any time in my life."

(/) The committee found him dictating letters to his secretary.

(m) They thought him a hero; they found him a coward.

(«) To follow the path of duty, to obey the monitor conscience,
should be the aim of all.

{o) Backward, turn backward, O Time in your flight,

Make me a child again, just for tonight.

(p) The cottage contained seven rooms, including a laundry.

(g) The judge having learned the facts, sent the merchant a sum-
mons to appear in court.

2. Construct sentences each containing one of these verbs followed
by a predicate nominative: was, seemed, appeared, became, was
considered.

3. By using the following as verbs, make sentences containing a
direct and a factitive object: name, thought, call, choose, consider.

4. Write a sentence containing a nominative case absolute.

5. Illustrate by sentences a nominative and an objective appos-
itive.

6. Write two sentences each containing the adverbial objective
construction.

7. Make two sentences, each containing an appositive objective
and two each containing a factitive objective.

8. Write sentences containing nouns used as the objects of the
following infinitives: to write, to have seen, to have known.

PARSING THE NOUN

33. Oral Parsinjf. — A noun is parsed orally by stating
in an orderly way its classification, its inflections, its func-
tions, and its relations. To illustrate, let it be required to
parse the nouns in the following sentence:

The visitor was Richelieu, the minister of France.

Visitor: it is a noun, common, third, masculine, singular,
nominative, subject of was,

Richelieu: it is a noun, proper, third, masculine, singular,
nominative, predicate noun, agrees in case with visitor, and
denotes the same person that is indicated by the subject.

§16

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Minister: it is a noun, common, third, masculine, singular,
nominative, in apposition with RichelieUy the meaning of
which it explains.

France: it is a noun, proper, third, neuter, singular, objec-
tive, object of the preposition of, with which it forms an
adjective phrase modifying the meaning of minister.

In oral parsing, the reasons should at first be fully given;
later, they may be omitted as above; and finally, it is enough
to give only the most important facts. For example, with
respect to the nouns parsed above, the pupil may say:

Visitor: it is a common noun, nominative, subject of was,

Richelieu: it is a proper noun, the predicate nominative.

Minister: it is a common noun, nominative, in apposition
with Richelieu.

France: it is a proper noun, object of the preposition of.

34. Written Parsingr* — ^A form for the written parsing
of nouns is shown below.

Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony, who, though he
had no hand in his death, shall receive the benefit of his dying, a place
in the commonwealth.

Notm

Class

Gender

Num-
• ber

Case

Relation

body

common

neuter

sing.

nom.

subject of comes

Mark Antony

proper

mascu.

sing.

obj.

obj. of prep, by

hand

common

neuter

sing.

obj.

obj. of verb had

death

common

neuter

sing.

obj.

obj. of prep, in

benefit

common

neuter

sing.

obj.

obj . of verb shall receive

dying

verbal

neuter

sing.

obj.

obj. of prep, of

place

common

neuter

sing.

obj.

independent by app.

commonwealth

common

neuter

sing.

obj.

obj. of prep, in

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Parse the nouns in the following sentences:

(a) Can you tell me, John, whether there are lions in India?

{b) Money, the root of all evil, is, however, the power that makes
success and failure.

(r) Columbus, fearing a mutiny, promised his men to return to
Spain.

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §16

(d) There is a tide in the affairs of men, which, taken at the flood,
leads on to fortune.

(e) The book cost a dollar and was sold for two dollars.
(/) I had got home to my little tent where I lay all night.
Ig) They call him king of the coral isle,

The lord of the tropic seas.
(h) A man beyond middle age entered, wearing the look of one that
knew the world and was sure of his own course in it.

(f ) The woman's cause is man's; they rise or. sink together.
(j) There stands not by the Ganges' side

A house where none has ever died.
(k) A man naturally feels himself superior to him that turns
somersaults, whether literal or literary.

(/) The unwearied sun from day to day

Does his Creator's power display.
And publishes to every land
The works of an Almighty hand.

DIAGRAMS OF THE CASE CONSTRUCTIONS

MODELS OF ANALYSIS

35. In order that the student may become familiar
with the various case constructions and with the method
of representing them by diagrams, some model analyses
are here given.

■J 1 ^ I T f I ' = ^^r>Ur»

I. Oar midnight (visitor) I was I O'Gonnell, the great orator

t 1 T" *

aid .efonner.

JZ — } * ^3k^

2. (Lazarus) [sail, a beggar at the gate of Dives, the rich man.

^ * ♦' T t 1 — t 1 [ — r i

/*T1 1 ' * — =5 —

3. (He) |looked| a gentleman from head to foot

The words de^ar and gentleman in 2 and 3 are, like
O'Connell in 1, predicate nominatives.

§16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 29

. . , I \ — I n — \ r" — »

4. The boy*8 (abeenoe) [causedj ^ his mother, poor ^jn^ much grief.

In 4, the preposition to or for is understood before his
mother.

&. _II — \ -E — ^

The (vesad) fsunk] ^ last night . ten miles irom shore.

-[z_i ^ 4 ^ I "^ I ♦ \

Night and miles are adverbial objectives modifying sunk.
The carets indicate the usual place of the preposition in
adverbial phrases.

6. Your sister, John; (yon) Iresemblel your sister.

Sister is in the nominative case by pleotiasm^ and y<c?^« in
the nominative case by address.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Analyze the followinp^ sentences by diagram, and parse the nouns:

(a) Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate.

(b) She was thinking then of her former lord, good soul that he was.

(ct) Wild natures need wise curbs.

(e) I know the way by which she went home yesterday.
(/) The storm having passed, the sea became peaceful.

(g) Are you ray cousin of whose exploits I have so often heard?
(h) If a mad dog bit your hand, my Lord, would you not chop off
the bitten member?

(f ) England; it is the land where might made right eight hundred
years ago.

(/) They sang of what is wise and good and graceful.

Nonns^

TABLE OF NOUNS

Proper /^* ^^^^^^^^^^ Natnes — Henry, Boston

12. Used as Cofnmon— The Miltons, the Ciceros

, ^, .r fia) Sensible — Tree, bird
1. Class NainesK ,.[ r^ ,. . ^

I \b) Ratwnal — Rest, condition

Common \2, Collective — Army, flock, convention

3. Abstract — Redness, honesty, discordance

,4. K^rr^a/^ Writing, seeing, hearing

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§16

' Gbndbr

a
o

INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS

(1. Masculine — Man, John, stag, Caesar
2. Feminine — Girl, Dora, filly, Cleopatra
3. Neuter — Book, Boston, day
4. Comtnon — Parent, wolf, fish

«j fl. Singular — Boy, child, Danube

WUMBER|2 Plural—Boys, children, 6*s

1. First — I, Johnf am going.

Person \ 2. Second— Comet James , let us go.

3. Third— The earth is a planet,

1. Nominative — John came. The boy is a scholar.

Case \ 2. Possessive — Mary^s hat. The woman's hope.

.3. Objective — I saw the clouds from the door.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(PART 4)

THE ADJECTIVE

1. Function of the Adjective. — The adjective has
been defined as a word used to modify the meaning of a
noun or a pronoun. When, as the name adjective implies,
this element is joined directly to a noun, the effect in each
case is to restrict or limit to a particular number, or kind,
or other group, the objects named by the noun. This is to
modify or measure the noun in the extent of its application.

Thus, every object answering a certain description is
included by the noun tree. But when modifiers are joined
to the noun, the number of denoted objects is reduced by
including only such as are:

1. Of a certain kind or quality; as, tall trees, green trees ,
oak trees, evergreen trees, forest trees.

2. For some particular use; as, lumber trees, shade trees,
fruit trees, sugar trees,

3. Of a certain niunber, definite or indefinite; as, six
trees, several, some, many, few trees.

4. In a certain condition of change or action; as, dying
trees, living, growing, standing, fallen, leaning trees,

5. Definitely pointed out; as, the, those, yonder, my trees.
In these and many other ways, the adjective enables us to

separate the object or objects we wish to consider from all
others named by the noun. '^

2. Tlie Place of the Adjective. — The adjective does
not always directly precede the noun as a mere modifier; it

For notiu of copyright, see page immediately following the title Page

217

2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR . §17

is often widely separated from the word to which it belongs.
In every position, however, its function is to modify the
meaning of a noun or a pronoun. The placing of an adjec-
tive at a distance from its usual position has the effect of
emphasizing its meaning; but, although when so placed it is
still a modifier, it is something more, as is explained below.
Considered with respect to position, adjectives are:

1. Adjunctive or attributive — ^joined directly to the noun
and preceding it.

good weather, six tons, some money, that house

Here the adjective modifies — denotes some quality or
attribute in that which is named by the noun.

2. Appositive— 'placed near, but used like a noun or a pro-
noun in apposition.

5a^*and silent^ the traveler sat by the roadside.
He was condemned for crimes, real and supposed.
Hopeful^ coftfident, the boy left home.

3. Predicative — performing a direct part in predicating,
and called, therefore, sl predicate adjective.

The tree \s green.

The sun is bright and shining.

The boy looks pale and seems sick.

In (3), the predication is actually made — that is, there is
formal assertion that a certain object possesses some quality;
in (2), predication is strongly implied; and, in (1), it is
merely assumed or taken for granted. Thus, in the expres-
sion good and trtie stories, we assume, as something not
disputed, that the qualities goodness and trueness character-
ize the stories of which we speak; in stories, good and true,
the qualities are more than assumed. It is as if we said,
stories that are good and true; only we do not quite say it.
But in The stories are good and true, the predication is actually
made — we declare that the qualities are really possessed by
the things named by stories.

This distinction between actual predication and assumed
predication is one of great importance, as will be more clearly
seen when the detailed treatment of the verb is taken up.

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Make a list of the adjectives used adjunctively, a second list of those
used appositively, and a third list of those used predicatively.

{a) A body of men, patriots good and true, marched against the
ruthless invaders.

(d) A pretty "blue-eyed girl sat silent and despondent in the pleas-
ant shade of a beech tree.

(d) A stately oflBcer, steadfast comrade of the wounded man, visited
the hospital with faithful regularity.

(e) Maud Muller on a summer's day,

Raked the meadow, sweet with hay.

(/) The elder man was grave and silent while his younger com-
panion sat abashed and speechless.

0?') My recollections of Spain are of the most lively and delightful
kind.

(h) The village was beautiful and the surrounding country was
the most charming and picturesque that we had seen.

(/) The evening was calm and lovely and the stars stole out one
by one, radiant and beautiful.

(j) Injustice swift, erect, and unconfined.

Sweeps the wide earth, and tramples o'er mankind.

3. Adjectives Classified Witli Respect to Form,

When considered with respect to their form, adjectives
may be:

1. Proper or Common, — (a) A proi>er adjective is one
that is formed from a proper noun; as, Freiich^ Miltonic,
Parisian, Rhenish y Franco- Prussian, (b) A com in on adjec-
tive is one that is not derived from a proper noun; as, true,
fresh, lively, soiil-stirring. Some adjectives derived from '
proper nouns are now treated as common adjectives, being
written without initial capitals; as, herculean from Hercules,
tantali^^ing from Tantalus, titanic from Titan, stentorian from
Stentor, romantic from Roma, Platonic from Plato,

2. Simple of Compound, — (a) A simple adjective is one
that consists of but one word element; as, sweet, lonely, high,
narrow, Spanish, {b) A compound adjective is one that is
composed of two or more word elements forming either a

4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 17

solid or a hyphenated compound; as, lifelike^ homesick^ rosy-
fingered y all-wise y self-confident, all-seeing, never-to-be-forgotten,
Russo- Japanese, Spanisfi-Americafi .

3. Primitive or Derivative, — (a) A primitive adjective
is one that is not derived from a simpler word in actual use
in our language; as, true, thin, sificere, sweet, (b) A deriv-
ative adjective is one that is derived from a simpler word
used in the language; as, truthful, homely, thinnest, insituere,
sweetish, chaiigeable. These adjectives come from the simpler
forms true, home, thin, sincere, sweet, change,

4. . Derivation of Adjectives. — Adjectives are formed
from simpler elements by means of prefixes and suffixes.
Suffixes may be joined to several classes of words as follows:

1. To Nouns, — Adjectives are formed from nouns by the
addition of al, able, ous, ic, ish, ful, y, en, ed, some, less, ly. He,
aft, ane, and many others. Examples are:

nationa/, lovable, Ivltwus, ton/V, child wA, faith/iv/, hearty, vfooden,
timbered, hwrdensome, \\ic\iless, mother/y, infant//^, etc.

2. Suffixes Joined to Other Adjectives, — The most com-
monly used suffixes by which adjectives are formed from
other adjectives are er, est, ish, fold, some, teen {ten), ly, th,
ty (ten). The following are examples:

sounder, sadd^5/, sweetwA, three/<7/rf, lonesome, thirteen, kindly,
aUh, ninety

3. Suffixes Joined to Verbs, — Many adjectives are derived
from verbs. Some of these are verbals used unchanged or
with prefixes.

growing, shorn, shaven, unfed, unloved, cultivated, foredoomed,
prepaid, countersigned, interviewed

Others are formed from verbs or verb stems by adding
suffixes.

v/akeful, exhaustless, iiresotfte, blow>', eatable, credible, urgent,
considera/^, credulous, compos//^, active, stat/V, etc.

5. Compound Adjectives. — The number of compound
adjectives is very great, and is constantly increasing.

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5

Classified with reference to the elements of which they are
composed, they are as follows:

Adjective H- -

Adjective; as, pale-blue, white-hot, red-orange
Verbat; as, slow-moving, high-stepping, good-looking,

high-bom
Noun; as, red-headed, keen-sighted, sharp-tongued,

rapid-fire, rosy-fingered

Noun -h <

Adjective; as, heart-whole, fancy-free, love-lorn, air-
tight, sky-blue

Verbal; as, foot- worn, heart-breaking, hand-made,
home-brewed, ivy-covered

Noun I as, lion-hearted, cherry-lipped, ox-eyed, Krag-
Jorgensen

(Adjective; as, all-powerful, over-honest, truly-good,
doubly-wicked
Verbal; as, never-ceasing, so-called, swiftly-flying, well-
dressed, fast-fleeing, early-rising

Verb ■\- Noun; as, breakneck, do-nothing, .killjoy, breakbone

There are compomid adjectives consisting of combina-
tions other than the foregoing, but these include the most
important. Most compound adjectives are written with
hyphens, but such as are of old and frequent use have
acquired the solid form. When the student is in doubt
whether or not to use a » hyphen, he should consult a
generally approved dictionary.

6. Adjectives Classified With Respect to Use. — All

adjectives modify, but most of them do so by expressing
some quality or other in the thing denoted by the modified
word. The others consist of several small groups that are
known by special names.

Divided according to use or function, adjectives are:

I. Qualitative Adjectives. — These denote quality, and,

for that, reason, they are sometimes called qualifying
adjectives. The number of this class of adjectives is
immense, including all that denote qualities perceived
directly by the senses, — sensible qualities, and qualities
inferred by the mind from something perceived by the
senses, — rational qualities.

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

1. Sensible; as, redy sweety fragrant y loudy heavy y longy
rough y left-handed y English y living y Caucasiayi,

2. Rational; as, honesty truCy gentky lovingy thoughtfuly
well'belovedy affectionate.

Each of the foregoing classes may be divided into
proper or common adjectives and verbal or participial adjec-
tives; and these may be simple or compound, as already
explained.

II. Quantitative Adjectives, — These are such as denote
quantity, either definite or indefinite; some of them relate to
mass as well as to number.

1. Definite; as, bothy ally nOy fivey whole,

2. Indefinite; as, anyy feWy somCy severaly divers, many,
morCy niosty muchy little.

These words are quantitative adjectives only when they
are used to modify as adjectives do; as, both boys, all per-
sons, no pardon, several mistakes. The same words are often
used alone; as, FeWy few shall part where many meet.
Some was good but 7niich was spoiled.

In these sentences, the words in italics are pronouns.

Adjectives of quantity that denote number are called
numeral adjectives. Of these there are two classes:
cardinal'y as, oney twOy three y etc., and ordinal; as, first y
second y third y etc.

III. Demonstrative Adjectives, — These are adjectives used
to point out; in the case of some of them, the effect is much
the same as when one points with the finger. This class is
named demonstrative from the fact that the Latin word
demonstrare means **to point out/* or *' indicate.**

The demonstratives are subdivided as follows:
1. Articles, — Of these there are two: a or any called
the indefinite article, and thCy the definite article. A is
used before consonant sounds; as, a many a house; an is used
before voivcl sounds; as, an armyy an eggy an irony an oniony
a7i urn. It should be observed that a word may begin with
a vowel sound, but not with a vowel; as, herby heir,
honesty y etc. Before words thus beginning with silent hy
ail is used; as, an houry an ho7iest mauy an honorable person.

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 7

2. Pronominal Adjectives, — The student has already
learned that words are sometimes used with double functions.
The name, pronominal adjective^ denotes that this class of
words does duty both as pronouns and as adjectives. As
adjectives, they modify the meaning of nouns; as pronouns,
they represent, refer to, or take the place of, nouns. Thus,
in the expression, his hat, the word his points out which hat
is meant, and at the same time stands for the name of the
owner of the hat. If, for example, the hat belongs to John,
his hat = John's hat; and his and John's are alike in
function— they are modifiers.

Again, nearly all of these words may stand alone instead
of nouns; that is, they may be used z,'& pronouns.

This is a tree.

Sotne are living, but many are dead.

It is only when they are joined to a noun and modify its
meaning that they are pronominal adjectives.

That hat was formerly my property.
Each man owes something to every man.

The pronominal adjectives, sometimes called adjective
pronouns, have been arranged in the following classes:

(a ) Demonstrative. — These are called pro7iominal adjectives
only because they are often used as pronouns. But when
they are joined to a noun to modify its meaning, they are
really nothing more than adjectives in function. Still, even
then, they are called pronominal adjectives. They are this,
that, these, those, yon, yonder, former, latter, same, and such.

This field is large; that field is small.
Tftese teachers have charge of those children.

We have cherries and grapes; the former fruit is fine, but the tatter
fruit is not so good.
" Yonder tree is a larch.
Yon house is my home.
Snch conduct is inexcusable.

In all the foregoing sentences the italicized words are
pronominal adjective modifiers.

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

(^) Interrogative, — There are only three words now used
in this class: which ^ whose ^ and what.

Which book have you read?
Whose hat are you wearing?
What amount of money have you?

These words are used also without interrogative value as
mere demonstrative adjective modifiers.

Tell me which book you want.

I do not know whose fault it was.

I cannot say at what hour the train leaves.

(r) Possessive, — In this class are included my, our, thyy
your, his, its, their, and whose. The last may be used either
interrogatively or relatively.

Whose house is that?

He is the man whose letter came yesterday.

In the first sentence whose is used interrogatively; in the
second sentence, relatively.

{d) hide finite. — Such pronominal adjectives as point out,
but not definitely, belong in this class, which includes about
fifty words. Some of them are certain, another, few, less,
more, other, sundry.

The following, when used with nouns, are called distribu-
tives, because they imply separate and individual attention to
the persons or things named by the nouns they modify: each,
every, either, neither,

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Mention the adjectives in the following sentences, g^ve the class
of each as determined by its use or function, and tell what each
adjective modifies:

(a) The way was long, the wind was cold;

The minstrel was infirm and old.
(^) At last my eyes could see a woman fair, but awful as this
round white moon o*erhead.

And the yellow half moon, large and low,

And the startled little waves that leap

In fiery ringlets from their sleep;

Then I gain the cove with the pushing prow,

And quench its speed in the slushy sand.

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9

(d) The youth with many a merry trick goes singing on his
careless way.

(^) Look — how round his straining throat

Grace and shifting beauty float;
Sinewy strength is in his reins,
And the red blood gallops through his veins — •
Richer, redder, never ran
Through the boasting heart of man.
(/) Sweet bird that sing*st away the early hours
Of winters past or coming, void of care;
Well pleased with delights which present are,
Fair seasons, budding sprays, sweet-smelling flowers.
2. By using suflBxes, convert the following nouns into adjectives:
friend, fog, virtue, truth, home, burden, year, awe, brass, flax, sense,
child, feather, fear, demon.

^ 3. By annexing sufiixes to the following adjectives form other
adjectives: clear, sick, lone, nine, black, comic, glad, weak, blithe,
g^m, scant, droll.

4. Form compound adjectives, three of each, by combining words
as follows: (a) two adjectives; id) an adjective and a noun; (c) an
adjective and a verbal.

5. Illustrate the following by three compound adjectives for each:
(a) noun + adjective; (d) noun + verbal; (c) noun + noun.

6. Form three compound adjectives for each of the following:
(a) adverb -|- adjective; {d) adverb + verbal.

INFLECTION OP THE ADJECTIVE

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

7. The pronominal demonstratives ihis and tAai take the
inflected forms these and ihose to denote the plural number.

Singular: this man, that mountain
Plural', these men, Ihose mountains

With these exceptions, adjectives have but one inflection,
which is called comparison. Qualitatives — adjectives that
denote quality either sensible or rational — are, most of them,
inflected for degrees of the quality denoted. The qualities
by means of which we distinguish one thing from another
usually exist in different degrees or amounts among the
things having those qualities. Thus, we may say of one

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

thing that it is large, or pretty, or beautiful; of another, that
it is the larger, the prettier, or the more beautiful of two; of
a third, that it is the largest, the prettiest, or the most
beautiful of three or more.

Such adjectives as are compared or inflected for quality
have three degrees of comparison: the positive^ the compara-
tive, and the superlative. The following are some examples
of the three degrees of comparison:

Positive: bright early beautiful

Comparative: brighter earlier more beautiful
Superlative: brightest earliest most beautiful

But many adjectives that denot9 quality are not capable
of different degrees. These of course are not inflected —
they are incomparable. These may, in general, be known
by their meaning. Some of them are:

1. Some adjectives denoting shape, position, direction,
etc.; as, round y square y cubical y circular y triangular y central y par-
allel y erect y perpendicular y linear y equilateraly spherical y straight.

If, for example, anything is really round or square or tri-
angular or cubical it cannot be any more or any less so.
Such words then cannot, in strictness, be compared, yet it
is often done by careless writers, and often by classical
authors, and sometimes for apparently good reasons.

2. Adjectives with a negative prefix or suffix; as, mcon-
ceivabky VKseeUy AtomiCy Ada?na?ttiney lUmaturCy iLlegiblCy
hopeiMSSy harmiMSSy non -existent.

All these prefixes and suffixes denote the absence of the
quality expressed by the rest of the word. Thus, less as a
suffix means without; as homelesSy without a home; /«, /w, //,
nouy ay and un each means not. (/«, /w, and it as prefixes
sometimes mean in, into, or on.)

3. Adjectives denoting quality not capable of increase
or diminution cannot, in strictness, be compared. The fol-
lowing are examples: perfect, complete, absolutCy infinitCy ever-
lasting y deady asleep, satisfied, celestial, divine y human y material y
golden, weekly y eternal, endless.

It should be noted, however, that many adjectives of this
kind are often inflected. Thus, such forms as the following.

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11

though not good, are of frequent occurrence both in speech

nnH ^wrifincr?

compleiCy perfect^ divine^ hopeless^ satisfied^ etc.

and writing:

most

The same usage is common with adjectives having nega-
tive prefixes or suffixes; as, mo^ unexpected^ most ignorant^
most hopeless^ more innocent^ etc.

4. Latin comparatives used as ordinary English adjectives
cannot be compared; as, anterior^ superior^ infeTior, seyiior,
junior y Prior ^ exterior^ interior , etc.

In comparisons, these Latin words are usually followed
by to^ while ordinary English comparatives require than.
Thus, prior to^ earlier than; inferior to, worse than; pmior to
or ofy younger than,

8. Tlie Distinguishing? of One Object From
Another. — ^We become acquainted with the objects we
know and have names for, either through their qualities or
by observing their relations to other objects. Thus, when
we say or see the word orange y it calls up in the mind ideas
of certain qualities ; as, color ^ taste y smelly sizCy shape; or it
calls up ideas of certain relations; as, value y position y weighty
utility. Thus, we know an orange or any other object by its
sensible qualities or by its relations.

Again, honesty is a rational quality distinguishing the
conduct of men in their dealings with one another. If a
man habitually acts so and sounder particular circumstances,
his conduct illustrates some quality, as honesty y justicCy truth-
fulnesSy loyalty y and we speak of him as an honesty justy truth-
ful y or loyal man. ,

Thus, it is by means of qualities, sensible and rational, and
by the various relations among things, that we are able to recog-
nize objects and distinguish them from one another. By their
differences and resemblances and by their relations, and in no
other way, we become acquainted with the things around us.

9. The Positive Dejjrree. — Before we can say that
anything is large, for example, we must have a notion of

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

the usual size of objects of that kind. This notion we get
by experience in comparing many things of that class. When
one says, a large houses tree^ animal^ the expression implies
that he has seen and compared many houses, many trees,
many animals, and that he has in his mind a general notion or
type with respect to the size of each kind of thing mentioned.
This type is not often the ^me with different persons, for it
is derived from experience,, and this is of many varieties.
The wider the experience, the more valuable the type.

This typical notion of any quality is the positive degree of
that quality. It is expressed by the simple uninflected form
of the adjective; as, wise^ sorry ^ red, pale.

Definition.. — The positive degrree of an adjective is the
form or use of it that implies the comparison of one thing or
group of things with many others of the class,

A zvise son raaketh a glad father.

His face, red and paU by turns, showed his deep emotion.

10. The Comparative Degrree. — In the use of an

adjective in the positive degree, the comparison is only
implied or taken for granted; in the comparative degree, the
comparison of one thing with another must actually be
made; and only two objects or two groups of objects are
considered — one having a certain quality, and the other
having it in a higher or lower measure or degree. Thus, of
two things, one may be sweet or pretty or long or small, and
the^ other sweeter, prettier, loyiger, or smaller than the first.
An adjective so used is in the comparative degree.

Definition. — The comparative degri'^c of an adjective is
the form or use of it by which a comparisoyi with respect to some
quality is actually made between two things or groups of things,

A girl prettier than my cousin accompanied us.

{less 1
\ valuable house of the two was sold.
more \

{less 1
\ satisfactory QoW^Qiion than mine cannot be found.
more \

!!• The Superlative Degrree. — When the superlative
degree of an adjective is used, the least number of objects

§ 17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 13

or groups of objects considered is three. One of them, as
compared with the others — two or more — is seen to have the
hig^hest or lowest degree of some quality; and, to denote
this, a form or use of the adjective known as the superlative
degree is required. This degree, also, like the comparative,
requires an actual comparison. At least three pretty or good
or little objects must be compared before we can say that
one of them is the prettiest^ the best^ the least. The word
superlative means ^'surpassing,'* **above or beyond all others.'*

Definition. — The superlative degree of an adjective is
the form or use of it by which a comparison with respect to
some quality is actually made among three or more, things
or groups of things.

{ least \
\ valuable house. The prettiest girl.

12. Rnles for ComparinK Adjectives. — Adjectives of

one syllable are compared as follows:

er = comparative; as, bright ^ brightRK
est = superlative; as, stnoothy smoothiLST

Adjectives of two or more syllables usually take the
adverbs more or less before the positive to form the compara-
tive, and most or least to form the superlative.

> + positive = comparative; as,| , \ beautiful

> + positive = superlative; as,< \ beautiful

Special Rule, — Adjectives of two syllables ending in y,
and many in ow and ^, usually add er and est to the positive
to form, respectively, the comparative and the superlative.

lovely

Positive H- \

holy
sorry
easy
angry J

polite

mellow

narrow

simple

noble

{comparative; as, loveliKB.y holiEKy sorriRR,
easiRKf angriEK
superlative; as, IovcUkst, holiKST, sorrtRsrr,
" eastBST, angriBST

-{'

> +

{comparative; as, politBKf me/loTtfUK, nar-
rowuK, simplKK, nob/RR
{superlative; as, politRST^ melloTtmsT, natTOZv
EST, simpiRSTf noblRST

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

13. General Principle. — Many other adjectives of two
syllables are compared with er and esf^ when to do so does
not offend the ear.

The preferable form of comparison is largely dependent
on usage, and in nearly all cases this may be determined by
the ear. Harshness of sound or difficulty of pronunciation
is always sufficient cause for rejecting the regular com-
parison— that by er and est — and using more and most or
less and least.

It should be added that the sentential use of an adjective
has much to do. with its comparison. If an adjective is
joined directly to a noun, the preferable comparison is
by er and est, if euphony permits; but if the adjective
is used in the predicate or like a noun in apposition, com-
parison by more and most or by less and least is to be pre-
ferred, especially in poetry.

A form more fair and a face more sweet.
Surely, surely, slumber is more sweet than toil.
The wind breathes low with viellower tone.
He stooped to touch the loftiest thought.

More and most are preferable to er and est when not
comparison, but only a high or a low degree of a quality is
intended; as, Most weary seemed the sea = Very weary, etc.
This is known as the intensive use of the adjective, — a use
by which the force or emphasis is greatly increased. Some
other examples follow.

His actions were most despicable = extremely despicable.
A fearsome sound was heard, most wierd and (most) strange = i^eiy
wierd and very strange.

He should have been less careless = not so careless.

14. Modifications In Spelling. — 1. Adjectives ending
in e silent omit the e before er and est; as, able, abler, ablest.

2. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed into /; as,
gaudy, gaudier, gaudiest.

3. A final consonant preceded by a short accented vowel
is doubled before er and est; as, slim, slimmer, slimmest; sad^
sadder, saddest.

§17

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

15. Irregrular Comparison.-

adjectives are of frequent use,
comparison:

-Most of the following
and are irregular in

POSITIVB

COMPARATTVB

bad, ill, evil

worse

good, well

better

far

farther

little

less

many, much

old

older, elder

forth (adv.)

further

fore

former

late

later, latter

hind

hinder

nigh

nigher

[neath] (prep.)

nether

[out] (adv.)

outer, utter

[up] (prep.)

upper

[in] (prep.)

inner

SUPERLATIVB

worst

best

farthest

least

most

oldest, eldest

furthest

foremost, first

latest, last

hindmost

nighest, next

nethermost

{outmost, outermost
utmost, uttermost
upmost, uppermost
inmost, innermost

16. Parsing: the Adjective. — To parse an adjective,
the student should mention:

1. Its Class, — This involves stating its class as qualita-
tive, quantitative, or demonstrative. If it is qualitative^ it
may be sensible or rational; if quayititativcy it may be definite,
indefinite, or numeral; if numeral ^ it may be cardinal or ordi-
nal. If it is demonstrative y it may be an article either definite
or indefinite; or it may be a pronominal ^ and if so, it is ordi-
nary, interrogative, possessive, or indefinite.

2. Its Comparison , — State whether or not it is compared.
If it is compared, give its comparison, and say in what degree
it is found.

3. Its Use. — State what it modifies, and whether it is an
adjtmctive, a predicative, or an appositive adjective.

17. Oral Parsing of tlie Adjective. — In order to
illustrate the oral parsing of the adjective, let it be required
to parse the adjectives in the following sentence:

But he thought of his sister, proud and cold.
And his mother, vain of her rank and gold.

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

His: an adjective, demonstrative, pronominal, not com-
pared, and, as a mere adjunct, modifies sister.

Proud: an adjective, qualitative, rational; compared by
er and est; it is in the positive degree, and is an appositive
modifier of sister.

Coldy vain: parsed exactly \\\ie proud.

Her: parsed like his.

18. Adjective Equivalents. — As has already been
explained, the adjective function may be filled by sentential
elements other than ordinary adjectives.

1. By a verbal; as, a tree standing by the door, coal to
selly a STORY to be believed^ etc.

2. By a prepositional phrase; as, a letter from homey a
CURE ior lisping^ a day for planting trees^ the apples in the
cellar.

3. By a clause; as, a tree that is alive^ a story that
should be believed^ a man whose father was iiuthe Revolution ^
a voter that {ailed to register.

4.' By a noun in the possessive case; as, John^s hat, a
mother's care.

5. By an uninflected noun used as a modifier; as, gold-

MINE, apple blossoms, Ai^tt^^-PAINTER, iron-ORE, /«^-WELL,
«/^>4/-WATCHMAN.

19. Expansion of Adjective Elements. — Almost any
adjective word element may be expanded into a phrase or
even into a clause.

a summer day = a day in summer
a kind act = an act of kindness = an act that was kind
a memorable event =» an event to be remembered = an event that
should be remembered

It is evident, therefore, that phrases and clauses used as
adjective modifiers may generally be condensed into single
words; and, inasmuch as force is gained by brevity, we
should prefer the shorter forms unless there are good
reasons for using the longer.

20. Uses of Adjective Plirases. — We have seen that
an adjective may be a mere adjunct, a complement of the

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 17

predicate, and that it may be used appositively to add some
fact or circumstance, or to explain the meaning: of some-
thing that precedes.

Phrases and clauses when used as adjectives are usually
predicative or appositive.

Appositivb or Rkstrictivb Prbdicativb

high.

very reasonable.

beyond our means.

demanded I

in New York >was'
that was demanded I

He was never where he was needed.

The price<

more than we could pay.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTIcrf

1. In the following, parse the adjectives, and point out the phrases
and clauses.

(a) This murderous chief, this ruthless man,

This head of a rebellious clan.

Hath led thee safe.
{6) Gentleness, the characteristic mark of the true gentleman of
the old school, distinguished his every act, even the most trifling.

(d) In their ragged regimentals, stood the old Continentals, yield-
ing not.

(e) The three stood calm and silent, and looked upon their foes,
And a great shout of laughter from all the vanguard rose.

(f) The emperor there, in his box of state,

Looked grave; as if he had just then seen
The red flag wave from the city gate.
Where his eagles in bronze had been.

(g) He that gives up the smallest part of his secret has no control
over what remains.

(k) The experience that teaches us to govern our own spirits is the
best of all training.

2. Determine, by the ear or from a dictionary, the approved com-
parison of the following words, and write the comparisons in full: dry,
wry, sly, spry, sincere, haughty, common, lovely, noble, curious,
precious, wealthy, swarthy, remote, awkward, wholesome, tardy, faith-
ful, morose, discreet.

3. Write the comparison of such of the following adjectives as
admit comparison, and explain why each of the others does not:
golden, entire, English, spherical, empty, final, prone, dead, ultimate,
erect, false, extreme, perfect, wooden, universal, eternal, humane,
unanswerable, friendless, infallible.

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

21. other Methods of Comparison. — The regular
comparison by annexing er and est is usually regarded as a
true inflection; but the method by means of the adverbs more^
mosty and less, least, is in no sense an inflection. There seems
to be no very clear reason why grammarians should have
selected these particular adverbs to use in comparing adjec-
tives; for there are a great many other adverbs that modify
with more definiteness; as, somewhat, slightly, very, quite,
extremely, exceedingly , positively , decidedly, barely, merely, only,
rarely, occasionally, temporarily, etc. All these are useful,
and the student should have a ready command over a good
variety of them. Not only are adverbs used for this purpose
of comparison, but adverbial phrases and clauses also, when
greater precision of degree is required.

Words

Phrases

pretty, exceptionally, tolerably, very, excessively,
charmingly, surprisingly, extremely, delightfully, } cordial
guardedly, entirely, refreshingly, truly

in school, in manner, at dinner, toward the aged,
in speech, at times, from early training, in taking ^^lUg
leave, by instinct, from policy, to excess, with an
object, from habit

Clauses

if he is in the mood, when he can afford to be so,
although he is poor, when he chooses to be,
where there is merit, when he should be other-
wise, when his ship comes in, as his means allow

generous

By using such adverbial modifiers as those given above, it
is possible to express a great variety of degrees of the
quality denoted by an adjective. These degrees of quality
range all the way from the positive, in such expressions as
barely alive, scarcely polite, to the superlative. By means of
some of these intensive adverbs it is possible to express
quality even higher than the superlative in est or with the
adverb most.

Thus, such expressions as indescribably vai?t, exceedingly
mean, inconceivably cruel, absolutely wretched, and hopelessly
stupid are all regarded as much stronger than the regular
forms of comparisons vainest, meanest, cruelest, most ivretched,
and stupidest.

§17

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

<
H

TABLE OF THE ADJECTIVE

Comtnon i^^^P^^' S^od, wise, happy

\ Compound: four-handed, blue-eyed
(Simple: Russian, English
^ I Cbw^^7««i/.* Anglo-American

p .- .. / (Simple: amusing, pleasing

^ [Compound: Hfe-giving, wool-gathering

H
<

H
en

>5
O

Definite

Indefinite

Article

Pronominal *

{Coinmon: whole, no, enough, both, all
^ . (Cardinal — one, six

\Ordinal — first, sixth
{Common: some, much, little, any
Numeral: any, few, some, several, divers

(Definite: the
Indefinite: a, an

(a) Common: this, these; that, those;
yonder

(b) Interrogative: which? what?

(d) Possessive: my, thy, his, her, their

yon,

else.

THE PRONOUN

22. Function of the Pronoun. — The pronoun has
been described as a word used instead of a noun or as a sub-
stitute for a noun. This description comes from the literal
meaning of the vior^ pronoun {pro, **for,'* 7iojin, **a name*^,
but this definition is not exactly true of all the pronouns.
When John says of himself, / see, the meaning is somewhat
different from what it would be if he should say John sees.
In the former case, / represents the speaker, and shows by
its form that it does so; in the latter example, John may
denote the speaker, but nothing about the form of the word
shows that it does, as is the case with /.

When of himself and Henry, to whom he speaks, he says

Weseey it is not equivalent to John and Henry see. But if the

pronoun were an exact substitute for a noun, these pairs

of sentences would be exact equivalents, By its form^ /

denotes the speaker but gives no hint of who he is — it shows

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 17

only that somebody, present and known without being
named, is speaking. The pronoun, however, would serve
equally well if the name of the speaker were unknown,
or even if he had no name.
In like manner,

We = / -\-you (the speaker + the listener), and.

We = I ■\-you H- he (the speaker -f the listener + Henry), etc.

In this last case, he is a real substitute for a noun, but you
and / are not. Hence.

/ denotes that some one, whose name is unknown or does
not need to be known, is speaking.

We denotes that some one is speaking for himself and for
others that have been referred to or are present. What their
names are is generally a matter of no importance.

You denotes some one in the relation of listener to some
one speaking, and it is equally satisfactory whether the
listener's name is known or not.

He, she, they, etc. are real substitutes for names.

It appears, therefore, that the definition usually given for
the pronoun is objectionable from the fact that it does not
exactly describe the functions of all the pronouns. Doubt-
less, however, it is the best that can be devised. Perhaps
the definition already given is somewhat less open to objec-
tion than that usually met with in grammars.

Definition. — A pronoun is a word that denotes Persons
and things without naming them,

23. The Antecedent of a Pronoun. — Every pronoun
denotes some person or thing, or it is a substitute for the
name of some person or thing. This name is the ante-
cedent of the pronoun. The name antecedent means ** going
before,** the implication being that the name denoted, that
is, the antecedent, occurs in the sentence before the pronoun
that denotes it. Such is usually, but not always, the case.
Thus, in the sentence, John resolved that he would earn his
money before he would spend it, the pronouns he and his follow
their antecedent John, and it follows its antecedent money.
But in the sentence. Who discovered the Pacific Ocean? the

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 21

antecedent of who is inquired for and must be found in an
answer to the question — Balboa discovered it. Ocean, the
antecedent of it, is really antecedent in position.

Moreover, the pronouns /, we, me, us, you, and all others
denoting the speaker or listener, can scarcely be said to
have antecedents, since, as we have seen, they are not
strictly substitutes for nouns; they denote persons or things
rather than take the place of names, and an antecedent is a
word or an expression, not a person. or thing. In the sen-
tence, I hurt myself, neither of the pronouns has an antece-
dent word; each represents a person, but so far as the reader
knows or the sentence indicates, the person denoted by the
pronouns has no name, or, if he has, it need not be known.

CliASSES OP PRONOUNS

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

24, Function of tlie Personal Pronoun. — Although
the number of pronouns is small, they are divided into several
classes, which are usually grouped under five heads: personal,
relative, interrogative, demofistrative, and indefinite. The per-
sonal pronouns are those that by their form indicate /^r^^w5 —
the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken about.

The personal pronouns that by their form denote the
speaker are the following: /, my, me, we, our, us.

The personal pronouns that denote the listener or person
addressed are: thou, thy, thifie, thee, you, ye, your, yours.

The personal pronouns that denote the person or thing
spoken of are: he, she, it, his, hers, its, him, her, they, their,
theirs, them^

The words my, thy, our, your, his, her, its, and their, when
followed by a noun whose meaning they modify, are gener-
ally called pronotftinal adjectives,

my work, its safety, his neglect, thy duty, her mother, their haste,
our home

25. Absolute Possessive Pronouns. — The pronoims
mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, when used as

22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

equivalent to a noun with a pronominal modifier, are called
absolute possessive pronouns.

Mine and yours are better than his and hers.

These pronouns, although they denote possession, are
never in the possessive case; they are always in the nomi-
native or the objective case, and are either singular or plural.
Thus, I may speak of my boy or my boys as mine.

The boy is mine.
The boys are mine.

By absorbing the possessive effect of my^ thy, etc. these
pronouns take into their meaning the idea of possession,
but their function is always nominative or objective.

If mine were yours, yours would exceed theirs in value.
She gave hers for his and ours together.

In the first sentence, the italicized pronouns except the
last, are nominatives; the last, and all in the next sentence
are objectives. However, because they denote possession,
these forms are given as possessives in the declension of
the personal pronouns.

26. Compound Personal Pronouns. — Certain of the
personal pronouns annex seli or selves to form compound per-
sonal pronouns:

my himl our 1

thy her >self your [selves

your it J them J

These pronouns, in either the nominative or the objective
case, are usually in apposition with some other word; or
they are intensive and have the effect of emphasis. When
in apposition, they are usually set off by commas.

I, myself, will go.

They attacked the king himself.

They are used reflexivcly also; that is, as the objects of
verbs whose subjects denote the same person or thing as the
pronouns. Thus,

He cut himself.

They saw themselves in the great parlor mirror.

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 23

Any of these reflexive pronouns may be used as the object
of a verb or preposition, or as a predicate nominative.

I hurt myself.

A house divided against itself cannot stand.

Richard is himself eL%Vi\n,

Both the nominative and the objective case are shown in
the following from Tennyson: And /, myself, sometimes
despise myself.

The personal pronouns also are sometimes used reflexively,
especially in poetry; as.

Get Ihee gone.

1 did repent me.

1 do remember me that in my youth, etc.

Self or selves may be used as a noun preceded by the pro-
nominal modifier own; as,

To your own selves be true.
We saw the giant's own self.

In the first sentence selves is a noun, the object of to; in
the second, self is the object of the verb saw.

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL. PRONOUNS

Singular Plural

f Nominative: I we

Person I ^^^^^^^^^'^' ™y» mine our, ours

First

Objective: me us

{Nominative: thou, you you, ye

Possessive: thy, thine, your your, yours

Objective: thee, you you, ye

Masculine Femfnine Neuter

{Nominative: he she it they

HiRD Possessive: his her, hers its their, theirs

Person]

Objective: him her it them

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

27. Function of the Uelatlvo Pronoun. — The rela-
tive or conjunctive pronouns have double functions in
sentences: they stand for a noun or an equivalent of a noun,
and they connect clauses.

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

:i-

My father died yesterday. . ,, ^ ^t. » j- ^ ^ ^

^ 1 I _ My father, who died yesterday, was a

My father was a lawyer. I lawyer.

This dog is for sale.

This dog gained the first
prize.

This man owns the house

+
Jack built the house.

__ This dog, which gained the first prize,
~ is for sale.

}^ This m
built.

man owns the house thai Jack

In the first sentence who stands for father ^ and it connects
the two clauses; it is, besides, the subject of the verb died.
In the second sentence the function of the relative pronoun
which is exactly similar to that of who in the first sentence.
That^ in the last sentence, connects the clauses and is the
object of hdlt; this is because it takes the place of house
in the second of the united clauses. The words father^
dogy and house y to which the pronouns relate, are antecedents;
father being the antecedent of who; dog^ of which; house ^
of that,

28. The Simple Relative. — The simple relative pro-
nouns are who^ which ^ what, and that.

Wlio is used for persons, and for animals and things per-
sonified —things that are addressed or spoken of as if they
were persons. It is inflected for case, but has the same form
in both the singular and the plural.

Nominative t who: Julius Caesar, who invaded Britain, soon returned
to Gaul.

Possessive, whose: Alexander, whose father was Philip, was taught
by Aristotle.

Objective, whom: Napoleon, whcnn all France loved, died at
St. Helena.

Which is used for animals and for things without life. It
was formerly used for persons; as, Our Fat her y which art in
Heaven, Which is not inflected either for number or case, but
whose is sometimes used as its possessive case; as, The
jewelSy whose value was great , were seized by the sheriff. This
use of whose is condemned by many authorities, who prefer

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 25

of which to whose when the reference is to anything^ without
life, but the usagfe has been fully established.

Nominative y which: The telephone, which was once merely curious,
is now indispensable.

Possessive t [whose] : We heard a noise the cause of which we could
not determine {whose cause).

There were many horses whose owners had been killed.

Objective, which: This celebrated problem, which the teacher
found too difficult, the boy solved with ease.

(The teacher found which. Which is the object of found.)

That is the most useful of all the relatives, being: a sub-
stitute for either who or which. It is used in both the singu-
lar and the plural, and represents both living beings and
things without life.

The man that hath no music in him must not be trusted.

The ships that pass in the night escape notice.

The cat that killed the rat that ate the malt was our old tabby.

This relative differs from who and which by not being

used immediately after a preposition. Thus we may say,

{WITH whotn I went was my father.
BY whom it was done was arrested.
THROUGH whose agency the fight was won was promoted.
{IN which we delighted 1

BY whose music we were charmed >was Cowper*s.
AGAINST which objections were urged)

The relative that cannot be substituted for any of the
italicized relatives in the examples above.

29. Relatives in Restrictive and In Coordinate
Clauses. — There is an important distinction in the use of
who^ which ^ and that in relative clauses. Many of the best
writers observe it, and it is strongly insisted on by a large
number of the highest authorities in grammar.

Professor Bain states the principle in the following
language: **The adjective clause, in its fundamental
restrictive application, should be introduced by the restrictive
relative ihat,'^

A restrictive clause is one that does the work of a mere
modifier.

26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

A coordinate clause is a clause of equal rank with a
leading or principal clause. It usually adds some circum-
stance and may be in its nature appositive, explanatory, or
a mere afterthought; its rank in the sentence is the same as
that of the principal clause — coordinate with it in importance.

Restrictive Clauses: The rope that was made of cotton (cotton rope)
was not so strong as the cable that was made of steel (steel cable) .
The man that hesitates (hesitating man) is lost.

Clauses so used are mere adjectives in function — they nar-
row, restrict, modify, the meaning of a noun or a pronoun.

The connective that introduces a restrictive clause is not

always that. Many other words may have this function.

Any clause becomes restrictive when it has the value of a

mere adjective or adverb.

Strike when the iron is hot.

I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows.

The city in which we found ourselves was the capital of the country.

Here the first clause is a mere adverb in function; the
second and third are adjectives. All these are therefore
restrictive or modifying clauses.

Coordinate Clauses: The officer, who is my cousin ^ was very
attentive.

His wealth, which was greats did not surpass that of his partner,
who was his brother.

Ice, which is frozen water ^ forms at 32° Fahrenheit.

Here which = aiid it^ and who = a^id he,

30. The following analyses will aid the student in under-
standing the distinction between restrictive and coordinate
clauses.

1. The (president), (who) Fis] the head of the army, [ordered] an advance.

nz 1 lir T^i I ♦ — ^ —

2w [Did] (you) [return] the book that (you) [borrowed] from me?

\ i Z] [Z ^ I

In 1, who is equivalent to and he. The sentence is there-
fore compound, for it consists of two independent coordi-
nate clauses. In 2, the clause, that you borrowed from me^
is an adjective modifier of book. The sentence is complex.

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2?

The relative that connects the two clauses and is at the
same time the direct object of the verb borrowed — you bor-
rowed that from me.

\ ^

(Words) (that) [have been uttered] fcan] never [be recalled].

t I t ~r- t

* 1

('nme). (who)ps| a thief, [robs] us of our choicest treasures.

L_zr "L-^ t =F I

5. (Time) ( that )[i8] wasted sooner or later [brines] remorse.

31. The student must not understand that this use of
who and which solely as coordinating and of that solely as
restrictive is fully approved by all the latest and best author-
ities. It is merely a very valuable distinction, actually
made by many eminent authorities, and strong^ly urged for
general adoption. That the usage will soon be fully
accepted, there can be little doubt, for it enables us to avoid
ambiguity and to escape an undesirable frequency in the«use
of who and which. The student is advised to give particular
care and thought to the sentences in example 2 of the
Examples for Practice that follow Art. 36.

32, The Double Relative. — What, called the double
relative, is so named because it does the work of both ante-
cedent and relative. The word is equivalent to that which,
or the thing which^ in which that or thing is the antecedent
of which. This relative never represents persons, and the
clause introduced by it usually has the value of a noun.

When what is compounded with ever and soever, it is called
a compound relative pronoun, as are also the similar
compounds of ever and soever with who, which, and whose.

The uses of what are illustrated in the following sentences:

{that which,
the thing which,
the thing that.
Explain what caused the trouble. What = that which, etc.
From what he said, he is willing. What = that which, etc.

S8 feNGLtSH GRAMMAR §17

In the first sentence, what fills the double relation of object
of both describe and found; in the second sentence, what may
be resolved into that which; in such case, that would be the
object of explain and which the subject of caused. Gram-
marians so explain the function of the double relative for
the reason that no word can be at the same time in two cases.
In the last sentence, what is the object of both from and said.

In all these uses, what may be decomposed into an ante-
cedent followed by a relative: that whichy the tMngr which.

I* The (result) fwasi different from what(he) [expected].

-iz_j T —J . ^

2. iTou) [could] never rguessi (what) [did] the mischief.

t 11 J ^ t ■

— I

In 2, the object of the verb could guess is the entire clause,
what did the mischief y used as a noun.

33. Substitutes for Relatives. — The words cls^ hut^
when, where y whence , w hit her y and why, as well as some of
their compounds with ever and soever, are frequently used as
substitutes for a relative pronoun or for a prepositional
phrase in which the object of the preposition is a relative
pronoun. The following are some examples:

As, preceded by such or same.

Select such men as you need. Such men as a the men that, or
those men that.

Here m€7t is the antecedent of as.

You have the same failingsj * }^^ ^^ shown.

But, after a negative clause, where but = that + not.
There is no one but sometimes blunders (that does not).

When, in cases where a noun denoting: time is the
antecedent.

There is a time \^ ... imen must, etc.

I at which J

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR ^

Where, wWen the antecedent denotes pltue.

He fell on the field { , . , >he fought.

ton wnicnj

Whither, after a clause denoting motion to a place.
We telegraphed to the office < h* h i ^® ^^^ gone.

Why, — The clause introduced by why as a relative is
always an adjective modifier; as,

There is no reason

{for which}' ^"""^ K**-

Why I should go is an adjective modifier of reason^ the
antecedent of why.
Usually, why is a conjunctive or an interrogative adverb.

Explain why (conj. adv.) you failed.

Why (int. adv.) is the earth flattened at the poles?

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

34. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and
whaty when used in asking; questions.

Who inquires for persons, is either singular or plural, and
is entirely indefinite — the person inquiring; is in ignorance of
the persons for whom he inquires; as,

Whof'^^ jhurt?
I were J

Interrogative who is declined in the same way as rela-
tive 7vho: Nominative, who? Possessive, whose? Objective,
whom?

Whose, although it denotes possession, may, like the
absolute possessives mitie, thine, etc., be used in either the
nominative or the objective case; strictly, it is never in
the possessive case.

Nominative: Whose is it? It is Mary's.

Objective: Whose did you send him ? I sent him yours.

Here the antecedent of whose may be booky for example.
Which inquires for persons or things, either one or

30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

more, of a class; it may therefore be either singular or plural
without change of form; as>

Which of the men< > ready? Which < >the best?

larej ^ larej

What applies only to things; as,

What do you want?
What is truth?

Whether was formerly used as an interrogative with the
force which of two? as,

Whether is greater, the gold or the temple?

Whether as an interrogative pronoun is no longer used.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

35. Function of the Demonstrntive Pronoun.

When ihis and thaiy with their plurals these and those, and
former and latter^ stand alone and have the functions of
pronouns, they are called demonstrative pronouns.

This is mine if that is yours.

These are good, but those are bad.

He punished the former and rewarded the latter.

We have seen that when these words are joined to a noun
to modify its meaning they are pronominal adjectives.

This hat is old; that hat is new.

These men are idle; those women are industrious.

The demonstratives are used. both of persons and things,
and they are not inflected for case.

This and these refer to what is near; that and those refer
to the more distant.

His work is better than< ., . , ,. , ^^ >of yours.

\that (distant) j ^

You may take these; I prefer those.

Some other words are employed as demonstrative pro-
nouns. Words so used may always be known by the office
they fill in a sentence; such is one of them.

You are a gentleman; behave as such.

§17 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 31

The antecedent of a demonstrative names that which is
referred to by the pronoun. This may be a wordt a phrase^
or a clause.

This is very interesting. (A book, for example.)

To bet or not to be; that is the question.

When it was that he went away, that was never known.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

36. Function of the Indefinite Pronoun. — As its

name indicates, the Indefinite pronoun stands for names,
but denotes the things themselves with vagueness and
uncertainty. Some of them have something of the pointing-
out, or demonstrative quality, but not enough of it to put
them among the demonstratives. It is their indefiniteness
in denoting the persons or things intended that is most
noticeable.

Most of the indefinite pronouns are used also as adjec-
tive modifiers, and in some of their uses a few of them
ate regarded by many grammarians as mere nouns. But,
inasmuch as all of them in some measure do the work of
pronouns, it is better to call them such.

One and other are the best examples of indefinite pro-
nouns. This is because their antecedents are perfectly
indefinite, and because they are inflected for number and case.

Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative: one ones other others

Possessive: one's ones' other's others'

Objective: one ones other others

One cannot help loving one^s little ones.

Others* wrongs impress us less than do our own wrongs.

One can do what one likes with one^s own.

Other pronouns belonging among the indefinites are the
following when used without an associated noun: noyie^ any^
some^ eack^ every, either^ neither, 7nany, few, several^ aught^
naught, enough, such, somewhat, sundry, certain,

Ecuh, every, either, and neither are generally classed as
distributives, or distributive linlefliiite pronouns.

82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

This is owing to the fact that, although they imply a whole
group, they- require that the units making up the group shall
be considered separately.

Each decided to make the voyage.
Everybody has erred at some time.

Siich and other are called comparatives, because they are
nsed in comparing.

This is such as will please you.
That is other than it should be.

Here, that which suck denotes is something that has been
compared with other things that may not please.

Each other and one another are called reciprocals — they
have a mutual sense.

They hate each other = The former hates the latter and the latter
the former = They hate; e(uh hates the other.

There must be only two persons or things referred to
when each other is used.

They helped one another = They helped; one helped another.
There are always more than two referred to by one another.

EXAMPL.ES FOR PRACTICE

1. Arrange in lists and classify the pronouns in the following
selections:

(a) They and I visited the park yesterday and we were much pleased
with its fine appearance.

(b) Children learn early to distinguish between mine and thine.

(c) At last, like one who for delay seeks a vain excuse, he rode away.
{d) One must not expect many to be right when all are liable

to be wrong.

(e) These are such as our fathers used long before we were born.
(/) It is said that people ought to guard their noses,

Who thrust them into matters none of theirs.
{g) Few, few shall part where many meet.
(A) Nor is a true soul ever born for naught:

Wherever any such hath lived and died,
There hath been something for true freedom wrought.

And all stood back, and none my right denied,
And forth we walked.

§17 fiNGLISri GRAMMAR t&

(j) I saw the boy, who was taking a ride on the pony that I
{[ave him. ,

(k) What in me is dark, illumine.
(/) "Shall I have naught that is fair?'' saith he;

**Have naught but the bearded grain?**
(iff) The earth yearns toward the sun for light,

The stars all tremble toward each other,
And every moon that shines tonight
Hangs trembling on an elder brother.
(«r) Whatsoever a ipan soweth, that shall he also reap.
2. Copy the following, and use the proper relative. Notice the
difference in meaning when the relative clause may be taken either as
restrictive or as coordinating. Punctuate properly by setting off with
commas clauses that begin with who or which. Prom those that are
restrictive omit the commas.

{a) The evilj . . . [men do lives after them.

(b) The best boy< , [you have is the one] . >I want.

{c) The soldier I >is his country's defender should be ready

to die for her.

(d) These documents < u- u } ^ commit to your care are very
Important.

(e) The teacher < . ♦ [ ^^ ^^^ omits punishment { . j^ ^ [is

degrading.

iwhol
>came into the country through Canada

was arrested as soon as he crossed the line< [separates the two

countries.

ig) The earth I , [is a sphere < , [is flattened at the poles

is nearly 8,000 miles in diameter.

(h) In manners] . [characterizethegentlemanhe was superior

{who 1
which [was out for an airing,
that J

{which!
> keeps such excellent time was the property

of my grandfather! . [died a year ago.

34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §17

{which!
, >his father greatly dis-
approved.

(/) Libraries <, [are destined to destruction by fire always

. ,. f which!

contain literary treasures <, >cannot be replaced.

{which!
, >were built of stone are still in a good

state of preservation.

{who!
, > accompanied the senator from Utah was his

wife< ^ }he had married a year before.
I whom]

3. By means of diagrams, analyze the following sentences:

(a) As he sowed, some fell by the wayside.

(d) What did you pay for the horse that you sold to me?

{cf) Words that are primitive have no other form that is simpler.

{e) His own father would not have known him in that guise.

(/) I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke.

{/^) They that have done this deed are honorable.

(A) I am no orator, but a plain blunt man that loves my friend.

(i) The usher sat remote from all, a melancholy man.

{/) I have done the state some service, and they know it.

{k} I knew that my secret was one that the earth refused to keep.

(/) Joy went with my children one and all, and tuned their
voices with song.

(tn) We, the people of the United States, do hereby ordain and
establish this Constitution.

(;/) Know then this truth — enough for man to know —
Virtue alone is happiness below.

{o) Judged by their manner of governing children, most men
have never themselves been children.

37. Parsliip: the Pronoun. — To parse the pronoun,
the student should state the following:

1. The class and subclass in which it. belongs. It may be
personal (simple or compound), relative (simple, double, or
compound), interrogative^ demonstrative ^ indefi^iite (distrib-
utive, comparative, reciprocal). The antecedent should be
mentioned, and reasons given for each statement.

2. The inflection if there is any — gender^ person ^ number^
case, and why.

§17

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

3. Its use and relations in full.

38. Model for Written Parsing:. — The following model

can be made very useful for written parsing.

Only to a few of us did the master reveal the secret that he had so
long concealed.

Can you tell me what you wish him to do?

Pronoun

Class
indef.

Gender

few

com.

pers.

com.

that

rel.

neu.

pers.

masc.

you

pers.

com.

pers.

com.

what

d. rel.

neu.

•

you

pers.

com.

him

pers.

masc.

Person

Number
plur.

Case

third

obj.

first

plur.

obj.

third

sing.

obj.

third

sing.

nom.

second

sing.

nom.

first

sing.

obj.

third

sing, or
plur.

obj.

second

sing.

nom.

third

sing.

obj.

Relation or Syntax

obj. of prep, to
obj. of prep, of
obj. oi had concealed

Connects secret with

he hady etc.
subj. of had concealed
sub. of can tell
obj. of to understood
_ thaty which: obj. of
~ can tell and to do
sub. of wish
obj. of wish and sub.

of to do

exampl.es for practice

Parse, in writing, all the pronouns given in the first twelve sen-
tences in example 3 of the Examples for Practice following Art. 36,

r Classes

Properties

TABLE OF PRONOUNS

1. Personal |,^'"P'^ ^
[Compound

{Simple
Double
Compound

3 . In terrogative

4. Demonstrative

{Distributive
Comparative
Reciprocal
Gender
Person
Number
Case

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(PART 5)

THE VERB

!• Importance of the Verb. — We have already learned
that in every sentence the verb is the predicating word. By
this is meant that the verb is the word that enables us:

1. To say, tell, or declare.

The earth is a sphere. The storm will rage fiercely.

2. To ask a question.

Is he a scholar? Has the boy arrived?

3. To command, entreat, or wish.

Be quiet. Excuse me.

Proceed, Pity the blind.

Walk slowly. Thy will be done.

Every word in a statement is, or should be, necessary to
the completeness of the statement; the same is true of the
words in a question or a command. But the verb is the one
word that cannot be omitted without making nonsense of
what remains — without destroying the completeness of the
sentence. It is impossible to express a complete thought
unless some word in the sentence has the office of a predi-
cating verb. From this fact, grammarians were led to call
this part of speech the verby from the Latin word verbum,
meaning **a word.'* The name implies that the verb is the
word — the all-important element in speech.

The verb is named, therefore, from considering the impor-
tance of the part it fills in the sentence. The usual definition
of the verb, however, refers to its use in the sentence rather

For notice of copyright ^ see Page immediately followinz the title Page

118

2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §15

than to its importance. Considered, then, with respect to
the office it fills, — its hinction^ — the verb tells\ it questwfis,
it commands — in one word, it predicates.

Definition. — A verb is the Predicating word or words in a
sentence.

The dog barks.

A bird was singing in the cherry tree.

The. time for our departure will soon arrive.

Can John solve the example?

The man is a scholar.

2. Wtiat Verbs Express. — In order that the student
may understand the real nature of the verb, and the reasons
for the classifications that are to follow, it is necessary to
consider more fully just what this part of speech does in the
sentence.

The most important matter with which langfuage can be
concerned is action — the various changes and movements-
and doings of things material and immaterial. In the expres-
sion of thought many words are required, but the most useful
of them all is the verb — the action word. Now, action is of
many kinds, and it is sometimes not easy to see that a
certain verb really does express action.

Physical action is recognized without difficulty, generally
by the aid of the senses. Examples of verbs denoting this
kind of action are walk^ push^ write, skate , build, sing, eat.

Mental and emotional action is almost as readily recog-
nized as that expressed by verbs denoting sensible motions.
Such are think, remember, admire, consider, judge, decide.

It is less easy to see that real action or change is indicated
by such verbs as rest, lie (to recline), sleep, decay, grow, and
many others like them; but, most difficult of 'all are a few
verbs called neuter verbs, such as seem, appear, feel, and
especially be in its various forms — am, is, was, were, have
been, will be, etc.

The neuter verbs are thought by many not to express
action at all, but to denote a state or condition of that which
is named by the subject. A little reflection, however, will

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

make it clear that they express action and at the same time
denote a state or condition of the actor.

When it is said, He seems sick, there are certain changes in
the usual appearance of the person in question, sig^ns that
speak as plainly to the eye as the tongue can to the ear. In
other words, certain parts of a man*s body, by doing some-
thing, seem or look or appear in a manner that reveals
some state or condition of the man himself. For example,
his general bearing, his movements, the color of his skin,
the luster of his eyes, and many other agencies are by a kind
of action making known that he is in a state described by
the word sick,

3. Action and State. — Every verb, then, indicates some
kind and degree of activity. But this is not all. It is true
also that every verb expresses or implies a state or con-
dition of the actor. Thus, when it is said, The boy walks,
thinks, sleeps, and grows, each of the verbs denotes a special
kind of activity as well as a certain accompanying state.
The boy not only performs the act of walking, but he is in
a state or condition such that he may be called a walking
boy. He is in a condition of walking, of thinking, of sleep,
of growth. When the boy walks, we notice the action, but
the state is scarcely ever considered; when he sleeps, we
notice the state rather than the action. If, however, we say.
The boy is good, the verb is denotes the species of action that
we call being or existence, but this action is not even thought
of; our attention is engaged only by a state or condition of
goodness in the boy.

Hence, all verbs might be arranged in a series beginning
with verbs that make action prominent and state slight or
unnoticeable, and ending with those in which state is the
conspicuous feature and the action is obscure or unnoticed.

Action

{State
Implied)

walk

shout

think

try

hate

reason

II
Action

AND

State

sleep

jsjrow

repose

sit

lie

decay

III

State

(Action

Implied)

(feel
seem
taste
smell
exist
be

4 ENGLISH GftAMMAk §18

4. Verbs Active and Verbs Neuter. — It is evident
that all verbs may be divided into two great classes — active
verbs and neuter verbs. The dividing line between these
two classes cannot be fixed with any definiteness, for it is
sometimes difficult to determine whether it is the action or
the state that is the more prominent. Besides, a verb may
he used as active in one sentence and neuter in another.
The following are some examples:

{He sleeps nofsily.
We felt our way carefully.
Keep your promise loyally.

{The babe sleeps safe in its mother's arms.
The poor woman felt sad.
Keep quiet.

When a verb is neuter, it is accompanied by an adjective
to denote the state expressed; when active, the action
denoted by the verb may be modified by an adverb. This is
illustrated in the sentences given above.

A verb that expresses both action and state in nearly equal
degrees may have with it both an adjective and an adverb;
the one denotes the condition of the actor and the other
indicates the time, the place, or the manner of the action.
With verbs of this kind, the adverbial modifier is usually a
phrase or a clause.

The following sentences, in diagram, contain verbs that
are accompanied by both adjectives and adverbs as modifiers:

1. **(We) (shall] soon [arrive] at home safel"

t -r- \ '—r—

1 . , . -l=~~t

2. "How sweet tbe (moonligbt) [sleeps I upon this bank."

-T- t -r' ♦ ' ' r ' 1

3. "The (moon I I looks I wan and pale after the (sun) [rises V

4. The (tree), broken by the storm, [lay] rotting on the grouna.

♦ — rr— I \. I

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5

In 1, soon and at home are modifiers of shall arrive; safe is
a predicate adjective denoting the condition of the subject
after the action is performed.

In 2, upon this bank is an adverbial phrase telling where
the action of sleeping takes place; sweet is a predicate adjec-
tive denoting the state or quality of the moonlight. This will
be better seen if the sentence is transposed — The moonlight
sleeps how sweet tipon this bank.

In 3, after the stm rises is an adverbial clause modifier of
looks and denotes the time when the moon looks wan and pale.

In 4, rotting is a participle having the value of a predicate
adjective; it denotes the state or condition of the tree. On the
ground is an adverbial phrase that tells where the tree was
lying. _^

EXAMPL.E8 FOR PRACTICE

By means of diagrams, analyze the following sentences:

(a) The sun rose warm and bright above the desolate" arctic scenery.

(b) Bright and fierce and fickle is the South,
And dark and true and tender is the North.

(d) The jewel on her brow burned clear, a mystic star.

(e) During the entire day the captive sat in his cage, sad and
songless.

(/■) Every pupil sat erect at his desk, patient and obedient, and
went through his exercises.

ig) Long I stood there, wondering, fearing, doubting.

(h) The skies gjew dark and glared red and angry over the peace-
ful landscape.

(i) Fresh from thefountainsof the wood, a rivulet of the valley came.

(;) He bore himself confident and fearless before his enemies.

(k) She opened the door wide for us, and waited, quiet but atten-
tive, while we told our wants.

(/) The days seemed strangely dull and lonesome; the nights
dragged dark and fearful.

5. Classes of Active Verbs. — The action expressed by
a verb may be of a kind that involves only the actor, as when

we say:

{walks,
thinks,
swims.

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

Again, the action may begin with the actor and end with
something that receives the action or is affected by it.

{killed a bird,
knew his lesson,
solved a problem.

In these examples, the action performed by the boy oper-
ates on or affects something besides the boy himself — a bird,
a /esssofi, a. problem. These words are called the direct objects,
or merely the objects, of the verbs. Verbs that have direct
objects are called transitive, because the action seems to pass
over (transire, **to go over") from the actor to something
that receives the action. Not always, however, do the
subject and the object have the verb between them, but
the name transitive implies that they do. The following
sentences have these two parts on the same side of the
verb, but this arrangement is irregular and poetical.

Arms aud the man I sing.

Rivers they forded and lofty mountains they climbed.

Here arms and man are the objects' of sing (to celebrate
in a poem); also, rivers and motmtains are the objects
of the transitive verbs forded and climbed, respectively.

All active verbs that do not have objects are called intrans-
itive, for the reason that the action does not go over, so to
speak, from an actor to a receiver.

Transitive: The girl washed the dishes and swept
the floor.

Intransitive: The clock ran for a time and then

STOPPED.

AcrrvB Verbs

Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive depends entirely
on the use that is made of it, for a verb ordinarily transitive
may be used without an object. In such cases the verb
should be regarded as intransitive.

Men build, but time destroys,
Leah washed and combed.

The intention here is to say of me7t only that they perform
the act of building, very much as we might say of birds that
they perform the act of flying. To specify what they build

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 7

is apart from the purpose. When a verb is thus used with-
out a direct object, it is intransitive. Hence, in the sen-
tences just given, the verbs bnild^ destroys^ washed^ and combed^
having no objects, are intransitive.

The subject may be omitted and yet the verb may be
transitive; for, in an imperative sentence, the subject is
regularly absent, but is clearly implied.

He worked hard and (subject implied) saved money,
(Subject) Ring the bells ^ and (subject) fire the^/«5, and (subject)
FLING your starry banners out.

Definition. — A tranKltlve verb is a verb that expresses
action represented as received by some person or thing.

The lady selected some ribbon.
The general won the battle.
Jack KILLED the giant.

Definition. — An Intransitive verb is a verb that
expresses cution not represented as received by any person or
thing.

The bird sings.

The boys were skating.

He was thinking of home.

Definition. — A reflexive verb is a transitive verb whose
subject and object denote the same person or thing.

The question answers itself.

They have injured only themselves.

All verbs not actually used as neuter, and of neuter verbs
there are few, belong in one or other of these two great
classes; that is, they are either active- transitive oractlve-
Intransltlve.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Make a list of the transitive verbs, and with each verb write its
object. Then make a list of the intransitive verbs.

(a) The earth sometimes receives the shadow of the moon.

(b) The directors met and voted a large sum of money for
improvements.

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

(d) These people deserve the sympathy and respect of all right-
minded men.

(r ) The party that won the election believed that it should enjoy
the advantages of its victory.

(/■) Playing ball occupied a large share of the boy's time.
(^) A furious storm overturned the ship and blew her sails away.
(A) Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate.
{t) The sun rose and shed his golden light on the beautiful
landscape.

{/) The seeds ye sow, another reaps;

The wealth ye find, another keeps;
The robes ye weave, another wears;
The arms ye forge, another bears.
{k) Man wants but little here below, nor wants that little long.

6. Transitive Verbs, Active and Passive. — Transi-
tive verbs occur in two forms:

1. The Active Form. — In this use of the transitive verb,
the subject denotes the actor; the name of the receiver of the
action is the direct object of the verb.

The hunter killed a deer.
David slew Goliath.

The subject, hunter^ denotes the actor; the object, deer^
denotes the receiver of the action. In the second sentence,
Davids the subject, names the actor, and Goliath, the object,
denotes the receiver of the action.

2. The Passive Form, — In the passive form of a transitive
verb, the subject denotes the receiver of the action, and the
actor, if denoted at all, is represented by the object of the
preposition by.

A deer was killed by the hunter.
Goliath was slain by David.

Deer names both the subject of the verb and the receiver
of the action. Hunter, the object of the preposition hy,
denotes the actor.

7. Omission of Actor's Name From Passive Con-
structions.— We may wish to say that something has been
done, but by whom done we may either not know or may

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9

not wish to say. Sometimes, too, it may be a matter of no
interest or importance by what agency the act was performed.

Our silver has been stolen (thieves unknown).
The burglar was arrested yesterday (not important by whom) .
The earth has been circumnavigated (by many persons).
This sediment was brought from the uplands (by various agencies
that need not be specified).

In these sentences the verbs are transitive, for only transi-
tive verbs are capable of assuming the passive form.

In the active form, however, no verb is transitive unless
the object is actually expressed or so clearly implied that its
presence in the sentence would be awkward or unnecessary.

The fsLTmer planted , cultivated , and marketed his pota-
toes during his son's absence.

Here, each verb is transitive, for in place of the blanks the
noun potatoes must be understood.

The following diagrams will show where the action begins,
and on what it operates and ends, in these two transitive
constructions:

Transitfve Forms

I )mm ^ I

Active, — "Our visitor related the stor^ with much efifect"

I ■< e«<^^ I

Passive, — *• The story was related with much effect by our vissUor,^^

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Change each of the following sentences into the passive form:
{a) The dog killed the sheep.

(b) The teacher gave the boy a beautiful book.

(d) With a good opera glass, one can see the four moons of the
planet Jupiter.

(e) Two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, form water.
(/) The boy killed a sparrow with his air gun.

(^) The incoming train might have killed the careless passenger.
(A) A strong guard of soldiers defended the town.

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

{i) Neither friend nor enemy can influence him.

(y) On a clear day, we could see a ship, like a white bird, in the
distance.

(k) Can you deceive the judge with such a story?

(/) Magellan circumnavigated the earth and discovered the Philip-
pine Islands.

8. other Prepositions Tlian By In the Passive.

The preposition dy is regularly used in the passive before
the name of the actor or agent.

The tree was killed by lightning.
We were overtaken by a storm.

Sometimes, Ihowever, with or of is used instead of by.

The cat was strangled with tnilk.

The poor fellow was overwhelmed with misfortune.

The teacher was disgusted w^ith John's conduct.

We were delighted with our success.

The boy was enamored of his cousin.

The man was po.ssessed of a devil.

These sentences may all be written in the active form
with the nouns in Italics as subjects, proving that they are
in true passive construction.

Milk strangled the cat.

Afisfortune overwhelmed the poor fellow.

John's conduct disgusted the teacher.

Our success delighted us.

The boy's cousin enamored him.

A devil possessed the man.

9. other Transitive Forms. — There are several pecul-
iar cases of the transitive construction:

1. Some intransitive verbs may be used transitively when
compounded with a preposition. Prepositions so used, with-
out an object, are really adverbs.

The people stared at the strangers.

rWe were laughed at by them.
I The strangers were stared at by the people.
Transitive* The maid was spoken to by her mistress.

The decision was arrived at after much discussion.
.The column was added up by the teacher.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11

These are true transitives, for, as we have seen, only trans-
itive verbs are capable of assuming the passive form.

2. When four elements enter the construction; viz., the
subject, the verb, the direct object, and the indirect object.
These four elements appear in both the active and the pas-
sive construction.

- . f The professor taught (to) him grammar.

iThe child's father bought (for) Mary a doll.
p f Grammar was taught (to) him by the professor.

\A doll was bought (for) Mary by her father.

In these sentences, him and Mary, whether preceded by
to or {or or not, are called indirect objects.

3. When the actor is only implied and is indefinite. In
such cases, the actor or cause may be regarded as being in
external circumstances or influences, or in mental preference
or inclination.

I am decided (by existing facts) to retreat.

He was inclined (by nature, by instinct) to evade questions.

I am resolved (by reflection — by experience) to try.

I am grieved to know that my old friend is dead.

He is determined to go into the army.

Verbs so used are such as denote some form of mental
habit or state; as, bent, disposed, resolved, grieved, hurt^
determined, etc.

Instead of regarding this as a true passive construction, it
is perhaps better to treat it as a case of the verb be followed
by a verbal with the force of a predicate adjective.

He was

angry.

disposed.

resolved.

The (general) (was] inclined to attack.'
-^-J ' t =1

Here inclined is a verbal with the exact value of a predi-
cate adjective; just as if the sentence were written thus:

{eager
glad
reluctant

to attack.

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

4. Cognate Objects. — Some verbs, usually intransitive, take
objects similar in meaning to the verb itself {^cognate, '*bom
together,** and so, similar in meaning).

The whistles blew a blast.

He dreamed a dream.

The judge drank a draft from the spring.

He saw a sight.

The passive form of this construction is generally awk-
ward, and should be avoided.

A sight was seen by him.

A draft from the spring was drunk by the judge.

10. The False Passive. — An erroneous construction,
called the false passive, is frequently employed by care-
less writers. It consists in using the indirect object of the
active construction as the subject of the passive verb. The
following examples will illustrate:

{My father sent me a letter.
The teacher gave the boy a book.
The lady oflfered the boy a dollar.

{A letter was sent (to) me by my father.
A book was given (to) the boy by the teacher.
A dollar was offered (to) the boy by th^ lady.

{I was sent a letter by my father.
The boy was given a book by the teacher.
The boy was offered a dollar by the lady.

In the last three sentences, letter, book, and dollar seem to
be the direct objects of the passive verbs that precede them.
This construction is not permissible, for only active verbs
can have direct objects. In order to put letter, book, and
dollar in the nominative case, as they should be, the sen-
tences must have the apparent subjects in the objective case
after the preposition to.

To me a letter was sent etc.

To the boy a book was given etc.

To the boy a dollar was offered etc.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 13

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Convert the following active constructions into passives:
(a) The king furnished the messenger a carriage.

Model. — Passive: A carriage was furnished (for) the messenger
by the king.

(d) Old Mother Hubbard gave the poor dog a bone.

{c) The teacher sent a book to her best student.

(d) The foreman paid the workman a month's wages.

{e) The farmer showed the bewildered traveler the right path.

(/) The charitable lady bought the destitute family a supply of
provisions.

(g) The lawyer procured the accused a new trial.

(h) The captain gave the scout promotion on account of his
faithful service.

(i) The physician obtained the patient a vacation.

(/) The rich man gave the poor widow the scraps from his table.

(k) The artist showed the lady his finest pictures.

(/) The traveler told the guests an interesting story of his travels.

(wi) The merchant sold the customer some damaged goods.

(«) My father gave me much excellent advice.

(o) The sheriflf handed the counsel an important paper.

(p) A messenger brought the gentleman a message.

(g) The magistrate gave the prisoners a severe lecture concerning
their conduct. ^

(r) The doctor ordered the patient a long rest.

2. Analyze, by diagrams, the following sentences:

{a) If you talk nonsense, you must expect few listeners.

(d) Santiago was surrendered to the American forces by the
Spaniards.

{c) Admiral Dewey's victory over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay
was followed by the cession of the Philippine Islands.

(d) Lighted by gems shall its dungeon be.

But the pride of its beauty shall kneel to me.

(e) And he who scorns the least of Nature's works
Is thenceforth exiled and shut out from all.

(/) John the Baptist was beheaded by order of Herod Antipas.

ig) The best things are found when we are looking for some-
thing else.

(h) The world's method of punishing ignorance is not by a word
and a blow and the blow first; it is the blow without the word.

(i) In America more than one hundred machines are used in
making a shoe.

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

IJ^FIiECTIONS OF THE VERB

11. Conjugation. — As we have seen, nouns and pro-
nouns are inflected or changed in form in consequence of
some change in their meaning or use. For a similar reason,
verbs also are inflected. The inflection of nouns and pro-
nouns is called declension; that of verbs, conjugation. This
word means a yoking or joiniyig together; that is, all the dif-
ferent inflections of a verb are so arranged as to be seen
together and the changes more easily recognized, compared,
and remembered.

Verbs have four inflections: (1) for mode; (2) for tense;
(3) iox number; (4) iov person.

Definition. — Conjugration is an orderly arrangement of
the various modes , tenses y numbers y and persons of a verb.

MODE

12. Function of Mode. — The* sentence, / walky takes
before the mind the form of a mere statement; that is, the
guise or t/tode of the thought is that of a statement or
declaration. The thought is merely stated or indicated.

By the help of certain other words, the thought may be
expressed as conditional or dependent on something else; it
then assumes before the mind another fashion or mode.

,, , >I make haste, I shall be late.
Unless J

Again, a thought may be conceived or recognized as
being in the mode or dress of a command or an entreaty;
as, Walk thou. Be quiet. Make Haste,

Or, the action or state mav take the form of mere mention
without special reference to any person as acting or being.
This is a case of action or being in general, and without
actual predication.

To live is to think,

*Tis better to hatfe loved and (to have) losty
Than never to have loved at all.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 15

These different attitudes that a complete thought or a
mere verbal idea assumes are modes; and, since these differ-
ences depend largely on the form of the verb and the way in
which it is used, the verb itself is said to be in this or that
mode. Really, however, it is generally the sentence that
has mode; but the word is applied in grammar only to the
verb. Mode is to a sentence very much as a uniform is to
an official of any kind. A thought appears at one time in
the dress of a statement^ and at another time in that of a
question; now as a command^ again as a condition; etc.

Definition. — Mode is the form or use of a verb by which is
shown the kind of sentential structure employed to express a
thought.

Mode comes very near to being only another classification
of sentences with respect to use. From use or function, sen-
tences are declarative^ interrogative, and imperative. From
the form they assume — their verbal dress — sentences, or,
rather, the verbs they contain, are said to be in the indica-~^
tive mode when they indicate or declare, or when they
express a question; in the imperative mode when the sentence
expresses a command; etc.

13. Number of Modes. — There is no agreement among
grammatical authorities as to the number of modes in
English, but the greater weight of present opinion is
undoubtedly in favor of four modes.

These modes are: (1) the indicative, (2) the imperative ^
(3) the subjunctive^ (4) the i?ifi?titive,

14. Tlie Indicative Mode. — The word indicative means

''pointing out,** or **showing.'* When a thought is expressed

in the form or guise that affirms or denies, or in a form that

questions, the predicating verb is in the indicative mode.

The earth is a planet.
He will not conte.
Does he understand f

The first of these sentences affirms, the second denies,
and the third expresses a question. The verbs used for
these three purposes are in the indicative mode.

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

Again, when the thought expressed in a conditional clause
is taken or meant as true, and not as a mere supposition, the
verb is in the indicative mode.

If he is wise, he is cruel. (Here it is granted that he is wise.)
If he was a great traveler, so also was I.

The truth or falsity of an ordinary statement, however,
has nothing whatever to do With the mode of its verb.
Hence, the verbs in the following sentences are all in the
indicative mode:

The sun rises at noon.

Dragon teeth were once soztm, and men in complete armor sprang
from them.

The earth is an immense cube.

Other examples of verbs in the indicative mode are in the
following sentences:

He can solve the example.

The girl may not come.

They may not /lave heard what yon were saying.

Might yow not have misunderstood his statement?

You should not have gone.

Some grammarians say that verb phrases in which may,
catty musty mighty couldy wouldy and should occur, are in the
potential mode. But since all these verb forms affirm,
deny, or question, they should be regarded as indicatives.

Definition. — The indicative mode is the form or use oi
a verb by which a thought is predicated as a statement y a ques-
tion y or a condition assumed as true,

15. The Imperative Mode. — The word imperative
means ''commanding,*' but in grammar its meaning is
extended to include every use of the verb between com-
manding and mere permission.

Make ready, take aim, fire.

Come on; let us set out.

Pity the poor.

Be still, sad heart, and cease repining.

Go in peace.

Please yourself in what you do.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 17

It is by use and not by form that the imperative mode of
a verb is shown; for the imperative form make, in the sen-
tence. Make readyy is unchanged in the indicative sentence,
They make ready. It is only the use that is different.

The subject of an imperative verb is usually omitted. This
subject denotes the person or thing commanded, and is most
frequently the pronoun thou or you understood. When the
name of the person commanded is used, it is independent
by address. Thus, in Come, John, the sentence in full is,
( You) Come, John.

Definition. — The imperative mode is the use of a verb
by which a sentence is shown to be a command, an exhortation,
an entreaty, or a m^re permission,

16. The Subjunctive Mode. — This mode is so named
because it is found only in subjoined or dependent clauses.
The student must not assume, however, that the predicating
verb in every subordinate clause is in this mode.

The subjunctive mode is used:

1. When doubt or denial or a condition of things con-
trary to the fact is implied by a subordinate clause; as.

If I were sure of his honesty, I would engage him. (The implica-
tion is that I am not sure of his honesty.)

Had he been kitted, his father would have died of grief. (This is
e()uivalent to denying that he was killed.)

If the day had been stormy, I should not be here. (The meaning
is that the day is not stormy.)

But, if the conditional clause expresses a certainty or an
admitted fact, the verb is in the indicative mode; as,

If he is a gentleman (which is granted), why did he not explain his
action?

If he calls every day, be assured that he has a motive for so doing.

If he did blunder, that is no excuse for persecuting him. (Here, is,
calls, has, and did blunder are indicative.)

2. To express a wish — a desire that something might be
that is not; as.

Would she were mine = I wish that she were mine.

Thy deeds be upon thee = I wish that thy deeds may l>e upon thee.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

3. To express a mere supposition; as,

If wishes were horses, beggars might ride.

Were the moon made of green cheese, the ihilky way could be
explained.

4. To denote a future uncertainty; as,

If it stwWy I shall be surprised.
Should he come^ I shall let you know.

5. To express an intention not yet carried out; as,
The judge directs that you be required to pay the costs.

In all these cases, the subordinate clause expresses some-
thing that has no existence in reality, is contrary to the truth,
or is only conceived. The subjunctive mode is the mode of
doubt, imagination, and uncertainty; the indicative is the
mode of actuality, of certainty, of fact.

17. Indicative and Subjunctive Modes Contrasted.

The following examples will aid the student in distinguish-
ing between the indicative and subjunctive modes:

SuBJUNcrrvE Mode

If twice four were ten, my change
would be correct.

If twice four be ten, my change is
correct.

If the sky fall^ we shall catch
sparrows.

Would that night or Blucher were
conte.

Unless ye repent^ there is no for-
giveness.

Should any soldier absent himself

he shall be punished.
IVere the sun not intensely hot,

all life would disappear from

the earth.
Though I were dead, I should

hear your voice.

Indicative Mode

If twice five is ten. my change is
not correct.

If the mail is heavy, we put on
more help.

It was as dark as if night had
come.

Unless applicants for work are
sixteen years old, we do not
hire them.

He is a coward, if he is a brag-
gart (as is admitted).

If it was a counterfeit (which is
not denied), you were arrested
justly.

Though he was dead, his influ-
ence lived.

There are many nice distinctions in the subjunctive con-
struction, and many disputed points. These distinctions,

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 19

however, occur for the most part in the writings of an earlier
time; for the subjunctive mode is but little used by modern
writers, being displaced by the indicative. It cannot be
said, therefore, that sentences like the following are gram-
matically erroneous, for we are constantly meeting such in
the works of our best modem writers.

If I was taken ill, I would call Dr. Brown.
If it raitis tomorrow, I will not go.
Though it thunders^ he cannot hear it.
If twice six is ten, you owe me nothing.

Definition. — The subjunctive tnode is the form or use
of a verb that makes a subordinate clause express something as
doubtful or merely supposed.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Arrange the verbs in the following sentences according to their
modes — indicative, subjunctive, and imperative — in separate lists:

(a) Had he been killed, I should never have forgiven myself.

(b) Though his coat were of rubber, it would not keep him dry.

(d) Unless he come for the money, I shall not pay him.

(e) Were I not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes.
(/) Had it been a spirit, it would have been invisible.
(g) Though I was in fault, he should have pardoned me.

(h) Except he find "the foot of the rainbow, he will get no
pot of gold.

(i) Lest he forget his errand, I shall give him written instructions.

(/) Provided he go rapidly, he will be there in time.

(k) Take heed, lest any man deceive you.

(/) If you g^ant that he is a scholar, I shall claim that he should
have the place.

(w) Although the lake was artificial, it looked as picturesque as if
it were natural.

(n) If he do but devote himself to his business, he will succeed.

{a) Should you meet a team on the highway, keep to the right.

(p) It is decided that you suffer the consequences of your folly.

(q) If you would that others should treat you justly, act justly
toward them.

(r) Should my ship come in, as I hope, my fortune will be made.

{s) The danger from a thunderbolt has passed before the thunder
is heard.

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

18. The Infinitive Mode. — The word inlinitive means
**not limited.*' This mode is so named because it takes no
change of form in consequence of any change in the person
or number of its subject. In the case of the other modes,
especially the indicative, such changes" of the verb occur,
and they are for that reason called finite modes; the verbs
also are finite — they are limited, modified, changed in form,
for person and number. The following illustrations will
make this difference clear:

Indicatfve Mode
First Person'. I go.

Singular
Finite ■{

Second Person-. < .. ^

i.You go.

iNFINITn'B"

Third Person-. He goes.
Plural First Person", We go.

Infinitive Mode

I First Person'. He told me to go.
Second Person-. He toldj \ ^® [to go.
TThird Person-. He told him to go.
Plural First Person-. He told us to go.

Here it will be noticed that to go undergoes no change — is
unlimited — in consequence of any changes in the person or
number of the subject; while the indicative does change,
and is therefore a limited or finite mode. It should be
added that the verbal nouns and adjectives or participles
are, like the infinitive, unlimited — not subject to change — for
person and number. The verbals are real infinitives; by
most authorities, however, the name infinitive has been con-
fined to the forms with to^ either expressed or understood.

The infinitive does not predicate, as do the other modes,

but it names an act very much as a common noun names a

thing. Usually, therefore, the infinitive is a kind of verbal

noun. This may be seen from the following examples:

Life 1 ^^^.^^

Living >is pleasant. He desired < ^

To live J ^*^^^*-

The sign of the infinitive is the preposition to, expressed
or understood.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 21

The preposition to generally precedes the infinitive; but
the preposition is not a part of the verb, although it is some-
times treated as such. The sign of the infinitive is usually
omitted after the verbs may^ cariy must, shall ^ will^ doy bid^
darCy makey see, hear, feel, and many others.

You may (to) go.

They saw him (to) finish the work.

He need not (to) come.

Definition. — The infinitive mode is the use of a verb by
which action or state is represented ^ not as predicated ^ but as
merely named.

19. Forms of the Infinitive. — Intransitive verbs have
two infinitives, and transitive verbs have two active and
two passive forms of the same mode.

- f to walk, or to be walking

lNTRANSITrVB<^ , „ , ^ i. *. n •

I to have walked » or to have been walking

Transitive

f >4 /• i*^ write, or to be writing

\to have written, or to have been writing
„ fto be written

[to have been written

20, Kinds of Predication. — The viovd predication
when used in grammar without a modifying word is applied,
in its full sense, only to finite verbs. They assert or deny
action or state; they formally state or deny that something
is or does something or other, or they express an inquiry
as to whether something or other is or does this or that.

The boy is studious. The earth revolves.

The sky is not a dome. Study your lesson.

Dobs he see us? If he is not going etc.

This kind of predication is real — actually made — and is
the work done by verbs in the indicative, imperative, and
subjunctive modes.

The action or state expressed by the infinitive is not
asserted, but is taken for granted or assumed, just as is
done in the case of the ordinary verbal noun. Thus, if we
should say, John writes, we have actually declared that some
one called John performs an act expressed by writes. But

22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

in, / told John to write, or, / enjoyed writing, the action
expressed by to write or by writing is not asserted but
assumed. The idea of action goes with these verb forms as
a part of their meaning, and not as a formal assertion.
Very much like this difference is that between the expres-
sions, John^s hat and John owns tJie hat. In the first expres-
sion, ownership by John is assumed or taken for granted
as something not denied; in the second, ownership is predi-
cated— distinctly stated. All verb forms not belonging
among the finite forms have this assumed predication. All
finite verb forms have actual predication.

EXAMPL.ES FOR PRACTICE

Make separate lists of the Infinitives; also of the verbs in the three
finite modes.

(a) I want you not to forget to come.

(b) We found her practicing her music lesson.

(f ) If you fail to report, your place will be given to some one else.

(d) Hadst thou been here, my brother would not have died.

(e) He was blamed for wasting the fortune inherited from his father.
(/) Nero is said to have fiddled while Rome was burning.

(g) He who could prepare men to die would at the same time be
teaching them how to live.

(h) I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that is
the lamp of experience.

(i) He who does not have an excellent memory should never
undertake the business of lying.

{f) The greatest of faults is perhaps to think you have no faults.

(k) The boy whistled to keep himself from being afraid.

(/) The roses seemed to be saying: **Come and do something
with us.**

21. Elements That May Be Associated Witli the
Infinitive. — Although, in the case of the infinitive, predica-
tion is only assumed, this mode of a verb may have:

1. 'A Subject, — This may be expressed, or it may be
implied more or less distinctly.

We invited him to cotne.

They persuaded us to remain,

John was told (him) to go (to go himsblp).

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR * 23

In the first sentence, him is both the object of the finite
verb invited and the subject of the infinitive to come. Os is
the object of persuaded and the subject of to remain. The
subject of an infinitive that follows a passive verb is usually
understood. In the third sentence, him or himself is the
understood subject of to go.

The subject of the infinitive is always in the objective case.

2. An Object.

We sent him to see the play.

For us to have defeated our BNEMnss served to honor our country.

The words play^ enemies, and country are all objects of
preceding infinitives.

3. A Predicate Noun, Proftoun, or Adjective.

We knew her to be a teacher.
They declared the visitor to be him.
Dare to be true.

A noun or pronoun used in the predicate with the infinitive
always denotes the same person or thing as the subject and
is in the same case. Thus, teacher and him denote the same
persons as her and visitor, re spec ti /ely.

4. An Adverbial Modifier. — This may be a word, a phrase,

or a clause.

To live temperately is to live in harmon'*' with the laws of our
being.

It is important to strike when the iron is hot.

We knew the letter to have been written while he was secretary.

In each of these sentences, the element in small capitals is
a modifier of the infinitive in Italics.

22. Functions of the Infinitive. — An infinitive may
have the office:

1. Of a Noun, — As a noun, the infinitive may be the
subject or object of a verb, a predicate noun, a noun in
apposition, a noun independent by pleonasm, or it may be
the object of a preposition.

To DIE {subject) for one*s country is sweet.
He tried to escape (object) .

All that we ask is to see him. (To see is used as a predicate noun
and denotes the same thing as all thai we ask, the subject of is,)

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

We are all under the same obligation — to help the helpless. {To
help is used as a noun in apposition to obligation.)

To die; is that merely to sleep longer than usual? ( To die is used as
a noun independent by pleonasm.)

Except TO SUBMIT, we have no choice. {To submit is used as the
object of the preposition except.)

2. Of an Adjective, — As an adjective, the infinitive may
modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun directly, or it
may do so as a predicate adjective.

They received bread to eat. (To eat modifies breads just as if the
expression were eatable bread.)

He seems to have suffered much. (To have suffered is the pred-
icate adjective after the neuter verb seems.)

They showed a willingness to work for a living. (To work mod-
ifies the noun willingness.)

3. Of an Adverb.

A man should eat to lfve, not live to eat.

They are almost ready to depart for the West. I hoped to be able
to visit my teacher.

In the first two sentences the infinitives, in small capitals,
are used as adverbs, and each modifies the italicized element
with which it is used. In the last sentence, the infinitive to
visit is an adverbial modifier of the adjective able.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Make a list of the infinitives in the following sentences; also state
how each infinitive is used:

(a) I love to watch them in the deep blue vault.

(b) The youngest was quick to understand an explanation.

(d) Let John be sent to find out why they failed to do the work.

(e) The speaker began to address the members.
( /) He ventured to break his promise to obey.
(g) We had only a few minutes to spare.

(h) Rome is said to have been founded 753 B. C.

(i) Determined to succeed, we set to work in earnest.

(j) No one ought to read a book that he is unable to understand

(k) Brutus professed to be Caesar's friend.

(/ ) To be or not to be; that is the question.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 25

(m) You need not expect a secret to remain a secret unless you
keep it from every person.

( n) It is sweet and becoming to die for one's country.

2. Study the models and in a similar way analyze the sentences
that follow them:

(a) (To have apologized) [was] to have admitted

+ I

that (we) [werel wrong.

id) The (soldiers) [were] extremely eager to make an attack.

_t 1 t I . • =r=

(f) In her attic window the staff (she) [set],

"r--r- t ^tL5t= |

...^ -I- -O—J ^^^TL

To show that one (heart) [was] loyal yet'

t I

I, ,. .=^=— IT

{d) To die; (that) [is] to fall asleep and not. wake again.

t —I— nz t ~r~

{e) Each morning sees some task begpn,

' Each evening sees it close.

SoTK.—Be^tM and close are infinitives after sees, the sifirn oi the infinitive being
omitted.

(/) Pause not to dream of the future.

(^) The story is much too sad to repeat, or even to hear.

(A) He believed his circle to be equal in area to our square.

(/) I have sat and eyed

The thunder breaking from his cloud, and smiled
To see him shake his lightnings o'er my head.

{j) I come to bury Cajsar, not to praise him.

(k) The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed,

To pleasure his dainty whim.

( /) A sunbeam would not have deigned to enter through a window
so dirty.

23, Verbals. — There are two other kinds of words
derived from verbs. They have already been briefly noticed,
but it is necessary to treat them here more fully.

26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

Like verbs, verbals imply action or state, and at the same
time they have the function of adjectives or of nouns. Such
action or state as they express is assumed, not predicated.
Sometimes their verbal character is the more prominent
feature; in other cases their noun or their adjective nature is
the stronger. Since they are forms of the verb, they are
known by the general name of verbals. They are: (1) the
gerufid or verbal noun; (2) the participle or verbal adjective,

24. The Gerund. — This verbal may be simple or

compound.

Seeing is believing.
Simple' He was accused of cheating.
We admired his skating,

{Being loved is more satisfactory than being^ hated.
He prided himself upon having been promoted.
His having escaped was due to carelessness.

The gerund, or verbal noun, may be used in the same
relations as an ordinary noun. It may therefore be:
{a) Subject of a sentence.

Living is expensive.

The boy*s having been indulged was the cause of his ruin.

Here having been indulged is the subject of was^ just as
the noun indulgence is in the sentence, Indulgerue was the
boy's ruin.

{b) Object of a verb or of a preposition.

We practiced riding a bicycle.

We must thank him for having assisted us.

Riding is the object of the transitive verb practiced; having
assisted is the object of the preposition for,
{c) Predicate noun.

Seeing is believing.

(d) In any of the independent relations; as, apposition,
explanation, pleonasm, etc.

A most responsible function, teaching, is discharged by more than
four hundred thousand persons in this country.
Lying! Do you mean to accuse me of lying?

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 27

A verbal noun may take an adverbial modifier; when
derived horn a transitive verb it may have an object.

Living economically is the usual method of saving money.
Speaking only when we were addressed was required of all of us.

The gerund living is modified by the adverb economically;
money is the object of saving; speakiftg is modified by the
clause in Italics.

Definition. — A j^erund or verbal noun is a verbal hav-
ing the functions of a noun,

25. The Participle. — The word participle is derived
from a Latin verb meaning *'to share** or **partake of.*'
The participle is so called because it partakes of the natiu*e
and function of both the verb and the adjective. The most
common form of the verbal adjective ends in ing^ but there
is no difficulty in distinguishing it from the verbal noun
ending in ing. For if, like an adjective, a verbal modifies the
meaning of a noun or a pronoun, it is a participle; if it
merely names an action or a state, it is a gerund. Like the
gerund, the participle is either sifnple or compound.

We saw him skating.

Columbus, SEEING a light, knew that land was near.

The merchant , trusted and helped by his creditors,

regained his prosperity.
The soldiery wounded and dying, was carried to the

rear.

I The boyy having recovered, returned to his play.
The clerky having defrauded his employer, was
dismissed.
Having been suspected, he proved his innocence.

Dennitlon. — A participle or verbal adjective is a

verbal having the functions of an adjective.

The verbal character of the participle is sometimes very
slightly marked. In such cases the verbal adjective may
be regarded as an ordinary adjective. The following are
illustrations:

runninz water, a dining room, a writing teacher, a skating com-
panion, a standing order

Simple

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

The same loss of verbal value occurs with the gerund.
A gerund preceded by a, an, or the becomes a mere abstract
noun; as,

The ticking of the old clock was heard above the raging of the
tempest.

When such verbals as those in the sentence above take a
modifier before them, the modifier is usually an adjective; as,

The loud barking of wolves was heard in the distance.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Study the models below, and analyze the sentences that follow:

f — 1

(«) A (bird) swiftly cleaving the air f is] a very pleasing sight

(^) Being tired, (l) [lay] down in the jolting wagon

t—ZZT" 1 1 — ♦

-f- ^ , » ^ I , { I

and (a) I fell I into a sleep disturbed by troubled dreams.

T t 1 1 ♦

\ I

and (a) [bowed J his head unto the sprinkled ashes,

t =f= I

(d) We caught sight of a donkey trying in vain to pull a loaded cart
up the bank of a roaring mountain stream.

(e) Having prepared a hasty lunch to appease their coming hunger,
the boys started before sunrise.

(/) He thinks, my dear little brother, so knowing,

That feather-bed fairies do all the snowing.

{g) The evening mist, rising and floating far and wide, prevented
us from seeing the mountains.

{h) But a bold peasantry, their country's pride,

When once destroyed, can never be supplied.

{i) There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose.

The village preacher's modest mansion rose.

{J) ********** and with him, directing his household.
Gentle Evangeline lived, his child, the pride of the village.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 29

(k) And mine has been the fate of those

To whom the goodly earth and air
Are banned and barred — forbidden fare.
(/) I sometimes deemed that it might be

My brother's soul come down to me.
(w) Having taken refuge in the swaying tops of the cocoanut trees,
the monkeys threw the fruit at the sailors wandering about the grove.
(«) This fading sunshine being gathered up and poured abundantly
upon the roofs and walls, imbued them with a kind of subdued cheer-
fulness.

(o) To spend too much time in studies, is sloth; to use them too
much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their
rules, is the humor of a scholar.

(p) His face was covered with those wrinkles that, rightly looked
at, are no more than a sort of permanent sunburning.

(g) Then, upon the velvet sinking, I betook myself to linking
Fancy unto fancy, thinking what this ominous bird of yore
Meant in croaking "Nevermore.**

TENSE

26. Fnnctlon of Tense. — We have seen that, either by
its form or by its use, or by both, the action or state
expressed by a verb may be presented to the mind as being
in a certain mode. But this is not all that the verb is
capable of showing. By its form sometimes, but often by
its use, a verb may reveal the lime of an action or a state.
Thus, in / am^ I see^ I niTiy the verbs show by their forms
that the action expressed is to be understood as taking place
in the present; but if the forms be changed into / was^ I saWy
I ran, the time of the action belongs to the past.

This peculiarity of the verb, by which it reveals the time
of an action or a state, is called U^ise, a word meaning iime.

A distinction must be made between tense and time. We
may speak of the tense of a verb and of the time of an
action, but the words cannot be interchanged.

Definition. — ^Tense ts the fortn or iise of a verb by which
it indicates the time and the degree of completeness of the
expressed action or state,

27. Divisions of Time. — There are three principal
divisions of time — the present , the past , and the future. There

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

are, therefore, three principal tenses: the present tense, the
past tense, and the future tense. These are called primary
tenses because they correspond to these primary divisions of
time. The following are illustrations:

Primary
Tenses

' Present Tense

Past Tense

Future Tense

love.

I am loving.

am loved.

I do love.

loved.

I was loving.

was loved.

I did love.

shall love.

I shall be loving.

shall be loved.

28. Verb Phrases. — It will be noticed that in the fore-
going illustrations only two tense forms appear in which the
verb lot^ey and no other, is used. These are / love and / loved.
In the other forms, time is shown by means of verb phrases.
These phrases contain some form of the principal verb asso-
ciated with forms of certain other helping or auxiliary verbs.
In the examples given, the only auxiliary verbs used are
forms of the verbs he, do, and shall. But it will be shown later
that the primary tenses are subdivided, and that from this
subdivision many other verb phrases result, in which other
auxiliary verbs tnust be employed. A complete list of these
helping verbs in their present and past forms is as follows:

Present: do, am,
Past: did, was,

have, shall, will, may, can,
had, should, would, might, could,

must

29. Auxiliaries as Principal Verbs. — Of these aux-
iliaries, do, he, and have are used also as principal verbs,
and their own verb phrases are formed by the help of auxil-
iaries, in the same manner as is done with other principal
verbs. The following examples will illustrate:

' am doing

was doing
Do I \ have done

have been doing

should be doing

must have been

should be
Be He \ might have been

will have been

may have been

► my daily work.

^ asleep at the time.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 31

•

30. Action as Denoted By Verb Phrases. — In the

three principal tenses, action in several conditions may be
denoted;

1. As Indefinite With Respect to Time, — Thus, action may
be expressed as performed at some time in the present, the
past, or the future, but at no particular time.

Present Indefinite: He works. He does work.
Past Indefinite: He worked. He did work.
Future Indefinite: He will work. He shall work.

2. As Progressive or Going On, — By verb phrases, action
or state may be represented as going on. and therefore as
incomplete or unfinished at some other time, either expressed
or implied.

Present Progressive: He is working.
Past Progressive: He was working.
Future Progressive: He will be working,

3. As Complete or Perfect, — Again, verb phrases may rep-

resent action or state as complete or finished at some definite
time. This definite time is, for the present tense, the time of
speaking; and for the past and future tenses, it is a time at or
before the time of some other act to which reference is made.

Present Perfect: He has worked. He has been working. (At some
time during the period ending with the time of speaking.)

Past Perfect: He had worked. He had been working. (During a
period ending at some past time.)

Future Perfect: He will have worked. He will have been working,
(During a period ending at some future time.)

The second example for each perfect tense given above
represents the action before completion as continuous — in
progress. These forms are called perfect progressive — they
express continuous action completed in the present, the past,
or the future.

31« Number and Names of the Tenses. — There are,
therefore, six tenses; they are n^va^^ present ^ present perfect;
Past J Past perfect; future ^ future perfect.

There are two forms called emphatic — one for the present,
the other for the past. They are formed by using do as an
auxiliary verb. Thus, / do study; I did study.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

The forms just mentioned are all active; in the passive
also there are verb phrases for the same six tenses. The
student may see all of these for the first person singular,
indicative mode, in the following synopsis:

SYNOPSIS

Form

Tense

Completeness

Common

•
Progrressivo

Emphatic

ACHVB

Present
Past 1

Future

Indefinite
Perfect
Indefinite
Perfect

Indefinite

Perfect

I love
I have loved

I loved
I had loved

I shall love

I shall have
loved

I am loving
I have been

loving

I was loving

I had been

loving
I shall be

loving
I shall have
been loving

I do love
Wanting
I did love
Wanting

Wanting

Passivb

Present
Past

Future

Indefinite
Perfect
Indefinite
Perfect

Indefinite

Perfect

I am loved
I have been

loved
I was loved
I had been

loved
I shall be

loved
I shall have
been loved

See Art.
32.

Wanting

In the conjugation of a verb, a complete view of all its forms
is shown in the three persons, both singular and plural, through
all the modes and tenses. But a view like that in the table
above, giving only one person and 'number, is a synopsis,

32. Proin*esslve Passive. — There has been much dis-
cussion whether any verbs may be correctly used in the
passive progressive. If the table contained such forms,
they would be, I am being loved, / have been being laved,
I WAS BEING LOVED, / had been being loved, I shall be being
laved, and / shall have been being laved.

818 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 33

Only two of these awkward forms are ever used; they
are the present and past indefinite, but the authority for them
is very questionable. They are shown above in small capi-
tals. We often hear such expressions as, He is being killed y
They were being measured. The house is building, or is being
built, etc. But since the same sense may be more elegantly
expressed otherwise, these forms should be avoided. There
is authority for them, but not much of the best.

EXAMPJJBS FOR PRACTICE

1. On a properly ruled blank, similar to the form for the synopsis
in Art. 31, give a synopsis of the verb see in the active and passive
forms of all the tenses of the indicative mode.

2. Write the following verbs in a column, and to the right of each
state its tense and tell whether it is in the common, the progressive,
or the emphatic form:

I saw. We shall have been forgotten.

You will be elected. Mary had been studying.

We were struck. The boy had learned.

He is working. I did resign.

They were fighting. She had been advised.

She said. We shall be left.

I have been told. It has been hidden.

He has been seen. The men had been employed.

They will be arrested. I do refuse.

She will be helped. You should have known.

83. Interrogative Tense Forms. — All tepse phrases
of the indicative mode and of the so-called potential mode
become interrogative if the subject is made to follow the
auxiliary; as, Am I laving? Shall I be lovedf Had I been
loved? etc.

The common forms for the present and the past indefinite,
/ lave and / laved, are rarely used interrogatively except in
poetry; the emphatic forms, / do love and / did love, used
interrogatively without emphasis, furnish substitutes; as.
Do I love? Did I love?

34. Potential Verb Phrases. — Many grammarians
give what they call the potential mode. Its verb phrases

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

are formed by using nttisi^ with may and catiy and their past
forms, might and could; also, would and should, the past
forms of will and shall. This so-called mode is said to have
four tenses, as shown in the accompanying table.

Form

O
<

Common

Progressive

w f Common

OU I Progressive

Form

Common

Progressive

di f Common

f^ [progressive

Present

fmay 1
< can >
[must J

)

love

fmay
can } be loving
must.

{may |
can > be loved
must J

Wanting

Present Perfect

fmay 1
I<can > have loved
[must J

{may I
can [have been loving
must]

{may
can
must

have been loved

Wanting

Past

Past Perfect

I might 1
'°"'f^ love
would I
should J

I might "j
could [ . , .
. , f be loving
would I **

should J

I might 1
wo"ufd ^" ^^^^^
should J

Wanting

I might 1
. , >have loved
should]
I might 1
., >have been loving
shouldj

(might
could
would
should

Wanting

have been loved

All these verb phrases are, however, nothing more than
varieties of the indicative mode — mere statements or ques-
tions. Thus, / may love = / may (to) lovey in which may
is used as a principal verb, followed by an infinitive (to) love.
In all these compound verb phrases, such as / shall go,
I must be loved, I do walk, the first verb is the principal one, and

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 35

the others, taken together, with to understood, make np an
infinitive used as a verbal noun in the objective case. The
principal verb should be regarded as in the indicative mode,
unless it is used in the conditional way that has been
described as the subjunctive mode.

The potential mode has been abandoned by most gramma-
rians, but the student should be able to recognize and explain
its verb phrases. The name potential comes from the Latin
word potentia, meaning **power.** Can, and its past form,
couldy are the only potential auxiliaries that have this mean-
ing of power or ability; of the others, may denotes permis-
sion or future probability; must means necessity, etc. But,
as has already been stated, mode is determined more by
structure of the sentence than by the form of the verb.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Rewrite the following sentences, making them interrogative, and
indicate the mode of each verb:

(a) The foolish boy had been misled by his companions.

(b) When the teacher reproved him for idleness he began at once
to study.

(d) Perhaps you will do better after you have rested.

(e) The most formidable obstacles can usually be overcome by
patient persistence.

(/) Nobody can tell me where the man has gone or what he is doing.

(g) You certainly cannot expect to succeed in such an absurd
enterprise.

(h) He could not have finished the work in time, however hard he
had tried.

(f ) It is to be hoped that somebody will soon be successful in
reaching the north pole.

(j) To travel a distance equal to the circumference of the sun
would require about twenty-two years, if the traveler should go at the
rate of three hundred and fifty miles per day.

35. Relation of Tenses Wltli Respect to Time.

The following diagram will show the relations of the six
tenses of the indicative mode.
The shaded part of the diagram is intended to show that

36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

the word present in ordinary speech does not mean now — this
instant. Strictly, now — the present — is the point where the
past and future meet; it has no extent, and is always moving.
But, in ordinary speech, the present is a variable portion of
time extending into both the past and the future. So that
we use the word present somewhat vaguely. It is relative
to human action and experience. When we say, He is walk-
ingy the fact is that the performance of the act consumes
time on both sides of the point called 7iow, I work does not
mean that action of the kind called work is done just at the
passing instant; but the notion conveyed is, that as time
passes, from day to day and from year to year, my habitual
activity is denoted by the verb work. A verb so used is

in the present tense. This extension of the present into
the past and future finds its extreme in what is called the
ufiiversat present — a tense form that is used to denote those
activities or states that are always going on, always true.

Six added to three makes nine. We learned that the earth revolves.
Bread is the staflF of life. The teacher told us that the moon

The sun shines, ' is a sphere.

36. The Tenses Defined. — The time denoted by the
present tense covers a period of variable extent, and lies
partly in the past and partly in the future.

Time flies. Gold is a valuable metal.

The laws ntust be obeyed. Can you solve the problem?

The time included by the past tense covers all past time
and reaches to the moving point called now.

The river flowed. His story was not finished.

The ocean was roaring. Did any one see a stray canary bird?

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 37

The time denoted by the future tense begins at the
point now and includes all future time.

The sun will grow cold.

The day will come.

Shall we have the pleasure of a call from you soon?

The present perfect tense denotes action or state as
complete at some point in the present.

He has worked.

We have been writing.

I have been advised.

The action expressed by this tense must not be thought
of as always ending, or being finished, just at the present
moment. For example, we may say of a man. He has
worked^ as if the action were ended; yet he may continue
to work indefinitely after the time of speaking.

The past perfect tense denotes action or state as com-
plete at or before some specified past time.

He had been writing (before I called).

When I arrived, he had gone.

He had been hiding for a week before he was found.

The future perfect tense denotes action or state as
complete at or before some specified future time.

The vessel will have sailed by the time you reach the dock.
If snow shall have fallen by morning, we cannot go.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Arrange the verbs in lists according to their tenses.

(a) I may go. He might come. Gold is heavy. The boys have
been studying.

{b) Shall I answer? Did he come? Have they gone? When he
has rested, invite him to come into the office. Will not the sun be
eclipsed? Did you expect me to go?

(r) He was thought to have escaped. If I were he, I should
undertake the work. Shall you have gone by sunrise? Who had
been suspected before they found the person that was really guilty?

(d) Why should anyone be so proud? Have you done all that you
should have done? Did you do the work that you promised to do? I
should be glad to oblige you if 1 were able. Can you tell me what he
does for a living?

38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

{e) Would you let me visit the city? Ought he not to pay me?
Have you had your dinner? Can you tell me where he has gone?
Nobody can tell what will have happened by that time.

(/) What has been done about the matter? No one has been
informed. How red the sky is. There had been rain and the roads
were muddy, but we set out notwithstanding. Did you see him before
he had been arrested?

(^) Take care that you reach the station before the train has gone.

(h) It is said to be better to have loved and lost than never to
have loved at all.

(f) One secret in education is to know how to use time wisely.

(J) Care should be taken, not that the reader of what you write
may understand if he will, but that he shall understand whether he
will or not.

(k) Sit down to write what you have thought and not to think
what you shall write.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(PART 6)

THE VERB— (Continued)

INFIiECTION OF THE VERB— (Continued)

1. Tlie Different Modes With Re|?ard to Time. — The

meaning: of the six tenses just explained applies strictly to
the ordinary tense forms of the indicative mode only. In
the other modes, the notion of time is often unimportant, or
it is obscured by some other consideration. In a statement
or a question, time is generally a matter of importance; in
other words, the tenses of the indicative mode carefully dis-
tinguish differences of time. Thus, in the following sen-
tences, the time of the action or state is denoted very
plainly and exactly — as much so as the action itself.

He sees the deer. , They will have gone.

We caught a fox. Is he living?

They will come. Did you see him ?

They have been paid, . Will they cofnef

The road had been made. Has the train started f

In these examples, the time of the action is revealed by
the tense form, but in the other modes the tense form gen-
erally misleads in regard to time. Thus, in the sentence,
// he were sick^ I should visit him^ the verbs were and should
visit are past tenses in form, and should denote past
time; but were may denote future time, and should visit indi-
cates a time depending on the time expressed by were^
In this sentence, it is the condition — the supposition — that is

For noiiu of copyright, see Page immediately (ollowing the title page

il8

40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

prominent, and the tense form shows nothing^ of the time,
which is really not important.

Again, in the imperative and the infinitive tense forms, the
real time of the expressed action must be gathered from
the entire sentence. This may be seerr from the following
examples:

Be good, my child, and let who will be clever. (In the fnture —

habitually.)

To die for one's country is glorious. (Always true.)

«, , .[was not a sufficient triumph for Alexander.

71? have conquered I , . ^ .

Kts our proud boast as a nation.

\will be the achievement of the Anglo-Saxon.

The verbs in the first sentence are in the present tense,
although they all refer to the future. In the last sentence,
the present perfect infinitive to have conquered n^ay denote
action completed at any time — present, past, or future.

In the case of the verbals^ the element of time is almost
always obscure and overshadowed. The time of the denoted
action may, however, nearly always be gathered from the
context.

{having finished his lesson, went skating one day.
looking toT a situation, asks to see you, sir.
having been educated, will find life easier.

But, whatever time a tense form may really denote, the
grammatical tense is named from that form. Thus, the
verb is present in // / come; past in // / came; and present
perfect in // / have come and in To have come,

2. Effect of Certain Tense Elements. — In tense
phrases, every element has a special influence in determin-
ing the effect of the whole phrase. Some of the most
important of these are as follows:

Have in its various forms, either alone or followed by
been, gives the notion of completed action.

Many soldiers have been killed.

The appointed day having come, we set out.

The train had gone when we reached the station.

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 41

The participle in ing denotes unfinished or progressive
action.

I am walking,

1 have been walking.

In transitive verb phrases the passive participle denotes
passive action — action received by the person or thing
denoted by the subject.

I have been hurt.

The deer had been pursued.

The passive participles hurt and pursued denote action
that affects, or is received by, that which is represented by
the subjects, / and deer.

Do gives emphasis to declarative verb phrases.

He does work.
They did call.
We do repent.

3. Person and Number of Verbs. — Some verbs
have, in the present and past tenses, certain inflections
or changes of form in consequence of changes in the person
and number of the subject. This is shown below:

Present Tense

Past Tense

First Person:

see

saw

was

Sing.

Second Person:

Thou

seest

art

Thou

s&west

was/

. Third Person:

sees

saw

was

(First Person:

see

are

saw

were

Plur.

{ Second Person:

You

see

are

You

saw

were

Third Person: They see are They saw were

These inflections for person and number are very few and
unimportant for English verbs, yet they have led gramma-
rians to say that a finite verb must agree with its subject in
number and person. By this they mean that such changes
must be made in the form of verbs as are required by
changes in the person and number of the subject.

4. The Inflectional Base. — The simple inflectional base
or root of a verb is the form it has in the present infinitive

42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §18

or in the first person singular of the present indicative.
These, for a few verbs, are as follows:

Inflbctional Basb<

Ind. Pres. 1st Pers, Sing: I go, come, report,

write, rule
Present Infinitive: to go, come, report, write,

rule

From these root forms the various modes and tenses are
derived; the most important of all the derived forms are the
past indicative and the perfect participle. For the verbs
given above, these two forms are as follows:

Past Indicative: * went, came, was, reported, wrote, ruled
Perfect Participle: gone, come, been, reported, written, ruled

The perfect participle may be recognized by the fact that
it is the last element in present perfect, past perfect, and

future perfect verb phrases.

\\ac& gone^ had seen^ will have come^ may have sailed

It will be noticed that the root or inflectional base is
retained in the past tense and perfect participle of only two
of the foregoing verbs. These two are report and rule^
and their derived forms are made by adding ed to report
and d alone to rule. All the remaining verbs form their
past tense and perfect participle in some other way. Verbs
are divided into two classes, according as they do or do
not make these two forms, viz., the past tense and the per-
fect participle, by adding d or ed to the inflectional base.
These two classes into which verbs are divided are regular
verbs and irregular verbs.

5. Principal Parts of tlie Verb. — In the inflection of
the English verb, only four different forms are used to
express all the various modes and tenses, active and
passive. These four forms are called the principal parts.
By using with the principal parts the various auxiliaries, do^
bey have^ shall ^ will^ etc., the different tenses are formed.
The principal parts are the following:

1. The root form, seen in the present indicative; as, love^
see^ write y work^ swim.

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2. The past tense form; as, laved^ saw, wrote, worked,
swam or swum.

3. Th^ present participle; as, loving, seeing, writing, work-
ing, swimming.

4. The perfect participle; as, loved, seen, written, worked,
swum.

6. Regrular and Irregular Verbs. — A verb is said
to be regular or weak if it forms its past tense and its
perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the root
form. The following are some examples of regular verbs:

Root

Past Tbnsb

Perfect Participle

turn

ivLvned

turn^^

snap

snapp^i/

snapp^^/

Principal

live

\\\ed

Xiwed

Parts

steady

stead i^^

steadi^^/

parley

parley^<f

parleyr</

smile

smilet/

smWed

In changing the root form into the other forms, the rules
of spelling must be observed, as is illustrated in snap and
steady.

An irregular or strong verb is a verb that does not
form its past tense and its perfect participle by adding d or
ed to its root or present tense form. The following are
some examples:

Root

Past Tense

Pres. Part.

Perf. Par.

went

going

gone

sing

sang or sung

singing

sung

Principal

come

came

coming

come

Parts

grow

grew

growing

grown

freeze

froze

freezing

frozen

ring

rang or rung

ringing

rung

The irregular verbs are about two hundred in number.
The regular verbs are many thousands in niunber. All new
verbs added to the language are regular.

7. Formation of Verb Phrases. — The three forms
given above, viz., the root form, the past indicative, and the
perfect participle, together with the present participle, are

44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

called the principal parts. They are so called because of
their importance in forming verb phrases. They are used
in accordance with the following rules:

1. The root infinitive preceded by the auxiliary do forms
the emphatic present and past indicative.

I do work.
He does study.
We did go.

2. The root infinitive^ preceded by {a^ may, can, or must,
forms the present indicative; (b) might, could, would, or
should, forms the past indicative; {c) shall or will, forms the
future indicative.

It should be remarked that (a) of the foregoing is the
former potential present and (b) is the potential past. But,
as has already been explained, these supposed auxiliaries are
really not auxiliaries but principal verbs followed by an
infinitive object with to omitted.

I may go = I may (to) go.

I shaU come = I shall (to) come.

3. The present participle as an element of a verb phrase
makes the expressed action progressive or continuous.

I am working.

We have been thinking.

They should have been acting.

4. The perfect participle of the principal verb, when pre-
ceded by have in any of its forms, denotes completed action.

I have written.

He has gone.

They had loved.

We should have spoken.

5. The perfect participle of the principal verb, when pre-
ceded by the auxiliary be in any of its forms, denotes passive
action.

He is loved.

We were chosen.

They should have been arrested.

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

8. Redundant Verbs. — Some verbs form their past
tense, or their perfect participle, or both, ii^ two ways.
Such verbs are both regular and irregular; and, since their
principal parts consist of more than the usual number of
words, the verbs are called redundant. A few of them are
given below:

Root

Past Indicatfvb

Prbs. Part.

Perf. Part.

bereave

bereft or l)ereaved

l>ereaviDg

bereft or bereaved

dare

durst or dared

daring

dared

mow

mowed

mowing

mowed or mown

swell

swelled

swelling

swelled or swollen

weave

wove or weaved

weaving

weaved or woven

The most important redundant verbs are' usually given in
the list of irregular verbs.

9. Defective Verbs. — A few verbs called defective
are used only as presents and as past indefinites, and they
have their formation irregular. They are:

Present

Past

Present

Past

can

could

quoth

may

might

shall

should

methinks

methought

will

would

mast

must (?)

wis

wist

onght

ought (?)

wit

wot

Whether must and might can properly be used as past
indefinites is disputed. Wis, wist, and wot are old forms
and are nearly obsolete. Beware also is defective — it is used
only in the present tense.

10. Old or Strongr* and New or Weak, Verbs. — The

changes that go on among the people that speak a partic-
ular language compel them to be constantly inventing new
words to express their thoughts. A large proportion of
these new words are verbs, most of which are promptly
rejected; but many of them are accepted by good author-
ities, and come into general use. As has been said, English
verbs of this kind all follow, in their conjugation, the model
of regular verbs; so that regular verbs are said to have the
new: conjugation. This is by many called the weak con-
jugation, perhaps because these verbs are not so forcible as

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

the old verbs that we use so much and have used so long —
the irregular verbs, which have the old or strong conjugation.

Definition. — The conjug^atlon o{ a verb is a regular
arrangement^ oral or written^ o£ all its modes ^ tenses^ persons^
numberSy and participles.

!!• lilst of Irregular Verbs. — If we desire to avoid
error in using the English language to express our thoughts,
there is perhaps no one thing so important as to be perfectly
familiar with the principal parts of the irregular verbs. There-
fore, the following list is given, and the student should not
be content until he has mastered it. The present participle
is omitted, since it is always formed from the root verb by
adding ing. Of course the rules of spelling must be observed
in forming all the principal parts. Many verbs in the follow-
ing lists are both irregular and redundant. When two or
more forms of a principal part are given, the preferable form
occurs first.

Perf. Part.

abode
arisen

awaked

been

{born
borne
{beaten
beat
begun
beheld

{bent
bended
{bereft
bereaved
besought
fbet
I betted

{bidden
bid

bound

Present Tense Past Tensr

abide

abode

arise

arose

, f awoke
awake \ . .

I awaked

be or Sim

was

fbore
bear {.

I bare

beat

begin

began

behold

beheld

be d P®°*

1 bended

, f bereaved
^'**^* {bereft

beseech

besought

, . fbet
^^ I betted

bade

bid

bad

bid

bind

bound

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PRBSBNT TbNSB

Past Tensb

Perf. Part.

bite

bit

[bit
bitten

bleed

bled

•

blend

blended

blended
blent

bless

r blessed
I blest

f blessed
t blest

blow

blew

blown

break

f broke
1 brake

r broken
1 broke

breed

bred

bring

brought

build

f built
\ builded

f built

builded

bum

r burned
1 burnt

burned

burnt

burst

burst*

burst

buy

bought

cast

catch

caught

chide

fchid
Ichode

r chidden
I chid

choose

chose

chosen

cleave (to adhere)

cleaved

f cleaved
1 clave

cleft

cleave (to split)

clove

cloven

clave

. cleaved

climb

climbed
clorab

f climbed
\ clorab

cling

clung

clothe

r clothed
I clad

f clothed
Iclad

come

came

come

cost

creep

crept

crow

r crowed
Icrew

crowed

cut

dare

f durst
\ dared

dared

deal

dealt

dig

fdug
I digged

fdug
[digged

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

Present Tbnsb Past Tbnsb

did

draw

drew

[dreamed
[ dreamt

dream

dress

[dressed
[drest

drink

drank

drive

drove

dwell

[dwelt
[dwelled

eat

ate
fiat (fit)

fall

fell

feed

fed

feel

felt

fight .

fought

find

found

flee

fled

fling

flung

fly

flew

forbear

forbore

forget

forgot

forsake

forsook

freeze

froze

get

got

gild

gilded
gilt

gird

girded
girt

give

gave

went

gn*ave

graved

grind

ground

grow

grew

hung

hang

hanged (put

to death)

have

had

hew

hewed

kide

nid

Pbhp. Part.

done
drawn

{dreamed
dreamt
{dressed
drest
drunk
driven
f dwelt
\ dwelled

{eaten
fiat

fallen

fed

felt

fought

found

fled

flung

flown

forborne

forgotten

forsaken

frozen
fgot
\ gotten

{gilded
gilt
{girded
girt
given
gone

{graved
graven
ground
grown
hung
hanged (put

to death)
had

{hewn
hewed
fhid
(hidden

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Prbsbnt Tbnsb

Past Tense Pbrf. Part.

bit

hit

bold

u ^A [held

Iholden

hurt

keep

kept

kneel

f knelt f knelt
I kneeled \ kneeled

knit

fknit fknit
I knitted I knitted

know

knew

known

lade

1 J J r laded
laded {. .

I laden

lay

laid

lead

led

leap

Heaped Heaped
\ leapt 1 leapt

learn

Heamed f learned
1 learnt \ learnt

leave

left

lend

lent

let

lie (to recline)

lay

lain

light

flighted flighted
llit I lit

lose

lost

make

made

mean

meant

meet

met

mow

mowed

mown

mowed

pass

f passed
Ipast

passed
past

pay

paid

pen

f penned f penned
Ipent I pent

proved

prove

proved

proven (legal
term)

pat

put

quit

fquit
I quitted

[quit
quitted

rap

frapt
I rapped

irapt
rapped

read

rfiad

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

Present Tbnsb

Past Tbnsb

Perf. Part

rend

rent

rid

ride

rode

ridden

ring

frang
I rung

rung

rise

rose

risen

rive

rived

f riven
\ rived

run

ran

run

saw

sawed

r sawed
Isawn

say

said

see

saw

seen

seek

sought

sell

sold

send

sent

set

shake

shook

shaken

shave

shaved

r shaven
1 shaved

shear

f sheared
1 shore

sheared
shorn

shed

shine

shone

shoe

shod

shoot

shot

show

showed

f shown
[showed

shred

f shred
1 shredded

f shred
\ shredded

shrink

f shrank
[shrunk

r shrunk
1 shrunken

shut

sing

fsang
I sung

sung

sink

fsank
\sunk

fsunk
\ sunken

sit

sat

slay

slew

slain

sleep

slept

slide

slid

fslid
\slidden

sHng

slung

slink

{slunk
slank

slunk

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Present Tbnse
slit

smell

smite
sow

speak

speed

spell

spend

spill

spin

spit

split

spoil

spread

spring

stand

stave

stay

steal

stick

sting

strew

stride

strike

string
strive

strow
swear

{

Past Tense

fslit
\slitted

{smelled
smelt
{smote
smit

sowed

(spoke
spake
{sped
speeded
spelled
spelt
spent

{spilled
spilt
spun
fspit
Ispat
split
splitted

{spoiled
spoilt
spread
r sprang
\ sprung
stood

{staved
stove
{stayed
staid
stole
stuck
stung
strewed
strode

struck

strung
strove

strowed

{swore
sware

{

Perf. Part.

fslit
Islitted

{smelled
smelt
{smitten
smit
{sown
sowed

{

spoken

sped
speeded

{spelled
spelt
spent

{spilled
spilt
spun
fspit
Ispat
split
splitted

{spoiled
spoilt
spread

sprung

stood

{staved
stove
{stayed
staid
stolen
stuck
stung
strewn
stridden

{struck
stricken
strung
striven

{strowed
strown

sworn

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

Presbnt Tbnsb

sweat
sweep
swell

swim

swing

take

teach

tear

tell

think

thrive

throw
thrust

tread

wake

wear
weave

wed

weep

wet

win

wind

work

wring
write

Past Tense

{sweat
sweated
swept

swelled

{swam
swum
swung
took
taught
tore
told
thought

{throve
thrived
threw
thrust

trod

{waked
woke
wore
wove

{wedded
wed
wept

{wetted
wet
won

{wound
winded
{worked
wrought
wrung
wrote

Perf. Part.

{sweat
sweated
swept

{swollen
swelled

swum

swung

taken

taught

torn

told

thought

{thriven
thrived
thrown
thrust
rtrod
\ trodden

{waked
woke
worn
woven

{wedded
wed
wept

{wetted
wet
won

{wound
winded
{worked
wrought
wrung
written

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Without referring to the table, write the principal parts of the
following verbs; afterwards ascertain and check your errors: come,
go, sing, write, see, begin, burst, eat, lie (to recline), lay (to place),
ride, sit, set, stay, steal.

2. Write five verb phrases each consisting of three words, and in
each phrase use as the principal verb one of the verbs given in 1 above.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 53

Model. — might have come^ shall have gone

3. Write five verb phrases each containing four words, and use
as the principal verb in each phrase a verb selected from the list
given in example 1.

Model. — might have been singing, will have been written

4. Write sentences in which some mode and tense form of the fol-
lowing verbs shall be used transitively: win, wear, bite, do, choose,
climb, drive, eat, find, freeze.

5. Write five verb phrases that are active and ten that are passive,
selecting suitable verbs from the list of irregular verbs.

6. Write all the active tense forms of the infinitive of the following
verbs: give, fly, think, forget, go. .

7. Write the passive infinitives of the following verbs: clothe,
know, hide, hew, hang.

8. Write five sentences each containing a verb in the subjunctive
mode.

9. Write sentences in which shall occur all the passive tenses of the
indicative mode.

12, Oonjii^ration of Verbs. — As has already been
stated, the conjugation of a verb is an orderly arrang;ement
of all its forms in the various modes, tenses, numbers, and
persons. In order to conjugate a verb correctly, its principal
parts must be known; and then, by applying the rules given
in Art. 7, the student will find the task an easy one.

For the purpose of guiding the student in the correct use
of verb phrases, all that js usually required is the briefer form
of conjugation, called a synopsis. This word is derived from
the Greek, and means a **connected view." A synopsis
generally consists of the first person singular in each tense
of the indicative and subjunctive modes, and all the forms
of the imperative, the infinitive, and the verbals. On
account of the great importance of the auxiliaries be and
have, the conjugation of the first and the synopsis of the
second are given below.

13. Conju juration of the Auxiliary Verb Be. — Both
with synopsis and conjugations the principal parts should
always be given.

Principal r/V«. Inf. Past Ind. Pres. Part, Perf. Part.
Parts I (To) be Was Being Been

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

INDICATIVE MODE

Singular

1. I am, or
I may be

2. Thou art, or
Thou mayst be

3. He is, or
He may be

Singular

1. I was, or
I might be

2. Thou wast, or
Thou mightst be

3. He was, or
He might be

Singular

1. I shall be

2. Thou wilt be

3. He wiU be

1. I will be

2. Thou Shalt be

3. He shall be

Present Tense

Plural

1. We are, or
We may be

2. You are, or
You may be

3. They are, or
They may he

Past Tense

Plural

1. We were, or
We might be

2. You werCf or
You might be

3. They were, or
They might be

Future Tense

Plural

1. We shall be

2. You will be

3. They will be

1. We will be

2. You shall be

3. They shall be

Present Perfect Tense

Singular

1. I have been, or

I may have been

2. Thou hast been, or
Thou mayst have been

3. He has been, or
He may have been

Plural

1. We have been, or
We may have been

2. You have been, or
You may have been

3. They have been, or
They may have been

Past Perfect Tense

Singular

1. I had been, or

I might have been

2. Thou hadst been, or
Thou mightst have been

3. He had been, or
He might have been

Plural

1. We had been, or
We might have been

2. You had been, or
You might have been

3. They had been, or
They might have been

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 66

Future Perfect Tense

Sin^lar Plural

1. I shall have been 1. We shall have been

2. Thou wilt have been 2. You will have been

3. He will have been 3. They will have been

1. I will have been 1. We will have been

2. Thou shalt have been 2. You shall have been

3. He shall have been 3. They shall have been

SUBJUNCTIVB MODB

Present Tense Past Tense

Singular Plural Singular Plural

1. (If) I be 1. (If) we be 1. (If) I were 1. (If) we were

2. (If) thou he 2. (If) you he 2. (If) thou were, 2. (If) you were

3. (If) he be 3. (If) they be or vvert 3. (If) they were

3. (If) he were

IMPERATIVE MODE

Present Tense
Singular Plural

2. Be (thou) , or Do thou be 2. Be (you or ye) , or Do you be

VERBALS

- \Presenl Present Perfect

\ To be To have been

_ {Present Perfect Pres, Perf,

Participles < ^ . „ « • w

I Being Been Having been

14. Remarks on the Fore^oin^ Conjug^atlon. — In

the third person singular of this verb he is used as the sub-
ject, though any singular noun or pronoun in the nominative
case and third person would have done as well; as, she is,
it is, anybody is, Mary is, etc.

There are some forms besides the subjunctives given
above that must be regarded as in the subjunctive mode.
Some of them are: Were I, Should he be. Had I been. Could
I be, etc. Indeed all the forms of the indicative mode are
used in subordinate clauses, and when so used they are in
the subjunctive mode if they express doubt, uncertainty, or
something contrary to the fact. Thus, the italicized verbs
in the following sentences are subjunctive:

56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR ' § 18

If I should not be there, wait for me.

Should he be innocent, the fact will be discovered.

If I was (or were) a bird, I should fly away.

If he be (or is) there, tell him I wish to see him.-

Had I foreseen what was to happen, I would have taken precautions.

The verbal being is sometimes used as a gerund or
verbal noun.

He called the earth into being.

We had our being in peace and comfort.

15. Synopsis of the Verb Have. — The verb have is
used both as principal and auxiliary. No other verb in the
language, except be, is of greater importance.

Principal f/Vr5. Inf. Past Ind. Pres. Part. Pert. Part.
Parts I (To) have Had Having Had

Indicative Mode

Present: I have, am having, do have; or I may, can, or must
have, or be having

Past: I had, was having, did have; or I might, could, would, or
should have, or be having

Future: I shall have, will have; or I shall or will he having

Present Perfect: I have had, or I have been having

Past Perfect: I had had , or I had been having

Future Perfect: I shall or will have had, or I shall or will have

been having

Subjunctive Mode

Present: (If, unless, etc.) I have, do have, or be having

(If, unless, etc.) I had, were having, should have, or

should be having
Had I, were I having, should I have, or should I be

having

Past

Present

Imperative Mode Infinitive Mode

Have thou, you, or ye Present: (To) have

Do thou, you, or ye have /V«. Perf.: (To) have had

Be thou, you, or ye having

Participles
Present: Having; Present Perfect: Having had; Perfect: Had

16. Con] 11 miration of a Regrular Transitive Verb.

The regular transitive verb love is conjugated in both the
active and the passive as follows:

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Principal f Pres, Inf, Past Ind,
Parts 1 (To) love Loved

Pres, Pari.
Loving

Perf. Part.
Loved

INDICATIVE MODS

Active

Singular

1. I love

2. Thou lovest
8. He loves

Plural

1. We love

2. Yon love

3. They love

Singular

1, I loved

2. Thou lovedst
8. He loved

Mural

1. We loved

2. You loved
8. They loved

Passivb
Present Tense

Singular

1. I am loved

2. Thou art loved

3. He is loved

Plural

1. We are loved

2. You are loved

3. They are loved

Past Tense

Singular

1. I was loved

2. Thou wast loved

3. He was loved

Plural

1. We were loved

2. You were loved

3. They were loved

Future Tense
Singular Singular

1. I shall love 1. I shall be loved

2. Thou wilt love 2. Thou wilt l)e loved
8. He will love 3. He will be loved

Plural

1. We shall love

2. You will love
8. They will love

Present
Singular

1. I have loved

2. Thou hast loved

3. He has loved

Plural

1. We have loved

2. You have loved
8. They have loved

Plural

1. We shall he loved

2. You will be loved

3. They will be loved

Perfec^ Tense

Singulat

1. I have been loved

2. Thou hast been loved

3. He has been loved

Plural

1. We have been loved

2. You have been loved

3. They have been loved

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

ACTIVK Passivb

Past Perfect Tense
Singular Singular

1. I had loved 1. I had been loved

2. Thou hadst loved 2. Thou hadst been loved

3. He had loved 3. He had been loved

plural

1. We had loved

2. You had loved
8. Thev had loved

Plural

1. We had been loved

2. You had been loved

3. They had been loved

Future Perfect Tense

Singular Singular

1. I shall have loved 1. I shall have been loved

2. Thou wilt have loved 2. Thou wilt have been loved

3. He will have loved 3. He will have been loved

Plural

1. We shall have loved

2. You will have loved

3. They will have loved

Plural

1. We shall have been loved

2. You will have been loved

3. They will have been loved

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

AcTivB Passive

Present Tense

Singular

1. (If) I be loved

2. (If) thou be loved

3. (If) he be loved

Plural

1. (If) we be loved

2. (If) you be loved

3. (If) they be loved

Singular

1. (If) I love

2. (If) thou love

3. (If) he love

Plural

1. (If) we love

2. (If) you love

3. (If) they love

Singular

1. (If) I loved

2. (If) thou loved
8. (If) he loved

Plural

1. (If) we loved

2. (If) you loved

3. (If) they loved

Past Trnse

Singular

1. (If) I were loved

2. (If) thou were loved

3. (If) he were loved

Plural

1. (If) we were loved

2. (If) you were loved

3. (If) they were loved

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 69

IMPERATIVE MODE

Active

Present Tbnsb'

Comtfion Form: Love (thou or you)
Progressive: Be (thou or you) loving
Emphatic: Do (thou £?r you) love

-, . r Comtnon Fortn: Be (thou or you) loved
yEmphatic: Do (thou or you) be loved

INFINITIVES

r/v«.«/'<"^*»)'**^*

AcnvB

'('

(To) be loving

Present Perfect < ^^ x ,

I (To) have

been loving

Passive l^^^^^' ^'^^^ ^® ^^^®^

\Present Perfect: (To) have been loved

PARTICIPUES

{Present: Loving

\ Having been loving

Passive

Present: Being loved
Perfect: Loved
. Present Perfect: Having been loved

17. Conjunction of an Irrejfular Transitive Verb.

The full conjugation, active and passive, of the irregulai
transitive verb see follows below.

Principal f/Vr5. Inf. Past Ind, Present Part, Perfect Part,
Parts I (To) see Siaw Seeing Seen

INDICATIVE MODE

Active Passive

Present Tense
Singular Singular

1. I see 1. I am seen

2. Thoa seest 2. Thou art seen
8. He sees 8. He is seen

Plural Plural

1. We see 1. We are seen

2. You see 2. You are seen

3. They see 8. They are seen

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

AcnvB

Singular

1. I saw

2. Thou sawest
8. He saw

Plural

1. We saw

2. You saw
8. They saw

Passivb
Past Tbnsb

Singular

1. I was seen

2. Thou wast seen
8. He was seen

Plural

1. We were seen

2. You were seen

3. They were seen

PuTURB Tensb
Singular Singular

1. I shall see 1. I shall be seen

2. Thou wilt see 2. Thou wilt be seen
8. He will see 3. He will be seen

Plural

1. We shall see

2. You will see
8. They will see

Plural

1. We shall be seen

2. You will be seen

3. They will be seen

Prbsent Perfect Tense
Singular Singular

1. I have seen 1. I have been seen

2. Thou hast seen 2. Thou hast been seen
8. He has seen 3. He has been seen

Plural

1. We have seen

2. You have seen
8. They have seen

Plural

1. We have been seen

2. You have been seen

3. They have been seen

Past Perfect Tense
Singulaf Singular

1. I had seen 1. I had been seen

2. Thou hadst seen 2. Thou hadst been seen
8. He had seen 3. He had been seen

Plural

1. We had seen

2. You had seen
8. They had seen

Plural

1. We had been seen

2. You had been seen

3. They had been* seen

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAk

AcnvB Passive

Future Perfect Tense
Singular Singular

1. I shall have seen 1. I shall have been seen

2. Thou wilt have seen 2. Thou wilt have been seen

3. He will have seen 3. He will have been seen

Plural

1. We shall have seen

2. You will have seen

3. They will have seen

SUBJUNCTIVE

Active

Singular

1. (If) I see

2. (If) thou see

3. (If) he see

Plural

1. (If) we see

2. (If) you see

3. (If) they see

Singular

1. (If) I saw

2. (If) thou saw

3. (If) he saw

Plural

1. (If) we saw

2. (If) you saw

3. (If) they saw

Plural

1 . We shall have been seen

2. You will have been seen

3. They will have been seen

MODB

Passive
Present Tense

Singular

1. (If) I be seen

2. (If) thou be seen

3. (If) he t>e seen

Plural

1. (If) we be seen

2. (If) you be seen

3. (If) they be seen

Past Tense

Singular

1. (If) I were seen

2. (If) thou were seen

3. (If) he were seen

Plural

1. (If) we were seen

2. (If) you were seen

3. (If) they were seen

Present Tense

Active

Passive

{

imperative mode

{Common Form: See (thou or yo\x)
Progressive: Be (thou or you) seeing
Emphatic: Do (thou or you) see
„ {Common Form: Be (thou <?ryou) seen

yEmphatic: Do (thou £?r you) be seen

INFINITIVES

(To) see
(To) be seeing

(To) have seen

(To) have been seeing

Present: (To) be seen

Present Perfect: (To) have been seen

Present

{

Present Perfect

62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

PARTICIPLES

{Present: Seeing
Present PeHeA^-'^'j^^^ .
\ Having been seeing

{Present: Being seen
Perfect: Seen
Present Perfect: Having been seen

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

In the manner shown in foregoing models, write the following:

(a) The active verb phrases of catch in all the tenses of the indic-
ative mode.

(d) The verbals, active and passive, of /»i(/(including the infinitive).

(r) All persons and numbers of the present and the past indica-
tive of lie (to recline).

{d) The passive of love in the first person plural in the six tenses
of the indicative mode.

(^) The emphatic forms oi go in both numbers and all the persons
of the present and the past ir;dicative.

(/■) The progressive forms of write in the third person singular of
the tenses of the indicative mode.

{g) A synopsis of the passive forms of choose in all modes and
tenses.

(A) The verb swim in the interrogative forms of the first person
singular in the tenses of the indicative mode.

(/) The principal parts of ten of the most frequently used irreg-
ular verbs.

(/) Use correctly in sentences the present perfect, active or passive,
of the following verbs: swim, drink, come, go, ring, sing, see, begin,
lie (to recline), lay.

18. Use of HhaU and W7//.— When shall and will,
with their past forms, should and tvould, are used as
auxiliaries in promising, foretelliyig, or announcing future
action^ they are conjugated as follows:

Singular

We shall, should
You will, would
They will, would

I shall, should

Thou wilt, wouldst Plural

He will, would
\ shall come unless I should be sick.
I shall try and my brother will help me.
They Tvill be sorry some day.

When used interrogatively, they simply ask for informal
Hon or permission^ or they inquire concerning: the will or

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 63

purpose of some other person or persons. Their conjugation
in this use is given below:

Shall, should we?
Will, would you?
Will, would they?

{Shall, should I?
Wilt, wouldst thou? Plural

Will, would he?
Will it rain?
Shall I call tomorrow?
Would the teacher permit you to go?
Should we come earlier?

Determination, strong purpose of the speaker, and obli-
gationy are expressed by the following conjugation:

fl will, would

Thou shalt, shouldst Plural

I He shall, should
I will come and he shall not prevent my doing so.
You shall obey orders.

We will, would
You shall, should
They shall, should

The foregoing are the common uses of these auxiliaries,
but there are many nice distinctions that are best learned by
reading the works of good writers.

19. How to Parse Verbs. — A verb is parsed by stating:

1. Its form — regular or irregular, and why. If it is irreg-
ular, give its principal parts.

2. Its class — transitive or intransitive, and why. If
transitive, state whether it is active or passive.

3. Its inflections — mode, tense, number, and person.

4. Its syntax — its agreement with its subject in number
and person.

20. Model for Oral Parsing?. — In order to illustrate
oral parsing of the verb, let it be required to parse the verbs
in the following sentences:

When the war closed, the soldiers were sent home.
If it rain tomorrow, I shall not go.

Clgsed is a verb; regular, because it forms its past tense
and perfect participle by annexing d to the root form;
intransitive, because the action expressed is not received by
an object; indicative mode, because it states a fact; past

64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

tense, because it denotes indefinite past time; third person,
singular number to agree with its subject war.

Were sent is a verb; irregular, because it does not form its
past tense and perfect participle by annexing d or ed to the
root form; principal parts, send^ sent^ sejiding^ sent; transitive
and passive, because the persons denoted by the subject
soldiers receive the action; indicative mode, because it states
a fact; past tense, because it denotes past time; third person,
plural to agree with soldiers.

Rain is a verb; regular, because it forms its past tense
and perfect participle by annexing ed to the root form;
intransitive, because the action expressed is not received by
an object; subjunctive mode, because it is used in a condi-
tional clause to denote an uncertainty; it has the form of the
present tense, but refers to the future; third person, singular
to agree with its subject it.

Shall go is a verb; irregular, because it does not form its
past tense and perfect participle by annexing d or ed to the
root form; principal parts, go^ went, going, gone; intransitive,
because the action expressed is not received by an object;
indicative mode, because it states or declares; future tense,
because it denotes future time; first person, singular to agree
with the subject /.

21. . Abbreviated Oral Parsing?. — ^After the student
has become able to parse and give the reasons in full with-
out hesitation, he should use a shorter form in which only
the facts are stated. The following model is sufficiently full
for the verbs in the preceding article:

Closed is a verb, regular, intransitive, indicative, past,
third, singular, agreeing with the subject war.

Were sent is a verb, irregular, send, sent, sending, sent, trans-
itive, passive, indicative, past, third, plural, agreeing with the
subject soldiers,

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

By the abbreviated method, parse, in writing, all the finite verbs in
tl^e following sentences:

(a) The people told the sexton and the sexton tolled the bell.

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(d) Saint Nicholas, the patron saint of boys, died at Myra, in Asia
Minor, in the year A. D. 326.

(^r) All that tread the earth are but a handful to the tribes that
slumber in its bosom.

(d) You should have borne with my faults more patiently.

(e) 'Tis true, this god did shake; his coward lips did from their
color fly.

(/) A friend would not have seen such trifling faults.

(g) Honor and shame from no condition rise;

Act well thy part,— there all the honor lies.

(h) Should the eagle mate with the crow, even then 1 would not
marry the son of the earl.

(/) Which of our Presidents is believed to have been poisoned?

(j) Kings may be blest, but Tam was glorious.

(k) There is none so blind as the man that will not see.

(/) My story being done, she gave me for my pains a world
of sighs.

{m) If the **Maine*' had not been blown up, the Spaniards might
now be in possession of their American colonies.

(n) We had lain for many days in the quiet bay, when at last we
began the long voyage across the Indian Ocean.

22. Model for Written Parsingr of the Verb. — In

order to illustrate a method of written parsing of the verb,
let it be required to parse the verbs in the following
sentences:

The children were sent home through the rain.
If a man die, shall he live again?
Listen to the birds under the eaves of the barn.
He was buried in the ocean by his shipmates.
We departed an hour after the moon had risen.

Verbs

Form

Class

Mode
ind.

Tense

Person

Number

Subject

were sent

irreg. tr. pass.

past

third

plur.

children

die

reg.

intran.

subj.

pres.

third

sing.

man

shall live

reg..

intran.

ind.

fut.

third

sing.

listen

reg.

intran.

imp.

pres.

second

sing. iTT plur.

(you)

was buried

reg. tr. pass.

ind.

past

third

sing.

departed

reg.

intran.

ind.

past

first

plur.

' had risen irreg.

intran.

ind.

past perf.

third

sing.

moon

66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

23« IIow to Parse Infinitives and Verbals. — An

infinitive or a verbal is parsed by stating:

1. What it is — a verbal noun, a participle, or an infinitive.

2. From what verb it is derived. If the verb is irregular,
its principal parts should be given.

3. Whether it is simple or compound.

4. Whether it is transitive or intransitive. If transitive
state whether it is active or passive.

5. What its function is.

24 • Model for Parsing: Infinitives and Verbals.

Let it be required to parse the infinitives and verbals in the
following sentences:

He was engaged in reading a letter.
The boy was directed to explain the example.
The army, having been defeated, fell back.

His courage, unsubdued by disaster, sustained him through the
gravest perils and disasters.
We ought not to have gone.

Reading is a simple verbal noun, derived from the irregu-
lar transitive verb read; principal parts, ready riady readingy
riad; active, in the objective case, being the object of the
preposition in; the prepositional phrase, in reading a letter,
is an adverbial modifier of the verb was engaged.

To explain is a simple active transitive infinitive, derived
from the regular verb explain^ present tense; the phrase,
to explain the example, is an adverbial modifier of the verb
was directed.

Having been defeated is a compound transitive passive
participle, derived from the regular verb defeaty in the
present perfect tense; it is an adjective modifier of army.

Unsubdued is a participle, simple, transitive, passive,
derived from the regular verb subdue; perfect; it is an
adjective modifier of the noun courage.

To have gotie is a compound intransitive infinitive derived
from the irregular verb go; principal parts, gOy went^
goingy gone; present perfect tense; adverbial modifier of
the verb ought.

§18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

25. Model for Written Parsingr. — The written parsing^
of the infinitives and verbals in the following sentences is
shown in the form below.

One should eat to live rather than live to eat.

The train was just on the point of starting.

No one is entitled to merit for merely doing his duty.

His clothes, torn in many places, had been neatly mended.

The prisoner admitted having stolen the goods.

Words

Rind

to live pres.inf.

to eat pres. inf.

starting verb, noun

doing verb, noun

torn perf. part.

having stolen'verb. noun

Derived

Class

Used As

Syntax

live

eat

start

tear

steal

simp, intran. adverb
simp, intran. adverb
simp, intran. noun
simp.tran. noun
simp. pas.sive adjective
com p. tran. noun

modifies ahouldeat

m od i fies should live

object of of

object of for

modifies clothes

object of admitted

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

As in the model, parse the verbs in the following:
(a) It is said that good Americans go to Paris when they die.
{fii) He that has once done you a kindness will be more ready to do
you another than he whom you yourself have obliged.

(r) Then shall the nature that has lain blanched and broken rise
into full stature and native hues in the sunshine.
(d) I see in thy gentle eyes a tear;

They turn to me in sorrowful thought;
Thou thinkest of friends, the good and dear,
Who were for a time, but now are not.
(^) To pity distress is but human; to relieve it is godlike.
(/") When the son swore, Diogenes struck the father.
is) You hear that boy laughing? You think he's all fun;
But the angels laugh too at the good he has done.
The children laugh loud as they troop to his call,
And the poor man that knows him laughs loudest of all.
(A) Boston State-House is the hub of the solar system. You
couldn't pry that out of a Boston man if you had the tire of all creation
straightened out for a crowbar.

(/) I have very frequently regretted having spoken; never, having
kept silent.

(/) To be silent is an insignificant virtue; but to keep silent con-
cerning the secrets of others is worthy of the highest praise.
[Ji) To be or not to be; that is the question.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

Verbs as to

TABLE OF VERBS

Action I

\ Neuter

2. Form

{Regular: Love, walk
Irregular: Go, come, drink
Defective: Ought, can, beware
Redundant: Dive, dream

3. UsB

ncipal \

Walk, go, walked
went, walked, gone

1 shall, may, can, must

INFLECTIONS OP VERBS

Mode

indicative

subjunctive

imperative
infinitive

verbals
participles

Tense

present, present perfect,
past, past perfect, fu-
ture, future perfect

present
past

^ present

present
present perfect

present

perfect

present perfect

Number

singular
plural

wanting

seemg

seen

having been seen

Person

first

second

third

first

second

third

second
wanting

have neither
person nor
number

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 69

THE ADVERB

26. Functions of the Adverb. — The adverb has been
defined as a word used to modify the meaning of a verb,
an adjective, or another adverb. Both the modifier and the
element modified may be a word, a phrase, or a clause.
This fact makes it specially important that the student should
endeavor to become expert in deciding what each element of
a sentence does, in order that he may know what it is.

27. Parts of Speech Used as Adverbs. — Almost any
part of speech may be used adverbially:

1. A noun.

He is six /<?<?/ tall. (Six feet tall = tall to the extent of, or by, six feet.)
We waited an /tour. (During an hour.)

I care nothing for his opinion. (Nothing = by nothing, or to the
extent of nothing.)

It cost a dollar. (A dollar = to the amount of a dollar.)

This is the use of a noun as an adverbial objective. Nouns
used to denote measure of time, distance, value, weight, etc.,
are the fragments of adverbial phrases, and being used with
the functions that the entire phrases would have, they must
be regarded as adverbs.

2. A pronoun.

What with labor and worry he was completely worn out. (Here
what = partly, or some such adverb.)

3. An adjective.

The richer he gets the stingier he seems. (The . . . the = by how
much ... by so much, or equivalent correlative adverbial elements.)

The sentence in full would be nearly. In proportion as he
gets richer, in that proportion he seems stingier.

4. A verb.

Clink, clank, go the hammers now.
Bang went the gun.

70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

5. A verbal.

We were dripping wet.
'Twas passing strange.

6. A preposition.

The tide came in during our stay.
He walked before and his wife behind,

7. A conjunction.

Could he but understand » he would act differently.
We are but gathering flowers in your meadow. (But = only, or
merely.)

28, Adjectives and Adverbs With Certain Verbs.

It has been explained that all verbs express in varying
measure both action and the corresponding state of the actor.
Thus, in the sentence, The man walksy the verb walks is
equivalent to is walkings in which walking describes the state
of the acting subject, as if we should say. He is a walking
man. In such cases the participle is an exact equivalent of
a predicate adjective. Hence, walks expresses action and
implies an accompanying state or condition of the actor..

Sometimes the action is so prominent that the state is not
even noticed. In such case, if a modifier is associated with
the verb, it must be an adverb used to modify the action
side or function of the verb.

She walks gracefully.
The fish swims rapidly.

Again, it may be the state that is to be especially noticed;
in this case an adjective is used with the verb.

The ship arrived safe.

We found him sick.

He stood still and remained silent.

The following diagrams will make clear the distinction

between these two uses of the verb:

■

The ( patient ) [ breathes] rapidly. The (flower) [is]

pretty,
blooming..

Besides these extreme cases, there are verbs that express

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 71

both action and state so strpngfly that modifiers of both
kinds are used with them. In such cases the adverbial modi-
fiers are generally phrases or clauses.

He lies in the hospital sick. We arrived safe and sound in New York.

f 1 t 1

Here, the adjectives sicky safe^ and sound denote the con-
dition of the actor, and not the manner, time, nor place of the
action. The phrases, in the hospital ^ and in New Yorky are
adverbial modifiers denoting place.

Many verbs in which the action is prominent are followed
by adjectives denoting a state of something named by a noun
or denoted by a pronoun. Some examples follow:

They looked sick. She sat erects serene y and quiet.

We reached home safe. The milk turned sour.

Our blood ran cold. Shut the door ti^ht.

Open your eyes wide. Lie stiil and keep quiet,

29. Adverbs Classified According? to Use. — Classi-
fied according to use, adverbs are of four kinds: (1) simpUy
(2) interrogative y (3) conjunct ivey (4) modal.

Definition. — A simple adverb is an adverb consisting of
a single word and used as an ordinary modifier.

Go quickly.
Come here.
Gaily to burgeon and broadly to grow.

Definition. — An interroprative adverb is an adverb used
to inquire concerning the timey place, manner y cause, etc, of an
action or a state.

When did you come? How is your father?

Wherefore did you return? Whither did they go?

Whence came you? Why did you leave?

Definition. — A conjunctive adverb is an adverb thai has
the double functio7i of an adverb and a conjunction.

Do as you are told.

I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows.

Where thou goest, I will go.

When I die, put near me something that has loved the light.

Whither I go ye cannot follow.

72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

The conjunctive adverb modifies the verb in the clause it
introduces. . The clause itself may have the function of a
noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

Thus, as you are told, in the first sentence, is an adverbial
clause modifier of do, and a^ modifies are told and joins the
clause to the verb do. In the second sentence, the clause is
an adjective modifier of bank, and whereon modifies ^it7Z£/j. In
the sentence. Tell us when you are going, the conjunctive
adverb when modifies are goings and the entire clause is the
object of tell.

Definition. — A modal adverb is an adverb that modifies
the meaning of an entire sentence.

Perhaps I shall be in New York tomorrow.
He has doubtless repented his action by this time.
I shall certainly see him.
He will not go.

Here perhaps modifies / shall be in New York tomorrow.
Any word used in this way to narrow or restrict the meaning
of an entire sentence or clause is a modal adverb. The sen-
tences gfiven above may be narrowed or limited in meaning^
by many expressions similar in function to perhaps. They all
change the total effect or mode of the sentences upon the
mind, and are for that reason modal adverbs.

30. How to Distingrnlsh the Modal Adverb. — It is

not always easy to recognize the modal adverb. In doing
this, the student may be aided by knowing that the modal
adverb has some marked peculiarities besides modifying or
changing the meaning of the entire clause or sentence in
which it is used. These peculiarities are:

1. The modal adverb may be placed almost anywhere in the
clause or sentence it modifies.

This is not the case with an ordinary adverb, which must
be placed as near the modified element as possible. Indeed,
one of the most important matters in composition is the
correct placing of modifiers, especially those that are
adverbial. In the case of the modal adverb, while it may
occupy any one of several places in a sentence, there is

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 73

usually one position where its effect is best. In the follow-
ing sentences, the modal adverbs forttmately and perhaps may
be put in any one of the places indicated by carets:

Fortunately^ nay employer understands all the facts of the

case ^ .

Perhaps^ a sharp tongue .is the only edged tool that gfrows

keener with constant use ^ .

2. The connection between a modal adverb and the sentence
in which it ocairs is not close.

In consequence of this fact, the modal adverb should
usually be set off by commas. When this punctuation is not
required, it is owing to the fact that the adverb is used, not
as purely modal, but as in some measure simple. The fol-
lowing illustrations will make the difference of use clear:

*M J A Decidedly, the scientists are wrone in their opinion.
Moduli „ ... ; ' . .^^*, ^ ^ ^

yPostttvely, no one can be permitted to enter.

«. . J The scientists are decidedly wrong in their opinion.

^ \He was so badly frightened that he yfs^ positively sick.

In the first example, decidedly modifies the meaning of the
entire sentence — changes its general effect by making it
strongly emphatic. In the third example, it is a mere adverb
modifying the meaning of the single word wrong — it is
intensive, telling how or in what degree the scientists are
wrong. A similar explanation applies to the remaining
examples.

It should be noted that almost any modal adverb may be
used as a simple adverb; and on the other hand, many
adverbs ordinarily simple may be used with modal value
or effect.

31. Classes of Modal Adverbs. — Modal adverbs may
be divided into various classes. Some of these follow:

1. General emphasis; as, manifestly, clearly, decidedly^
doubtless, undoubtedly, positively, evidently, plainly, unmistak-^
ably. Palpably, apparently , obviously.

2. Affirmation; as, aye, yea, yes, verily, indeed, certainly,
surely^ unquestionably , by all means.

74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

3. Negation; as, no, nay, not, by no means, in nowise, not
at all.

4. Doubt; as, perhaps, peradventure, probably, possibly,
perchance,

5. Inference; as, heyue, consequently, therefore, whence,
then, wherefore, accordingly ,

32. Adverbs Classified By Meaning. — With respect
to meaning, simple adverbs have been divided into many
classes. Some of the most important of these are:

1. Adverbs of time; as, ever, now, never, lately, today,
still, instantly, henceforth, already, hereafter, presently, soon,
once, yesterday, often, seldom, always, sitice,

2. Adverbs of place; as, here, there, near, yonder, hence,
tJience, down, off, back, above, below, hither, thither, away,

3. Adverbs of manner; as, gladly, slowly, well, respect-
fully, truly,

4. Adverbs of degree; as, much, little, very, quite, greatly^
more, less, least.

5. Adverbs of comparison; as, so, as, the . . . tJie, too,
rather.

I am so sick that etc.

He is as good as his accuser.

The first as modifies good; the second is a conjunctive
adverb. The sentence in full would be:
He is as good as his accuser is good.

In both uses as is an adverb of comparison; taken together,
the words are correlative adverbs.

The more the merrier. This old saying when in full sen-
tence form would be somewhat as follows: The more they
are the merrier they are = By what they are more by that they
are merrier. It is clear, therefore, that the . . . the = by
what . . . by that — two adverbial phrases, the first of which
modifies more, and the second, merrier. Hence, the . . . the
are correlative adverbs of comparison.

33 • The Responslves. — The words yes, no, ay or aye,
nay, amen, certainly, and some others, together with certain
phrases, such as by all nuans, by no means, not at all, certainly

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 76

not, decidedly not^ are used in answering questions, and when
so used are called responslves. They are usually called
adverbs; but they are really substitutes for entire sentences.
Like interjection^, they have no grammatical relation to the
sentence to which they reply, but they have a logical relation
to it; that is, they relate to it in thought.

Shall you vote tomorrow? Yes. Certainly. By all means.

The answers to the foregoing question are each equivalent
to the sentence, / shall vole lomorrow. They differ only in
the matter of emphasis. In parsing such expressions, it is
sufficient to call them responsives, give as nearly as possible
the sentence for which they are a substitute, and say that
they are usually classed as adverbs.

Among other expressions used as responsives are perhaps^
Probably^ Perchaiice^ nearly^ quiky surely^ possibly^ exaclly,
precisely, verily, etc. Indeed, almost any of the modal
adverbs may be used as responsives, which is another test
of modality.

34. Comparison of Adverbs. — Many adverbs derived
from adjectives of quality are compared. A few have real
inflections, but the comparison is usually made by prefixing
more and mosl or less and leasl; as.

Positive CoMPARAxrvB Superlative

calmly more calmly most calmly

earnestly more earnestly most earnestly

fast

faster

fastest

soon

sooner

soonest

e following adverbs are

of irregular

comparison:

POSITIVB

COMPARATrVE

Superlative

far

farther

farthest

forth

further

furthest

ill or badly

worse

worst

late

later

last or latest

mnch

most

nigh or near

nearer

next or nearest

well

better

best

A great many adverbs, on account of their meaning,
cannot be compared. Such are certain adverbs of time and

76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

place, and many others; as, then, now, sometimes ^ always^
never, here, there, hither, whefue, so, as, thus,

35« The Adverb Tliere. — The word there is properly
an adverb of place, but it is much used with the notion oi
place nearly or quite gone from the meaning of the word.

There was once a king.

There sat by the door an old raan.

There lived many years ago a very wise man.

In such sentences, there is an expletive; that is, a word
redundant or unnecessary; for in all such cases, the subject
may be placed first and there omitted.

A very wise man lived etc., An old man sat etc.

When the construction is interrogative or relative, the
expletive follows the verb; as.

When went there by an age since the great flood but it was famed
for more than one man?

What need was there unsatisfied?

From denoting place, the word there has come to imply
mere existence, although it usually carries with it some faint
notion of i7i that place. In parsing, the student should state
that thepe is an adverbial expletive used to anticipate the
subject.

This construction is one of the idioms of our language; so
called, because it is peculiar to English — exactly the same
usage not being found in any other language.

36. Phrase Adverbs. — Several words taken together
may be used as adverbs. The following are a few of the
many phrase adverbs: Now or never, by and by, sooner or
later, once upon a time, long ago, forever and ever.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. Copy the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell the class
to which each belongs and what it modifies:

(a) He always acted generously and considerately, even to hi&
enemies.

(b) They laugh best that laugh last.

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 77

{d) Warmly and broadly the south winds are blowing

Over the sky.'
{e) One after another the white clouds are fleeting.
(/) Then some one said, **We will return no more**;
And all at once they sang, "Our island home
Is far beyond the wave; we will no longer roam.**
(j^) Surely, surely, slumber is more sweet than toil, the shore

Than labor in the deep mid-ocean.
(A) Low and soft, O, very low and soft,

Crooned the blackbird in the orchard croft,
(i) Certainly, there can be but one opinion about a matter so simple.

2. As illustrated by the model, underscore the clause and phra^e
adverbs, and connect them by means of lines and arrows with liie
elements they modify.

Model. — Years and years ago, while the country was still young,

an old colonial mansion stood in solitary grandeur on this spot

i — 1 — "^

{a) Every now and then their carriage rolled up to the house in
grand style.

(d) How often the chance to do ill deeds causes ill deeds to be done.

(r) In giving freedom to the slave we assure freedom to the free.

(d) Men are more satirical from vanity than from malice.

(e) The mountain summit sparkles in the light of the setting sun.
(/) Beneath me flows the Rhine, and like the stream of time, it

flows amid the ruins of the past.

(^) From hence let fierce contending nations know,

What dire effects from civil discord flow.
(A) Read from some humbler poet, the poem of thy choice.

And lend to the rhyme of the poet the beauty of thy voice,
(i) A man ought to read just as inclination leads him; for what he
reads as a task will do him little good.

(j) Large streams from little fountains flow,

Tall oaks from little acorns grow.

37. ParslnflT the Adverb. — An adverb is parsed by
mentioning:

1. The class in which it belongs — simple, interrogative,
conjunctive, modal.

2. The element it modifies. It should be stated also in
what respect the element is modified; that is, whether with
respect to time, place, manner, inference, etc.

78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

3. Its degree of comparison — positive, comparative,
superlative.

An adverb consisting of a phrase or clause may be men-
tioned as being simply an adverbial phrase or clause, modi-
fying the meaning of some other element of the sentence.

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Analyze the following sentences, by means of diagrams, and parse
the adverbs:

(a) I was a poetess only last year.

(d) Make me a child again just for tonight.

(r) Over my heart in the years that are flown,

No love like mother-love ever has shone.
{d) There is a yard dog, too, that barks at all comers.

(e) Suddenly a hand seized the beetle, and turned him round and
round.

(/■) Without, the ground was entirely covered with snow, and the
wind blew in sudden gusts, sharply and fiercely.

(^) There was once a woman that lived all alone with only one
child, a very beautiful little daughter.

(A) It may indeed happen, and, in fact, often does happen, that
the very poor are much happier than the very rich.

(t) Therefore, first of all, I tell you earnestly and authoritatively
that you must get into the habit of looking intensely at words and of
assuring yourself of their meaning.

(/) Think carefully and bravely over these things, and you will
find them wholly true.

TABLE OF THE ADVERB

Time: When, then, soon
Place: Wheie, there
Manner: Quickly, kindly, slowly
Defj^ree: Quite, very, nearly

2. Interrogative. — When? where? how?

3. Modal. — Perhaps, certainly, therefore

4. Conjunctive. — Where, how, why

.5. Adverbial Object. — Worth a dime, rest an hour

fl. Simple

Adverbs

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 79

THE PREPOSITION

38. Function of tlie Preposition. — Most of the

prepositions were originally adverbs, and many of them are

still frequently used as such. When this is the case, the

object is omitted and the preposition does duty as an

adverbial modifier.

Turn to (the work), my men.

Is the doctor in (his office), John?

All went aboard (the ship).

He is a good man to have around (?).

We were led inside, shown around, and bowed out very promptly.

Let us walk around.

The house stands just above.

Many words that are usually given in the lists of preposi-
tions are still used as adverbs. Even when the preposition
has an object, it often has in itself a strong adverbial value.

We lived near the river and often rowed across it.

Near in this sentence does th^ greater part of the adver-
bial work of the phrase near the river. This is shown to be
the case by our readiness to accept near or across alone as
an adverb, without demanding that it shall be followed by a
noun or a pronoun specifying in what the relation ends.
Thus, They live near. He jumped across.

Notwithstanding this strong adverbial function of the
preposition and its frequent use as an adverb, these words, to
the number of nearly one hundred, are called prepositions if
they have with them an object; in such case they form a prepo-
sitional phrase having the value of an adjective or an adverb.

Adjective Phrases: a letter from hotne, a rose without thorns, a
house with seven gables

Adverbial Phrases: ran against the fence, quiet during the ser-
vice, floating with the current

Besides its function as an adverb, which the preposition
has not entirely lost, its chief work is to bring unrelated

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§18

words into relation. This has been fully illustrated in
another plate, and need not be enlarged upon here.

39. I'lie Object of tlie Preposition. — The preposition
is said to govern the noun or pronoun with which it forms
an adjective or adverbial phrase. By this is meant that the
preposition has, with respect to case, a kind of governing or
compelling power over its noun or pronoun; the object of the
preposition must be in the objective case. The pronoun shows
this fact by its form; but, since the form of a noun is the same
in both the nominative and the objective case, we must judge
of its case from that of a pronoun used in the same way.

They took the book from John and gave it to me.

Here the pronoun me is in the objective case; and the
noun John is in the same case, since it is used in exactly the
same way as the pronoun.

40. List of Prepositions. — The

the most commonly used prepositions:

following is a list of

aboard

beyond

pending

about

regarding

above

concerning

respecting

across

down

•

round

after

during

save

against '

ere

saving

along

except

since

amid

excepting

through

amidst

for

throughout

among

from

till

amongst

around

into

touching

mid

toward

athwart

midst

towards

bating

near

under

before

notwithstanding

underneath

behind

until

below

off

unto

beneath

beside

out

upon

besides

over

with

between

overt h wart

within

betwixt

past

without

§18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 81

41. Phrase Prepositions. — Many phrase prepositions
are in use. Like verb phrases, they are parsed and in all
other respects treated as if they were single words. The
following are examples of compound prepositions: in accord-
ance withy in opposition to^ in consideration of, with respect to^
in spite ofy with reference to,

42. Classes of Prepositions. — With reference to their
adverbial value, prepositions have been divided into several
groups:

1. Place. This class includes: {a) mere rest in a place;
as, in, on, at, near, by; (b) place, with motion and direction;
as, tOy intOy toward, from; (c) place, with direction; as, up,
down, th rough, above, below, across,

2. Time; as, since, till, imtil, during, after, pending, past,

3. Agency or means; as, with, by, through, by means of,
by virtue of,

4. Cause, end, or purpose; as, for, from, for the sake of,
on account of.

There are many other classes of prepositions, but it is not
necessary to mention them. The matter of chief concern is
that the student shall be able to recognize the preposition
and determine the work it does in each place where it
is used.

43. Various Objects of Prepositions. — The object of
a preposition may be any equivalent of a noun — any expres-
sion used with the value of a noun. Hence, the object of a
preposition may be a word, a phrase, or a clause.

1. A noun or a pronoun.

He went with me to the tnarket.

2. A verbal.

I am tired of sowing for others to reap.
We protested against being detained,

3. An adjective or an adverb.

The taste is between sweet and sour.
His strength comes from above.
It has lasted from then until now.

82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

4. A phrase.

The snake crept from under the house.
The noise comes from aver the way.
They returned after visiting Rome.
He gloried in having been President,

5. A noun clause.

They inquired concerning where we had been.
Judging from what he said^ we are wrong.

44. Parsing: the Preposition. — A preposition is parsed
by stating:

1. That it is a preposition.

2. That it brings certain elements into relation.

3. That the phrase in which it is the leading word modi-
fies the meaning of a certain other sentential element.

EXAMPL.E8 FOR PRACTICE

1. Construct sentences containing the following words used as
prepositions, and afterwards construct other sentences in which the
same words occur as adverbs: near, over, through, above, by, oflF,
under, before.

2. Write five sentences each containing a prepositional phrase used
as an adjective; also, five other sentences each having a prepositional
phrase used as an adverb.

3. Write two sentences containing a clause object of a preposition.

4. Find suitable objects of the prepositions: to confer upon, to confer
with; to die of, to die for; to share in, to share of; to strive for, to strive
against; to choose between, to choose among, to choose for; to have
confidence in, to have confidence of; convenient to, convenient for.

5. Parse the prepositions in the following sentences; also, by raeans
of diagrams, analyze the sentences themselves:

(a) How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood.

(b) She sought her lord, and found him where he strode
About the hall, among his dogs.

Was clashed and hammered from a hundred towers.

(d) Man comes and tills the soil and lies beneath.
And after many summers dies the swan.

(e) Through the shadow of the globe we sweep into the
younger day.

(/) If, through years of folly you misguide your own life, you must
not expect Providence to bring around at last everything for the best.

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 83

Or) The sunset glow of the maples met the sunset glow of the sky.
(A) Many a summer the grass has grown green,

Blossomed and faded our faces between,
Yet with strong yearning and passionate pain
Long I tonight for your presence again,
(f ) Among the beautiful pictures that hang on Memory's wall

Is one of a dim old forest that seemeth the best of all.
{/) The perfect life develops in a circle and terminates where
it begins.

THE CONJUNCTION

45. Functions of the Preposition and the Con-
junction Compared. — The preposition is usually defined
as a word used to connect words, and to show the relation
between them. It is, therefore, a connective, but its most
important function is to denote relation, and this it generally
does very definitely. The conjunction also is a connective,
and it usually indicates more or less distinctly some relation
between the elements it unites. Both the conjunction and
the preposition have something adverbial in the work they
do; and, in the case of the conjunctive adverb, its adverbial
function is generally stronger than its connective value.

During the growth and improvement of language, the
conjunction was one of the last parts of speech to appear,
and its first use was in connecting very simple expressions,
such as a noun with a noun, an adjective with an adjective,
a verb with a verb, etc.

The most useful of the conjunctions are those that have
nearly or quite lost their adverbial value, such as and, or, nor,
if, lesty thany fory also, and a few others. The equivalents of
these conjunctions are found in all languages, and, without
their aid, connected speech would be impossible.

When it became necessary to connect phrases and clauses
and to indicate at the same time some relation between the
connected elements, other conjunctions were made, gener-
ally from adverbs, and most of them retained much of their
adverbial value.

Be careful Usi you fall. Look, before you leap.

I shall go, though it rain. He may go if he asks permission.

84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

In all these cases, the clause introduced by the conjunction
modifies the meaning of the other clause, or of some
element in it^ I^st you fall denotes a reason or a purpose;
it is very nearly equivalent to not to fall^ which would plainly
be an adverbial modifier of careful. In a similar way though
it rain has very nearly the value of the adverb certainly.

I shall certainly go.

CLASSES OP CONJUNCTIONS

46. Conjunctions are divided into two principal classes —
coordinating and subordinating.

47. Coordinating: Conjunctions. — The word coordi-
nating means "making of equal rank or importance/- The
conjunctions of this class are so called because they unite two
elements without at the same time reducing one of them to
the inferior rank of a mere modifier of some other element.
Hence, these conjunctions have very little of the adverbial
quality left in them, and serve mainly to connect. This is
wholly true of and and nearly so of all the other coordinating
conjunctions.

Definition. — A coordinating conjunction is a conjunc-
lion used to connect two sentential elements so as to make them of
equal grammatical rank or value.

Bread and meat.

Wise or foolish.

To sleep, likewise to dream.

He was a partner; besides, he was fully trusted.

You have seriously bluudered; moreover, you have violated the law.

Coordinating conjunctions are subdivided into several
groups:

1. Copulative. — The word copulative means simply * 'uni-
ting*'— adding something to something else. These con-
junctions have very much the effect of the sign of addition
in arithmetic. Examples are: and, both, also, likewise, besides^
moreover, etc.

2. Alteryiative. — Alternative conjunctions are such as
imply alternatives or a choice, either granted or denied.

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 86

They are or^ nor^ either . . . or^ neither . . . nor, whether . . * or^
and some others.

Either do as I direct or do nothing.

Neither the good nor the bad escape his injustice.

Whether he was sick or not we could not tell.

3. Adversative, — These imply something adverse or in
opposition. The following are the most common: but, yet ^
stilly only (when nearly equivalent to but)^ nevertheless ^ how-
ever, for all that, after all, at the same time.

He is sick, only he does not like to admit it.

You have done much damage; still, we will overlook that fact.

4. Illative, — The conjunctions of this class include such as
are used in reasoning to denote reason, inference, conclusion,
result, and the like. Therefore, he^ice, so, thus, consequently,
cucordingly , wherefore, then, are examples.

He did not obey the law; therefore, he should be punished.

You escaped the first time; hence, you thought it would be so always.

He was faithful; so that promotion came at last.

48. Subordlnatloi? CoDjiiDctloiis, — We have seen that
coordinating conjunctions may connect words, phrases, or
clauses. This, however, is not the case with the subordina-
ting conjunction, for it is almost invariably used to unite
or introduce clauses. It does this in such manner as to
make one of the clauses a mere modifier; and in consequence
of this inferior or subordinate relation of the modifying
clause, the conjunction that introduces it is called a subor-
dinating conjunction.

You will fall IF you are not careful.

He was dismissed because he was incompetent.

He still lives though he is dead.

In the foregoing sentences, the subordinate clauses have
the value of adverbs, and, like modal adverbs, they usually
modify the meaning of the entire independent or principal
clause.

Subordinate clauses are often much abbreviated; and for
this reason they may often look like phrases. But the omitted
elements must always be very plainly implied.

86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

If contradicted^ he becomes extremely angry.

He works steadily, though without valuable result.

Definition. — A subordinating: conjunction is a conjunc'
tion used to introduce a clduse that modifies an independent clause ^
or some element of an independent clause.

Subordinating conjunctions, in consequence of differences
in meaning or use, are subdivided into the following classes:

1. Of place; as, where and whence^ and their compounds
with ever and soever,

2. Of time; as, when and its compounds, also whiky as,
till, until, ere, before, after, since,

3. Of cause and reason; as, because, whereas, inasmiuh as,
since, as, for, if, unless, except, Tiotw it hs landing, though,

4. Of purpose; as, that, so that, in order that,

5. Of comparison; as, than, as , , . as, so , , , as.

In analyzing sentences that contain correlative pairs, it is
necessary to consider separately each word of each pair. For
example, in the sentences. He is as good as he is brave, and
He is not so sorry as / am, the first element in each pair is
an adverb merely, and the second a subordinating conjunc-
tion or a conjunctive adverb. It is more in their adverbial
functions than in their character as conjunctions that the
pairs given above are correlatives.

49. Correlatives. — Many pairs of words are called
correlative conjunctions, or, more briefly, correlatives,
because each word points or relates to the other in a way
that is called mutual. The following is nearly a com-
plete list of them: as , , , as, as , . , so, both . . . and,
either . . . or^ neitJier , , . nor, so , , . that, though . . . yet,
if , . . then, whether , , . or, so . . . as, such , . , as,
suck . . . that, not only . . . but also.

As many as are going will raise the right hand.

As two is to four so is three to six.

You should so behave that all men will respect you.

You should so act as to win the esteem of men.

It was such a surprise as he never before experienced.

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 87

EXAMPL.ES FOR PRACTICE

1. Write five sentences each consisting of clauses connected by
coordinating conjunctions.

2. Write five sentences each containing one or more subordinating
conjunctions.

3. Unite the following separate statements by means of {a) coordi-
nating conjunctions; (d) subordinating conjunctions:

(a) The earth is round. Men have sailed around it.

{d) The ship sailed around Cap>e Horn. It entered the Pacific Ocean.

(d) Jane prepared for school. Mary washed the dishes. Mary
swept the floor.

4. Use the following words as subordinating conjunctions: pro-
vided, so, as, than, for, because, except, since, after, while, though.

5. Write sentences containing the following words as adverbs; then
write other sentences containing the same words as conjunctions:
before, since, so, how, only, but, where, whence, hence, then.

6. Make a list of the conjunctions in the following and give the
class of each:

(a) I shall never forget as long as I live the look of despair that
came into his face.

{d) Since he gives so good am account of the matter, it is perhaps
safe to trust him.

(d) He han talent and industry; therefore he will succeed even
where his predecessor failed.

(e) Yet Ernest had liad no teacher, save only that the Great Stone
Face became one to him.

(/) So the people ceased to honor him while he lived, and quietly
consigned him to forgetfulness after he died.

(jf) Creation was not finished till the poet came to interpret and
so finish it.

(/i) ''The tent is mine,** said Yussouf, **but no more

Than it is God's; come in and be at rest."
(i) For time at last sets all things even —

And if we do but watch the hour
There never yet was human power

Which could evade, if unforgiven,
The patient search and vigil long
Of him who treasures up a wrong.

88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

(j) And besides, there were pear trees that flang down bushels
upon bushels of heavy pears; and peach trees, which in a good year
tormented me with peaches, neither to be eaten nor kept, nor, without
labor and perplexity, to be given away.

50. Parsing the Conjunction. — The conjunction is
parsed by stating:

1. That it is a conjunction; this should be followed by
mentioning whether it is coordinating or subordinating.

2. What it connects; if it is subordinating, the student
should tell which is the modifying, and which the modified,
element.

If the connective is a conjunctive adverb, it not only intro-
duces a modifying clause, but modifies the meaning of the
verb in this clause. These particulars should all be stated.

51 • Complex and Compound Sentences. — It is

important to distinguish between coordinating and subordi-
nating conjunctions, for the connective determines whether
a sentence is complex or compound. Coordinating conjunc-
tions connect elements of equal rank, and when these
elements are independent clauses, the resulting sentence is
compound. If, however, there is only one independent or
principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses, the
sentence is complex.

The student should remember that subordinate clauses
may be connected by coordinating conjunctions. The union
of such clauses is illustrated in the following sentences:

When the night is dark and the air is biting cold, as well as when
the raoon is shining and the air pleasant, we must set out on our
regular trip.

If he has the money and can spare it, he should certainly pay you.

Any connective used in joining clauses, which has a strong
adverbial or pronominal value must, in consequence, be a
subordinating connective.

§ 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 89

TABLE OF THE CONJUNCTION

I Copulative: And, also, likewise
Alternative: Or, nor, either
Adversative: But, yet, still
Illative: Consequently, therefore
'Place: Where, whence
Time: When, as, until, since
Cause: Why, because
Purpose: That, so that, in order that
Comparison: Than, so ... as

Classes

2. Subordinate*

THE INTERJECTION

52. The Interjection as a Part of Speech. — We have
seen that the sentence is the **unit of thought/' and that it
is composed of elements each having some part or function
to fill. Such words are called, for that reason, parts of speech.
The Interjection does not have such a work .to do. Fre-
quently, it does not enter the sentence, but stands alone; it
is not related to other words — it is independent. In a kind
of way, it is a substitute for an entire sentence. Strictly,
therefore, the interjection is not a part of speech, although
it is perhaps best to regard it as such.

53. Use of the Interjection. — As people advance
in refinement and education, emotional expression dimin-
ishes in intensity and frequency, and the expression of
thought becomes more formal and exact. The interjec-
tion is never found in scientific and other works in which pure
thought, exposition, and argument are the chief requisites.
We should be much astonished to find it in a legal treatise,
in the charge of a judge, or in the opinion of a physician or
an engineer. Allied to the use of the interjection is the
practice of slangy which most people of refinement avoid for
reasons very similar to those that are given above against
the excessive use of interjections.

54. Thonj^ht Expressed By Interjections. — The pure
interjection is almost entirely empty of meaning in itself, and
is dependent for significance upon the tone of voice and the

90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 18

circumstances in which it is uttered. For example, the inter-
jection ohy which is found in many languages, may express
joy or sorrow, surprise or fear, pain or pleasure, or almost
any other emotion; but the thought to be inferred must be
gathered from the tones, the gestures, and the manner of the
speaker, as well as from the occasion on which it is used.
The same is true of many other interjections.

Many words regularly used in sentences as parts of speech
are often employed as interjections. Some examples follow:

Nouns: Nonsense! Folly! Glory! Horror! Shame! Heavens!
Adjectives: Good! Bravo! Sad! Absurd! Ridiculous! Excellent!
Verbs: Hist! Hush! Hark! Behold! See! Look! Hail!
Adverbs: Well! Indeed! Why! What! How!

Many expressions imitative of natural sounds are used as
interjections; as.

Baa! Bow-wow! Whippoorwill! Buzz! Bang! Crash! Pop!

These last are usually empty of meaning, but nearly all
interjections made of the regular parts of speech carry with
them something of their usual meaning. The interjection
is often the most significant word that would occur in a
sentence when given in full. Interjections derived from
verbs should usually be regarded as verbs.

55. Exclamatory Phrases. — Interjections often con-
sist of several words in combination, but always without full
sentential structure. Such expressions are parsed simply as
interjections. Some examples are:

O dear me! Poor fellow!

Alas the day! O Rome!

O King, live forever! How sad!

In parsing an ordinary interjection, it is enough to state that
it is an interjection, and that it is independent in construction.

56. Exclamatory Series. — A gradual increase or dim-
inution of feeling may be indicated by a series of interjec-
tions, each successive one having after it one more or one
less exclamation mark than the preceding.

Thieves! Police!! Help!!! Murder!!!!

**Oh! Oh!! Oh!!! Ah!! Ah-h-h!' —the tooth was out.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(PART 7)

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION

THE ARTICIiES

1. Frequent Misuse of Af An^ and The* — No other
words in our language are used so much as the articles,
and no other words are so often misapplied. Any person
desiring to become a correct writer of English must be
perfectly familiar not only with the approved uses of these
important words but also with their erroneous application.

2. A and An. — The articles a and an are usually spoken
of by grammarians as the Indefinite article — two forms
of the same word. The article a is used before words begin-
ning with a consonant sound; an, before words beginning
with a vowel sound.

a man, a door, a star, a ewe, a youth, an apple, an egg, an item,
an oak

The article an should be used before words beginning
with silent h; if the h is sounded, a is required.

an hour, an honor, a hermit, a humorist, a historian

Before words beginning with //, some authorities use an
when the accent falls on the second syllable.

an habitual truant, an historical novel, an hermetically sealed box,
an heretical opinion, an heroic deed, an herculean athlete

This usage is in little favor at present. The accent so
placed was at one time supposed to weaken the h so much

For notice of copyright^ see Page immediately following the title Page

219

2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

that the word was to be regarded as begthning with a vowel.
The fact is, however, that no such pronunciation is now
admissible, for the // must be distinctly sounded. The
article a is, therefore, to be preferred.

a habitual smoker, a historical event, a heroic deed, etc.

3. Effect of A or An on the Meaning of a Noun.

The article a or an denotes one of several or many; one out
of a class; any one belonging in some class, no matter which
one of the class; as, a maUy meaning one maUy a7iy wan. This
is the effect of a or an on the meaning of a class name.

When this article is prefixed to a proper name, the eflEect
is to convert it into a class name. Thus, a Nero means,
not the bloodthirsty Roman emperor, but one of the class
of cruel tyrants of whom Nero was the type — any similar
monster. Any proper name with a or an prefixed is said to
be used typically,

a Washington, a Shakespeare, a Cgesar, an Alexander

4, Specific Uses of A and An, — The indefinite article
a or a7i is used in the following ways:

1. To denote an individual as unknown, or as not spe-
cifically distinguished from others of the class to which
that individual belongs.

A man met us in the road.

A star peeped through a rift in the clouds.

2. . Before an abstract noun used concretely.

There is a divinity that shapes our ends.
There is a charming modesty in her manner.

3. Before a collective noun; as, an army^ a multitude,

A collective noun preceded by a or an must be regarded
as singular.

A labor congress was in session.
An army was marching.

4. After an adjective preceded by so^ too, how, as; also, in
certain cases, after many, such, and what,

so good an apple, too great an effort, how fine a day, many -a man,
such an annoyance, what an excuse

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3

5. Before few, great many, and goad manyy when they
precede plural nouns.

a few visitors, a great many years, a good many employers

6. Before an adjective of number followed by a plural
noun. In this case the article has a collective effect on the
meaning of the noun.

a hundred men, a thousand dollars

The article so used may be replaced by one.
one hundred soldiers, one thousand dollars

5. The Definite Article The. — The article the has a
demonstrative effect on the meaning of a noun very much
like that of the demonstratives this and that and their plurals,
these and those — only it is weaker. It points to some partic-
ular person or thing, or to some particular group or groups,
and it does this in a way that distinguishes the thing or
things named from all others. If a thing has been previously
mentioned, if the hearer is assumed to be familiar with it,
or if it is made specific by subsequent words, the fact is
denoted by using the definite article. The demonstrative
effect of the is stronger with a singular noun than with a
plural. For example, the student will notice is stronger and
more specific than if the plural students were used. UnlessV
the purpose be to point to something distinctly, the definite]^
article should never be used. It cannot be used intep/
changeably with a or an,

6. Rules for the Use of Articles. — The following
directions and cautions .will be found of practical value:

1. A or An With Plurals, — A or an should never be so
used as to relate or seem to relate to a plural noun.

A mother and children were crossing the ferry. Say^ A mother and
her children were crossing the ferry.

He did not go a great ways. Say, He did not go a great way.

A storm and flying clouds filled the sky. Better, Flying clouds and
a storm filled the sky.

2. Connected Nouns. — When nouns having different modi-
fiers are joined in construction, when nouns are contrasted,

4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

and when they have different dependence, the article, if used
at all, must be repeated.

The landscape is filled with the music of birds and the fragrance
of flowers.

Not a word was spoken or a sound made.

The perfect participle and the imperfect tense should not be
confounded.

The beauty as well as the intelligence of the student was striking.

3. Connected Adjectives, — When adjectives denoting quali-
ties that belong to different things are connected, the article
should be repeated.

A black and a white horse — means two horses.

A north and a south line— means two lines.

A wise, a good, and a patient man — means three men.

There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.

The Atlantic and the Pacific ocean.

4. Connected Adjectives Relating to the Same Thing, — When
connected adjectives relate to the same thing, the article
must not be repeated.

A black and white horse — means one horse.
The yellow and red flower — means one flower.

When the modified noun is plural the sense is often

ambiguous. The black and white stockings may mean that

some of the stockings are entirely black and some entirely

white; or that each stocking: is partly black and partly white.

The same may be said of the following:

Sad and thoughtful faces were seen in the assembly.
Gold and platinum chains are expensive.

5. Articles or Plurals, — When no ambiguity results, the

modified noun may be pluralized and the articles, after the

first, omitted.

The nominative and objective cases.
The first, second, and third stanzas.

The plan of uniting the French and Spanish peoples was
abandoned.

The present, past, and future tenses are called the primary tenses.

6. Correspondent Terms, — When two phrases of a sentence
have special correspondence with each other, the article, if
used with the former, should be repeated.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5

The avalanche slid from the summit to the base of the peak. Or,
from summit to base of the peak.

I recognize neither the man nor the boy.
Both the writing and the signature are mine.

7. Special Correspondence of Adjectives. — When special cor-
respondence or contrast exists between two adjectives, the
noun should not be pluralized. ^

Both the first and the second edition are exhausted.

I want neither the sweet nor the sour fruit.

The word is used in both the nominative and the objective case.

He is familiar with the Old Testament as well as with the New.

We may, however, say:

Neither the early nor the late statutes are in force.
Both the old and the new laws are operative.

In both these cases the articles modify plurals, early
siatuteSy old laws.

8. A Series of Terms, — If an article is used with any term
of a series, it should generally be repeated before every
term, or used only with the first.

The father, the mother, a son, and a daughter were killed.

English nouns have three cases: the nominative, possessive, and
objective.

English nouns have three cases: the nominative, the possessive, and
the objective.

The repetition of the article has the effect of emphasis,
and for this reason the third sentence is preferable to the
second.

9. Words Formally Defined. — The article the should pre-
cede any singular noun used to represent a genus or class of
natural objects.

The horse is a mammal with solid hoofs.
The diamond is the hardest of gems.

10. No Article After Sort, Kind, and Species. — The article
a or an should never be used after sorty kind, species^ and
words of similar import.

The lime is a kind of lemon (not a lemon).
That bird is a sort of hawk (not a hawk).

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

I cannot use that variety of apple.
He was a sort of overseer or director.
What manner of man is he?
What fashion of hat did he wear?

The expressions those sort, those kind, which we frequently
hear, are inexcusable vulgarisms.

11. Titles, and Names Regarded as Mere Words, — When
titles are mentioned merely as titles, or when names of
things are employed merely as names or words, no article
should be used before them.

The employes all call him President.

Should a teacher address a pupil as boy?

He deserves the title of gentleman.

Cromwell assumed the office of Protector.

The highest official rank in the state is that of governor.

Remember that oak, pine, and ash are names of classes of objects.

12. Comparisons and Alternatives, — In comparisons or
alternatives, with two nouns both referring to the same
person or thing, the article should not be used before the
second noun; but if both nouns refer to different persons or
things, the article should not be omitted.

He is a better scholar than teacher — means one person.

He is a better scholar than the teacher — means two persons.

I should rather have an orange than an apple.

The e'arth is a sphere or globe; or more exactly, it is a kind of
flattened sphere.

An adjective is a word used to modify the meaning of a noun or a
pronoun.

The verb or action word is inflected for person and number.

13. Antecedent of Relative in Restrictive Clauses. — The
article the, or some other word more strongly definitive,
such as this, that, these, those, is usually required before the
antecedent of the relative in a restrictive clause.

All the money that is stored in the Bank of England would not
tempt him.

The guns that were used in the Revolution were clumsy affairs.
Those actions which require an apology were better unperformed.
The thoughts (that) we are thinking our fathers would think.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 7

14. Nouns Made Definite by Modifiers, — When added
modifiers render the use of a noun concrete and definite,
the article the should usually precede the noun.

She was a great favorite at receptions.

She was a great favorite at the receptions in Washington.

Here, the modifying phrase in Washington makes the
word receptions have a definite or concrete meaning. In
the first sentence receptions in general are meant.

15. Verbal Nouns, — The article the is regularly required
in the frequent construction that consists of a verbal noun
ending in ing, followed by of; if the preposition of is omitted,
the article should not be used.

The raiswg of children is a great responsibility.

The signing of a note has ruined many a man.

In giving out the hymn, he made a mistake in the number.

The boy was reproved iox paying no attention.

In the last two sentences the words in Italics are parti-
ciples; in the first two, raising and signing are verbal nouns.
This construction is awkward and frequently ambiguous.

16. Proper Navies in the Plural, — The definite article
almost always precedes proper names of plural form and
meaning, such as the names of mountains, nations, tribes,
religious sects, and proper names used typically.

the Alps, the Romans, the Japanese, the Wesleys, the Caesars

17. Both and Few, — The definite article the is omitted
after both^ except before contrasted nouns.

Both men were guilty. Not^ Both the men, nor Both of the men.
Both sides were worn smooth.

We may say, however,

Both the men were busy, but all the boys were idle.

Here men are contrasted with boys.

The word few may or may not be preceded by an article,
the meaning being different for each usage.

Few that we bought were good.

Only a few could be used.

The few birds we saw were beyond the range of our g^ns.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

§19

THE NOUN

7. Sing^ular Nouns. — There are some thousands of
nouns in the English language that are permanently singu-
lar. They can take neither the indefinite article nor,
without change of meaning, the plural form. Some of these
singulars are the following:

1. The constituents of the globe; as, wood^ fliniy sulphur^
ztnCy tin, lime, water, oxygen, air,

2. The raw material of commerce; as, jutey oakuniy cotton^
marble, wheat, beef, potash,

3. Many of the products of manufacture; as, alcohol y paper ^
sugary canvas, gunpowder, starch, linen, thread, varnish,

8. Professor Bain's Plurals. — In his **Higher English
Grammar," Professor Bain gives a list of nouns that, he
says, are used only in the plural. Inasmuch as he is recog-
nized throughout the English-speaking world as an eminent
authority on our language, we give his list. It should be
stated, however, that good usage in Great Britain and good
usage in the United States are not always the same.

aborigioes

filings

premises

amends

forceps

proceeds

annals

gallows

scissors

antipodes

hustings

shambles

archives

ides

shears

ashes

lees

snuffers

assets

matins

spectacles

banns

measles

sulks

barracks

molasses

thanks

bellows

mumps

tidings

billiards

mustaches

tong^

bowels

news

trapping^

breeches

nones

trousers

calends

nuptials

tweezers

credentials

obsequies

vespers

drawers

odds

victuals

dregs

pincers

vitals

entrails

pliers

wages

9. Remarks on the Foregoing Ijlst. — The following
singulars are in use with the same meaning as their plurals

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9

in the foregoing list: antipode^ archive^ asset, bowel, credential ,
hustingy measle, trapping, thank.

News as a plural is no longer in good use. The plural
forms measles, mumps^ odds, gallows, alms, and amends are
sometimes treated as singulars.

We may say, Billiards are expensive, or Billiards is a game
requiring much practice. It is better, however, to avoid
debatable usage whenever possible; thus, The game of
billiards is one that requires much practice.

IVagts was formerly a singular, but its singular, wage, has
recently been revived and much used, so that wages is now
fully established as a plural.

10. Some Other Plural Forms. — Names of sciences
or of subdivisions of sciences often appear in the plural
form. Some examples are:

athletics, mathematics, physics, optics, politics, ethics, polemics,
statics

To treat these words as singulars is regarded as better
than to construe them as plurals. Occasionally, however,
we meet mathematics and athletics as plurals, the usage being
perhaps due to the fact that the former comprises many dis-
tinct subjects with specific names; as, arithmetic, algebra, etc.;
and that athletics is a collective name of many varieties of
physical exercise. In defining the word mathematics, the
**Standard Dictionary** treats it as a singular — **Mathematics
embraces pure mathematics and applied mathematics.** Pro-
fessor Bain says that all nouns in ics that are the names of
sciences should be treated as singulars, and the greater
weight of authority seems to favor his view.

When the word means denotes an expedient or instrument,
it is singular; but when it refers to income, it is plural.

Wealth should be regarded, not as an end, but as a means to
an end.

My means do not admit of a house so expensive.

The word summons is always singular.
A summons was sent by the magistrate.

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

There has always been much disputing as to whether
United States should be regarded as singular or as plural.
Before the Civil War the name was plural. The Union was
then considered by many to be merely a loose aggregation
of political units. Since that time, it has been urged that
inasmuch as the states have been firmly united, United States
should be singular. This view, however, has been aban-
doned. All state papers, and even the language of the
decisions of the Supreme Court, use the name of the country
as plural.

11. The Plural of Compound Nouns. — The plural of
compound nouns is usually formed by inflecting the prin-
cipal noun.

sons-in-law, step-children, courts- martial, knights-errant, hangers-
on. man-clerks, man-milliners, chimney-corners, maid-servants, three-
per-cents

In King James' translation of the Bible, man-servants
and men-servants are both found, but the former is now pre-
ferred; the same may be said of ivoman-servayits and women-
servants. There is good authority for writing without
hyphens compounds that have man and woman as their first
element.

An eminent authority suggests that ma/e and female as the
first element of such compounds would prevent all doubt and
dispute. Thus, male clerks^ female servants^ male birds^ etc.

The **Standard Dictionary" authorizes both attorney'
generals and attorneys-general ^ giving preference to the former.

After a compound has become solid by the disappearance
of the hyphen, its plural is formed regularly.

cupfuls, bucketfuls, manstealers, manslayers, outpouring^

1 2. Fomlnlnes in «w and /jr. — About the middle of the
last century there were in good use a great many feminine
nouns ending in ess or ix. Only a few of them have any
currency at present. Instead of authoress, poetess, patroness,
etc., we are now using author. Poet, Patron, etc. as either
masculine or feminine. The titles baroness, countess, empress^

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11

duchessy viarchioness, etc. are still in good use. Besides
these, we occasionally meet in modern literature heiress^
goddess^ hostessy Jewess, actress, enchantresSy governess, mistress,
negress, murderess, seamstress, tigress, executrix, testatrix, and
a few others. The tendency to avoid feminines in ess and ix
is increasing.

13. Clipped Words and Slan^ir. — The clipping of
words, especially of long words, is a natural tendency of
languages. These shortened forms are at first slang, but
many of them succeed in gaining currency in refined conver-
sation, and a small percentage of them sooner or later find
admission to the company of words of the most respectable
lineage. The following are some examples of clipped words:

1. In Good Usage,

cab, from cabriolet

chum, front chamber- fellow or chamber-mate

mob, fro^n mobile vulgus (the fickle rabble)

van, from vanguard (a contracted form of the French avant guard)

fence, from defence

gin, frovt Geneva

rum, froin rumbullion

proxy, from procuracy

wag, from waghalter (deserving to be hanged)

curio, from curiosity

proctor, fro^n procurator

piano, from pianoforte

g^ll, from Gillian (i. e., Juliana)

kilo, from kilogram

2. In Colloquial Usage. — The students in our colleges and
in the naval and military academies have a rich fund of
clipped words and slang. Some of them are:

supe, for superintendent
prex, for president
prof, for professor
exam, /<7r examination
prelim, for preliminary examination

sat, unsat, bone, plug, flunk, bilge, spuds, gym, varsity, co-ed,
preps, plebe, for plebeian

Besides these, there are thousands of clipped and slang

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

words that are never seen in good composition. Some
examples are the following:

hypo or hyp, for hypochondria

ad, for advertisement

cute, for acute

pants, for pantaloons (trousers is better)

phiz, for physiognomy

gents, for gentlemen

cits, for citizens

fib, a corruption of fable

zoo, for zoological garden

loony, middy, auto, biz, coon, possum, pub, confab, phone

14. Collective Nouns. — To decide whether a collective
noun used as the subject of a verb is in the singular or in the
plural is sometimes not easy. Both the meaning of the noim
and the sentence in which it occurs must be carefully con-
sidered; its meaning may be singular and its form plural,
or the reverse may be true. Some illustrations follow.

The council were divided in opinion.
The council was in session until late.

In the first sentence the individuals composing the council
are thought of, while in the second sentence the council is
regarded as a unit.

The jury were not able to agree. -

The jury was discharged at the close of the day.

The gentry were scattered all over the country.

The gentry was the most influential body in the state.

From the preceding examples, it is clear that:

1. When a collective noun is used in a way that requires
individual action by the units that make up the collection,
the noun must be treated as plural.

The public are requested to register their names.

The congregation are invited to assemble in the lecture room.

The registering of names and the assembling of a body
of people both require individual action.

2. When a collective noun is used in a way requiring
united action, the noun must be treated as singular.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 13

The army of the invaders was defeated.

The nation has assumed a leading place among the powers of the
earth.

15. Periods of Time and Sums of Money. — Periods
of time, even when expressed in plural form, are often
treated as singular. The same is true of sums of money.

With Thee, a thousand years is as one day.
A hundred years seems a very short time.
1 was told that six dollars was still owing.
Five dollars was fair pay for the service rendered.
The last fifty years of the nineteenth century was a period of won-
derful progress.

One hundred and fifty thousand dollars was in the safe.

If, however, periods of time or sums of money are
referred to distributively, they must be treated as plural.

The last fifty years of the Roman empire were filled with disaster.
More than one hundred dollars in silver were scattered over the floor.

16. Some Apparent Plnrals That Are 8in|?ular.

Many expressions denote combinations plural in form, but
really singular. The following are illustrations:

Bread and butter is the staff of life.

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

Little and often fills the purse.

The long and the short of the matter is that you are wrong.

One king, one law, one faith was still their creed.

The power and value of English literature was thereby impaired.

The last example is from Matthew Arnold. By omitting
the article heiovQ value he shows that he regards the word as
virtually a synonym of power. The verb should, in that
case, be singular, as if the sentence were:

The power — the value— of English literature was thereby impaired.

Macaulay has the following examples and many others
like them.

All the furniture, the stock of shops, the machinery which could be
found in the realm was of less value than the property which some
single parishes now contain.

The sound, the rhythm, the modulation, the music, of the lang^uage
was one entirely new.

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

In the last sentence there are four names for the same
thing: soundy rhythm ^ vwdulatwtjy imtsic. If and had been
put before the musky the verb should have been were,

17. The Avoidance of Doubtful Construct Ions.

Constructions whose correctness is open to question should,
if possible, be avoided. This is usually easy to accomplish;
sometimes by employing a verb form that does not reveal
the number of the subject; again, by arranging the sentence
differently. Suppose that on looking over a manuscript, such
sentences as the following are found:

Cards were invented to amuse an insane king.
Two languages at once is too much to study.
• None of the invaders 7vere captured.
His remains 7vt're buried yesterday.

The three angles of a triangle are together equal to two right angles.
The most quieting news have been received.

Now, the question whether these sentences are correct or
not is of much less importance than that they should be so
written as not to lead to dispute. Recognizing the truth of
this statement, we reconstruct them as follows:

{The game of cards was invented to amuse an insane king.
Some one invented cards to amuse an insane king.
{The study of two languages at once is too great a task.
No one can, with advantage, study two languages at the same time.
The invaders all escaped capture.

{His body was buried yesterday.
They buried his remains yesterday.
The sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal, etc.

18. Omission of h From Certain Possess! ves.

There seems to be a growing tendency to simplify the
possessive singular of certain nouns ending with the sound
of s or z. The reason for this is that the regularly formed
possessive of some words is not only hard to pronounce but
it has too many hissing sounds together. However imde-
sirable it may be to vary from the general rule, there is
already excellent authority for sometimes doing so. The
most careful speakers and writers are now using such forms
as the following:

for Jesus* sake, for conscience* sake, Dickens' works

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 15

The tongue is more and more refusing to utter w6rds that
are not euphonious. The following are examples to which s
should not be added after the apostrophe:

Demosthenes* orations. Xerxes* flight, Moses' anger, Miltiades*
stratagem, Burns* poetry, Socrates' wife. Dr. Briggs' skepticism

19. The Possessive Case, or the Phrase Construc-
tion.— It is a rule that the names of unimportant inanimate
objects should not be put in the possessive case.

Thus, we should not say:

the house's roof, the street's length, the sugar's sweetness, the
triangle's base, the book*s cover

The (?/ construction is preferable:

the roof of the house, the length of the street, etc.

Where there is personification or great energy, impor-
tance, or other notable quality, the possessive construction
is admissible.

the sun's heat, or, the heat of the sun

the moon's diameter, or, the diameter of the moon

the ocean's roar, or, the roar of the ocean

the flowers' fragrance, or, the fragrance of the flowers

In all such cases the ear is the best guide.
With appositives, the of construction is to be preferred.
Thus,

the sword of Alexander the Great, nof Alexander the Great's sword
the choice of Hercules the demigod, noi Hercules the demigod's
choice

The phrase construction is preferable with names com-
pounded of several elements. The following are awkward:

the International Correspondence Schools' system of teaching; the
Merchants and Mechanics Bank's messenger; Brown, Jones, and
Smith's store; the President of the United States' inaugural; men,
women, and children's shoes

Better say:

the method of teaching employed by the International Correspond-
ence Schools; the messenger of etc.; the inaugural of etc.; shoes for
men, women, and children.

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

With shorter compounds this construction is less objec-
tionable.

the emperor of Germany's yacht, by the commander-in-chief's order

Better, however, are

the yacht of the emperor of Germany, the yacht of the German
emperor, by order of the commander-in-chief

20, Partial and Joint O^wnership. — If two or more
persons own an aggregate jointly, the fact is denoted by
making possessive only the last-mentioned name.

These are Smith and Brown's houses = These houses are owned by
the Arm, Smith and Brown.

These are John's and Henry's books = Some of these books
belong to John, the rest are Henry's.

It is better to avoid such uses of the possessive inflection.
If possible, never use a construction the meaning or cor-
rectness of which can be disputed.

21. The Possessive With Verbals. — Grammarians
have disputed much as to whether or not the following
sentence and others like it are correct: Much depends upon
the rule's being observed, and error will be the consequence
of ITS BEING NEGLECTED. No positive couclusiou seems to
have been reached, but the very fact that the construction
has been seriously questioned should be a Sufficient reason
for avoiding it. One grammar in the writer's possession
has both Its being he and Its being him. One of these forms
is certainly wrong, and both are awkward. It would not be
easy to determme with certainty the case of scholar in the
sentence, John's being a scholar was a great advantage. At
best, the construction is clumsy, and it is always possible to
substitute for it a faultless expression. The following are
additional examples:

Much depends on the river's bein^ navigable.
His going away was not expected.
We counted on his father's seeing the judge.

The nonsense about which' s having no declension needs no refutatioii.
The doctrine of the pope's being infallible is believed by many
persons.

The mistake came from the book's having been hastily printed.

§ 19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 17

The student should have no difficulty in recasting sentences
like the preceding and avoiding this questionable construction.

22, The Pluralizln^ of Mere Characters. — Symbols
or mere characters are pluralized by adding to them 's. No
period is required after them, as is the case with common
abbreviations.

The manys'jin English speech give it a disagreeable hissing effect.
The blackboard was covered with characters of all kinds: ;rV, y's^
and z's; A*j, O'j, and D's; -h'5, ='5, and V'j.

More than a dozen A. M.'s, D. D/s and LL. D.*s were present.

The names em and en, as used in printing, form their
plurals regularly, — ems, ens.

23, Omitted Objects. — If a verb is transitive, its
object should not be omitted; nor should the object of
several transitive verbs be expressed only after the last
verb. The following are illustrations:

I must at the same time caution (you) against a servile imitation of
any author whatever.

The boy bought and ate a quart of peanuts. Better^ The boy
bought a quart of peanuts and ate them.

Though you will not acknowledge, you cannot deny the fact. Say^
Though you will not acknowledge the fact, you cannot deny it.

The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure
that it is safer to err by too many short sentences. Say^ to perplex
the reader and obscure the meaning.

He simply reasons on one side of the question, and then finishes.
Better^ He reasons on but one side of the question and then closes his
argument.

24, Objectives of Time or Measure. — The following
sentences illustrate a redundant construction that is common:

The king invaded their country with an army of one hundred thou-
sand strong (omit o/, or write men for strong) .

The world must seem strange to an infant of only two or three
years old (omit of) .

He measured the distance with a rule of twenty-four inches long
(omit of, or say, a iwo-loot rule).

A lad ^/ about twelve years old was taken captive.

Let a gallows of fifty cubits high be made.

Where lies the fault that boys of ten years old cannot be made to
understand the subject?

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

25. Tlie Nominative Absolute. — The objective case
should not be used for the nominative in the independent
or absolute construction. The following sentences are from
well-known writers:

Me being young, they deceived me (say, I being young) .
Them refusing to comply, I withdrew (them should be they) .
The child is lost; and me, whither shall I go (tne should be /) ?
Oh! happy us, surrounded with so many blessings (say, we).
**Thee, too! Brutus, my son!** cried Caesar, overcome (say, thou, too).
How swiftly our time passes away; and us, how little we are
concerned to improve it (say, and we).

THE PRONOUN

26, Misuse of Pronouns With tbe Verb Be. — ^The
most common misuse of pronouns is that with the various
forms of the verb de. Indeed, it is but rarely that we meet
a person who uniformly avoids error with this construction.
We are constantly hearing such expressions as the following;

It was me. It was them.

It is htm. 1 thought it was her.

It wasn*t us. It isn't htm.

These objective case forms should be replaced by the
corresponding nominatives:

It was /. It is he.

It wasn't we. It was they.

I thought it was she. It isn't he.

27. The Pronoun and Its Antecedent. — So far as

possible, the pronoun must agree with the noim or the pro-
noun it represents — its antecedent — in person, number, and
gender. In the following examples the correct pronouns
are in parentheses:

Every one must judge of their (his) own feelings.
Every person in the family should know their (his) duty.
There is no one righteous in their (his) natural state.
His form had not yet lost all his (its) youthful grace.
In such expressions the adjective so much resembles the adverb
that they are (it is) usually regarded as such.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 19

No one will answer as if I were their {his) friend or companion.
Now these systems, so far from having any tendency to make men
better, have a manifest tendency to make Aim (ihem) worse.

When the gender of the antecedent is uncertain, or when
it includes both sexes, if a singular pronoun is required, the
masculine forms he, his, or him are to be preferred to the
double he or she, his or her, etc.

If any member of the congregation wishes to retire, he will please
to do so during the singing.

If any pupil loses his books he will be required to pay for them.

These sentences apply to both sexes; but it is better to
avoid the construction. This can usually be done.

Members of the congregation that wish to retire will please to do
so during the singing.

Pupils that lose their books will be required to pay for them.

28. Wrong or Needless Pronouns. — Superfluous pro-
nouns are of frequent occurrence.

John is a studious boy; but Charles he is idle and thoughtless
(omit he).

Or what man is there of you, whom if his son ask bread, will he give
him a stone (omit he and write who for whom) ?

Whatever a man conceives clearly, he may, if he will be at the
trouble, put it into distinct propositions and express it clearly (omit
both italicized pronouns).

John Smith, his book. Say^ John Smith's book.

// is without any proof at all what he subjoins. Better, What he
subjoins is entirely without proof.

But to that point of time which he has chosen, the painter being
entirely confined, he cannot exhibit various stages of the same action.
Better, The painter, being confined to his chosen point of time,
cannot exhibit various stages of the same action.

Whoever believeth not therein, they (he) shall perish.

29. Non-Correspondence in Number. — The singular
pronouns thou, thy, and thee should not be used with you in
the same sentence or paragraph. The following sentences
are from well-known writers:

'* Harry," said ray lord, *' don't cry; I'll %\veyou something towards
/A>f loss."

You have my book and I have thitie.

So do thou, my son: open your ears and your eyes.

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

30, Collective Nouns. — Collective nouns, unless they
denote persons as such, should not be represented by who.

The family that (not whom) I visited.

He instructed and fed the crowds that (not who) surrounded him.

Nor does he describe classes of sinners that (not who) do not exist.

When such nouns are strictly of the neuter gender, which
should represent them if the relative clause is coordinate or
resumptive; but if the relative clause is restrictive — ^is a mere
modifier — that should be used.

The committees that (not which) were appointed meet today.

The immense crowd, which (not that) included nearly every nation-
ality, surged into the exhibition grounds.

Such members of the convention that (not which) framed the con-
stitution as were willing to sign it, were admitted.

When the idea of rationality is strongly marked, who or
whom may represent the collective noun.

The conclusion of the Iliad is like the exit of a great man out of
company whom (or that) he has entertained magnificently.

31, Confusion of Antecedents. — The pronoun should
so agree with its antecedent as always to represent the
same idea, and so as not to confoimd a name with the
thing named.

The possessor should take a particular form to show its case. Better^
The name of the possessor should take etc.

Boston is a proper noun, which distinguishes it from other cities.

Here the name Boston is confounded with the city Boston.
The sentence should be recast.

So that ^h may be said not to have their proper sound (say, its
proper sound).

Time is always masculine on account of its mighty efficacy.

Here the word time is confounded with time itself.

32, The Relative T/i«f.— The relative that should, in
the following cases, be preferred to who, whom, or which ^
unless a preposition is required before the relative:

1. After a superlative when the relative clause is
restrictive.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 21

He was the first that we saw.
Saturday is the earliest date that will suit.

The Greeks were the greatest reasoners that ever appeared in the
world.

2. After the adjective same when the relative clause is
restrictive.

He is the sante man that we met yesterday.

3. After who used as an antecedent.
Who that saw him failed to be charmed?

4. After two or more antecedents that denote both persons
and things.

He spoke of the fnen and the sights that he had seen.

5. After an antecedent unmodified except by a restrictive
clause.

Thoughts that breathe and words that burn.

Theocritus sometimes descends into ideas that are gross and mean.

Music that charms the savage beast.

6. After an antecedent introduced by //.

It was money that he wanted, not food.
It was not / that he was seeking.

7. After only and all.

He was the only person that could restrain the mob.
Avoid all amusements that savor of vice.

8. After a negative.

There has never yet been a philosopher that could patiently endure
toothache.

He wrote on no subject that he did not enrich.

No man that has written so much is so seldom tiresome.

There is no i>erson that is always in the right.

Nothing that he saw pleased him.

None that deserved praise failed to receive it.

9. Analogous to the negatives are such terms as scarce,
scarcely, merely , hardly, few, rare, seldom, etc^ All these
require that in restrictive clauses.

Scarcely a day passed that did not bring misfortune.
It was merely a jest that he uttered.

22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

There was hardly a pupil that could speak correctly.
Few that went to the war returned.
Rare was the day that saw her unemployed.
Seldom did news reach us that was true.

33. Connected Relative Clauses. — When two or more
relative clauses connected by conjunctions have a similar
dependence on the antecedent, the same pronoun must be
used in each clause.

O thou who art, and who wast, and who art to come!

A noun is the name of whatever we conceive in any way to subsist,
or of whatever f not which) we have any notion.

Had he exhibited such sentences as contained ideas inapplicable to
young minds, or which (better, such as) were of a trivial or injurious
nature.

The remaining parts of speech, which are called indeclinable parts,
or that (say, which) admit of no variations, will not detain us long.

34. The Relative and Its Governing Preposition.

The relative and its governing preposition should hot be
omitted when they are necessary to the sense of the sen-
tence or to the proper connection of its parts.

He is still in the situation he was a year ago. Better y He is stilj in
the situation in which he was a year ago.

The following are additional examples illustrating this
caution:

He is in the temper of mind he was then. Say^ He is in the temper
of mind in which he then was.

In the sense . it is sometimes taken (insert in which) .

To read in the best manner it is now taught. Better^ To read in
the best manner in which reading is now taught.

Professor Bain condemns the in which construction as
**cumbrous and unnecessary** and advises that the same idea
be otherwise expressed. Instead of the above, he recommends
something like the following, which are undoubtedly better:

In his temper of mind at that time.
In the sense sometimes understood.
To read as well as the present teaching of reading will admit.

35. Conjunctive Adverbs for Relatives. — After cer-
tain nouns denoting time, place, manner, or cause, the

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 23

conjunctive adverbs whetty where ^ howy and why may serve as
relatives, unless the relative construction with which or some
other is better.

There was no titne when the nation was not ready for war.
He fell on the field where he had fought so well.
No one knew how the burglar efifected an entrance.
Can you explain why you spoke so hastily?

The first two of the following sentences are incorrect:

There is no rule given how (say, by which) truth may be discovered
(<7r, for discovering truth).

That darkness of character where (say, in which) we can see no heart.

He assigns the principles whence (or, from which) their power of
pleasing flows.

36. Kepeating tlie Noun. — If a pronoun may have any
one of several possible antecedents, the antecedent intended
should be repeated or the construction should be changed.

We see the beautiful variety of color in the rainbow, and are led to
consider the cause of it.

Here one cannot tell which of the words, variety^ color,
rainbow y is the antecedent of //. Say, the cause of thai variety,
or, We see the beautiful colors in the rainbow, and are led to
consider the cause of their variety.

Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and his descendants are called Hebrews.
Better y Isaac, Jacob, and all other descendants of Abraham are called
Hebrews.

This sentence, however, fails to say that Abraham himself
is a Hebrew. Still better y Abraham and all his descendants,
including Isaac and Jacob, are called Hebrews.

37. Place of the Relative. — To prevent ambiguity or
obscurity it is necessary to place the relative as near to its
antecedent as possible. The following sentence is faulty
with respect to the position of the relative:

He is like a beast of prey that is void of compassion.

It is not clear which of the words, he or beasiy is the
antecedent of that. The sentence should read. He that is

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 19

void of compassion is like a beast of prey. Some additional
examples follow:

It gives a meaning to words which they would not have. Better^
It gives to words a meaning that they would not have.

There are many words in the English language that are sometimes
used as adjectives and sometimes as adverbs. Say, rather. There are
in the English language many words that etc.

You are the person and not your friend that is in the wrong. Better,
You and not your friend is the person that etc.

38. The Use of But What. — The employment of hut
what for that . . . not is very common.

Think no man so perfect but what he may err.
The postboy is not so weary but what he can whistle.
He had no intimation but what the men were honest.
There is no doubt but what they will be successful.

In all these cases substitute that . . . 7iot for but what,

39. Adjectives as Antecedents. — An adjective should
never be used as the antecedent of a pronoun.

Be attentive; without which you will learn nothing. Better, Be
attentive; for without attention {or, otherwise) you will learn nothing.

In narration, Homer is always concise, which renders him lively and
agreeable. (For which write and his conciseness.)

Additional examples of this vulgarism follow:

•

Some men are too ignorant to be humble, without which they are
unteachable.

Be accurate in all you say and do, for it is important in all the
concerns of life.

They accounted him honest, which he certainly was not.

40. Sentences Used as Antecedents. — Though the
relative which may rightly have for its antecedent a phrase
or a sentence, it should never represent an indicative asser-
tion. The following sentences are therefore, incorrect:

The man opposed me, ivhich was anticipated. Better, As was
anticipated, the man opposed me.

The accent falls on the last syllable of a word, which is favorable to
the melody. (Say, thus enhancing the melody.)

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 25

The soldiers refused obedience, which has been explained. Better ^
As has been explained, the soldiers refused obedience.

Caesar overcame Pompey, which was greatly lamented. {For which,
write an occurrence that, or a triumph that. )

41. Repetition of tlie Possessive Pronouns. — The

possessive pronouns my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and
their should be repeated as often as the sense or construc-
tion requires.

The city of Scranton and its vicinity.

The husband, his wife, and their children.

Many verbs vary both their signification and their construction.

Every measure in which either your i>ersonal or your political char-
acter is concerned.

Esau thus carelessly threw away both his civil and his religious
inheritance.

42. Concord of the Antecedent and Its Pronoun.

In changing a construction so that there may be no discord
between an antecedent and its pronoun, it -is sometimes a
question which of the two to change. Thus, in the following
sentence the antecedent is singular and its pronoun is plural:

Let us discuss what relates to each particular in their order.

This sentence may be corrected either by pluralizing par-
tiailar or writing its for their; the preferable method is not
very evident — probably the former:

Let us discuss in their order what relates to the several particulars.

The following are additional illustrations of discord
between the pronoun and its antecedent:

Where all the attention of man is given to their indulgence, etc.
(change their to his or to his own; or write vten for man).

If any person is inclined to disagree, the author takes the liberty to
suggest to thetn that etc. Better, If any person is inclined to disagree,
the author takes the liberty of suggesting to him that etc.

43. The Distributives Eaeh^ Every ^ Eitlier, and
Neitlier. — These distributives are sometimes used alone,
and sometimes they are joined to singular nouns. In either
case they should be regarded as in the singular number.

Each brother saw his wealth wrested from him.
Every tree is known by its fruits.

26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

The following: sentences from Thackeray are incorrect:

Neither of the sisters were (was) very much deceived.
Neither of my brothers do (does) anything to make this place
amusing.

When these words are applied to one gender no difficulty
need ever arise.

England exi>ects every man to do his (not their) duty.
Neither sister did well in her studies.

But when two genders are implied, there is frequently much
trouble in securing proper concord. Grammarians are divided
on the question of the correctness of sentences like the
following: Every one must judge of their own feelings.
Some authorities would write for their the expression his or
her; others insist that his alone is better, for the construction
with his or her is cumbrous and awkward, and the construc-
tion with their includes only one gender.

It is best, perhaps, to avoid both constructions, which can
usually be done. If one of these faulty forms must be used,
the latter is undoubtedly to be preferred* The writer would
advise the following:

Each pupil will take his (not his or her, and not their) seat.
Every person's happiness depends in part on the respect he (not
they) meets in the world.

This accords with the general practice of including both
sexes by such terms as mankind, man, etc.

44, Pronouns Connected By Alternative Conjunc-
tion h. — When two or more pronouns of different persons
are joined by the conjunctions that denote alternation, the
concord of pronoun and verb is sometimes not easy to decide.
Doctor Latham, an eminent grammatical authority, says:
1. When the pronouns are singular and are preceded by
either or neither, the verb is in the singular, third person.
He gives the following examples:

Either he or I is in the wrong.
Neither he nor / is in the wrong.

§ 19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 27

2. When the pronouns are not preceded by either or
neither, the verb must agree with the first pronoun. His
examples are:

I ox he am iu the wrong.
He or / is in the wrong.
He or you is in the wrong.

This view, however, is strongly condemned by many gram-
marians. Professor Bain insists that the verb should agree
with the nearer pronoun, or that some uninflected verb form,
like can, must, may be, should be used, thus avoiding the diffi-
culty. The sentences might be changed as follows:

Either he is in the wrong or I am.
Neither he nor I can be wrong.
He or I must be in the wrong.
He is in the wrong or I am.
You are in the wrong or he is.

Doctor Latham's order of pronouns is inadmissible, for
polite usage will not allow such combinations as / or he, or
he or you. So that such questions of concord as are created
in the sentences given above need never arise.

45. Precedence of Pronouns. — Usage has established
a certain order of precedence in pronouns.

Pronouns represent i7ig the person addressed should come first.
Pronouns representing persons spoken of should precede pro-
nouns denoting the speaker and should follow Pronouns denoting
the Person addressed.
The following sentences will illustrate:

Were you, and he, and / all in the wrong?
TTtey and we were at the circus yesterday.
Yj^iyou and me (not /) go to the theater tonight.
Between you and me (not you and /) , it is a great secret.

In using pronouns denoting gender, very polite people
give precedence to the feminine. Even the name of the
person addressed, if a male, takes second place. This usage,
however, is not well established.

46. Either or Anf/ One; Tfie Latter or The Last.

When several things are spoken of we may refer to certain

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

of them 2iSjhe firsts the last, any oru of theniy or any of them.
When, however, only two things are concerned the proper
words are the fonncr^ the latter^ either one^ or cither of them.

Several men were tried during the forenoon; the first vtSL.^ convicted
of robbery, the last, of assault, and the others were acquitted.

Any one in that mob knew better than to aid in breaking the law.

There are many horses in the stable; you may take any one (not
either) of them.

Smith and Jones were both appointed, the former SiS, a policeman,
the latter as a watchman.

You may take either of the two packages, and I will take the other,

47. It or Tfiat. — The pronoun // is sometimes impiop-
erly used for the more emphatic that.

There was but one thing he wanted, and that (not //) was to be let
alone.

He wanted to borrow, and to pay when he pleased, but that (not
it) was more than we could permit.

48. TFi4it as au Adverb. — A very common error is the
use of that as an adverb. Even careful writers are sometimes
guilty of this blunder. The following are some examples:

I was Ihat tired I could scarcely stand.

He must not remain away from his work that long.

I do not feel able to pay that much money for the book.

In the first sentence, say so tired that; in the second sen-
tence, for that, write so long or so long as that; in the third
sentence, substitute for that much either so miuh or so much
as that,

49. Siiifirular Nouns DlBtln^iruishcd. — When two
singular antecedents connected by and are emphatically
distinguished, both the pronoun and the verb should be
singular.

The good man, and the sinner too, has his (not have their) reward.

The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his office.

The sense in which a word is used, and not the letters of which
it is composed, determines the part of speech to which the word
belongs.

50. AiiteceileiitH Preceded by Each^ Every^ and
A>>. — When two or more antecedents connected by and are

§ 19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 29

preceded by each, evepyy or no^ they are taken separately and
do not require a plural pronoun.

Every plant and every tree produces others after its (not their^ own
kind.

Each man and each boy was faithful to his pledge.

No harsh word and no cruel deed ever iails to react in some way
upon its author.

51. Antecedents of Different Persons. — When ante-
cedents are of different persons, the first person is pre-
ferred to the second, and the second to the third. The
following are illustrations:

Mary and you and / have been praised for our rapid progress at
school.

You and John have forgotten to bring your books.
He and / were on our way home.

52. Antecedents Connected by Or or Nirr. — When
antecedents are connected by or or nor, and are of different
persons, numbers, or genders, the pronoun representing them
must agree with each of them. The following sentences,
therefore, are faulty:

Either y<?A« or /am mistaken in our opinion.

Neither this man nor any other respectable person would disgrace
thefnselves by such conduct.

Every man or woman of intelligence can fairly be expected to
regulate their conduct by reason.

Better, Either John is mistaken in his opinion, or I am in
mine. In the second sentence put himself for themselves, and
in the third, put and for or,

53. Change of Pronoun. — Different pronouns are
sometimes wrongly used to represent the same person or
thing.

One is frequently astonished at the rapidity with which his money
vanishes.

The construction with one is at best vague and awkward.
The sentence above should be recast. We are frequently
astonished at the rapidity with which our money vanishes. If,

30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

however, one is retained as subject, one*s should take the
place of his. Again,

The man whose debts are all paid, whose (not his) health is good,
and whose conscience is at peace, ought to l>e happy.

If the antecedent is some one^ no one^ each one^ or every one^
the pronoun may be changed.

Ezfery one should be willing to pay his share.
Sotne one has left her purse in the seat.

A not uncommon fault in the use of pronouns is to begin
with them in one person and then suddenly change to another
person. The following will exemplify this fault:

The superintendent would say to the children that he would like
them to remain in their seats for a few minutes. If any of you are
unable to do so / wish you would raise your right hand.

54. The Omission of Necessary Pronouns. — Pro-
nouns that are necessary to the full sense are frequently
omitted. This is especially true of business and other let-
ters. Such omissions indicate scant courtesy on the part of
the writer toward his correspondent.

Referring to yours of the fifth, would-say that will be in New York
next week when expect to see you. Better^ Referring to your letter
of the fifth, I would say that I shall l>e in New York next week, and
that I shall probably see you at that time.

55. Antecedents of the Same Gender. — Ambiguity
from pronouns that refer to two or more singular antecedents
of the same gender is very common.

Henry told John that he had just seen hts father leave for the sta-
tion with his wife.

Here it is impossible to know whose father was seen, and
by whom, or whose wife accompanied.

Mary told her sister that she was to blame for the mishap to
her hat.

This is a type of verbal tangle not always easy to prevent
or undo. If the hat was Mary's and if her sister was blamed,
we might say:

For the mishap to Mary*s hat she blamed her sister.

§ld ENGLISH GRAMMAR 31

Another method of avoiding ambiguity in such cases is by
changing to direct address.

Mary said to her sister: "/ blame you for the mishap to my hat.'*
Henry said: '*John, I saw your father and mother etc."

56. Ambiguity From the Use of It. — One of the

most troublesome words in the language is the pronoun it.
This will be illustrated by some examples.

The tree was blown down by the wind; it was very high.

If the antecedent is wind, say:

The tree was blown down by the wind, which was very high (or,
ky the very high wind) .

But if tree is the antecedent of //, say:

The very high tree was blown down by the wind.

The tree, which was very high, was blown down by the wind.

The following examples are quoted by Professor Bain:

When men are thoroughly possessed with zeal, it is difificult to esti-
mate its force; but it is certain that its power is by no means in exact
proportion to its reasonableness.

The pronouns should all have the same antecedent, zeal.
This, however, is not true of the pronouns in Italics. The
sentence should read:

When men are thoroughly possessed with zeal, there is difficulty in
estimating its force; but certainly its power etc.

An event is said to be conditioned, if it is assumed that // occurs
under a certain condition.

Both pronouns should have event as their antece'dent; the
first does not. The sentence is better thus:

If the assumption is that an event occurs under a certain condition,
it is said to be conditioned.

If by happiness be meant a continuity of highly pleasurable excite-
ment, it is evident enough that this is impossible.

The pronoun is so placed in this sentence as to seem to
refer to happiness, an inadmissible reference. Say rather:

If by . . . excitement, the impossibility of this is evident enough.
Tennyson's meaning sometimes goes so deep that it is impossible to
discover it. Better, that it cannot be discovered.

32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

// being this man's business to flatter and make sermons, ii must
be owned that he was most industrious in //. Better^ This man's busi-
ness being to flatter and make sermons, it must l>e owned that he was
most industrious in his catting.

The excessive use of // is not only often ambiguous but
also awkward and inelegant.

57. AmbljJTulty of They^ Their^ and Them. — These
pronouns do not mark sex and so have the disadvantage of
often confounding persons with things..

Many of their (the Teutons') chief settlements, and among ihem our
own settlement in Britain, happened so late that we know a good deal
about ihffn.

Here it is not certain whether the last them refers to
Teutons or to settlements. Better thus:

Many of the chief Teutonic settlements, and among these our own
settlement, happened so late that we know a good deal aboiit them.

The Presbyterians were secured by the appointment of the Assembly
of Divines to reform the church after their model.

Here the antecedent of their is Presbyterians , but divines is
nearer and creates ambiguity. Better thus:

The Presbyterians were secured by the Assembly of Divines
appointed to reform the church after the Presbyterian model.

They (the Greeks) called them barbarians even though their blood
and speech were nearly akin to their own, if only the difference was
so great that M^V speech was not understood.

Here the ambiguity is not of easy remedy; the entire
construction should be changed.

THE adjt:ctive

58. Com pari sons. — In comparisons, care must be taken
to adapt the terms properly. The superlative requires that
the object to which it is applied shall belong in the class
with which the object is compared. Thus, we may say, Eve
7C(ts the fairest of 7vomeu; but not, as Milton has it, Eve was
the fairest of her daughters — a construction that makes Eve
one of her own daughters.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 33

Iron is more useful than all Ihe melals (all the other metals^ or^ any
of the other metals) .

He was the oldest of all his associates.

He was older than any olher of his associates.

Each of these sentences makes him one of his own asso-
ciates. Better thus:

He was older than any of his associates.

A fondness for show is of all olher follies the most vain.

Of all other simpletons he was the greatest.

■

Omit other from both sentences. Still better:

Fondness for show is the vainest of* follies.

He was the greatest of simpletons.

The English tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery of
afiy language in the world. Belter thus, Of all languages in the
world the English tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery.

Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children. Better thus^
more than any other of his children.

59. Ambig^iiity of Any. — The adjective any is a very
troublesome word. To illustrate:

Teacher. — John, can you solve any example in the book?
John. — Yes, ma'am, I can solve the fifth on the 45th page.

The teacher's question may mean, Is there an example in
the book that you can solve f or, Can yon solve every example
m the book? The word whatever after example makes the
meaning: to be every example. The questions should be:

John, is there in the book an (or one) example that you can solve?
John, can you solve every example {or all the examples) in the book?

60. Former and Latter. — The construction with former
and latter with backward reference should be shunned as
cumbrous and difficult. The reader is presented with two
subjects, but is not warned that the order in which they are
mentioned must be remembered; so that when he reaches
the pronouns, he must refer back to their antecedents. The
following examples, quoted from Gibbon by Professor Bain,
will illustrate this clumsy construction:

The successors of Caisar and Augustus were persuaded to follow the
example of the former rather than the precept of the latter. Better^

34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

Succeeding emperors were persuaded to follow the example of Cassar
rather than the precept of Augustus.

We have computed the inhabitants, and contemplated the public
work^ of the Roman Empire. The observation of the number and
greatness of its cities will serve to confirm the former and [to] multiply
the latter.

The backward reference here is extremely perplexing.
The meaning might be better expressed in a single
sentence:

Our statement of the population of the Roman Empire will be con-
firmed and our estimate of the public works of its great cities will be
enhanced by a consideration of the number and greatness of those cities.

61. Concord of the Adjective and Its Noun.

When an adjective is plural in meaning, the noun to which it
is joined should also be plural; when an adjective is neces-
sarily singular, it should not be joined to a plural noun.

twenty feet, not twenty foot, six feet (not foot) high, forty years,
not forty year

He has saved this (say these) pains.

The poem consists of two kind (better, kinds) of rhyme.

I have not been in London this five years (say these five years).

But it seems this literati had been very ill rewarded for their
ingenious labors. (Change this to these to secure concord.)

During that (better those) eight days we were without water.

But if the adjective and the noun are used together as an
adjective they need not agree in number. The following
cxpffcssions are therefore correct:

I l)ought a hundred-acre farm.

We measured the distance with a ten- foot pole.

Can you change a hundred-dollar bill?

Ho won the three-mile race.

<Jli, hUtvh Other and One Another. — The expression
rath othef sliould not be applied to more than two objects;
one another re(iuires more than two objects.

Shall and zvill may sometimes be substituted for each other (not one
another) .

Both orators i^se great liberties with each other (not one another).
Teachers like to see their pupils polite to ofie another (not each other).

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 35

63. Equality and Inequality. — When equality is
denied or inequality is asserted, neither term of the com-
parison should include the other.

No writings whatever abound so much with bold and animated
figures as the sacred books.

Here, the sacred books are writings. The remedy is to
insert other after 7io,

Noah and his family outlived all the people that lived before the
flood (insert other betore people) . *

Without the insertion of otAer^ the statement makes Noah
outlive himself.

We have had no grammarian who has employed so much labor
and judgment upon our language as the author of these volumes
(insert ot/ter after no).

Never was sovereign so much beloved by his people. Better thus^
Never was another sovereign so much beloved by his people.

64. Inadmissible Comparisons. — Adverbs of degree,
such as much, more, most, so, etc., must not be joined to adjec-
tives that do not admit of comparison. Double comparatives
and double superlatives should be avoided.

Such adjectives as infinite, universal, unutterable^ illimit-
able, triangular, and others of similar nature to these, should
never have joined to them an adverb of degree, giving such
combinations as the following:

so universal, more unspeakable, too triangular, most infinite, most
divine, extremely uninhabitable, exceedingly sublime

In the time of Shakespeare and later,, double comparatives
and double superlatives were in good usage, but they are not
so now. The following are examples:

That was the most unkindest cut of all.
To take the basest and most poorest shape.

We should now omit most from each of these sentences.
Additional examples are the following, which are from the
works of careful writers:

This is, I say, not the best and tnost principal evidence.
At every descent, the worst became more worse.
The power of the Most Highest guard thee from sin.

36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

65. Two or More Adjectives In Succession. — Where
adjectives in series are connected by andy or,- or nor, the
shortest and simplest should usually be placed first.

John is taller and more graceful than his brother.
It became the plainest, the richest, the most elegant, and the most
musical of languages.

But if adjectives are so much used with certain nouns
as to make combinations that resemble compound names,
the adjectives cannot be separated from the nouns with-
out affecting the sense.

An intelligent and roost beautiful young lady accompanied us.
A loquacious, irrepressible, and most tiresome old gentleman bored
us from a corner of the stage-coach.

The youth of the lady and the age of the gentleman are
emphasized somewhat by the following constructions:

A lady, young, intelligent, and most beautiful, accompanied us.
A gentleman, old, loquacious, irrepressible, and most tiresome
bored us etc.

The following are additional examples:

To receive that more general and higher instruction etc. (say,

higher and more general) .

We never had such a»^/^r opportunity (say, another such) ,

The verb hangs is a transitive active verb. (Say, an active

transitive verb.)

In this matter of the order of adjectives, the trained ear is
usually a correct guide. Herbert Spencer's dictum that the
order should be from the general to the specific — from the less
concrete to the more concrete — is valuable in case of doubt.

66. The Order of Ordinals and Cardinals. — In using
together adjectives denoting ordinal number, such as first,
last, fifth, etc., and adjectives denoting cardinal number,
such as one, six, etc., the ordinal should precede the cardinal.
Some examples follow:

The first three (not three first) verses were sung.
The first six books of the /Enext^ are extremely beautiful.
The last four (not four last) parts of speech are commonly called
particles.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 37

67. Use of Ttiem as an Adjective. — The pronoun
ikem should never be used as an adjective instead of those.
This is a gross blunder, yet it is not confined entirely to the
conversation of the unlearned. The following sentences are
quoted from several reputable authors:

Though he was not known by thetn letters, etc. (say, those letters).

In a gig or some of them things etc.

When cross-examined by them lawyers.

If you'd have listened to them slanders.

The old people were telling stories about those (not them) fairies.

68. Ttiis^ Thaty Ttiese^ Those. — These words were
formerly much used in the sense of former and latter^ but
they are rarely so employed at present. When so used,
this and these should refer to the latter of two objects
mentioned, and that and those to the former.

Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear; this (fear) is the
anticipation of evil; that (hope), of good.

Farewell my friends! farewell my foes!
My peace with thesey my love with those!

This construction is awkward and antiquated; it should
be avoided.

69. fflKde^ Lens^ Mare^ Most. — ^The adjective whole is
sometimes used erroneously as a plural in the sense of all,
and less in the sense of fewer. More and most also are often
employed, in such manner as to produce ambiguity. The
following quotations illustrate these erroneous uses:

A messenger relates to Theseus the whole (say, all the) particulars.

There are no less (say, fewer) than twenty diphthongs in the English
language.

Greater experience and more cultivated society are what he sadly
needs to perfect his manner.

Here it is uncertain whether the meaning is more society
that is cultivated, or society more highly cultivated.

No less (better, no fewer) than seven illustrious cities disputed the
right [claim'] of having given birth to {of having been the birthplace
of) Homer.

Temperance, more than (better, rather than) medicine, is the proper
means of curing many diseases.

38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

Those rules and principles are of mosi practical advantage. Better
thus: Those rules and principles are of the greatest (or highest)
practical advantage.

This trade enriched sotne people more than them.

This sentence may mean either of the following:

This trade enriched some people (say, persons) besides them.
This trade enriched some others more than it enriched them.

In speaking of aggregates of time^ weighty distance^ value^
etc., if they may be regarded as singular, whole and less are
preferable to all and fewer. The following are correct:

The whole thousand dollars was lost.

He disappeared not less than ten years ago.

She weighs less than one hundred pounds.

He went the whole (or entire) hundred miles on foot.

The river had risen not less than twenty feet.

The whole (or entire) twenty-four hours had been wasted.

70. The Use of Adverbs for Adjectives. — Certain
verbs usually require after them an adjective describing
the state or condition of the person or thing denoted by the
subject. Some of these verbs are: the various forms of
the verb to be; viz., w, arey wasy were^ has beetiy will be, etc.;
the verbs appear y seenty feely looky remain y and many others. It
is often difficult to determine whether we should use an adverb
modifying the verb, or an adjective modifying the subject.
The following sentences illustrate this distinction:

The children were hungry and thirsty.

Here the adjectives hungry and thirsty describe the state
or condition of the children.

'*How are you this morning?** *'I am nicely y thank you."

This is a gross and inexcusable blunder, yet we often hear
it, even from educated people. In some parts of the country
it has become a fixed form of answer to questions concern-
ing the health. / feel badly is frequently heard, although no
one would think of saying I feel gladly or I feel sadly. The
proper form would be the adjective bady and this word would
doubtless be in common use if it did not have two mean-
ings, one of them offensive when applied to persons. Thus,

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 39

He looks bad may refer either to physical appearance or to
moral character — he may look or appear to be ill, or he may
have the looks of a bad man. For this reason the expres-
sions looks bad^ seems bad^ is bad, etc. are not in good usage,
and they should be avoided except in conversation. Certainly,
no one ought to use such ungrammatical and indefensible
expressions as / feel badly y or she looks badly.

The word well is used sometimes as an adjective and
sometimes as an adverb, and it is often the cause of ambi-
guity. Thus, the sentence Slie looks well may refer either to
her health or to her personal appearance; that is, the sentence
may have either of the following meanings:

She looks to be in good health*.
She presents a fine appearance.

Some of these verbs are used both as active and as neuter;
in the former use, adverbs and not adjectives must be
employed with them as modifiers. The following are some
examples:

{He looked me over very keenly.
The blind man felt carefully over the table.
When he was summoned he quickly appeared.

{He looked tired and sat quiet.
The poor woman felt sad at her g^at loss.
He appeared angry at the intrusion.

Therefore, to denote a state or condition of the person or
thing named by the subject, an adjective is required with the
verb. But, if the manner in which an action is performed is
to be indicated, an adverb must be used. The following
additional examples will aid in making this distinction clear:

Shut the door tight and open the shutters wide.

Sit still and keep entirely quiet.

How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank.

The words in Italics are adjectives, each denoting the state
or condition of the person or thing denoted by the modified
word. The meaning is, Shut the door so that // shall be
tight. The verb shut has no adverbial modifier, although
it is an active verb, and is therefore capable of taking

40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

an adverb to denote the time, the place, or the manner of
the action.

Quickly shut the door tight, and then open the shutters tuide.
Sit stilt IN YOUR CHAIR and keep entirely quiet for ten minutes.

Here the words and phrases in small capitals are adverbial
modifiers.

Whether to use an adjective or an adverb with verbs of
this kind can usually be decided by a moment's thought.
Suppose there is doubt concerning such sentences as the

following:

{safe 1
- >at its destination.

He stood I ^ . >aj2^ainst all opposition.

In the first sentence, the reference is to the condition of
the package after tBe act of arrival — it is safe. The phrase
at its destination modifies the active function of the verb
arrived. Similarly, firm is the correct modifier in the second
sentence, just as safe is in the first. The verb stood denotes
a state rather than an action. In the following sentences
either of the italicized words may be used, but the meanings
will not be the same.

/nu 1 r J *i. w ** \calm and fearless.

The general faced the batterv< , , , >- , ,

' {calmly and fearlessly.

_. , - , f sweet and quiet in its cradle.
The babe sleeps { ., I - j, - -^ j,

'^ [sweetly and quietly in its cradle.

In both the foregoing sentences the adjective and not the
adverb should usually be employed.

71. Redundant Adjectives. — Inexperienced writers
are prone to use too many adjectives, and even good
writers frequently employ them with nouns in such way as
to result in tautology. William Black has desperate hopeless-
ness ^ apparently not knowing that desperate means hopeless.
The combination means hopeless hopelessness, Dickens named
one of his books ** Our Mutual Friend '' when the meaning
he intended was our friend in com man — his friend and
mine. The newspapers have many blunders of every kind;
the language of the law courts, of legislation, and that

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 41

of the departmental reports from Washington are often*
strikingly bad.

The following are some of the blunders that the writer
has noticed:

Mutual reciprocity in trade between the United States and the States
of South America.

Habitual custom of the country, usually customary; new recruits ^
old veterans (from the Latin vetus, old); heavy burdens (all burdens
are heavy); morning matins (from the French matin ^ morning);
young juvenile (La.i\n juvenilis ^ young); funeral obsequies.

Mere wealth alone is not enough.

In all these cases more words are used than are needed to
express the meaning intended. Thus, nothing is gained by
joining young to juvenile^ morning to matins^ or funeral to
obsequies; the result is tautology.

72. Misused Adjecflves and Adjective Prononns.

Careful discrimination is required in the use of adjectives.

The following are some of the many words of this class that

are commonly misused:

1. Botfi, Rcuhy Every ^ and AIL — When two persons or

things are thought of as acting or being together, of acting

harmoniously, botfi is better than eacfi. But if they act

separately, first one and then the other, or if they are

antagonistic or inharmonious, ecuh is to be preferred.

Each day as it came brought hard work.
Each of the two had his work to do, and both were skilful.
Every day of my life is fully occupied, and each day brings its
worry and disappointment.

Both sisters were beautiful, and each had many friends.

When more than two persons or things are referred to,
each is used if they are taken distributively — first one and
then another until all are taken. Every ^ like each^ takes all
without exception, but it is less specific and marks single
individuals less distinctly than does each. All considers the
units as making up a total that is treated as a unit; it takes
the units collectively, not distributively like ecuh and every.

Each person fared diflFereutly, although all were equally blamable.
All men are sinners and every man must answer for his sins.
All men love praise, but not every man deserves praise.

42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

Nothing is gained by multiplying these words. The
French say "all both of them,*' and we have in common use
such expressions as the following:

each and every one of you, one and all of them, each and all of
you. (Say, rather, each of you, every one of you, all of you.)

2. Each, Either^ and Both, — These words are frequently
confounded. Either properly means one of two, choice of
one to the exclusion of the other being usually implied. A
man may fire either barrel of a gun and reserve the load in
the other barrel; or he may fire each barrel, first one and
then the other; or, finally, he may fire both barrels, the
implication being that they are discharged simultaneously.
Either is frequently used erroneously for each or both.

There were book shelves at either (say, both) ends of the room.
Each apple was sour and both were large.

Qualities in common require both. Thus,

Both apples were large and sour.

When a farmhouse was seen on each side of the river, we frequently
landed with our wares.

Here either is the proper word.

Each horse in turn was led from the stable. I was informed that I
might choose either; but it was difficult to choose, for both were beautiful.

3. Many and Much, — Many refers to number and much
to quantity. In applying this principle, however, sums of
money, weights, and measured quantity regarded as a
singular aggregate should take much rather than mam* as
a modifier.

I think there must have been as many as a hundred guests at
the hotel.

He was willing to pay as much as one thousand dollars for the lot.

The regiment numbers as many as twelve hundred men.

We may escape many of the troubles of life by not anticipating
troubles.

The pearl divers of the East Indies are said to be able to remain
under water as much as six minutes.

4. Different ayid Another. — The conjunction than should
not be used after different in comparisons, nor the preposition

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 43

{rom instead of thariy after another. These are common
errors even among careful writers.

He was quite another man than (not from) his brother.
He was differait in all his tastes and habits from (not than) his
brother.

The use of both as and than, or so and than, in compari-
sons often results in awkward sentences similar to the fore-
going. The following are examples:

We have as much money, if not more, than they have.
He is as tall, if not taller, than his brother.

If she is not so beautiful, she is at least more charming than the
reigning belle.

These sentences would be less faulty if rearranged and
slightly changed in wording.

We have as much money as they have; {>erhaps, more.
He is as tall as his brother, probably taller.

If she is not so beautiful as the reigning belle, she is at least more
charming.

5. Above as an Adjective or a Noun, — In the language of
business, above is used both as an adjective and as a noun.
This usage is convenient, but it has the weight of the best
authorities against it.

If the above (say, foregoing) statement is correct you are in the
wrong.

Should the above meet your approval I should be pleased to hear
from you.

In every such case it is better to use one of the following
more -approved forms: the foregoing opinion, paragraph,
Proposition, etc.; the statement made or given above; the pre-
ceding suggestion; the principle stated above; etc.

6. Misuse of Only, — The word only is sometimes an
adjective, as in my only son; sometimes it is an adverb, as
in only thinking, only tired. Unless the word is correctly
placed in a sentence ambiguity results. Take for illustra-
tion the following sentence:

John's brother chided him.

44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 19

The word only may be placed in any one of several places
and for each position of the word the meaning changes.

Only John's brother chided him. (No one else chided him, or the
brother of no one else chided him.)

John's only brother chided him. (John had but one brother.)
John's brother only chided him.

The last sentence is ambiguous. It is not certain with
which of the words, chided or brother^ only belongs. If only
is a modifier of chided y the meaning is, He chided hitny but did
nothing else; but if only modifies brother y then the meaning is
very nearly the same as if only were the first word in the
sentence. Finally,

John's brother chided him only, or^ only him. (He chided no
one else.)

The rule of position of this useful but troublesome word is:

Place o7ily next to the element it is to modify; then

arrange the rest of the sentence so that no word capable

of taking ojily as a modifier shall adjoin it on the other side.

Similar ambiguity results from the misplacing of 7iot only^

not merely y not more^ bothy and not. Some examples follow:

Not only is the man tired, but he is also hungry. Better thuSy
The man is not only tired, but he is hungry.

He could not more be expected to assist than to oppose. Put not
more after assist.

All men are not willing to pay their just debts. Make not the first
word of the sentence.

7. Partially and Partly, — These words are frequently con-
founded. Partially means with partiality and partly means
not wholly. Partially is common in the sense of 7iot wholly y
but the best usage restricts the word to the meaning with
partiality.

The teacher acted partially toward her pupils.
The work was only partly done when we left.

8. The Adverb Quite, — Several incorrect phrases begin-
ning with quite are in common use. Strictly, the word
means wholly y completely; but it is loosely used with the
meaning veryy considerably. Quite a feWy quite somCy quite

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 45

a loty quite a good many, quite a number are phrases for
which no successful defense would be possible.

73. The That of Construction. — Instead of using that
of or those of in comparisons, it is usually better to repeat the
noun or some synonym (ff it. By this means we have the
advantage of the balanced structure. The following sen-
tences will illustrate:

The Knights of England found worthy rivals in the Knights of
France (not those of France) .

The history of Athens is far more pathetic than the history of Rome
(not that of Rotne) .

The king's troops at first fought better than the soldiers of Parlia-
ment (not those of) .

Though he wrote like an angel, his conversation was like that of
poor PoU. Say^ rather. Though he wrote like an angel he talked
like poor PoU.

THE VERB

74. Concord of Verb and Relative Pronoun.

When the subject of a finite verb is a relative pronoun, care
is necessary that the verb shall agree with its subject in
the person and number of the true antecedent. The follow-
ing sentence illustrates a violation of this caution:

The second book of the ^Eneid is one of the greatest masterpieces
that ever was executed by any hand.

The antecedent is not one, but masterpieces; hence, the verb
was does not agree in number with the relative. Say, ever
were executed, or still better:

The second book of the Mne\6. is the greatest masterpiece ever
executed by any hand.

Additional examples, with the corrections in parentheses,
are the following:

Except dwarf, grief, hoof, muff, etc., which takes (take) s to make
the plural.

Of these affecting situations which makes (make) man's heart feel
for man.

It is in order to propose examples of such perfection as are (is) not
to be found in the real examples of societv

46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

This letter is one of the best that has (have) been written about
Lord Byron.

The idea of such a collection of men as make {makes) an army.

75. The Modifiers of the Subject of a Verb. —The
modifiers of a subject noun do not control its agreement
with the verb.

The advance of the armies was (not were) prevented by the storm.
I, your chairman, direct (not directs) that etc.

The following quotations are erroneous, the necessary
corrections being in parentheses:

The literal sense of the words are (is) that the wrong had been done.

The mechanism of clocks and watches were (was) totally unknown.

The //, together with the verb to be^ express (expresses) states of
being.

Enough of its form and force are (is) retained to render them
uneasy.

The genera/, with his wife and eight children, were (was) expelled
from the country.

By which means the order of the words are (is) disturbed.

76. The Verb Before the Subject. — When the subject
of a finite verb comes, not before the verb but after it,
failure of agreement is common.

In the motions made with the hands consist (should be consists) the
chief part of gesture in speaking.

So by these two also is (are) signified their contrary principles.

In the first sentence, part^ a singular noun, is the subject;
the verb should therefore be singular. In the second sen-
tence, the subject principles requires the verb to be plural.
The following are additional examples; the corrections are
in parentheses:

Whence comes (come) all the powers and prerogatives of natural
beings?

What sounds have (has) each of the vowels?

But what saith (say) the Scriptures as to respect of persons?

There is (are) no data by which it can be estimated.

When there is (are) more than one auxiliary. Still better. When
there are several auxiliaries.

77. Phrase and Clause Subjects. — If a phrase, clause,
or other expression denoting one whole is used as the

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4?

subject of a finite verb, the verb must be in the third person
singfular.

To admit a God and then refuse to worship him is (not are) a mod-
ern and inconsistent practice.

The following are some examples that violate this prin-
ciple of concord:

Many are the works of human industry, w/iic/i to begin and finish
are (say, is) hardly granted to the same man.

To profess regard and to act inconsistently with that profession,
betray (betrays) a base mind.

While wheat has no plural, oats have (has) no singular.

To these are (is) given to speak in the name of the Lord.

78. Verb Between Two Nominatives. — When a
neuter or a passive verb stands between two nominatives
it should agree with the nominative that precedes.

A great cause of the. low state of industry was (not were) the
restraints put upon it.

This construction is sometimes harsh and awkward. For
example, the sentence given above, though grammatically
correct, would be smoother if written.

The restraints put upon industry were a great cause of its low state.

Additional examples follow.

The comeliness of youth are (is) modesty .and frankness; of age,
condescension and dignity.

Merit and good works is (are) the end of man*s motion.

Technical terms injudiciously introduced is (are) another source
of darkness of composition. Or, The injudicious introduction of tech-
nical terms is etc.

The United States is (are) the great middle division of North
America. Better thus, The great middle division of North America
is the United States.

Here two tall ships becomes (become) the victor's prey.

The clothing of the natives were (was) the skins of wild beasts.
Say, The clothing of the natives consisted of the skins of wild beasts.

79. Concord by Chan j?Inj< the Nominative. — Agree-
ment between a verb and its subject may often be made by
changing the number of the subject. If the verb cannot

48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

well be singular, make the subject plural; if the verb ought
to remain singular, make the subject singular. Thus,

Every one of you are earnestly urged to be present.

Make the subject plural, thus,

All of you are earnestly urged to be present.

Other examples are,

Much pains has been taken to explain the matter. (Instead of much
pains t say great care.)

Not less than three years were spent in attaining this result.

Here some singular nouns, such as time, must be under-
stood after lessy and the plural are is therefore wrong. We
may pluralize the subject thus.

Not fewer than three years were spent etc.

jyte whole (say, all for the whole) in conjunction make a regular
chain of cause and effect.

Where a series of sentences occur ^ place them in the order in which
the facts occur. Better thus^ Where several sentences occur in succes-
sion, place them etc.

And at our gate are all manner (say, kinds) of pleasant fruits.

80. Omission of tlie Nominative. — Every finite verb
not in the imperative mode should have an expressed nom-
inative, except when the verb is repeated for the sake of
emphasis, or when it is connected with another in the same
construction, or when the verb follows but or than.

The officer caught him — caught him in the very act.

Here the verb is repeated for emphasis, and the second
caug^ht does not require an expressed subject. The following
are examples of sentences with subjects omitted; the needed
words are supplied in parentheses:

Who is here so rude that (he) would not be a Roman?

Mr. Prince has a genius (that) would prompt him to better things.

There is scarcely a roan but would rejoice at the downfall of his
enemy.

There is no man (that) would be more welcome here.

No more came than were required for the work.

There were (persons) that drew back; there were (persons) that
made shipwreck of faith.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 49

This improper omission of the subject and of other neces-
sary words is common in letters:

Dear Sir: — Letter just received. Congratulate you on success of
enterprise. Expect to write you soon when will take up subject you
mention.

The needed words having been supplied, the foregoing
will read:

Dear Sir: — Your letter has just been received. I congratulate you
on the success of your enterprise. I expect to write to you again soon,
when I will take up the subject that you mention.

81. Collective Nouns as Subjects. — When the nomi-
native subject of a verb is a collective noun conveying the
idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural;
but if the noun denotes a collection regarded as a unit, the
verb must be singular.

The college of cardinals are (not is) the electors of the pope.
The army was (not were) compelled to retreat.
The school was dismissed at three o'clock.

When there" is not a distinct implication that a collective
noun denotes a singular aggregate, a plural verb is to be
preferred, or the construction should be changed in such
manner as to avoid the question of concord. Some examples
follow, with corrections in parentheses.

In France, the peasantry goes {go) barefoot; the middle sort makes
(make) use of wooden shoes.

So that all the people that was (were) in the camp trembled. (Better,
to omit the words between all and in.)

A great majority of our authors is (are) defective in manner. (Sub-
stitute most for a great majority.)

More than one-half oi the crew was (were) dead before succor came.
(They died one by one.)

In the last sentence the question of concord may be
avoided by putting perished or died for was dead. The other
sentences may be changed. Thus,

By the middle class in France wooden shoes are worn; by the peas-
antry, no shoes at all.

50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

The preceding sentence retains the balanced structure,
and is in better form than the original.

Since last year the number of school districts has increased.
Has the assembly power to prohibit the liquor traffic?

82. The Verb After Joint Nominatives. — When two
or more nominatives denoting different persons or things
are connected by and^ their verb should usually be plural.

The boldness, freedom^ and variety of our language are (not is)
remarkable.

Wherever space and time are (not is) found, there God must be.

When, however, two nominatives connected by and denote
the same person or thing, as well as when they are equiva-
lent to one name, their verb should be singular.

The hue and cry of the country pursues (not pursue) him.

This philosopher and poet was (not were) banished irom the country.
Whose icy current and compulsive course
Ne'er feels (not feel) retiring ebb, but keeps due on.

If two nominatives connected by a?id are emphatically
distinguished, they belong to different clauses and require
their verb to be in the singular.

Ambition , and not the safety of the state, was (not were) concerned.

In full, the sentence would be somewhat as follows:

Ambition was concerned; the safety of the state was not concerned.
Disgrace, and perhaps ruin, was (not were) the consequence.

When two or more nominatives connected by afid are pre-
ceded by each^ every, or ;/^, they must be taken separately,
and their verb should be singular. (See Art. 50.)

When no part of their substance and no one of their properties
is (not are) the same.

Every person and every occurrence is (not are) beheld in the most
favorable light.

Each worm and each insect is (not are) a marvel of creative power.

When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with
the nominative that precedes it, and is understood with the
others.

Honor crowns his old age, and wealth and peace.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 51

If two nominatives thus separated differ in number, the
construction is not admissible, for the understood verb will
not agree with the second nominative. Thus,

Honors crown his old age, and peace. . Better thus. Honors and
peace crown his old age.

83. Plural Verb Un suited. — When and between two
nominatives requires a plural verb, the construction is some-
times awkward or erroneous. The remedy in such cases is
to change the connective or recast the sentence.

There are safety and honor in this course.

Better than this would be any one of the following:

This course is one of safety and honor.
Safety as well as honor is in this course.
This is a course of safety with honor.

84. Affirmation With Negation. — When two subjects
or antecedents are connected, one of which is taken affirma-
tively and the other negatively, the verb must agree with
the affirmative subject and be understood with the negative.

Diligent effort, and not mere luck, brings success in this world.
Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, bring connection.

The following are quotations in which this rule of con-
struction is violated:

Prudence, and not pomp, are (say, is) the basis of his fame.
Not her beauty, but her talents, attracts (say, attract) attention.
It is her talents, and not her beauty that attracts (say, attract)
attention.

85. Tlie Conjunctions, As Well As, But, Save. — When
two subjects or two antecedents are connected by as well as,
but, or save, the verb and the pronoun must agree with the
subject that occurs first and be understood with the other.
However, if a negative precedes one of the subjects, the verb
must agree with the other. The following are illustrations
of this construction:

These principles, as well as every just rule of criticism, are founded
upon the sensitive part of our nature.

No mortal man save he (Ai>«)had e*er survived to say A^saw.

52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

The following quotations are erroneous. The corrections
are in parentheses.

Common sense as well as piety tell (tells) us these are proper.

For without it, the critic as well as the undertaker, ignorant of any
rule, have (has) nothing left etc.

But this passage, as well as the lines immediately subsequent,
defy (defies) all translation.

The last sentence is awkward. It would be improved by
and for as well as; defy would then be correct.

None but thou (thee) O mighty prince canst (can) avert the blow.
Naught save the gurglings of the rill were (was) heard. Better,
Only the gurgling of the rill was heard.

86. Subjects Taken Conjointly. — When subjects are
to be taken conjointly, so as to have a verb in the plural, the
proper connective is and and not with, together withy nor^
or, as well as, or any other. The following sentences are
therefore erroneous:

One of them, the wife of Thomas Cole, with her husband were
(was) shot down. (Say, Thomas Cole and his wife were shot down.)

The side A, with (and) the sides B and C, compose the triangle.

The stream, the rock, or (and) the tree must each of them stand
forth etc.

Sobriety, with great industry and talent, enable (enables) a man to
perform great deeds.

There Leonidas, the Spartan king, with (and) his chosen band
fighting for their country were cut off to the last man.

87. Distinct Subject Phrases. — Two or more distinct
subject phrases connected by and require a verb in the plural.

This picture of my friend, and This picture of my friend* s suggest
very different ideas.

The following are erroneous:

To promise and to ]>erform is (say, are) very different.

To spin and to weave, to knit and to sew, was (say, were) once a
girl's employment; but now, to dress and [to] catch a beau is (are)
all she calls employment.

To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small,
and to be moved swiftly or slowly, is (are) all equally alien from (to)
the nature of thought.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 53

88. Subjects Connected by Or or Nor. — When a verb
has two or more subjects connected by or or nor it must
agree with them singly, not conjointly. If the subjects are
of different persons or numbers, and if they are of equal
importance, the verb must agree with the nearer.

Nor eye, nor listening ear an object finds; creation sleeps.
Neither you nor he was to blame.

The definite article the designates what particular thing or things
are meant.

It should be stated that when two or more nominatives
differ in person or number, the second principle given above
often leads to constructions that are extremely awkward.
It is usually better in such case to recast the sentence.

Neither he nor / am fully satisfied. Say^ rather^ He is not fully
satisfied, nor am I.

Similarly, the second sentence above should be,

You and he were alike blameless. You were not to blame, nor
was he.

The following quotations violate the principle stated above:

We do not know in what either reason or instinct consist (consists).

In the different pronunciations which [that] habit or caprice give
(gives) rise to. Better thus, In the different pronunciations to which
habit or caprice gives rise.

Neither knowledge nor eloquence preserve (preserves) the reader
from weariness.

Their riches or poverty are (is) generally proportioned to their
activity or indolence.

Recast the sentence, thus:

In proportion to their activity or indolence is in general their riches
or poverty.

My lord, you wrong my father; nor he nor I are (am) capable of
harboring a thought against your peace.

The last sentence can be improved thus:

My lord, you wrong my father; he is not capable of harboring a
thought against your peace. (The disclaimer of the son should be in
a separate sentence.)

If the subjects connected by or or nor are phrases, the

54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

verb must be singfular, and if a nominative comes after the
subject phrases, it also must be singular.

To give an affront or to take one tamely are not marks (say, is not a
mark) of a great mind.

To reveal secrets or to , betray one's friends is (not are) con-
temptible perfidy.

Neither to live in such families nor to have such servants is {not are)
blessings (a blessing) of God.

It is better to recast the sentence, thus:

It is not a blessing of God either to live in such families or to have
such servants.

89. Repeat the Subject or Insert a New One.

Unless verbs are alike in mode, tense, and form, it is better
that each verb should have an expressed subject. In the
following sentence the verbs are all concordant, hence the
subject need not be repeated.

So Sennacherib, king of Assyria, departed^ and went^ and returned^
and dwelt at Nineveh.

The following sentences, however, require the nominatives
that are given in parentheses:

He was greatly heated and {he) drank with avidity.

A person inay be great or rich by chance, but cannot be wise or
good without taking pains for it (say, no one can be wise etc.).

H is only an aspiration or breathing; and sometimes at the begin-
ning of a word {it) is not sounded at all.

Man was made for society, and {he) ought to extend his good-will
to all men.

Were you not affrighted, and mistook {did you not mistake) a spirit
for a body?

The amputation was exceedingly well performed, and {it) saved the
patient's life.

90. The False Passive, — A verb is active when its sub-
ject represents the actor; it is passive when its subject repre-
sents the receiver of the action^ The following are examples:

The sun lights the world.
Active The farmer bought a farm.

The teacher will explain the example.

{The world is lighted by the sun.
A farm was bought by the farmer.
The example will be explained by the teacher.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 56

These are the only forms in which verbs can be used.
There are, however, a few verbs that are frequently but
erroneously employed in another way.

John was sent a copy of Tennyson's poems by his sister.
The boy was told a great secret by his playmate.

The passive verbs in the two sentences given above seem
to have objects — copy and secret. But passive verbs never
have objects, so that the sentences are incorrect. They
should be written:

(John's sister sent him a copy of Tennyson's poems.
A copy of Tennyson's poems was sent to John by his sister.
{The boy's playmate told him a great secret.
A great secret was told to the boy by his playmate.

Other examples of this erroneous construction are:

He was offered a week's vacation.

The farmer was sold some beautiful meadow land.

Jennie was promised a reward for diligence.

They were denied the privilege of landing.

We must be allowed the privilege of making our own laws*

Many persons are paid handsome salaries for doing nothing.

91. Passive Verbs Wronj<ly Transitive, — Passive
verbs should never be made to govern the objective case.

His female characters have been found fault Tvith as insipid. Better
thus^ His female characters have been condemned.

The disturbances have been put an end to. Better^ The disturb-
ances have been suppressed.

The idea has not for a moment been lost sight of by the Boards
Recast, The Board has not for a moment lost sight of the idea.

It was voted that the widows and orphans should be taken care of*.
Recast^ It was voted to care for the widows and orphans.

92. Mixture of Styles. — It is always inelegant to use
the solemn and the familiar style in the same sentence or even
in the sanfie paragraph. The following are some examples:

What appears tottering and in hazard of stumbling produceth (pro-
duces) in the spectator the painful emotion of fear.

For if it be in any degree obscure, it puzzles and doth not please
(displeases) .

This truth he wrappeth (wraps) in an allegory and feigns that etc.

56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

93. Confusion of Modes. — To use different modes
under precisely similar circumstances is a serious blemish
even when the verbs have separate nominatives.

If one speak {speaks) and another answers^ it is quite the same.

If one man esteem {esteems) one day above another, and another
esteemeth {esteems) every day alike, etc.

Should you come up this way and I am still here, you need not be
assured how glad I shall be to see you.

This sentence is better in either of the following ways:

If you cofne up this way and I am still here, etc. Should you came
up this way and should I still be here, etc.

If a man have a hundred sheep and one of them is gone astray, etc.

94. Omission of Parts of Verb Plirases. — When two
or more verb phrases are connected, such parts of them as
are not common to all the phrases should be inserted in full.
After the auxiliary do, however, this insertion is sometimes
unnecessary. The following is therefore correct:

And then he falls as I do.

Some examples of improper ellipses follow:

I think myself highly obliged to make his fortune as he has mine
{has made mine) .

Every attempt to remove them haSy and likely Tvill prove unsuccess-
ful {has proved).

Which they neither have nor can do {have done nor can do) ,

95. Misuse of the "Verb Do. — The verb do is often
used erroneously for verbs to which its meaning is not
suited. It is usually better to repeat the first verb unless
such repetition would be awkward.

And I would avoid it altogether if it could be done {avoided) .

Besides making a deeper impression than can be done {made) by
cool reasoning.

Yet a poet, by the force of genius alone, can rise higher than a
public speaker can do {rise).

The pupil should commit the first section thoroughly before he does
{begins or undertakes) the second.

96. Verbs With Future Reference. — Verbs of com-
manding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intending, wishing,
and the like, usually refer to actions and events in the future.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 57

Care must be exercised to have the concord of tenses cor-
rect. Even careful writers blunder with these verbs. We
should say,

I meant to go, noi, I meant to have gone.

We hoped you would come, «^/, We hoped you would have come.

Some quotations that are erroneous follow:

I found him better than 1 expected io have found {to- find) him.
He would not have been allowed to have entered {to enter).
We planned to have arrived (to arrive) last night.

97. Concord of Tenses. — When words denote time,
whether they are nouns, adverbs, or verbs, care should be
observed that there may be a proper sequence of time and a
concord of tenses. Thus, we may say, / have seen him today ^
but not, / have seen him last week. The following will illus-
trate this point more fully:

I have already told you, not, I told you already.

I finished my letter (not had finished) before the postman came.
(7r, I had finished my letter when the postman came.

From what has been [was) formerly known.

Arts were of late (have been) introduced among them.

I continued to work until the present moment (say, have continued) .

They have anciently done (say, anciently did) a great deal of hurt.

Wliat I believe was hinted once already. Better, What I believe has
already been once hinted.

I expected, from the promises of the noble lord, to have seen the
banks paying in gold (say, to see).

98. The Universal Present Tense. — Certain things
are always true. Facts of this kind should be expressed in
the present tense.

He said that the square of six is thirty-six (not was).
It is said that honesty is (not was) the best policy.

The following quotations are erroneous:

Two young gentlemen have discovered that there was (say is) no God.
The ancients asserted that virtue was (is) its own reward.
I have already told you that I was (say, am) a gentleman.

99. Omission of To Before the Infinitive. — After
the active forms of the verbs bid^ dare, feel, hear^ let, make^
need, see^ and their participles, to, the sign of the infinitive, is

58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

usually not required; the same is the case after the imperative
please used in polite requests. After other verbs to should
always precede the infinitive. Some examples follow:

They bade him enter (not to enter),
Darest thou now, Cassius, leap (not to leap) into etc.?
We felt them push (not to push) against the door.
Pharaoh would not let the children of Israel ^(t? (not to go).
Please exipXsiXn this example, or Please to explain etc.

The following quotations are erroneous:

I have known lords abbreviate almost the half of their words (say, to
abbreviate) .

So as neither to embarrass or weaken the sentence (say, nor to
weaken).

Their character is formed and made appear (say, to appear).

When the passive forms of these verbs are followed by an
infinitive, to is required before it.

He was bidden to enter the house.
We were dared to engage in battle.
They were heard to call for assistance.

There are many exceptions to the foregoing usage.

100. The Verb Bill, Meaning to Offer or to Promise.

When bid means to offer or to promise, and is followed by
an infinitive, to should be inserted.

The boy bids fair to become a fine scholar {bids (air = promises).
Both of the merchants bid high to get the goods (bid high = offered
a high price).

101. Tlie Verb I>are» — When the verb dare is an infin-
itive and has another infinitive following it; also when it has
an objective noun or pronoun, to must not be omitted.

What power so great to dare to disobey f
He dared me to enter the lists against him.

Also, if the verb dare has an auxiliary and is followed by
an infinitive, the sign to should be inserted.

Who would dare to molest him ?

Some would even dare to die for a friend.

Do you dare to prosecute such a creature?

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 69

When dare is in the present tense, the insertion of to is
sometimes admissible.

Those whose words no one dares to repeat.
The man who dares to be a wretch.

102. The Verb FeH. — To after feel is omitted only
when the verb is used transitively and when it refers to a
physical sensation. But when this verb is used intransi-
tively with reference to a mental state, to should be inserted.
The following examples illustrate these differences:

I felt something sting me. 1

I feel it move. > Physical sensation

I felt around to find the door. J

I felt ashamed to ask.l .. ^ , ^ ..
- ^ , , , X > Mental state

I feel glad to see you. J

103. The Verb Make. — It is often correct to insert to
after make used transitively.

He makes the excellence of a sentence to consist in four things.
He could make the dumb to speak and the lame to walk.
Man was made to mourn.
A pupil should be made to obey his teacher.

When, as in the third sentence, the verb made means created^
the infinitive following it denotes purpose, and to must be
inserted.

Some persons seem to have been made only to prey on others.

104. The Verb Nee€l. — There seems to be equally
good authority both for the omission and the insertion of
to after need. In the emphatic construction with do or did it
is usually better to insert the sign to of the infinitive. The
following sentences are all correct:

He need not worry about the mishap.

One does not need to wonder about the event.

Their sex need not be marked.

They do not need to be specially indicated.

yjte, need only to mention the facts of the case.

No person needs to be informed of what has happened.

60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

In the last example, needs is in the third person singular.
There is good authority for both need and needs in this person
and number. Thus,

Moral instruction needs not to have a more prominent place (or need
not have) .

105. The Verb See. — When see has an objective noun
or pronoun after it, an infinitive following requires the
omission of to; but when it is used intransitively, to should
be inserted. Thus,

I saw him whip his horse most cruelly.

It was so dark that we could not see to write.

106. The Verbs Have^ Heipf and Find. — Good
authorities use the infinitive both with and without to after
the verbs have^ help^ and find. The preference, however, is
that to should be inserted.

I will have him sing (or to sing) at your concert.
Will you help him solve (or to solve) the problem?
You will find the difficulty disappear (or to disappear) in a
short time.

107. Participles From Transitive Verbs. — The

preposition of should not be used after participles derived
from transitive verbs. The following are some examples
illustrating this erroneous usage. The of in each case
should be omitted.

preaching of reipenXsiTiQe, keeping of one day in seven
In forming of his sentences he was very exact.

The Arabians exercised themselves by composing of orations and
poems.

After verbal nouns derived from transitive verbs of is
required before a noun or a pronoun in the objective case.
This construction, although grammatically correct, is nearly
always harsh and is often ambiguous.

There was no withstanding ofhlvn.
The mixing of them makes a miserable jumble.
The action took place prior to the taking place of the other past
action.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 61

Better constructions of the foregoing are,

He could not be withstood.

A miserable jumble results from mixing them. '

The action preceded the other past action.

108. Adjective After Verbal Noun. — Grammarians
condemn the construction in which an adjective follows a
verbal noun. Neither should an adjective phrase occur after
a verbal noun.

Our belief in a thing's being possible is sometimes not warranted.
Better thus. Our belief that a thing is possible etc.

His being afraid was clearly evident. Say^ That he was afraid was
clearly evident; or^ It was clearly evident that he was afraid.

Being unity out of season is one sort of folly. Say^ One sort of folly
is to be witty out of season.

His being in debt was the excuse g^ven. Say^ The excuse g^ven was
that he was in debt,

109. Compound Verbal Nouns. — Verbal nouns that
consist of more than one word are inelegant, and should
therefore be avoided. Some examples follow:

The being abandoned by our friends is deplorable.
Our being made acquainted with pain and sorrow has a tendency to
bring us to a settled moderation.

He mentioned a boy's having been corrected for his faults.
The having been slandered was no fault of Peter's.

Better:

It is deplorable to be abandoned by our friends.
Acquaintance with pain and sorrow has a tendency to bring us to a
settled moderation.

He mentioned that a boy had been corrected for his faults.
That Peter has been slandered is not his fault.

110. Substitutes for the Participle. — It is a good
rule not to use a participle where an infinitive, a verbal
noun, an ordinary noun, or a phrase will better express the
meaning. The following are examples of this faulty con-
struction:

But placing an accent on the second syllable of these words would
entirely derange them. Belter, To place an accent etc.; or. The
placing of an accent etc.; still better. An accent placed on etc.

She regrets not meeting him.

62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

This sentence is ambiguous, for it may mean either of the
following:

She regrets that she did not meet him.

She does not regret that she met him.

A severe critic might point out some expressions that would bear
being retrenched (bear retrenchment) .

But Artaxerxes could not t^Ims^ pardoning him (to pardon him).

It is often useless to attempt proving that a certain thing is right.
Better^ The attempt to prove that a thing is right is often useless.

111. Participles After the Verb To Be. — A par-

ticiple instead of a nominative after be, zsy was^ etc., results
in an expression that may be mistaken for a verb phrase.

Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thought.
Purity is using rightly the words of our language.
It would be losing time to attempt to illustrate it further.
Spelling is combining letters to form syllables and words.

All the foregoing sentences should be recast.

Irony is the use of words to convey a meaning contrary to our thought.
Purity is a right use of the words of our language.
It would be a loss of time to attempt to illustrate it further.
Spelling is the combining <;/ letters to form syllables and words.

112. Verbs of Preventing. — Verbs of preventing
should not be followed by a verbal in mg used as if in the
objective case. If a verbal follows, the preposition from
should be inserted before it. The following are erroneous:

I endeavored to prevent letting him escape (say, to prevent his
escape; or, to prevent him frotn escaping) .

We tried to prevent it bursting out with open violence (say, to
prevent it from bursting out with open violence) .

Yet this does not prevent his being great (say, prevent him from
being great) .

Does the present action hinder your being (hinder you from being)
honest and brave?

113. The Dangrlin^ Participle. — In every sentence
containing a participle there should be a word to which the
participle belongs as a modifier. If this is not the case, we
have a dan^lin^ participle. Some examples follow:

By establishing good laws our peace is secured.
There will be no danger of spoiling their faces.

§19 ENGLISH GkAMMAk 63

yiewing them separately, different emotions are produced.
Proceeding from one particular to another, the subject grew under
his hand.

Having finished his speech, the assembly dispersed.

The remedy for these errors is to reconstruct the sentences.

By establishing good laws we secure peace.
They will be in no danger of spoiling their faces.
When they are viewed separately, different emotions are produced.
As he proceeded from one particular to another, the subject grew
under his hand.

His speech having been finished ^ the assembly dispersed.

114. Verbals Used With Nouns. — It is inelegfant to
use verbals and nouns together, especially when they are
used in the same way. Thus,

Of denotes possession or belonging (say. otvnership) .
Some verbs denote dction or doing; some others, passion or suffer^
ing. Belter ihus^ Some verbs denote action; others, passion.

115. The Split Infinitive. — By split infinitive is meant
a construction in which an adverb or an adverbial phrase is
placed between the sign of the infinitive and the verb. The
following are examples:

to carefully examine, to better accomplish, to not forget, to rapidly
retreat

Prof. A. S. Hill in his Foundations of Rhetoric** speaks
of **the common fault of putting an adverb or an adverbial
phrase between to and the infinitive — words so closely con-
nected that they should not be separated.**

Continuing, he says: **Its prevalence has led some students
of language to insist that good use sanctions, or at least
condones, the practice of putting adverbial expressions
between to and the infinitive; and one well-known scholar
has adduced what at first sight seems a formidable array of
citations, ranging from the time of Wycliffe to the present
day. On examination, however, it turns out that the names
of some of the highest authorities on a question of good use
[usage] — Addison, Goldsmith, and Cardinal Newman, for
instance — are conspicuous by their absence, and that each of
several other authors of highest repute is represented by

64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

only one example .... On the other hand, unpracticed
writers are precisely those who are most ready to misplace
their adverbs.

**C)ne thing to be said in favor of caging an adverb between
to and the infinitive is that a writer can thus, with least
trouble to himself, show that the adverb and the verb belong
together. This consideration, which does not affect writers
who know their business, would, even if good use [usage]
were divided, be more than counterbalanced by the harshness
of the construction, and by the danger that soon we may
have expressions like Herrick's ^to incense bur^i,^

**On the whole, the safest conclusion still seems to be that
arrived at in the text, namely, that a careful writer ^yill do
well to avoid the construction which places the adverb
between to and the infinitive.*'

De Vinne, in his **Correct Composition,** says: **In some
printing houses the reader is ordered by the master printer
never to pass a split infinitive, as in this sentence:

The dog had been trained at a given signal to immediately raise
himself on his hind legs.

The infinitive to raise must be kept together, and imme-
diately may be put before or after the verb, as euphony
dictates. Tlie change is needed for good English; but there
are writings in which the author purposely splits the infini-
tive to show an ordinary colloquialism.**

The split infinitive has always been condemned by the
best authorities as awkward and generally harsh. The
** Saturday Review** mentions this construction as **The vile
fashion of the split infinitive. Pray flog it out of all pre-
sentable literature.**

Some examples follow:

The soldiers of the guard refused to longer fight (say, to fight longer^.
His father directed him to instantly relurti (say, to return instantly,
or at once) .

The question is whether he will pledge himself to loyally and faith-
fully support the candidate of the party. Better, to support the
candidate of the party loyally and faithfully.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(PART 8)

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION

(Conttnued)

THE ADVERB

1. Posttion of the Adverb. — Ambiguity, or even
entire failure to express the writer's meaning, often
results from misplacing an adverb. There is no estab-
lished place in the sentence for this part of speech; in
general it should be put where it will render the meaning
clear and the sound agreeable. An adverb should not stand
between two words if it may be taken as the modifier of the
one as readily as of the other. The following are some
examples of erroneous position of the adverb, with correc-
tions in parentheses:

We are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author, though
every word which he uses be not precise and exact (though noi every
word that he uses is precise and exact).

All that is favored by good use is not proper to be retained. (Not
alt that is favored by good usage is proper to be retained.)

Most men dream, but all men do not, (Most men, but not all
men, dream.)

The words must he generally separated from the context. (Generally^
the words must be separated from the context.)

They must be viewed exactly in the same light (viewed in exactly
the same light).

2. Adverbs lii Place of Adjectives. — Adverbs are
often used wrongly instead of adjectives; especially when

For notice of copyright, see Page immediately following the title Page

119

66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

state or quality, and not manner, is to be expressed. Some
examples of these errors are quoted below:

The now copies of the original text are entire (the present copies).

The arrows of calumny fall harmlessly at the feet of virtue (fall
harmless) .

Motion upwards is commonly more agreeable than motion down-
wards. (Upward moixon . . . downward motion.)

This construction sounds rather harshly (sounds rather harsh).

It is the often doing of a thing that makes it a custom. (Recast the
sentence thus: Frequent repetition of the same act results in the
formation of a habit.)

The adjective is put absolutely, or without its noun (put absolute).

3. Adverbs Witli Verbs of Motion. — In formal com-
position, strict propriety requires with verbs of motion
hit her y thither, and 7v hit her rather than here, there ^ and
where. In ordinary conversation the former three adverbs
are rarely heard.

Whither are you going?

He has gone thither.

Come hither y my pretty maid.

It is reported that the governor will come here (come hither)
tomorrow.

He sometimes gets a prospect of that lovely land where (whither) his
steps are tending.

When we left Cambridge, we intended to return tfiere (thither) in
a few days.

4. Fro^n Before Hetice^ Thence^ and fflience. — The

expressions from hence, from thence, and {rom whence are
tautological, for from is implied by each of these adverbs.

He went to the office and thence (not from thence) home.
From whence (whence) we may depart for the Holy Land.
They returned to the city frotn whence they came out. (They
returned to the city whence they came.)

Who are you, and whence (nqt frofn whence) come you?
Frofn hence (omit from) he concludes that a constitution etc.

5. The Adverb JTow. — The adverb ho7v should not be
used before the conjunction that^ nor as a substitute for lest^
that notf or that.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 67

He declared how {that) he would triumph in the end.
You see how that (that) not many wise men or good men secure
political office.

Be careful how you offend him {that you do not).

6. The Adverbs Ulien, While^ and Where. — After the
verb is in definitions, when^ while^ or where should not be
used to introduce a noun clause.

The reason for this rule of composition is that 7vhai and
while denote identity in time, and where denotes identity
in place; but a definition requires identity in being, which
amounts to substantial equivalence.

Concord, in g^rammar, is when one word agrees in some respect
with another. Better, Concord, in grammar, is the agreement ^ in some
respect, of one word with another.

Bombast is when high-sounding words with no meaning are used.
Say, Bombast is the use <?/ high-sounding words etc.

Metonymy is where the cause is put for the effect etc. Say,
Metonymy is a figure of rhetoric that consists in putting etc.

Fusion is while some solid substance is converted into a fluid by
heat (Fusion is the conversion o/'etc).

7. No Used for NoU — The adverb no should not be used
with reference to a verb or a participle as a substitute for not.
Some examples of this erroneous usage follow:

I do not know whether I shall go or no {not).

We must work whether we will or no {not).

He cares not whether the world was made for Caesar or no {not) .

8* Double 'Se^^tiYes, — A negation should contain but
one negative word; if two negatives are used in the same
clause, they usually contradict each other and leave the

clause affirmative.

For my part I love him not, nor hate him not. (For my part I love
him not, and hate him not.)

I have;/*/ got none. (I have none.)

There is nothing more admirable nor more useful. (Nothing is
more admirable or more useful.)

No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel, the terrible infection
{and no remedy dispel) .

Where there is no marked nor peculiar character in the style (or
peculiar character) .

There can be no rules laid down, nor no (and no) manner
recommended.

68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

9. The Adverbs Ever and Never. — These adverbs are
frequently confounded.

We seldom or ever see an indolent man become wealthy. ( We
seldom or never, or seldom if ever,)

If Pompey shall but never so Utile {ever so little) seem to like it.

More than sufficient both to strengthen us, be we never so weak,
and to overthrow all adversary power be it never so strong. (More
than sufficient both to strengthen us, be we ever so weak; and to
overthrow all adverse power, be it ever so strong.)

The two adverbial expressions, ever so and never so, are
often misused. The former is a near equivalent of very or
extremely; the latter is much stronger, meaning inconceiv-
ably, enormously, exceedingly,

10. Adjectives for Adverbs. — One of the most common
of errors is the use of adjectives where adverbs are required.
The following quotations will illustrate:

We can much easier form the conception of a fierce combat (much
more easily form).

When he was restored, agreeable {agreeably) to the treaty, he was
a perfect savage.

How I shall acquit myself suitable (suitably) to the importance of
the trial.

Can anything show your Holiness how unworthy {unworthily) you
treat mankind.

Attentive only to exhibit his ideas clear and exact (clearly and
exactly) , he is always dry.

11. Since for Ago. — Since, when used with reference

to time, should not refer to time long past; ago, however,

may be used for any past time. The following examples

will show the distinction:

*'Some one called while you were away.** *'How long since f*^ or
'*How long agoV^ *'Only a few minutes since.** **Only a few
minutes ago,**

He came to this country several years ago (not since).
Many, many years ago (not since) there was a very rich king called
Croesus.

12. Most'Ov About for Almost or Nearly. — These

words are frequently misused.

Are we most there?

Most every writer agrees with you.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 69

About all writers on geology etc.
He ran so hard that he was most dead.

We had about reached the end of our journey when the coach over-
took us.

All the foregoing sentences are erroneous. Substitute
almost or riearly for the words in Italics.

13. Adverbs Absolute in Meantni?. — Many adverbs
and their corresponding adjectives are absolute in meaning,
and for that reason should not be compared. For example,
we cannot say most unique^ very shameless^ more invariable^
more totally. For though a poem may be unique (the only
one of its kind), it cannot be more unique or less unique; and
though a person may be shameless (without shame), he can-
not be tooy or very, or more^ or less, shameless. Other absolute
adverbs follow: absolutely^ axiomatical ly, completely, conclu-
sively, continually, entirely, essentially , exclusively, extremely,
faultlessly , fundamentally , impregnably, incessantly, incredibly,
indispensably, inseparably, intangibly, intolerably, illiterately,
sufficiently, unceasingly, and many others.

It should be mentioned, however, that the desire for forci-
ble statement or for exaggeration often leads to the use of
comparative or superlative forms of adverbs absolute in
meaning; so, too, we often meet them preceded by such
intensive words as so, too, very, qiiite, etc.

14. Almost as an Adjective. — Almost is sometimes
erroneously used as an adjective.

His almost impudence of manner gave offense.
Such an ahnost Christian should amend his ways.

The expressions almost no and almost nothing have enemies
among the critics, and should be avoided by careful writers.
For, ahnost no money is some money, and almost nothing is
something,

15. At Ijength and At Ltint. — These two phrases are
by careless writers sometimes used interchangeably. At
last should refer to some action regarded as a finality, and

70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

at lengthy to action or state as continuing ^ or intermediate

between a beginning and an end.

„ ... , fand at last he died.

He was sick for a long time< . , ^ , ^, . ,

t but at length he began to mend.

THE CONJUNCTION

16. Tlie Wrong Conjunction. — Care must be exercised
to use the right conjunction, as well as to omit the con-
junction when it is not required.

References are often marked by letters and (or) figures.

A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences together.
(Use or instead of and and omit together.)

English grammar is miserably taught in our district schools; the
teachers know but little or nothing about it. (Omit but.)

An emphatic pause is made after something has been said of peculiar
moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention. Better
thus: An emphatic pause is made after something of peculiar moment
has been said on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention.

An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or (and) does not
amount to a proposition.

Whether (If) we open the volumes of our divines, philosophers,
historians, or (and) artists, we meet the same difficulty.

17. Two Terms WItli Wronp: Reference. — When two
connected terms have a common dependence on some subse-
quent term, the dependence must be right for both of the
connected terms. The following quotations are erroneous
in this respect. The corrections are in parentheses.

I answer, you may (use) and ought to use stories and anecdotes.

I have (been) and pretend to be a tolerable judge.

He is a much better grammarian than they are (than any of thetn).

Any person (from zvhom) or place where (whence) certain deci-
sions are obtained etc.

Antony, coming alongside of her ship, entered it without seeing
(her) or being seen by her.

Some other that only resembles (it) or is akin to it.

He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio (more
beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired).

Lincoln always has (been) and doubtless always will be revered
by his countrymen.

The silver age is reckoned to have begun on the death of Augustus
and (to have) continued to the end of Trajan's reign.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 71

18« liikeness of Connected Terms. — Connected terms
should, so far as possible, be of the same kind. Such like-
ness gives balance and symmetry to sentences.

Athens saw them entering (enler) her gates and //// her academies.

We have neither forgotten his past nor despair of his future success.
(We have neither forgotten his success in the past nor despaired of his
success in the future.)

Whether he should or not be made to meet this exigency (should
or should not be made etc.) is open to question.

He gained nothing further than to t>e commended {nothing but
commendation) .

They very seldom trouble themselves with inquiries or making
{make) useful observations of their own.

19« The Conjunction TFian. — In comparisons in which
else, othery otherwise^ rather^ or an adjective or adverb in the
comparative degree, is used, the second member of the com-
parison should be introduced by the conjunction than. After
else or other, however, the preposition besides is sometimes
used, and it is often better than the usual construction
with than.

A metaphor is nothing else but a short comparison (nothing else than,
or nothing but) .

Those classics contain little else but histories of murders (little else
than, or little else besides).

He no sooner accosted her but he gained his point (than).

Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing except being
opposed to atheism? (Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing
besides opposition to atheism?)

20. Relative Pronouns Exclude Conjunctions.

Because relative pronouns are connectives, conjunctions
should not be used with them, unless there are two or more
relative clauses in succession to be connected. The following
sentences illustrate this point:

The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, and which
in my opinion he possesses beyond all poets, is tenderness. (The
principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil is tenderness, which,
in my opinion, he possesses beyond all other poets.)

72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

Has this word, which represents an action, an object after it, and
on which (omit and) it terminates?

He left a son of a singular character, and (omit and) who behaved
so ill that he was put in (into) prison.

21. Anomalous Use of That. — The following sen-
tences exemplify a use of that to which grammatical author-
ities object.

It will greatly facilitate the labors of the teacher at the same time
that it will relieve the pupil of many difficulties. (Substitute white or
and for at the satn'e tinte that.)

This is one reason that {why) we pass over such smooth language
{language so smooth) without suspecting that it contains little or no
meaning.

The verb must also be of the same person that {as) the nominative
is (omit is) .

The brazen age began at the death of Trajan, and lasted till the
time that {when) Rome was taken by the Goths (or substitute until
for till the titne that) .

22. Corresponslves. — Certain conjunctions, adverbs,
and relative pronouns are used in pairs. Care should there-
fore be exercised that such pairs are authorized correspon-
sives. The following are most of the pairs in common use,
with illustrative sentences:

X. x\.s • • . as.

He was as true as steel.

2i* x\.S • • • so.

As a tree falls so it must lie.

3. As well ... as.

One might as well go to prison as to run an elevator.

4. Both . . . and.

Both the wise and the unwise received benefit.

5. Either ... or.

He is either guilty or innocent.

6. Neither . . . nor.
They do neither sigh nor sing.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 73

7. Not only 1 , . f^ut, but also,
Not merely/ Ibut even.

In heroic times smuggling and piracy were deemed not only not
infamous, but (or but even) honorable.

These are questions not of prudence merely^ but of morals also,

8. So . • . as«

He should not have been so careless as to leave the door unlocked.
No one believed that he would be so weak as to yield.

9. So . . . that.

So live that when thy summons comes etc.

10. Such ... as.

May her future be such as I would have it.

11. Such . . . that. In this construction, that introduces
a clause expressmg a consequence.

Such was the strength of the current that we were carried into the
rapids.

The weather was such that we all suffered.

12. Though, or although, . . . yet.
Though he deceived me, yet I will trust him.

Either the former or the latter of this pair may be omitted.

Though I was not a stranger to books, I had no acquaintance with
men. (I was not a stranger to books, yet I had no acquaintance
with men.)

13. Whether ... or.

Whether he come or not, we shall set out.
Whether he is right or wrong, I care not.

The following quotations exemplify errors either in the
choice or in the position of corresponsives. Corrections are
in parentheses.

A neuter verb expresses neither action or (nor) passion.

The author is apprehensive that his work is not as {so) accurate
and as (so) much simplified as it may (might or should) be.

There is no language so poor but it has (as not to have) two or
three past tenses.

74 ENGLISH (GRAMMAR §19

Not only his estate, his reputation too (but also his reputation)^ has
suffered by his misconduct.

That would be a matter of such nicety as {that) no degree of
human wisdom could regulate (//).

Definiteness was required to that degree as to give {such a degree
as) proper names to rivers.

A teacher is confined, not more than a merchant, and probably
not as {so) much.

23. Improper Ellipses After Conjunctions. — When
corresponsives are used, the verb or the phrase that precedes

* the first of them applies also to the second; but no word
following the first corresponsive can be understood after the
second.

Tones are different both from emphasis and {from) pauses.

Though both the intention and (the) purchase are now past, the
debt must be paid.

Whether of a public or {a) private nature, the same rule holds.

The subject afforded a variety of scenes, both of the awful and
{of the) tender kind.

Restlessness of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace
and (for) the performance of duty.

He sendeth rain both on the just and (on the) unjust.

24. Nor or Or After No or Not, — JVar or or used after
no or not should be carefully discriminated. If the alterna-
tives are regarded as two names for the same thing, ^r should
Separate them; but if the alternatives are to be sharply
distinguished, nor should be used. The following are
illustrations:

The object we see is not human nor brute.
No person, living nor dead, ever saw the like.
No manager or superintendent was in the place.
I have no will or disposition for the enterprise.
We had no guide or leader.

In the last three examples the pairs of nouns separated by
or are in each case different names of the same thing. The
construction with 7ior is the more emphatic, but less so than
that with neither . . . nor.

They are neither man nor woman.
They are neither brute nor human,
They are ghouls.

§ 19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 75

THE PREPOSITION

26. The Bi^ht Preposition. — It is sometimes not
easy to find a preposition that will denote exactly the rela-
tion intended. The following sentences exemplify some of
the common errors in the choice of prepositions. Correc-
tions are in parentheses.

But to rise beyond {above) that, and overtop the crowd, is given
to few.

This also is a good sentence, and gives occasion to (for) no remark.

Independently on (of) the rest of the sentence.

How different lo this (from this) is the life of Fulvia.

In this period, language and taste arrive lo (at) purity.

You should aspire at (after) distinction in the republic of letters.

His abhorrence to (of) the superstitions of the age.

26. The Omission of Prepositions. — It is a general
rule that prepositions should not be omitted except in such
cases as have been fully established by long usage, as, for
instance, before an indirect object or before certain infinitive
constructions. In the following quotations, prepositions
should be supplied.

Ridicule is banished France (from France), and is losing ground
in England.

1 passed it as a thing unworthy my notice (of my notice).

You may think this worthy your attention (worthy of).

It was covered tenth trees of twelve inches diameter, and round the
base was an excavation of five feet depth and width (trees twelve
inches /;/ diameter . . . excavation five feet /// depth and in width).

I was prevented reading the letter (insert frofn after prevented) .

What use can these words be until their meaning is known? (Of
what use etc.)

The army must of necessity be the school, not of honor, but (of)
effeminacy

27. Needless Prepositions, — Care should be exer-
cised not to insert needless prepositions; especially, should
they not be put before the object of a transitive verb. The
following are some examples illustrating this fault:

It is to you to whom I am indebted for this favor. (I am indebted
to yon for this favor.)

76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

His servants ye are to whom ye obey (omit to) .

At about the same time the subjugation of the Moors was com-
pleted (omit at) .

That a man should afflict his soul for a day and to bow down his
head like a bulrush (for to bow down substitute should bow).

In this respect Tasso yields to no poet except to Homer (omit to
before Homer) .

28. Two Prepositions With the Same Object, — When
two different prepositions have the same object, the object
should be placed after the first preposition, and some noun
or pronoun representing the object should usually follow
the second. The following sentences illustrate this rule
of composition:

She quarreled with^ and soon afterwards was divorced fronts her
husband. (She quarreled with her husband and was soon afterwards
divorced from him.)

The army advanced against^ and was victorious over^ the enemy in
a bloody engagement. (The army advanced against the enemy and
in a bloody engagement with them was victorious.)

This construction is less objectionable when the preposi-
tions are close together.

We expect to live in or near the city. ^

His entire life was passed on or near the ocean.

However, even in such sentences, it is better that each
preposition should have its own object.

We expect to live in the city or near it.

His entire life was passed on the ocean or near it.

29. Between and Among. — These two prepositions are
often confounded. The former should refer to two persons
or things, the latter to more than two.

The relations among (not between) the members of the family were
at all times pleasant.

There has never been the slightest trouble between (not among) the
twins.

There were just thirty palings between every post {between each pair
of adjacent posts).

Between every sentence of his story he uttered a groan ( With every
sentence) .

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 77

It should be stated that there is some authority for inter-
changing between and among. This usage is not good,
however, and should be avoided.

30. In and Into. — The preposition into is used with
words denoting motion real or ideal; in is used with words
denoting rest.

He went into (not in) the house; he is in the house now.
We looked into the matter with great care.

When in is used with verbs of motion, the motion must be
within something regarded as enclosing the motion.

The children run and romp in the attic.
The man drove a team in New York.
The farmer drove his team into the city.

31. Prepositions With Certain Words. — Good usage
requires that certain words shall be followed by special
prepositions. The choice is usually determined by the
meaning of the prefix of the word, but often by the meaning
of the entire word. The following is a partial list of such
words and their appropriate prepositions:

abhorrence for a person or thing that one hates

abhorrence <?/ something that one dreads; as, snakes, spiders

absolve from a promise

abstract of d, document — an outline of its contents

abstract money from a cash drawer

accomplish by diligence, with difficulty, under hard conditions

accord with another's opinion; two or more persons accord in an

opinion
accord to others their rights or privileges
acquire by labor, with difficulty
acquit of 2i charge (not from^ as formerly)
adapted to — fitted or adjusted to intentionally
adapted for by nature, for grazing, for food
affinity between friends or ideas (Carbon has an affinity tor oxygen.

My marriage brought me into affinity with my wife's relatives.)
agree with a person, to a proposal or a stipulation
averse from or to (Great minds are averse from criticizing others. He

is averse to study.)
bestow upon or on, to bestow aflfection on (or upon) one's children
betray a secret to a person, a person into a snare or to his enemies

?8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §ld

bind by a contract, with a rope, in chains, under a penalty; bind the

hands to the sides, behind the back, etc.
change cars for New York; change seals with some one; in conduct,

of circumstances
choice between two, among several, for president
complain against one, for trespass, to the authorities, of a nuisance,

about ^ concerning^ regarding misconduct
comply with rules
confer a favor on or upon some one; with some one about ^ concerning ^

regarding a matter
conference between two persons or groups of persons; ^/one or several

with others about ^ concerning^ regarding something
confide in a person's honesty; something to a person's care
confident £7/her charm, in the correctness of an opinion
confirm. /« an opinion, by argument
convenient to a place, for a purpose

conversant with a subject {in was formerly used after conversant)
correspond with a person, to or with a thing
dependent on or upon a person's good faith (but independent of)
derogatory to a person's character or reputation; but derogation from

the inspiration of the Bible
die of fever, by violence, for one's country, to the world
differ from or with a person in opinion, frmn a person or a thing
different in some respect from what was thought
disappointed in love, at failure, 0/ something hoped for
dissent from an opinion or a statement
exception to a remark, from a rule
fall into confusion, under suspicion, fro^n grace, upon an enemy

The foregoing examples are sufficient to show that great
care in the choice of prepositions is of the highest impor-
tance. When in doubt on this subject, consult a good
dictionary.

THE CHOOSING OF WORDS

32, Synonyms. — It has been said that no two words in
our language are so closely allied in meaning that they can be
used interchangeably. The statement is not strictly correct.
It would be difficult, for instance, to use the word begin
where commeyice co'uld not be substituted for it without
changing the sense. The only difference between the two
words is that begin is from the Anglo-Saxon and commence
is from the Latin through the French.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 79

The fact is, however, that between most pairs of synonyms
there are fine shades and c^stinctions of meaning that in some
cases are extremely difficult of explanation. A knowledge
of the origin of the words we use in speaking and writing —
their roots and the primitive meaning of those roots — is
indispensable, if we are never to use them incorrectly. It
is not meant by this that in order to write correct classical
English we must be familiar with Greek, Latin, French,
Anglo-Saxon, and the many other languages from which
the words of our tongue have come. Every good una-
bridged English dictionary gives the derivation of words
and the meaning of the roots, together with the present
sense of words and the distinction in meaning of synony-
mous terms. In every case of doubt with regard to a
word, a writer should either not use the word or he should
look it up in a good dictionary. A certain writer on the
subject of rhetoric says that no one has the right to use a
word unless he can use it rightly.

The following are given as examples of words that are
commonly misused:

1. Abbreviate y Abridge, Contract. — A word or a phrase
may be abbreviated or contracted; a sentence, a paragraph,
a sermon, a document of any kind, a book, may be
abridged. An abbreviatiofi is a shortened form of a word;
a contraction of a word is made by omitting intermediate
letters. Thus, Co, is the abbreviation for compatiy; acc't is
the contraction for account. All contractions are abbrevia-

• tions, but not all abbreviations are contractions.

2. Ability y Capacity. — Physical or mental power, especially
the power to plan and execute, is ability. Capacity is power
to receive. A mind or a cask has capacity y from Latin capaxy
roomy, spacious. Sentences like the following, though very
common, are not strictly correct:

He has a great capacity (faculty) for mimicry and story- telling.

The following is a correct use of capacity:

He has a great capacity for dates, scientific names, and mathematics.

80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

3. Accepty Except. — These two words are frequently con-
founded. The former term means to take willingly when
offered; as, to accept a favor, or an office. Except ^ as a verb,
means to leave out or exclude.

He is forbidden to except (accept) presents.

The word except means also to object, and in this sense it
is followed by to; as,

Do you except to my statement? Do you take exception to my
decision?

4. Access^ Accession, — The former of these words means
admission or entrance, from Latin ad^ to, and cedo, go.
The latter means increase or attainment. The following
sentences exemplify correct uses of these words:

The Amazon affords easy access to the heart of Brazil.
A great accession of new members brought prosperity to the society.
On the accession of the young Grerraan emperor, the greatest states-
man and diplomat of Europe received his dismissal.
It is not ea.sy to gain access to the czar of Russia.

5. Acts, Action. — These two words should be carefully
distinguished from each other. In speaking of things con-
sidered as done or finished, acts is the correct word to use;
but if the process or manner of doing is to be indicated,
actions should be used.

We watched his actions for a long time and were much puzzled.
Men are judged by their acts rather than by their words.

6. Adhesion, Adherence. — These two words are rarely
interchangeable. Adhesion is usually and preferably employed
when physical sticking to is meant, and adherence when ideal
attachment is to be denoted.

The loyal adherence of those states to the Union was a great dis-
appointment to the Confederate leaders.

The adhesion of wax to wood is sometimes very strong.

The word adhesion is sometimes used with the meaning of
consent.

Grermany has given her adhesion to the treaty.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 81

7. Advance, Advancement, — We speak of the advance of
prices or wages, the advance of an enemy, his advame in
learning; advancement is usually employed in the sense of
promotion or furtherance.

His advancement brought with it a welcome advance in salary.

8. Aggravate, Irritate, — The word aggravate is frequently
used instead of irritate. Aggravate comes from Latin ad,
to, and gravis, heavy; to aggravate is therefore to make more
serious, to intensify; irritate means to cause annoyance or
fretting, from Latin irrito, to excite.

The prattle of children irritates the sick.

Sickness greatly aggravates the ills of poverty.

The nettles irritated the hands and feet of the children.

9. Alleviate, Relieve, — To lighten a burden for some
one is to alleviate it. We may alleviate pain or sorrow or
other form of suffering, and thus relieve the sufferer. The
word alleviate is etymologically the opposite or antonym of
aggravate; it is derived from ad, to, and levis, light.

10. Allude, Mention, — These expressions are by many
persons wrongly used interchangeably. The literal meaning
of allude is to treat lightly, merely to hint at; mention is a
stronger term and means specific naming.

The speaker alluded to the remissness of certain officials, and
though he mentioned no names, every one knew to whom he referred.

11. Appreciate, — The exact meaning of this word is to be
fully aware of the value or importance of something. It is
derived from ad, to, and pretium, price.

I appreciate your gift, your kind words, and what you have done.
English and American writers are greatly appreciated in Russia.

The word has recently come into use as an intransitive
verb with a meaning exactly opposite to that of depreciate.

Since the war, the price of all kinds of goods has appreciated,

12. Argument, Plea, — The use of plea for argument is
common, but careful writers distinguish between the two
words. The following sentences are correct:

The defendant 's//^a was that he was starving when he took the bread.

82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

The defendant's plea was more effective with the jury than the
lawyer's argument.

The boy made a touching plea for forgiveness.

13. Avocation^ Vocation, — These words are frequently
used as synonymous but they are not so. The latter
denotes a calling (Latin, vocatio^ a calling:), an occupation;
the former means a calling from or away (Latin, a^ from), a
diverting the attention, diversion. Vocation strictly means
the main calling or business of life; avocation means a diver-
sion from one's business — music, society, the theater, etc.

14. Balance, Rest, Remainder. — Richard Grant White says:
^^ Balance in the sense of rest, remainder y residue y remnant is
an abomination." Balance is correctly used to denote the
difference between the credit and debit sides of an account;
but we should not employ the word as in the following
sentences:

With a portion {part) of his inheritance he purchased an estate; the
balance (rest, remainder) he invested in bonds.

The balance {remainder) of the session was wasted in idle debate.

15. CausCy Reason. — These two terms are loosely used
interchangeably. The cause of any event, act, or fact is the
power or agency that makes it to be; the reason of or for \t is
the explanation formulated by the human mind. In sentences
like the following, the second clause is called the reason:

Caesar deserved death because he zvas a tyrant.

We are sure that the earth is round, for it has been circumnavigated.

The following sentences exemplify correct uses of the
two words:

Bacteria are the cause of most zymotic diseases.
The cause of his return was an urgent letter from his father.
The*teacher*s reason for punishing the boy was that he had dis-
obeyed her.

16. Contemptible^ Contemptuous, — The former of these
words means descrvijig contempt; the latter, showing or
expressing contempt or disdain.

The fellow behaved in a contemptible manner.

A contemptuous sneer added to the repulsiveness of his face.

§ld ENGLISH GRAMMAR 8S

17. Consciousness, Conscience, — The state of being aware of
the existence of some object, action, or sensation is conscious-
ness; the power or faculty by which we distinguish between
right and wrong conduct is consciaue.

The divinity that is said to have whispered approval or disapproval
into the ear of Socrates, when he was about to perform any act, was
only his conscience.

The meaning of the word co^isciousness is best understood by
remembering that its exact opposite is usually unconsciousness.

18. Convince y Convict, — A person is convinced by evidence
or argument addressed to the intellect; he is convicted of
sin or guilt by argument addressed both to the intellect and
the conscience. Convict means also to find guilty.

In order to persuade a man of sense, you must first convince him.

If any man says that he understands women, he is convicted oi folly
by his own speech, seeing that they are altogether incomprehensible.

Before a man can be convicted oi sin he must be convinced tha.t he
is a sinner.

After a long trial the accused was cotivicted of the crime.

19. Credible, Creditable. — The word credible means capable
of being believed as neither impossible nor absurd; creditable
was formerly used in the same sense, but its present mean-
ing is, deserving or worthy of credit, praiseworthy.

His story was entirely credible and we all believed it.

No one would regard such an act as honorable or even creditable.

20. Difficulty, Obstacle, Obstruction, Impediment ^ Encum*
brance. — A difficulty may be a physical or a mental hin-
drance, or both; an obstacle stands in the way; an obstnution
is an obstacle purposely placed in the way; an impediment
entangles the feet (Latin in + pedes, feet), or hinders
physical action; an encumbrance burdens, as a load. '

To a marching soldier the steepness of his road is a difficulty; trees
lying in the road are obstacles; if placed there by the enemy, they are
obstructions; his baggage is an encumbrance; mud, briers, or dense
undergrowth in his way are impediments.

We surmount or overcome difficulties, remove or avoid obstacles
and obstructions, get rid of or throw off encumbrances and impediments.

84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

21. Dismissal y Dismission, — The former of these words is
the correct term when discharge from place or office is
meant; it is used also with the meaning of liberty or per-
mission to go away. The term dismission is sometime^ used
in the first sense given above, but for this use dismissal is
to be preferred. The act of permitting or ordering to depart
is better expressed by dismission. The following sentences
are correct:

The investigation resulted in his summ&ry dismissal from his place.
He was kept a long time impatiently awaiting his disfnissal.
After dismission y the members remained to elect deacons.

22. Disposal J Disposition. — These terms may sometimes
be used interchangeably, but they should be carefully dis-
criminated. Disposal should be used when the meaning,
power of control, is required; disposition, when arrangement
is meant.

What disposition of the troops was made by the general?
My time is entirely at your disposal.

There is more in the disposition of shrubbery than in its varieties.
The disposal of his wealth by his will was for the benefit of orphan
children.

23. Egoism, Egotism, — Egoism is a word recently intro-
duced into ethical writings. On account of its close resem-
blance to egotism it is often mistaken for that word; yet the
meanings of the two terms are widely different. Egoism is
the exact opposite of altruism; it is the name of the theory
that man's chief good and the supreme end of each man's
effort should be his own happiness; it denotes absolute,
uncompromising selfishness. Egotism is self-conceit, self-
exaltation.

The loud, loquacious, vulgar egotist;
Whose Ps and me^s are scattered in his talk
Thick as the pebbles on a gravel walk.

To say that each individual shall reap the benefits brought to him by
his own powers is to enunciate egoism as an ultimate principle of conduct.

24. Elemental, Elementary, — The second of these words
is much used in the sense of rudimentary,

elementary education, algebra, grammar, principles

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 86

Elemental is sometimes used with the same meaning, but
more properly in the sense of fundamental, essential.

the elemeotal constitution of matter, the elemental principles of
conduct, the elemental laws of nature, the elemental forces

The word elemental is frequently used in the sense of per-
taining to an element or the elements.

elemental action, affinities, valences

25. Estimate^ Estimation. — An estimate is a rough valua-
tion placed on a thing.

an estimate of the capacity of a bin, the amount of a man's wealth,
the speed of a train

Estimation denotes the act of fixing an approximate value
and sometimes the conclusion arrived at. When the regard
in which one is held by others is meant, esteem is a better
word than estimation.

The man was held in high estimation {esteem) by his neighbors.
The estimation was difficult and the estimate was low.

26. Eeminifie, Female^ Masculine^ Male, — Feminine and
masculine are grammatical terms and should not be used
instead of female and male. We say that a noun or a pronoun
is of the feminine or the masculine gender; that a woman or
a man is of the female or the male sex. The following sen-
:ences are therefore erroneous:

A charming young person of the feminine gender gave us a hearty
welcome. (A charming young lady gave us a hearty welcome.)
His conduct was a disgrace to the masculine sex (to his sex).

27. Insuperable, Insurmountable, — We may use either of
these words to modify object ions , difficulties, dislike, and
many other terms denoting ideal obstacles; but with words
denoting physical barriers, insurmountable is the word.

An insuperable craving for drink led to his ruin.
A range of insurmountable hills and mountains barred the advance
of the army.

28. Invention, Discovery. — Although these two words may
sometimes be used interchangeably, they require to be

86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

carefully discriminated. Invention implies fabrication — the
making of something; discovery is the bringing to light of
something previously hidden.

The invention of the cotton-gin did much to fasten slavery on the
South.

The discovery of America by Columbus was made more than four
centuries ago.

The discovery of gunpowder is attributed to the Chinese.

the invention of printing; the discovery of the laws of gravitation,
of the planet Neptune; the invention of the mariner's compass, of the
steam engine

29. Likely, Liable. — Likely refers to a contingency
regarded as probable; liable^ to a contingency regarded
as unfavorable.

You are liable to arrest for speeding your bicycle, and if arrested,
are likely to be fined.

The ship was liable to sink at any moment.
In such cases the defendant is liable for damages.
Ladies passing along that street are liable to insult.
We are likely to have a severe winter.

30. Limits, Limitations. — The usual application of limits
is to physical things, and of limitations^ to ideal things.
Thus, we speak of:

the limits of a prison, the limits of an estate, the limitations of the
franchise, the limitations of hotel life, of poverty

An executive upon whom no limitaiions are imposed soon becomes
a tyrant.

Upon the happiness of a young married couple, the limitations in a
boarding-house are onerous.

In a country like ours, a policeman should understand the limita-
lions upon his powers and duties.

81. Neglect y Negligence. — The distinction between these
words is that neglect refers to acts, while negligence applies
to character. Negligence is a habitual failure to do that which
ought to be done; neglect is the failure to do some particular
thing that should be done.

The accident was owing to the engineer's neglect of the signals.
Kverythin]L^ about the mansion bore the marks of neglect.
The janitor was dismissed for negligence.
The trouble with this young man is incurable negligence.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 87

32. Noy Nothing. — These words are sometimes preceded
by almost, nearly, about; the result is a contradiction of
terms.

One can have no money, no resources, nothing; but it is not
easy to comprehend how one can have almost no money,
nearly nothmg to eat. (See Art. 14.)

The expressions are very similar to quite some, quite a few,
quite a little,

33. Number, Quantity. — Number has reference to how
many; quantity to how much.

Great quantities {nutptbrrs) of bison used to roam over the
prairies of the West.

Russia despatched great quantities of troops to the far East
{great numbers) .

The Colosseum of Rome was capable of seating the prodigious
quantity (number) of 87,000 spectators.

34. Part, Portion, — A portion is 3. part viewed with refer-
ence to some one for whom it is intended, or with reference
to some specific purpose to which it is to be applied; a part
is an amount less than the whole of something, either sepa-
rated from the whole or thought of or mentioned as separate
from it.

Having received his portion of the land, he sold part of it and
farmed the rest. *

The crew divided into five portions the food and water that
remained.

35. Person, People, Party. — The use of party in the sense
of person, individual, is inexcusably vulgar. We may speak
of a Political Party, an evening Party, a fishing party, a party
to a sale or to a lawsuit, but not, The Party with whom I was
seen was my uncle. A person is an individual, a people is a
community. The word people is correctly used for persons
collectively, and when so used in the nominative case, it
takes a plural verb.

Many people are unaware of the fact that the earth is ronnd
(persons) .
A great crowd of people was at Coney Island yesterday.

88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

In the first sentence the persons are not thought of as
forming an assembly or a collection; in the second sentence,
people is the better word.

People do not like to have their faults criticized.

36. Plenty^ Plentiful. — Plenty is the state of having an
abundance, particularly of comforts and necessaries; plentiful
means existing in great quantities.

Cherries and other small fruits will be plenty {plentiful) this
season.

Our people have been living in peace and plenty.

The more plenty (plentiful) paper money becomes, the more likely
are people to incur debt.

Persons that believe such nonsense are plenty (plentiful, or
better, numerous),

37. Preference y Preferment, — Preferment is promotion or
advancement to higher rank; preference is the choosing of
one thing rather than another, or it is the state of being
estimated more highly than something else.

The better your mental, moral, and physical equipment, the more
likely you are to %'q\vl preference (preferment).

There is in this establishment no preference for anybody unless he
earns preference (in both cases say preferment) .

I have no preference; the one is as good as the other.

38. Proposal^ Proposition, — The word proposition has
recently come into a vulgar or colloquial use with the
meaning of a business undertaking or an institution or enter-
prise of any kind. The word should not be so used.

A proposition is submitted for consideration, a proposal for
acceptance or rejection.

a proposal of marriage, a proposition in geometry, a proposal of
terms of sale or purchase, a proposition for the surrender of a fort

Have you heard of the enormous success of our proposition (mean-
ing, our business undertaking) ?

Our proposition is a mail-order business. (We are conducting a
mail-order business.)

39. Recourse^ Resource^ Resort, — Recourse is a resort to
something or somebody for help; resource is that which is
resorted to, relied upon, or available for help. The plural

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 89

resources signifies also the total of one's available funds or
property — the opposite of liabilities.

When the young man became involved, his recourse was to
gambling.

There was no other resource in his trouble than to have recourse to
the courts.

Most millionaires have won their millions by getting about them
strong subordinates — men of resources.

Saratoga is a delightful summer resort.

Resort to war (or recourse to war) is rapidly coming into disfavor.

40. Relatives^ Relations. — These terms were formerly
applied to persons connected by blood or marriage. At
the present time the former term alone is so used.

The relations among the boarders were in every respect pleasant.
The relatives of persons great or wealthy are extremely prone to
inform others of the relationship.

41. Requirement y Requisite, — The first of these words
implies some one as making a demand; the second, that
the need for something arises from the nature of things or
from circumstances.

Health and strength, both mental and physical, are requisites to
successful effort.

That a man shall have reached the age of twenty-one is a require-
ment for voting.

A requisition is a formal imperative demand in speech or
writing.

A requisition for supplies was sent to the quartermaster.

Air and exercise are indispensable requisites to health.

Speed and safety are important requisites of travel.

A requirement of this church is that baptism shall precede actual
membership.

The courses of study of the school systems of many of our large
cities are full of absurd requirements.

42. Reverse^ Converse^ Obverse, — These words are fre-
quently confounded. Obverse and reverse are used in speak-
ing of coins and medals. The obverse is the side bearing
the face or main device, — opposed to reverse^ the less
important side.

90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §10

The reverse of a thing is the opposite or antithesis of that
thing.

plus is the reverse of minus; differentiation is the reverse of inte-
gration; involution is the reverse of evolution

The converse is an opposite reciprocal proposition, formed
by transposing the terms of a proposition so that subject
becomes predicate and predicate, subject. Thus, the converse
of the proposition, Every equiangular triangle is equilateral^
is, Every equilateral triangle is equiangular,

43. SanUy Similar, — The first of these words should be
used when there is absolute identity; the second, when there
is mere likeness.

He is the same man that called yesterday.

Your plans are similar to mine (not the same as mine),

44. Sewage, Sewerage, — Sewage is often used erroneously
for sewerage. The former term means the waste matter
carried off by sewers; the latter means systematic drainage
by means of sewers.

No system of sewerage yet devised supplies an economical method
of disposing of sewage,

45. Speciality, Specialty, — Speciality is the state or quality
of being unique or peculiar; or it is a distinguishing character-
istic or feature of some person or thing. A specialty is
activity or production limited to one particular line of work;
or it is an article of a peculiar kind, or one dealt in exclu-
sively by one person or firm.

The speciality of Byron's writing is its passionateness.

A speciality of function, by calling forth a corresponding speciality
of structure, produces an increasingly efficient discharge of that
function.

The tea trade is our specialty.

No young man can hope to be entirely successful without making
himself a perfect master of some industrial or professional specialty,

46. Staying, Stopping, — The verbs stay and stop in some
of their meanings are frequently confounded. In the sense
of having a temporary abode, to be a guest, stopping is the
correct word; staying^ used in this sense, is colloquial. It is

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 91

colloquial also to speak of the staying power of a swimmer,
a pugilist, or a horse.

While visiting the Pan-American Exhibition we stopped (not stayed)
at the Iroquois Hotel.

Prince Henry stayed (not stopped) in the countr>» for several weeks.

The wind and staying power of the horse enabled him to win the
race (wind and endurance or stamina).

47. Visitor, Visitant, — The distinction between these
words is that visitor applies only to persons, while visitant
is a poetical word applying to both persons and things.

Pleasure is oft a visitant only, while pain clings cruelly to us.
Our visitors were much interested in Biela's comet, that strange
celestial visitant,

33. Propriety In the Use of Words. — From the fore-
going discussion of synonyms, it is obvious that perfectly
good English words may be so employed as to convey
either no sense at all or a wrong sense. In good writing,
every word and phrase must be used in the sense that
etymology or established usage requires. Propriety and
precision in the use of words can be acquired in no other
way so well as by much exercise in speaking and writing,
in conjunction with the study of good writers. A good
dictionary, together with works on synonyms, grammar,
and rhetoric, should be at hand for daily use. Correct-
ness and clearness of style depend more on the author's
success in discriminating the fine shades of meaning among
words than on anything else.

MISCELLANEOUS

34. Place of the Adverb. — The place of adverbs with
respect to verbs and verb phrases depends on several
circumstances.

1. Intransitive I erds, — (a) The adverb follows an intransi-
tive verb that consists of one word.

He skates gracefully.
Speak distinctly.

92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

(b) Some adverbs of time and of place may either pre-
cede or follow the verb, but the general rule is that the
adverb comes first.

//er^ he lies.

There they come.

He soon returned.

They soon sickened and finally died.

{c) In the case of intransitive verb phrases of two or
more words, the usual place of the adverb is after the verb.

You have done well; no one could have done belter.
She might have been sleeping sweelly if you had not entered so
noisily.

He has been skating gracefully,

(d) Certain adverbs of time and of degree may follow
the first auxiliary in intransitive verb phrases. When two
adverbs are joined to the same intransitive verb phrase, and
one of them denotes time or place, it should follow the verb.

The patient will probably die tomorrow.

They will certainly return soon.

You have seriously blundered here.

You have lately been coming to your work on time.

He should certainly have gone there earlier,

2. Transitive Verbs, — Transitive verb phrases may be
active or they may be passive,

{a) If a transitive verb phrase is active^ the adverb follows

the first auxiliary.

Courage has always commanded esteem.

You have recklessly squandered your patrimony.

One might easily have foretold the consequences.

{b) If a verb phrase is passive y the adverb should follow
the last auxiliary.

The invading force had been utterly routed.

They should have been sez'erely punished.

He had been recently promoted to the chief command.

He had been ztnth distinguished consideration treated.
They had been when we arrived waiting more than an hour.

§19 fiNGLlSH GRAMMAR 93

Such suspensions of the sense are extremely common in
German, but the genius of the English language requires
that they be avoided. It is scarcely necessary to say that
the foregoing sentences should be written thus:

He had been treated with distinguished consideration.
When we arrived they had been waiting more than an hour.

(d) Certain adverbs of time, degree, and negation do
not follow the last auxiliary in passive verb phrases.

If the engine had not been stopped promptly ^ he would certainly
have been killed.

The man had never been implicitly trusted by the officials of the
bank.

35. Adverbs of Time and of Manner With tlie
Same Verb. — When two adverbs, one denoting time and
the other manner, are used with the same verb, the adverb
of time precedes the adverb of manner.

We were often hospitably entertained at the old mansion.
The girl had always been perfectly satisfied with her lot.

Similarly, adverbs of time should precede adverbs oiplcu:e.
The governor has frequently been seen there with his bodyguard.

36. Misplacement of Relative Clauses. — A frequent
cause of ambiguity in sentences is a wrong position of
relative clauses. The general rule is to place the relative
pronoun that introduces such clauses as near as possible
to its antecedent. Some illustrations follow showing the
uncertainty of meaning that is caused by misplaced relative
clauses.

It is foUy to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life
by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against but the
good providence of God.

The antecedent of which is accidents^ but from the arrange-
ment the antecedent seems to be treasures.

It is folly to pretend by heaping up treasure to arm ourselves
against the accidents of life, for nothing can protect us from them
but the good providence of God.

He must endure the follies of others, who will have their kindness.

d4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

Life with him has ended in a sad mistake, which began with such
bright prospects.

Mr. Greeley denied that he had ever used profane language in an
interview which a certain newspaper reporter had put into his mouth.

Did you take that book to the library, which I loaned to you ?

All the foregoing sentences should be reconstructed, thus:

He that would have the kindness of others must endure their follies.

Life, which for him began with such bright prospects, has ended in
a sad mistake.

Mr. Greeley denied that he had in an interview used the profane
language put into his mouth by a certain newspaper reporter.

Did you take to the library the book that 1 lent you?

37. The Unity of Sentences. — However many modi-
fying words, phrases, and clauses may enter a sentence, it
ought to contain only one main assertion — the backbone of
the sentence — to which everything else is contributory.
This subordination of function among sentential modifiers is
essential to sentence unity — is indispensable to perspicuity
and precision. The following are the principal rules for
preserving unity in sentences:

Rule I. — Do not change the nominative or the construction
within the limits of the same saitetue.

The following sentences illustrate violations of this rule:

A short time after this injury he came to himself, and the next day
they put him on board a ship which conveyed him first to Corinth
and thence to the island of ^gina.

In this sentence he should not be displaced by they or
which,

A short time after this he came to himself, and the next day he was
put on board a ship and conveyed to etc.

After we came to anchor, they put me on shore where / was wel-
comed by all my friends 7vho received me with the greatest kindness.
Better^ Our ship having come to anchor, I was put on shore, where I
was welcomed by all my friends and was received with the greatest
kindness.

The following is a paraphrase of one of Macaulay's sen-
tences selected from his description of Burke's oration at

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 95

the trial of Warren Hasting^s. The paraphrase was made by
one of our writers on rhetoric.

The highly raised expectation of the audience was more than satis-
fied with the exuberance of his thought and the splendor of his
diction, while the character and institutions of the natives of India
were described by him; the circumstances in which the Asiatic empire
of Britain had originated were recounted; and the constitution of the
Company and of the English Presidencies was set forth.

Four different subjects are here used. . Notice what
Macaulay accomplishes with one subject.

With an exuberance of thought and a splendor of diction which
more than satisfied the highly raised expectations of the audience,
he described the character and institutions of the natives of India;
recounted the circumstances in which the Asiatic Empire of Britain
had originated; and set forth the constitution of the Company and of
the Presidencies.

Rule II. — Use parentheses either not at all or as rarely as
possible.

The unity of a sentence is always seriously marred by the
introduction of parenthetical matter. If parentheses are
unavoidable, they should be as brief as possible and cor-
rectly placed. Never put one parenthesis within anotheiu
It rarely happens that the matter of a parenthesis cannot be
made a part of the sentence in which it occurs. The follow-
ing will illustrate:

Never delay till tomorrow [for tomorrow is not yours; and though
you should live to enjoy it (and remember how uncertain this is), you
must not overload it with a burden not its own] what reason and con-
science tell you ought to be performed today.

These parentheses may be avoided thus:

Never delay till tomorrow what reason and conscience tell you ought
to be performed today. Tomorrow is not yours; and though you
should live to enjoy it, remember the uncertainty of life, and do not
overload it in advance.

Rule III. — Do not introduce too many modify i'ng elements
into the same sentence.

One of the most difficult things in Engflish composition is
the proper disposition of modifiers — words, phrases, and

96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

clauses. The difficulty rapidly increases with the increasing
number of modifiers, and the most serious objection to
having many qualifying circumstances added to the central
thought in a sentence is that they destroy unity. Loose
sentences filled with verbal odds and ends are usually
harsh, awkward, and without force. The following is such
a sentence: '

Here it was found of absolute necessity to inflame or cool the pas-
sions of the audience, especially at Rome, where Tully spoke, and
with whose writings young divines (I mean those among them who
read old authors) are more conversant than with those of Demos-
thenes, who by many degrees excelled the other, at least as an orator.

The remedy here, as in all similar cases, is to break up
and recast the sentence.

Here, and especially at Rome where Tully spoke, it was necessary
to inflame or cool the passions of the audience. Young divines that
read old authors were more conversant with the writings of that
Roman than with those of Demosthenes, who, as an orator at least,
was greatly superior to Tully.

Herbert Spencer quotes from Doctor Whately the following
as a sentence having so many modifying elements that they
are extremely difficult to dispose of properly:

We came to our journey's end, at last, with no small difficulty, after
much fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather.

Mr. Spencer suggests the following as the best possible
arrangement:

At last, with no small difficulty, and after much fatigue, we came,
through deep roads and bad weather, to our journey's end.

Doctor Whately*s arrangement is:

At last, after much fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather,
we came, with no small difficulty, to our journey's end.

Such sentences should always be broken up into two or
more shorter sentences.

We came at last to our journey's end. Owing to deep roads and
bad weather the journey had been one of no small difficulty and
much fatigue.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 97

Rule IV. — Do not unite in one sentence parts that have no
natural connection.

Several distinct propositions that ought to form as many
separate sentences are often joined in one sentence. The
result in every such case is a sentence without unity, force, or
harmony. The following quotation illustrates this extremely
common fault:

Boast not thyself of tomorrow; thou knowest not what a day may
bring forth; because of this it is that we cannot rely on it; and, for
the same reason, despair not of tomorrow, for it may bring good as
well as evil, which is a ground for not vexing thyself with imaginary
fears; for the cloud may pass by harmless; or though it should dis-
charge the storm, yet before it breaks thou mayst be lodged in that
mansion which no storms ever touch.

This should be given in several sentences, thus:

Boast not thyself of tomorrow; thou knowest not and canst not rely
on what a day may bring forth. Despair not of tomorrow, for it is
just as likely to yield good as ill. Therefore, vex not thyself with
imaginary fears. The cloud may pass; and though it should discharge
the storm, yet before it breaks thou mayst be lodged in the mansion
that no storms ever touch.

Rule V. — Avoid clauses that are subordinate to other subor-
dinate clauses.

There is no objection whatever to a sentence that contains
two or more subordinate clauses having dependence on the
same element. The following are examples:

It was John Smith who saved the colony at Jamestown, who changed
the hostility of the Indians into friendship, and who was as wise and
just as he was fearless.

Here the three dependent clauses are introduced by rela-
tives that have the same antecedent, John Smith. The fol-
lowing is a similar sentence:

In the spring, when the leaves appear and when the first flowers
bloom, the earth is very beautiful.

If, however, a first subordinate clause has a second depend-
ing on it, a third depending on the second, and so on, we

98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

have a construction that is condemned by the best authori-
ties. The following are illustrations:

Cicero was opposed by a new and cruel affliction, the death of his
beloved daughter TuUia; which happened soon after her divorce
from Dollobella; whose manners and humors were entirely disagree-
able to him. (Put a period after Tullia and change which to This.)

As we rode to town we met a man with a flock of geese, who was
talking to a little girl in a pink sunbonnet, who was carrying a basket
on her arm . Better^ As we rode to town we met a man driving a flock
of geese and talking to a little girl in a pink sunbonnet who earned a
basket on her arm.

Rule VI. — Avoid supplementary clauses,
A clause added to a sentence after it has apparently ended
iis a supplementary clause.

There is to be a grand wedding next week to which we are all to be
invited, so I hear,

I am entirely determined, under any circumstances, to make the
journey, unless it rains.

For such sentences the remedy is to rearrange the parts.

/ hear that there is to be a grand wedding etc.
Under any circumstances, except that it should rain, I am deter-
mined to make the journey.

38. Periodic and Lioose Sentences, — A periodic sen-
tence is one in which the sense is suspended until the close.
The main point of the sense is not expressed until all
the subsidiary elements have been presented. The most
emphatic element comes at the end. A loose sentence
is one to which additions are made at the end after the sense
is complete. The following are loose sentences:

It is certain that some of our so-called Captains of Industry have
been marvelously successful in accumulating wealth, whatever may
be said of the morality of their methods.

He would still have had a moderate competence, if he had practiced
a strict economy.

(lathering up lately a portion of what I had written, for publica-
tion, I have given it as careful a revision as my leisure would allow,
have indeed in many parts rewritten it, seeking to profit by the results
of the latest criticisms, as far as I have been able to acquaint myself
with them.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 99

The first two of the foregoing sentences may be made
periodic by putting the last clause first in each sentence.
The last sentence may be changed into two sentences, both
periodic, thus:

Gathering up lately for publication a portion [parf] of what I had writ-
ten, I have given it as careful revision as ray leisure would allow. Seek-
ing to profit by the results of the latest criticisms as far as I have been
able to acquaint myself with them, 1 have in many parts rewritten it.

39. Need for Both Lioose and Periodic Sentences.

In a perfect style, loose sentences are just as necessary
as periodic sentences. Composition consisting entirely of
periodic sentences soon becomes stiff and monotonous, and
is neariy as faulty as composition made up wholly of loose
sentences. Most writers have too many loose sentences,
the result usually of carelessness. Macaulay is remarkable
for the rare judgment and skill with which he mingles these
two constructions. In scientific treatises requiring exact
specific statement, loose sentences should rarely occur, but
in fiction, newspaper articles, and other light literature, they
give a certain charm and piquancy.

40. Balanced Sentences. — A balanced sentence is
composed of clauses of similar construction and contrasted
meaning. Balanced sentences are rarely loose, though they
are not necessarily periodic, for each of the contrasted clauses
usually expresses a complete meaning. Dr. Johnson's wri-
tings abound in balanced sentences. The following are some
examples:

The style of Dryden is capricious and varied, that of Pope is
cautious and uniforin. Dryden obeys the motions of his own mind,
Pope constrains his mind to his own rules of composition. Dryden is
sometimes vehement and rapid, Pope is always smooth, uniform, and
level. Dryden 's page is a natural field, rising into inequalities, and
diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation; Pope's is
a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe, and leveled by the roller.

Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist; in the one,
we most admire the man; in the other, the work. Homer hurries us
with a commanding impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive
majesty. Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows
with a careful magnificence.

160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

In technical and scientific writings, the balanced sentence
should not be employed. Its proper use is in satire and
epigram, and especially in the delineation of character.
Plutarch's ** Lives'* abounds in balanced sentences. In
oratory and declamation this construction should be used
sparingly; in narrative and description it looks like an
attempt at **fine writing''; in elaborate and finished essays on
ethics, religion, politics, and similar subjects, the balanced
sentence is not only unobjectionable but ornamental.

41. The Squinting: Construction. — If any element of
a sentence is so placed as to look both ways, that is, if it
may be as readily connected in meaning with what precedes
as with what follows, the construction is. said to be squinting.
This construction is a source of frequent ambiguity, and
although the meaning intended may usually be made out, the
fault is none the less serious. In speech, ambiguity from
misplaced words is usually prevented by the tones of the voice,
but a writer has no such assistance. He should arrange the
parts of his sentences in such a manner that his meaning
cannot be misunderstood.

The following are some examples of the squinting
construction:

Remember always to observe the golden rule.
Tell him in the viortiinf!^ to report at my office.
Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, in any cir-
cumstances ^ ought to be ashamed to avow?

Ask him, if he is in the buildings to consult with the superintendent.

In each of these sentences, the italicized modifiers may be
understood as modifying either an element that precedes or
one that follows. The remedy, of course, is to put the
modifier where it belongs.

42. Siiort and Lon^ Sentences. — It is a rule that
unless two or more thoughts are closely related they should
be expressed as distinct sentences. A succession of short
sentences is easier to understand and is much more forcible
than when they are fused into long sentences by means of
connectives. Short sentences give animation to style, but if

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 101

there are too many of them, they produce a sense of monot-
ony. No rule can be given for the ratio of long sen-
tences to short sentences. The nature of the subject should
have much to do with this matter. Short sentences usually
predominate in oratory, and contribute much to its impres-
siveness. Extremely long sentences should be avoided
entirely, for they are fatiguing and have little force. The
distinguishing excellence of a good style is variety, and
to secure this quality, sentences of every kind — periodic
and loose, balanced and unbalanced, short and long — must
be employed.

43; Who or Which Instead of That. — Many authori-
ties insist that tvko or which should not introduce restrictive
clauses; that is, clauses that are mere modifiers. For such
clauses, the proper relative is that. It should perhaps be
explained that clauses are either restrictive or coordinate.
Coordinate clauses are of equal rank. Any sentence con-
sisting of two or more independent coordinate clauses is a
compound sentence; and any sentence that contains only one
independent clause and one or more restrictive or modifying
clauses is a complex sentence. Some examples will make
the distinction clear. The following sentences contain
independent coordinate clauses:

Homer, who is said to have composed the Iliad, was blind.
The dog, which is a relative of the wolf, is man's faithful friend.

The clauses set off by commas are independent coordi-
nate relative clauses, and the sentences are therefore
compound. The relatives 2vho and which are each equivalent
to and he. The following sentences contain dependent
restrictive clauses:

The house that stood by the seashore was burned yesterday.
The cave that contained the robbers^ treasure was opened by
Ali Baba.

In the first sentence the clause in Italics is a mere adjec-
tive modifier of house; similarly, the italicized clause in the
second sentence is an adjective modifier of cave. Clauses
so used are restrictive, and as a general rule they should

102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

begin with the relative that. To this rule, however, there are
some exceptions.

1. When the antecedent has a demonstrative adjective

modifier, the restrictive clause should begin with who or

which.

This man who asks for an interview is a forei^a^er.

Those potatoes which were dug yesterday are for sale.

That train which just swept by is the "Empire State Express."

Yonder mountain which you see in the distance is Pike's Peak.

In such sentences the antecedent is sufficiently definite.

2. When a relative clause is separated from its antecedent
by intervening elements, it should begin with who or which.

The debt of lasting gratitude which I owe you for many favors
can never be repaid.

A gentleman of the old school who was acquainted with Henry
Clay resides in that house.

The house of seven gables which you built by the sea shore can be
seen from this point.

Such sentences are likely to be ambiguous on account of
the distance of the relative from its antecedent.

3. When a noun not the antecedent of the relative that
introduces a clause is liable to be mistaken for the ante-
cedent, use who or which.

That girl petting the dog, who looks so happy, is my niece.
The tree loaded with fruit, which shades the bouse, is a pear tree.
It is the demand of the buyer which regulates the supply of a
commodity.

These sentences are objectionable on account of faulty
arrangement. They would be better thus:

That girl who is petting the dog and who looks so happy is my niece.
The tree that shades the house and is loaded with fruit is a pear tree.
The supply of a commodity is regulated by the buyer's demand.

4. Use only xvho or which clauses after proper nouns.

Ca\sar, xvho was both an orator and statesman, was also a great
military leader.

Have you read the story of Socrates, whom the Athenians poisoned
with hemlock?

He praised the city of Boston, which many persons believe to be the
Athens of America.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 103

5. To avoid a succession of words beginning with M, use
who or which in preference to that,

I do not enjoy those things which (not that) must be obtained b>
unfair dealing (better still, things that must etc.).

Those who (not that) are never sure that they put upon paper what
they mean to put upon paper etc.

We are not at liberty to reveal that which (not thcU that) was done.
(Better, what was done.)

Have you read that book which (not that) lies on the table? (Better,
the book that etc.)

There are many cases in which the question of preference
as to relative pronouns must be determined by the ear
rather than by rule. In general, it is better that restrictive
clauses should be introduced by that; but when no ambiguity
results from the use of who or which in such clauses, and
when to use one of these relatives gives smoothness and
harmony to a sentence, who or which should be preferred to
that. As a general rule, however, it is better to use relatives
as little as possible.

44. Two Tliats to Introduce a Clause. — The error
of using that twice to introduce a dependent clause is very
common. The following are examples:

He promised that as soon as all his preparations were made that he
would begin the advance movement.

The speaker asserted that if honesty is the best policy that the world
is filled with persons that are practicing the worst policy.

The second that in both of these sentences should be
omitted and a comma inserted.

45. Tikan Jflio or Thnn JfTiom. — There has been much
disputing among grammarians concerning the use of who or
whom after than. The weight of authority favors than whotn^
but the general opinion is that the construction is awkward*
and pedantic, although it is found in the writings of such mas-
ters of style as Milton, Pope, Byron, Landor, and Thackeray.
The following are examples:

For a while, Clive thought himself in love with his cousin; than
whom no more beautiful girl could be seen.

104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

Which, when Beelzebub perceived, than whom^ Satan except, none
higher sat etc.

I refer to Washington, than whom no purer patriot has lived.

This antiquated construction should be avoided.

46. Who OP Wluym. — These two pronouns are frequently
confounded, especially in interrogative sentences. In the fol-
lowing sentences the correct pronoun is in parentheses.

Whom {who) did you think he was?
Who (whom) did you think him to be?
Who (whom) did the convention nominate?
You could never guess whom (who) it was.

Do you know who (whom) that book belongs to? Better ^ Do you
know to whom that book belongs?

47. Subject and Predicate Reversed. — When the
subject of a sentence is placed after the verb, care is required
in order to have the verb agree with its nominative. The
following quotations exemplify errors due to the inversion
of subject and predicate.

Textbooks, by which is meant those that form the basis of class
instruction, represent the ideas of many men.

In this sentence those is the subject of is meanty a singular
verb. We cannot, of course, say those is meant. Besides,
the sentence is clumsy; for a definition is interjected between
textbooks^ the subject of the principal clause, and the verb
represent. Better thus:

The textbooks that form the basis of class instruction represent the
ideas of many men.

There is possibly several exceptions to this rule. Better^ To this
rule there are possibly several exceptions.

Our politicians, by whom is not to be understood our statesfpten^ are
a menace to the safety of the republic.

Here comes (come) for trial the persons that were indicted yesterday.

There is (are) in the city a great many persons not entitled to vote.

In such cases it is often best to use a verb form that is
the same whether the subject is singular or plural. Thus,

Our politicians, by whom must not be understood our statesmen, are
a menace to the safety of the republic.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 106

48. Subject a Relative Pronoun. — When the subject
of a verb is a relative pronoun the verb must agree in num-
ber with the antecedent of the pronoun. This rule is very
frequently violated.

This is one of the most valuable books that has appeared in the
nineteenth century.

The antecedent of that is booksy not one; the verb should
therefore have the plural form, have appeared.

This is the epoch of one of the most singular discoveries that has
(have) been made among men.

I resemble one of those animals that has {have) been forced from
its {their) forest to gratify human curiosity.

49. The Expression, As FoUotvs, — Ever since the
subject of English grammar has engaged the attention of
thinkers, there has been disputing as to the correctness of
the expression as follows after a plural antecedent. The
following are illustrations:

My reasons are as follows.

There are many grades of office, in order from highest to lowest,
as follows,

Lindley Murray, whose celebrated grammar was published
in 1795, confesses doubt as to whether as follows is correct
or whether it should be as follow. He advises students to
find some other expression. Goold Brown, a half century
later, condemns as follows ^ and gives much space to a dis-
cussion of the subject. In his ** Higher English Grammar,**
published in 1879, Professor Bain says: **The phrase as
follows, applied to a plural antecedent, is now a settled
usage. If as were a true relative pronoun, there would be
a breach of concord; but we must consider the expression
as now substantially adverbial like *as regards,' or *so far as
concerns.* ... It is not uncommon for speakers and writers
to seek the appearance of grammatical correctness by using
as follow. The writer's practice is to find some other expres-
sion— an expedient that is never difficult."

50. Connected Subjects With Every. — When two or
more subjects are each modified by every the verb should be

lod English grammar §19

singular, even when the connective is and. This is owing
to the strong individualizing effect of every.

Every clergyman, every physician, and every lawyer in the town
is assumed to be a gentleman.

Every emotion and every operation of the mind has a corresponding
expression of the countenance.

Every soldier, every officer, and every private citizen loves the old
flag and rejoices in its triumph.

This construction, although correct, has the appearance of
being a violation of the general rule of concord of the verb
and its subject. It should be avoided if possible, for it leads
to disputes, many and profitless.

51. Connected Subjects Tliat Name tlie Parts of a
Whole. — When some entire thing is denoted by the names
of its parts, these names being connected as the subjects of
one verb, the verb must be in the singular.

The locomotive and train was quickly stopped.
The wheel and axle serves many useful purposes.
A thread and needle was needed for the work.

Hanging and beheading was formerly the English method of pnnish-
ing treason.

In the first three sentences, the subjects name united parts
of a whole. The last sentence denotes that traitors were
first hanged and then beheaded.

If an article is placed before the second subject in each of
the first three sentences, a plural verb becomes necessary.

The locomotive and the train were quickly stopped (the locomotive
was not connected with the train).

The wheel and the axle of the wagon were both in need of repairs.

A thread and a needle were found on the floor, and the needle was
at once threaded.

52. Two Adjectives With the Same Noun. — When
two adjectives are coupled with the same singular noun so as
to mean different things, a plural verb is required.

The innocent and the guilty man were involved alike in the
catastrophe.

The morning and the evening train are usually on time.

The logical and the historical analysis of a language generally go
band in hand.

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 107

In all these sentences the article occurs before each adjec-
tive; but even when this is not the case, if two thing^s are
distinctly implied, the verb must be plural.

/Religious and moral conduct are not usually easy to distinguish.
Stormy and sunshiny weather are both to be expected.

53. As Well As In tlie Sense of Atid, — As well as is
sometimes used as a substitute for andy when it is intended
to predicate the same thing of two or more persons or things
named separately. The verb in this construction should
agree with the first subject.

Lee as well as Grant was a skilful strategist.
Industry as well as frugality is essential to success.
Europe as well as the United States is interested in the Panama
Canal.

64. If for Whether. — The conjunction if is frequently
employed for whether^ a usage that is condemned by the
best authorities. The following are examples:

I do not know if\ie will come or not (say, whether).
No one can say with certainty if it will rain (say, whether it will
rain or not) .

The alternative that belongs after whether is often omitted
in colloquial language; it should, however, be expressed in
careful composition. This alternative can be put either
before or after the first alternative, the latter position being
preferable.

I cannot tell you whether or not the train has arrived (I cannot tell
you whether the train has arrived or not) .

56. Omission of tlie Relative. — When the restrictive
relative pronoun that is in the objective case it may usually
be omitted.

I can lend you the money that you want.

Here that is the object of the verb want^ you want that^
and may be omitted.

It was all ( ) they had.

These are the fish ( ) I caught.

108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

Also, when that is used as a conjunction it may often be
omitted, especially in colloquial language.

He said ( ) he met you in the city.

I believe ( ) it will rain today.

Did you say ( ) he was sick yesterday?

It is, however, a rule that a relative pronoun used in a
dependent clause as the subject of a finite verb should not
be omitted.

Which is the one struck him (insert that before struck) ?

It is ambition prompts men to strenuous effort (say, that prompts).

There was not one had a clear notion of what he wanted (that had) .

When a relative is the object of a preposition it should
be expressed.

The ladies we went with were very charming (say, ztnth whom zve
went) .

Yonder is the man I spoke of {of whotn I spoke) .

56. Pronoun None, — The pronoun Tume being derived
from no and one is by some authorities regarded as always
singular. The weight of authority, however, is in favor of
construing it as either singular or plural according to the
meaning.

Did you get the cherries? There were none on the tree.
Have you a letter for me? There was none in your box.
None of us knows (or know) what is to happen tomorrow.

57. Conjunctions And and But. — ^An eminent lin-
guistic authority says of these two conjunctions:

* 'These two little words are the most abused words in the
language; they are employed by careless writers on all occa-
sions, without the slightest regard to precision and force.
The result is chronic vagueness and tameness of expression.**

1. And, — It is a rule in mathematics that only like quan-
tities can be added; the same rule prevails in language. If
and is, as has been said, the plus sign of language, it follows
that the expressions connected by the word should be closely
related in sense and structure.

Subordination, the relation of cause and effect, of time

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 109

or place, should not be expressed by this conjunction. Its
proper function is to mark addition, coordination, the union
of the parts that make a real whole.

The following are some examples of the incorrect use
of and:

He entered his office at exactly nine o'clock, and his private secre-
tary was always found waiting, alert and ready.

The relation of place expressed by the second clause
requires where as a connective instead of and.

Carlyle is particularly happy in the choice of illustrative figures of
speech, and they give clearness and vigor to his style.

Here the relation between the two clauses is that of cause
and effect. The sentence should be reconstructed.

Carlyle's style is marked by clearness and vigor because of his happy
choice of illustrated figures of speech.

Or as a periodic sentence:

Because of a peculiarly happy choice of figures of speech Carlyle's
style gains in clearness and vigor.

The sun went down behind the mountain and the moon rose silvery
and beautiful.

The relation of time rather than that of addition is denoted
by the second clause.

When the sun went down behind the mountain the moon etc.

The foregoing examples -are sufficient to show the impor-
tance of choosing the right connective, as well as scrutinizing
every and in your composition.

2. Bui. — This is the strongest of the conjunctions that
denote opposition, exception, contrast. It is properly used
when something that is said would naturally suggest or
imply some conclusion or inference that does not follow in
the given case. Thus, consider the sentence.

He had everything that the heart could desire, but he was not happy.

Any one hearing the first clause would be likely to think
the man happy. The conjunction but arrests this mental
tendency in the hearer, who waits for the opposing fact.

no ENGLISH GRAMMAR § 19

Professor Bain calls the expressions that thus prevent a
natural conclusion or inference, arrestive adversative conjunc-
tions. They are the following: but^ but then, yet, still,
however, only, nevertheless; also the phrases, for all that, at
the same time.

The careful writer does not use but for every shade of
opposition, contrast, exception, difference, or variety; the
entire list given above is drawn upon for the exact word
required in each case. When the exception or opposition
expressed in the adversative clause is very unusual, unex-
pected, surprising, but is the word to use. When the
arrestive effect is to be less strong, yet, still, only, however,
or some weaker term should be chosen. The following
sentences may be helpful toward making this important
matter clear:

The story is a strange one, nevertheless it is true.

I shall probably fail in the attempt, still I shall try.

The woman lived in a hovel, yet she was happy.

I shall lend you the book, only you must not forget to return it.

The stuff was horribly bitter, but then it was medicine.

58. Double Negratlves. — Two negatives in the same
clause usually have the effect of destroying each other and
of leaving the clause affirmative. One of the negatives may
be only, hardly, but, scarcely, barely.

They couldnU never learn to be prompt {could never) ,

The governor shouldnU have but one term {should have).

Nobody could«7 imagine the horror of the situation {nobody could

imagine) .

1 canU {can) scarcely make out what they are doing.

His language, though inelegant, is not ungrammatical {is gram^

matical) .

59. Predicate Noun or Pronoun. — A noun or a pro-
noun following the verb to be in any of its finite modes must
be in the nominative case. Thi^ rule is frequently violated,
especially in conversation.

Who is there? It is me (say /).
It wasn't fne (It wasn't /).
It was they, not we, that did it.

§19 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR 111

If you were /, you would do the same thing.

Had I been he^ I would have gone.

It wasn't thetn of whom I spoke (wasn't they).

If I had been her, I would have gone {had been she),

60. Pronouns After Prepositions. — The rule of
grammar that prepositions govern the objective case should
be observed both in speech and in writing. The following
sentences exemplify some of the common mistakes:

Between you and / {nte) he is no more honest than he should be.
" If you had been with he and / (with him and me), you would have
had a good tiVne.

No one was in the house except he and they (him and them) .

Besides you and /, nobody knew about the trouble (you and me).

61. Than In Comparisons. — The conjunction than
should be used only in express comparisons. After such
negative words as hardly^ scarcely^ barely y etc., not thatiy but
when or some other conjunctive adverb should be employed.
Neither should than follow the word different: from is
the correct term. The following sentences illustrate what
is meant:

We had no sooner reached the shore than we were attacked by
the natives.

The sun had scarcely risen when (not than) the journey began.

The news of the war in the Orient given by the Russians is very
different from (not than) the news furnished by the Japanese.

Hardly more than an hour had passed when (not than) my creel
was full of the speckled beauties.

We had gone barely a mile when we were overtaken by a man on
horseback.

The calla lily belongs to an entirely different botanic group from
(not than) that to which the lilies properly so-called belong.

62. Participles Modified by Very. — The adverb very
should never be joined directly to a participle unless the
participle is used as a mere adjective. Thus, we may say
very tired y very pleasing ^ very saving , but not very pleased ^ very
disturbed y very satisfied, very loved. Such expressions as these
last require that an adverb be interposed, of which very
becomes a modifier; as, very much pleased, very annoyingly
disturbed^ very soon satisfied, very tenderly loved.

This misuse of very is frequent in England.

112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

63. IkynH for I>oesnH. — One of the commonest errors,
both in speech and writing, is the use of don't for doesn't.
For the first and second persons, both in the singular and
the plural, don't is the correct abbreviation; in the third
person singular, doesn't should be used. / don'ty you don't,
he doesn't, she doesn't, it doesn't, John doesn't; these are the
correct forms. The following sentences exemplify some of
the incorrect uses of these abbreviations:

Mary don't (doesnU) know her lesson today.

It don*t (doesnH) make any difference which method you employ.

He don*i {doesnU) live in this neighborhood.

64. The Superlative Defp-ee for tlie Coinparative.

When two things are compared the comparative degree
should be used; when three or more, the superlative.

John ifi the taller of the two.

John is the tallest boy in the school.

It should be stated, however, that in the writings of many
of the best authors the superlative is frequently found where
this rule requires the comparative.

65. The Attraction Construction. — In the Latin lan-
guage, the verb in a sentence, instead of agreeing in number
with the subject, sometimes takes the number of some noun
or pronoun nearer to it than the subject. This is called the
attraction construction, owing to the fact that by the nearness
of the noun or the pronoun the verb is attracted out of con-
cord with the subject. The construction is not permissible
in English. The following are some examples:

A train of heavily laden cars were {was) thrown from the track at
this point.

The influence of many of the most prominent metnbefs were (was)
Buflicient to defeat the measure.

66. Relative With No Real Antecedent. — A relative
pronoun should never be left without an antecedent. The
antecedent may be a clause, but when this is the case
the clause must have the value of a noun. Neither can the

§19 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 113

relative so used be replaced by one of the demonstrative
pronouns ihis^ that, these, or those, for they also require
antecedents.

The boy fell from a second-story window, which resulted in a broken
arm {and broke his arm).

He was severely reprimanded for his neglect, which mortified him
very much. Better, He was mortified very much by being severely etc.

Whitney was the inventor of the cotton-gin; this brought him fame,
though but very little money (for this substitute the invention, or an
invention that) .

67. But That or But What for That. — Do not use

but that or but what for that, as in the following examples:

I had no doubt but what he would be on time {no doubt that).
We have no fear but that they wiU win the game (fear that they will
lose the game) .

68. Place of the Pronoun. — The pronoun should be
so placed that there can be no mistake as to its antecedent.
No rhetorical rule is more frequently violated than this.
The most frequent cause of ambiguity consists in putting
between the pronoun and its antecedent another noun that
may be mistaken for the antecedent.

Jones secured me a good place in Brown's establishment by repre-
senting that he and I had been college friends, better, Jones, by
representing that he and I had been college friends, secured me a
good place in Brown's establishment.

An antique clock ticked against the wall which was t>eautifully
decorated.

Here it is not possible to determine whether the clock was
decorated or the wall. If the former is meant, say,

An antique clock, beautifully decorated, ticked against the wall.

69. Progressive Passive Forms of Verbs. — Many
critics have strenuously objected to such passive forms as
is being built, was being built, urging that they are recent
and without the warrant of good authority. One argument
against these expressions is that it is absurd to join the
present participle being to the perfect participle built. On
this subject Richard Grant White says:

To say, therefore, that a thing is being done is not only

((i

114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR §19

to say (in respect of the last two. participles) that a process
is going on and is finished, at the same time, but (in respect
of the whole phrase) that it exists existing finished; which
is no more or other than to say that it exists finished, is
finished, is done; which is exactly what those who use the
phrase do not mean. It means that if it means anything;
but in fact it means nothing, and is the most incongruous
combination of words and ideas that ever attained respect-
able usage in any civilized language.**

On the other hand, many eminent authorities defend this
construction, and insist that it meets a real want in our lan-
guage. Certain it is that even if it is an incongruous com-
bination, as Mr. White says, nobody misunderstands the
meaning intended to be conveyed by it. / was shaving and
/ was being shaved^ He is bleeditig and He is being bled are per-
fectly intelligible, and after all is said, intelligibility is the
important thing to be sought in the use of language. The
forms. He was being shaved y The house is being built ^ The
work was being dofie are certainly better than the colloquial.
He was getting shaved ^ The house is getting built ^ etc., which
we so often hear.

The other tense forms of the progressive passive are of
course inadmissible: has been being built ^ will be being built ^
will have been being built^ had been being builty may have been
being built ^ etc.

It is perhaps better that a careful writer should not aid in
giving currency to forms against which strong objections
may be fairly urged. The resources of our language are
such that any thought can be expressed in language entirely
above criticism.

70. IHrertly as a Conjunctive Adverb. — The use of

this adverb in the sense of as soon a^ is a British colloquial-
ism that has recently been introduced into the United States.
The same may be said of immediately. The following sen-
tences illustrate these errors:

Directly he entered the room all conversation ceased.
Immediately he met me he assailed me with much bitterness.

§10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 116

Better thus:

JVhen he entered the room all conversation at once ceased.
As soon as he entered the room all conversation ceased.
As soon as he met me he assailed me with much bitterness.

71. Had Mather y Had Better. — For several centuries
authorities have been disputing as to the correctness of had
followed by rather or better. The majority of the critics have
pronounced in favor of should or would instead of hady and
yet nearly every eminent writer has shown a preference
for the stronger idiomatic forms with had. This is perhaps
due to the fact that it is not always easy to decide between
would and should. Both rather and better indicate the prefer-
ence of the writer or speaker, and so, bar the use of would;
so that both would rather and would better must be regarded
as tautological. A certain critic says:

Had rather and had better are thoroughly established
English idioms having the almost universal popular and
literary sanctions of centuries. ... In all ordinary cases.
had rather has the advantage of being idiomatic and easily
and universally understood.

Punctuation and Capitalization.

PUNCTUATION,

GENERAIi CONSIDERATIONS.

!• Punctuation. — Punctuation (Latin, punctutn^ "a
point ") is the division of written or printed matter by sig-
nificant marks or points to indicate the connection and
dependence of its parts. The chief purpose of punctuation
is to render clearer and more definite the meaning to be con-
veyed. The system of punctuation in use^ at the present
time was entirely unknown to the ancients. An imperfect
scheme devised by Aristophanes, a grammarian of Alexandria,
is said to have been introduced among the Greeks a little more
than two centuries before Christ. No improvement upon this
was made until the year 1500, when Aldus Manutius, a learned
printer of Venice, perfected our present system and exempli-
fied it in the celebrated and beautiful **Aldine" edition of
the Greek and Latin classics.

BIVI8ION8 OP THE SUBJECT.

3. Considered with respect to use or purpose, punctua-
tion may be logical, rhetorical, grammatical, etymological,
and for emphasis and reference.

3« liosrlcal Punctuation. — In a printed or written doc-
ument of any kind, those elements that serve to connect its

§20

For notice of the copyright, sec p.ngc immediately following the title (wge.

2 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

sentences and paragraphs into one whole — to give unity —
are logical in character. This unity or continuity is secured
by the use of a great variety of expressions that point back-
wards to something that has been said before. Thus, consider
the sentence,

We may be very sure, therefore, that heat is motion.

The word therefore is grammatically unnecessary; its
effect is to establish a logical connection between this sen-
tence and some arguments or illustrations that precede.
Expressions of this kind may be considered as belonging to a
paragraph or an entire composition rather than to a sentence;
their function is logical (Aoyof, logos^ **a discourse") rather
than grammatical. Examples of these are such as the fol-
lowing: indeedy moreoi'cr, consequent ly^ w hence ^ firsts sec-
ondly ^ finally y in fact^ at all events^ and innumerable other
words, phrases, and clauses. Many others are used to pre-
pare the mind for something that is to follow — they are
anticipative. Such are, to wit^ namely y as follow Sy as, thuSy
viz.y etCy hencCy yety in fine. Most of these elements point
in both directions. As has been said, these transitional or
logical elements form no necessary part of the sentences in
which they occur; they are, in a sense, independent, and
their independence or separateness should generally be indi-
cated by punctuation.

4. .Rhetorical Punctuatlon.^-Closely allied in function
to these logical elements arc others called rhetorical. They
are used, not to establish unity among the sentences compo-
sing a paragraph or a discourse, but to denote some peculiarity
in the way the meaning expressed by a sentence is to be
taken. Their general effect is to render the style lively,
earnest, amusing, colloquial, familiar, affectionate, etc.
Some of the many expressions for this purpose are the fol-
lowing: ?i07Uy you seCy ivclly indeed y truly y so, tkerCy you knotUy
so then, why. Nearly all of these elements are parenthetical;
and being, therefore, more or less independent, generally
require to be separated by punctuation from the rest of the
sentence. That a sentence is a question, an exclamation.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 3

a quotation, or a mere parenthesis, is also a rhetorical fact,
and the punctuation necessary is for that reason rhetorical.

5. Grammatical Punctuation. — The flow of thought
in language is not uniform and unbroken; if it were so,
punctuation within the body of a sentence would be unneces-
sary. As explained above, logical and rhetorical elements
are constantly introduced into sentences in such manner as
to break their continuity, and these stand related to other
elements in different degrees of remoteness. Among gram-
matical elements also, there are interruptions of continuity.
Words, phrases, and clauses do not unite their meanings in
regular, uniform sequence; but breaks of unequal lengths
occur after long and short intervals. Now, the only method
of indicating such breaks is to punctuate ; and, on account of
the great variety of these interruptions, punctuation is a
matter requiring the nicest»judgment.

6. Etymologrlcal Punctuation. — Besides the punctua-
tion of sentences for logical, rhetorical, and grammatical rea-
sons, words and letters, considered as such, often require to be
marked or punctuated. Thus, the fact that a word is com-
pound, abbreviated, or contracted ; that it is grammatically
inflected, is composed of separate syllables, or that certain
vowels do not form diphthongs; that certain syllables have a
particular pronunciation, accent, or quantity, or a letter has
some definite vocal value: these and other facts are shown
by marks within or about separate words. Such punctuation
is etymological^ since it aids infixing more exactly the true or
root meaning of words (erv/ioAoym, etymologia^ **the true
sense of a word as determined by its origin"). The diacritical
marks of the dictionaries are almost all used for etymological
punctuation; and, since scientific uniformity and exactness
have been nearly or quite attained in the use of these marks,
the subject requires very little attention in a work on general
punctuation.

7. Punctuation for Emphasis and Reference. — A

great variety of marks are used for miscellaneous purposes.
These purposes are so numerous and varied as not to

4 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

admit of accurate classification; but nearly all of them
serve for emphasis, or to refer the reader to something else
in the composition. A few of them might be included
under logical punctuation; as, the paragraph (^) and the
section (§), when used to mark divisions. Others again are
rhetorical ; as, the question mark when placed in marks of
parenthesis to express doubt or incredulity, and the exclanta-
tion mark when employed to denote that something is sur-
prising or absurd. The rules and methods that regulate the
use of these marks are so definite and well known that, like
those relating to etymological punctuation, they may be
omitted from this treatise.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE POINTS.

8. Grammatical punctuation employs the following
marks:

1. Comma (,) 3. Colon (:)

2. Semicolon {\) 4. Period {.)

5. Uash (— )

9. liOgrlcal and rhetorical punctuation require the
five marks given above, besides the following:

1. Interrogation (?) 3. Marks of Quotation

("")or(")

2. Exclamation (!) 4. Marks of Parenthesis ( )

5. Brackets [ ]

1 0. Ktymologlcal punctuation is indicated in general
by the following marks:

1 . Caret ( a ) 3. Apostrophe (')

2. Hyphen (-) or (=) 4. Accents (^), ('), and C^)
5. Quantity Marks: {a) Macron (~) ; (b) Breve {^)

6. Dieresis {")

1 1 . Punctuation for reference employs many marks
besides letters and figures. The principal characters that
have names are the following :

g 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION.

, 1. Asterisk {*) 5. Parallel {\)

2. Asterism (,>%) or (%♦) 6. Index or ''Fist *' (

3. Paragraph {^) 7. Z^^^^^r (f).

4. 5^^//^ (§) 8. />t?2^<J/^ Dagger (J)

12. Teclinlcal Marks. — The marks mentioned above
are of general use — they may be employed in written or
printed matter relating to any subject whatever. But
besides these, each art and science has its system of special
marks, generally for the purpose of abbreviation. Thus,
astronomy employs a large number; mathematics, chemistry,
botany, music, and many other subjects would be almost
impossible of satisfactory exposition without the help of
arbitrary symbols. These symbols must perhaps be regarded
as belonging to the general subject of punctuation, but
such as pertain to special arts and sciences should be studied
in connection with those subjects. It is only punctuation of
general application and utility that will be considered in
this treatise.

13. Taste and Judgement in Punctuation. — It must
not be assumed that punctuation has been reduced to an
exact science. No two writers or printers could be found
that would punctuate a long paragraph, much less a maga-
zine article or a book, in exactly the same way.

The varieties possible in sentence structure and in style are
practically endless, and each person will interpret expressed
thought a little differently from every other person. What
to one person seems important or emphatic, will usually
strike another person differently. These differences in
interpretation inevitably lead to differences in what is con-
ceived to be the appropriate or necessary punctuation.
Hence, taste and judgment will determine in large measure
the excellence and consistency of each person's practice of
this art It is clear therefore that no system of rules alone,
however elaborate and precise, can be applied with uniform-
ity or produce equally good results. Even a taste that has
been informed by wide reading, close observation, and much
reflection, must be aided by exact grammatical knowledge

6 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION, g ^20

and by a quick and accurate sense of logical relation and
arrangement. So important in this art are grammatical
terms and principles, that a few of them will now be briefly
explained and illustrated.

GRAMMAR IN PUNCTUATION.

14. Sentential Elements. — Sentences are primarily
made up of single words. When, however, these separate
elements are carefully considered with respect to the work
they do, it is at once seen that they do not always enter the
sentence as individual words each representing a separate
idea; on the contrary, they often occur in groups of closely
related words that must be taken together as signs of com-
pound ideas. Each group has a function — does a work —
exactly similar to that done by single words. These group
elements are of two kinds; phrases and clauses,

15. Phrases and Clauses. — A phrase is a group of
words having a single function, but not expressing a com-
plete thought. The following are some examples:

In the spring, by the river, in fact, side by side, seeing the multi-
tude, without hesitation, having been accused.

The use of phrases in sentences is commonly either adjec-
tival or adverbial. Their functions are to modify, narrow,
restrict, the meaning of nouns and pronouns and other parts
of speech. To show their functional unity and to separate
them from neighboring elements the meaning of which they
might otherwise improperly modify, it is often necessary to
set them off by punctuation.

A clause is one of two or more sentential' elements, each
expressing not a mere campound idea^ but a complete thought ;
it must therefore contain a finite verb, and when separated
from the rest of the sentence in which it is used, it must say
something completely, A sentence may consist of several
such clause elements united by connectives.

The sun came out again ivhen the rain ceased.
Each man must expect to reap what he sows.

g 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 7

16. Three Important Principles. — ^Whether or not a
word, a phrase, or a clause should be separated by punc-
tuation from other elements, depends largely on three
circumstances :

1. Its Length, — The longer a sentential element ^ the more
likely is it to require separation by punctuation,

2. Its Connection. — The need for punctuating an element
increases with the remoteness of its connection with other ele-
ments,

3. Its Position, — When a word or a longer expression is
removed from the place in which the natural and orderly flow
of the thought requires it to be, it should usually be set off by
some kind of punctuation. This transposition is usually for
the purpose of emphasis, or it is the result of interruption
or afterthought.

Frequently, but not always^ are the wicked punished in this life.

This sentence, regularly arranged, would require no
punctuation.

The wicked are frequently but not always punished in this life.

17. A General Rule. — The modem tendency is towards
the avoidance of unnecessary punctuation. Many persons
get into the practice of putting in some kind of mark wher-
ever it appears that a pause would be necessary in reading.
This is all wrong. Such punctuation renders grammatical
punctuation impossible.

Others, again, always set off their how^ when, and where
clauses. This is very frequently unnecessary. Even those
clauses that begin with such conjunctions as if unless^
except^ although^ because, etc. should not be separated by
punctuation unless for reasons that are very obvious. The
inexperienced writer may safely observe the following:

Punctuate too little rather than too much. When to
punctuate does not render the meaning plainer or effect some
definite advantage, do not punctuate.

18. Origin of the Marks of Punctuation. — The names
of most of the marks used for grammatical punctuation were

8 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

borrowed from the names of the sentential elements set oflE
by them.

1. The period (Treptodoc, periodoSy **a way around")
marked a complete circuit of words — an entire sentence.
The picture in the word is the circular track of a race course.

2. The colon (icwAov, kolon^ **a limb," **half of a race
course ") was one of two main divisions of a long compound
sentence. From the part or division the name was trans-
ferred to the mark used in indicating the divisions.

3. Strictly, the semicolon should be used in separating
a sentence into fourths; but, for obvious reasons, no such
limitation is possible. It indicates a degree of separation
next less than that made by the colon; but only in name, not
in reality, is it a half-colon,

4. The comma {Kdfiiia, komma^ **a segment"; K&irrtiVy
koptcin^ ** to cut ") denotes the shortest separation in ideas or
construction between written or printed sentential elements.

5. The mark of Interrogration is said to have been
made from the initial and final letters of the Latin word
Quest io^ the Q being written above the o\ thus, §.

6. The mark of exclamation is believed to have been
formed from the letters of the Latin interjection to, express-
mgjoy; thus, J.

RULES FOR PTJKCTUATION.

19. Insufficiency of Rules. — No code of rules for
punctuation can be devised that will provide for every pos-
sible sentence form, for the number of these is practically
infinite. Much must be left to the judgment, taste, and
intention of the writer. It may be taken as a general prin-
ciple that the objects of punctuation are to aid in bring-
ing out the exact meaning of the writer, and to prevent
ambiguity. There should not be more punctuation than is
required for the first, or less than will accomplish the second.

The following rules will be found to cover all the cases
that have been determined by the general practice of the
best authorities.

g 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 9

THE COMMA.

30. General Principles. — The comma is used more
frequently than any other mark of punctuation ; but, almost
without exception, these various uses may be included under
one of the three folio ving heads :

1. The Interpolation of Elements, — The flow of thought
in language is not uniform and unbroken like the current of
a deep river; it is more like that of a stream filled with
obstructions. These obstructions to the flow of the sentence
are indicated by punctuation. When an element not really
necessary to the thought is introduced in such way as to
break the continuity, it is commonly set off by commas.

2. The Ellipsis of Elements, — In the expression of thought,
elements are often so clearly implied that they need not be
repeated. This is particularly the case with the verb^
though the ellipsis of other parts of speech, as for example
the conjunction^ is very common. These ellipses are usually
marked by commas.

3. The Transposition of Elements. — Usage has established
certain positions for the various sentential elements, which
are often put in other places, generally for emphasis or
euphony; and since in their unusual positions they obstruct
in some measure the flow of thought, the fact must often be
marked by punctuation.

RULE I.

31. liOgrlcal Elements. — Logical connective and transi-
tional elements^ if the interruption from their use is very
marked^ should be set off by commas.

Besides^ he is our father ; therefore, we should show him respect
Moreover^ the white man was the aggressor.

22. Although these elements, being in the nature of
modal adverbs (adverbs that modify entire sentences), may
be placed almost anywhere in a sentence or a clause, their
usual place when truly parenthetical is at the beginning. If

10 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

they occur near an element the meaning of which they may
be conceived as modifying, they lose their logical value, take
on mere grammatical function, and require no punctuation.

Bf sides, he is our father; we should therefore show him respect
Finally, he was successful. He ^jsls finally successful.
However, we are extremely sorry. However sorry we may be, is
of no avail now.

23, The fpllowing are in common use as logical paren-
thetical elements:

then

besides

secondly

in fact

too

again

wherefore

in fine

also

therefore

consequently

in conclusion

now

moreover

further

after all

hence

finally

accordingly

as stated

whence

first

however

continuing

RULE II.

24. Rhetorical Elements. — Rhetorical elements that
are parenthetical should generally be set off by commas.

Assuredly, Bums was a poet of real genius.

Well, honor is the subject of my story.

Nay, now, you do not really believe such nonsense.

These words, assuredly^ well, nay, and now, are modal
adverbs. Each modifies the meaning of the entire sentence in
which it is used, and their functions are distinctly rhetorical.

25. When rhetorical elements stand at the beginning of
a sentence or a clause, the rule requiring them to be punc-
tuated must generally be observ^ed ; in, other positions,
however, they usually lose in some measure their rhetorical
value and become ordinary modifiers requiring no punctu-
ation. This is especially the case when they stand near a
verb or other element the meaning of which they are capa-
ble of modifying.

Surely, a day of retribution will come. A day of retribution will
surely come.

In reality, no such '^feature as a dragon ever existed. No sucb
creature as a dragon <ev*er existed in reality.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 11

26. The following are examples of elements that are
usually set off by commas when used with rhetorical value:

really

verily

in a manner

yes

clearly

truly

as it were

briefly

forsooth

so to speak

may

surely

honestly

so to say

now

indeed

to be suVe

no doubt

well

certainly

you see

to be candid

then

assuredly

in a word

in passing

obviously

in reply

to resume

pray

manifestly

you know

to be frank

27. When two or more rhetorical elements are used

together in close connection they are usually not separated

from one another by punctuation.

Really then, I am much disappointed.

When therefore a new edition of my '* Lectures" became necessary
once more, 1 insisted on the destruction of the old plates.

The same is true of expressions composed of logical,
rhetorical, and grammatical connectives. But when one of
the elements is ^/, yea, yes, no, or nay, it is set off by a
comma. It should be added, however, that there is no
uniformity among our best writers in punctuating such
expressions. It is closeness of connection that must deter-
mine the punctuation suitable in each case; provided always
that the comma should be omitted zvhen it does not clearly aid
in expressing the thought or in preventing ainbiguity.

The following are examples of such combinations:

and then yes, indeed surely now by all means, then

nay, now but surely truly then well, at any rate

well then briefly then frankly, indeed obviously, therefore

why then now truly so that now though certainly

and again so indeed to resume, then but doubtless

but now then again surely, however well truly, then

Almost any of these combinations may sometimes require
an intervening comma and sometimes not. They are how-
ever most frequently punctuated as indicated above. Of
course a comma is almost always placed after the last word
of such a group.

12 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

28, Parenthetical elements when differently used gener-
ally require to be differently punctuated. The following
examples will illustrate this principle :

Well then, I'll go. Well, then he surrendered. Well, then, no more
need be said.

Nay, now, don't be cruel. Nay, now he sees your meaning.

Though certainly honest, he was unfortunate. Though, certainly
we must all die. Though, certainly, if need should be, he would come.

RULE m.

29. Parenthetical Grammatical ^Elements. — Gram-
matical elements loosely connected are usually set off by
commas^ especially if they are long modifying phrases or
clauses not directly joined to the expression they modify.

The ancients accounted a man wise, if he was not too wise.
This fact, though embarrassing, is unavoidable.
Suppose, for example, that the earth were flat

SO. Strictly speaking, every term or expression found
between the extreme words of a sentence is parenthetical
(** placed within" or ** between"). But, as here used, the
term is intended to include only such elements as the
following :

1. Modifying- elements, although indispensable to the

expression of nice distinctions and shades of thought, are

not necessary to the sentential structure, and they often

break in a marked degree the uniform flow of the thought.

The boy, when school time came, was frequently taken suddenly ill.
It is said that, on a borrowed horse, a beggar always rides very fast

If such expressions are placed so as not to interrupt, punc-
tuation is not required.

When school time came the boy was frequently taken suddenly ill.
The boy was frequently taken suddenly ill when school time came.
It is said that a beggar on a borrowed horse always rides very fast.

2. Elements introduced in the way of explanation or after-
thought.

The sweet violet, hardy here but tender northward, is a native of
Europe.

The moon seems, to me at leasts more beautiful than the sun.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 13

RUL.E IV.

31 • TransiK>sed Expressions, — Elements that for em-
phasis or any other reason are placed out of their natural or
usual order are usually set off by commas.

Respectfully^ we insisted upon our rights.

To the man thoroughly honesty stringent conditions are easy.

32. Transposed elements should always be set off by
commas under the following circumstances :

1. When the transposition brings together the same parts
of speech.

In dealing with th^ foolish, wise men rarely act with wisdom.
Towards women, men are generally considerate.
What we did not have, gave us more trouble than what we had.
When one deals with you, you are not always just.

2. When the transposition brings together a noun and an
adjective^ or an adverb and a verb or participle, or any ele-
ment and a modifier suited to it, but really relating to some
other element.

Where the current was swift, boats were towed by horses.

On stormy days, cheerful books entertained us.

When the snow disappeared, soon came the birds again.

While he slept, there came an enemy.

They rubbed their stomachs, with howls of agony = With howls of
agony they rubbed their stomachs.

We saw some boys, wandering along the street = We, wandering
along the street, saw some boys.

In cases like the last two the meaning is better expressed
by careful arrangement than by punctuation.

3. When the transposed element is long, or when it con-
tains a restrictive clause element.

That Bacon and not Shakespeare wrote that wonderful tragedy, he
firmly believed.

By forgetting injuries that may be inflicted upon us by the malice
of others, we declare our own nobility of character.

33. The comma should be omitted in the following
cases:

1. When the main part of the sentence begins with a verb,

14 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

or when it contains a verb the object of which is in the trans-
posed part.

On the shore of the loud-sounding sea stood the home of the old
fisherman.

Many of the plays that Shakespeare wrote we read during the idle
days of vacation.

2. When the transposed portion begins with a preposition
dependent on some word in the other part

In the poetry of Homer he felt no interest.

Of the money received for our labor we had no difficulty in dispO'
sing.

3. When the transposed portion begins with // is or with
only.

It is generally when success is merited that it is achieved.
Only when the birds return from the South is it certain that spring
has begun.

4. When no ambiguity would follow the omission of the
comma.

In the following sentences the comma must be inserted

to express the meaning intended :

In everything, honorable men consider honor.

By all these, different creeds were held.

Every moment, neglected opportunities were recalled.

RUL.K V.

34, Dependent Clauses. — Dependent clauses^ unless
the connection is close, should be set off by commas.

Although the planet Venus closely resembles the earth, it may be
without inhabitants.

If you would succeed in the thing that you undertake, you must give
it dose attention.

Until the preliminaries have all been settled by the interested parties,
nothing can be done.

35. Dependent clauses are, as a rule, punctuated only
when they are transposed. The examples just given illus-
trate this.

Nothing can be done until the preliminaries have all been settled by
the interested parties.

i 20 tUNCtUAtloN AND CAl>ITALl2ATtON. 15

36. Clauses denoting /uney placey or manner ^ unless trans-
posed and long, or very loosely connected, need not be set
off by commas. Such clauses begin with when^ where^ how^
until^ before^ after ^ etc.

37. Clauses introduced by thany aSy and so that are not
punctuated unless they are out of their natural and usual
place.

You should always do as you are told = As you are told, you should
always do.

He is in reality no wiser or better than he should be = No wiser or
better than he should be, is he in reality.

RULE VI.

38. Relative Clauses. — When not restrictwe^ relative
clauses should be set off by commas.

This state, which was named after Queen Elizabeth, was settled in
1607.

The members, who were much dissatisfied, left the church.
Homer, who is said to have composed the Iliad, was blind.

The function of a restrictive clause is merely to modify;
that of a relative clause is to explain or to add some circum-
stance or afterthought,

39. Restrictive relative clauses are preferably intro-
duced by that. When who and which are used for this
purpose, ambiguity is likely to result.

The train that leaves in the morninj? is very fast = The outgoing
morning train is very fast (restrictive clause, complex sentence)".

The train, which leaves in the morning, is an express = The train
is an express and it leaves in the morning (coordinate clause, com-
pound sentence).

The soldier that disobeyed orders was arrested = The disobedient
soldier was arrested (clause an adjective in function, sentence complex).

The soldier, who disobeyed orders, was arrested = The soldier was
arrested,/r?r^^ disobeyed orders (the soldier = some particular soidier
before referred to).

40. A restrictive relative clause that modifies each item
in a series should be set off by commas.

16 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

Books, papers, and magazines, that had not been read, littered the
floor = Unread books, papers, and magazines littered the floor.

In the first form of the sentence the comma would often
be omitted after magazines^ but the result is always ambi-
guity. The meaning then is that only the magazines had
not been read

41, When relative clauses, whether restrictive or coordi-
nate, are broken by parenthetical elements, they are punctu-
ated as follows:

Restrictive, — He is the best man ihai^ under the circumstances,
could be found.

Coordinate, — A caller, who, I think, is an old friend of yours^ is in
the parlor.

The same distinction should be observed in punctuating
clauses introduced by whose^ by whom or which^ and by
whose following a preposition.

The President, to whom I am much indebted, passed a moment ago.
A man by 'whose experience we might profit cannot be found.

The first clause is coordinate^ the second is restrictive.

RULE vn.
43. Apposition. — Elements in apposition^ unless short
and closely connect ed^ are set off by commas.

Milton, the Homer of England, was blind.
fohn the evangelist was the beloved disciple.
fohn, the beloved disciple, wrote the Revelation.

43. When the less specific appositive precedes and is
used like an attributive adjective, punctuation is omitted.

The great orator Cicero was slain at the instance of Csessifs friend
Antony,

If, however, the appositives are separated by intervening
elements, punctuation is required.

The great orator of Rome, Cicero^ was less eloquent than he of
Athens, Demosthenes,

g 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 1?

44. When the more general element of compound names
precedes, punctuation is required, except in the case of
scientific names.

Smith, Geo. W. Lilium auratum. Cams /ami Harts,

45. A pronoun used in the manner of an adjective before
a noun is not separated from it by punctuation ; but, when
used like a noun in apposition, punctuation is required. The
former use is called adjunctive or attributive^ and the latter
appositive.

You men are more vain than we women. Ye men of Athens.
We old soldiers are now of but little use to the country. They showed
him^ a senator^ the door.*

You^ boys; I mean you. And thus to me^ an old Castilian^ he spoke.

46. The adjunctive use of a noun is distinguished from
its appositive use by punctuation.

One son^ John, went to the Klondike ; another son^ William^ was
killed in Cuba (appositive).

My son John is dead, and my daugnier Mary is married (adjunctive).

47. Adjectives are distinguished as adjunctive or apposi-
tive by means of punctuation.

It was a horrible night, stormy^ tempestuous^ when we set out for
home (appositive).

One dark, stormy, and tempestuous night we set out for home
(adjunctive).

If an adjective used appositively is unemphatic, the punc-
tuation is omitted.

A form more /air and a face more sweet.

A sound sweet and tow reached our ears from within.

48. Terms of equal generic value, made appositive for
the sake of explanation or emphasis, should be set off by
commas.

It is certain that all energy, power, /or ce, originates in the sun.
^nA/ood, money, clothes, — anything.

In each of these sentences the italicized words are different
names for the same thing or intended for the same use —
they have equal class y or generic^ value.

18 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

RUL.E VIII.

49. Contrast. — Contrasted elements are set off by
commas.

Gold, not silver^ is what they sought.

Not merely in prosperity^ but in adversity also, was he your friend.

RULE IX.

50. Omitted Connectives. — Similar elements not con-
nected by conjunctions are separated from one another by
commas.

Come, tell me what you wish.

Lend, lend your wings.

Softly, sweetly she crooned, she sanjs;- to her darling.

Genius is but patient, persistent, indefatigable industry.

51. When the items of an emphatic series are similarly
related to an element that precedes or follows, this element
should usually be separated from the series by a comma.

All that was loved, all that was hated, all that was feared by man,
he tossed about.

If he could only see, understand, experience, what I suffer, he would
behave differently.

To blunder stupidly, grossly, rashly, is inexcusable.

To offer no opposition to the orders of his official superiors; to formu-
late against them neither argument nor objection, even in the secrecy
pf his own mind; to know, in fine, nothing but blind unreasoning
obedience, seem the chief glory and excellence of a soldier.

In the last sentence the items of the series are separated
by semicolons, yet the common italicized part is preceded by
a comma, as in the other sentences.

53. When the last two elements of a series have a con-
nective between them, a comma is required before the con-
nective ; but when connectives occur between every two
elements, commas should not be used.

Oranges, lemons, limes, and grapefruit belong to the same family.
Day nor night nor sunshine nor storm affected him.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. . 19

53, Compound series consisting of groups of similar
items require a comma between each two groups.

They had picture books about simitars and slippers and turbans,
and dwarfs and giants and genii and fairies, and bluebeards and
beanstalks and riches and caverns and Valentines and Orsons, — and all
new and all true.

RULBX.

54. Di^unctlve Connection. — IVAen t^ivo elements are
united by conjunctions that are strongly adversative or dis-
junctive^ they should usually be separated by commas.

Work rapidly, but let your work be thorough.
His offense was very serious, still he was forgiven.
The case was critical, yet we were not without hope.
Shall we come today, or can you wait a day or two?

55. Conjunctions with a strongly marked disjunctive
value are the following: or, nor, yet, still, but, best, albeit,
though, although, unless, however, whereas, provided, never-
theless, notivithstanding.

56. The connection between two elements increases in
remoteness as they take on adjuncts. It follows, therefore,
that a comma may be required for this reason even when the
connective is not disjunctive.

A tall handsome boy with black eyes and wavy hair, and a very
beautiful girl, met us at the gate.

57. Two elements that are disjunctive from the fact
that they are equivalent or alternative names, are usually
set off by commas. When the conjunction is omitted, such
elements are said to be in apposition.

A large opening, or intet^ led to the ample bay within.
Afeter, or measure, is the number of poetical feet that a verse con-
tains.

RUI^E XI.

58. Independent Clauses. — Independent clauses should
be separated by a comma if the conjunction between them

20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

might be understood as connecting^ not tlte clauses^ but words
or phrases.

Life is very short, but delightful and precious are the sunny days of
youth.

Be careful to speak always with moderation, and in honesty deal
thou with alt men.

RULJC xn.

59. Address. — An element independent by address is
set off by commas.

I rise. Mr, President^ to a point of order.

Time^ you thief ^ who love to get sweets into your list, put that in.

Come. Antony^ and young Octavius^ come.

60. A pronoun in the second person used like an attribu-
tive adjective or before a relative or an indefinite pronoun,
is not set off by. commas.

Thou moon that roll'st above.

You blocks, you stones, you worse than senseless things

O thou whose love can ne*er forget its offspring, man.

RULE XIII.

61. Absolute Constructions. — An element used abso-
lutely or independently should commonly be set off by commas.
There are several varieties of this construction :

1. The Participial. — In this the characteristic word is a

participle.

Honor being lost, everything is lost

Such, speaking frdnkly. is my honest opinion.

2. The Infinitive,

To be sure, we might have done worse.

Now. to make a long story shorty this is what we will da

3. The Imperative.

I say, believe me or not, that the story is false.

We shall go. be sure of that, at the earliest opportunity.

4. The Adjectival.

Good at heart himself, he thought men better than they are.
His one daughter, beautiful as ever, was still at home.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 21

5. The Pleonastic. — This construction commonly consists
in the mere mention of something concerning which a gram-
matically complete sentence follows. The pleonastic con-
struction is one that is overfilled.

Day^ it brings him no delight; nighty he has no rest or peace at
night

BULS xrv.

63. Informal Introduction. — A short quotation or
similar element informally introduced should generally be set
off by commas,

Plato's definition, •• Man is a biped without feathers/* was ridiculed
by Diogenes.

The oracle answered, "No man is sure of happiness before he is
dead."

Tennyson's saying, " Death is the end of life," is an unpleasant
reminder.

63. When the element introduced is one word or the

introduction is very close, the commas should be omitted if

no ambiguity results.

The Greek name Agamemnon means great memory,

Horace's '* While we live let us live " has led to much dissipation.

RUI^ XV.

64. Ellipsis of the Verb. — In continued sentences where

a common verb is expressed in only one of the clauses and

understood in the others y the omitted verb is usually indicated

by a comma.

Homer was the gfreater genius; Virgil, the better artist
Semiramis built Babylon ; Dido, Carthage ; and Romulus, Rome.

RUL.E XVT.

65. Dates. — Dates and other expressions consisting of a
series of related groups require commas between their compo-
nent groups,

Washington was bom on Friday, February 22, 1732, in Westmore-
land Ca, Va.

22 ttFNCTtJATION AND CAt>It ALlZAttON. § 20

See Green's "History of the English People," voL i, book ill,
chap, ii, pp. 433-425.

Killed in an accident at 1239 Fifth ave.. New York, Tuesday, June 7,
1891.

66. Commas should not be placed between B. C, A. D.,
A. U. C. , etc. , and the number denoting a year.

Caesar invaded Britain, B. C. 55 (or, in the year 55 B. C. ).
Done at Washington, D. C, July 10. A. D. 1899.

Arabic numbers, except where used to denote dates or
street or page numbers, are separated by commas into
periods of three figures each, beginning at the right. In the
case of mixed decimals the place of beginning is the decimal
poii)t.
10,129,475.68; 136,902.7325+; $1,049.6851; £12,985.

THE SEMICOLON.

RUL.E XVII.

67. Added Clauses. — lV/i6'n a clause complete in itself
is folloived by one expressing a reason or consequenccy an
explanation or inference^ the clauses should usually be sepa-
rated by a semicolo7i.

We might have guessed our immortality; for Nature, giving
instincts, never fails to give the ends to which they |x>int.

The fear of heresy did what the sense of oppression could not do ; it
changed men into devoted partisans and obstinate rebels.

68. Even when the connective is omitted, the semicolon

is used unless the clauses are very long and their connection

not close. In this latter case a colon may be required, or

the sentence may be broken into two sentences.

The wisest are liable to error; even Jupiter sometimes nods.
History cannot be perfectly true ; it may tell the truth, but not the
whole truth.

69. When there is doubt as to the degree of separation,
preference should be given to a point denoting less separa-
tion of parts. When it is not clear which is better, a comma
or a semicolon, use a comma.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 23

RULB XVIII.

70. Subdivided Clausen. — United clauses that contain
elements set off by commas should generally be separated by
semicolons.

Arrogance is generally, though not always, bom of wealth and the
consciousness of power; but true humility, of real wisdom and genius.

RULE XIX.

71. Coord Inate Clauses. — United clauses of equal rank,
slightly connected and without intervening connectives, should
be separated by semicolons.

Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals grow, live, and
feeL

If the clauses are short, unbroken, and closely connected,
they should be separated by commas.

Everything grows old, everything passes away, everything disap-
pears.

RULE XX.

73. Dependent Particulars. — When each of a series
of expressions is dependent on the same elements, they should
generally be separated by semicolons,

Macaulay says of Herodotus that he has written an incomparable
book; that he has written something better perhaps than the best
history; that he has not, however, written a good history; that he is,
from the first to the last chapter, an inventor.

If we think of glory in the field ; of wisdom in the cabinet ; of the
purest patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private; of
morals without a stain — the august figure of Washington presents
itself as the personification of all these ideas.

RULE XXI.

73. Apposltlve Particulars. — A general term should
be separated by a semicolon from the particulars under it
when they are very short; and the particulars themselves
should be separated from one another by commas.

24 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

In solid geometry are considered, among other things, four of the
most interesting of solids; the prism, the cylinder, the cone, and the
sphere,

74. If the appositive items are formally introduced, or
if they themselves are long or broken by punctuation, they
should be preceded by a colon and separated from one
another by semicolons.

Grammar consists of the following parts: first, orthography; second,
etymology; third, syntax; and fourth, prosody^

RUUE xxn.

75. Introductory Hxpressions. — A semicolon should
commonly precede as, viz., namely, to wit, i. e., that is, e. g.,
and like expressions^ when used to introduce an example or a
list of particulars,

A pleonastic construction is one that contains words grammatically
superfluous ; as. The skies they were ashen and sober.

Shakespeare has many instances of mixed metaphor ; for example,
•' to tahe arms against a sea of troubles."

There were five persons present ; namely, Lincoln, Stanton, Grant,
Sherman, and Sheridan.

KULE XXIII.

76. Compound Series. — The groups of a series should be
separated from one another by semicolons if the items compo-
sing some or all of the groups require commas between them.

Discriminate the following: refined, polished; urbane, civil, rustic,
polite; contemptuous, contemptible.

The English has many words derived from Oriental languages:
Malay, gong, sago, rattan; Chinese, tea, junk; Polynesian, tattoo,
boomerang; Hindu, calico.

THE COIiON.

RULE xxrv.
77. Subdivided Members. — Colons should separate
members of a sentence if one or more of those members are
themselves subdivided by semicolons.

g 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 25

As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did
not see it moving; and it appears that the grass has grown, though
nobody ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowledge, as
they consist of such minute steps, are perceivable only by the distance.

78. If the elements separated by semicolons have no
interposed commas, a semicolon should take the place of the
colon and commas should be used instead of the semicolons.

A sovereign almost invisible, a crowd of dignitaries minutely distin-
guished by badges and titles, rhetoricians that said nothing but what
had been said ten thousand times, schools in which nothing had been
taught but what had been known for ages; such was the machinery
provided for the government and instruction of the most enlightened
part of the human race.

This sentence exemplifies the rule for appositive partic-
ulars (see rule XXI).

RITLE XXV.

79. Formal Quotations. — A direct quotation or any
similar matter should be preceded by a colon when formally
introduced,

Horace boasted of his poetical work in the following terms; *• I have
erected a monument more enduring than bronze."

Do not forget this important fact: if you show the people with whom
you have dealings that you do not trust them, they will soon recipro-
cate your suspicious treatment.

80. This rule applies to a series of particulars formally
introduced.

In the prisoner's possession were found the following articles: two
watches, six silver spoons, a diamond ring, and two pairs of new kid
gloves.

81. When the matter following the introduction consists
of several sentences or begins a new paragraph, a dash may
follow the colon to indicate the broken connection. This
punctuation is preferred by many after the salutation in a
letter; others very properly omit the dash on the ground
that there is no break in the sense or in the connection;

26 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

others again use a comma with or without a dash, but this
usage is scarcely defensible.

Mr. Wm. Kegan,
Dear Sir: Dear Sir: — London, England.

Your letter etc. Your letter etc. Dear Sir: Your letter etc.

82. If the quotation is a mere short saying or is inform-
ally introduced, a comma alone is sufficient.

Some one says, " The good die young" ; but. nevertheless, the good
are not discriminated against by the insurance companies.

RULE XXVT.

83. "Yes'' and '''''So.''''— When the words ''yes** and
**no,'* in answer to a quest ion ^ are followed by a continuation
of the answer or by an explanation of ity a colon is required
between the answer and its continuation.

May we trust to the intelligence and patriotism of the President ?
Yes: that has been fully demonstrated.

Do you live here, my boy ? Yes, sir: I was bom here.

A semicolon is often used in place of the colon in such
cases as the foregoing.

RULE xxvn.

84. Title Paffes. — If the main title of a book is followed
by a second title in apposition, and no connective intervenes^
the two should be separated by a colon.

Mnemonics: The Art and Science of Remembering.

If or is used between the two titles, the connective should
have a semicolon before it and a comma after it.

Log^c; or. The Laws of Reasoning, Including Fallacies.

The colon is u.sed on title pages, and in catalogues of
books, between the name of the place of publication and the
name of the publisher.

Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass. : Houghton, Mifflin & Ca

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 27

THE PERIOD.

RULE xxvni.

85. Complete Sentences. — A complete statement or
command y unless very strongly exclamatory ^ should be followed
by a period.

History is philosophy teaching by means of examples.
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.
I come to bury Csesar, not to praise him.

86. A sentence beginning" with and^ or^ for^ but^ or a
similar connective is in reality a part of the preceding sen-
tence ; yet such sentences are often separated by periods from
what precedes. In this way, long and complex constructions
may be avoided, with a gain in force and in ease of compre-
hension.

The period is to be preferred to the exclamation point at
the end of an exclamatory statement or command, unless
the emotion to be expressed is exceptionally strong.

RULE XXIX.

87. Abbrevtatlond. — A period should be used after
every abbreviated word^ but not after contracted words
when the missing elements are replaced by a dash or an
apostrophe,

MSS.yp,,pp,y Dr,^ Ph, A. LL, Z>., and Co, are abbreviations.
Redd^ carCt^payt^f—n S — M, and Rev^d qxq contractions.

88. Arabic figures when used to number paragraphs,
examples, articles, etc., and letters of the alphabet when
used for the same purpose, take a period after them. When,
as part of a sentence structure, they become ordinal or are
enclosed in marks of parenthesis a period is not required;
as, (1), (a\ 1st, 2d, 4th.

Roman numbei*s are by most authorities >^Titten with a
period following; as, IV. .^ XVIII. When used in paging,

28 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

Roman and Arabic numbers do not have the period after
them. There is good authority for omitting the period in
all cases after Roman numerals.

89. The symbols for chemical elements are written
without periods ; also, the letters used in geometry and other
sciences to represent quantity of any kind, and certain other
much used mathematical abbreviations.

Water consists of two atoms of H combined with one atom of O.
If A can do a piece of work in a days, etc.

sec a — cos a . ,

vers a = 1 — cos a = , log jr, tan a + cot b ^ x. eta

sec a

Sizes of books are indicated without periods; as, J^to^
8vo^ 12mo, These are hybrid contractions of quarto^ octavo^
duodecimo^ eta

RUXE XXX.

90. Side Heads. — After a title or a side head that forms
part of a paragraph^ a period^ or a period folloived by a dash,
should be used. The dash alone is preferred by some
authorities.

Capital Letters, Capital letters are used eta

Capital Letters, — Capital letters are used eta

Not^, The student will observe eta N, B, Remark.

Note, — ^An apparent exception eta N. B, — Remark,

RULE XXXI.

91. Tabular Matter. — In tables and synopses^ and in
statistical or other matter in tabular form, the period should
be used only after abbreviations, or where it will prevent
ambiguity. This rule applies also to other marks of punctu-
ation.

93. In late books printed by the most reputable pub-
lishers, punctuation is almost entirely excluded from title
pages. The same usage is well established with respect to
the headings of chapters, running titles at the tops of pages,
and in many similar cases. The theory is that punctuation

§ 20 PUNCTlTATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 29

should be used only when it accomplishes a useful purpose.
The following reduced title page will illustrate :

AMERICAN COMMONWEALTH

BY
JAMES BRYCE

▲OTHOK or **THK HOLY ROMAN BMPIBB "
M. F. FOB ABRROEEM

IN TWO VOLUMES

VOL. I

Thb National Oovbrnmbnt— Thb Statk
ooybbnmbnts

THIRD EDITION
ooMnxriLv mviMo THuouoHour

WITH AOOmONAL OHAFTUB

New York

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

London: Macmilcan A Co., Lti>.

1897

AH righu reserved

THE INTERROGATION POINT.

RUI^ XXXII.

93. Direct Questions. — Every direct question should

be followed by a mark of interrogation^ but not an indirect

question.

Direct : If a man die. shall he live again ?
^ ,. jTell me whether, if a man die, he will live again,

j He inquired when I intended to go to New York.

94. When several questions have a common dependence

on a final element, only one mark of interrogation is required,

and that should be placed at the end.

Whither now are fled those dreams of greatness ; those busy, bus-
tling days ; those happy, festive nights ; those veering thoughts, lost
between good and ill, that charmed thy youth ?

30 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

When several questions have no common element, each
question, even though grammatically incomplete, requires a
separate mark.

What is education ? Who are its apostles ? When did they live ?
Where ?

Shall a" man succeed by theft ? by dishonesty ? by trickery ? by
bribery ?

95. Questions are often put in the declarative form. In
such cases they are known to be questions only by their
punctuation.

You will come to-morrow ? I may depend on that ?
Well, sir ? Sick ? Since when ? Yesterday ?

Of late years there has come into pretty general use the
practice of following the statements of a speaker with an
interrogative yes. This is in very bad taste.

Speaker, — '* We then went aboard the steamer, which immediately
left the harbor." Listener. — **Yes?" Speaker. — •* The voyage was
at first very rough, and we were all seasick." Listener, — '* Yes ?"

This is a usage similar to the **Do tell!" of the New
England States.

RUL.E XXXIII.

96. Doubt. — In order to denote doubt or incredulity or
to suggest a correction^ an interrogation ntark may be inserted
within the body of a sentence and enclosed by tnarks of
parenthesis.

Thomas Parr was bom in 1488 (?) and died in 1685.
The augers (augurs f) were all in the temple of Jupiter.
Hypatia was murdered by the monks, instigated by Saint (?) Cyril
of Alexandria.

RULE xxxrv.

97. Quotations Within Questions. — A quotation
li'ithin a question must be punctuated so as to retain the
individuality of each.

Have you heard the head waiter say •• dinner is served " ?

Do you remember Tweed's *• what are you going to do about it ?"

Did not some one cry •* murder! help!"?

Has the question, *' whence came we ?" ever been answered?

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 31

THE EXCIiAMATION POINT.

RULE XXXV.

98. Exclamatory Sentences. — An exclamation point

should be placed at the end of a sentence expressing very

strong emotion or implying loud outcry.

What a burning shame! How dare you. sir!

•* Come back ! come back ! " he cried in grief. ** Rouse, ye Romans!
rouse, ye slaves ! '*

Even when the feeling" is strong, it is better to avoid, when-
ever possible, the use of the exclamation point. It is a mark
found most frequently in weak writing. Mere tricks of
punctuation cannot make up for lack of force ; a refined and
well balanced intellect avoids the show of emotion.

O. sir, forgive me.

O, I am utterly disgusted with him.

RULE XXXVI.

99. Exclamatory Expressions. — A n exclamation point
should usually follow interjections and interjectional expres-
sions.

Alas ! alas ! what have I spoken ? Listen ! O listen !
Oh ! how it hurts ! O what a beauty !
Ha. ha, ha. ho. ho! Fie, fiQ, ?i^^ good sir!

When an interjection is repeated the punctuation should
be as in the last example above.

100. The interjections O and oh are generally discrim-
inated thus: The former is used where the emotion colors an
entire sentence ; the latter as a mere ejaculation expressing
sudden, strong, and explosive emotion. When O is used,
the exclamation point should be written, if at all, at the end
of the emotive expression ; but oh should be directly followed
by the point.

101. The interjection O is sometimes used to express
mere earnestness, and in such cases the exclamation point
should be displaced by ordinary punctuation.

32 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

What did you do then? O, I just walked away without replying.
O, sir, may I not have the place ?

Tennyson has the following:

•*0 sir, oh prince, I have no country: none."

10!3« The interjection eh is usually followed by a ques-
tion mark.

You are going, eh?

When so used an interjection is really a modal adverb^
because it modifies the meaning of the entire sentence.

RUL.B XXXVII.

103. Graduated Emotion. — Emotion is represented as

increasing or decreasing by using more or fciver exclamation

points.

Police! Help!! Murder!!! Murder!!!!

Oh ! Oh ! I Oh ! ! ! Ah ! ! Ah-h-h !— the tooth was out

THE DASH.

RrXE XXXVIll.

104. Changes In Sense or Construction. — A sudden
change in sense or in grammatical construction^ or an abrupt
pausc^ is indicated by the dash,

My uncle — he was my best friend^<lied a week ago.
Honesty, they say. — here's your health, sir, -is the best policy.
That old teacher of yours — by the way» whai ever became of him? —
was an o<ld character.

RUI^E XXXIX.

105. Rhetorical Pause. — A dash is used to mark a
rhetorical pause, or suspension of the voice for effect^ where
there is no change in the grammatical construction.

Ho is Hhrcwd, polished, unscrupulous, and — religious.

My friend devotes much time to charity and general benevolence —
whc*n there's money in it.

A — •* Thou art a villain." B — '* You are — a senator.**

'* You are very kind; I can never repay — " she was unable to pro-
ceed.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 83

RULE XL..

106* Rhetorical Bepetltlon. — When the construction
is broken and resumed for rhetorical effect^ a dash should
follow between the break and the part repeated,

O those happy days of childhood I — childhood, the beautiful ! — child-
hood, the innocent ! — they are gone forever.

To me — me, his benefactor — me, his lifelong friend — to me he has
been false.

Is there — is there balm in Gilead? — ^tell me, — tell me, I implore!

RULS Xlil.

107. Generalization. — When a series of terms is repre-
sented by a following generic expression^ a dash should follow
the series,

^ Write a tale, a^istory, a poem, — anything,^ only write.
He was chubby and plump — a right jolly old e/f.

108. The generic term may precede the series.

Those old Greek names^ — Demosthenes, Agamemnon, Epaminon-
das, — they have a suggestion of immortality in their resonance.

RITLE XLII.

109. Parenthetical Dash. — Parenthetical expressions
that are too closely connected to be enclosed in marks of
parenthesis may be placed between dashes.

In those beautiful far-off June days, — and no days can be more
beautiful, — she and I gathered flowers in the Kentish meadows.

What woman — was it your mother, 1 wonder ?— taught you to rever-
ence woman?

I live by myself, and all the bread and cheese I get, — which is not
much, — I put upon a shelf.

110» Various degrees of connection of parenthetical ele-
ments are indicated by the manner of their punctuation. The
following forms show how such matter is punctuated when
introduced within the body of a sentence. The first indicates
the least degree of remoteness, and the last, the greatest.

;- ( ) [ J

34 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

Examples illustrating these forms of parenthetical ele-
ments may be found in many places in this work, (See
Arts. 104 to 109, inclusive, and elsewhere.)

Of course, a dash should not displace a period, a question
mark, or a mark of exclamation at the end of a sentence.

111. Questions and exclamations, being in their nature
rhetorical or logical, have no determinate degrees of close-
ness in connection. When introduced in intermediate posi-
tions in sentences, they are punctuated in the following,
among other ways :

.■^ ? ?- ;- ?-

( ?) [ ?] .- I-

RUUS XLIII.

112. Omissions. — TAe omission of letters or figures that
are plainly implied may be marked by the dash (the em and
the en dash respectively).

D — n and P — s were noted for their great friendship.
The winter of 1837-38 was a very severe one.

Matt. 7:9-14. This means Matthew, 7th chapter, verses 9 to 14,
inclusive.

In referring to pages no omissions of figures are allowable.
See letter ^ in ♦•SUndard Dictionary," pp. 2085-2087, inclusive.

RULE XL.IV.

113. Titles Run In. — When a title begins the first line
of a paragraph^ a dash following a period should separate it
from the text of the paragraph (see rule XXX),

RULE XLV.

114. For Introductory Words. — The dash may be

used as a substitute for certain words of formal introduction^

such as viz., namely, e. g. , i.e., that is, etc.

In his library were editions beautifully bound of all the great poets
—Homer, Virgil, Dante, Milton, Shakespeare, etc.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 35

BULE XliVI.

115. Authorities. — W/ieu an author* s name tmme*
diately follows a citation it should be separated from the
quoted passage by a dash,

** Beware when the great God lets loose a thinker on this planet
Then all things are at risk." — Emerson,

116. If the author's name is placed on a line by itself
no dash is required.

"Nothing is so dangerous as an igtiorant friend ; a wise enemy is

more helpful."

Voltaire,

1 1I7» If both the writer's name and the writing in which
the quotation is found are given, they should be separated
by a dash and be printed in different type.

** Language is only the instrument of science, and words are but the

signs of ideas."

Johnson — Preface to •* English Dictionary.'*

THE MARKS OF PARENTHESIS.

RULE XL.VII.

118. Words inserted in the body of a sentence or para^
graphy and nearly or quite independent^ so that they may be
omitted without changing the sense or construction^ should be
enclosed in marks of pafcnthesis.

Great rifts or spots sometimes appear on the surface of the sun (a
picture of solar spots is thrown upon the screen), which are never seen at
the poles, but always in a narrow belt along the sun's equator.

Another theory (that of Weissman) is that acquired aptitudes cannot
be transmitted from parent to offspring.

This subject will be found more fully treated in another place (see
pp. 125-137) and admirably illustrated.

119. A distinction should be observed between paren-
thesis ^iXid marks of parenthesis. The former should mean
the enclosed matter ; the latter, the enclosing marks. The

36 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

plural, parentheses^ should be used to denote the matter

enclosed within several pairs of marks of parenthesis.

Too many parentheses greatly weaken the force of every form of
composition.

Enclose all the adjectives in marks of parenthesis.

A parenthesis should, in general, not begin with a capital,
unless the first word is a proper name, but should be
treated as a mere inferior part of the sentence within which
it occurs, even though it is itself a complete sentence.

120* Such punctuation as a parenthesis requires should
be wholly within the enclosing marks. If the parenthesis is
a declarative sentence, it usually takes no period at the end ;
but if it is a question or an exclamatory sentence, the punc-
tuation should denote this fact.

Kit*s mother, poor woman, is waiting at the gate below, accom-
panied by Barbara's mother (she, honest soul! never does anything but
cry and hold the baby), and a sad interview ensues.

BRACKETS.

RULE XLVin.

131» Brackets should be used to enclose [ci) suggested

corrections in grammar and spelling ; {b) stage directions in

plays ; {c) derivation of words ^ plurals y principal part s^ etc.^

in dictionaries.

He was the subtilest [subtlest (?)] reasoner whom [that] the age pro-
duced.

Macbeth, [A side. \ Two truths are told.

As happy prologues to the swelling act
Of the imperial theme. [Exeuftt.]

Spfrd, spid, 7'. [sped or speed'ed; speed'ing.] [a. s. spedan^ <sped;
8ee SPEED, «.]

The principle governing the use of the brackets is that the
matter enclosed by them shall have no grammatical connec-
tion with other words. Their purpose is simply explanatory
or to supply an omission.

8 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 3?

QUOTATION MARKS.

RULE XLIX.

122. Direct Quotations. — Expressions that are cited
or borrowed should^ when written or printed^ be enclosed
between marks of quotation.

Seneca makes this remark: **If you wish your secret kept, keep it
yourself."

123. When a thought is borrowed, but not the exact
language, the fact may be indicated by using single quota-
tion marks to enclose it. This usage, however, is not well
established. It is generally better to use the double marks
or to omit them altogether.

His life was regulated by the rule of • doing to others as he wished
them to do to him.*

This would be improved by omitting the marks.

When the source from which the substance of a thought
comes is distinctly noted, no quotation marks are ever
required.

One of the last remarks of Socrates was that the soul is immortal.

Such quotations as this last are called indirect,

124* In citing language from another of one's own com-
positions, it is usual to employ quotation marks.

In my •• Lectures on Electricity," written ten years ago, I made the
following prediction: ''The day will come when electricity will do for
the eye what, by means of the telephone, it is now doing for the ear."

125. Foreign words and phrases, scientific names, and

single words of our language, when quoted as mere words,

are commonly printed in Italic. The same is done in a

limited measure with titles and names of various kinds,

though in the case of these last, quotation marks are to be

preferred.

He was deficient in what the French call savoir/aire.
We found some fine specimens of trailing arbutus (Epigcea repens).
The word advice is the noun and advise the verb.
Macaulay says that Shakespeare's Othello is the greatest work in
the world.

It would be better to use quotation marks — *• Othello."

38 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

Certain foreign words and well known abbreviations are
usually printed in Roman.

i. e., e. g.. vice versa, etc., N. B., P. S., R. S. V. P., Q. E. D.

RULE L.

126. Quoted Quotations^ — A quotation within another
is enclosed in single^ not double, quotation marks.

Some one remarks: "Gladstone was for nearly fifty years the
uncrowned king* of the British Empire."

Where a quotation is made within a second quotation
that has the single mark, the double mark must be again
used. But this, on account of its extreme awkwardness,
should be avoided.

•* The old doctor said to us one morning: * You boys do not under-
stand, 1 am sure, all that is implied by Huxley's "survival of the
fittest." • ••

It is better to put the last four words in Italic than to
enclose them between marks of quotation.

127. If a quotation ends a sentence, judgment is often
necessary in harmonizing the punctuation of the quotation
with that of the entire sentence.

•♦Were you not all ag^reeably startled by the lookout's hail, *Ship,
ahoy!'?"

" Have you ever considered Job's significant query: • If a man die,
shall he live again ?* "

Is the old saying always defensible — "The end justifies the
means" ?

Did you hear any one ask the foolish question — "Where are we at" ?

RTTIiE 1.1.

138. Consecutive Paragrraplis Quoted. — Inverted
commas should be placed at the beginning of each of several
co7isecutive qtioted paragraphs ^ and apostrophes at the end of
the last paragraph.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 39

129. If portions of the original are omitted at intervals
from the quotation, each fragment that is complete in itself
should be enclosed in quotation marks.

When a quotation ends with marks of continuation, or if
its completion is prevented by interruption, the punctuation
denoting its unfinished character m-ust be included within
the marks of quotation.

*• What is your ?'* ** I object, your honor," shouted the plain-
tiffs lawyer.

** Do you remember the Golden Rule: • Do unto others *?"

Quite frequently in England, and to some extent in this
country, inverted commas are placed at the beginning of
each line of a quoted paragraph and apostrophes at the end
of each paragraph. The objections to this are that it is
unnecessary, and that it disfigures the page. This unsightly
usage is not likely to become generally current.

THE APOSTROPHE.

RUI^ LII.

130. Omission. — T/te apostrophe is used as a substitute
for omitted letters or figures.

I've, o'er, e'er, isn't, doesn't, don't, can't, shouldn't, we'll. I'll, you're,
he's, Jany 25. '99.

The apostrophe is used to denote plurals of figures and
letters; as, mind your/*s and ^'s, etc.

RULE LIII.

131. Possessive Cose. — The apostrophe is used to denote
the possessive case of nouns and of a few pronouns.

Death s terrors, fohris hat. New York's streets, the city of Balti'
more' s monuments.

One' s own, neither' s share, either s money, the other' s house, others^
opinions, some one's hat

to PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § iO

LETTEBS A20> CHABACTEBS.

SYSTEB18 OF TYPE.

TEE OLD SYSTEM.

132. Until a few years ago there was no general
standard for the sizes of type. There were, indeed, certain
well known kinds of type, such as long primer, pica,
brevier, nonpareil, etc.; but even when their names were
alike, they were always slightly different in size if made at
different ioundries. No founder could be relied upon to
keep his names and sizes constant from year to year. The
result was that if pica, for example, bought at different
foundries, was mixed and set together, neither lines nor
columns could be made of exactly the same length. As the
printers phrase it, the type would not ** justify." To prevent
letters, words, and even whole lines from dropping out after a
form of type was **locked up" for printing from it, much tedi-
ous and troublesome filling in with bits of paper and cardboard
was necessary. So serious were the obstacles to taste, expedir
tion, and economy in printing, that the Type- Founders' Asso-
ciation of the United States finally adopted the scale of sizes
now known as the ** Point" system. The system leaves
little to be desired. The old names are no longer used,
except in a historical way, or for purposes of comparison
with the new names. It makes no difference now where a
printer buys his type, for the output of all foundries will
** justify " when set together. Then, again, the strips of type
metal called *' leads," by which the distances between lines
may be varied, are regulated in thickness by the system of
points. As a consequence, the length of one page may be
made exactly equal to that of another, no matter how many
sizes of type may compose them. Since many persons do
not understand this system thoroughly, although it is of
much interest and importance, an explanation in detail is
given here.

g 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 41

THE "POINT" SYSTEM.

133. The fundamental unit of measure of this system
is the ** point." To obtain this, a length of 35 centimeters
(almost exactly 1| inches) is divided into 996 equal parts.
A point is, therefore, .03514 centimeter, or .0138+ inch.
This is taken among printers as ^ of an inch, but in reality,
it is less by about j^^^ of an inch. This is used to measure
the height or tody of type. Thus, 3-point type, which is the
smallest* type made, is very nearly y^, or ^y, of an inch high;
so that, if 24 lines of such type be set without ** leads**
between the lines, they will occupy 1 inch, very nearly, in
the length of the page. Of 8- point type, the **body ** is ^,
or ^ of an inch; 9 lines of this, without leads, would make
1 page-inch. Similarly, 6 lines of 12-point, 4 lines of 18-point,
3 lines of 24-point, etc. would each fill a page-inch. Hence,
generally, if 72 be divided by the points that measure a given
kind of type, the quotient will show the number of unleaded
lines to a page-inch. (It must be remembered that an inch
is not exactly 72 points, but 72.46+ points.)

The various kinds of type made under the ** point " system
correspond more or less nearly to the kinds with old-fashioned
names. This correspondence is shown in the table below.
Of these, the standard of measurement was/^Va, and this is so
very closely represented by 12-point, that the name pica is
now used among printers to mean 12-point, or type with ^ of an
inch body. The thickness of leads and the length of lines are
estimated in pica size. Thus, leads are spoken of as J^-to-pica^
6'tO'Pica^ etc., meaning that 4, 6, etc. leads equal pica thick-
ness— 12 points, or \ of an inch. Hence, one 6-to-pica lead is 2
points, or ^ of an inch in thickness. Again, a page 24 picas
wide is 24 times \ of an inch, or 4 inches in width.

Under this system, * * justification, ** even when many differ-
ent sizes of type are used, is no longer difficult or wasteful
of time, as was the case under the old system. If properly
set and ** locked up,** no type will slip from place or fall out

The point system would be perfect if the thickness of type
as well as the height or width of body were in points also.
This is not yet the case generally, but doubtless it soon will

42 t>UNCtUAtlON AND CAWTALIZATION. g 20

be, for at least one foundry is now advertising type made by
the '* point-set " or 'Mining ** system. This means the estab-
lishment of a point ratio between the height and the width
of type. The foundry referred to makes its Roman t5^e so
as to have a certain point- width for each letter or character
as well as a point-height.

Thus, 10-point f, i, j, 1, i, etc. are each 3 points wide; s, z, j,
etc. are 4 points; a, g, o, v, y, etc. are 4^ points; and so on.

When this is done for type of all sizes, and done in the
same way by all type foundries, and when quads and spaces
are made from the point as a unit, the point system will be
practically perfect

134. Old Style and Point Sizes.— The following table
gives the old names of type, with their approximate value in
points:

Old Names.

Paragon

Great Primer.

English

Pica

Small Pica.. ..
Long Primer.
Bourgeois ....

Brevier

Minion

Emerald

Nonpareil ....
Agate or Ruby

Pearl

Diamond. . . .

Gem

Brilliant

Excelsior

Points,
Nearly.

14
12

4 to 41

3J.

Body or

Height.

Inch.

H
I

tV
tV

Lines
to Inch.

3.6

5.14

6.55

7.2

9
10.3
11.1

13.17

14.4

iVtOyVlC to 18
^V 20.6

Roman.

Paragon

Great Primer

English

Pica

Small Pica
Long Primer
Bourgeois

Brevier

Minion

Emerald

Nonpareil

Agate or Raby

Pmirl

DUmood
BHIIlMt

g 20 tUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 43

MISCEIiliANEOUS MARKS.

135« Many different marks, named and unnamed, are in
use among printers. The most important of these are placed
here in alphabetical order for convenience of reference.

136. Accents, — There are three marks of accents; the

acute Q, the grave f ), and the circumflex (^,'^,^). The

acute is the accent most frequently used. It denotes that

the vowel or syllable above or after which it is placed is to

be pronounced with a marked stress of the voice ; as,

a-cu'-men. This accent is either primary as shown above or

secondary {"). The secondary acute accent is used to denote

a less marked stress of the voice than the primary requires ;

as, aC'Cen''-tU'a''tion. The grave accent denotes a falling

tone ; or it may show that a vowel not usually sounded is to be

pronounced in a certain word. This frequently happens in

poetry; as,

•* Caesar's ambition shall be glancM at."

The circumflex denotes that a vowel is to be sounded with
both a rising and a falling inflection, as in sarcasm or irony.
It is also used to mark a long vowel, as inpire,

137* Apostrophe. — The apostrophe (') is used (a) to
indicate an omission; as, e'en^ and (b) to denote the posses-
sive case; as, man* s duty ^ Moses's sayings,

138* Brace. — The brace \ \ is used in grouping.

[by
Homes] over

the sea. J [tf — (^ + ^)] — ^ f Coin \ silver

I cx)pper

I under

139. Brackets. — The brackets [ ] are used for enclosing
other characters, indicated pronunciations, matter inserted
in sentences but not closely connected, and for many other
purposes.

140« Caret. — The caret (J marks the insertion of a

a
word or a letter accidentally omitted; as, seprate^ Honesty is

best
thCfJ^olicy,

a PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

141» Cedilla,-^The cedilla (f ) is a mark placed under
the letter c when it occurs before ^ , o^ or «, in some Romance
languages. It indicates that ^ is to be sounded like j; as,
garqon^ faqade^ Franqois.

142* Dieresls. — ^A dieresis ( " ) placed over the second
of two adjacent vowels shows that they belong to separate
syllables; as, zoology ^ aerate. This mark is usually omitted;
as, cooperate^ zoology^ reiterate,

143. Ditto Marks. — These marks ( **) are used to
denote that something is to be understood as repeated from
immediately above. When any word or expression with its
accompanying punctuation is to be repeated, the fact is indi-
cated by writing ditto marks instead or by writing do. The
word ditto is the Italian form of the Latin dictum^ **a thing
that has been said. " This abbreviation is much used in book-
keeping. Excepting its punctuation, it is usually repeated
for each separate part of an expression ; or, it may stand for
an entire expression. The following will illustrate:

Creditor by investment, February 1, 1898, $1,891.25

\ net gain, •• •• *• 296.88

«t «(

Jan. 8, To 48 yd. Union gin^ams, % .12}, 96.00

" •• 60 •♦ Amoskeag do. •* .16 , 9.00

144« Ellipsis. — There are several kinds of marks that
denote ellipsis or omissions. The principal of these are the
following:

(*****).( ). ( ); as, The p******s

formerly belonged to S ..... n, but they have been ceded to the

U d S s, owing chiefly to the vigorous action of Admiral

D y.

{a^bf = ^j« + 6a»^+ + 6tf^* + ^«.

145. Emphasis. — Special attention to a statement is
generally denoted by an index^ or fist ( W^ ). The term
**fist** is preferred among printers; indeed, they rarely use
the old name, index,

146. Hyphen. — The hyphen (-) has several uses: (1)
to connect the elements of compound words, as, for instance.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 46

good-natured ; (2) to denote the syllabication of words;
as, re-al'i-ty; (3) to show that a word is unfinished at the
end of a line (see Art. 143 for an example).

147. Paragrraph. — The paragraph {^) is used in
manuscript to denote that the matter following it should
be separated by an interval from what precedes.

148» Marks of Quantity. — These are (1) the macron
( " ), used to denote the long sound of a vowel ; as, fatCy
(2) the breve ( ** ), denoting the short sound of a vowel; as,
atomic; the double [ - ], to denote common or doubtful

quantity; as, skone^ eat,

149. Reference Marks. — Letters and numbers are now
generally preferred for referring to notes or other matter
not strictly belonging in the text The following were
formerly much used for this purpose : {a) the star^ or asterisk
(*) ; {b) the dagger ^ or obelisk (f ) ; {c) the double dagger (J) ;
{d) the section (§) ; (e) the parallel (|) ; (/) the paragraph
(1^). When references are sufficiently ntmierous on a page
to exhaust these marks, they may be doubled; as (tt)f (§§)>
etc. The section and paragraph were formerly much
employed to indicate subdivisions of subject matter.

150. Tilde. — This mark (^ is placed above n in Span-
ish words to denote that it is to be sounded like ny; as,
senor [pro. s^-nyor'^ manana [pro. man-yah'-nah^ cation.

USE OF CAPITALS.

CAPITAIi liETTERS.

161* In order to give distinction to certain words, larger
letters called capitals may be employed as initials. Before
the invention of printing, when books were made entirely
by writing, the firet or head (caput y "head") letters of prin-
cipal divisions were generally embellished, and were larger

46 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § ^

and more conspicuous than those forms ordinarily used.
The matter from one capital to the next was a chapter
{capitulutn^ from caput).

In the German language every noun formerly began with
a capital letter, but in late German literature this usage is
falling into discredit. Indeed, the excessive use of embel-
lishment in printing is offensive to refined taste, just as it is
in the matter of dress and many other things. A very good
general principle in such matters would be : Too little decora-
tion is better than too much; the best taste is the simplest.

RULE LJV.

1 62. Headings. — Title pages ofbooks, headings of essays
and chapters^ and of magazine and newspaper articles, should
be wholly in capitals.

So many varieties of display type have been devised of
late years that printers often use them where plain capitals
would be in better taste.

RULJB L.V.

153. First Words. — Begin with a capital, the first word
of a note, letter, legal or other document; of a written or
printed essay, preface, tract, lecture, magazine or newspaper
article; of a book, chapter, section, or paragraph; of every
direct quotation or question, and of every line of poetry.

154. After the initial capital of the first word in a
document of the kinds indicated in the rule,. the remainder
of the word is usually printed in small capitals. If the first
word is an article or other short unimportant word, the
second also should be in small capitals. The following are
intended to represent such first words:

Once upon a time there was a great kin^ etc.

A svvEKPiNf; criticism upon the use and abuse of eta

When King Richard was returning from the Holy Land etc.

Orthography is now as well settled as it will probably etc

g 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. ^1

155. This same use of capitals and small capitals is now
increasingly common in the subdivisions of chapters. The
following heading and subdivisions of a chapter are copied
from a book lately published by a firm widely known for its
excellent taste in the usages of good printing.

CHAPTER XI.

(Heading) COMPOUND WORDS.

' General Principles
(Subheads) < Compound Nouns Made of Two Nouns

Some Words Used as Inseparable Suffixes

RHUS I-VI.

156. Bxamples and Numbered Items. — Begin zvitk
capitals the initial words of examples and of numbered items
if they are complete sentences.

A proverb is a wise saying ; as, Honesty is the best policy.

157. When items are mere words, phrases, or clauses of
no special prominence, capitals are unnecessary.

Letters are divided into two classes; {!) vowels, (2) consonants.
Astronomers tell us (1) that the surface of Jupiter is nearly red hot;
(2) that it is incapable of supporting organic life ; (3) that etc.

In technical and other treatises, subjects of chief interest,
when given as numbered items, require capitals.

In the following chapter we shall treat; (1) of Exponents, (2) of
Radical Quantities, (3) of etc.

With respect to matters that belong under this rule, usage
is by no means uniform. Taste and consistency must deter-
mine what is best in each case.

RULE LVn.

158« Quoted Titles. — In quoting titles of books ^ essay s^

poems y etc. y capitalize nouns y pronouns y adjectives (not articles)^

verbs and adverbs.

Whitney's ••Life and Growth of Language"; Tyndall's ••Hours of
Exercise in the Alps,"

48 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

159. The foregoing is the rule in common use, but it is
often inexpedient in practice. A late writer gives the fol-
lowing rule as better than that given above:

In headings capitalize all important^ emphatic^ and con-
trasted words.

When it is remembered that a common usage is not to
capitalize prepositions^ conjunctions^ and articles^ the need
for the rule just given will ba seen. In titles or heads of
chapters, words usually unimportant become important on
account of emphasis^ contrast^ etc.

Acting With and Acting Against.
Concerning the Use of ** A" and *• An."
Should it be ** Of " or •• From" ?

RUIiE Lvm.

160. Xames of Deity. — Names and titles of God and
Christ should begin with capitals,

Jehovah, Father, Creator, Son of God, Almighty, Supreme Being,
First Cause, Infinite One, etc.

161. Adjectives used with names of Deity require no
capitals unless they are to be regarded as a necessary part of
the names. Hence,

The all-wise Father, the divine Master, the merciful Father, Lord
God omnipotent

The following are taken from a recent edition of the Bible:

Lord God Almighty (in address), the Most High, the Holy One, the
King of glory, the God of heaven, I am the good shepherd, that great
Shepherd, the God of peace. Son of man. Lord of lords and King of
kings, etc.

These will serve to show that modifying phrases should
not in general be capitalized.

A pronoun having as antecedent some name of Deity
need not for that reason alone be capitalized. This is done
to an absurd extent, especially in printed hymns and prayers.

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 49

RUL.E LIX.

16!3. Roman Numerals. — Numbers required in refer*
ring to passages in books are sometimes denoted by capital
letters.

Spencer's "Sociology," VoL II, Part V, Chap. VIII, § 494, p. 409.

Later usage seems to prefer small letters.

Whatley's "Logic," book ii, ch. iii, § v, p. 118.

References to passages in the Bible are now generally
given in the following manner:

I KL 8:1; Judg. 8:S-10; Matt 7:9, 12-15; 12:8-15w

RUUS liX.

163. Proj;>er Names. — Begin all proper names with
capitals,

Albert, Napoleon, Russia, the Pacific, August, Saturday, Easter.

164. When a name is made up of two or more elements
one of which is an ordinary class name, only the specific
element should be capitaliased.

The Arctic ocean, the Spanish main, the Dead sea, Aleutian islands,
Yukon river. Decoration day, the sabbath day or the Sabbath day,
WaU street. Fifth avenue, etc

Usage in this matter is by no means uniform, but economy
In the use of capitals is generally better than the opposite
practice. In naming streets, well known buildings or other
structures, it is common to begin every element with a
capitaL

Washington Avenue, Park Row» Brooklyn Bridge, Bunker Hill
Monument, eta

165. When the specific element of a geographical name
follows the generic, and no article precedes, both should
usually begin with capitals; as, Lake Como^ Mt. Washington^
Rio Grande {rio = river), Cape May^ etc. But we should
write, the river Thames^ the lake Victoria Nyansa^ the

50 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

peninsula of Arabia^ the state of New Je^-seVy the land of the
Midnight Sun or midnight sun, the land of Nod^ of bondage ^
oi promise y etc.

Words denoting direction, when used to name countries or
districts, should have initial capitals.

They live in the South, the trappers of the Northwest, the Orient^
the Occident, the Levant, the Far IVest, the Boreat regions, etc.

166. The names of the chief of the evil spirits and the
places and characters of mythology should begin with capitals
when they are used strictly as proper names: the same is true
of the constellations; as, Satan, Zeus^ Pluto, Hades, Gehenna,
Sheol, Venus, Somnus, Belial, Orion, Libra, Elysium, etc.

Exceptions to this are, deinl, heaven, hell, paradise,
purgatory^ pandemonium, and some others of very frequent
use.

167. When a compound word contains an element
derived from a proper noun, that element should beg^n
with a capital only when a hyphen precedes.

Antichrist or antichrist, post-Homeric, Preraffaelite, preadamite,
antenicene, etc.

RULE L.XT.

168. Sacred Writlngps. — Expressions used to denote
writings regarded as sacred, or any portion of such writings,
should be written with initial capitals.

The Holy Bible, the Good Book, the Sacred Scriptures, the Old
Testament, the Pentateuch, the Koran, the Zend-Avesta, the Vedas.

RULE L,XTT.

169. Derivations from Proper Xames. — Words

derived from proper names generally begirt with capitals,

Hebraic, Jovian, Romance, Brahminic, Teutonic, Mohammedan,
Spanish, Elizabethan, etc.

170. Many words derived from proper names are now
written with small initials.

g 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 61

Damask, china, simony, stentorian, herculean, tantalize, hector,
philippic, boreal, argosy, cyclopean, hermetical, epicure, cashmere,
champagne, oceanic, hymeneal, mercurial, volcanic, etc.

The names of the elements and of minerals, whether
derived from proper names or not, should begin with small
letters; as, gallium^ scandium^ danaite^ caledonite^ etc.

RUL.E LXni.

171. Zoolofiflcal N'ames. — /// writing the double scien-
tific names of animal organisms^ only the first of generic
element should be capitalized.

Crota/us horridus (rattlesnake), Salmo clarkii (trout of Columbia
river).

Even when a variety term is added it should always be
>^Titten with a small initial

Athyaferina^ var. americana (Red-headed Duck).

BXTiiB i-xrv.

1'7!3* Botanical Karnes* — Generic names in botany
should always begin with capitals^ and specific names also^ if
they are derived from proper names.

Claytonia Virginica, Epigcea repens^ Fragaria Virginiana^ var,
Illincenisis.

173. It is unfortunate that there should be a difference
in the matter of capitalization between botanical and zoologi-
cal names. But it should be noted that some standard
works are abandoning" initial capitals for specific names in
botany. Thus, in Loudon's ** Encyclopedia of Botany"
specific terms derived from the names of countries are
written without capitals; as, persica^ japonica^ calif or nicay
jamaicensiSy chinensisy etc. This is as it should be, and it
is to be hoped that the usage in botany may soon conform
with that in zoology. Specific botanical terms derived from
the names of persons are, however, generally capitalized.

52 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

BULK L.XV.

174. Personiflcation. — In vivid personification^ the
personified noun should begin with a capital,

*• With eyes upraised, as one inspired,

Pale Melancholy sate retired." — Collins.
** And Melancholy marked him for his own." — Gray,

This usage is less common now than formerly, and is
confined almost entirely to poetry. Even there, the best
writers employ it but rarely. The following seem better as
their authors give them, and yet the personification is strong
in each:

•• Friends depart, and memory takes them
To her caverns, pure and deep." — Bayly,

•* Moping melancholy,
And moon-struck madness." — Milton, •

It was formerly the rule to capitalize the following: nature,
the seasons — spying, summer, autumn, winter, time, the
hours, dawn, night, the graces, the muses, music, and
many other inanimate things, especially in poetry. This,
however, is not now considered in the best taste, unless
the personification is peculiarly strong.

RULE L.XVI.

175. Terms Deflned. — Words to be defined or explained
are either capitalized or printed in heavy type or in Italic,

A Verb is a word etc. A verb is a word etc. A pronoun is a
word that denotes persons or things without naming them.

Under this rule may be included ordinary words occurring

in the body of the text, and regarded as of extraordinary

importance.

The region was in the heart of Ethiopia near the source of the river
Zaire. Over the region there brooded a Presence — a Shadow, weird,
intangible, oppressive.

It should be remarked that this is one of the tricks or
devices employed in what has been contemptuously called
** fine writing. *' For true excellence the ordinary resources of
expression are always sufficient [see, however, rule LXVIII].

§ 20 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 53

RUXE liXVn.

176. Titles. — Titles of honor ^ respect^ and office should
begin with capitals.

His Honor the Mayor, His Excellency the Governor, Your Royal
Highness, Dear Sir, My dear Madam, etc.

When used in a specific sense, as in rules, reports, and
documents, such words as president^ chairman^ directors^
committee^ school^ institution^ congress^ etc. should be cap-
italized; in ordinary gfeneric use, small letters should be used.

Official or honorary titles, when prefixed to proper names,
should have initial capitals.

Professor Whitney, President McKinley, Admiral Dewey, Governor
Roosevelt, Peace Commissioner Schurman, Pope Leo, Secretary of
State John Hay.

Prefixed terms denoting mere relationship should begin '
with small letters; as, cousin John^ aunt Alary, uncle Smith,
When, however, these words do not denote real but official
relationship, as is the case of officials in the Roman Catholic
church, capitals are required; as, Brother Azarias^ Sister
DorcaSy etc.

RULE L.XVIII.

177. Important Words. — Words and expressions that
for any reason are of special importance^ are capitalized in
the same manner as quoted titles.

Such are the following:

(a) Events,

The Siege of Troy, the War of the Rebellion, the War of the Span-
ish. Succession, Battle of Manila Bay.

{b) Epochs,

The; Renaissance, the Age of Stone, the Reformation, the Christian
Era.

(r) Phenomena,

The Milky Way, the Gulf Stream, the Aurora Borealis, the Midnight
Sun.

When such matters are introduced informally, and without '
obvious intention to emphasize their importance, unneces-

64 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. § 20

sary capitals are to be avoided. It is by discriminating
carefully in such cases that a writer may show his good
taste.

RULE LXIX.

178, I and O. — The pronoun I and the interjection O
should always be capitals.

The interjection oh should not be written with a capital,
unless, as is often the case, it begins a sentence or a line of
poetry.

LETTER WRITING.

(PART 1.)

HISTORICAIi INTRODUCTION.

Bat words are thingfs, and a small drop of ink,
Falling* like dew« upon a thought, produces
That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think.— -^ynMf.

1, The antiquity of letter writing is undoubted. Since
the very existence of an organized form of government
depends on means of communication between the governing
power and the governed, the sovereign, from the very
remotest antiquity, has kept himself in touch with the minis-
ters of his power and the agents of his authority by means of
letters. Nor is there any room for doubt that commerce
extended its influences and multiplied its benefits, even in
the earliest ages, by like means. Learning, too, diffused
its blessings not only within the confines of one state or
country, but through various countries by means of letters
exchanged between learned men and their disciples or
admirers; while the ties of friendship and of kindred were,
no doubt, also maintained and strengthened by letters
despatched from city to city, from port to port, from coun-
try to country.

The civilization of ancient Egypt was strikingly benefited
by this system of intercommunication between community
and community, individual and individual. The Phenicians

§21

For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.

8 LETTER WRITING. § 21

carried their commerce and letters to every portion of the
known world. The Greeks, who surpassed in point of cul-
ture all other peoples of antiquity, held close communication
with one another ; and by means of letters the various Greek
colonies of Asia Minor and of Italy were kept closely bound
in thought, in trade, and in tongue to the motherland. The
Roman empire owed much of its strength to its unrivaled
system of roads, spreading throughout its vast extent, thus
bringing its furthermost dependencies into close contact with
the imperial city on the Tiber. We know from Gibbon and
other historians that the Roman government maintained fre-
quent and regular communication with its representatives
in all the provinces. We know, also, that the men of letters,
who flocked to Rome from every part of the empire, kept
themselves, by means of epistolary communication, at the
command of disciples in every city yielding obedience to
Roman sway. The literary remains of antiquity show, with
remarkable unanimity, that the learned men of old excelled
as letter writers.

Herodotus mentions that a system of couriers existed in
the Persian empire, and Xenophon states that post stations
or houses were established by King Cyrus. Marco Polo
describes a similar system existing in China in the 13th cen-
tury, the stations being only three miles apart, thus securing
great rapidity of communication. Among the ancient Aztecs
in Mexico a complete system of couriers was likewise main-
tained, the stations being about two leagues apart, and pro-
viding a rapid means of communication by foot-messengers.
In all these cases the posts seem to have been set up for the
government service only.

2. During the last few years the Babylonian collection
of the British Museum has been enriched by the important
addition of several thousand tablets obtained chiefly by Dr.
Budge during his expeditions to the East. Among the prin-
cipal objects are a large number of small tablets, many of
them of the envelope, or duplicate, class, which were fotmd
at Tell-sifr, in South Babylonia, representmg the ancient

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 3

city of Larsa (the EUasar of Genesis xiv). The majority of
these were contracts or legal documents, but among them
are many letters, both private and official. This collection
has been carefully arranged, and is found to contain one of
the most important series of inscriptions ever rescued from
oriental ruins. It is a group of fifty letters, written by King
Khammurabi, king of Babylon, who reigned about 2300 B. C. ,
and who is generally identified with the Amraphel of Genesis
xiv. These tablets are certainly the oldest known letters in
the world; they belong to a period one thousand years earlier
than that of the famous Tel-el- Amarna tablets, which give the
private correspondence between the kings of Syria, Mitanni,
and Babylon, and may be dated about 1450 B. C.

The position of these Babylonian letters in oriental litera-
ture is of extreme importance. They reveal the existence
of a regular system of correspondence between rulers and
their subordinates, and indicate that writing was used not
only to record events in royal annals, but also for ordinary
purposes ; they are, besides, manifestly the models for all suc-
ceeding letters, as in the case of the diplomatic correspondence
in the Tel-el-Amama tablets. The present find is indeed
great ; but one can only regard it as a prelude to still more
important discoveries, which will probably put a new aspect
on the vexed question of Hebrew origins. To possess letters
of the time of Abraham is certainly an astonishing result of
oriental exploration, and one that far exceeds the wildest
dreams of those that first revealed to us the buried cities of
Assyria and Babylonia.

3, Frequent mention is made in the Old Testament of
letters sent and received. In II Samuel xi: 14, we read that
David wrote a letter to Joab; in I Kings xxi:8: ** She
[Jezebel] wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed them with
his seal **; in II Kings v: 5, the king of Syria said: ** I will
send a letter unto the king of Israel"; in II Chronicles
xxx:l: **Hezekiah wrote letters also to Ephraim and
Manasseh"; and in the 6th verse of the same chapter:
**The posts went with letters from the king"'; in Isaiah

4 LETTER WRITING. g 21

xxxvii : 14 : ** Hezekiah received the letter " ; and in Jeremiah
xxix : 1 : * * These are the words of the letter that Jeremiah the
prophet sent**

4. The greatest of letter writers, the Apostle Paul,
employed at all times the flexible yet forceful Greek tongue
in that marvelous manner which has made his words of life
more potent and more fecund in each succeeding age. Wit-
ness, for instance, how in his letter to the Ron.ans he wins
his way to their hearts : ** For I long to see you, that I may
impart unto you some spiritual gift, to the end that ye may
be established; that is, that I may be comforted together
with you by the mutual faith both of you and me.** Read
his words of ringing, explicit good counsel to the Corin-
thians: "Now, I beseech you, brethren, by the name of our
Lord Jesus Christ, that ye all speak the same thing, and that
there be no divisions among you ; but that ye be perfectly
joined together in the same mind and in the same judg-
ment." Then turn to his lucid yet kindly admonition to the
Galatians: ** I marvel that ye are so soon removed from him
that called you into the grace of Christ unto another gospel :
which is not another; but there be some that trouble you,
and would pervert the gospel of Christ. '*

6. In the early ages of Christianity the teachers and
preachers of Gospel truth kept themselves in close communi-
cation with their followers by means of letter writing. This
custom was maintained long after pagan persecution had
spent its fury.

In the monastic ages, letters from one religious house to
another kept the brethren of each order in communication
with their superiors, and with those living under the same
rule in other portions of Europe. There are numerous evi-
dences of letters in these troublous times from bishops to
their flocks, from abbots to their subjects. The clergy were
among the principal letter writers, and the mendicant friars
among the chief letter bearers of those days. The era of the
reformation gave the world a new impulse towards letters,
which the discovery of printing had already quickened.

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 6

From what has been already stated, it may easily be
inferred that the germ of the modem postal systems of the
world is to be looked for in the earliest organized systems of
the government couriers. When, or under what precise cir-
cumstances, such an establishment was first made available
for the carriage of the letters of private persons, there is no
satisfactory evidence to show. That there must have been,
even in early times, a connection more or less authorized
between the transmission of public and of private correspond-
ence is highly probable.

In several Continental states the universities had inland
postal establishments of a rudimentary sort at an early date.
The University of Paris, for example, organized a postal
service almost at the beginning of the 13th century, and it
lasted, in a measure, until the year 1719. In various parts
of England mercantile guilds and brotherhoods were licensed
to establish posts for commercial purposes. But ever)rwhere
— as far as accessible evidence extends — foreign posts were
under state control. As' early as the middle of the 13th
century entries occur in the wardrobe accounts of the kings
of England of payments to royal messengers for the convey-
ance of letters to various parts of the country.

6. The rise of the postal service in England may be said
to date from the accession of James I. The new royal
orders of 1603 directed (1) that the postmasters at the vari-
ous stages should enjoy the privilege of letting horses to
'* those riding in post with horn and guide,*' by commission
or otherwise, and to that end they were charged to keep or
have in readiness a sufficient number of horses ; (2) that the
lawful charge for the hire of each horse should be, for public
messengers, at the rate of 2^i/. a mile. Finally, it was
directed that every postmaster should keep at least two
horses for the express conveyance of government letters, and
to forward such letters within a quarter of an hour of their
receipt, and that the posts should travel at the rate of not
less than seven miles an hour in summer, and five miles in
winter.

6 LETTER WRITING. § 21

Between the date of the accession of James and the date
'of the Act of Anne, various systems of postal communica-
tions were established under the authority of the govern-
ment Among the persons prominent in postal affairs
during this period were James and Charles Stanhope, who
were appointed jointly to the postmastership of England in
1607; John Hill, who in 1653 placed relays of post horses
between York and London and reduced the former postal
rates by one-half; and William Dockura and Robert Murray,
wha jointly established the famous penny post in London.

The Act of Anne consolidated the various postal sjrstems
in the British empire, reorganized the chief letter office of
Edinburgh, Dublin, and New York, and settled new offices
in the West Indies and elsewhere. It established rates of
single postage; viz., English, 3^. if under 80 miles, and Ad. if
above, and 6^. to Edinburgh or Dublin. Nine years after
the passing of the Act of Anne the cross-posts were farmed
to the well known Ralf Allen, inventor of the c^oss-roads
postal system. Allen's improvements were so successful
that he is said to have netted, during forty-two years, an
average profit of nearly £12,000 a year.

The first important impulse to the development of the
latent powers of the post office, both as a public agency and
as a source of revenue, was given by the shrewdness and
energy of John Palmer. His notice was attracted to the
subject in October, 1782. So habitual were the robberies of
the post that they came to be regarded by its officials as
among the necessary conditions of human affairs. At this
period, in addition to the recognized perils of the roads, the
postal system was characterized by extreme irregularities in
the departure of mails and delivery of letters, the average
speed being about three and one-half miles an hour. Palmer
suggested that by building mail coaches of a construction
expressly adapted to run at a good speed, by furnishing a
liberal supply of horses, and by attaching an armed guard to
each coach, the public would be greatly benefited and the
post revenue increased. The experiment was made in
August, 1784, and its success exceeded all expectation.

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 7

The interval between the development of Palmer's
improved methods and the still more important reform,
twenty-seven years later, by Sir Rowland Hill, is chiefly
marked by the growth of the packet system, and by the
investigations of the revenue commissioners of 1826 and the
following years.

7, The beginning of a postal service in the United States
dates from 1639, when a house in Boston was employed for
the receipt and delivery of letters for or from beyond the
seas. In 1672 the government of New York colony estab-
lished **a post to go monthly from New York to Boston";
in 1702 it was changed to a fortnightly one. A general post
office was established and erected in Virginia in 1692, and in
Philadelphia in 1693. In 1789, when the post office was
transferred to the new federal government, the number of
offices in the thirteen colonies was only about seventy-five.

The following are the leading events in the history of the
American postal service : The negotiation of a postal treaty
with England (1840); the introduction of postage stamps
(1847); of stamped envelopes (1852); of the system of regis-
tering letters (1855) ; the establishment of the free-delivery
system and of the traveling post-office system (1863); the
introduction of the money-order system (1864); of postal
cards (1873); and, between the last two dates, of stamped
newspaper wrappers, and of envelopes bearing requests for
the return of the enclosed letter to the writer in case of non-
delivery; the formation of the Universal Postal Union (1873) ;
the issue of ** postal notes" payable to bearer (1883) ; and
the establishment of a special-delivery system (1885), in
which letters bearing an extra 10-cent stamp are delivered
by special messengers immediately on arrival.

The number of post offices in the United States is larger
than in any other country; but as regards the number of
persons employed the United States takes third rank. The
United States provides a post office for every 1,003 persons,
while in Great Britain the proportion is one to every 2,105
persons. The following table shows the progress of the

LETTER WRITING.

§21

United States postal system during the past thirty-three
years;

UNITED STATES POST-OFFICE STATISTICS.

Number Extent of
of Post Post Routes

Fiscal Year. Offices.

1865 20,550

1870 28,492

1875 35,547

1876 36,383

1877 37,345

1878 39,258

1879 40,855

1880 42,989

1881 44,512

1882 46,231

1883 47,863

1884 50,017

1885 51,252

in Miles.

142, 340

231,232

277,873

281,798

292,820

301,966

316,711

343,888

344,006

343,618

353,166

359,530

365,251

Number Extent of
of Post Post Routes

Fiscal Year. Offices.

188G 53,614

1887 55,157

1888 57,281

1889 58,999

1890 62,401

1891 64,329

1892 67,119

1893 68,403

1894 69,805

1895 70,064

1896 70,360

1897 71,022

1898 73,570

in Miles.
366,667
373,142
♦403,977
♦416,159
427,991
439,027
447,591
453,832
454,746
456,026
463,313
470,032
480,462

In 1898, the revenue of the department was $89,012,618;
the expenditure, $98,033,523; amount paid for salaries of
postmasters, $17,460,621; amount paid for transportation of
the mail, $51,780,283.

DEnNTTIOKS: TMPOKTAKCE OF LETTER

WRITING.

8, A letter is a written or printed communication from
one person to another person or other persons.

Correspondence may be defined as the act of communi-
cation by means of letters.

There are two well defined classes of letters: (1) private^
or personal, letters, which are of direct interest only to those
to whom they are addressed ; {%) ptiblicy or operiy letters, which,
though addressed to some particular person, are of general
interest and are intended for the public.

* Includes mail, messenger, and special office service. Of the whole
number of post offices at the close of the fiscal year, June 30, 1898^
3,816 were Presidential offices and 69,754 were fourth-class offices.

8 21 LETTER WRITING. 9

Private letters may be divided into two general classes;
viz., business letters and j^r/a/ letters.

Business letters are those relating to business affairs, such
as are written by merchants, bankers, lawyers, manufactur-
ers, etc. , in connection with their occupation or profession.

Included under business letters are the so called official
letters, those written to or by persons holding official posi-
tions or public office. Such letters are those written by
army and navy officers, presidents, governors, and heads of
departments of a national or state government.

Social letters are those written to relatives, friends, and
acquaintances, and which originate in social and personal
relations rather than in business relations. They include
domestic or family letters, letters of congratulation, letters
of condolence, letters of introduction, in short, all letters
prompted by friendship or affection.

Public letters are chiefly essays on political and state
affairs. They are given to the public through the mediuin
of newspapers and magazines, and are usually addressed to
the editor, though sometimes an open letter is addressed to
some noted public character. The leading daily newspapers in
New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago publish weekly public
letters from their Washington and I^rondon correspondents.

9. The Importance of letter writing:, both in business
and as an educational accomplishment, cannot be overesti-
mated. Business must to a large extent be transacted by
means of correspondence; and one of the leading requisites
to business success is the ability to discharge the important
duties pertaining to correspondence in a manner satisfactory
to all concerned.

Samuel Smiles says: ''Attention, application, accuracy,
method, punctuality, and despatch, are the principal quali-
ties required for the efficient conduct of business of any
sort." These business qualities have in business corre-
spondence a very large field of action.

Business habits, cultivated and disciplined, are found alike
useful in every calling, whether in politics, literature.

10 LETTER WRITING. § 2]

science, or art The best literary work has been done by
men systematically trained in business pursuits — especially
in business correspondence. The same industry, applica-
tion, economy of time and labor, which have rendered them
useful in one sphere of employment, have been found
equally available in another. The business man must
remember that it is by his correspondence that he must, to
a large extent, be judged. For the young man entering, or
about to enter, on a business career this is a consideration
of vital importance. The young man that has already fluent
and accurate command of language is very soon recognized
not alone in business circles, but by his fellow citizens gen-
erally. His letters speak for him. He acquires the respect
and confidence of those from whom he purchases, the esteem
of those to whom he sells, and rapidly secures the favor of all
his neighbors.

To the artisan, also, the art of letter writing is of inesti-
mable value. By its means he may not only keep in touch
with his fellow man la all the fraternal relations of social
life, but may benefit himself by being thus enabled to express
himself on paper with clearness and conciseness. He may
have an application to make for promotion or advancement
in salary. The mechanic who can set forth in a letter, cor-
rectly and concisely, his demands and purposes, stands much
nearer to promotion and increase of salary than one who
cannot do so. The mechanic known to be qualified in this
direction is certain to be called on by his fellow workmen to
occupy positions of trust and responsibility, either in their
fraternal organizations, or in the civic commtmity of which
he forms a part

THE FRAMEWORK OF THE LETTER.

lO, Introductory Remark. — In this section we shall
deal chiefly with the arrangement of the various essential
parts that make up the structure or framework of the let-
ter, and with the formalities to be observed in writing and
posting the letter. The proper formation of sentences.

g 21 LETTER WRITING, 11

paragraphs, etc. and the cpnstruction of the body of the
letter in accordance with rhetorical rules will receive con-
sideration under ** Invention and Expression."

Before entering upon a description of the parts of a letter,
we shall consider briefly the materials used in letter writing.

HATERIAIiS.

FAPEB.

11. Varieties. — Of the many varieties of paper manu-
factured, comparatively few are considered suitable for
correspondence. In general, also, the style of paper depends
in some degree on the character of the correspondence;
paper suitable for business letters is not always permissible
for social letters.

Formerly note paper^ that is, paper with four pages to
the sheet, was largely used both in business and social
correspondence ; at the present time, however, nearly
all business letters, in this country at least, are writ-
ten on letter paper y which is made only in single sheets.
Probably the change from note paper to letter paper
was due largely to the introduction of the typewriting
machine.

In social correspondence, note paper is still used almost
exclusively. The style and sizes generally used are : billet y
4 in. X 6 in. ; commercial note^ 5 in. X 8 in. ; and packet note,
about 5 1 in. X 9 in. The latter variety is much used by gen-
tlemen. Letter paper varies in size from 8 in. X 10 in. to
9 in.xll in. For short business letters, smaller sizes
(Sin. X8 in., 5^ in. X 8^ in., corresponding to commercial
note and packet note) may be used. It may be noted that a
sheet of 8^X10* letter paper when once folded makes a sheet
of 5' X 8^ commercial note.

Never use less than a full sheet of paper no matter how

13 LETTER WRITING. § 21

short the letter, and never use any form of cap paper for
correspondence purposea

12. Color of Pai>er. — In business correspondence the
only color allowable for letters is white; however, bills,
receipts, invoices, etc. are frequently written on colored
paper.

In social correspondence, ladies frequently and with good
taste use delicately tinted paper with envelopes to corre-
spond. Gentlemen, on the other hand, show questionable
taste in using any color other than white.

13. Ruled and Unruled Paper. — While it is in good
taste to use ruled paper, unruled paper is generally consid-
ered preferable. Any one can with practice write straight
and properly space the successive lines. If one cannot write
straight, he may use a set of lines placed under the sheet;
these lines are made heavy and show through the semitrans-
parent sheet plainly enough to furnish a guide for the pen.
It is much better, however, to learn to dispense with such
artificial aids.

14. Quality of Paper. — The paper, and in fact all
materials employed in letter writing, should be of good
quality. People are judged largely by their surroundings,
and by the appliances with which they work. A letter
written on a cheap paper with pale ink is sure to give the
recipient a disagreeable impression. On the other hand,
a letter written on good paper, displaying neat and careful
penmanship, is certain to redound to the credit of the writer.
Applications for important positions have been thrown aside
without consideration, merely because of the poor quality of
the letter paper. A prospective employer reasons that one
careless about his correspondence is likely to prove an unde-
sirable employe.

For business correspondence, bond paper is very largely
used. This paper is tough and durable and may be obtained
in any desired thickness. Paper with a slightly roughened

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 13

surface is preferred by most writers. Avoid thick unsized
papers that allow the ink to spread; and, above all, avoid
the cheap glossy blue-wltite note paper with a stamped trade
mark in one comer of the sheet

ENVEIiOPES.

15. The envelope should correspond in size, quality, and
color with the paper. As regards size, the length of the
envelope should be slightly greater than the width of the
sheet of note paper; for example, an envelope 5 J inches long
is used for y X 8' commercial note. For letter paper, the
length of the envelope should slightly exceed one-half of the
length of the sheet; thus, for a d^Xll" sheet, the envelope .
should bej say, 6 inches long. The envelopes most commonly
used in business correspondence are: No. 6, 3|in. X6 in.,
and No. 6^, 3f in. X 6^ in. For legal documents, manuscripts,
and official communications from the government, the
official envelope (about 4 in. x9 in.) is used.

In social correspondence, the j^//^r^ envelope in in general
use. This envelope is made slightly larger than the sheet
when folded once through the middle ; thus, the envelope for
commercial note (5 in. X 8 in.) should be about 4J in. X 5\ in.
The square-shaped envelope should never be used for busi-
ness correspondence, but the ordinary oblong envelope may
be and is used for social correspondence.

Always use an envelope sufficiently large to easily enclose
the letter sheet when properly folded. It is irritating to the
receiver of a communication to find difficulty in removing a
letter from its envelope, either because it was partially stuck
to the inside of the envelope when the envelope was sealed,
or because the envelope is too small to allow the letter to be
easily removed.

White is the prevailing color for envelopes, though for
business purposes 6u^ envelopes are quite freely used.
When tinted paper is used, the envelope should have the
same tint

U LETTER WRITING. § 21

16. The ink should flow freely and permit the formation
of distinct lines and characters. Black ink is now almost
universally used in all correspondence, and it is considered
in much better taste than colored inks, one of the objections
to the latter being their liability to fade. Letters that are
to be copied are written with a special ink called copying
ink, which will give one or more cctpies of the letter when it is
placed in the letterpress. In contact with moisture, copying
ink smears and spreads; it should never be used, therefore,
for letters that are not to be copied.

PARTS OF A liETTER.

17, The essential parts of a letter are:

1. The headings including date.

2. The address,

3. The salutation,

4. The body.

5. The complimentary close.

6. The subscription^ or signature,

7. The superscription^ or outside address.
The incidental parts are :

1. The postscript^ with its continuations or iterations,
paulo-post script, post -paulo-post script^ and so on,

2. The nota bene.

3. The enclosure.

4. The stamp,

5. The return directions.

The address and salutation together — ^when the address is
placed at the top of the letter — constitute the Introduction.

The complimentary close and subscription — and the
address when placed at the close of the letter — constitute
the conclusion.

18. General Form. — The following letter shows the
usual arrangement of the various parts of an ordinary
business letter:

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 16

(Heading: and Date.)
540 Sewell St, Portland, Maine,

Feb. 22, 1890.
(Address.)

Mr. John W. Playfair,
President First National Bank,
558 Jackson Boulevard,

Chicago, 111.
(Satntation.)
Dear Sir:

(Body.)

Mr. George Williams of your city has called to interest me in the
purchase of a large tract of timber and mining lands in Northern Wis-
consin. Mr. Williams impresses me favorably, and his propositions
appear quite reasonable on their face.

I have, however, deferred giving him a final answer till I hear from
you regarding his standing in business circles m Chicago. He speaks
of you as an acquaintance, and since I claim you as a friend, your
advice will be as welcome as it must be valuable.

(Complimentary Close.)
I am, dear Sir,

Very sincerely yours,

(Signiature.)

William Hutcheson.

THE HEADING.

19. The heading includes both the place, which is the
address of the writer, and the time of writing; as, **540
Sewell St., Portland, Maine, Feb. 22, 1899." The word
"date" is correctly used in this technical sense when we
say, "Your letter dated Portland, Maine, Feb. 22, 1899, is
received. "

In business letters the headings should usually occupy two
lines; in social letters it may occupy two or three and some-
times four lines — two or three for the place, and one for the
time. If the heading is short, it may be written in a single
line as shown in Form 1, following. As a rule it is advisable
to use as few lines as is possible without making the head-
ing l(X)k crowded and awkward. The use of many lines in
either heading, address, signature, or superscription is to be
avoided.

In business letters the heading should begin about 1 inch,

16 LETTER WRITING. § 21

and in serial letters 2 inches from the top of the page, not
far from the middle of the line, and should end at or very
near the right margin.

Printed forms of a more or less elaborate and ornate design
are so much in use for business letter headings that no cast-
iron rule can be laid down to govern the precise form of the
heading. In these printed forms the heading sometimes
occupies several lines and often contains some brief state-
ment or statements explanatory of the purposes, standing,
and claims of the firm making use of the forms.

It is easy to see that the items of place should be in the
order mentioned — the larger following the smaller, the con-
tainer following the contained.

As to time, the form most generally employed in
America is, *' Feb. 22, 1899." We cannot, however, see any
valid objection to the form, **22 Feb. 1899," often used in
Great Britain and the British colonies.

All letters, notes, cards, missives epistolary of every kind,
should be dated. To omit the date is or may be an incon-
venience, and therefore a breach of propriety; in business it
is sheer impertinence, and everj'where vulgar. In replying
to an undated missive, especially if a business letter, it is
proper to call attention to the absence of a date, in some way,
so that if it were an inadvertence, the writer may avoid the
error next time. A business letter in reply to an undated
one may very properly begin in some such way as this: ** In

reply to your favor without date just received " ; and to a

second from the same source: ** In reply to your dateless
letter just received ."

20. Punctuation. — The various parts of the heading
are separated by commas; a period is placed after each
abbreviation and at the end of the heading. All impor-
tant words of the heading be^n with capital letters. The
numeral indicating the day of the month should not be fol-
lowed by^/, St J or /// when the year is written; thus, **May 3,
1899,*' instead of ** May 3d, 1899." In such an expression as
*' Your letter of the 15th inst. is at hand," the suffix is added.

§21 LETTER WRITING. 17

21. Specimens of Headings. — ^Various fonns of head-
ings are shown in*the following:

Form 1.

Flint, Mich., June 8, 1897.

Form 2.

Elsie, Clinton Co., Mich.,

Dec. 20, 1895.

Form 3.
628 Washington Ave.,

SCRANTON, Pa.,

Jan. 5, 1899.

Form 4.

Lithia Springs,

Shelbyville, Illinois,

July 4, 189a

Form 5.

PENNSYLVANIA.

OFFICE OF THE

Secretary of the Commonwealth,

Harrisburg.

October 22, 189a

In case the writer and his correspondent live in the same
city, the subjoined form may be used :

Form 6.

528 Jefferson Ave.,

March 1, 1899.

Sometimes the name of the residence of the writer is alone

used, as:

Form 7.

Elm Park,

March 9, 1899.

In the case of brief and informal notes from one person to
another in the same town, it is quite customary and regular
to use as a heading only the day of the week ; for instance,
••Tuesday," or ** Thursday," or whatever the day of the wri-
ting may be. This simple date may be placed at the top or
at the lower left-hand comer of the letter or note.

18 LETTER WRITING. § 21

Form 8.

Dear Papa:
1 shall see you tomorrow, etc.

Tuesday.

Form 9.

THE COLLIERY ENGINEER CO.,

Proprietors.

THE INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS

of Scranton, Pa.. U. S. A.
Industrial Science taught by Mail.

Scranton, Pa., U. S. A.

Mar. 24, ISM.

Form 10.

E. L. Kellogg & Co.,

Educational Publishers,

61 East Ninth Street, New York.

Dea 29, 189a

23. Bate at the Epd of a lictter. — The writing of the
place and date at the lower left comer, though quite admis-
sible, and in some places customary in the matter of social
letters, is, in the case of business letters, annoying to those
that desire to note at once the date of the letter. It is
better not to indulge in any eccentricities in such matters.
For people that have nothing else to do, it may be allow-
able; but busy people do not have time to look in unusual
places for headings, addresses, signatures, etc.

Here is an example of the heading placed at the end of a

social letter:

Your very sincere friend,

Andrew Jackson Smith.
920 Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, 111.,

April 6, 1899.

THE ADDRESS AND SALUTATION.

33. The address when complete contains the name,
title, and residence of the person to whom the letter is sent.
The salutation is the greeting, as ** Dear Sir," ** Sir," ** My
dear George," and the like, with which it is usual to begin
a letter.

§ ^1 LETTER WRITING. 19

An example of a complete introduction is shown in the
letter of Art. 18. The first line contains the name and title,
** Mr. John W. Playfair " ; the third and fourth lines contain
the residence, ** 558 Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, 111." By
the term residence we do not necessarily mean the private
residence of a person, but the place where he gets his mail ;
in other words, the post-office address. The residence given
in the address should be the same as that given in the super-
scription or the address on the envelope. Additional
remarks upon this point will be found under the heading
* * Superscription. **

When a person holds a distinctive office or business posi-
tion, the address is made more definite by including this
office or position. In the example given, the gentleman
addressed is president of a bank ; hence, this fact is indicated
by the second line, ** President First National Bank." This
feature of the address is shown in forms 4 and 5.

In business correspondence the address should never be
omitted.* The envelope may be torn or thrown away, and
the letter must be consulted for the address to the reply.
Every business letter should contain the full address of both
the writer and the person to whom the letter is written.

24. The Salutation. — ^What the salutation shall be must
be determined, of course, by the relation between the writer
and the party addressed. Our most formal, private, or
unofficial salutations are *'Sir" and ** Madam." These are
almost impersonal, and belong to such persons as we may
wish to accost with civility. In the correspondence from
Government offices, in Washington and elsewhere, these are
the regular salutations used to persons without official titles,
and to many with such titles. In like manner. Sir is the cor-
rect salutation to use in addressing the civil officials of the
Government, both general and state, that have no special
title inherent in the offices they hold. The rigid brevity of
the formal Sir is being replaced, gradually though slowly,
in both official and private correspond :jnce, by ** Dear Sir" ;
and this, eventually, if it ever supersede Sir, must do so by

20 LETTER WRITING. § 21

gradually taking on the meaning that Sir now has. When
Sir is the salutation, the complimentary close should be
"Yours respectfully," or something correspondingly distant.
These forms are the ones most frequently used in our Gov-
ernment correspondence, both civil and military. The usage
at Washington is followed generally in the Government sub-
offices throughout the country, so that it is safe to use Sir in
all such cases.

The epistolary plural of Sir is ** Gentlemen," and this has
its French Messieurs — always abbreviated "Messrs." — as a
correlative. Messrs. is restricted in use as "Mr." is, and
should rarely, if ever, be used alone in place of Gentlemen,
and for the same reason that Mr. is so restricted. It is
accordingly incorrect to use Messrs. as the salutation of a
letter, in place of Gentlemen, or Dear Sirs. Between firms
the salutation should be Gentlemen, with, under special cir-
cumstances of rare occurrence, Dear Sirs; the complimentary
close — which must always correspond to the salutation —
should be Yours respectfully, or something equivalent to it.

The character of .the salutation should correspond with the
writer's relation to the person addressed. Strangers may be
addressed as "Sir," "Dear Sir," or "Madam"; acquaint-
ances, as "Dear Sir," "Dear Mr. Smith," "Dear Miss
Franklin," etc. Friends maybe addressed, "Friend May-
nard," "Friend Margaret," "Dear Friend," "My dear
Eaton," etc. Near relatives and intimate friends may be
addressed as " My dear Father," " My dear Edward,**
"Dearest Mary," etc. Good taste will usually dictate the
proper salutation in any given case.

26. Position of tlie Address. — The address is placed
either at the beginning or at the end of the letter. In this
connection the following rules should be observed:

1. In business letters, the address should be placed at the
beginning of the letter, preceding the salutation.

2. In official letters, the address may occupy either
position.

3. In letters not of a business nature, the address should

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 21

preferably be placed at the top, if the person addressed is a
stranger or even an acquaintance with whom the writer is
not intimate.

4. Because of the formality involved in placing the
address at the top of a letter, we should, in letters to inti-
mate friends or near relatives, place the address at the bot-
tom. In this case, the introduction consists of the salutation
alone, as shown in forms 1 and 2.

The proper arrangement of the address is shown in the
specimen addresses, Art. 28. The first line of the address
begins at about ^ inch from the left edge of the sheet. The
line should be the first or second below the date. No part
of the post-office address should be written on the first line
with the name.

26. Position of tbe Salutation. — If the address is
placed at the end of the letter, the salutation occupies the
position usually given to the first line of the address. If the
address consists of two lines, the salutation may be started
about 1 inch to the right of the initial letter of the second
line of the address, as shown in form 3. When, howfever,
the address consists of three or more lines, it is preferable to
begin the salutation immediately under the initial letter of
the first line of the address. See forms 4, 5, G, 9, and 10,
following. Some writers prefer to begin the salutation
imder the initial letter of the second line of the address.

27. Punctuation. — The items of the address are sepa-
rated by commas, and the address as a whole, whether it
contains the name alone or the name and residence, is fol-
lowed by a period. Thus, in form 7 following, a period, not
a comma, should follow the name '* Mrs.. George Williamson. "
The salutation is usually followed by a colon, though fre-
quently the comma is used instead. The colon is rather more
formal than the comma. If the body of the letter begins on
the same line as the salutation (see form 3), the comma
or colon, whichever is used, should be followed by a dash;
when the letter begins on the line below the salutation,
there is no occasion for the dash, and it should not be used.

22 LETTER WRITING. § 21

All abbreviations are followed by periods.

All important words of the introduction begin with capital
letters; but the word dear in ** My dear Friend*' and like
expressions is not generally written with a capital

28. Various Forms of Introduction. — The following
are some specimens of the introductory portion of a letter:

Form 1.
Dear Friend Hill,

Your very much esteemed letter has given me genuine satisfac»
tion, eta

Form 2.

Mv DEAR Irene,

We shall expect you without fail next Thursday, etc.

Form 3.
Mr. John S. Forden,
Bangor, Me.

Dear Sir. — In reply to your favor, etc.

Form 4.

T. J. Foster, Esq., Manager,

The International Correspondence Schools,
Scranton, Pa.
Dear Sir: — I have the honor to enclose, etc.

Form 5.
G. W. Porter & Sons,

Contractors and Builders,
Rochester, N. Y.
Gentlemen: — I beg to enclose plans, eta

Form 6.

The Honorable M. S. Quay,
U. S. Senator,

Washington, D.C.
Sir:

I respectfully beg to call your attention, etc.

Form 7.
Mrs. Gkorcie Williamson.
Dear Madam:

Kindly accept our earnest congratulations, eta

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 23

It IS sometimes embarrassing to know how to address a
lady with whom one may have no personal acquaintance
whatever. In such a case it is permissible to use the follow-
ing:

Form 8.

Miss Ruby Chapman,

Petersburg, Va.
Your esteemed order of the 15th inst, eta

A married lady with whom one has either no personal
acquaintance or one that is very slight should be addressed
as follows:

Form 9.

Mrs. J. S. Barker*

Paris, 111.
Madam:

Form 10.

Thb Colliery Engineer Co.,

Scranton, Pa.
Gentlemen :

In reply to your letter of October 22d, I beg to say, eta

THE BODY OF THE L.ETTER.

29. The body of a letter is the actual communication.
It follows the salutation, and begins on the same line with
the salutation or on the line below, according to the taste of
the writer. As a rule, the body should begin on the same
line if the address occupies three or more lines, and on the
line below if the address occupies only one or two lines.

30. The Margrln. — On the left-hand side of the sheet
there should be a blank space or margin between the edge
of the sheet and the beginning of the lines of writing. The
width of this margin may vary from \ inch to f inch, accord-
ing to the width of the sheet. Care must be taken to make
the margin of uniform width throughout the length of the
page. Except the first lines of paragraphs, the first letter
of every line, including the first line of the address and the

24 LETTER WRITING. §21

salutation, when the latter is begun at the margin, should
start at the, marginal line. If a writer has difficulty in keep-
ing the margin even, the marginal line may actually be
drawn with a lead pencil and afterwards erased. Such arti-
ficial aids are, however, to be avoided as much as possible.
The first line of a paragraph should begin from ^ inch to
1 inch to the right of the marginal line. There should be
no margin on the right-hand edge of the sheet.

THE CONCLUSION,

31 • The complimentary close follows the body of a
letter and immediately precedes the signature. It is ** I am,
dear Sir, Very sincerely yours," ** Yours respectfully," the
•* Faithfully yours," etc. with which we take leave of our
correspondents. The place foi it is one line or space below
the last line of the body of the letter. It should generally
begin one space, or about ^ inch— on letter paper, f inch —
farther to the right than a paragraph. As to form, the com-
plimentary close should correspond to the salutation; and
like the salutation must depend* upon the relation between
the two parties to a letter, and must get its form from
that relation. ** Respectfully," "Very respectfully," **Most
respectfully," etc. correspond to ** Sir," ** Madam," etc., and
are the usual ones for formal or impersonal correspondence
between individuals, both public and private. This, like the
salutation, again, is to be softened, warmed, modified, and
transformed to suit the relation of the two parties. ** Dear
Sir" and * SDear Madam " call for ** Yours truly," ** Yours
sincerely," *' Yours faithfully," and so on. The more
familiar the salutation is, the more so should be the corre-
sponding complimentary close. It would be incongruous if
not absurd, for example, to begin a letter with "Sir" and
close it with "Devotedly yours," as it would, on the other
hand, to begin with " My dear Friend " and close with "Very
respectfully yours."

The ordinary complimentary close used by the officials in
Washington, and indeed in formal correspondence generally,

g 21 LETTER WRITING. J5

is ** Yours respectfully." In personal letters this varies,
wanes, and fluctuates through *' Yours truly,** ** Yours
faithfully," **Ever yours," ** Yours till death,** and a pos-
sible thousand or two others, all growing out of depth of
feeling or of varied relations. In all cases of doubt, it is
safer and in all respects better to err in the direction of too
much than of too little ceremony or formality in this matter.
Between firms in business, ** Yours respectfully,** or its
equivalent in some form, is proper on all occasions, as is
** Gentlemen ** for a salutation.

To no portion of a letter should more exact attention be
given than to its termination, for by no other portion may
the writer be judged more accurately as to courtesy and good
breeding.

32. Some of the most common forms of complimentary
leave taking in letter writing are the following :

Yours truly. Yours sincerely,

Yours very truly, Very sincerely yours.

Faithfully, Yours fraternally,

Very respectfully yours. Affectionately yours.

Yours very faithfully. Your loving father,

Cordially yours. Your friend,

Most cordially yours. Your affectionate son.
Yours gratefully,

33* The subscription, or sigrnature, should follow the
complimentary close on the next line and should end at or
near the right-hand edge of the sheet.

In regard to the signature two points should be observed :
(1) write the name in full; (2) make the signature legible.
The name should be written in full, so that, if through
unforeseen circumstances the letter is sent to the dead-letter
office, it may be returned to the writer. Of course, if a let-
ter contains nothing of importance, it maybe signed ** John,"
or **Tom," or **Mary**; but if the letter has any value to
the writer, particularly if it contains money, the full name
and residence of the writer should be given. By the term
full name we do not mean the unabbreviated name ; thus,
a person by the name of George Henry Adams may properly

26 JLrETTER WRITING. § 21

write his signature *' George H. Adams," "Geo. H. Adams,"
or ** G. H. Adams '*; and if he is familiarly known as Henry,
he may write it *'G. Henry Adams."

The writer should, of course, write all parts of a letter
legibly; but the signature should receive particular atten-
tion in this respect. An illegible word in the body of the
letter can usually be made out by its connection with the
words preceding" and following it; but there is no such assist-
ance in deciphering an illegible signature. The recipient
of a letter must use the signature for the address of his reply.
If the signature is unreadable, the Recipient, unless acquainted
with the writer, may be compelled to cut out the signature
and paste it on the envelope.

In writing to a stranger, a lady should indicate by her sig-
nature not only her sex, but whether she is married or single.
This may be done by prefixing **Miss" or **Mrs/' to the
name. If the writer considers such a use of the title ques-
tionable, the title may be enclosed in parenthesis ; thus :
**(Miss) Mary Saunders.'' The Miss or Mrs. should not be
used in writing to acquaintances or friends.

A person in an official or prominent business position may,
and sometimes should, follow his name with an indication of
his position; thus:

Alexander Williams.

Chairman of Executive Committee.

George Lamb,

General Manager.

The address when written at the close of the letter forms
part of the conclusion. It should in this case begin at the
marginal line and on the line below the signature. The
arrangement and punctuation of the parts of the address is
the same as when it is written at the top of the letter (see
Arts. 25 and 27).

34. Punctuation. — The complimentary close is fol-
lowed by a comma and the signature is followed by a period.
When the complimentary close is long and is arranged in

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 27

several lines, the parts are separated by commas. Each line
of the complimentary close begins with a capital letter. In
other respects, the ordinary rules are followed in the use o£
capitals.

36. Forms of €onclii»ion. — For the student's guid-
ance, we submit some forms of conclusion:

Form 1.

Very respectfully yours,

George Field.

Form 2.

Form 3.

Very truly yours,
Cooper, Cqmmings & Ca

PerD.

Yours affectionately.

Sister Irene.

Form 4.

CAddress at end.)

I am. Sir, with much consideration.

Your obedient servant,
Norman Howard.
The Reverend Dr. Lyman Abbott,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

Form 5.

Very faithfully yours,
W. F. Preston,
Elkhart, Ind.

Form 6.

I have the honor to be,

Your Excellency's obedient servant,
M. C. Cameron.
The Governor of New York.

Form 7.

I beg leave, Mr. Mayor, to subscribe myself with profound respect,

Yours faithfully,
George Eliot.
The Mayor of New York.

28 LETTER WRITING. § 21

When the writer is personally unknown to the person or
firm written to and solicits a reply, he may sign thus:

Form 8.

Very respectfully yours,
Alexander Taylor,
64 York Street

Or,

Alexander Taylor.
64 York St

The street and number may, however, be placed according
to the writer's choice at the head of the letter.

Form 9.

I beg to remain, dear Father,

Very affectionately.
Your son,
John.
Form 10.

With all my heart, I am, my dear Frank,

Your own Mother.

Terms of affection should never be abbreviated, as for
instance, * * Yours aff 't*ly, " for ** Yours affectionately " ;
"Your aff. Son,** for '* Your affectionate Son."

THE SUPERSCRIPTION.

36. The superscription is the outside address — the one
written on the envelope, and the one for the postmaster and
letter carrier to note. Like the address, the superscription
consists of three parts: • the name, the title, and the residence.

37. Arrangrement. — The first line of the superscription
contains the name and title. It should be written near the
middle of the envelope. If the person addressed has an
official or business position, this may occupy the second line;
otherwise, the first item of the residence will be placed there.
In general each item of the residence should occupy a separate
line, but if the superscription is long, it is permissible to
write the abbreviation for the state on the line with the city.
Each line should begin a little distance to the right of the

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 29

line above it, and the end of the last line should be near the
lower right-hand comer of the envelope. Care should be
taken to have the lines parallel to tjie lower edge of the letter
and the same distance apart.

If a letter is addressed to one person in care of another,

the words ** Care of " may occupy the second line, as in

form 11, following.

38, The accompanying illustration shows a specimen
superscription:

I
o jS Stamp.

.9f<£

« St Mr. John W. Playfair,

President First National Bank,

558 Jackson Boulevard,

Chicago, 111.

39. Points to be Observed. — The residence should be
fully and clearly indicated in the address. Millions of
pieces of mail matter are annually sent to the dead-letter
office because of careless or illegible addresses. There are
many post offices in the United States of America bearing
the same name, but situated in different states. There is,
for instance, a Clayton, New York, and a Clayton, New
Jersey; Urbana, Champaign County, Ohio, and Urbana,
Champaign County, Illinois. In such cases it is advisable
to spell out the name of the state ; in any case of doubt, an
abbreviated form of the state's name should not be employed.

In addressing a letter to a small or obscure town or village,
it is advisable to include the name of the county in the
address. In the case of cities of national importance, as
Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, it is not really essential to
write even the name of the state, though it is perhaps better

30 LETTER WRITING. g 21

as a rule to include it It is always better to put too much
on the envelope than too little.

When the post office is a city, it is generally desirable, and
where there are letter carriers employed, it is necessary, to
give the number and the street; and when a city is large
enough to employ carriers, it is hardly, if ever, necessary to
give the county; as,

A B , Esq.,

128 Fifth Avenue,

New York,

N. Y.

In cases of this kind it is as unnecessary to write No.
before the figures giving the number as it is in this case
to write "City" after *'New York."

In cities, it is sometimes desirable, in order to facilitate
delivery, to give the part of the house; thus:

B , Esq.,

Room 10,

470 Tremont St,
Boston,
Mass.

Some streets contain the idea in the name, so that it is not
necessary to add ** St," to it; as,

A B » Esq.,

567 Broadway,
New York,
N. Y.

Here ** way** conveys the idea of street.
It would be absurd to give all the points of an address at
the same time, in such cases as this:

A— B , Esq.,

Room 18,

28 Fulton St,
New York,

New York Co.,
New York.

It 18 the custom in England to put a comma between the
number of a street and the name of it; as, **46, Oxford St"

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 31

Theoretically, it would be better to reverse the order of
the items in the address ; that is, put the largest first and
the smallest last. The item needed by the most distant
post official — the postmaster that posts the letter — is the
state, when in the states; and the country, when the letter
is to go abroad. All that the postmaster looks for is the
state; and succeeding officials will need the descending
items. A rational address then would be :

California,

San Diego Co.,
San Diego,

John Smiths

When a letter is registered, the sender writes his full
address across the left margin of the back of the envelope;
and this is all that should ever be written on the back, and
this in the case of registered letters only. To write ** In
haste," ** Deliver promptly, " ** By courtesy," and the like on
an envelope letter — addressed apparently to whom it may
concern, and it manifestly concerns nobody — is useless.

It was once thought necessary to write ** To" before the
name in the superscription of all letters, and many in
England and a few in America do so still; but, except in
very formal letters, it is superfluous, and for that very good
reason falling into disuse. In all official correspondence,
such as **To the Honorable the Secretary of State," the
prefix may properly be used.

40. The. — This demonstrative appears in such titles as
**The Reverend," "The Honorable," etc.; although it is
frequently read with the titles, even when not written with
them. It belongs to both pre-titles and post-titles, as in the
examples given.

41. Punctuation. — The items of the superscription are
separated by commas, and since each item occupies a sepa-
rate line, there should be a comma at the end of each line
except the last. A title following the name should be sep-
arated from it by a comma, and two or more titles in

32 LETTER WRITING. g 21

succession should he separated by commas. See forms 7 and
10, following. As usual, all abbreviations should be followed
by periods, and a period should be placed at the end of the
superscription. In nearly all cases every word of the super-
scription begins with a capital letter. The student should
observe carefully the punctuation and capitalization in the
specimen superscriptions.

There is a growing tendency among writers to omit all
punctuation from the superscription except the periods after
abbreviations. It is not unlikely that the omission of punctu-
ation on the envelope will in time become universal; but
until the custom is better established than at present, it will
be safer for the student to punctuate.

42. Examples of Superscription. — The following
forms of superscription should be carefully studied :

Form 1.

Messrs. Lee, Lindsey & Co.,
815 Broadway,

New York,

N. Y.

Form 2.

Alexander Bennett, Esq.,

Springfield,
Box 81. Ill

Form 3.

Mr. & Mrs. E. W. White,

28 Madison Ave.,

DaUas,
Texas.

Form 4.

Mr. Peter Paterson.
Builder,

Harrisburg,
Pa.

Form 5>

W. C. Weldon. Esq.,

Counselor at Law,

St Louis,
Ma

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 33

Form 6.
The Honorable

William Connell, M. C,

Washington,

D. C

A physician may be addressed :

Form 7.

D E , Esq., M.D.,

Clarksville,

Texas.

Form 8.

Dr. E F .

New Hope,

Kentucky.

Form 9.
The Reverend

Dr. I. J. Lansing.

Scranton, Pa.

Form 10.

The Right Reverend

Ethelbert Talbot, D.D., LL.D.,

Bishop of Central Pennsylvania,

South Bethlehem, Pa.

It is now generally conceded to be better form not to

abbreviate the titles Honorable, Reverend, Right Reverend,

and the like.

Form IL
Miss Ethel Armitage,

Care of S. E. Dobbs, Esq.,
Urbana,
Ohia

THE POSTSCRIPT.

43. This term comes from the Latin post scriptum^
** written after"; its abbreviation P. S. is almost always used.

The ordinary and obvious use of the postscript is the
addition to the letter of something thought of or occurring
after the letter is written and signed. The postscript, how-
ever, may be, and often is, used for emphasis, especially in
cases of diplomacy.

34 LETTER WRITING. § 21

After writingfs falling under the head of postscripts may
be indicated and arranged with these abbreviations:

P. S. — Postscript, as above.

P. P. S. — Paulo-postscript.

P. P. P. S. — Post-paulo-postscript ; and this is quite far
enough.

Perhaps a better designation would be:

P. S. — Postscript.

2d P. S.

3d P. S.

Try in general to say what you desire to say in the body
of a letter, and avoid postscripts. The frequent use of post-
scripts lessens their power for any special service. Never
write a message of affection, congratulation, or condolence
as a postscript ; for what might be a compliment or comfort
in the body of a letter may prove an insult if written as a
postscript

THE NOTA BENE.

44, Sometimes at the close of a letter occurs the form
**N. B." followed by a sentence or two, or even more, of
some special significance. The words nota bene are Latin
and mean **note well " or **note specially." The abbrevia-
tion is N. B. — the usual and almost universal form in use.
Like the postscript, the nota bene follows the completed
letter; that is, it comes below both the signature and the
address, and may come before or after the postscript. It
may rhetorically qualify either the letter or the postscript.
Like the postscnpt, the nota bene has two leading uses.
The first and obvious one is to call special attention to a
point or a view of the matter that the writer thinks his cor-
respondent may by inadvertence fail to appreciate or to give
its due weight to. The other use is to conceal, at first blush
at least, in its apparent emphasis, the real object of the letter;
thus letting the real object work its way gradually — percolate,
as it were — into the correspondent's mind. The real object,
in such case, must be a matter alien to the subject of the

§21

LETTER WRITING.

nota bene. This device, as in the ^ase of the postscript, is
one of diplomacy and belongs to the domain of rhetoric.

A nota bene may have a postscript, but it should never
have a nota bene.

FOLDING.

46. Careless or neglectful folding gives the letter an
appearance of disorder, which does not invite favorable con-
sideration from the recipient Take time to fold your letter
neatly and carefully. See that it is adjusted to the envelope,
and that no indication of an absence of neatness, order, or
system be observable. The illustrations here given show
the proper methods of folding for note sheets, letter paper,
and legal cap.

To fold a note sheet, turn the bottom of the sheet upwards,
making the crease at
about one-third of the
length of the sheet from
the lower edge; then
turn the top of the sheet
downwards so that the
top edge will nearly or
quite reach the crease
first made. By this
method, the sheet is divided intothree nearly equal sections as
shown in Fig. 1, and the writing on the first page is concealed.
The method of folding a letter sheet is shown in Fig. 2.

Turn the bottom of the sheet
upwards so as to cover all but
^ inch or less of the sheet
and form the crease near the
middle of the sheet. Next
turn the right-hand edge of
the paper to the left, making
the crease about one-third
of the width of the sheet from
the right-hand edge, and fold
Pio. s. the remainder of the sheet

Fig. 1.

36 LETTER WRITING. § 21

from the left so that the left edge will come about to the
crease on the right *

When an official envelope is used for a letter sheet, fold
the bottom of the sheet upwards and the top downwards,
thus dividing the sheet into three nearly equal sections.
The writing will then be concealed.

The usual method of folding a sheet of legal cap is shown
in Fig. 3. Turn up
the bottom of the
sheet so that the
lower edg'e meets the
top edge; then fold
the upper half of the
doubled sheet down
over the lower half.

Small enclosures,
like checks, receipts,
^'°-'- etc., are laid on the

sheet and folded with it. If placed in the envelope separately,
the enclosure is liable to be cut or torn when the letter is
opened, or it may be over-
looked when the letter is
removed. Larger enclo-
sures, as invoices and state-
ments, are folded sepa-
rately, rig. 4 shows the
proper method of folding a
small enclosure in a letter
sheet.

In folding letters, take '''*'■*

care that the edges are even and that the folds are pressed
down flat so as to frive the letter a tidy appearance. A paper
knife is to be preferred to the thumb or fingers in making
the folds.

46. The Insertion of the letter. — To insert the letter

properly, take the envelope in the left hand with the opening
to the right and the face down. Insert the folded letter with

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 87

the right hand, putting in the last folded edge first If the
letter is inserted in this manner, it can be removed from the
envelope easily ; if the folded edge is put in last, the comers
are liable to catch when the letter is taken out

The envelope should be opened by cutting or tearing open
the top edge; then if the letter sheet has been properly
inserted, it will, when removed, be right side up.

THE STAMP,

47. The stamp is placed in the upper right-hand comer
of the envelope about iV ^^ i ^^^^ from the end and an equal
distance from the upper edge. In affixing the stamp, take
care that it is right side up and that its edges are parallel
with the edges of the envelope. To affix the stamp care-
lessly is a mark of disrespect to your correspondent, the
more so as it takes no more time and is just as easy to put
the stamp in its proper place.

Be careful that the amount of postage is sufficient; the
collection of extra postage at the delivery post office is an
annoyance to both the postal clerk or carrier and the recipient
of the letter.

THB RETURN DrRECTIONS.

48. To insure the return of a letter to the writer in case
of non-delivery, the name or address of the writer should be
written or printed in the upper left-hand corner or across the
left margin of the envelope. The address of the sender on
the envelope is tantamount to a request to return the letter
if it fails of delivery in due time.

Business houses having extensive correspondence generally
use special-request envelopes. These have printed on them
the address of the sender with a request to return the letter
in 5 or 10 days if not delivered. The stamped envelopes
furnished by the post-office department have a printed special
request with a blank for the address of the sender. If the
return directions are omitted, the letter, if not delivered,
must be sent to the dead-letter office.

•>— J-.

38 LETTER WRITING. § 21

We subjcnn some forms of return directions that have
fallen tinder our notice. A simple form is preferable to one
more elaborate.

RETURN TO BOX 898 R'*"™ *« Secretary of State,

CINCINNATI „ . i^r*^"!:, !l!^"fA ^

If not deliverea within 10 days.

City of New York SUCCESS

OpncE OF THE City Clerk

City Hau. ~°''''" "'"°-'

new york city,

return in ten days to
THE INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS.

8CRANTON, PA.

TITLES: FORMS OF ADDRESS AOT>

SALUTATION.

CliASSIFICATION OF TITIiES.

49. Preliminary Remarks. — The proper use of the
many titles employed in address and correspondence is a
subject of sufficient importance to demand a somewhat full
treatment in a separate section. In this section we endeavor
to give the proper usage in regard to the titles of address
ordinarily used in all kinds of correspondence, and the
proper forms of address and salutation to be used in cor-
respondence with those in official positions.

On account of the close relation existing between the
United States and Great Britain, it has been deemed neces-
sary to include the titles of rank used in the latter country,
and the forms of address and salutation ordinarily used in
correspondence with various officials and persons of rank.

50, According to their position, titles may be divided
into two classes: pi-e-tltles, such as Mr., Rev., Dr., etc.,
which precede the name; and post-titles, such as Esq.,
M.D., Jr., etc., which follow the name. There are some

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 39

pre-titles that on occasion must follow the name, generally
in signatures and in descriptive mentions, but sometimes in

addresses. Such are A B , General U. S. A., or

To the Reverend Doctor C , Dean of D . These,

however, are not post-titles, but pre-titles in exceptional use.
According to their use, titles may be divided into the fol-
lowing classes:

1. Titles of address, embracing prefixed words or
phrases attributing rank, office, or distinction, terms of
respect, either in direct address, or in mentioning a person ; as,
Mister, Madam, the Honorable, his Grace, his Excellency.

2. Titles of honor, such as belong to possessors of dig-
nities, inherent or acquired ; they include both nobility and
rank, titles of courtesy, and official titles significant of spe-
cial appointments held. Titles of honor are again sub-
divided into: (a) hereditary, such as prince, duke, iharquis,
earl, viscount, and baron, the six British titles of nobility;
(*) civil, such as President, Governor, Senator, Judge, Mayor;
(c) naval and military, as Admiral, Commodore, General,
Colonel, Captain; {d) ecclesiastical, as Archbishop, Bishop,
Dean.

3. Titles of distinction or merit that are either (a) life
and honorary titles, such as Lord, Knight, Lady, or (b)
scholastic titles, which are degrees and honors conferred by
scientific schools, colleges, universities, and other institu-
tions of learning, or acquired in the practice of the learned
professions. Regular degrees are conferred upon those com-
pleting a prescribed course and passing a certain exami-
nation; honorary degrees on persons that have become
distinguished in public life or in literary and scientific studies.

TITIiES OF ADDRESS.

5 1 • Mister.— The contraction of this title is * * Mr. , "and it
rarely appears in any other form. It has always been a pre-
title, and cannot be used apart from the name. When the
occasion arises to use the appellative independently and (not

40 LETTER WRITING. % 21

knowing the name) alone, we use Sir. Mr. is the most com-
mon of all titular appellatives applied to man. It is respect-
ful, but it lacks distinction. It may be — and on occasion
should be — used in almost every part of a letter; but the
superscription and address are the important points, the use in
both being exactly the same. The importance of Mr. in such
use lies in its relations to and differences from ** Esquire " ;
and these relations and differences are far more complex and
confusing in the United States than in Great Britain, for the
reason that the lines of distinction there are somewhat
closely drawn, while here they are not. In this country Mr.
has better standing than it has in the mother country, and
the frequent ignorance of the social status of our correspond-
ents render the safer title Mr. of more constant use, as an
epistolary title at least As a pre-title in the address of
letters, it is fair to say, Mr. has far more respect shown it in
America than in England. Few Americans have leisure to
be vexed at so small a matter as that of being mistered, on
letters or elsewhere. Still, Esquire is generally felt to be a
higher title, and altogether a more desirable one where there
is any feeling or room for feeling in the matter. The plural
of Mr. — and of Esquire as well, as to titular use— is "Messrs.,"
a contraction of the French Messieurs, ** gentlemen."

53. Gentleman. — This word means in its general appli-
cation any man of intelligence not in some way degraded or
in disgrace. In Great Britian the word has several specific
meanings more limited and less flexible than in America.
The British rule of the present day makes all men gentlemen
that are not yeomen, tradesmen, artificers, or laborers ; and
each one of these defining words has several definitions.

53. Esquire. — This is the proper epistolary title of all
untitled gentlemen, both in England and America. The
contraction is ** Esq.," formerly ** Esqre."

In regard to Esq. and Mr., the title Esq. is somewhat more
restricted in its application than is the title Mr. We can
apply Mr. to any man, whatever his education or social posi-
tion; but in general, we restrict the Esq. to men of some

g n LETTER WRITING. 41

intelligence and social standing in their commtmity. In ad-
dressing a man of whom we know absolutely nothing except
his sex, it is safest to use Mr.' The title Esq. is always used in
addressing in writing members of the legal profession just
as **Dr.** is used in addressing physicians.

54. Master, — In this country youths of all classes should
be addressed in writing by the pre-title ** Master.*' The boy
that we may accost as ** Sam "or ** Dick," or even as " Boy/'
is entitled to ** Master" when we address him in writing.

55. Mistress is the pre-title of a married woman." It is
almost always used in the abbreviated form '* Mrs.," and is
pronounced missis. The word corresponds very closely to
" Mister," and was derived from Mister, after that word had
grown out of Master ; otherwise^ the corresponding form of
Master would have been Masteress or Mastress. The use of
Mrs. with the family name is generally well understood.
There is diversity of usage, however, as to coupling it with

a husband's titles; as in "Mrs. General A ," ''Mrs.

Senator B ," and the like. This use is convenient, but

questionable. The places, if any, where it may be used with
propriety are few. The plural of Mistress, Mesdatnes^ is
taken from the French.

56. Mesdames. — The permanent contraction of this
word is **Mmes." It is the plural of the French Madame^
and is used in English as the plural of ** Mistress" (Mrs.) ;
just as Messieurs (Messrs., a permanent contraction also), the
plural of the French Monsieur^ is used as the plural of the
English ** Mister" (Mr.).

Any number of spinsters associated in a business firm, in
a committee, or in any other cooperative body, should be
addressed in a letter by the pre-title of ** Misses" ; but if any one
of them rejoices in the title of Mrs,, then the pre-title of the
body must be Mmes. The salutation, both oral and written, in
any case — spinsters or not — should be ** Ladies. " That is to
say, if Mrs. A and another woman or other women, act-
ing together in a firm or other collective capacity, are to be
addressed, the pre-title must be Mmes. ; and the salutation.

42 LETTER WRITING. g 21

Ladies. In like manner, if Mr. A and another man or

other men, acting as a firm or other collective body, are to
be addressed, the pre-title should be Messrs., and the salu-
tation, ** Gentlemen*' or **Sirs.**

57. Miss is the pre-title of a girl or a spinster. Its use
begins from infancy — ^almost as soon as the sex is distinguish-
able. In youth its masculine is ** Master,** and in adult age
** Mister ** (Mr.). It belongs to all ages and classes. It is a
derivative by contraction of **M^tress,*' the feminine of
'* Mister.** The title ** Miss," in its adjectival use, is now a
prefix — ^a pre-title — merely, and cannot be used as an inde-
pendent appellative. In addressing a spinster, one must
know either her given name or her surname ; and with these
one may say **Miss Mary** or **Miss Smith." It is as
improper to address a spinster as **Miss*' alone as it is to
accost a man as ** Mister** in the same way.

58. Senior. — This post- title should be written — ^as
indeed should all titles — with a capital, whether abbreviated
ornot. The abbreviation is **Sr.** ; it wasformerly **Sen.,**
a form that is still occasionally used. This title is placed
immediately after the name and before all post-titles, such
as ** Esquire.*'

59. Junior. — This is the hatin junior^ **yotmger"; it
is always abbreviated, as a post- title in correspondence, to
**Jr." or **Jun.** Formerly Jun. was imiversal, but now
Jr. is almost so. This title, like Senior, comes immediately
after the name and is separated from it by a comma ; as,
** A B , Jr., Esq." It never displaces nor super-
sedes any other title, but goes with all. It denotes the
younger of two persons — usually father and son — that have
the same name. The older is designated Senior. Junior
should always begin with a capital.

60. Honorable. — This title is, in this country, entirely
honorary or given by courtesy ; and yet it is very frequently
used. It is accorded to the Vice President of the United
States ; to Members of Congress ; to Judges, from the Chief

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 43

Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States down to
the lowest grade of law judges ; to Foreign Ministers and
Envoys that have no title more distinguished^ and to our
own representatives abroad of the first and second grades ;
to Cabinet Officers ; to State, Colonial, ^nd Territorial Gov-
ernors and Lieutenant Governors ; to Heads of Departments
generally ; to State Senators and to State Senates collect-
ively ; to Speakers of State Houses of Representatives and
Houses of Delegates ; to Mayors ; and to most corporate
bodies, with very little discrimination. The title is often
given, by what seems to be a stretch of this very elastic
courtesy, to Assistant Secretaries, Comptrollers of the Treas-
ury, Auditors, Clerks of the Senate and of the House, etc.
All civil officers below the ranks complimented with Honor-
able are addressed, in the absence of official titles, as
** Esquire."

61. Kigrlit Honorable. — This title belongs to several
offices in Great Britain, such as the Lord Chancellor, the
Lord Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench, the Lord Chief
Justice of the Common Pleas, the Lord Chief Baron of the
Exchequer, and Members of the Queen's Privy Coimcil.,

62. Reverend. — This pre-title, often abbreviated
**Rev.," designates in general a clergyman of any church,
and is accorded to all priests below the rank of Very Rever-
end, those in Priests* or Deacons' orders. Pastors, Rectors,
Preachers of all kinds. Vicars, Curates, Priors, Rabbis,
Readers, etc. Abbesses, and other women at the head of
religious houses, are entitled to this address.

63. Reverend Doctor. — ^This title belongs to a Doctor
of Divinity, and is sometimes accorded as a personal
courtesy to aged and learned divines that have not received
the degree from any institution. Salutation: **Sir,"
** Reverend Sir," ** Reverend Doctor," ** Reverend an4
Dear Sir." Complimentary close: ** I have the honor to be.
Reverend Sir, your obedient servant." Address: **To the

44 LETTER WRITING. § «

Reverend Dr. A B "; or, though rarely, "To the

Reverend A B , D.D."

64. Very Reverend is a title given to all church digni-
taries below Patriarchs, Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots, and
Prelates (except Archdeacons, who are venerable), down to
the class entitled to Reverend. This title is by courtesy
given also to Priors of Monasteries over which Abbots pre-
side, Rectors and Superiors of Religious Houses, Presidents
of Catholic Colleges, and other high institutions of learning.

66. Rlgrht Reverend. — This title belongs to a Bishop,
a Mitered Abbot, a Monsignor, an Apostolic Prothonotary,
and a Domestic Prelate ; and is usually accorded to an Abbot
and an Abbess. Most Reverend is higher, and Very Rev-
erend is lower. The Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, Mr. Westlake states, prefer ** Reverend " to ** Right
Reverend " for themselves.

66. liordslilp is a title given to Earls, Viscounts,
Barons, Bishops; to the eldest sons of Earls; and, by virtue
of their offices, to the Mayors of London, York, Belfast, and
Dublin; to Judges while presiding in court; and to certain
other high official personages, as Lord Chancellor, Lord of
the Treasury, Lord Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench,
Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, Lord Chief Baron
of the Exchequer, etc.

67. Grace. — A title given to Dukes and Archbishops as
'*his Grace the Duke of Portland"; "his Grace the Arch-
bishop of York."

68. Excellency. — A title sometimes given to the Presi-
dent of the United States, and generally to Governors of
States and Colonies, American and English, also to Foreign
Ministers and to American Ministers abroad, including all
Plenipotentiaries and Ministers Resident. In Massachusetts
and South Carolina, Excellency is, or has been, the legal
title of the Governors.

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 45

TITIiES OF HONOR.

HEREDITARY TITLES.

69. Emperor. — No English-speaking sovereigfn has this
title or form of royalty except Queen Victoria, who is
Empress of India; but this does not, we believe, in any way
affect matters of correspondence. The title belongs to
official and state papers, but not to letters.

70, King:. — The salutation to this functionary is ** Sir"
or "Sire," **May it please your Majesty," **Most Gracious
Sovereign." The complimentary close: ** I have the honor
to be, Sire, your Majesty's most faithful servant." The
address; **To the King's Most Excellent (or, Gracious)
Majesty."

71. Queen. — ^The salutation due the Queen — there is
but one Queen in the English-speaking world — is ** Madam,"
**May it please your Majesty," or **Most Gracious Sover-
eign," or something to that effect. The complimentary
close of a letter to her may be, *' I have the honor to be,
with profound veneration, Madam, your Majesty's most
faithful servant. " The divisions into lines should be grace-
fully arranged, and every line should begin with a capital,
whatever the word may be. The address: ** To the Queen's
Most Excellent (or. Gracious) Majesty." In conversation,
one may say, *'Your Majesty "and "Madam." Relatively
little formality hedges the Queen.

72. Prince of Wales.— Salutation: ** Sir," or •• May it
please your Royal Highness." Complimentary close: "I
have the honor to be, Sir, your Royal Htghness's most obedi-
ent servant." Address: **To His Royal Highness the
Prince of Wales. "

73, Duke. — Salutation: ** My Lord Duke," or *' May it
please your Grace." Complimentary close: **I have the
honor to be, my Lord Duke, your Grace's most humble
servant" Address: **ToHis Grace the Duke of A '*

46 LETTER WRITING. § 21

or, when holding that rank, ** To His Royal Highness the
Duke of York."

The Duke is the highest order of nobility, next below the
Prince of Wales. The order runs thus: Prince, Duke,
Marquis, Earl, Viscount, Baron, Baronet, Knight

74. Marquis. — Salutation: **My Lord Marquis."
Superscription and address: "The Most Honorable the
Marquis of Abercom."

75. Earl. — Salutation: **My Lord." Complimentary
close: ** I have the honor to be your Lordship's most obedi-
ent servant" Address: **To the Right Honorable the Earl
of A r

We communicate with the oldest sons of Dukes, Marquises,
and Earls, in the same manner as with Earls, and with their
wives, as with Countesses ; with the younger sons of Earls,
and with all the sons of Viscounts and Barons, as with
untitled gentlemen; the address, however, being, **To the

Honorable A B ." With the wives of these younger

sons in the same manner, prefixing **Mrs." to the Christian
name; thus, **To the Honorable Mrs. Henry A ."

76. Viscount. — Salutation: **My Lord." Superscrip-
tion and address: **The Right Honorable the Viscount

B .*' The eldest sons of Viscounts and Barons have no

distinctive title; they as well as their brothers and sisters
being styled ** Honorable Robert," ** Honorable Mary," and
so on.

7 7. Baron. — ^The Baron takes rank with a Viscount, and
his epistolary salutation is **My Lord." Complimentary
close: ^'I have the honor to be your Lordship's obedient
servant" Address: "To the Right Honorable the Lord

7 8. Baronet.— Salutation : * * Sir, " * * Dear Sir, " ' * Dear
Sir John," as the case maybe. Complimentary close : ** I
have the honor to be, Sir (or whatever corresponds to the
salutation), your obedient servant " Address: ** To Sir John

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 47

A /'etc. To this is added the title, usually abbreviated,

** Bart" The wives of Baronets are addressed in the salu-
tation and complimentary close as ladies ordinarily are; the
address being ** To Lady A B ,'* etc

OIVIJL TITLES, NOT HEBEDITABY.

79. President of the United States. — The President
of the United States is addressed, in epistolary salutation,
as ** Sir "and *'Mr. President" Complimentary close: **I
have the honor to subscribe myself, most respectfully, your
obedient servant," or any other perfectly respectful formal
closing. Address: '*To His Excellency the President of
the United States," or, with republican-democratic simplic-
ity, **To the President, Executive Mansion, Washington,
D. C." Mrs. Dahlgren suggests the former one.

There are, however, scores of forms in use. In the days
of the first president it was customary to write always, **To
His Excellency, George Washington, President of the
United States." That degree of formality fell rapidly into
disuse, however, and is very rarely seen on letters received
at the White House today, and it has not been frequent for
the last fifty years. In conversation, the Chief Magistrate
is usually addressed as **Sir," or as **Mr. President,
although one sometimes hears "Your Excellency.

CSiUCUL,"

80. Vice President; — ^The second officer of the United
States ranks socially with the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court Officially, he is addressed in epistolary salutation as
**Sir," **Mr. Vice President," or the like. Complimentary
close: '*I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your
obedient servant." Address: **To the Honorable the Vice

President of the United States," '*To the Honorable A

B , Vice President of the United States. " The Chief

Justice is addressed likewise: **To the Honorable the Chief

Justice of the United States," **To the Honorable C

D , Chief Justice of the United States. "

48 LETTER WRITING. g 21

81« Governor of a State. — Salutation: **Sir/* or
**Your Excellency." Complimentary close: **I have the
honor to be, Sir, your (or, your Excellency's) obedient
servant" Address: ** To His Excellency the Governor of

A "; or, **To His Excellency B C , Governor

of the State of D "; or, simply, **To His Excellency

the Governor." In the states of South Carolina and Massa-
chusetts, '^Excellency " has been, and we believe now is,
the legal title of the Governor. In other states it is
accorded by courtesy; but its use is almost universal.

83. Ambassador. — ^We should accord to all Foreign
Ambassadors very scrupulous titular respect. They are
entitled to it at home, and we should be liberal in giving it
to them here. All are accorded the title ''Excellency.**
The salutation may be, "Sir," "Your Excellency"; and, if
the individual is a Lord at home, " My Lord," or such title
as will fit his home rank. Complimentary close: " I have
the honor to be. Sir, your Excellency's obedient servant,"
etc. The address, dependent on home rank, of course: " To

the Marquis of A , Envoy Extraordinary and Minister

Plenipotentiary from H. M. the King of A ," or "To

the Honorable A B , Minister Resident," etc.

By British usage the wives of Ambassadors are entitled to
"Excellency" in both complimentary close and in address.
Resident Ministers rank with Ambassadors and Plenipoten-
tiaries. An Envoy ranks second and a Charge d'Affaires
third. Ministers and Ambassadors are permanent func-
tionaries.

Our own Ministers abroad are accorded our best terms of
respect. Salutation: "Sir," or "Your Excellency." Com-
plimentary close: "I have the honor. to be. Sir, your obe-
dient servant," or " I have the honor to be your Excellency's
most obedient servant." Address: "To his Excellency
A B , Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten-
tiary at the Court of A ," etc*

83. An Envoy is a second-class Minister; the first class
embracing Ambassadors, Plenipotentiaries, and Resident

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 49

Ministers. The Envoy is not resident, and his standing is
derived from his other offices. In general, when he has
no other official title, the Envoy should be addressed as
Honorable.

84. A Charge d'AIC^ires is a third-class Minister. The
titular appellative is Esquire.

86« Consul. — Salutation: **Sir." Complimentary
close: **I beg to remain, Sir, your obedient servant."
Address: **To A B , Esq., Consulate ," etc.

86. Cabinet OfBcer. — This official is to be addressed, in
epistolary salutation, as **Sir.** Complimentary close: *'I
have the hotior to be, Sir, respectfully your obedient serv-
ant ••; or any form that conveys the same sense. Address:
**To the Honorable the Secretary of State," etc. Or, with

equal propriety, **To the Honorable A B , Secretary

of State," and likewise with other Cabinet officers. In gen-
eral, the address in such cases should be directed rather to
the office than to the officer. Cases may even arise wherein
the name of the officer is not known, and the address should
be made complete without the name.

87. Attorney General of a State. — This officer should
be addressed the same as the Attorney General of the United
States, as, '* The Honorable the Attorney General of Texas,
Austin, Texas."

88. Senator or Representative In Congrress. — Salu-
tation: *' Sir. " Complimentary close: ** I have the honor
to be, Sir, your obedient servant." Address: **To the

Honorable A B , Senate Chamber, etc."; or, better,

''Senator A ^ B .** A representative is addressed:

'* Honorable C D , United States Congress, Wash-
ington, D. C," and when absent from Washington, simply
** Hon. C D ,** etc.

The President of the Senate should be addressed: ** To
the Honorable the President of the Senate of the United

States," or **Tothe Honorable A B , President of

the Senate of the United States." The Speaker of the House

50 LETTER WRITING. § 21

is addressed "Sir," or **Mr. Speaker." Complimentary
close: **I have the honor to Be, Sir, your most obedient
servant," etc. Address: **To the Honorable the Speaker
of the House of Representatives, Washington, D. C."

The Speaker of the Senate of Canada is addressed: " To
the Honorable the Speaker of the Senate of Canada."

89. liegrlslator. — A State Senator is entitled, by uni-
versal consent, to the title of ** Honorable "; as also is the
Speaker of the House. The members of the House are also
sometimes so addressed and spoken of, but the best usage
accords them only ** Esquire."

90« Judgre. — The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of
the United States is to be addressed as '*Sir," ** Mr. Chief
Justice," •• May it please your Honor"; and, on the bench,
** May it please the Honorable Court." Complimentary
close: ** I have the honor to be your Honor's most obedient

servant" Address: **To the Honorable A B ,

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States";
or, briefer and just as well, if not better, **To the Honora-
ble the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Washington,
D. C."

Associate Justices are entitled to the same salutation
and complimentary close. Address: **To the Honorable

A B , Justice of the Supreme Court of the United

States," etc.

The Chief Justices and Associate Justices of State Supreme
Courts usually are addressed as above, the state being
named in place of United States.

All judges, below the grades above specified, are addressed
as ** Honorable," whether in the circuit, . city, or county
courts.

91. liawyer. — In America, lawyers of all grades are
accorded by courtesy the address title of ** Esquire." The
salutation is ** Sir" or ** Dear Sir," and the complimentary
close corresponds. In England all Barristers of Law and
Doctors of Law have a legal right to the title of Esquire,

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 61

both in superscription or address and in legal designation,
and so have sheriffs of counties.

92. Solicitor.— The salutation is * * Sir " or " Dear Sir " ;
the complimentary close, some form of ** Respectfully yours. "
The address is ** Esquire,** a post- title.

93. Justice of tlie Peace. — Salutation: **Sir/* Com-
plimentary close: '* Respectfully, your obedient servant.**
Superscription: **A B , Esq."

94. Mayor. — In America, a Mayor is addressed as
** Honorable.** Salutation: "Sir,** **Your Honor," etc.
Complimentary close : * * I have the honor to be (or, to remain)
your Honor*s obedient servant** Address: ** To the Hon.
A B , Mayor of C ^

95. SherilT. — In America, the usual salutation of this
officer is ** Sir.*' Complimentary close: "I beg to remain,
respectfully yours;'* or, ** I have the honor to be," etc.
Address: ** A B , Esq., Sheriff of C County.**

96. Alderman. — Salutation: **Sir." Complimentary
close: **I beg to remain, your obedient servant,** or, **I
have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant.** Address:

** To Mr. Alderman B ,'* etc. As a body. Aldermen are

** Honorable.*'

97. President of a Board. — The President of a com-
pany, of a Board of Directors, or of Commissioners, or the

like, should be addressed **To A B , Esq., President

of , " etc.

98. President of a Collegre. — ^When he has no other

office or degree, he may be addressed as **A B ,

President of C College," etc. Salutation: ** Sir," or

**Dear Sir." The complimentary close should correspond
to the salutation, as, **I beg to remain, very respectfully
yours," etc.

6% LETTER WRITING. g 21

IfAVAL. AND MILITARY Trri.ES.

99. Admiral. — The first officer in the United States
Navy corresponds in rank to the General in the Army. He
commands the fleets of the United States. . Salutation;
'* Sir"; and this is used in every grade of office in the Navy.
Complimentary close: ** I have the honor to be, Sir, your

obedient servant." Address: *'To Admiral A B ,

commanding the Fleets of the United States," etc.; **To

Admiral A B , commanding United States Navy,"

etc. ; or, more simple and equally respectful, ** To the
Admiral of the Navy of the United States," etc. The fol-
lowing, from the Navy Regulations, bears upon the matter
in hand: ** Line officers in the Navy, down to and inclu-
ding Commander, will be addressed by their proper title;
below the rank of Commander, either by the title of their
grade or Mr. Officers of the Marine Corps above the rank
of First Lieutenant will be addressed by their military title,
brevet or lineal; of and below that rank, by their title of
Mr. Officers not of the line will be addressed by their
titles, or as Mr. or Dr., as the case may be."

Officers of the Navy take rank in the following order:
Admiral, Vice Admiral, Rear Admiral, Commodore, Captain,
Commander, Lieutenant Commander, Lieutenant, Master,
Ensign.

100. General. — There are four grades of this office —
General, Lieutenant General, Major General, and Brigadier
General. They are all entitled to the same forms of address,
except that the inside address should give the specific rank
of the officer. All army officers above Lieutenant should be
addressed by their official titles. The salutation of a General
is ** General" — never abbreviated; but civilians may, and
often do, use **Sir," and it is entirely proper for them,
though there is no necessity for other than military forms.
Army officers must use military forms. Complimentary
close: ** I have the honor to be, General, your obedient serv-
ant." Superscription: ** General A B ," etc.,**Gen-

eral A B , commanding Army of A ," etc. The

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 63

address should give the special rank; as, ** Major (Jen-

eral A B .*' When the officer is in command, as

is usual in the army, that fact should appear in both the

superscription and the address: **To General A B ,

commanding the Department of the Gulf," etc. If the
officer commands a point, the address containing the name
of the place, then the word ** commanding** is sufficient; as,

•*To General A B , commanding. Fort Bridger,

Utah," where the mention of the fort defines the com-
mand.

In the War Department in Washington the custom pre-
vails, and it is a good one, of addressing the office rather
than the officer; thus, **To the General of the Armies of
the United States," etc. ; **To the Honorable the Secretary
of State," etc.

The word Greneral comes into the titles of several other
offices than those named above, such as Adjutant General,
Quartermaster General, Surgeon General, Commissary Gen-
eral; it is also used in non-military titles, as Postmaster
General, Attorney General, Surveyor General, Consul Gen-
eral, etc.

10 !• Colonel. — Salutation: "Colonel," or, from a
civilian, **Sir." The ** Colonel" should never be abbrevi-
ated in such use. Complimentary close: ** I have the honor
to be, Colonel, your -obedient servant. ** Address: ** Colonel

A B , commanding First Cavalry, U. S. Army," or

** Colonel A B , U. S. A., Fort C ,** etc.

102. Major.— Salutation: ** Major'* or **Sir." The
title may be abbreviated sometimes in the address, but
never in the salutation. Complimentary close: ** I have the
honor to be (or, to remain). Major (or. Sir), your most
obedient servant."

103. Captain.— Salutation : "Captain," or "Sir." The
salutation in this and all similar addresses should never be
abbreviated. It is an impertinence to write "Capt.** for

64 LETTER WRITING. § 21

Captain. Complimentary close : ** I have the honor to be,
Captain (or, Sir, according to the salutation), your obedi-
ent servant." Address: ** Captain A B , Com-
pany A, Seventh Regiment, U. S. Cavalry."

104, lileutenant, — Salutation : * * Sir. " Complimen-
tary close: '* I beg to remain yours respectfully," '* Respect-
fully yours," etc. In regard to the address due a Lieuten-
ant, usage varies very much. It was once a discourtesy to
address him as *' Lieutenant," and **Mr." prevailed. In
England, ** Esquire" is the legal title, and is usually
accorded, giving the specific rank and command after the
name and the Esquire. Usage, in America, so far as we
may be said to have any, is in favor of giving ** Lieutenant •*
— usually abbreviated — as the pre-title, the post-title being,
of coiurse, omitted.

ECCLKSIASTICAL. TITIiES.

105. Archbishop. — The Anglican Archbishop is
addressed in salutation as **My Lord," *'My Lord Arch-
bishop," or **Mayit please your Grace." Complimentary
close: *' I have the honor to be, with the highest respect,
My Lord Archbishop, your Grace's inost obedient servant."

Address: '*To his Grace the Lord Archbishop of A ," or

**To the Most Reverend Father in God, A , Lord Arch-
bishop of B . "

The Roman Catholic salutation for their Archbishop is
**Most Reverend and Respected Sir"; or, from a friend or
clergyman, " Most Reverend and Dear Sir." Complimen-
tary close: **I have the honor to be, Most Reverend Sir (or,
to correspond to the salutation), your obedient servant."

Address: **Tothe Most Reverend Archbishop A ," or

**To the Most Reverend A B , Archbishop of

106. Bishop. — The Anglican Bishop is to be addressed
in salutation as ** My Lord," *'My Lord Bishop," '*May

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 55

it please your Lordship," etc. Complimentary close: **I
have the honor to be, my Lord (following^ the salutation
naturally), your Lordship's most obedient servant/'
Address: **To the Right Reverend, the Lord Bishop of
A ,** etc.

In America, Bishops of Protestant Churches — except those
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, who, we understand,
prefer to be styled simply Reverend — are addressed as Right
Reverend.

The Roman Catholic Bishop should be addressed as ** Right
Reverend Sir, "or, less formally, ''Right Reverend and Dear
Sir." Complimentary close: "I have the honor to be (or,
to remain). Right Reverend Sir, your obedient servant."

Address: "To the Right Reverend Bishop A ," or "To

the Right Reverend A B , Bishop of C . "

107. Cardinal. — Salutation: "Most Eminent Sir," or
"Most Eminent and Reverend Sir." Complimentary close:
"Of your Eminence, the most obedient and humble servant,"
or "I have the honor to remain, Most Eminent Sir, with
profound respect, your obedient and humble servant. " A
Catholic belonging to the Cardinal's diocese may, if he is an
ecclesiastic, add "and subject" to the complimentary close;
and if a layman,- may add "and son." Address: "To His

Eminence Cardinal A . " If the Cardinal is also an Arch-

bishop, a Bishop, or a Patriarch, it is proper to add the
official title to the above; as, "To His Eminence Cardinal

A B , Archbishop of A ." A Cardinal should

not be addressed with such titles as D.D. or S.T.D., these
being included in the greater title Cardinal.

108. Clergryman. — In cases where the salutation differs
— as it need hardly ever differ — from that of non-professional
gentlemen, it is usually " Reverend Sir." This is very com-
mon in addressing the Clergyman — priest, parson, preacher,
pastor, divine, minister of the gospel, rabbi, reader, and so
on. The complimentary close corresponds to the salutation,
as is usual in all cases of every degree and rank, and in the
absence of all degrees and ranks. Address: "Reverend

56 LETTER WRITING. § 21

A B ," o^ ** Reverend Mr. B ." In these cases,

the abbreviated form, "Rev./* seems to be generally
accepted. In conversation the Clergyman is usually
accosted, as any other gentleman should be^as ** Sir."

109, Dean, — In the Anglican Church the Dean is
addressed, in salutation, as ** My Lord,** '* May it please your
Lordship.*' Complimentary close: ** I have the honor to be
your Lordship's most obedient servant." Address: **To

the Very Reverend Dean of A ,** or "To the Reverend

Doctor B , Dean of C .'*

110, Pope {accordiiig to Prof, West lake). — Salutation:
"Most Holy Father," or "Your Holiness." Complimen-
tary close: "Prostrate at the feet of your Holiness, and
begging the Apostolic Benediction, I protest myself now
and at all times to be, of your Holiness, the most obedient
son (or, daughter)." This, of course, for Catholics only.

Address: "To our Most Holy Father, Pope A ," or

"To His Holiness, Pope A ."

111, Prelate. — The Roman Prelates — Apostolic Pro-
thonotaries and Domestic Prelates — are styled " Right Rev-
erend," and are generally addressed as "Right Reverend
Monsignor." Salutation: "Right Reverend Sir," "Right
Reverend Monsignor"; or, informally, "Monsignor," or
"Right Reverend and Dear Sir." Complimentary close:
"Right Reverend Sir, your most obedient servant"; or,
informally, " My Dear Monsignor, your friend and servant."

Address: "To the Right Reverend Monsignor B ," etc.;

"To the Right Reverend Monsignor A B , Prothon-

otary Apostolic," or "To the Right Reverend A B ,

Domestic Prelate of His Holiness.**

112, RabW. — In the Jewish Church, Rabbi embraces
all ordained ministers, and all are addressed as "Reverend.**
The Moreh Tsedek, or teacher of righteousness, the Moranu,
or teacher, and the Moreh Moranu, or teacher of teachers,
are the Hebrew titles of the clergy of that National Church.
Rabbi in Hebrew means "my master,"

g 21 LETTER WRITING, 6»

TITIiES OP DISTINCTION.

UFB ANB HOKORART TITIiES.

11 3. liord. — In Great Britain, a peer of the realm,
especially a Baron, as distinguished from the higher orders
of nobility. — Worcester, The word peer is limited to the
members of the upper House of Parliament, and to Scotch
and Irish noblemen of corresponding rank, qualified, on
election, to sit in the upper House. — Smart, The title of
Lord is extended by courtesy to the sons of Dukes and Mar-
quises. It is also given to one that has the fee of a manor,
and consequently the homage of his tenants; but, if not of
noble birth, he is not addressed as a Lord.

A recent writer makes this point: **The title of Lord has
not necessarily anything to do with peerage. All peers are
lords, but there are many lords that are not peers. The
King's Chancellor, his Treasurer, his Chamberlain, his High
Admiral, the President of his Privy Council, certain of the
high Judges, all English Judges when actually on the bench,
Scottish Judges at all times, Lieutenants of Counties, the
Lieutenant of Ireland and his deputy, the Mayors of London
and York, the Provosts of several Scottish cities, the Rectors
of Scottish Universities, the younger sons of Dukes and
Marquises — all these are Lords by some rule, by law, or by
courtesy, many of them without being peers; and, when
they are peers, without any reference to their peerage."

114. liord Chancellor.— Salutation : ** My Lord."
Complimentary close: **I have the honor to be, with the
highest respect, my Lord, your Lordship's most obedient

servant." Address: ** To the Right Honorable Lord A

Lord High Chancellor."

116, liord Mayor. — Salutation: '* My Lord." Compli-
mentary close: **I have the honor to be, my Lord, your
Lordship's obedient servant." Address: **To the Right
Honorable A B , Lord Mayor of C ."

58 LETTER WRITING. g 21

116. Knlglit. — Salutation, complimentary close, and
superscription, the same as those of a Baronet, The wives
of Knights, also, the same as those of Baronets.

117, Xiady. — In Great Britain this title **is prefixed to
the name of any woman whose husband is of rank not lower
than Knight, or whose father was a nobleman not lower
than an Earl." Among English-speaking people generally
the word Lady has two well known meanings or uses — the
one above stated, and that formerly given the word gentle-
woman, the correlative of gentleman. When gentleman
came into use, the feminine of it was gentlewoman ; but that
feminine was gradually replaced with Lady, as we have the
word now in this country.

118, Princess. — Salutation: ** Madam," or **Mayit
please your Royal Highness." Complimentary close: **I
have the honor to be, Madam, your most obedient and faith-
ful servant"; or, after ** Madam," one may insert, in place
of **your," **your Royal Highness's." Address: **To Her
Royal Highness the Princess A . "

119, Duchess. — Salutation : ** May it please your
Grace," '*Your Grace," '* Madam." Complimentary close:
** I have the honor to be, Madam, your Grace's most faithful,
obedient servant. " Address: "To Her Grace the Duchess
of A r

120. Countess.— Salutation : ** Madam," ''My Lady."
Complimentary close: ** I have the honor to be your Lady-
ship's most faithful and obedient servant." Address: ''To
the Right Honorable the Countess of A ."

121. Baroness. — Salutation : ** My Lady." Compli-
mentary close : **I have the honor to be your Ladyship's
obedient servant." Address: ** To the Right Honorable the
Lady (or, the Baroness) A .'*

§21

LETTER WRITING.

SCHOLASTIC TITUES.

122. I>efirpees. — In the following list are given the
most common of the many degrees conferred by universities
and colleges. Where the degree has more than one abbrevi-
ation, only the one most frequently used is given:

Bachelor of Divinity

...B.D.

Bachelor of Philosophy . . .

..Ph.B.

Doctor of Divinity

...D.D.

Doctor of Philosophy

;.Ph.D.

Bachelor of Laws

. .LL. B.

Doctor of Science

..ScD.

Doctor of Civil Law

.D.C.L.

Bachelor of Science . . B. S. ,

or S.B.

Doctor of Laws

..LL.D.
...M.D.

Master of Science

Mechanical Engineer

. . .M.S.

Doctor of Medicine

. . .M.E.

Graduate in Pharmacy. . .

..Ph.G.

Mining Engineer

. . .E.M.

Doctor of Dental Surgery.

.D.D.S.

Civil Engineer

... C E.

Bachelor of Arts B.A.,

or A. B.

Electrical Engineer

. . .E.E.

Master of Arts M.A.,

or A.M.

Scholastic degrees are always abbreviated.

The bachelor's degrees, B. A. , B. S. , etc. , are conferred upon
students at the completion of the prescribed college course.
The master's and doctor's degrees, M. A. , Ph. D. , etc. , are con-
ferred after one or more years of graduate study. In general,
the same applies to the engineering degrees, C. E., M.E., etc.

Little importance is attached to degrees lower than M.A.
or M.D., and they should not be used in address or super-
scription. In formal letters, the higher degrees, as D.D.,
LL.D., Ph.D., etc., may be used. It is customary in
business correspondence with engineers' to append the C.E.,
M. E., or E.E. to the name of an engineer entitled to it.
These titles, and also the title M.D., are professional as
well as scholastic and may properly be used in an address,
superscription, or signature. It is in bad taste, however, to
append a purely scholastic title, as M.A. or LL.D., to one's
signature. The title M.D. belongs of right only to regular
graduates of a medical college in good standing. A lady
entitled to this degree may be addressed as ** Margaret
Dawson, M.D.," or **Dr. Margaret Dawson."

123. Professor. — This title properly applies to one
elected by the proper authorities to a chair or professorship

60 LETTER WRITING. § 21

in an institution of learning legally qualified to confer
degrees. It is by extension applied also to any salaried
graduate actually employed in teaching, and by courtesy is
given to scholars and scientists that have become noted in
special branches of knowledge, and to persons that have dis-
tinguished themselves as educators. The assumption of the
title ** professor" by balloonists, barbers, dancing masters,
and others for the purpose of acquiring importance in the
eyes of the ignorant, should be vigorously discouraged by
intelligent people. This title — ^and all others as well —
should be used with discretion, and should be applied only
to those that have an indisputable right to it.

PETITIONS.

124. Communications or petitions to an assembled body
may be directed to the president of the body or to the bcxiy
itself. The following are the forms of salutation and address
used in such cases :

United States Senate. — Salutation: ** Honorable Sirs, "or
**May it please your Honorable Body (or, the Honorable
Senate)." Address: **To the Honorable the Senate of the
United States in Congress assembled. "

House of Representatives, — Salutation : * * Honorable Sirs, "
** May it please your Honorable Body." Address: ** To the
Honorable the House of Representatives of the United
States in Congress assembled. "

House of Lords. — Petitions to the House of Lords are
addressed, *'To the Right Honorable the Lords, spiritual and
temporal, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland in Parliament assembled." The petition commences,
•' My Lords," or ** May it please your Lordships."

House of Commofis. — Petitions to the House of Commons
are thus addressed: **To the Honorable the Commons of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in Parlia-
ment assembled. " The petition commences, * * May it please
your Honorable House "

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 61

Canadian Parliament. — The Senate of Canada is thus
addressed: **To the Honorable the Senate of Canada in
Parliament assembled. *' Petitions to the House of Com-
mons of Canada are addressed, " To the Honorable the Com-
mons of Canada in Parliament assembled." The petition
commences, ** May it please your Honorable House."

Legislature. — Address : * * To the Honorable the Senate and
House of Representatives of the State (or, Commonwealth)

of ." Salutation: '* Honorable Sirs (or *May it please

your Honorable Body'): The undersigned respectfully repre-
sent (or submit or petition) that, " etc. Complimentary close,
when there are several signers: ** And your petitioners, as in
duty bound, will ever pray," etc., followed by the signatures.

Ct7«r/.— tA petition to a Civil Court should be addressed,
** Your Honors," or ** May it please your Honors," or **May
it please the Honorable Court." Address: **To the Honor-
able the Judges of A Court."

Board of Education, — A petition or memorial to a Board,
say of Education, may begin with '* Gentlemen," or, when
it is a large or important corporation, **Mayit please your
Honorable Body." Complimentary close: ** All of which is
respectfully submitted." Address: **To the President (or
Chairman, as the case may be) and Members of the Board of

Education of B ," etc. All other communications may

be addressed to the President or Chairman officially; in
some instances — ^as in imparting information — it is better
taste to address the Secretary of the Board. Always ascer-
tain definitely whether the head of the Board is a President
or a Chairman.

ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTBACTIONS.

1 S 5. Abbreviations, quotations, and contractions should be
usedsparingly in writingletters. Formal letters, indeed, should
contain no abbreviations except those of titles of address and
scholastic degrees. In business letters and familiar social
letters, abbreviations may be used to some extent, but they

62 LETTER WRITING. § 21

should be those that are well understood and in common
use.

In the heading, address, or superscription, it is customary
and proper to abbreviate the name of the state, and also to
use the abbreviations **St." for Street, ** Ave. "for Avenue,
**Co."for County, etc. It is not permissible to use the
Arabic figures for the names of streets, nor is it considered
proper to use the abbreviations, N., E., S.,. and W., for
North, East, etc., in designating streets; thus, instead of
**514 N. 7th St." write 514 North Seventh St. ** Cross-
Roads" should never be written **X-Roads." The name
of a city should not be abbreviated; as, '* Phil." for Phila-
delphia, **N. 0."for New Orleans, ** Bait. " for Baltimore,
** Cin." for Cincinnati, or the like. In the address of letters
such forms savor of impertinence. Worse than this is the
abbreviation of less familiar proper names. If one writes
** Rock. Co., Virginia," the distributing clerk has to pause
long enough to recall the fact that there is no Rock county
in Virginia — although there is in other states — and to guess
that the word **Rock." is for Rockingham. All this takes
time and tries patience, and is so much unnecessary labor
added to an overworked official. So, also, of ** Ash. "for
Ashland, Ashley, Ashmore, Ashtabula, and so on; ** Green."
for Greenbrier, Greenville, Greenwood, Greenup, etc. ; and
** Hill." for Hillsborough; and so on to the end of the chap-
ter. All such abbreviations are samples of impertinence
and Ignorance combined.

Abbreviations by syncope are almost as faulty as the
foregoing; such as, '*Wmsburgh" for Williamsburgh,
* * Jastown " for Jamestown, • * ' Jnotown " for Johntown,
** Wash ton" for Washington, and so on. When two ab-
breviations identical in form fall together — as in Berkly St ,
St. Louis — it is better to spell the word Street out in
full. The word ** St " for Saint, although in a proper name,
is so invariably employed that no confusion can arise from
its use. Such words as San, Mount, New, should generally
be written out; such as North, South, East, West, Upper,
Lower, Point, Port, Union, and Bay should always be

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 63

written out, except in the names of states or very well
known places.

There are a few abbreviations by S3mcope in personal
names that have become tolerable by long use. Of this
class are Chas., Jas., Thos., Wm., and some others. The
correct form of writing these is the one here given; that
is, with no punctuation except the abbreviation period at
the end.

It is important, in view of the punctuation, to keep in
mind the distinction, very frequently overlooked, between an
abbreviated name and a nickname. Thus, the abbreviation
of Thomas is **Thos.," while the most common nickname is
**Tom,*' the former having the period of abbreviation and
the latter not From Joseph, in like manner, we have
'* Jos." and '* Joe," abbreviation and nickname respectively;
and in this case there is a sort of compromise in '*Jo."
Most of our familiar names have both abbreviations and
nicknames, and sometimes a plurality of both; for example,
William has **Wm." and **Will.,** abbreviations; with
**Biir* and ** Willie" for nicknames. James has ** Jas.";
with *' Jemmy," ** Jimmy," and ** Jim." John has ** Jno.";
with ** Johnny" and **Jack." Edward has ** Edw." and
**Ed."; with !'Ned." Charles has **Chas."; with ** Charley."

One common but objectionable abbreviation is the symbol
& for and. In general this abbreviation is permissible in a
firm name; as, Messrs. John Hill & Sons.

The contractions, can't, don't, isn't, etc., used in familiar
conversation, may perhaps be used in familiar letters; it is
however a safe rule to avoid all such contractions in all forms
of written discourse.

The abbreviations that are likely to be required in writing
are given in the following classified list. It is not intended,
of course, that the student shall commit to memory all
the abbreviations given; he should, however, scan the list
carefully and note those most frequently used in corre-
spondence; and he should obtain a good general idea of
the various classes so that he may intelligently use the list
for reference.

LETTER WRITING.

821

UST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

ABBREVIATIONS RELATING TO BUSINESS.

According to value {ad valorem)

ad val..

Account acct.

Account current acct. cur.

Account sales acct. sales

Additional add.

Advertisement ad., advt.

Agent agt

All correct (oil korrect) O.K.

Amount amt.

Assorted ass'd or as'd

Average av.

Balance bal.

Bales bis.

Bank bk.

Bank book ; Bill book B.B.

Barrel bbl.

Bill of exchange b. e.

Bill of lading. b. 1.

Bills payable b. p.

Bills receivable b. rec.

Bond bd.

Bought bot.

Boxes bxs.

Brought bro't

Bundle bdl.

Bushel bu. or bush.

By the hundred per cent.

By the year i>er an.

Cartage ctg.

Cash (or collect) on delivery.

C.O.D.

Cashier cash.

Casks cks.

Cents c. or cts.

Charges chgs.

Chartered accountant; Chief
accountant C.A.

Chests chts.

Collateral coUat.

Collector colL

Commission ; Commerce ; Com-
mittee com.

Company ; County Co.

Consigned cons'd

Consignment cons't

Consolidated consol.

Correspondent corresp.

Credit; Creditor Cr.

Day book D.B.

Deposit dep.

Discount disct.

Ditto (the same) do.

Dividend div.

Debtor Dr.

Draft dft.

Each ea.

Errors and omissions excepted.

E.&O.E.

Errors excepted E. E.

Exchange ; Exchequer Exch.

Export; Exporter; Expense, .exp.

First class Al

Foot or feet ft.

Free on board f. o. b.

Gallon gaL

Gross gr. or gro.

Hogshead hhd.

Hundredweight cwt

I owe you I.O.U.

Inch or inches in.

Insurance ins.

Interest int.

Inventory inv't.

Invoice inv.

Invoice book I.B.

Journal jour.

Journal day book J.D.B.

Journal folio J.P.

Kilogram Kilo., Kg.

§21

LETTER WRITING.

Manifest Mfst,

Memorandum Mem.

Memorandum book Mem. B.

Merchandise mdse.

Mortgage Mtg.

Number; Numbers No., Nos.

Ounce oz.

Package pkg.

Paid pd.

Pay on delivery P. O. D.

Payment P^y't

Peck pk.

Piece pee. or pc.

Pieces , , ..pes. or ps.

Please exchange P.X.

Pound or pounds .lb.

Premium Prem.

Quart , .qt.

Quarter ', qr.

Received reed.

Returned retd.

Sales book S.B.

Shipment shipt

Treasurer Treas.

Weight wt.

Yard or yards yd.

ABBREVIATIONS RELATING TO I^EGAr, AND CIVII. AFFAIRS.

Administrator adm., admr.

Advocate Adv.

Against (versus) v., vs.

Alderman. . . Aid.

And others (e/ a Hi) et al.

Attorney Atty.

Attorney General Atty. Gen.

Chancellor Chanc.

Chief Justice C.J.. Ch.J.

Civil Civ.

Civil Service C.S.

Clerk elk.

Clerk of Privy Council C.P.C.

Commissioner Com., Comr.

Common Pleas C.P.

Congress Cong.

Congressional Record ..Cong.Rec.
Corresponding Secretary.. Cor. Sec.

Defendant dft., deft.

Democrat ; Democratic Dem.

Department; Deponent.

Dept., Dep.

Deputy Dep.

District Court D.C.

Envoy Extraordinary and Minis-
ter Plenipotentiary.

E.E. &M.P.
Executive Committee . . . Exec. Com.
Executor , , .Exec, Exr.

Financial Secretary Fin. Sec.

Governor Gov., Govr.

His (or, Her) Britannic Majesty.

H.B.M.

His (or, Her) Majesty H.M.

His (or, Her) Majesty's Customs.

H.M.C.

House of Representatives. . . . H. R.

Incorporated incor.

Internal Revenue Int. Rev.

Judge Advocate J. A.

Judge of Probate J.Prob.

Justice of the Peace. . .J. P., Jus. P.

King's Bench K.B.

King's Counsel K. C.

Legal Leg.

Legislature Leg. , Legis.

Member of Congress; Master of
Ceremonies; Master Comman-
dant M.C.

Member of Parliament M.P.

Member of Provincial Parliament.

M.P. P.

Notary Public N.P.

Parliament ; Parliamentary . . Pari.

Plaintiff plf., plff.. pltff.

Post Office P.O.

Postal Note P.N.

Postmaster P.M.

LETTER WRITING.

§21

Privy Conncilor. P.C.

Public Documents Pub. Doc.

Queen Victoria ( Victoria Regina),

V.R.

Queen's Bench Q.B.

Queen's Counsel Q.C.

Republican; Representative; Re-
port Rep.

Revised Statutes. ,,,... .Rev. Stat

Secretary. • Sea

Senate ; Senator Sen.

Solicitor SoL

Solicitor General SoLGren.

Superintendent Supt

Superior Court ; Supreme Court

Sup.Ct
United States District Court

U.S.D.Ct
United States Senate , U.S.S.

ABBREVIATIONS RELATING TO TIME,

Afternoon P.M.

April Apr.

August Aug.

Before Christ {ante Christum),

Century Cen.

Christmas Xmas.

Day; Days d., ds.

December Dec.

February Feb.

Forenoon A.M.

Friday Fri.

Hour. h., hr.

Hours hrs.

In the meantime {ad interim).

ad. int.
In the year of our Lord, or In the

Christian Era(anno Domini), A, D.
In the year of the world {anno

mundi) A.M.

January Jan.

July ...JuL

June Jua

(June and July are rarely abbreviated.)

Last month {ultimo) ult

March Mar., Mch

Minute min

Monday Mon

Month mo. (pi. , mos.)

New style N.S.

Next month {proximo) prox.

Noon {meridian) M.

November Nov.

October Oct

Old style O.S.

Saturday Sat

Second sec.

September Sept

Sunday Sun.

This month {instant) inst

Thursday Thurs.

Tuesday Tues.

Wednesday.. Wed.

Year; years yr., yrs.

GEOGRAPHICAIi ABBREVIATIONS.

Africa; African. Afr.

Alabama. Ala.

Alaska Alas.

America; American. Am. or Amer.
Argentine Republic Arg.Rep.

Arizona Ariz.

Arkansas Ark.

Australia; Australian AustraL

Austria; Austrian.

Aus., Aust, Austr.

§21

LETTER WRITING.

Avenue Ave.

Bahamas Bah.

Baltimore Bait, Balto.

Barbados Barb.

Belgium ; Belgian Belg.

British America Br. Am., B.A.

British Columbia. B.C.

Borough bor. or Bor.

Britain; British Brit

British India. B.I.

California Cal.

Cambridge. Cam.

Canada. Can.

Canterbury ( Cantuaria) . Cantuar.

Cape Breton C.B.

Cape of Good Hope C.G.H.

Central America. Cen. Am.

Chicago Chi.

Colorado Colo.

Better than Col., in order to distin-
guish it easily from Cal.

Connecticut Conn.

Should never be abbreviated Ct., for
the reason that it might, in hasty-
handwriting, be confounded with Vt.

County Co.

Court House > C.H.

Dakota Dak.

Delaware Del.

District Dist

District of Columbia D.C.

Dominion Dom.

Dublin Dub., Dubl.

Ecuador Ecua.

England ; English Eng.

Europe Eur.

Florida. Fla.

France ; French Fr.

Georgia Ga.

Germany ; German Ger.

Great Britain.

G.B.. GtBr., GtBrit

Greece; Greek Gr.

Hawaiian Islands H.I.

Honduras Hond.

Idaho Ida.

Illinois 111.

Indian Territory Ind.T.

Indiana Ind.

Indo-European . . , Indo-Eur.

Iowa la. , lo.

Ireland Ir., Ire.

Island Is., IsL

Italian ItaL

Italy It

Japan Jap.

Kansas Kan., Kans., Kas.

Kentucky Ky.

Better than Ken., for the reason that
Ken. might be mistaken for Kan.

Lake L.

London Lon., Lond.

Louisiana. La., Lou.

Maine Me.

Manitoba Manit

Maryland .^.Md.

Massachusetts Mass.

Mexico Mex.

Michigan Mich.

Minnesota Minn.

Mississippi Miss.

Missouri Mo.

This abbreviation is exceptional, and
almost absurd. The mo.<>t common abbre-
viation of a state is the first part of the
word ; as^ Ala., Conn., Miss., Mass., etc.
Another is the first and last letters : a^
La., Pa., Me., Ga., etc. But Mo. is a third
and unicjue form ; but long usa^e has
made it mtelligible and hence it is best
to keep it. Mis. would be confounded
with Miss. ; and Mi. with Me.

Montana Mont

Mountain Mt.(pl.,Mts.)

Nebraska Nebr.

Best form, as Neb. might be mistaken
for Nev., Nevada.

Netherlands Neth.

Nevada Nev.

New Brunswick N.B.

New England N.E., N.Eng.

Newfoundland N.F.

New Hampshire N. H.

New Jersey N.J.

These initials are too much like N.Y..
N.H., N.C., and so on, to make it at all
times safe to use them for the state.
Better in cases where space is limited, to
write it ** N. Jersey."

LETTER WRITING.

§21

New Mexico N.Mex.

New South Wales N.S. W.

New York N.Y.

New Zealand N. Z. , N. Zeal.

North America N. A.

North Carolina. N.C.

North Dakota. N.Dak.

Northwest Territory N. W.T.

Norway Norw.

Nova Scotia N.S.

Ohio O.

Ontario Ont.

Oregon Or., Ore., Oreg.

Oxford {Ojionia) Oxon.

Pennsylvania Pa.

This is better than Penn. for the reason
that the latter is too much like Tenn.

Philadelphia Phil.. Phila.

Province of Quebec P. Q.

Quebec Q., Que.

Railroad R. R.

Rhode Island R.I.

River R.

Russia ; Russian Russ.

Sandwich Islands S. I.

Scotland Scot.

South Africa S. A.

South America S. A., S.Am.

South Carolina S.C

South Dakota S. Dak.

Spain Sp.

Sweden Sw.

Switzerland Swit., Switz.

Tennessee Tenn.

Territory Ten. Terr.

Texas Tex.

Township tp.

United States of America. . U.S.A.

Utah U.

Venezuela Venei.

Vermont Vt.

Village vil. or Vil.

Washington Wash.

West Indies -f . . . W.I.

West Virginia W.Va.

Wisconsin Wis.

Wyoming Wyo.

York {Eboracum) Ebor.

ABBREVIATIONS RELATING TO CnXTRCH AFFAIRS.

Catholic Cath.

Church Ch.

Clergyman CI., clerg.

Congregational Cong.

Deacon Dea.

Defender of the Faith (Ftdei

Defensor) Fid.Def.

Deo Optimo Maximo (to God. the

best, the greatest) D.O.M.

Diocese dio. , dioc.

Ecclesiastes Eccl. , Eccles.

English translation E.T.

Episcopal Epis.

Evangelical E vang.

God willing {Deo voiente) D. V.

Independent Methodist.

Ind. Meth.

Methodist Meth.

Methodist Episcopal M. E.

New Testament N.T.

Old Testament O.T.

Presbyterian Presb.

Protestant Prot.

Reformation Ref.

Reformed Church in America.

R.C.A.

Reverend ; Revelation Rev.

Revised Version Rev. Ver.

Roman Catholic. R.C., Rom. Cath.

Trinity Tria

Unitarian Unit.

United Brethem U.B.

United Presbyterian U.P.

Universalist Univ.

§21

LETTER WRITING.

ABBREVIATIONS OF ORDERS AND SOCIETIES.

Academy of Science .A.S.

American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. . A. A. A.S.

American Association for the Pro-
motion of Science A.A.P.S.

American and Foreign Bible So-

American Board Commissioners for
Foreign Missions . . . A.B.C.F.M.

American Geographical and Sta-
tistical Society A.G.S.S.

American Institute A. I.

American Institute of Architec-
ture A. I. A.

American Institute of Mining En-
gineering A.I.M.E.

American Missionary Association.

A.M. A.

American Order of Stationary En-
gineers A.O.S.E.

American Peace Society. . . . A. P.S.

American Protestant Association.

A. P. A.

American Railway Union. A."R.U.

American Society for the Preven-
tion of Cruelty to Animals.

A.. O. MT, Vi/. Am

American Society of Civil Engi-
neers and Architects . A. S. C. E. A.

American Society of Mechanical
Engfineers A.S.M.E.

American Statistical Association.

American Unitarian Association.

A.U.A.

Ancient Free and Accepted Masons.

A.F.A.M., A.F.&A.M.

Ancient Order of Foresters. A. O.F.

Ancient Order of Hibernians.

AO.H.
Ancient Order of United Workmen.

A.O.U.W.

Associated Brotherhood of Iron

and Steel Workers.. A.B.I. S.W,

Astronomical Society of the Pa-
cific A.S.P.

Benevolent and Protective Order
of Elks B.P.O.Elks

British and Foreign Bible Society.

B.&F.B.S.

British Association B. A.

British Women's Temperance As-
sociation B.W.T.A.

Brotherhood of Locomotive Engi-
neers B. L. E.

Chautauqua Literary and Scien-
tific Circle C.L.S.C.

Church Missionary Society. C. M.S.

Engineer Volunteers E. V.

Grand Army of the Republic" G. A. R.

Improved Order of Red Men.

Imp'dO.R.M.

Independent Order of Foresters.

I. O.F.

Independent Order of Good Tem-

Independent Order of Odd Fel-
lows LO.O.F.

Independent Order of Sons of
Malta LO.S.M.

Institute of Civil Engineers.

InstC.E.

Institute of Mechanical Engineers.

InstM.E.

Institute of Naval Architects.

Inst. N. A.

International Typographical Un-
ion I.T.U.

Knight of the Garter K.G.

Knight of the Legion of Honor
(France) K. L. H.

Knight of Malta K.M.

Knight of St. Patrick K.P.

Knights of Honor K. of H.

Knights of Labor K. of L.

Knights of Pythias K. of P.

Knights Templars K.T.

Mexican War Veterans. . .M. W.V,

LETTER WRITING.

§21

National Academy of Design.

N.A.D.

National Academy of Sciences.

N.A.S.

National Association of Stationary
Engineers N. A.S.E.

Order of United American Me-
chanics O.U.A.M.

Order of United Americans. O. U. A.

Royal Academy of Music. .R. A. M.

Royal Arch Chapter R. A.C.

Royal College of Physicians. R. C. P.

Royal College of Surgeons.. R.C.S.

Royal Historical, Humane, or Hor-
ticultural Society R.H.S.

Society for the Prevention of
Crime S.P.C.

Society for the Prevention of Cru-
elty to Animals S. P.C. A.

Society for the Prevention of Cru-
elty to Children. S.P.C.C.

Sons of Temperance S. of T.

Woman's Christian Temperance
Union i W.C.T.U.

Women's Christian Association.

W.C.A.

Young Men*s Christian Associa-

Llvlu .....•••■•••..... .X .jn.v./. ./v*

Young Men's Christian Union,

Y.M.C.U.

Young Women's Christian Asso-
ciaLion ...■■...■•...■. X. w . w..A«

Young Women's Christian Tem-
perance Union Y.W.C.T.U.

ABBBEVIATIONS OF TTTLES.

Abbott; Abbess Abb.

Acting Assistant Quartermaster

General A. A.Q.M.G.

Adjutant General A. G.

In our army this staff officer ranks as
a Brig^adier General, when of the highest
grade.

Admiral Adm.

Archbishop; Abp.

Assistant Adjutant General.

A.A.G.

Assistant Quartermaster . . A. Q. M.

Assistant Quartermaster General.

A.Q.M.G.

Baronet Bart

Bishop Bp.

Brigadier General Brig. Gen.

Captain Capt.

Cardinal Card.

Chancellor Chanc.

Colonel Col.

Commandant Comdt.

Commander Com.

Commodore Com.

Deputy Adjutant General.. D. A. G.

Deputy Lieutenant D. L.

Earl E.

Ensign Ens.

Esquire (formerly Esqre.). . . .Esq.

Excellency Exa

General. Gen,, Genl.

His Excellency; His Eminence.

H.E.

Honorable Hon.

Knight Kt

Lieutenant Lieut, Lt

Lieutenant Colonel ....... ,Lt CoL

Lieutenant General Lt Gen.

Madam Mad.

Madame Mme.

Major. Maj.

Major General Maj.Gre'n.

Master or Mister Mr.

Mesdames Mmes.

Messieurs (Gentlemen). .. .Messrs.

Midshipman Mid.

Mistress or Missis. Mrs.

Most Worshipful; Most Worthy.

M.W.

President Prea.

Professor. Prol

§21

LETTER WRITING.

Provost Prov.

Quartermaster General Qm. G.

Rear Admiral R. A.

Rector Rect.

Regius Professor Reg. Prof.

Reverend Rev.

Right Honorable Rt.Hon.

Right Reverend » RtRev.

Right Worshipful.

R.W., RtWpful.

Surgeon General Surg. Gen.

Venerable Ven.

Very Reverend V.R., V.Rev.

Vicar Apostolic V. A.

Vice Admiral V.Adm.

Vice Chairman; Vice Chancellor.

V.C.

Vice General Vice Gen.

Vice President Vice Pres.

Viscount Vis., ViscU

ABBREVIATIONS OF DEGREES, FELL-OWSHIPS, ETC.

(Pot other abbreviations of scholastic degrees, see Art. 128.)

Associate of the Royal Academy.

A.x\.. i\.

Bachelor of Civil Law B.C.L.

Bachelor of Literature. B. L. , B. Lit.
Bachelorof Music. B. Mus.^Mus.Bac.

Bachelor of Oratory B. O.

Doctor of Natural Philosophy.

Dr. Nat. Phil.
Doctor of Natural Science.

Dr.Nat.Sc.
Doctor of Sacred Theology. . S. T. D.
Doctor of Veterinary Science.

D.V.S.

Dynamical Engineer. D.E.

Fellow of Royal Society {Reg ice

Societatis Socius) . F. R. S. , R. S. S.

Fellow of the American Academy

{Academics AmertcancB Socius),

xV.. xV.o.

Fellow of the Entomological So-
ciety F.E.S.

Fellow of the Geological Society.

F.G.S.

Fellow of the Historical Society
(HisioricB Societatis Socius),

xl.S.S.
Fellow of the Philological Society.

F.P.S.
Fellow of the Society of Arts, Fel-
low of the Antiquarian Society.

F.A.S.

Master of Laws LL.M.

Master of Philosophy Ph.M.

Member of Legislative Council.

M.L.C.
Member of Royal Academy of

Science* .M.R.A.S.

Member of the Royal Institution.

M.R.I.
Member of the Royal Irish Acad-

cmy. ..•.•.•..■...••••• iVx. jv. X. a\^

Member of the Royal Society of

Literature M.R.S.L.

Member of the Statistical Society

M.S.S.
Topographical Engineer.. . . . ,T.E.

XmCliASSIErED ABBREVIATIONS.

Anonymous Anon.

Answer a. or ans.

Answer, if you please {repondez
s'ii vous plait) R.S.V.P.

Abridged. abr.

Aide-de-Camp A. D. C.

And others ; And so forth (et cet-
sra) etc. , &c.

LETTER WRITING.

§21

Appendix app.

Approximate approx.

Architecture ; Architect Arch.

Article art.

Boards (bookbinding) bds.

Book bk.

Brevet ; Brevetted Brev.

Brother Bro.

The plural is Bros., not Bro's.

Building bldg.

Capital letter cap.

Centigrade ; Central Cent.

Chapter chap.

Coadjutor Coad.

College coll.

Compare cf.

Confederate States of America.

Cyclopedia Cyc.

Dead-Letter Office D. L. O.

Degree Deg.

Dictionary diet.

Dramatis personcBy (the persons

of the drama) Dram.Pers.

Dynamics dyn., dynam.

Edition ed.

Editor Ed.

Engineer; Engineering eng.

Example Ex.

Exception ex.

Fahrenhqit Fah. , Fahr.

Fecit (he did it) fee.

Figure fig.

For example {exempli gratia). . e.g.

General Order G.O.

Handkerchief lidkf.

History ; Historical hist.

In transitu (in the passage).

in trans.

Incognito (unknown) incog.

Introduction Intro.

It does not follow {non seqititur).

non seq.

Latitude lat.

Library Lib.

Longitude long

Manufactured Mfd.

Manufacturers Mf rs.

Manufacturing Mfg.

Manuscript; Manuscripts,

MS.. MSS.

Military MiL

Mutual Mut.

Namely {videlicet) viz.

National Nat.

Nota bene N.B.

Page; Pages p., pp.

Philosophy Phil.

Population pop.

Post-Office Order. ..." P.O.O.

Pounds, shillings, and pence.

£, s.,and d.
Pro tempore (for the time). pro tern.

Query qy.

Question qu., ques.

Quod erat demonstrandum (which
waste be demonstrated)..q.e.d.

Railroad R.R.

Railway Ry.

Recipe Re* .

Regiment Reg.

Remark Rem.

Review Rev.

Scilicet (namely ; to wit) scil.

Section sec.

Solution sol.

Supplement Supp.

That is {id est) i.e.

The same (idem), . . : id.

Transpose tr.

United States Army U.S.A.

United States Mail or Marines.

U.S.M.
United States Military Academy.

U.S.M. A.
United States Naval Academy.

U.S.N.A.

United States Navy .U.S.N.

United States Steamship. . .U.S.S
Volume. ,.,.,..... .vol

§21

LETTER WRITING.

SIGNS AKI> CHARACTERS.

The following sigrns and characters are in daily nse:

To or at @

Account «/f

Bill of lading Vx

Bill rendered , */«

Bill of sale Vs

Cents f

Care of Vo

Days after date V/>

Days after sight Vs

Free on board ^/b

Joint account Vj

Letter of credit Vc

Letters of marque ^/n

Pounds sterling £

On account of custom o/c

Out of courtesy o/c

Per cent J^

Per

Dollars $

Number J

Means ''pounds," if written after a
figrure, as 40 %

Check mark ^

Also radical sign.

Ditto. (The same as above). . . . '•

Degrees ®

Primes; Minutes; Feet '

Seconds ; Inches.*. "

Also used for ditto marks.

One and one-fourth 1'

One and one-half 1*

One and three-fourths 1*

Addition (plus) +

Subtraction (minus) —

Multiplication (by or into) X

Division (divided by) -i-

Equals (equality) =:

POSTAL LNTORMATION.

CliASSES OP MAIIi MATTER : RATES OF POSTAGE.

126* Flrst-Class Matter. — On matter that is wholly in
writing, sealed or unsealed, printed commercial papers
filled out in writing, having the nature of a personal corre-
spondence, or being the expression of a money value, such as
notes, drafts, receipts, executed deeds, and insurance policies,
manuscripts for publication when unaccompanied by proof
sheets, reproductions by the copygraph and similar proc-
esses, which are in the nature of personal correspondence,
or imitating written matter, and all packages the contents
of which cannot be ascertained without destroying the
wrapper, the postage is 2 cents for each ounce, or for each
fraction thereof. On local or drop letters at of!ices where
there is no free delivery by carrier, 1 cent. Weight of pack-
ages not limited. Postal cards, 1 cent

U LETTER WRITING. § 21

137. Second-Class Matter, — This class includes all
newspapers, periodicals, or matter exclusively in print and
regnlariy issued at stated periods from a known office of
publication or news agency. Postage, 1 cent a pound or
fraction thereof. Weight of packages not limited. The
only writings or prints that may be enclosed with or on such
matter are: Name and address of publishers, and of party
addressed; index or expiration figures; printed title and
office of publication; corrections of typographical errors:
marks to call attention to any passages; the words ** sample
copy" or "marked copy"; and bills, receipts, and subscrip-
tion orders, which, however, must contain no other infor-
mation than the name, place of publication, subscription
price, and subscription due ; the number of copies contained
in package may be noted.

Transient newspapers and periodicals that have been
entered as second-class matter, 1 cent for 4 oimces, or frac-
tion thereof.

138. Third-Class Matter. — Mail matter of the third
class embraces books (printed and blank), circulars, and
other matter wholly in print, proof sheets and corrected proof
sheets and manuscript copy accompanying the same, hand-
bills, posters, chromolithographs, engravings, heliotypes,
lithographs, photographic and stereoscopic views, with title
written or printed thereon, printed blanks, printed cards.
Postage, 1 cent for each 2 ounces or fractional part thereof.

Third-class matter must admit of easy inspection, other-
wise it will be charged letter rates on delivery. It must be
fully prepaid, or it will not be forwarded.

The limit of weight is 4 pounds, except single books in
separate packages, on which the weight is not limited. It
is entitled, like matter of the other classes, to special
delivery when special-delivery stamps are affixed in addition
to the regular postage.

Upon matter of the third class, or upon the wrapper or
envelope enclosing the same, or the tag or label attached
thereto, the sender may write his own name, occupation,

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 75

and residence or business address, preceded by the word
from^ and may make marks other than by written or printed
words to call attention to any word or passage in the text,
and make correct any typographical errors. There may be
placed upon the blank leaves or cover of any book, or
printed matter of the third class, a simple manuscript dedi-
cation or inscription not of the nature of a personal corre-
spondence. Upon the wrapper or envelope of third-class
matter, or the tag or label attached thereto, may be printed
any matter mailable as third class, but there must be left
on the address side a space sufficient for the legible address
and necessary stamps.

129« Fourtli-Class Matter. — ^Mailable matter of the
fourth class embraces blank cards, cardboard, and other
flexible material, flexible patterns, letter envelopes and
letter paper, merchandise, models, ornamented paper, sam-
ple cards, samples of ores, metals, minerals, drawings, plans,
designs, original paintings in oil or water colors, and any
other matter not included in the first, second, or third
class, and which is not in its form or nature liable to
destroy, deface, or otherwise damage the contents of the
mail bag, or harm the person of any one engaged in the
postal service; or matter excluded by sections 3,893 and
3,894 Revised Statutes, to wit, obscene matter and matter
concerning lotteries. Postage rate thereon, 1 cent for each
ounce or fractional part thereof.

Other articles of the fourth class, which, unless properly
secured, might destroy, deface, or otherwise damage the
contents of the mail bag, or harm the person of any one
^iigag'^ ill the postal service, may be transmitted in the
mails when they conform to the following conditions:
(1) They must be placed in a bag, box, or removable envel-
ope made of paper, cloth, or parchment; (2) such bag, box,
or envelope must again be placed in a box or tube made of
metal or some hard wood, with sliding clasp or screw lid;
(3) in case of articles liable to break, the inside box, bag, or
envelope must be surrounded by sawdust, cotton, or spongy

76 LETTER WRITING. g 21

substance; (4) in case of sharp-pointed instruments, the
points must be capped or encased; and when they have
blades, such blades must be bound with wire; (5) the whole
must be capable of easy inspection. Seeds, or other articles
not prohibited, which are liable from their form or nature
to loss or damage unless specially protected, may be put up
in sealed envelopes, provided such envelopes are made of
material sufficiently transparent to show the contents clearly
without opening.

Upon any package of matter of the fourth class the sender
may write or print his own name and address, preceded by
the word/rt?/A/, and there may also be written or printed the
number and names of the articles enclosed ; and the sender
thereof may write or print upon or attach to any such
articles, by tag or label, a mark, number, name, or letter,
Cor purpose of identification, and any matter not in the
nature of personal correspondence may be printed on the
wrapper or label, or be enclosed within.

Fourth-class matter may be registered and must be fully
prepaid.

130* Registration. — All kinds of postal matter may be
registered at the rate of 8 cents for each package in addition
to the regular rates of postage, to be fully prepaid by
stamps. Each package must bear the name and address of
the sender, and a receipt will be returned from the person
to whom addressed. Mail matter can be registered at all
post offices in the United States.

The Post-Office Department or its revenue is not by law
liable for the loss of any registered or other mail matter.
Congress, at a recent session, passed an act authorizing the
Postmaster General to formulate -a system by which an
indemnity — not to exceed 110 for any one registered piece —
shall be paid for the loss of first-class registered matter.

13 !• All matter concerning lotteries, gift concerts, or
schemes devised to defraud the public, or for the purpose of
obtaining money under false pretenses, is denied transmis-
sion in the mails.

g 21 LETTER WRITING. 77

132* The franking privilege was abolished July 1, 1873,
but the following mail matter may be sent free by legislative
saving clauses; viz:

1. All public documents printed by order of Congress,
the Congressional Record and speeches contained therein,
franked by Members of Congress, or by the Secretary of the
Senate, or by the Clerk of the House.

2. Seeds transmitted by the Secretary of Agriculture, or
by any Member of Congress, procured from that Department.

3. All periodicals sent to the subscribers within the
county where printed, except when sent to free delivery
offices.

4. Letters and packages relating exclusively to the busi-
ness of the Government of the United States, mailed only
by officers of the same, publications required to be mailed to
the Librarian of Congress by the copyright law, and letters
and parcels mailed by the Smithsonian Institution. All
these must be covered by specially printed " penalty *' envel-
opes or labels.

5. The Vice President, members and members-elect and
delegates and delegates-elect to Congress may frank any
mail matter, not over 1 ounce in weight, upon official or
departmental business.

6. All communications to government officers and to
members of Congress must be prepaid by stamps.

MONST ORDERS.

133* Money in simis not exceeding $100 can be sent
with safety through the principal Post Offices of the United
States, by buying Post-Office Money Orders. The rates are
as follows:

For domestic money orders : For sums not exceeding $2. 50,
3 cents; over |i2.50 and not exceeding $5, 5 cents; over $5
and not exceeding tlO, 8 cents; over $10 and not exceeding
$20, 10 cents; over $20 and not exceeding $30, 12 cents;
over $30 and not exceeding $40, 15 cents; over $40 and not

78 LETTER WRITING. § 21

exceeding 150, 18 cents; over $50 and not exceeding $60,
20 cents; over 160 and not exceeding 175, 25 cents; over
175 and not exceeding llOO, 30 cents.

For foreign money orders : For sums not exceeding $10,
10 cents; over $10 and not exceeding $20, 20 cents; over
$20 and not exceeding $30, 30 cents; over $30 and not
exceeding $40, 40 cents; over $40 and not exceeding $50,
50 cents; $50 to $60, 60 cents; $60 to $70, 70 cents; $70 to
$80, 80 cents; $80 to $90, 90 cents; $90 to $100, $1.

SPECIAL. DELIVERY.

134. Affixing a special-delivery stamp of the value of
10 cents to any letter or package insures its immediate
delivery by messenger on reaching destination. This now
applies to all Post Offices in the United States.

VAI-ENTINES, ETC.

135* Valentines and unframed Christmas and Easter
cards, and other cards of a similar character, passing between
friends in small quantities, as tokens of esteem, are trans-
missible in mails despatched to countries of the Universal
Postal Union (except Canada and Mexico, to which United
States domestic postage rates apply), at the rate and under
the conditions applicable to "printed matter" in Postal
Union mails, notwithstanding they are composed partly of
silk or satin, and are hand-painted and of elaborate design
and finish. But such cards regularly framed, whether with
wood, metal, or other material usually used for picture
frames, are not entitled to transmission as ** printed matter,'
and should not be admitted to Postal Union ' mails at less
than the letter rate of postage fully prepaid; nor should
articles intended for use (such as cushions, etc. ), which bear
an Easter or Christmas greeting, but cannot be considered
in any sense ** cards," be treated as ''printed matter" in
said mails.

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 79

RATES OF FOREIGN" POSTAGE.

136, The rates of postage to all foreign countries and
colonies (except Canada and Mexico) are as follows:

Letters, per 15 grams (^ ounce) 5 cents

Postal cards, each 2 cents

Newspapers and other printed matter, per 2 ounces. 1 cent
Commercial papers (such as legal and insurance
papers, deeds, bills of lading, invoices, manu-
script for publication, etc.) —

Packets not in excess of 10 ounces. ........ 5 cents

Packets in excess of 10 ounces, for each

2 ounces or fraction thereof 1 cent

Samples of merchandise —

Packets not in excess of 4 ounces 2 cents

Packets in excess of 4 ounces, for each

2 ounces or fraction thereof 1 cent

Registration fee on letters or other articles 8 cents

Ordinary letters for countries of the Postal Union^ (except
Canada and Mexico) will be forwarded, whether any postage
is prepaid on them or not. All other mailable matter must
be prepaid at least partially. Mail matter for Hawaii, Cuba,
Porto Rico, and to the United States possessions in the Philip-
pines should be prepaid at Domestic Rates, the same as if

addressed to persons within the United States, Canada, or
Mexico.

137. The following are the rates of postage to Canada:

Letters, per ounce, prepayment compulsory 2 cents

Postal cards, each 1 cent

Newspapers, per 4 ounces 1 cent

Merchandise, not exceeding 4 pounds (samples, 1 cent

per 2 ounces), per ounce 1 cent

Commercial papers, same as to other Postal Union

countries. ^
Registration fee 8 cents

Any article of correspondence may be registered. Pack-
ages of merchandise are subject to the regulations of either

80 LETTER WRITING. g 21

country to prevent violations of the revenue laws; must not
be closed against inspection, and must be so wrapped and
enclosed as to be easily examined. Samples must not exceed
8| oimces in weight. No sealed packages other than letters
in their usual and ordinary form may be sent by mail to
Canada.

138* The rates of postage to Mexico are:

Letters, newspapers, and printed matter are now carried
between the United States and Mexico at same rates as in^
the United States. Samples are 1 cent for 2 ounces; limit
of v/eight, 8 1 ounces. Merchandise other than samples may
only be sent by Parcels Post. No sealed packages other
than letters in their usual and ordinary form may be sent by
mail to Mexico, nor any package over 4 pounds 6 ounces in
weight.

Merchandise cannot be sent by mail to foreign countries,
except as samples as above, or when paid at the rate for
letters; except that a Parcels Post is in operation between the
United States and Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, British
Honduras, Mexico, Hawaii, Leeward Islands, Republic of
Colombia, Salvador, Costa Rica, Danish West Indies (St-
Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John), British Guiana, Wind-
ward Islands, and Newfoundland. Merchandise to these
countries, 12 cents for each pound or fraction thereof.
Limit of weight, 11 pounds. Limit of size to Colombia,
Costa Rica, and Mexico, 2 ft. X 4 ft. To other countries
named, 6 feet for greatest length and girth combined.

Packages of canceled or uncanceled postage * stamps
addressed to foreign countries (except when sent by Parcels
Post) are subject to postage at letter rates.

SUGGESTIOXS TO TITE PUBI.IC.

{From the United States Official Postal Guide.)

1 39. Mail all letters, etc. as early as practicable, espe-
cially when sent in large numbers, as is frequently the case
with newspapers and circulars.

§ 21 LETTER WRITING. 81

All mail matter at large post offices is necessarily handled
in great haste and should, therefore, in all cases be ^o plainly
addressed as to leave no room for doubt and no excuse for
error on the part of postal employes. Names of states
should be written in full (or their abbreviations should be
very distinctly written) in order to prevent errors that arise
from the similarity of such abbreviations as Cal., Col. ; Pa.,
Va., Vt.; Me., Mo., Md.; Ida., Ind.; N. H., N. M., N. Y.,
N. J., N. C, D. C. ; Miss., Minn., Mass. ; Nev., Neb. ; Penn.,
Tenn. ; etc., when hastily or carelessly written. This is
especially necessary in addressing mail matter to places the
names of which are borne by several post offices in different
statea

Avoid as far as possible the use of envelopes made of
flimsy paper, especially where more than one sheet of paper,
or any other article than paper, is enclosed. Being often
handled, and subjected to pressure in the mail bags, such
envelopes not infrequently split open, giving cause of com-
plaint.

Never send money or any other article of value through
the mail except either by means of a money order or in a
registered letter. Any person who sends money or jewelry
in an unregistered letter not only runs a risk of losing his
property, but exposes to temptation everyone through whose
hands his letter passes, and may be the means of ultimately
bringing some clerk or letter carrier to ruin.

See that every letter or package bears the full name and
post-office address of the writer, in order to secure the return
of the letter, if the person to whom it is directed cannot be
found. A much larger portion of the undelivered letters
could be returned if the names and addresses of the senders
were always fully and plainly written or printed inside or on
the envelopes. Persons that have large correspondence find
it most convenient to use '* special-request envelopes " ; but
those who only mail an occasional letter can avoid much
trouble by writing a request to ** return if not delivered,"
etc. on the envelope.

When dropping a letter, newspaper, etc. into a street

82 LETTER WRITING. § 21

mailing box, or into the receptacle at a post office, always
see that the packet falls into the box and does not stick in its
passage; observe also, particularly, whether the postage
stamps remain securely in their places.

Postage stamps should be placed on the upper right-hand
comer of the address side of all mail matter.

The street and number (or box number) should form a
part of the address of all mail matter directed to cities. In
most cities there are many persons, and even firms, bearing
the same name. Before depositing any package or other
article for mailing, the sender should assure himself that it
is wrapped and packed in the manner prescribed by postal
regulations; that it does not contain unmailable matter nor
exceed the limit of size and weight as fixed by law; and that
it is fully prepaid. and properly addressed. The postage
stamps on all mail matter are necessarily canceled at once,
and the value of those affixed to packages that are after-
wards discovered to be short-paid or otherwise unmailable is
therefore liable to be lost to the senders.

It is unlawful to send an ordinary letter by express or
otherwise outside of the mails unless it is enclosed in a Gov-
ernment stamped envelope. It is also unlawful to enclose a
letter in an express package unless it pertains wholly to the
contents of the package.

It is forbidden by the regulations of the Post-Office
Department for postmasters to give to any person informa-
tion concerning the mail matter of another, or to disclose
the name of a box holder at a post office.

Letters addressed to persons temporarily sojourning in a
city where the free-delivery system is in operation should be
marked ** Transient "or ** General Delivery/' if not addressed
to a street and number or some other designated place of
delivery.

Foreign books, etc. infringing United States copyright
are xmdeliverable if received in foreign mails, or mailed here.

LETTER WRITING.

(PART 2.)

COMPOSITION OF LETTEBS.

INVENTION ANB EXPRESSION;

!• In any composition, letter, sermon, essay, etc., two
things are required: (1) Finding something to say; this is
ifiventton. (2) Saying it; this is expression,

2. Invention.— Invention as applied to a written com-
position signifies the thinking out, so to speak, of the matter
that is to be written. Usually, invention is the more difficult
of the two processes, but in letter writing, as opposed to
other forms of composition, invention is comparatively sim-
ple and easy. Before beginning a letter, one usually knows
quite well what he intends to say ; the material is at hand,
and the chief labor consists in proper expression. Neverthe-
less, a certain amount of attention should be paid to the
orderly arrangement of the material, even in the most
informal social letter. Before beginning a letter think over
what you want to say, so that it will not be necessary to add
one or more postscripts after you have written the signature.
The essential points having been decided on, they should be
presented in a free and natural manner. In the case of
important letters it is best to note on paper the various
points to be considered, and arrange them in the most logical
order. It is a good plan to first make a rough draft of such

§22

For notice of the copyrigrht, see page immediately followinsf the title pag^e.

2 LETTER WRITING. § 22

a letter, revise and rearrange the topics, and condense the
sentences until you are satisfied that the letter cannot be
improved ; then make a fair copy.

3. Expression, in letter writing, embraces the following
subjects: (1) spelling; (2) diction^ or use of words; (3)'r^«-
struction of sentences; (4) punctuation; (5) construction of
paragraplis.

SPELLING.

4. To properly express one's self, it is necessary to
master English spellings which is the art of expressing an
English word by its proper letters. What are these proper
letters ? Usage and the authority of recognized dictionaries
must determine. Misspelling is one of the common faults
of English letter writing. It is surprising, indeed, to find
so many persons that speak correctly enough, whose writing
is atrociously bad. We see men that lay claim to an ordinary
good education, and elected perhaps on the strength of that
claim to some public office, unable to express themselves in
writing without shocking those that read their productions.
Such men often inflict injury on the very communities they
officially represent or rather misrepresent.

Still, correct spelling is easily enough acquired. All that
is required of the student is attention to what he leads. Let
him read with care, application, and assiduity, and he will
soon become a master of the art of spelling. Let him first
strive to acquire the correct spelling of the smaller words of
the language, and he will find himself making rapid and
steady advancement. A well spelled letter from a working
man is indicative of diligence, and diligence is one of those
very qualities most highly prized by employers of labor.

By way of counsel to any one desirous of becoming ar
accurate speller we would say:

1. Read well written books and periodicals.

2. Copy from well written books and periodicals.

3. Consult a dictionary of recognized authority as fre-
quently as possible.

g 22 LETTER WRITING. 8

DICTION.

5. Diction deals with the choice and use of words. We
say that a person's diction is good when he uses only words
that are reputable and that convey the exact meaning he
intends them to convey ; his diction is faulty if he uses to
excess words of questionable standing, foreign words and
phrases, or slang, or if he uses words in a sense not ordina-
rily understood.

In letter writing the rules of diction are by no means as
rigid as in most other forms of written composition. In
general, we use about the same words in writing to a person
that we would in conversation with him. Technical or
colloquial words understood by the recipient may be freely
used in a letter, but would not be permissible in an essay or
article to be read by people unacquainted with their mean-
ing. It is not to be inferred, however, that a careless use of
words is permissible in letter writing; while the fact that a
social letter is more or less informal and free and easy per-
mits the diction to be also informal, it is just as necessary in
letter writing to use words that properly convey the meaning
intended as it is in the most formal composition.

Diction may be considered under three heads; viz., purity^
propriety^ and precision,

6. Purity consists in the use of words that are sanctioned
by good usage and are familiar to the great body of educated
people — words in current and reputable use.

We give briefly a few points to be observed in the use of
words and phrases.

Obsolete words, that is, words that were once in current
use but have fallen into disuse, should be avoided. Some
words are still used in poetry and historical novels, but are
obsolete in conversation or letter writing. Such are : ere for
beforCy vale for valley ^ sooth for true^ twain for two^ etc.

New words are to be used cautiously. Many new words
are coined to meet the requirements of scientific research;
these are usually received readily, soon acquire good
standing, and may be used without hesitation. Such are:

4 LETTER WRITING. § 22

telephone^ acetylene^ X-ray, Many new words are coined by
newspapers or by eccentric and irresponsible writers to fill a
real or fancied blank in the language or in an effort to say
things smartly or humorously. Some of these words, e. g.,
boycott^ mugwumps and bulldoze^ survive and are finally
accepted; others either die or remain of doubtful reputa-
tion. It is well in all forms of composition to refrain from
using new words of this character until they become well
established.

Slang is always undignified if not positively vulgar, and
should be rigidly excluded. The excessive and indiscrim-
inate use of such adjectives as "splendid," ** stunning,"
** immense," and **just lovely" is a practice closely related
to the use of slang.

Foreign words and phrases are to be avoided, except words
like employe^ quorum^ nom de plume ^ etc., which through long
usage have become as familiar as English words.

7. Propriety consists in the use of words in their gener-
ally understood sense. In letter writing, propriety is of even
more importance than purity. We may use words of a tech-
nical or provincial nature, foreign words, or even slang, and
though the letter may be undignified and faulty from a liter-
2irj standpoint, it maybe perfectly intelligible to the writer.
On the other hand, if the words we use, even though they
satisfy all the requirements of purity, do not convey the
ideas we wish to express, we run the risk of being misunder-
stood.

To illustrate what is meant by propriety, we give a few
examples of the proper and improper use of words:

Creditable means worthy of approbation, reputable ; thus we say,
"The boy's work is creditable." Frequently, however, this word is
incorrectly used iov credible, which means worthy of belief; e. g., '* A
creditable witness testified, etc." This is an example of a mistake in
the use of words similar in form or derived from the same source;
other examples are: purpose for propose; avocation for vocation; con-
temptuous for contemptible; healthy for healthful; affect for effect;
exceptionable for exceptional; continuous for continual; emigrant for
immigrant ; revenge for avenge.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. S

Administer is incorrectly used in the following: "The teacher
administered a box on the ear." Blows are dealt; governments, oaths,
and state affairs are administered.

Expect is often used incorrectly for suspect or suppose.
Balance is used incorrectly for remainder; thus, •• The balance of
the party returned home."

8. Precision consists in the choice and use of words or
expressions that convey neither more nor less than the exact
meaning intended.

In the English language there are frequently several words
that express very nearly the same meaning ; seldom, how-
ever, are two words exactly synonymous, and care must be
exercised to select the one that conveys just what is meant.
To attain precision in the use of such words, one should
study standard works on synonyms ; for example, Crabb's
** Synonymes" or Roget's ** Thesaurus."

The following are examples of words that differ more or
less in meaning but are often used synonymously:

Less^ Fewer. — Less is applied to quantity or things measured;
fewer, to things numbered. ** Lee had fewer (not less) men than
Grant"

Apt^ Likely^ Liable, — Apt and liable are frequently used where
likely is the proper word. Apt implies capacity or fitness for ; thus,
••The boy is an apt pupil." Liable means exposed to something
unpleasant ••One is liable to take cold." ••The city is liable for
damages." It is incorrect to say, ••Where is he apt to be this eve-
ning?" or •* When are you liable to go down town ?"

Remember^ Recollect, — To remember means to retain in the mind;
to recollect means to recall by an effort something that has been for-
gotten.

Character y Reputation. — Character is inherent in a person; reputa-
tion means the estimation in which a person is held by others. A per-
son with a really bad character may have a good reputation.

9. Incorrect ^Expressions. — As an aid to the attain-
ment of good diction the following list of expressions is
presented for the consideration of the student. It contains
many errors that are made even by careful and painstaking
letter writers.

6 LETTER WRITING. § 2?

Correct. Incorrect.

The foregoing statement is borne The above statement is borne out

out by facts. by facts.

1 was more than a mile from Scran- I was above a mile from Scran-

ton. ton.

This feat was beyond his strength. This feat was above his strength.

What course will you take ? What course will you adopt f

Congress decided upon active meas- Congress adopted active meas-
ures, ures.

His language provokes me. His language aggravates me.

He was easily irritated. He was easily aggravated.

The news spread over the country. The news spread all over the

country.

He asserts that Dewey is the great- He allows that Dewey is the great-
est of naval captains. est of naval captains.

Come to sec us before you go. Come and see us before you go.

His arrival was hourly expected. His arrival was hourly anticipated.

He desired to go to Europe. He was anxious to go to Europe.

I value your friendship. I appreciate your friendship.

I shall likely go tomorrow. I am apt to go tomorrow.

He was not there that I know of. He was not there as I know of.

James is suffering from a severe James is suffering from a bc^

cold. cold.

My child feels very bad. My child feels very badly,

I very much wish to see him. I wish to see him very badly.

The remainder of my father's prop- The balance of my father's prop-
erty is unsold. erty is unsold.

I beg leave to acknowledge your I beg to acknowledge your letter,
letter.

There was a perfect understanding There was a perfect understanding

between the two statesmen. among the two statesmen.
(_F}etivt'i'n is used when two things, parts,
or persons are mentioned ; among' in ref-
erence to more than two.)

Aunt Jane served us with a plenti- Aunt Jane served us with ^bountu

ful repast ful repast

John was determined to go. John was bound to go.

I have no doubt that he will pay. I have no doubt but that he will

pay.

I regard him as a great statesman. I consider him a great statesman.

President McKinley has convoked President McKinley has convened

Congress. Congress.

8 22 LETTER WRITING. 7

Correct. Incorrect.

Two boys ran down the street, A cotifU of boys ran down the

street

Despite our persuasions he sold his In despite of our persuasions he

farm. sold his farm.

As soon as he came to town he Directly he came to town he rented

rented a house. a house.

I forget the date of his conviction. I disremember the date of his con-
viction.

He bestowed a generous gift upon He donated a generous gift to

Mercy Hospital. Mercy Hospital.

My friend is entitled to entire con- My friend is entitled to every con-
fidence, fidence.

I suppose you had difficulty in I expect you had difficulty in corn-
coming, ing.

Our friends suffered rough treat- Our friends experienced rough

ment at the hands of the enemy. treatment at the hands of the

enemy.

He showed me great kindness. He extended great kindness to me.

Those who could» fled from the Those who could, flew from the

pestilence. pestilence.

My brother was afraid of being My brother was afraid of getting

left left

I would rather not go to New York I had rather not go to New York

tomorrow. tomorrow.

Peaches are a wholesome fruit. Peaches are a healthy fruit

He told me how he would reach He told me how that he would

Vancouver. reach Vancouver.

I noticed several persons at the I noticed several individuals at

station. the station.

John lay down to rest Jp^^^^ ^^^^ down to rest

James went to lie down. James went to lay down.

He taught me to read. He learned me to read.

Let William go. Leave William go.

Dr. White delivered a long sermon. Dr. White delivered a lengthy ser-
mon.

I noticed fewer than ten persons in I noticed less than ten persons in

the room. the room.

Do as your friend does. Do like your friend does.

I like a good breakfast I love a good breakfast.

Herbert goes to Dunmore almost Herbert goes to Dunmorc most

every day. every day.

8 LETTER WRITING. g 22

Correct. Incorrect,

Mr. Robinson and I have a com- Mr. Robinson and I hsLve a.mui$tai

mon friend. friend.

He mentioned the fact to no one. He named the fact to no one.

Dr. Bright is a persuasive speaker. Dr. Bright is a nice speaker.

The streets were tastefully deco- The streets were nicely decorated,
rated.

Henry Black was noted as a good Henry Black was notorious as a

citizen. good citizen.

Ten yards were cut off that piece Ten yards were cut off'ofXhsX piece

of silk. of silk.

Those pears are very fine. Those pears are very fine ones.

He got on the roof. He got onto the roof.

They sent only four men to Scran- They only sent four men to Scran-
ton, ton.

The lake has overflowed its banks. The lake has overflown its banks.

The building of the house was a The building the house was a

severe task. severe task.

That person is a]ways present when That party is always present when

not desired. not desired.

We solicit your custom. We solicit your patronage.

He is continually talking of leav- He is perpetually talking of leav-
ing, ing.

Money is now plentiful. Money is now plenty,

I thank you for your kind invita- I thank you for your polite invita-
tion, tion.

A large part of the street, was A large portion of the street was

obstructed by the parade. obstructed by the parade.

Hamilton informed me fully as to Hamilton /<?j/<f^ me fully as to the

the matter. matter.

I assure you that we enjoyed our I promise you that we enjoyed our

visit. visit

Mary had a considerable fortune Mary had quite a fortune left her.

left her.

It is very rare that a man will for- It is very rarely that a man will

get his home. forget his home.

We had a very pleasant evening. We had a real pleasant evening.

Let me say just here. Let me say right here.

I saw him not long ago. I saw him not long since.

My father has improved somewhat My father has improved some since

since yesterday. yesterday.

§ n LETTER WRITING. 9

Correct. Incorrect.

Her dress was very much out of Her dress "was p^r/^c^/yaw/u/.

style.

Where are you staying ? Where are you stopping f

We drove farther than they. We drove farther than them.

This house cost more than you This house cost more than you
think. think for.

That kind of apples is preferable. Those kind of apples are preferable.

An accident occurred yesterday on An accident transpired yesterday
our street on our street

The best of Longfellow's works is The best of Longfellow's works
••Evangeline." was '•Evangeline."

Whence did she come ? From whence did she come ?

John went hence. John "went from hence.

You will never succeed unless you You will never succeed without
study. you study.

10. Short and Ix>n|? "Words. — Following the principle
that the diction of letter writing is about the same as that of
good conversation, we should, in general, prefer short and
simple words to long words derived from the Latin. The
larger number of the short words of the English language
are of Anglo-Saxon origin, but many come from other
sources. If the word is in good use it matters not where it
originated.

Short words are, in general, more easily understood than
longer words ; they are the words of ordinary and familiar
events and feelings. It follows, therefore, that the use of
short and familiar words saves not only the writer's time,
but also the reader's time by lessening the effort required to
grasp their meaning. In ordinary letter writing get is pref-
erable to procure; do, to perform; lift, to elevate; see, to
discern or perceive; go, to depart; live, to reside; tired, to
fatigued; ask, X.o petition; and so on indefinitely.

Long words are needed to express ideas and feelings
remote from the ordinary; thus, a candidate for the presi-
dency in his letter of acceptance necessarily uses the long
words of the vocabulary of politics ; the President in his mes-
sage to Congress necessarily uses the long words pertaining

10 LETTER WRITING. g 2«

to state affairs; for example, resolution^ communication^ enact
ment^ representative^ amendment^ constitutional^ etc.

1 1 • Big: Words. — The use of * * dictionary v/ords " simply
because they are long and soimd grand is an offense against
good taste that should be studiously avoided. Do not use
**tonsorial artist" for barber; ** maternal relative" for
mother; ** disciple of Izaak Walton " ior fisher f nan; ** national
sport" for baseball; or ** pugilistic carnival " iov prize fight.
Such expressions should remain the exclusive property of the
newspaper reporter and the author of the third-rate novel.

CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.

12« Characteristics of a Good Sentence. — In the con-
struction of sentences, the letter writer should be guided by
the following considerations : The sentence should conform
to the established usage of the English language ; it should be
grammatically correct. The sentence should be clear; that
is, it should be so constructed as to be easily and readily
understood by the reader. The sentence should have unity;
that is, it should express but one principal thought.

Minor characteristics of a good sentence are force and ease.
A sentence is forcible when it is so framed as to produce a
strong impression on the reader; a sentence has ease when
it is agreeable to the ear.

While unity y force^ and ease are essential in formal com-
position, they are of ipinor importance in letter writing. It
is not to be expected that the writer of .a letter will take
time to polish each sentence, to examine it for unity, and to
rearrange it until it fulfils the requirements of force and
elegance. In fact, the probable result of an attempt on
the part of the writer to make a literary production of a
letter will be a cold and formal essay, rather than an expres-
sion of friendship and sympathy.

The letter writer, however, is held strictly accountable for
the grammatical correctness and clearness of his sentences.
He should be correct for his own sake, for grammatical

g 22 LETTER WRITING. H

errors stamp him as ignorant and illiterate; and he should
write with clearness for the sake of the recipient of the letter.

13« Grammatical Errors. — A common error is the
confusion of the past tense of the verb with the perfect par-
ticiple; thus, ** I seen " for ** I saw," and ** I have saw " for
**I have seen"; **He set down" for **He sat down";
* * growed " for ** grew " ; etc. Another frequent error is the
non-agreement of the verb and subject, or of the pronoun
and antecedent; thus, ** There was three in the front seat ";
** Any one can have their choice for one dollar."

To attain grammatical correctness in conversation and
writing, one must study English grammar. It is not suffi-
cient to know that a certain form of expression is incorrect
merely because some one has told you it is incorrect. You
should understand why such forms are errors, so that you
may apply the test of correctness to all other expressions of
the same nature.

14. Clearness. — Next to correctness, the most impor-
tant characteristic of a good sentence is clearness. A writer
that wishes the recipient of his letter to understand what he
says must make his sentences so that they will mean to the
reader what they mean to himself.

To write clearly one should heed the following rules:

1. Use only words that are fully imderstood by the person
addressed and that convey the meaning intended.

2. Use as many words as are needed to convey the mean-
ing easily and fully, and no more.

3. Arrange words, phrases, and clauses so that they are
readily understood in themselves and in their relations with
each other, and so that the final sentence cannot present an
ambiguity.

16« The omission of words may cause obscurity in the
meaning of a sentence. The parts of speech commonly
omitted are the article, pronoun, and verb. A few exam-
ples will illustrate this point:

12 LETTER WRITING. § 23

''Wanted, a coachman and gardener." As written, this means
that one person is wanted and that he is to act as a coacliman and also
as a gardener. If two persons are meant, the sentence should read :
" Wanted, a coachman and a gardener."

••The strength of steel is greater than iron," should be, ''The
strength of steel is greater than that of iron." The omission of a
relative pronoun, as in this instance, is a frequent cause of obscurity.

••Jack is an industrious boy and his sisters amiable girls." The
verb are is required in the second clause after the word •' sisters." Be
cautious in omitting verbs ; in case of doubt, it is better to repeat a
verb than to run the risk of obscurity. Consider the sentence, •• He
likes me better than you." The meaning is ambiguous unless a second
verb is used ; the sentence should read: '• He likes me better than he
likes you," or •* better than you like me," according to which is meant.

16. Pronouns. — The careless use of pronouns may
render a sentence ambiguous or even unintelligible. For
example, in the sentence, ** Smith told Brown that if he did
not have his pavement repaired, he might have trouble."
There is nothing to indicate whether it is Smith's or Brown's
pavement that is in question, or which of the two men will
have trouble. It is sometimes difficult to recast such a
sentence so that it will be both clear and smooth. In this
example it is perhaps best to change from the third to the
first person; thus, ** Smith said to Brown, * If you do not
have your pavement repaired, you (or I) will have trouble. '*

17. The misplacing of words and phrases may cause
ambiguity or obscurity. Two expressions that are likely to
be misplaced are **at least" and **only." The sentence,
*' The English play cricket at least as well as we," may mean
that they play the game as well as we do, if not better, or
that this particular game, if no other game, they play as
well as we do. To express the last meaning, the sentence
should be written, ••The English play at least cricket as
well as we do. "

** I only heard the approaching train." The position of
**only " makes the sentence mean that I heard the train, but
did not see it ; if the intended meaning is that I heard the
train and nothing else, the sentence should read, "I heard
only the approaching train. " In regard to the proper position

g 2% LETTER WRITING. 18

of this troublesome word, a good rule is, place it immedi-
ately before the word or phrase to which it belonga

**She looked at the tramp as he approached the door with
apprehension." The writer means that **she looked with
apprehension," not that **the tramp approached with appre-
hension." The ambiguity arises from the position of the
phrase **with apprehension"; this phrase should immedi-
ately follow the verb ** looked," which it modifies. In all
such cases, make it a rule to place modifying words and
phrases as closely as possible to the words they modify.

18. Ijength of Sentences. — If a sentence is well con-
structed, its length is a matter of secondary importance. As
a rule, however, the use of long sentences, especially by
young or inexperienced writers, is a fruitful source of obscu-
rity. In letter writing, it is better to use chiefly short sen-
tences, not because they are intrinsically better than long
ones, but because in the hurry of correspondence, the writer
is not likely to take time to properly construct a long
sentence.

Two defects are frequently observable in letters written
by inexperienced writers. One is a succession of very short
assertions each constituting a sentence ; the other is the con-
nection of several clauses that properly might constitute
sentences by the conjunctions ** and " and '* but." A young
man upon leaving home for the city would perhaps write to
his father as follows:

••Dear Father: — I arrived here safely last night» and this morning
I went to see Mr. Brown, and he is going to set me to work tomorrow,
and I am sure I shaU like the work very much, and I have found a very
good boarding place," etc.

Here are at least four distinct ideas bound together by the
word ** and." Following the requirements of unity, we make
a sing^le sentence of each idea.

•• Dear Father : — I arrived here safely last night This morning I
went to see Mr. Brown, and he is going to set me at work tomorrow.
I am sure I shall like the work very much. 1 have found a very good
boarding place,** etc.

14 LETTER WRITING. § 23

19, lioose and Periodic Sentences. — ^A loose sentence
is one in which the various parts — subject, predicate,
modifier, etc. — occur in the order that they naturally suggest
themselves to the mind.

A periodic sentence is one in which the parts are so
arranged that the sense is incomplete until the end is
reached.

The following are examples of loose and periodic sen-
tences :

Loose. Periodic

None but the fittest survive in
the great struggle for existence.

The modern system of technical
education renders inestimable aid
to men not only in engineering but
also in the ranks of the liberal pro-
fessions.

In the great struggle for exist-
ence, none but the fittest survive.

To men not only in engineering
but also in the ranks of the liberal
professions, the modem system of
technical education renders ines-
timable aid.

It will be observed that the loose sentence may be stopped
before the end is reached and yet make grammatical sense,
while the periodic sentence, on the other hand, is not a
sentence until the last word is reached; thus the clause
** None but the fittest survive " makes complete sense,but the
phrase ** In the great struggle for existence '* is incomplete.

The principle of suspense makes the periodic sentence
more emphatic than the loose sentence; hence, for the sake
of variety and force, it is advisable to use occasionally the
periodic form, provided the sentence is so short and simple
that the reader can grasp the meaning at once.

In general, the loose sentence is easier to construct and
easier to understand than the periodic sentence, simply
because it follows the order in which the words naturally
occur to a person, when he thinks of what he wishes to say
and not of the form of expression ; for this reason, the loose
sentence is especially adapted to conversation and letter wri-
ting. Periodic sentences are appropriate for stately and
formal composition.

20. Variety in tlie Use of Sentences. — In letter
writing, as in all other forms of written composition, the

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 15

choice of sentences should be influenced to some extent by
the principle of variety. While we should as a rule use
short sentences, we should not by accident or design fill a
page with sentences of nearly the same length. Such a
page makes monotonous reading. For the sake of variety,
a sentence rather longer than usual should be occasionally
introduced; and for the same reason the steady succession
of loose sentences should be broken at intervals by the more
forcible periodic sentences.

Usually the question of variety will take care of itself. If
the writer of a letter becomes absorbed in his subject and
pays little or no attention to the form of expression, his
sentences will naturally have sufficient variety. It is when
the writer laboriously attempts to construct sentences by
rule that his style is likely to become tame and monotonous.

PUNCTUATION.

21. The primary object of punctuation is to make as
clear as possible the meaning of what we write. Correct
punctuation always assists the reader in grasping the mean-
ing of a sentence even when that meaning would be fairly
obvious without punctuation; and in many sentences it is
only by the punctuation that the meaning can be understood
at all. Punctuation is therefore just as important a part of
the construction of sentences as the choice of words or the
arrangement of phrases and clauses; and it is as much the
duty of the letter writer to make his meaning clear by proper
pimctuation as by the use of carefully arranged sentences.

Unfortunately, punctuation is quite generally neglected
in letters; indeed, it is a rare occurrence to receive a letter
even from an educated person in which there is an attempt
at systematic punctuation. There is really no excuse for
this neglect, as punctuation is not at all an art difficult of
attainment. In ordinary letters it is very seldom necessary
to use any marks other than the period, comma, semicolon,
and interrogation point; and any one should easily learn the
use of these points.

16 LETTER WRITING. § 22

Punctuate as you write. Do not \mte the entire letter
and then sprinkle in the marks afterwards. After a little
practice you will insert the more common marks, the periods
and commas, almost automatically, just as you dot your /*s
and cross your /'s.

CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS.

32. A parasri*apli is a single sentence or a connected
series of sentences constituting the development of a single
topia

A letter should be paragraphed in the same manner as
other compositions. One topic having been fully dealt with,
the beginning of the next should be marked by a broken
line, preparing the reader for the transition.

Do not, however, mar the letter by too many paragraphs.
The amoimt and comprehensiveness of the material included
in a paragraph varies greatly, according to the length and
character of the composition, the office of the paragraph, and
the writer's individual taste. Of a short letter, for instance,
a paragraph may make up a large enough proportion to be
a main division of the plan; oftener, however, it contains
a much smaller section of the thought A paragraph that
merely makes a transition, or proposes a single idea as basis
for further development is much shorter than a paragraph
of detail. What is of more importance, however, than the
length is that every paragraph should have a definite topic
and structure, and should not be left, as is too often done by
writers otherwise good, to make itself.

The fundamental requisites of a paragraph are unity and
continuity.

23. Unity. — The paragraph is in reality an expanded
sentence, and like the sentence should contain but one lead-
ing topic or idea. In fact, if a paragraph has the proper
unity it should be possible to express the substance of it by
a single sentence.

The leading idea of the paragraph is contained in the topic

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 1?

sentence, which should be near the opening of the para-
graph. Usually the topic sentence is the first one; fre-
quently, however, it is preceded by a sentence that serves
to form a connection between the paragraph and the one
preceding.

The portion of the paragraph following the topic sen-
tence must have some relation to the topic. It may be
a proof, an illustration, an application, or a consequence of
the topic.

24. Contlniilty. — In a well constructed paragraph the
sentences follow one another in logical order and are so con-
nected that the thought is carried without interruption from
the beginning to the close.

Continuity may be secured by the judicious use of connect-
ing words and phrases; such as, and^ but^for^ hmacver^ hence ^
in fact^ for example^ etc. The student should, however,
guard against an excessive use of connectives; it is better to
occasionally leave the relation to be inferred than to have
every paragraph bristliog with hence *s, however's, accord-
ingly's, etc Frequently the relation is so obvious that the
connective is not needed ; and when this is not the case, it is
usually possible by an inversion of the order of the words or
by the repetition of a word to convey the sense of connec-
tion without using the connecting word.

As a rule, the law of continuity applies to the successive
paragraphs of a composition as well as to the sentences in
the paragraph. We should as far as possible join each para-
graph to the preceding by some sort of a connecting link,
so that the transition from paragraph to paragraph is made
with as little friction as possible.

In business, official, and public letters the topics introduced
are usually closely related and this principle of continuity
can be rigidly applied. As an example, see the letter of
Abraham Lincoln in reply to the invitation to attend the
Union mass meeting at Springfield, 111., which is given in
another section. In social and familiar letters, however, the
principle has necessarily a limited application. Such letters

18 LETTER WRITING. § 22

usually contain a variety of topics, some of which are in no
way related to others; and the transition from one paragraph
to another on an entirely foreign subject must of necessity ^
be somewhat abrupt

36. The following extract from an article by Captain
A.T. Mahan illustrates the qualities of unity and continuity:

••The establishment and maintenance of the blockade was, in the
judgment of the present writer, not only the first step in order, but also
the first by far in importance, open to the government of the United
States as things were; prior, that is, to the arrival of Cervera's division
at some known and accessible point. Its importance lay in its two-
fold tendency: to exhaust the enemy's army in Cuba, and to force the
navy to come to his relief. No effect more decisive than these two
could be produced by us before the coming of the hostile navy, or the
readiness of our own army to take the field, permitting the contest to
be brought, using the words of our Italian commentator, * to an imme-
diate issue.' Upon the blockade, there/ore, the generally accepted
principles of warfare would demand that effort should be concentrated,
until some evident radical change in the conditions dictated a change
of object — a new objective; upon which, when accepted, effort again
should be concentrated with a certain amount of * exclusiveness of
purpose.*

•• Blockade, however^ implies not merely a sufficient number of
cruisers to prevent the entry or departure of merchant ships. It
further implies, because it requires, a strong supporting force, . . .
etc."— Capt. A. T. Mahan, McCiure's Magazine, Feb., 1899.

The topic of the first paragraph, ** the importance of the
blockade," is stated in the first sentence. The two following
sentences are explanatory; they give the reasons for the
importance of the blockade. The last sentence of the para-
graph states the evident conclusion that effort should be
concentrated upon the blockade. The continuity is preserved
by the use of the pronouns, connectives, and repeated words
printed in Italic.

In the second paragraph (which is not given in full) the
topic is, ** the blockade requires a strong supporting force."
This paragraph is linked to the one preceding by the con-
nective ** however," thus fulfilling the law of continuity
between paragraphs.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 19

STYI^B IN I;ETTER WRITING.

INTRODUCTOBT.

26. Style refers to the manner in which one expresses
his thoughts in language; thus we say that one writer's
style is easy and flowing; another's is crisp and vigorous;
while another's may be labored and ponderous.

In general, letters differ from most other forms of written
discourse in having a more natural and easy mode of expres-
sion. In a letter there should be no straining after effect;
the diction should be simple, and figures of speech, if they
are used at all, should appear spontaneously, as they natiu^ally
would in conversation.

The letter- writing, or epistolary^ style, as we may term it,
is itself subject to variation ; in fact, almost every kind of
letter has an appropriate style, depending on the subject and
the person addressed. In familiar letters the style should
be familiar; in business letters, it should be direct and
concise; in official or public letters, it should be formal and
impressive. Letters to superiors should be respectful; to
relations, affectionate; to children, light and playful; and
all letters should be courteous.

In writing a letter, be sure to employ a style suitable to
the person and the character of the letter. To use the
familiar style of the domestic letter in writing to a stranger
or mere acquaintance would make you ridiculous in the eyes
of the recipient; on the other hand, a letter to a close friend
or a relative, written in the formal and concise style of the
business letter, would be equally inappropriate.

STYIiE IN BTTSINESS COBRESPONDEN-CE.

2 7. Brevity. — One of the essential qualities of business
correspondence that cannot be too strongly dwelt upon is
brevity. Many a young man has failed to get a situation
because he had too much to say when making his application.

i6 L£TTER WRITING. § 23

Business men have no time to waste, and appreciate brevity.
Brevity of expression, if combined with neatness, clearness,
and courtesy, always makes a good impression upon the true
business man. One of the greatest helps to success in any
walk of life is to think concisely and to express one's self
briefly.

** Be brief," Cyrus W. Field once advised a friend. " Time
is very valuable. Punctuality, honesty, and brevity are the
watchwords of life. Never write a long letter. A business
man has not time to read it. If you have anything to say, be
brief. There is no business so important that it cannot be
told on one sheet of paper. Years ago when I was laying
the Atlantic Cable, I had occasion to send a very important
letter to England. I knew it would have to be read by the
Prime Minister and by the Queen. I wrote out what I had
to say; it covered several sheets of paper; then I went over
it twenty times, eliminating words here and there, making
sentences brief, until finally I got all I had to say on one
sheet of paper. Then I mailed it. In due time I received
the answer. It was a satisfactory one, too; but do you think
I would have fared so well if my letter had covered half a
dozen sheets? No, indeed. Brevity is a rare gift."

Brevity should not be attained, however, by the omission
of words essential to grammatical construction. It is a
common fault of many business men to drop pronouns and
verbs as in the following: ** Yours of 15th inst. received, and
in reply enclose draft, etc." Such omissions denote haste
on the part of the writer rather than a desire to shorten the
letter for the convenience of the recipient.

Brevity is promoted by the liberal use of the terms and
phrases peculiar to business, and it is the duty of a person
engaged in business correspondence to familiarize himself
with such terms as are peculiar to the line of business in
which he is engaged.

28. Aside from brevity, the style employed in business
letters should be distinguished by clearness and accuracy.
Clearness is promoted by the use of short, direct sentences.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 21

A business letter is the least appropriate place for long or
involved sentences. Avoid especially the conjunctions and
and but.

Several points regarding business letters that do not prop-
erly belong to style will be given later under the heading
** General Suggestions."

STYLES IN SOCIAL. LETTERS.

39. The style of expression adapted to social letters is
more difficult to acquire than the direct and concise style of
business correspondence. Many that write good business
letters are prone to carry the business style into their other
correspondence and write dull and uninteresting social
letters.

The principal quality of the style of a social letter is
naturalness. Write a letter to a friend in the same language
that you would use in talking to him. Think of what you
would say to him if he were at your side and say these
things in the letter. Avoid affectation, and do not use big
words and ornamental language that you would not think of
using in conversation. Write a letter, not an essay.

The quality of brevity is not so essential in social letters
as in business letters. One can take time to read a letter of
some length if it is interesting. In a friendly letter do not
hesitate to write of little every-day details that you would
naturally bring up in conversation. Proceed upon the prin-
ciple that anything that w411 interest a person in conversa-
tion will interest him in a letter. When, however, you have
written what you have to say, close your letter; do not fall
into the pemiciqus habit of writing words merely to fill
space.

30. Many writers experience difficulty in the opening
and closing sentences of a letter. The opening should be
perfectly natural and should introduce the subject upper-
most in the mind. Avoid in the opening such set phrases
as ** I now take my pen in hand to tell you that I am well,

22 LETTER WRITING. § 22

etc.," ** I thought I would drop you a line to let you know,
etc." A familiar letter usually ends with an expression of
compliment or affection in addition to the complimentary
close.

A few suggestive examples of the opening and closing
sentences of letters are here given:

{William Cowper to his cousin,^

Olney, April 24. 1786.
My dear Coz.,

Your letters are so much my comfort, that I often tremble lest

by accident I should be disappointed ; and the more because you have

been more than once engaged in company on the writing day, that I

have had a narrow escape. Let me give you a piece of good counsel,

my cousin: follow my laudable example — write when you can; take

Time's forelock in one hand and a pen in the other and make sure of

your opportunity

The grass begins to grow, and the leaves to bud, and everything is
preparing to be beautiful against you come. Adieu, my dear Co*.

Ever yours,

W. Cowper.

(Addison to Swift.)

St. James*s Place,. April 11, 1710.
Dear Sir,

I have run so much in debt with you, that I do not know how to
excuse myself, and therefore shall throw myself wholly upon your
good nature ; and promise if you will pardon what is past, to be more

punctual with you in the future

Pray, dear Doctor, continue your friendship towards me, who love
and esteem you, if possible, as much as you deserve.

I am ever, dear sir,* yours entirely,

J. Addison.

{Bernard Barton to George Crabbe, )

Woodbridge, August 20, 1846.
I was going to begin *• My dear old Friend," for I have sometimes
hard work to convince myself that our acquaintance is only of a few
years* standing

( Thomas Hood to a child.)

Devonshire Lodge, New Finchley Road, July 1, 1844.
How do you do ? and how do you like the sea ? Not much, perhaps;
ifs •• so big." But shouldn't you like a nice little ocean that you could
put in a pan ? . . . •

§ 22 ^ LETTER WRITING. 23

{Charles Lamb to Coleridge.^

March 9, 1822.
It g^ves me g^eat satisfaction to hear that the pig turned out so
well — they are interesting creatures at a certain age — what a pity
such buds should blow out into the maturity of rank bacon ! . . . •

GENERAIi SUGGESTIONS.

31. Courtesy in Ijetter Writing:. — The first and most
important rule to be observed by the writer of a letter is:
Be courteous. He was a gentleman that said, **I would as
soon give a man a bad sixpence as a bad word. " Courtesy
is but paying the debt of self-respect. Write nothing but
kind words, and you will have nothing but kind echoes.
Francis of Assisi justly said: **Know thou not that Courtesy
is of God's own properties, who sendeth His rain and His
sunshine upon the just and the unjust, out of His great
Courtesy; verily Courtesy is the sister of Charity, who
banishes Hatred and cherishes Love. "

It is in the field of social correspondence that the true lady
and the truly manful man have, perhaps, the best oppor-
tunity to manifest that real gentleness, amiability, and
singleness of purpose to say and do what is right, so becom-
ing to the men and women of a Christian age and country.
Show us a people's letters of affection, of condolence, sym-
pathy, and congratulation, and we can at once determine
their moral, social, and political worth.

Courtesy is, besides, an important element in business
success. With some it is their capital and stock in trade.
It has made the fortune of many a man. Other things being
equal, we all prefer to do business with the man that is
agreeable and courteous in his dealings; and these qualities,
therefore, increase his business. What is true of conversa-
tion applies also to business done through the medium of
correspondence. An imperious or commanding tone is
always offensive and should be carefully avoided in letter
writing. Compare the following :

24 LETTER WRITING. § 22

" You will write me immediately upon the receipt of this letter/'
••Will you kindly write me immediately, etc."?
*• Please write me immediately, etc."

The sentence as first written is rendered commanding^ in
tone by the words **You will"; and unless it is the right
and duty of the writer to command, the form of expression
would be likely to give the recipient a disagreeable impres-
sion. By the use of the word kindly or the word please^ the
sentence losds its commanding tone and becomes a courteous
request,

33. Deliberation. — No one should write a letter when
angry, nor, as a rule, when inclined to say severe things.
If one receives a letter provoking him to anger it is better
t(5 wait a little before answering; then probably the style of
his reply will be entirely changed. Words hastily spoken,
and letters written in haste or anger, one usually would like
later to recall. Hasty or vindictive words make enemies and
endanger business, while kind words make and hold friends.
Make it a rule never to write a letter when strongly excited.
Wait until reason again assumes full control of your actions.
This caution applies not only to excitement due to anger, but
also to the excitement of affection.

33. Truthfulness. — In writing, as in talking, we should
always be strictly truthful. Untruthfulness often leads to
unfair dealing and possibly to crime, while strict truthful-
ness and honesty in small, as well as large, things gains the
confidence of others, and is best as a matter of policy, if for
no higher motive. True and lasting business success comes
only from honor and strict integrity.

34. Moderation. — Closely related to truthfulness is the
quality of moderation. Do not fall into the habit of using
exaggerated expressions such as **just too splendid," '* per-
fectly gorgeous/' ** perfectly awful," ** immense," etc. Be
moderate in the use of descriptive adjectives. Do not
exaggerate.

§ 22 ^LETTER WRITING. 25

35.^ Orlfiflnallty. — The mcdel letters given in this
paper are intended to be merely suggestive. The student
should study them carefully for the purpose of improving
his style, diction, punctuation, paragraphing, eta, but he
should never be guilty of copying word for word any part of
one of them in a letter of his own. The copying of another's
language without due acknowledgment is plagiarism^ an
offense justly considered as no better than theft. If you
express another's ideas or sentiments, at least do so in your
own language.

36. Copylngr liCtters. — Business people usually keep
copies of all important letters for possible future reference.
The plan ordinarily adopted is to take a letter-press copy on
tissue paper; when this is done copying ink must be used in
writing the letter. In the case of typewritten letters, a
carbon copy may be made when the letter is written. If the
letter is an answer, it is convenient to file the copy with the
letter answered. It is not customary to preserve copies of
social letters.

37. Enclosing: Stanlp, — A letter asking a favor or
treating of business in which only the writer and not the
recipient is interested, should have a stamp enclosed for the
answer. It is rather too much to expect a person to devote
his time to affairs that concern only yourself and pay postage
in addition. The enclosed stamp may be fastened to the paper
by slightly moistening one corner. Perhaps a better plan is
to stick it by the gummed margin connected to the outer
row of a sheet of stamps, as then the stamp maybe removed
without danger of tearing the comer.

38. Promptness of Ans^vers. — From the standpoint
of the recipient of the letter, correspondence demands close
and courteous attention. Letters, especially business letters,
should be answered with reasonable promptness. A busi-
ness man that remits promptly at maturity, and acknowl-
edges orders or remittances promptly, is esteemed by those
with whom he has business relations. The good will thus
gained may be of value.

26 LETTER WRITING. § 22

In the case of social letters, the interval of time between
letter and answer depends, of course, on the relation of the
correspondents.

39. Date of Ijetter Ansrvered. — The answer to a busi-
ness letter should contain a reference to the date of the letter
answered; thus, *• In answer to your letter of the 10th inst,"
or ** Your letter of May 3 is at hand." Frequently the
original letter must be referred to in connection with the
answer, and the reference to the date may save much time
in finding the right lettec

40. Recapitulation. — Besides the date of the letter
answered there should properly be some reference in the
opening sentence of the answer to the business under con-
sideration. Thus, ** Your letter of the 8th inst. concerning
the application of Samuel Hall is at hand." This reference
to the subject of the original letter will recall the business
to the mind of your correspondent and possibly save him the
trouble of looking up the letter.

41. Care of liCtters. — Important letters are of course
preserved by the recipient. Business men usually make use
of some form of letter file, in which the letters are arranged
in the alphabetical order of the initials of the names of the
senders. Unanswered letters are kept separate. In lieu of
a better method the letters may be folded to a uniform size,
arranged, and tied up in bundles. It is well in this case to
write on one end of the back of the letter the date, name of
writer, and date of answer. In addition the subject of the
letter may be noted.

Copies are preserved in a letter book; if carbon copies are
taken they may be filed like the letters.

42. Neatness. — Always be careful in the writing of a
letter to avoid blots, corrections, or erasures. If one knows
well what he wishes to say, there is no excuse for leaving
out essential words or for repeating a word. In letters to
relatives and friends one should show respect enough not to

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 27

send a carelessly written letter, marred with blots and ink
staina Business letters, however, demand especial care in
this regard. A letter of application, for example, if badly-
written, may be the means of losing a position that otherwise
might have been secured. Make the letter perfect as regards
neatness and accuracy, even if it has to be rewritten.

43. Spelling:. — An e3sential as important as neatness is
correct spelling. A writer that is not a good speller should
constantly refer to a dictionary for the spelling of words that
he is not sure of. In fact, the writing of letters is one of the
best means of obtaining a knowledge of spelling, provided
the writer conscientiously tries to avoid mistakes.

44. liegriblllty. — Do not write so that your correspond-
ent may be imable to read your letter, or meet with great
difficulty in doing so.

Mr. Thomas Bailey Aldrich once received a letter from
his friend, Professor E. S. Morse, and finding the handwri-
ting absolutely illegible, sent the following reply:

My dear Mr. Morse — It was very pleasant to receive a letter from
you the other day. Perhaps I should have found it pleasanter if I had
been able to decipher it. I don't think I mastered anything beyond the
date, which I knew, and the signature, which I guessed at. There is
a singular and perpetual charm in a letter of yours. It never gprows
old ; it never loses its novelty. One can say to oneself every morning:
** Here's a letter of Morse's. I haven't read It yet. I think I shall take
another shy at it today, and maybe I'll be able in the course of a few
years to make out what he means by those fs that look like «/'& and
those fs that haven't any eyebrows." Other letters are read and thrown
away and forgotten, but yours are kept forever unread. One of them
will last a reasonable man a lifetime.

Admiringly yours,

Thomas Bailey Aldrich.

45. Signatures. — We have before referred to the neces-
sity of writing the signature legibly (see Part 1, Art. 33).
This point, however, cannot be too strongly emphasized.
Sign your name to the letter so that there can be no possible
doubt as .to the spelling. Some business men cultivate a
characteristic signature, which they use for checks and
business papers. Such a signature is often purposely almost

28 LETTER WRITING. § 23

illegible, and obviously should not be used for a letter except
to a well known correspondent,

Care should be taken that the letter is signed. Type-
written letters, in particular, are liable to be mailed without
signature. Carelessness in this respect on the part of the
writer must result in annoyance and loss of time and may
result in loss of money.

46. Superscription. — Faulty envelope addresses are
about as frequent as omitted signatures. Indeed, it is not
at all unusual for the superscription to be omitted entirely,
especially in the case of postal cards. Make it a rule always
to write the superscription of a postal card before you write
the communication. See that the superscription is so com-
plete that it is sure to reach the person addressed. Scores
of letters never reach their destination merely because that
destination is not indicated with sufficient clearness on the
envelope.

47. Address. — In an important letter, one should give
his full address if he desires an answer.

48. Titles. — In regard to titles, one should be careful to
give to others appropriate titles, but should not use them in
connection with his own name. Thus, one should, when
proper, use Rev., Hon., Prof., etc. in the address and super-
scription but not in the signature. One may, however,
attach his professional title, as M.D. or M.E., in business or
official letters, but should not do so in familiar or social letters.

Never use the two titles, Mr. and Esq. with the same
name; as, ** Mr. William Burr, Esq." If you use the Mr.,
omit the Esq., and vice versa.

49. Use of FlfiTures. — In the body of a letter figures
should not, in general, be used except in writing dates or
sums of money. If, however, there are many large numbers
it is better to express them by figures. The usage shquld be
uniform throughout the letter; if a number is written In
words in one part of the letter, another number, used in a
similar sense, should not be expressed by figures.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 29

60. Pasring:. — The separate sheets of a letter — when the
letter consists of more than one sheet — should be numbered
con^cutively. The first sheet need not be numbered. In
typewritten letters it is quite customary to write the initials
of the name of the person written to, the date, and number
of the sheet at the top of the sheet; as, C. P. T., 3-15-99—
the figures 3-15-99 indicating, of course, March 15, 1899.

61. The mffht Envelope. — When several letters are
written consecutively there is danger of getting the letter in
the wrong envelope. It is best to insert the letter in the
envelope as soon as it is written, but when for any reason
this is impracticable, each letter should be placed under the
flap of the proper envelope. When the letters are ready for
sealing, the clerk, or whoever folds and seals them, should
glance at the name on each letter and see that it corresponds
to the name on the envelope.

63. SealinflT. — In sealing letters care should be taken
not to soil the envelope. With an ordinary gummed envelope,
it is well to place a blotter or clean sheet of paper over the
envelope rather than allow the hand to come in contact with
it. Ladies often seal their social letters with wax, using a
seal on which their initial or initials have been engraved.
Letters of recommendation, introduction, and some formal
notes, when delivered personally, should not be sealed.

AlfALYSIS OF LETTERS.

BUSINESS liETTERS.

liETTERS ORDERTNG GOODS.

53. A letter ordering goods should contain very few
words except the order, unless some special instnictions are
to be given.

The order, if short, is usually placed in the body of the
letter, though it may be placed at the bottom of the letter if

30 LETTER WRITING. § 22

desired. A long- order should occupy a separate sheet
When the list of goods is written in the body of the letter,
each item should be given a separate line or two or more
lines if necessary.

In ordering any kind of goods give a full description of
the articles wanted so that there may be no error in filling
the order. Very often goods are ordered from a dealer's
catalogue, in which the various qualities and styles are desig-
nated by numbers or some other distinguishing marks; in
this case, the order should give the number, the quantity,
the price, and when necessary a list of the sizes desired. If
the firm from which you order has a special form or blank
that they desire used, you should accede to their wishes and
their instructions in every detail.

Unless the party written to knows from previous orders
the conveyance by which you wish the goods shipped, you
should state your preference on this point.

In ordering goods from a business house with which the
writer has a business connection, it is not necessary to say
anything in the order about the terms of payment. When,
however, one orders from a firm with which he has no
business standing, he should either send the money with
the order, give suitable references, or order the goods
sent C. O. D.

Letter Ordering Merchandise.

Danville, III.,

March 8, 1890

Owens, Cleland & Co.,
Chicago, 111.

Gentlemen^

Referring to your catalogfue No. 81, please send me the goods
noted in the enclosed list.

I shall need these goods for the Easter trade, and shall, therefore,
expect them without delay.

Ship by the C. & E. I. Ry.

Yours very truly,

Simeon C. Gordon.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 81

List of Goods.
Order of March 8, 1899. sent by S. C. Gordon, Danville, lU.
Neckwear:

8 Doz. Assorted Tecks, at $4.26

2 '• •* Imperials, *• 450

12 *• String Ties. •• 1.00

6 •* Band Bows, •• 2.25

Half Hose:

9« 10 10« 11

8 Doz., No. 423. Fancy Stripe, at f2.25. J 1 1 }

10 *• No. 437, Black. *• 1.10, 2 3 8 3

3 *♦ No. 444. Fancy, •• 4.25, J ^ ^ }

6 •' No. 392. Seamless, •• .75,

Handkerchiefs :

6 Doz., No. 874, Japanese, at $1.00

8 ** No. 842. White H. S., •* 2.25

10 «• No. 817, White. Cord Edge. •* .50

Belts:

80 82 34 36 88 40

2 Doz., No. 367. at $4.50 3 4 5 6 8 8

4 •• No. 374. '• 2.25 4 6 12 12 8 6

Underwear:

8 J Doz., No. 86. Plain Balbriggan. at $4.50
30 32 343638404244
Shirts. I 1 1 1 i i

Drawers, } } 1 1 i }

Umbrellas:

1 Doz., No. 311, 26 inch, at $ .75 each
1 •• No. 314. 28 " *• .90
} " No. 322. 27 •• •• 1.50
i '• No. 331. 28 '• " 2.00
J " No. 369. 28 •• •• 2.50

64. Analysis. — This letter is written by Mr. Gordon,
who conducts a men's furnishing store in Danville, to Owens,
Cleland & Co., wholesale dealers, in Chicago.

The letter is brief and to the point. In the first sentence
Mr. Gordon indicates that in making up the list of goods
ordered he has been guided by the wholesale firm's catalogue,
and to prevent any misunderstanding gives the number of
the catalogue. In filling the order, the clerks of Owens,
Cleland & Co. will consult their catalogue No. 31 for the
styles and qualities of the goods named in the list.

•I
«•
«*
ti

33 LETTER WRITING. § 28

In the second paragraph the writer properly cautions the
wholesale firm against delay. It is always well, in such
cases, to state the time the goods are desired. If the goods
are wanted at once, say ** Ship at once," or ** Ship without
delay"; if there is no hurry, you may say, ** Ship at your
convenience, or ** Please ship the goods named in the
enclosed order," without reference to the time of shipment.

In the last sentence the route is indicated. It is frequently
more convenient for a merchant to receive his goods at a
certain freight station or express office. When such is the
case he should indicate his preference in the order and the
shippers should of course respect his wishes in the matter.
Sometimes it is necessary to indicate also whether the ship-
ment shall be made by freight or express. In this case
directions in this particular are unnecessary, as the dealers
will naturally ship by freight unless directed to do otherwise.

Little comment is required on the rhetorical construction
of the letter. The style employed is the typical, concise
business style. In three short sentences the writer says all
that is necessary, arid any additional words would be wasted.

The sentences are clear and grammatically correct It
may be noted that in the first sentence the object of the
verb send is goods. Not infrequently an order reads some-
what like this: ** Please send me the enclosed list of goods."
Here the object of the verb is list. The writer in reality
asks the dealers to send him the list that he sends them,
though he of course means to request them to ship the goods.
These little points in precision and grammatical accuracy are
what distinguish really good letter writers.

The letter being short, each sentence constitutes a para-
graph. Obviously the first two sentences are closely enough
connected to form one paragraph, but there can be no.
objection to the present arrangement. The last sentence
should of course constitute a separate paragraph.

While the letter is courteous, the terms of courtesy are
not multiplied. The commanding tone that the first sen-
tence might have is avoided by the word ** please." There
would be no particular objection to a repetition of this word

§ 22 tEtTER Writing. ds

in the last sentence ; however, as this sentence is merely a
direction and in no sense a request, the omission of some
such word as please or kindly would not be construed as a
discourtesy by any business man. It would be inappropriate
to say, **I will be much obliged if you will kindly ship by
the C. & E. I. Ry. *' When stated in this form, the sentence
gives the impression that Mr. Gordon is asking a particular
favor, whereas, in reality, to designate the route is his right.

The complimentary close, ** Yours very truly," is formal
and sufficiently courteous, considering the relation of the
correspondents. "Yours respectfully " would be proper,
but ** Your dutiful servant '* would be quite out of place.

The arrangement of the parts of the letter leaves nothing
to be desired. The heading consists of two lines, as it'should,
being rather long. The address also occupies two lines. As
this business house is well known in Chicago, it is unneces-
sary to give street and number in the inside address, but it
maybe placed on the envelope, as a possible aid to the postal
clerks. The salutation ** Gentlemen " is correct. The body
of the letter begins on the space below the salutation, though
it might properly begin on the same line.

We turn now to the punctuation of the letter. In the
heading, the four items are separated by commas, a period
follows the abbreviation *' 111.,*' and another is placed at the
end. In the address the items are likewise separated by
commas, and a comma separates the two names in the firm.
According to the ordinary rules for the use of commas, it
may be urged that a comma should follow the name **Cle-
land " also, but it is the universal custom to write firm names
with the punctuation given in the letter. The period after
the abbreviation ** 111." serves also to mark the close of the
address. The salutation ** Gentlemen" is followed by a
comma. Some writers prefer to use a colon, and many use
the dash with either the comma or colon. The dash should
be used when the body of the letter follows the salutation on
the same line, but we see no good reason for using it when
the salutation is on the line above the body of the letter.
In the first sentence the comma after **31" separates the

34 LETTER WRITING. g 22

preceding phrase from the following remainder of the sen-
tence. In the second sentence the comma after ** trade " sep-
arates the two clauses of the sentence ; the word ** therefore **
is of a parenthetical nature and is set off by commas. Periods
follow each of the three sentences and the abbreviations of
the name of the railroad. The complimentary close is fol-
lowed by a comma, as it should be, and the signature is
followed by a period.

Each proper name begins with a capital letter. The first
word of each sentence begins with a capital letter, as does
also the salutation and the complimentary close. The abbre-
viation of the railroad consists of the initial letters of the
name ** Chicago and Eastern Illinois*'; and each letter is a
capital. The word ** Easter" also begins with a capital.

55. The order is written not in the body of the letter,
but on separate sheets. The writer consults the convenience
of his correspondents by closely following their catalogue.
Doing so, he divides his letter into several paragraphs, each
with a heading taken from the catalogue clearly indicating
the class of goods he wishes to order.

Under the heading ** Neckwear" appear four items, each
occupying one line. First is given the quantity, then the style
or variety, and at the end of the item, the price per dozen.

Under the heading ** Half Hose,** we have in addition to
the' quantity, style, and price, the catalogue number and a
list of the sizes. The use of the catalogue number saves a
lengthy description of the quality, material, etc., as this
description is given in the catalogue under the number in
question. The rows of figures at the right denote the sizes
ordered; thus, the first item if written in full would read,
**3 doz. Fancy Stripe, ^ doz. of size 9^, 1 doz. of size 10,
1 doz. of size 10^, and \ doz. of size 11.*' In business prac-
tice, fractional sizes are always indicated as here shown.
9' denotes 9^, 9* denotes 9 J, and 9* denotes 9J-.

In ordering goods that are made in different sizes, the
merchant is careful to indicate the quantity required of each
size, having regard for the probable demand for the various

^ 22 LETTER WRITING. 35

sizes and for the condition of the stock on hand. Thus, in the
present instance, the merchant orders a larger quantity of the
medium sizes 10 and 10^ than of the extreme sizes 9^ and 11.

Under the fourth heading ** Belts," the number of belts
is indicated for each size from 30 to 40 ; and under the head-
ing ** Underwear," the number of dozens, the fraction of a
dozen of both shirts and drawers are given for each of the
sizes from 30 to 44. The merchant after looking over his
stock concludes that he requires no more shirts of sizes 30
and 32 or drawers of sizes 42 and 44. Had he neglected to
give the sizes required and depended on the wholesale
house for an assortment, they might make up the bulk of the
order of one size of which .they have a surplus on hand.

There are some points regarding punctuation, capitalization,
and abbreviations that deserve notice. The heading of each
paragraph, as ** Neckwear," **Half Hose," etc., is properly
followed by a colon. This follows from the principle that a
colon should precede a series of particulars or a series of items.
The punctuation of the individual items follows ordinary
rules; thus, the catalogue number, being parenthetical, is sep-
arated by commas from what precedes and follows; and the
phrases '*at $2. 25," **at $1.10,"etc. are also set off by commas.

In orders, invoices, and advertisements, capital letters are
used very freely; in fact, it is almost the rule to begin each
word with a capital letter, and the exception to begin a
word with a small letter. The order under consideration is
no exception; almost every word save the preposition **at"
is dignified by a capital. Whether this excessive use of the
capital letters is justifiable from the rhetorical point of view
is a question. The fact remains, however, that it is a uni-
versal custom among business men, and in this case, as in
most others, custom makes law.

Another characteristic of the order is the free use of abbre-
viations. The word ** dozen" is invariably abbreviated to
Doz. or Dz., generally with a capital letter, and the ditto
abbreviation •* is largely used. There are other abbre-
viations peculiar to the class of goods; thus, **H.S." for
'* hemstitched." The general rule, **Do not abbreviate in

36 LETTER WRITING. § 22

letter writing," is reversed in orders for goods, and becomes,
** Abbreviate wherever possible."

The letter that we have just analyzed will give the student
an idea of the forms employed in ordering goods. An order
from a merchant in some other line of business, say sta-
tionery or hardware, would, of course, differ somewhat in
little details from the order just considered, but the body of
the letter would be substantially the same. It is manifestly
impossible to give here all the intricate details that may
arise in correspondence relating to various kinds of business.
We can give only general principles; but a student that
understands these principles relatirg to letters ordering
goods, will readily master the details pertaining to any par-
ticular business that he may be engaged in.

LETTERS ACKNOWLEDGING ORDERS.

66, Except in the case of small mail orders, where the
sending of the goods constitutes a sufficient acknowledgment,
it is a commendable custom to acknowledge an order imme-
diately upon its receipt. The sender of the order upon
receipt of the acknowledgment feels that his order is receiv-
ing attention.

Some firms acknowledge the order by sending an invoice;
this custom is not to be recommended unless the invoice
states the probable date of shipment; and in any case, a
formal letter is better.

Letter Acknowledging Order For Goods.

Chicago, III.,

March 5, 1899.
Mr. Simeon C. Gordon,

Danville, IlL
Dear Sir,

We beg to acknowledge the receipt of your valued order of the

8d inst. The goods noted therein will be shipped today by the

C. & E. I. Ry. We trust you will find them satisfactory.

Thanking you for this order and hoping to be favored by others in

the future, we remain.

Yours very truly,

Ow£NS, Cleland & Co.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 87

57. Analysis. — Messrs. Owens, Cleland & Co., recog-
nizing the value of a prompt acknowledgment, immediately
write Mr. Gordon upon the receipt of his order. They
inform him that his order has been received and that the
goods ordered will be forwarded on the day of their writing.

By the fact of their mentioning the date of his order, Mr.
Gordon will at once perceive that reference is made to his
letter of March 3, enclosing that order. He might have
written Owens, Cleland & Co. another letter the same day
enclosing a check or money order, or he might have written
them on the 4th, enclosing another and quite different order
for goods. Hence the value of the particular reference to
his letter of March 3 enclosing a special list of goods. It is
always, indeed, advisable for a business man or firm to men-
tion the date of the letter that is being answered.

After this reference to the .date, Owens, Cleland & Co.
inform their correspondent that they will ship the goods by
the desired route and express the hope that they will be
found satisfactory. They then courteously express thanks
for the order and conclude by asking for future orders.

This letter is in all respects one that a great business firm
might properly address to a reliable and trustworthy cus-
tomer. The letter is brief, but not so brief as to give the
impression of haste or discourtesy. The actual information
conveyed might have been put in one sentence; thus, ** We
have received your order of the 3d and will ship goods
today." If, however, the letter consisted of this single
statement, it would seem curt and would not perhaps pro-
duce a favorable impression on the recipient. By the use
of the word ** valued" in the first sentence, the firm gives
Mr. Gordon the impression that they value his order and
are glad to have business relations with him. Of course
Mr. Gordon may take it for granted that Owens, Cleland
& Co. are glad to receive an order, but the assurance is
nevertheless in some degree gratifying. Any one is pleased
to feel that a favor on his part is appreciated.

The third sentence expressing the hope that the goods will
be satisfactory shows that the firm is anxious to please the

38 LETTER WRITING. § 22

customer in the quality of the goods. An Expression of this
character is always appropriate in an acknowledgment of an
order. The last sentence is in keeping with the preceding
portion of the letter; it is practically a request for the con-
tinuation and enlargement of the business relations existing
between the firm and Mr. Gordon.

The sentences of the letter are short, clear, and grammatic-
ally correct. The first three sentences are closely connected
and naturally form one paragraph. It will be noticed that
the continuity is secured seemingly without attention on the
part of the writer. In the second sentence, ** therein " refers
to the order mentioned in the first sentence ; and the third
sentence is connected to the second by the pronoun ** them "
referring to the ** goods " of the second sentence. The last
sentence merges into the complimentary close and for that
reason is made a paragraph. It is a general rule that when
the closing sentence of a letter is preparatory to the compli-
mentary close, it should begin a new paragraph.

The arrangement of the parts of the letter is faultless.
The address should Clearly occupy two lines, and, the letter
being short, it is perhaps preferable to begin the body on
the line below the salutation. There is some difference of *
opinion as to the proper position of the clause ** we remain "
in the last sentence. Some prefer to put it on a separate
line; thus:

by others in the future.

We remain.

Yours very truly,

Owens, Cleland & Co.

In this case **we " must begin with a capital letter. We
believe it is better, however, to write this clause in the body of
the sentence. In either case, it must be set off by commas.

There is nothing in the punctuation or capitalization of
the letter that requires special comment

58. For the student's guidance, we append two shorter
letters ordering goods and the acknowledgments thereto:

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 39

Bay City, Mich.,

May 7. 1899.
Mbssrs. Keuffel & ESSER,

New York.
GentUmen.—VlGSiSG ship by American Express, C. O. D., the fol-
lowing:

12 Quires Universal Paper. 27" X 40". at $2.25 per Quire.
8 *» Paragon •* 22" X 30", " 2.50 **
100 Sheets Whatman's No. 2. 19" X24". at .10 per Sheet.
5 Doz. Patent Office Bristol Board. No. 21. 15" X 20", at .60 per Doz.
1 Roll No. 150 Tracing Cloth. 36 in., at 8.25.
Kindly credit me with the usual discount.

Yours truly,

J. C. Saunders,

230 Huron St.

New York, May 10, 1899.
Mr. J. C. Saunders,

280 Huron St..

Bay City. Mich.

Dear Sir: — The order with which you have kindly favored us,
under date of May 7, has been filled and shipment will be made today.
We trust that the articles will reach you in good condition, and hope
to be favored with many future orders.

Very truly yours,

Keuffel & Esser.

Per J.

Franklin, Ia., July 6, 1898.
The Deering Harvester Co.,

Chicago. 111.
Gen/Zemen,

Please ship us at once by fast freight 20 Deering harvesters.

Yours truly,

Spencer & Loi-tus.

Chicago. III.,

July 8, 1898.
Spencer & Loftus,

Franklin. Ta.

Geniiemen^

We have today received your order of the 6th inst., for which

accept our thanks. We will ship the harvesters tomorrow, the 9th, at

the latest

Yours respectfully,

The Deering Harvester Co.

Per M. R. W.

iO LETTER WRITING. § 22

I^ETTERS OF APPLICATION.

69. Under this heading we class letters appl3ring for
emplojmient. In such a letter, state your qualifications
clearly, modestly, and in a businesslike tone. Answer all
particulars mentioned in the advertisement. Do not send
the originals of testimonials in applying for a situation, but
copy each testimonial on a separate sheet, marked **Copy "
at the top of the page.

The writer's letter of application is often the only evidence
of his fitness for a position ; therefore, great care should be
taken in the writing and in the wording of the letter. Numer-
ous advertisements seen in the papers close with the words,
** Apply in your own handwriting," showing the importance
that business men place on good penmanship. Read your
letter over carefully before sending it, and if you see any
way in which the wording might be improved, or find a
single mistake, the letter should by all means be rewritten.

Your success in securing the place may depend on slight
extra trouble on your part in writing the letter. If the
position is an important one, you will be almost sure to fail
in securing it, unless your letter of application is carefully
written.

The applicant should usually state what his education has
been; what experience, if any, he has had in business; his
age, habits, qualifications, etc.; and give any general infor-
mation concerning himself that might interest the persons
addressed. It is well to enclose copies of letters of recom-
mendation, if he have such. While the applicant should
state his qualifications clearly, it is equally important that he
state them 'modestly as well.

Letter of Application.

Auburn, N. Y., May 24. 1899.

The Buckeye Engine Co.,

Salem, Ohio.
Gentlemen :

On account of the state of my wife's health it has become
necessary for me to leave Auburp for some place better suited to her
requirements. I should like, therefore, to obtain a situation with

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 41

your firm, either as a foreman in your machine shop or as a Journey-
man machinist

I am thirty-six years of age. For the past seven years I have been
employed in the shops of Mcintosh, Seymour & Co.. and during the
last three years 1 have held the position of assistant foreman, having
charge of their lathe and planer hands. 1 am qualified to do first-class
work on light and heavy lathes, planers, milling machines, and grind-
ing machines ; I have also had some experience in toolmaking, and am
a good vise hand.

As to my character and ability, I refer, by permission, to Mr. John
W. Lee, Superintendent, and to Mr. Henry R. Fielding, General Fore-
man for Mcintosh, Seymour & Co., and to Mr. H. E. Deitman, Super-
intendent of the B. W. Payne & Sons' Engine Co., Elmira, N. Y., with
which firm I was formerly employed.

Awaiting an answer, at your convenience, I remain.

Very respectfully yours,
287 State Street Chas. W. Baldwin,

60. Anal^'^ls. — A letter of application for employment
should be brief and to the point. If the applicant is already
employed, he should state his reasons for desiring a change;
if he is not employed, he should state whom he worked for
last and why he is not working at the time he writes his
letter. In many cases, the age of tlie applicant is a matter
of serious consideration; hence, as a rule, he should state
his age. The applicant should state what experience he has
had in the particular line of work for which he seeks employ-
ment: As a general rule, references are more valuable than
letters of recommendation ; consequently, the applicant
should obtain permission to refer to his previous employers.
Any other reference is undesirable in cases like that outlined
in the above letter. Let us see how Mr. Baldwin has fulfilled
our requirements.

Mr. Baldwin is employed with Mcintosh, Seymour & Co.,
of Auburn, N. Y. , a firm well known throughout the United
States as builders of high-grade automatic cut-off shaft gov-
ernor engines. He has been employed with this firm for
seven years, during the last three of which he has been one
of their assistant foremen. He is a good machinist himself,
and has worked in other machine shops, one of which is that
of B. W. Payne & Sons, of Elmira, N. Y., who build the

42 LETTER WRITING. § 22

same general class of engines as Mcintosh, Seymour & Co.
On account of the state of his wife's health, Mr. Baldwin
decides that it would be best to move to some place having
a more suitable climate, and therefore writes to The Buckeye
Engine Co., Salem, Ohio, a firm engaged in the same line of
business as Mcintosh, Seymour & Co.

Mr. Baldwin begins his letter by stating his reasons for
changing employers. He writes that his wife has poor
health, and leaves it to be inferred that this is his only
reason for leaving the employ of Mcintosh, Seymour & Co.,
as is really the case. He does not waste any words; he does
not tell of the numerous conferences that they have had
with their physician — all these are private matters and are
of no interest whatever to The Buckeye Engine Co.

In the next sentence, he states the kind of a situation he
desires, and he writes in a straightforward manner that
indicates that he feels confident of his ability to fill either
position satisfactorily. It will be noticed that neither here
nor in any other part of the letter does he write something
like this: "Should you desire to accept my services, I am
certain that I can fill either position to your entire satisfac-
tion." Such remarks are wholly unnecessary and tend to
weaken the force of the letter. The fact that he has worked
for the same firm for seven years, for the last three as assist-
ant foreman, and is leaving of his own accord, is sufficient.
A man is always expected to do his work to the best of his
ability, and there is no reason for his bragging about what
it is taken for granted he will do. Note also that of the two
positions mentioned, the higher one is named first. This is
a point worthy of careful consideration. Mr. Baldwin has
been employed for seven years, with Mcintosh, Seymour &
Co., on the same general class of work as that done by the
firm he is writing to, and, previous to that, for some time
with B. W. Payne & Sons. He feels certain that he can fill
the position of foreman or assistant foreman in the machine
shop of The Buckeye Engine Co. , and hence he names the
hiji^her position first, leaving it to be inferred that while he
could fill the position of foreman, and desires such a position,

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 43

he would, on account of the necessity of being oMiged to
leave Auburn, accept a position as machinist, and take his
chances of being promoted afterwards to be foreman or
assistant foreman. If he had written to some firm engaged
in a different line of business, as, for example, The Latrobe
Steel Works, Latrobe, Pa., it would have been better for
him to have reversed the order and named the lower position
first; for, if he had named the higher position first, it would
have created the impression in the mind of the person read-
ing his letter that he was of that variety of mankind who
**know it all," and would have weakened very much the
other good qualities that were displayed in his letter. By
naming the lower position first, it would show him to be a
mcxlest man, but one who had confidence in his own ability,
and was willing to work for awhile in a subordinate position
and trust that his employer would observe his work and
promote him to a higher position, as soon as it became
evident that he was familiar with the work as done in the
shops at Latrobe. It depends altogether upon circum-
stances, whether the higher position should be named first
or the lower.

In these two sentences, which form the first paragraph of
the letter, Mr. Baldwin has stated why he wants to change
his situation and has named the position that he desires to
fill with The Buckeye Engine Co. He now very naturally
states his qualifications, and his reasons for thinking that he
can fill the position he is applying for, and begins with a
new paragraph. It is quite customary now for employers to
ask applicants for positions their ages, and he begins the
second paragraph by stating his age. He then states how
long he has been employed in the shop of Mcintosh, Seymour
& Co. This is an important point; if a man stays for a long
while in the employ of a company, and particularly of a
company as well known as Mcintosh, Seymour & Co., it is
strong presumptive evidence that his work has been satisfac-
tory to the firm, and it is reasonable to suppose that his
work would be equally satisfactory to his new employers.
This impression is greatly strengthened by the fact that Mr.

44 LETTER WRITING, § 23

Baldwin was promoted to the position of assistant foreman,
and that he held that position for three years, and could hold
it longer, but was obliged to leave on account of his wife*s
health. It will be noticed that he does not merely state that
he was assistant foreman, but he also states exactly what his
duties were; viz., he had charge of the lathe and planer
hands. This is another important statement, for a prospec-
tive employer also desires to know exactly what an applicant
for a position in his shop has done previously. If Mr.
Baldwin had merely stated that he had held the position of
assistant foreman, he would have left The Buckeye Engine
Co. in doubt as to what his duties had been. He might have
had charge of the boring machines, he might have had
charge of the floor hands, he might have had charge of the
tool room, or he might have had charge of the erecting
department; but, by stating exactly what his duties had
been, The Buckeye Engine Co. are better able to judge
whether they can offer him a position as one of their fore-
men, or whether they prefer to employ him as a journeyman
machinist.

The first sentence of the second paragraph is really a state-
ment of Mr. Baldwin's special qualifications for a position as
foreman. The next sentence not only adds somewhat to the
list given in the first sentence, but also gives his qualifica-
tions for a position as journeyman machinist. Without
doing any boasting, Mr. Baldwin states that he can do first-
class work on light and heavy lathes, planers, milling
machines, and grinding machines. It will be noticed that
he mentions both light and heavy lathes. This is an impor-
tant statement, because a machinist might be able to do
first-class work on a light lathe and not be able to handle a
heavy lathe. In the next clause he modestly states that he
has had experience in toolmaking, and that he is a good vise
hand. He might be a first-class toolmaker and a first-class
vise hand, but whether he is or whether his experience in
these directions has been somewhat limited, or not, it is
better, perhaps, for him to word his letter as he has done.
It is always well not to try to claim too much. If The Buckeye

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 45

Engine Co. wish to know what experience he has had in
toolmaking or in work at the bench, they will ask him ; then
he can state exactly what experience he has had in either of
these two branches of machinists' work, and he will create a
better impression than if he made himself out to be a first-
class workman in all three departments.

Having stated his qualifications, he now gives his refer-
ences as to character and ability, and naturally begins a new
paragraph. He refers to the two men in the employ of
Mcintosh, Seymour & Co. that are best qualified to express
an opinion in regard to his character and ability — the super-
intendent and the general foreman — and, at the same time,
he takes advantage of the opportunity to inform The Buckeye
Engine Co. that he has worked for B. W. Payne & Sons,
and refers to their superintendent. When giving a refer-
ence, it is always best, when possible, to refer to the person
that is immediately over you. A reference to a high official
of the company is seldom satisfactory; as he rarely comes in
direct contact with the employes, but issues his orders
through the heads of departments, any recommendation that
he might give would, in all probability, be due to inquiry of
the superintendent or general foreman. Hence, it is always
better to refer to the superintendent or general f oreman,direct.

Note the wording of the closing paragraph. Mr. Baldwin
desires a reply to his letter, and he words his request verv
delicately. He is in the position of a person asking a favor;
hence, instead of saying, ** Please answer at your earliest
conv^enience, " which would be in the nature of a command,
he writes, ** Awaiting an answer, at your convenience" — a
respectful way of saying the same thing. The form, V Please
answer at your earliest convenience, " would be correct for The
Buckeye Engine Co. to use in reply to Mr. Baldwin's letter,
but it would be considered somewhat impertinent for Mr.
Baldwin to use it in his letter. A person asking a favor has
no right to demand, and but little right to request ; and, in
any case, the request should be so worded as to leave it en-
tirely optional with the person to whom the request is
made, whether he grants it or not.

46 LETTER WRITING. § 22

The complimentary close, **Very respectfully yours, '•
seems to be perfectly correct; ** Very sincerely yours," or
** Very truly yours,'* would carry an air of too great familiar-
ity. ** Respectfully yours" is a little too abrupt, and creates
the impression that the writer was in very much of a hurry
to finish his letter; but **Very respectfully yours" is in
keeping with the remainder of the letter and is a dignified
close.

Notice that Mr. Baldwin gives his street and number at
the close of his letter. This may Ikj given either at the end
of a letter or at the beginning, as the writer prefers. If the
letter takes up more than one page of writing, it would be
better, perhaps, to give the street and number at the head
of the letter; but it is merely a matter of taste which form
is used.

The composition of the body of the letter shows that the
applicant has a good command of language and is a man of
education. It is not necessary, therefore, for the writer to
make a specific statement in regard to his educational quali-
fications.

The diction of the letter is excellent. The words cho.scn
express precisely the meaning they arc intended to, and the
few technical words, such as ** lathes," ** planers," etc., are
perfectly familiar to anyone likely to be connected with The
Buckeye Engine Co. Even in the phrase '* Awaiting an
answer, at your convenience," the writer uses the proper
word answer instead of the incorrect, though frequently used,
word reply. We reply to a statement, an argument, or accu*
sation, and answer (not reply to) a question or a letter.

The sentences are clear and grammatically correct; they
also possess to a greater or less degree the qualities of unity,
force, and ease. In the second paragraph, for example,
unity is secured by making a sentence of the first statement,
•* I am thirty-six years of age." If we combine the first two
sentences, thus: ** I am thirty-six years of age and have been
employed, etc.," we introduce two prominent ideas into one
sentence, and thus violate the principle of unity. The last
sentence in the second paragraph might have been divided

g 22 LETTER WRITING. 47

into two sentences, the first ending with the words •'grind-
ing machines." The separation of the two statements by a
semicolon, however, seems to make the transition from one
to the other less abrupt than when a period is used and each
statement forms a separate sentence.

The division of the letter into paragraphs is satisfactory.
The first paragraph deals with the reason that impels Mr.
Baldwin to seek a new situation. Note that the connective
** therefore" joins the second sentence of the paragraph to
the first sentence. The second paragraph has for its subject
the qualifications of the writer for the position sought; and
the third paragraph, which consists of a single sentence,
gives the references. Each paragraph therefore has a single
leading subject.

The style of expression is simple, direct, and respectful,
as it always should be in letters of this character. Nothing
could be more out of place than ornamental or flowery lan-
guage or a verbose form of statement in a letter of appli-
cation.

The punctuation of the letter follows the established rules.
In the heading and address, the items are separated by
commas. The salutation "Gentlemen" is followed by a
colon; a comma might have been used, but the colon is more
formal. Periods appear in their proper places; viz., at the
end of the heading, the address, and the signature, after
each abbreviation, and at the end of each sentence. In the
body of the letter commas are used to set off parenthetical
words or phrases, as *' therefore ** in the second sentence and
** by permission " in the third paragraph; to setoff elements
in apposition, as "Superintendent" in apposition with
*• Mr. John W. Lee," •• General Foreman, etc." in apposition
with "Mr. H. E. Deitman." Commas are used also after
the words "lathes," "planers," and "milling machines" to
mark the omission of conjunctions. According to the custom
of the best writers, the third comma is required though the
conjunction, andy is present

The proper names throughout the letter begin with capital
letters, as do also the first words of the several sentences.

48 LETTER WRITING. § 23

In the address, each word of the firm name begins with a
capital; and in the third paragraph the titles ** Superin-
tendent'' and "General Foreman" are properly capitalized.

61. The Buckeye Engine Co., to verify the statements
made by Mr. Baldwin and to inform themselves more fully
in regard to his character and ability as a machinist, send
the following letter of inquiry to Mr. John W. Lee:

Salem, Ohio, May 27, 1899.
Mr. John W. Lee,

Superintendent^

Mcintosh, Seymour & Co.,
Auburn, N. Y.
Dear Sir: — Mr. Chas. W. Baldwin writes that the state of his wife's
health obliges him to leave Auburn. lie applies for employment and
refers us to you and to your Mr, Henry R. Fielding.

We shall be pleased to have your opinion of Mr. Baldwin's character,
experience, and ability.

Very truly yours,

The Buckeye EngiKe Co.

This letter of inquiry is characterized by the direct, concise
style that is always appropriate in business correspondence.
The writer introduces in his first sentence the leading topic —
Mr. Baldwin's application. The object of The Buckeye
Engine Co. in writing this letter is to obtain information
concerning their applicant, and nothing is to be gained by
veiling this object with a wordy introduction.

Having stated in the first paragraph that Mr. Baldwin has
applied for employment and has referred to Mr. Lee, the
writer in the second paragraph respectfully and courteously
asks Mr. Lee's opinion of Mr. Baldwin. The last sentence
has a close enough connection with what precedes to be
included in the same paragraph. As the letter is short, how-
ever, its appearance is improved by making two paragraphs
instead of one.

The recognition in the address of Mr. Lee's position as
superintendent is a mark of respect worthy of mention.
The complimentary close, "Very truly yours," is quite

g 22 LETTER WRITING. 49

correct considering the relation of the writer to the recipient
It is perfectly respectful and sufficiently formal.

No special comment need be made upon the punctuation
and capitalization of the letter.

63« The following is Mr. John W. Lee's answer:

Auburn. N. Y., May 80, 18W.
The Buckeye Engine Co.,

Salem, Ohio.

Gentlemen :

I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your esteemed favor of the
27th inst in regard to Mr. Chas. W. Baldwin's application for employ-
ment.

Mr. Baldwin had full permission to use my name in his letter of
application to you. The reason he assigns for his proposed change of
residence is correct His wife's health is in such a condition that a
change of residence is imjjerative.

Mr. Baldwin is a gentleman of unimpeachable character; he stands
well with this firm and with the best classes in this community. He is
an excellent machinist and has been in our employ seven years, during
the last three of which he has been an assistant foreman. During his
whole time with us he has given perfect satisfaction.

I feel safe, therefore, in commending Mr. Baldwin to your favorable
consideration.

Very truly yours,

John W. Lee, Supt

I take pleasure in endorsing the above letter.

Henry R. Fielding,

General Foreman.

Mr. Lee's answer to The Buckeye Engine Co.'s letter of
inquiry quite properly opens with a reference to that letter.
This reference recalls the subject of the original letter, so
that it will not be necessary for the reader of Mr. Lee*s
answer to refresh his memory with the copy of the letter to
Mr. Lee.

The points in the inquiry are answered in detail. First,
Mr. Lee verifies Mr. Baldwin's statements that the state of
his wife's health demands a change of residence and that
Mr. Baldwin had a right to use his name as a reference. He
then certifies to Mr. Baldwin's character, experience, and

60 LETTER WRITING. § 23

ability, as requested in the last paragraph of the letter of
inquiry.

It is to be noted that Mr. Lee's statements have a positive
tone and are specific in their nature. **Mr. Baldwin is a
gentleman of unimpeachable character, " ** He is an excel-
lent machinist," **he has given perfect satisfaction"; these
assertions are strong and unequivocal and cannot fail to im-
press The Buckeye Engine Co. If Mr. Lee had written some-
thing like this, ** Mr. Baldwin seems to be a gentleman and I
think he will prove satisfactory to you, " the firm addressed
would feel that Mr. Lee hesitates to fully commit himself, and
that though Mr. Baldwin might prove successful in a new
position, he might, on the other hand, prove to be a failure.
The good effect of Mr. Lee's positive assertions is increased
by the last sentence, **I feel safe," etc. This is equivalent
to an assertion on Mr. Lee's part that he will stake his repu-
tation for veracity and good judgment on Mr. Baldwin's
success in case The Buckeye Engine Co. sees fit to employ him.

Mr. Lee's letter is an example of what the painstaking,
studious mechanic can achieve in letter writing. The sen-
tences are clear and correct, the diction is g(Kxl, and good
judgment is exhibited in the division of the matter into par-
agraphs. The style is direct and concise, but courteous and
respectful.

63. Having received Mr. Lee's answer and also an
answer to a letter of inquiry to Mr. H. E. Deitman, The
Buckeye Engine Co. write Mr. Baldwin as follows:

Sal£M, Ohio, Juue 2, ISW.
Mr. Chas. W. Baldwin,
237 State St.,

Auburn, N. Y.
Dear Sir :

Your letter of the 24th ult. has received due consideration. We
will state, in answer, that we are prepared to olTer you a position a?
assistant foreman in our shops.

Write when we may expect you here.

Truly yours.

The Buckeyk Engink Co.-

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 51

The following is Mr. Baldwin's answer:

Auburn, N. Y., June 5, 1899.
The Buckeye Engine Co.,

Salem, Ohio.
Gentlemen :

I thank you for your favorable consideration of my application.
I will be in Salem by the lOth inst

Very truly yours,

Chas. W. Baldwin.

These letters require little comment. The Buckeye Engine
Co. in their letter to Mr. Baldwin simply state that they
have given his application due consideration. This implies
that they have made the inquiries they have thought neces-
sary, and it is not necessary for them to tell Mr. Baldwin
whether they have written to his references.

Mr. Baldwin says all that is required in two short sen-
tences. In the first sentence he thanks his prospective
employers in a dignified and respectful manner. He is
neither gushing nor effusive in his thanks. In the second
sentence he answers the indirect question asked in The
Buckeye Engine Co.'s letter in as few words as possible.
The two sentences are in no way connected, and the second
forms, therefore, a separate paragraph.

64. We submit another letter of application for the
guidance of the student.

Battle Creek, Mich.,

June 80, 1899.
Mr. Franklin P. Judson,

Chairman of the Board of Education,
Jackson, Mich.
Dear Sir:

Kindly permit me to offer myself as a candidate for the position
of principal in the Jackson high school, which I am informed is now
vacant

The following is a brief statejncnt of my educational qualifications and
experience in teaching: I graduated at the University of Michigan in
1890, and spent one additional year there in advanced study. Since leav-
ing the University in 1891, I have been engaged amtinuously in teach-
ing the natural sciences, mathematics, history, and English. For the

52 LETTER WRITING. § 22

last two years I have taught physics and chemistry in the Battle Creek
high school.

In regard to the character of my work, the enclosed testimonials will
doubtless be of more value to you than any statements I might make in
my own behalf.

Should you desire a personal interview, I shall be glad to present
myself at such time and place as your convenience may dictate.

I am very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,

James S. Resd.

liETTERS OF INTRODUCTION.

65. A letter of introduction should be given only after
the fullest consideration, the writer having due regard not
only for himself and the person introduced, but also for the
interests and feelings of the person to whom the letter of
introduction is addressed.

A business letter of introduction should always be pre-
sented by the bearer in person ; and care should be taken to
present it at a time when it will cause least inconvenience to
the person addressed.

Letter of Introduction.

Cincinnati, O., Oct 11. 1898.
E. B. Elliot, Esq.,

Montreal, Can,
Friend Elliot :

This letter will be handed to you by Mr. Henry Osborne,
of this city, who visits Canada for the benefit of his health, and
intends also to look after some business interests in the vicinity o£
Montreal. I sincerely commend him to your consideration and trust
that you will make his stay, while in your city, pleasant as well as
profitable.

My friend Osborne is worthy of your highest regard, and any cour-
tesies, business or social, that you may show him will be greatly appre-
ciated by Your sincere friend,

William E. Safford.

66, Analysis. — This is a well constructed and carefully
worded letter of introduction. Mr. Safford is a lifelong
friend of Mr. Elliot. They had been associated in financial
enterprises, and their families had mingled in the most
intimate social intercourse. Under these circumstances.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 53

Mr. Safford would be very careful in introducing a third
party to Mr. Elliot The letter shows his care in this respect.

Usually a letter of introduction written from one business
man to another is strictly a business letter and carries with
it no social obligations. The recipient of such a letter will
feel bound to render the bearer assistance in a business way,
but need not necessarily extend to him the hospitality of his
house nor introduce him to friends and acquaintances. The
letter under consideration, however, may be regarded as a
mixed business and social letter. Mr. Safford, feeling sure
that his friend Mr. Osborne will prove congenial socially to
Mr. Elliot and his family, does not hesitate to request social
as well as business courtesies in his friend's behalf.

A letter of introduction should always be brief, because it
is embarrassing for the bearer to wait while a long letter is
being read. The letter before us fulfils this requirement ;
it is reasonably short yet contains all essential points.

The expression of esteem, ** My friend Osborne is worthy
of your highest regard, " is well chosen. The mere fact that
Mr. Safford introduces Mr. Osborne at all implies that the
latter is a person worthy of regard. While it is appropriate
to make a modest commendation of this character, it would
be in as bad taste to launch into extravagant praise in a
written introduction as in a personal introduction.

The rhetorical construction of the letter exhibits no points
that require special comment. The three sentences in the
body of the letter are somewhat long, but they are perfectly
clear. The first two sentences properly constitute a para-
graph, being closely connected ; and the last sentence is given
a separate paragraph.

It will be noted that the last sentence is completed by
the complimentary close, ** Your sincere friend, " which is the
object of the preposition ** by,** the last word of the body.
While this form is much used, many writers object to it, and
prefer to complete the last sentence in the body of the letter .
and follow it with the usual complimentary close, ** Yours
sincerely '* or ** Yours truly.**

The punctuation of the letter follows established usage.

54 LETTER WRITING. § 22

The items of the heading and address are separated by
commas, and all abbreviations are followed by periods. The
salutation is properly followed by a colon. The relative
clause ** who visits, etc." in the first sentence, and the phrase
** while in your city *' in the second sentence, are set off by
commas. In the last sentence the comma after the word
** regard" separates the clauses of the compound sentence,
and the two other commas set off the expression ** business
or social, " which is out of its natural order. All the sentences
are followed by periods. Observe that in the last sentence
the closing period is that following the signature.

All proper names are capitalized, as they should be, and
each sentence begins with a capital letter.

SOCIAI* liETTERS.

XJBrrTERS OF CONGRATUIiATIOK.

67, Letters of congratulation are those tendering felici-
tations on some success achieved by a friend. Trench, **C)n
the Study of Words," declares; **When I * congratulate **a
person (cong^atulator) I declare that I am a sharer in his
joy, that what has rejoiced him, has rejoiced also me. "

The style of a letter of congratulation should be hearty
and joyous. There should be no hint of en\y or jealousy,
and the letter should contain nothing that might have a
tendency to dampen the joy of the recipient. Anything dis-
agreeable, and, in particular, any advice, should be reserved
for another letter.

Usually a letter of congratulation is brief, sometimes
merely a message by telegraph.

Letter of Congratulation.

Galesburg, III., April 20, 1890.
Honorable Hknry Clay Evans,

Memphis, Tenn.

My dear Sir :

Word has just reached me that you have been elected to tho
honorable and responsiWe office of Mayor of Memphis.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 65

It is some years since we last met ; but as a friend of the long-past
but unforgotten days of boyhood, I feel certain that you have fully
developed all those fine qualities of which your youth gave such
abundant promise, and have proved yourself worthy of your blood and
family traditions and, above all, of your American citizenship.

May your administration of the affairs of Memphis be all that its
best citizens, irrespective of party, can desire ; and may your election
as chief magistrate of that respectable city be the stepping stone to
higher honors and to broader spheres of usefulness in your state and
country. ^^

Your friend of old and today,

M. Clancy.

68. Analysis. — The foregoing is a letter of congratula-
tion containing all that such letters should express. There
is no undue familiarity in the opening lines — there is nothing
save a simple, unostentatious statement of fact. The second
paragraph refers with dignity, delicacy, and tenderness to
the friendship of boyhood days and pays tribute to qualities
manifested by- Mr. Evans even in those early days. The
third and closing paragraph extends, in fitting language,
hearty good wishes to the newly elected Mayor.

One commendable feature of this letter is that the writer
delicately abstains from unduly thrusting himself forward
into the notice of his friend. He does not begin with an
/, but opens with the modest clause ** Word has just reached
me." It is always in better taste to begin a letter, or, in
fact, a sentence, with some other word than with the pro-
noun /. A letter too freely sprinkled with Ps gives the
impression that the writer attaches undue importance to his
thoughts and actions. Of course there are cases in which
the / may properly occur quite frequently, as for exam-
ple in a letter of application, in which the applicant in rela-
ting his education and experience must naturally talk about
himself. It is a safe rule, however, to keep this word /
in the background as much as possible ; at best, it will appear
often enough.

Another feature of the letter is the evident sincerity of
the compliments in the second paragraph and the good
wishes in the last paragraph. Two things to be avoided in

66 LETTER WRITING. § 22

letters of congratulation are compliments that savor of
flattery and extravagant expressions of joy. In the present
letter how inappropriate it would be for the writer, who has
not met Mr. Evans for some years, to make use of such
expressions as **I was overjoyed at your success," or **I
was pleased beyond measure, etc."; again how inappropriate
would be such a flattering eulogy as the following: ** Your
transcendent genius for state affairs,- your unimpeachable
integrity and unswerving devotion to duty, and your well
known executive ability combined to make you an ideal
candidate for the high office to which you have been elected. "
Mr. Evans would rightly regard such an expression as most
offensive flattery, and would not for a moment regard it as
sincere.

It is to be observed that in the last paragraph the writer
does not stop with the word ** honors." Had he done so,
the sentence would seem to convey the idea that the honor
of office was Mr. Evans's chief motive for accepting the
Mayor's chair. By adding the last phrase ** and to broader
spheres of usefulness, etc.," the writer delicately implies that
Mr. Evans's prime motive is to be of service to his city,
state, or country.

Besides the merits of modesty and sincerity, the letter
exhibits the dignity befitting the relation of the writer and
recipient. The two gentlemen are evidently not young, and
have not been intimate socially for some years. Under these
circumstances any attempt at familiarity would be out of
place. Under other circumstances, of course, a letter of
congratulation may be familiar and brisk; for example, a
young man congratulating a college chum might write:
** Well done, old fellow! Give me a handshake in honor of
your brilliant success. " As in all other letters the degree of
dignity and formality is regulated by the relation of the
parties.

Turning to the rhetorical construction, we note in the
first place that the diction is correct and dignified, as befits
the subject of the letter. There are a number of long
words, as •* traditions," ** citizenship," '* administrator/* and

§ 22 LETTER WRITING, 67

''magistrate," but they are entirely apin-opriate in the places in
which they are used, and are those that any writer would
naturally employ under similar circumstances. The diction
is marked by both purity and propriety. In the whole letter
there is not a word of questionable character — not one that
is obsolete, newly coined, provincial, or foreign. Further,
each word is used in its generally understood sense and con-
veys the meaning intended. An instance of precision in dic-
tion is shown in the word ** office" in the first sentence.
Many writers would incorrectly write ** position of Mayor of
Memphis." In general, office refers to employment having
connection with government. Public servants hold office ;
employes of private concerns hold situations ox positions.

The three sentences in the body of the letter fulfil the
primary requisites of the good sentence; viz., clearness and
correctness; they also possess unity and ease. Observe the
clearness and smoothness of the last two sentences, despite
their considerable length.

The letter, containing, as it does, three distinct parts —
the announcement, the compliments, and the good wishes —
is naturally divided into three paragraphs, each containing
a single sentence.

In the arrangement of the parts of the letter the writer

exercises good taste. In the address, the name is properly

preceded by the title •* Honorable" unabbreviated. The

abbreviation **Hon. " would perhaps indicate a lack of

respect; on the other hand, it would be altogether too

formal in a letter of congratulation to write the address as

follows:

To the Honorable

Henry Clay Evans,

Memphis, Tenn.

The complimentary close, ** Your friend of old and today,"
is happily chosen, and is appropriate to the reference in the
second sentence to **the long- past but unforgotten days of
boyhood. "

The punctuation of the heading, address, and conclusion
calls for no comment. The first sentence requires no mark

68 LETTER WRITING. § 22

except the period at the end. The second sentence is some-
what long and is made up of phrases and clauses that demand
separation. The first short clause is coordinate with the
last clause; and since the latter is further subdivided by
commas, the two clauses are separated by the semicolon fol-
lowing the word ** met. " The comma after ** boyhood " sets
off the preceding phrase, which is out of its natural order;
the comma after * * promise " separates the two parts of the
compound predicate, and those after **and" and **air* set
off the parenthetical expression ** above all." In the last
sentence the coordinate clauses are. separated by the semi-
colon after ** desire "; and the commas in the first clause set
off the parenthetical expression ''irrespective of party."
The sentences are followed by periods, though some writers
might prefer an exclamation point after the last sentence.

Little need be said regarding the use of capital letters.
All the proper names and the first words of the sentences
begin with capital letters, as they, of course, should. The
word " Mayor " being an official title is begun with a capital
letter, and so is the word *' American," an adjective derived
from the proper name America. Observe that the word
* * dear " in the salutation does not begin with a capital
letter.

09. As an additional example we give a less formal
letter congratulating a friend on his appointment to a uni
versity fellowship:

CoLUMHUS,. Ohio, June 13, 1899.

Dkar Jack,

I have just this moment heard of your appointment to the coveted
fellowship. (to(k1 for you, my boy ! I congratulate you with all my
heart. This success, I am confident, is (mly the first of many that are
awaiting you. The appointment is well deserved, and is a fitting
sequel to your four years of hard and faithful work in the university.
It will give you an excellent opj)ortunity to pursue those advanced
studies that you so delight in.

With continued good wishes, I am,

Your sincere friend.

Edward Holden.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 59

liETTERS OF CONDOUSNCE.

70« A letter of condolence is one written to a friend that
has suffered some loss or bereavement. Such a letter is one
of the most difficult of all to write. It requires good taste
and sympathetic feeling. In offering condolence, carefully
avoid recalling to the sufferer the details of the case, and do
not attempt to argue on the subject. Reasons that should
appeal to the head cannot affect the heart. Of course, never
insinuate that your friend is in the least directly or indirectly
to blame. What is most needed at such a time is sympathy.
Endeavor to show .your friend, as much as is possible in
words, that you are ready and anxious to share his grief;
your sympathetic feeling will thus lessen the sorrow.

Letter of Condolence.

Pittsburg, Pa,, Jan. 13. 1898.
My dear Charles,

Your letter of the 11th conveying the sad tidings of your father's

death reached me this morning. I hasten, my dear friend, to tender

you my heartfelt sympathy in your sorrow. As you weU know, your

father and I were in early life close associates. It was during this

period of intimacy that I came to realize the gentleness and kindness

of his nature, and learned to love and esteem him. I can assure

you, Charles, that his death is to me personally a source of sincere

sorrow.

Your relations with your father were, I know, most cordial and
affectionate. To you he was a devoted father ; and you in return have
been a faithful and dutiful son. The recollection that you have ever
been to him a .source of pride and joy must at the present sad moment
be a consolation to you.

With deepest regard^ I am, dear Charles,

Your sincere friend,

Alfred Webber,

71, Analysis. — This letter is written to a son upon the
death of his father by a personal friend of both father and
son. It fulfils quite well the requisites of the ideal letter
of condolence.

In the first place, the letter gives the impression of sincere
grief and fellow suffering on the part of the writer. The
son to whom it is written must feel that his sorrow is shared

60 LETTER WRITING. § 22

by his father's old friend. Such a letter is always grateful
to the sorrowing recipient The reference to the early inti-
macy of the writer with the departed, and the mention of
the good qualities of the latter are appropriate. It is a
source of consolation to know that the virtues of one who is
gone are recognized and appreciated. Another commend-
able feature of the letter is the reference to the affectionate
relation of the father and son, and the assurance to the son
that he has been a pride and a joy to his father. Such an
assurance, provided, of course, it be true, must be a source
of consolation.

It is to be noted that the writer does not try to persuade
his friend that the event is all for the best and that he should
not on that account feel any grief. Nothing is more out of
place in a letter of condolence than an attempt to submit the
matter to the cold logic of argument. Never try to convince
a mourning and grief-stricken friend that it is his duty to
submit cheerfully to his lot.

The letter, as a letter of condolence should be, is brief.
All that such a letter should ever contain is a sincere
expression of sympathy, sometimes a reference to the merits
of the deceased, and perhaps a reference to the Divine Com-
forter. It need scarcely be said that a letter of condolence
should contain no mention of affairs not connected with the
event that calls it forth.

In structure, the letter of condolence does not differ
essentially from other letters, except that the introduction
never contains the formal address, but consists simply of the
salutation, as **Dear Charles" or **Dear Friend." Even
the salutation is often omitted.

In the letter under consideration, the sentences are as a
rule quite short. A careful analysis will show that they are
grammatically correct and clear. The body of the letter is
divided into two paragraphs. The leading idea of the
second paragraph — the devotion of the son to the father — ^is
of sufficient importance to justify a new paragraph.

The functions of the various marks of punctuation the
student will readilv dis'^over by reference to Punctuation

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 61

and Capitalization. There is nothing in connection with
the use of capital letters that demands special attention.

73. In addition to the letter just analyzed, we give the
following touching and beautiful letter of condolence written
by Thomas Gray to Mr. Mason. It is worthy of the student*s
most careful perusal. Other letters of condolence will be
given in another section among the model letters.

March 28, 1767.

I break in upon you at a moment when we least of all are permitted
to disturb our friends only to say that you are daily and hourly present
to my thoughts. If the worst is not yet past you will neglect and
pardon me; but if the last struggle be over; if the poor object of your
long anxieties be no longer sensible to your kindness or to her own
sufferings, allow me (at least in idea, for what could I do, were I
present, more than this ?) to sit by you in silence, and pity from my
heart, not her who is at rest, but you who lose her. May He who
made us, the Master of our pleasures and of our pains, preserve and
support you ! Adieu.

I^ETTERS OF DESCRIPTION.

73« In a letter of description the writer strives to give
by means of words a picture of the object or objects he is
describing. A description is a word picture.

Letter o^ Description.

Washington, D. C, March 9, W.
Dear Clara,

You asked me in your last letter to tell you about the White

House and its occupants. I am going, therefore, to reserve all other

things for a later epistle and devote this entire letter to a description

of one interesting comer of our Presidential mansion.

It may be news to you that the Presidential apartment in the White
House is practically nothing more nor less than a seven-room flat, tucked
away in a corner of the massive structure like a cosy comer in a Turkish
bazaar, and insuring to President and Mrs. McKinley all the privacy
and comfort of an unpretentious New York flat. Tourists may prowl
about the corridors and office seekers may howl outside the doors, but
no man or woman may penetrate these sacred precincts without show-
ing exceptionally good cause.

The Presidential flat is on the second floor of the White House, and
in the right wing over the East Room. It consists of the President's

62 LETTER WRITING. § 22

study; his bedroom; a library; a guest room, usually occupied by
visiting relatives; Mrs. McKinley*s bedrdora; a kitchen; and a wide
private corridor, which is a favorite lounging place for the family and
their guests. This corridor is the most pretentious feature of the apart-
ment. It is carpeted with thick velvet carpets, its walls are covered
with historic paintings, and its many chairs and divans are luxuriously
inviting. Potted palms fill the windows and fresh-cut flowers are
placed every day on the desk and the tables.

With the exception of the library, the rooms are very simple.
Nothing could be less ornate than the President's study, in which
family portraits stare unsmilingly at stiff-backed chairs ranged in an
uncompromising circle around the wall. But the atmosphere is bright-
ened by Mrs. McKinley's gentle presence. Here she likes to sew while
the President writes or thinks out some knotty problem, sitting in his
favorite attitude at his desk, his feet digging into a worn ottoman, his
head thrown back against his chair, and his hands drumming rest-
lessly on the polished mahogany.

The President's bedroom is equally simple. Soft rugs cover the
floor, but the walls are almost bare of ornament and the old-fashioned
chairs are grimly unyielding. One modern innovation is a luxurious
Turkish divan, on which the President has never yet stretched his
weary length, but which he hopes to try some future time when a
divan will not seem so subtle an irony.

The guest chamber, or as it is known among visitors, the "green
bedroom," is one to inspire awe in the bravest heart It is a vast room
in which its two small brass bedsteads, standing side by side, look like
white oases in a green desert. A table with a reading lamp stands
stiffly in the center of the room and several chairs lend variety to the
scene. A fat pincushion and a photograph of Mrs. McKinley occupy
the dressing table and are the only ornaments the place affords.

Mrs. McKinley' s bedroom is a bright, glad contrast to this. She has
carried out her own ideas in its decoration, with the result that the
room is the prettiest and most cheerful in the White House. In con-
sideration of her delicate health, the President's wife is never alone.
Some one is near her night and day and the pleasant bedroom is the
scene of some of the joUiest gatherings in the Executive Mansion.

In the library of this White House flat Mrs. McKinley receives her
friends, reads her favorite books, and does her fancy work. To this
room the President comes for rep>ose and rest when the army scandal
and the Philippine situation have goaded him to frenzy. When
occasion permits, the family meals are served in the library, which
readily lends itself to that innovation. This pleases Mrs. McKinley;
and the President, too, is glad to dine quietly with his family when it
is possible. Even under the best conditions it is not often practicable,
for this servant of the people is relentlessly pursued during these tr3ring
times by public demands that interfere with a quiet home life.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 63

Nevertheless, his little home is there, and he is monarch of it. Like
the tenants of other American flats, he meets strangers in the halls
and on the stairs, and these strangers are of an unusually obtrusive
and persistent type. But he has his little flat to fly to, and only the
most hardened ofl&ce seeker upon seeing him hurrying to it at the close'
of the day would venture to turn him aside from this haven of rest
and peace.

There, Clara, you now have an idea of one little piece of the White

House. In a later letter I may describe to you some other features of

this famous mansion.

Affectionately yours,

Amelia Aiken.

74. Analysis. — This interesting* and neatly written
epistle is a model letter of description. It is a letter from
one lady to another, conveying just the kind of information
womankind like to receive.

The opening paragraph is an introduction stating tho
writer's intention to give a description of a portion of the
Presidential mansion. That such an introduction is essential
in a letter is obvious. Should the letter begin with the
second paragraph, the reader would for a moment wonder
what called up the subject of the White House. Such an
opening would be painfully abrupt. As it is, the introduc-
tory paragraph leads naturally to the description and pre-
pares the reader's mind for it.

In the second paragraph, the writer introduces the Presi-
dential flat as the subject of the description. The few words
of this paragraph give the reader a vi\'id idea of the privacy
and coziness of the apartment. Note the life in the first
sentence ; how much more expressive the^statement ** is noth-
ing more nor less than a seven-room flat," etc., than one like
this: **The Presidential apartment is a suite of seven rooms
situated in one comer of the White House."

The third paragraph enumerates the seven rooms and
gives a description of the corridor. The following para-
graphs are devoted to descriptions of the other rooms of
interest

One of the requirements of a good description is that it
should begin with some kind of a comprehensive statement

64 LETTER WRITING. § 2%

or plan to serve as a sort of background for the details that
are to follow. In this letter, this requisite is furnished in
the second paragraph and first part of the third paragraph.
Having, in her mind, located this flat in one comer of the
White House, the reader is able to form an idea of the rela-
tion of each of the rooms to the suite as a whole, and is
prepared for a description of the individual rooms.

The description is rendered interesting and vivid by the
omission of petty details. Take, for example, the President's
study. The clause ** family portraits stare unsmilingly at
stiff-backed chairs ranged in an uncompromising circle
around the wall *' gives the reader a mental picture of the
room that she would not obtain from such details as the
location of doors, the position of the room relative to the
corridor or other rooms, the size of the room, etc. Like-
wise, note the expressiveness of the sentence, **It is a vast
room in which its two small brass bedsteads, standing side
by side, look like white oases in a green desert." This one
sentence gives a better mental picture of the room than
would a page of minute detail. The use of figures of speech
is sometimes very effective in description. Thus, in the sen-
tence just quoted, the simile **like white oases in a green
desert " adds greatly to the effect.

The sentences are pleasing in their variety and ease.
Some are short, plain statements, while others are long and
well supplied with modifying phrases. Nearly all are loose
sentences, the loose form being especially suited to descrip-
tion and narrative. By way of variety, however, several of
the short sentences are periodic; as, ** With the exception of
the library, the rooms are simple,** and ** In consideration of
her delicate health, the President's wife is never alone." It
is readily seen that these sentences are more forcible than if
arranged in the loose form.

The paragraphing of the letter follows the laws of unity
and continuity. Each paragraph is dominated by a leading
idea. After the real description is begun, the description of
each room is given a separate paragraph; first we have the
study, then the President's bedroom, then the guest chamber.

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 65

and so on. The continuity between the sentences of each
paragraph is well preserved ; nowhere will the reader
feel a sense of abruptness. Between the separate para-
graphs the continuity is sufficiently well established by the
rather close connection between the subjects of the para-
graphs. .

It will be observed that the last paragraph is a sort of con-
clusion inserted to avoid the abruptness that would be felt
if the letter closed with the description. In this respect the
function of this paragraph is the same as that of the intro-
ductory paragraph.

The arrangement of the parts of the letter demands no
comment. The punctuation is in accordance with good
usage. The student is advised to go carefully through the
letter and determine for himself the office of each period,
comma, semicolon, etc. ; this he should do in connection
with the paper entitled, Punctuation and Capitalization. At
the same time he should discover the reason for each capital
letter employed.

I.ETTERS OP NARRATTVK.

75, Narration is a statement of a succession of events in
the order of time. A large part of the literature of the
world may be classed under ** Narration**; thus, history^ an
account of the events in the life of a nation; biography^ an
account of the events of an individual life; travels^
an account of the experiences of a person in foreign coun-
tries; news^ an account of the daily happenings all over the
world; and finsMy Jiction, which may be called fictitious biog-
laphy — all these are examples of narrative composition.

A narrative letter is one in which the prominent feature is
a narration of some train of events, such as the particulars
of a visit or the details of some incident in which the writer
has played a part. The letters of travel that frequently
appear in periodicals are chiefly narrative.

76. The following are the leading principles to be
observed in writing narrative letters:

66 LETTER WRITING. § 22

1. The events should be narrated in the order in which
they occur. For example, in narrating the events of a visit
one should not begin with the occurrences of the second day
and then recur to his reception on his arrival.

2. There should be a certain unity in the narration. If you
start to tell a story, do not introduce irrelevant topics that,
though suggested by some character in the story, have
nothing to do with the final outcome. It is sometimes
almost painful to hear a garrulous and uncultured person
attempt the simplest narrative. He gets along well until
some person, say John Jones, is introduced into the story;
then the mention of this name brings up some recollection
of an event in which John Jones was a participant, and
this event must be narrated before the story can go on.
Do not allow yourself to fall into this pernicious habit either
in verbal or in written narrative.

3. In narrative, one is specially likely to acquire the fault
of connecting the successive statements by the words andy
sOy and but. Guard carefully against this fault

Specimen Letters of Narrative.

The Hague, April 15. 1899.
Dear Thomas:^

We are just now hearing a great deal of the approaching peace
conference, which, as you know, is to take place in this city early
next month. Less than a year after her coronation the girl Queen.
Wilhelmina of Holland, will act as hostess to the representatives of all
the great Powers of the world.

The peace conference has Queen Wilhelmina's fullest sympathy.
She has assigned for its sittings the most beautiful of all her palace
homes, the famous House in the Woods, or Huisten Bosch, which
stands midway between The Hague and Scheveningen. in the most
beautiful park in Europe.

This famous palace was built by Amelia van Solms after the death
of her husband, Stadtholder Frederik Hendrik, two hundred and fifty
years ago. It was the home of Wilhelmina's childhood. In the woods
alx3ut it she, with her girl playmates, used to skate in winter, and in
summer, dig in the sand with tiny shovels and pails, as children do at
Coney Island.

In connection with the coming peace congress, the following bit of
Russian history is of decided interest

§ 22 LETTER WRITING. 67

In 1815, after Napoleon I, a prisoner on St Helena, had ceased to
menace the thrones of Europe, Alexander I of Russia formed a plan as
humane in its object as that o£ the present Czar, Nicholas II. He
organized a union called the '* Holy Alliance," Russia, Austria, and
Prussia being the chief parties concerned. The professed object of the
union was to base the political order of the world on the principles of
Christianity. Czar, Emperor, and King pledged themselves to rule in
the spirit of love and to stand by one another in their efforts to main-
tain the peace of Europe.

Alexander acted in good faith. He sincerely wanted to be a jusi
and loving father to his people. However, the "Holy Alliance"
proved to be anything but holy ; it was, in fact, a league of oppression,
and so far as it could, it crushed out the rising spirit of liberty. A par-
tial explanation of this, so far as Alexander was concerned, is to bo
found in the fact that he could not stand the test of conspiracies among
his own people. It certainly requires a very grand nature to be able
to do that. His was not grand enough, and so Alexander the Liberal
became Alexander the Despot.

Let us hope that the peace negotiations proposed by the present

Czar will result more happily than the Holy Alliance of his predecessor

Alexander.

Sincerely your friend,

Albert Monette.

77. Analysis. — This letter, containing as it does the
story of the Holy Alliance, may properly be classed as a
letter of narrative. The writer, residing at The Hague,
naturally writes of the coming peace conference, an affair of
international importance. The fact that the present Czar
of Russia was the originator of the present plan of disarma-
ment and universal peace recalls the similar attempt of the
former Czar, Alexander I, and the ** bit of Russian history**
is introduced quite appropriately. After narrating the story
of the Holy Alliance, the writer concludes with the hope that
the efforts of Nicholas II will prove more fruitful than those
of Alexander I.

The narrative fulfils the essential requisites laid down in
Art. 76. It states first the fact of the organization; sec-
ond, its object; and last, the result. An explanation of the
unfortunate result forms a conclusion to the narration.

78. As a capital example of pure narrative we present
the following, which is a part of a letter written by Miss

ee LETTER WRITING. § 23

Elizabeth Carter to Miss Catherine Talbot. The student
win observe how, in the order of their occurrence, the suc-
cessive events are related; he will also observe the unity
of the narration; the story is told to the end without inter-
ruption, and no irrelevant topics are introduced,

London, August 9, 1769.
♦ ♦ ♦ I set out on my city expedition this morning where I met an
adventure, which, I believe, you will think more formidable than all
the terrors of the Richmond road. I was to call on a person in my
way, to accompany me to the South Sea House; and my nearest route
was through Newgate. On going up Snow Hill I observed a pretty
many people assembled, but did not much regard them, till, as I
advanced, I found the crowd thicken, and by the time I was got into
the midst of them I heard the dreadful toll of St. Sepulchre's bell and
found I was attending an execution. As I do not very well understand
the geography of Newgate, I thought if I could push through the pos-
tern I should find the coast clear on the other side, but to my utter
dismay I found myself in a still greater mob than before, and very
little able to make my way through them. Only think of me in the
midst of such heat and suffocation, with the danger of having my arms
broke, to say nothing of the company by which I was surrounded, with
near 100/. in my pocket. In this exigency I applied to one of the crowd
for assistance, and while he was hesitating, another man, who saw my
difficulty, very good-naturedly said to me: •• Come, madam, I will do
my best to get you along." To this volunteer in my service, who was
tolerably creditable and clean, considering the corps to which he
belonged, I most cordially gave my hand; and without any swearing,
or brawling, or bustle whatever, by mere gentle persevering dexterity,
he conducted me, I thank God, very safely through. You will imagine
that I expressed a sufficient degree of gratitude to my conductor, which
I did in the best language I could find ; • • ♦

LETTER WRITING.

(PART a)

MODEL LETTERS.

BUSINESS liETTBRS.

1. Prefatory Remark. — The model letters presented
in the following pages are such as are likely to be required
in the exigencies of ordinary business. There are, of course,
many other letters that may be demanded by exceptional
circumstances, but it is manifestly impossible to include in a
limited space a model of every possible variety of business
letter. A careful study of the model letters we have chosen
should, however, prepare the student to write any business
letter that may be required, in a businesslike manner.

liETTERS CONTAINING i:NCIX>SimE8.

2. Under this heading we class letters containing remit-
tances, as checks, drafts, etc. The letters should state what
the enclosure is, the amount of the remittance, and the pur
pose to which the remittance is to be applied.

Various means are employed in making remittances.
A bank draft, either New York or Chicago exchange, may be

§23

For notice of the copyright, nee page immediately following: the t>t*«e pag^e.

2 LETTER WRITING. § 23

purchased of any local bank at small cost, and furnishes a
safe and convenient means of remittance. Many business
firms remit to their correspondents by bank checks. In
some cities, however, notably in New York City, the banks
charge for collection of checks, and remittance by this
means is discouraged. A draft or check should always be
made ** to order," so that no one except the payee can collect
it If made payable to bearer, it may be collected by any
person into whose possession it may fall.

As a rule, banks do not care to issue drafts for small
amounts; small remittances are therefore frequently made
by post-office or express money order.

Currency or coin should never be enclosed in a letter for
transmission through the mails.

Akron, Ohio, April 6, 1899.
Mechanic Arts Magazine,

Scran ton, Pa.

Enclosed you will find an express money order for One Dollar
($1.00) in payment of one year's subscription to *• The Mechanic Arts
Magazine," beginning with the May number.

Yours respectfully,

M. Jones.

Des Moines, Ia., June 4, 1897.
Odell, Allen & Co.,

St. Paul. Minn.
Sirs :

Enclosed you will find a Chicago draft for Three Hundred
Eighty-two and yV^ Dollars ($382.07), payable to your order, to balance
our account to date. Kindly send us a receipt.

Yours truly,

Albert Cummings & Co.
Per S. H. W.

l^ETTERS ACKNOWLEDGING RECEFPT OF MONEY.

3. The receipt for a remittance should be returned to
the sender without delay, so that he may know that the
remittance was received. The receipt may be included in
the body of the letter or it may be a formal receipt enclosed

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 3

with the letter. It should state the amount of the remit-
tance.

Detroit, Mich., June 21, 1806.

Mr. Edward S. Barry, .

Allegan, Mich.

Dear Sir :

We beg to acknowledge with thanks your favor of the 19th inst.,
enclosing One Hundred Thirty-two Dollars ($182).

Yours respectfully,

Farrand, Williams & Co.

I/ETTERS OF BUSINESS SOLICrrATTON-.

4. In a letter soliciting custom or business favors of any
kind, the writer should be careful to make his statements
precise and candid and without exaggeration.

Letters Soliciting Advertising.

ADVERTISING DEPARTMENT

THE CURTIS PUBLISHING COMPANY
TTif Ladies* Home Journal The Saturday Evening Post

COMMUNICATIONS PHILADELPHIA

DEPARTMENT May Old^ lOW.

Michigan College of Mines,

Houghton, Mich.

We enclose a specimen page from the July number of ''The
Ladies' Home Journal " to give you an idea of the different sizes and
display of Educational advertisements. The August number will go
to press June 15th, and the edition will exceed eight hundred thousand
copies. These will be distributed among the best homes of America
at just the time when the selection of a School or College is under
consideration.

If you will send us your announcement at once, we shall be happy
to give you the lowest cost of insertion, and to set it in tyi>e for
approval, if desired.

Very truly yours,

The Curtis Publishing Company
Advertising Department

4 LETTER WRITING. § 23

FOR COMMERCIAL 8UCCRSS —

PUBLISHERS CONSISTENT ADVERTISING

SPECIAL OFFICE OF

ADVERTISING

AGENTS PIERCE UNDERWOOD CO.

Telephone Main-903
60 Dearborn Street

Chicago, Jan. 16, 1899.
international Correspondence Schools,

Scranton, Pa.

Gentlemen :

We respectfully invite your attention to a few facts in con-
nection with an important item of your annual expense account,
with a view of suggesting how that expense may accomplish a greater
result than hitherto, or as great a result at less cost We think our
interest in the matter is in a g^eat degree mutual with yours, in that
you present an article of special value and general desirability, while
we represent a medium of communication, through the *• Young People's
Weekly," with 220,000 of the most prosperous American homes, embra-
cing very nearly 1,000,000 readers, where the paper is read, discussed,
and passed from hand to hand with the same attention as a monthly
magazine, not simply scanned and cast aside like the ordinary news-
paper.

Its advertising space is limited to a few columns, rigidly excluding
patent medicines and everything of an undesirable nature, the object
being to make this portion of our paper as wholesome, attractive, and
reliable as its purely literary department

As a proof of the general interest of the reading public in our paper,
we cite the fact that ninety per cent of the subscriptions come from the
adult members of the thousands of families in whose homes the •* Young
People's Weekly " is the most eagerly awaited regular visitor.

The volume of the circulation claimed for the paper we are prepared
to substantiate at any time to the satisfaction of any of our patrons.
As to the character of that circulation, the literary columns of the
paper itself afford the best evidence.

After Feb. 1st we propose to extend our advertising space to a
limited extent, admitting thereto only such advertisements as will con-
sort with the general character of our paper and the character of its
readers, thereby enhancing its value alike to its readers and our adver*
tising patrons.

We invite your careful inspection of our special illuminated cover
design of our forthcoming Easter edition to be issued April 2d. together
with accompanying details as to circulation, rates, eta

Believing that the appearance of your advertisement in this special

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 6

edition would be to our mutual advantage and lead to a continuance of
your patronage, we solicit an early advice of your favor.

Very truly yours,

Pierce Underwood Co.
Per Pierce Underwood,
Pres. & Treas.

DITNNING L.ETTERS.

6. Dunning' letters should be characterized by mcdera-
tion, fairness, and firmness. The style of the letter should
depend on the circumstances of the case. If the party owing
the money is known to be reliable but a little slow in remit-
ting, the letter should be so worded as to imply that payment
is merely a favor. On the other hand, if a debt is long past
due and the debtor seems inclined to evade payment alto-
gether, the letter may be quite peremptory and may contain
a threat of appeal to the law. Such a letter may induce i)ay-
ment where a friendly letter would have no effect. The fol-
lowing are models of dtmning letters suitable for vaiious
circumstances :

Philadelphia, April 18, 1899.
Alfred Irwin & Co.,

Pittsburg, Pa.

Dear Sirs :

In the statement enclosed herewith are repeated the figures
of accounts previously rendered, and there appears a balance of
$342.65, of which we should, as we think, naturally have received
settlement last month. It will be a favor to us if we may have your
remittance by return mail, and all the more if it may be in- Philadel-
phia funds.

Very truly yours,

O. A. Johnstone & Co.

Pittsburg, May 8, 1897.
Mr. James Bodine,

Altoona, Pa.

Dear Sir : — We sent you a statement of your account some time ago.
As we have heard nothing from you, we conceive it possible that you
have overlooked the matter.

A prompt remittance will be appreciated.

Yours respectfully.

Miller & FbBXRO.

6 LETTER WRITING. § 23

New York, Oct 7, 1894.
Mr. John W. Samuels,

New Orange, N. J.

Dear Sir:

We enclose a statement of your account now long past due.
In view 6i your difficulties we wish to make payment as easy as possi-
ble, and will be pleased to accept small installments at regular intervals.
Let us, however, hear from you at once.

Yours truly,

M. S. Duffy & Co.

St. Louis, July 12, 1893.
Mr. F. S. True,

Ottumwa, la.

Dear Sir:

We have repeatedly written you regarding the payment of your
account but have received no acknowledgment of our letters.

While we wish to give you every opportunity for payment, we must
insist on an answer to this letter within ten days. If we do not hear
from you within that time, we shall be compelled, reluctuantly. to give
the account to our Attorneys for collection.
The amount is 197.32.

Yours truly,

Sinclair & Bunnklu

LETTKHS OF CKNSITRE.

6. A letter of censure is an expression of disapproval or
blame for adequate cause that is called for in certain regret-
table circumstances. Such a letter, while characterized by
firmness, should be also marked by fairness, calmness, and
dignity.

Hartford, Conn.. Oct 13. 1897.
Mr. Arthur E. Dorton,

Minneapolis, Minn.

Dear Sir :

I must reluctantly call your attention to a decided falling off in tho
business in which you are representing me in the West. Your recent
reports show that the receipts from real-estate sales have diminished
materially as compared with last year, and that the receipts from rents
are not what they should Ik*. While there may be some valid cause
for this state of affairs, I fear that it may be ascribed to a lack of energy

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 7

and interest on your part, the more so as all conditions seem to be
favorable for a largely increased business in real estate.

I do not wish to do you an injustice, and am inclined to give you
every chance to get the business back to its original prosperous condi-
tion. If, however, there is no change for the better, I fear that I shall
be unable to continue you in your present position.

Yours truly,

S. S. Noble.

LBTTERS REQUESTING SPECIAL FAVORS.

7. Under this head may be included letters asking for

an extension of time on an account, letters asking for a

remittance not yet due, etc. An unusual request of this

kind should be presented with special care. It is better to

make the request at the outset and give the explanation for

it afterwards.

Frankfort, Kv., Jan. 5, 1898.
Elwell, Carton & Co.,

Cincinnati, Ohia
Gentlemen :

May we request you to accept one-half of our account at matu-
rity, the 20th inst, and permit an extension of sixty days on the
remainder ?

On account of the unprecedented scarcity of money among the
farmers, we have for the last two months experienced unusual difficuhy
in making collections, and are therefore rather cramped for funds to
meet coming obligations.

We regret the necessity of this unusual request, but we trust that
you will understand the circumstances causing it

Yours respectfully,

Otis & Cur ran.

liETTEnS OF ANNOUNCEMENT.

8. Letters of announcement are those that contain some
specific declaration or convey some special communication.

St. Paul, Minn., March 15, 1899.
The Honorable John Halversbn,

St Paul, Minn.
Dear Sir :

It is my privilege to state that I have been appointed to repre*
sent in this city and state the Northwestern Colonisation Company,
of Chicago, IlL

8 LETTER WRITING. § 23

This Company has acquired title to large tracts of land in Minnesota,
the two Dakotas, and Nebraska. This land it proposes to dispose of
to bona-fide settlers, to whom it gives substantial aid in erecting neces-
sary buildings and putting in the first crop, giving them ample time
and most liberal terms to pay their indebtedness to the Company,
which takes a direct and kindly interest in the welfare of each settler
and his family.

You have long taken a deep and practical interest in the subject of
colonization, and proved yourself a friend of the solid development of
the Northwestern States. Your earnestness, sincerity, and success, in
this respect, have won you, not only public esteem but the confidence
of your fellow citizens generally.

I therefore beg the favor of a personal interview, at your own con-
venience, that I may have the honor of stating the purposes and
presenting the claims of the Northwestern Colonization Company as
one of the most powerful and efficient instrumentalities for the devel-
opment of this important section of the American Republic.

Believe me, Sir,

Yours respectfully,

Henry Osborne.

Answer to the Preceding. Letter.

400 Woodward Avenue.

St. Paul, Minn..

March 16. 1899.
Mr. Henry Osborne,

St Paul. Minn.

Sir :

I am pleased to acknowledge receipt of your note, informing me
of your appointment to represent the Northwestern Colonization Com-
pany in this state and city, and soliciting a personal interview.

Thanks for your attention. I shall be pleased to meet you, at the
Merchants' Hotel, tomorrow at 10 o'clock a.m. I have already heard
favorably of the Northwestern Colonization Company, but I shall be
glad to have you state its purposes and present its claims more fully.

Respectfully,

John Halverskn.

I.ETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION.

9. The qualities of a letter of recommendation have been
dwelt upon in a previous section. The rules to be observed
in writing a letter of recommendation are in brief as
follows:

g 23 LETTER WRITING. 0

1. Do not recommend an unworthy person at all.

2. State the exact facts; a highly colored letter of recom-
mendation is likely to prove a positive injury to the one in
whose favor it is written.

3. If you are recommending a person for a particular
situation, dwell on the specific qualifications of the person for
that situation rather than upon his character, integrity, etc.,
though it is of course proper to mention the latter.

Letters of recommendation may be special or general.
Special letters are addressed like ordinary letters to a partic-
ular person; general letters are addressed ** To the public"
or ** To whom it may concern," etc.

General Letter of Recommendation.

Atlanta, Ga., March 10, 1898.
To Whom It May Concern:

Mr. Joseph Shippen has been in our employ as carpet salesman
for the last five years. We are pleased to state that he has, by his
strict attention to duty, and by his honesty and integrity, won the
esteem and confidence of his employers, associates, and customers. It
is with regret that we part with Mr. Shippen, who resigns his situation
solely on account of failing health.

Respectfully,

Enochs & Simpson.

Special Letter of Recommendation.

Syracuse, N. Y.,

May 14, 1899.
Mr. E. S. Williams.

Secretary of the Board of Control,

Allegheny, Pa.
Dear Sir :

Mr. Philip J. Allison has informed me that he has applied for
the professorship of mathematics in the Allegheny high school, and
desires me to write you a word of commendation in his behalf.

I have been closely associated with Mr. Allison for the last three
years and have had an excellent opportunity to observe his teaching.
Without exaggeration, I may say that he is a most thorough mathe-
matician and a conscientious and inspiring teacher. His work as an
instructor in the Syracuse University has been of the highest order,
and the school or college that secures his services I shaU consider
fortunate.

10 LETTER WRITING. § 23

Personally I shall be sorry to lose Mr. Allison's services as my
assistant I, however, heartily wish him the success and advancement
he so well deserves, and 1 take pleasure in commending him to you.

Yours very respectfully,

Professor of Mathematics,

Syracuse University.

i;etters of ini>orsembnt.

10. A letter of indorsement introduces an acquaintance
of the writer to the person or firm addressed, generally for
the purpose of opening an account.

Considerable caution is required in giving a letter of
indorsement, as the writer becomes morally if not legally
responsible for the agreements of the bearer of the letter.

If a letter of indorsement is given to the person introduced,
as is usually the case, it should not be sealed.

Peoria, III., June 8, 1809.
Ingalls & Cooper,

Chicago, IlL

Gentlemen :

The bearer, Mr. Wm. T. Jevons, is making preparations to engage
in the boot and shoe business in Joliet, 111., and visits you to examine
your stock of footwear.

We have known Mr. Jevons for some years and can vouch for his
integrity and business ability. He starts in business under the most
favorable auspices, and we are confident that you will find it to youi
advantage to extend him every reasonable courtesy.

Yours respectfully,

Dodge, Flather & Co.

liSTTERS OF CREDIT.

!!• A letter of credit is one requesting the person
addressed to give the bearer credit for a specified sum of
money for the payment of which the writer assumes respon-
sibility. A letter of credit is often combined with a letter
of introduction. The following is a common form :

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 11

Montgomery, Ala.,

June 4, 1891
S. W. Ford & Co.,

Memphis, Tenn,

Dear Sirs :

Please allow Mr. Edward Buhl, the bearer, credit for such goods

as he may select to the amount of One Thousand Dollars ($1,000). In

case Mr. Buhl fails to make payment at maturity, I will be responsible

for the account

You will inform me of the amount for which you give credit, and in

case of non-payment notify me at once.

Yours respectfully,

Andrew Holcomb.

Another kind of letter of credit is a letter from a banking
house in one country to a similar house in another country
directing the payment of certain sums of money to the per-
son in whose favor the letter is written. These letters of
credit are much used by travelers. The banks usually have
blank forms for them.

Boston, July 1, 1899.
Messieurs Barbaud Fr^res,

Paris, France.
GeniiemeH :

We request that you will have the kindness to furnish Mr. Geo.
E. Romaine, of this city, whose signature appears below, with any
funds that he may require to the extent of Twenty Thousand Francs,
taking his duplicate receipts (one of which you will send us) for any
payment made under this credit.

Whatever sum Mr. Romaine may receive you will please endorse on
the back of this letter and charge to our aooount

Your obedient servants.

The Third National Bank.
The signature of — -^^___

Geo. E. Romaine. President,

LETTERS OF INQUIRY.

12. Letters of inquiry are frequently required in busi-
ness correspondence. The subject of the inquiry may be
the business standing of an individual or firm, the price of
goods, the value of some machine or device, or any one of a
hundred other things.

LETTER WRITING.

§23

Pittsburg. Pa., July 10, 18991
The Cashier

First National Bank,

Scranton, Pa.

Dear Sir:

We shall be obliged to you if you will in confidence give us your

opinion as to the standing of S. G. Campbell & Co. of your city. Would

you consider it safe to extend them credit for $2,000 ?

Thanking you in advance for any information you may give us,

we are,

Very truly yours,

EwiNG & Mansfield.

Favorable Answer.

ScR ANTON. Pa., July 12. 1899.
EwiNG Bi Mansfield,

Pittsburg, Pa.
Gentlemen : .

In answer to your inquiry of the 10th inst concerning the firm of

S. G. Campbell & Co., I take pleasure in giving you the following

information.

This firm is regarded as one of the safest and most conservative in

this city in its line of business. It has good connections, excellent

facilities for doing business, and so far as we know, is reliable in

every way.

Yours truly,

Unfavorable Answer.

SCR ANTON, Pa.,

July 14, 1899.
EwiNG & Mansfield,

Pittsburg, Pa.

Dear Sirs : — Your inquiry concerning S. G. Campbell & Co. is at
hand. In answer we would say that while these people have until
lately been considered reliable, they are at present reported to be in
embarrassed ci'-cumstances, and unable to meet coming obligations.
Everything they have is more or less encumbered. Rumors are afloat
that their present condition is due to heavy losses they have incurred
iu speculation. We have investigated these rumors and find them
substantially correct

We feel it our duty to report this firm in an unsatisfactory condition

financially, and we should not consider it safe to extend them credit for

a large amount

Yours trulv.

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 33

Muskegon, Mich.,

June 23. 1898.
Mr. J. M. Jones.

Secretary Eskridge Mfg. Co.,
Milwaukee, Wis.

Dear Sir :

I am informed that your company has adopted the card-index
system both in your business office and drafting room. Will you
kindly inform me how this system is working, and state briefly its
advantages, if any, over your former systems of indexing addresses
and drawings ? 1 am considering seriously the advisability of intro-
ducing the card index in my own office and I shall be grateful to you
for any information or suggestions.

Yours very truly,

M. S. Stone.

MISCELLANEOUS BUSINESS LETTERS.

13. The following are letters that may occasionally arise
in business practice. The letters of appointment, resigna-
tion, etc. are somewhat of the nature of official business
letters.

Report of Agent.

Flint, Mich.,
March 8, 1899.

Mr. Chas. E. Canfield,

Lockport, N. Y.

Dear Sir :

I have completed the sale of your farm of ninety acres in Rich-
field Township to Mr. S. M. Eaton, of Allegan. The consideration is
$5,175. Mr. Eaton assumes the mortgage of $1,650 with $42.75 accrued
interest, gives you a second mortgage of $2,000, pays $800 in cash, and
gives his note, endorsed by A. Meyer and payable in one j'ear, for the
remainder, $682.25.

Trusting the transaction will prove satisfactory to you, I remain,

Yours very truly,

G. H. Eastman.

14 LETTER WRITING. g 23

Letter of Information.

Confidential.

Peoria. III., Oct 26, 1899.
E. A. Sherman & Co.,

Terre Haute, Ind.

Gentlemen :

I feel it my duty to write concerning one William E. Saunders,
who, during the course of conversation here, informed me that he
intends to call on you.

Shortly after he left my office, I received certain information con-
cerning him. from persons of undoubted reliability, which leads me to
the conviction that he is an entirely untrustworthy person.

This information I give you out of sincere regard for your business
interests.

Your friend,

Alfred Johnson.

Letter of Appointment.

E ASTON, Pa., June 24, 1899.

Mr. George W. Graham,

Trenton, N. J.

Dear Sir:

I beg to inform you that the Board of Trustees of Lafayette
College at their meeting on June 21 appointed you instructor in Physics
at a salary of $900 per year, from Sept 1, 1899.

Please advise me whether or not you accept this appointment

Yours very truly.

Registrar of Lafayette College.

Letters of Resignation.

Peo&ia, III., Feb. 24, 1899.

Honorable

Mayor of Peoria,

Dear Sir:

Having made arrangements to engage in engineering in a
private capacity, I hereby resign my position as City Engfineer of
Peoria, the resignation to take effect May 1, 1899.

Very respectfully,

John Poolk.

£ 23 LETTER WRITING. 16

Hbadquarters Middle Department, Eighth Army Corps,

Baltimore, Md., November 18, 1868.

The President of the United States.

Sir: — Having concluded to accept the place of Member of Cong^ss
in the House of Representatives, to which I was elected in October,
1862, I hereby tender the resignation of my commission as a Major
General of United States Volunteers, to take effect on the 5th day of
December next.

I shall leave the military service with much reluctance and a sacri-
fice of personal feelings and desires, and only consent to do so in the
hope that in another capacity I may be able to do some effective
service in the cause of my country and Government in this time of
peculiar trial.

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

ROBT. C. SCHENK,

Major General,

Letter Declining Appointment.

Lansing, Mich.,

July 15, ISOa
To the Honorable the Speaker

OF THE House of Representatives,

Lansing, Mich.
Sir:

Your letter informing me that I have just been appointed Clerk of
the House of Representatives of the State of Michigan, I have just
received.

While I am deeply grateful for the honor done me, I feel that, in
duty to myself and in justice to my many professional engagements
and obligations, I must decline the honor.

Believe me, however, Mr. Speaker, that I shall always cherish the
remembrance of the high distinction conferred by my selection to this
important office.

1 am, Sir, with very great respect.

Very sincerely yours,

EuwiN Butterfield.

TELEGRAMS.

14. Telegrams are messages or other commtinications
transmitted by wire. They are so much used in the busi-
ness life of today, that to be able to write a good telegraphic
message is one of the most desirable qualifications of a
business man.

16 LETTER WRITING, § 23

In telegraphic despatches the salutation and complimentary
close are omitted. Such messages should be expressed in the
fewest possible words to make the meaning clear. For
instance :

ScRANTON, Pa., March 16, *99.
Samuel Jbwett,

850 Delaware Ave.,

Buffalo, N. Y.

Meet me, Niagara Hotel, Buflfalo, tomorrow
morning at 10.

James Ewing.

This message might be written at length somewhat after
this fashion :

*• I will be in Buffalo tomorrow, and expect to stop at the Niagara
Hotel, where I wish you to meet me."

This amplification is, as the student will at once perceive,
wholly unnecessary. All that is required for the recipient
of a telegram is that he should clearly understand the mean-
ing of the sender. Care, however, must be taken not to
condense so much as to make the message unintelligible.
One might thus, by trying to save the slight extra cost of a
word or two, lose what has been paid for the whole telegram,
besides failing in the object for which it is sent. Read your
message carefully after writing, and satisfy yourself that it
states clearly what you mean. In the case of a very impor-
tant telegram it might be well to read your copy to a dis-
interested person to see whether it is understood by another
as well as by yourself.

Much of the telegraphing by business houses is at present
done in cipher. Important matters may thus be telegraphed
without giving information, except to those entitled to it.
A great saving in expense may also, by this means, be
effected. This saving is done by preparing a code of words,
arranged alphabetically in which a single word stands for a
phrase or a sentence; as, for instance. Acre may mean "I
arrived here safe today." Cipher codes are printed and
copies are furnished by the houses adopting them to each of
their traveling men and the principal firms with whom they

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 17

do business. These cipher codes are mostly used in ordering
goods, and for communications between employers and their
traveling agents. ' '

1 6. Rules and Rates. — From the Instructions and Rules
of The Postal Telegraph-Cable Company, we learn that:

1. Each telegram for transmission must be written on
the form provided by the Company for that purpose, or
attached to such form by the sender, or by the person pre-
senting the telegram, as the sender's agent, so as to leave the
printed heading in full view above the telegram.

2. Telegraphing depends on the number of words, the
distance, transfers, etc. The name of the place the mes-
sage is sent from, the date, address, and the signature are
not usually counted in estimating the number of words,
except in cable messages.

In prepaid telegrams, however, the under mentioned
words are counted and charged for; namely:

All words in an extra date; as, **via Boston, Mass.," in
** Buffalo, N. Y., March 24, via Boston, Mass."^

All extra words, such as **No." in an address; as, ** John
Smith, No. 80 Wall St., N. Y.," or ** James Brown, No. 187
Broadway, N. Y."

Each figure in the body or text of a telegram; as, ** Meet
me at 1185 Madison Ave., tomorrow night." Also, each
letter when it is an abbreviation of a word ; as, ** Meet me at
W. C. T. U. Hall."

All signatures, except the last one in the case of two or
more; as **T. R. Blacks tone, Samuel Hughes, WilUam
Dearing,'* the first two of these signatures being charged for.

Titles consisting of not over two words after the signature
are not charged for, as * ' George Brown, Gen*l Mgr. "

All words after the signature that are not titles are charged
for; such as, ** report delivery charges, " ** delivery charges
guaranteed," ** report delivery," and ** repeat back."

3. In counting a message, dictionary words, initial let-
ters, surnames of persons, names of cities, towns, villages,
states, or territories, or names of the Canadian provinces are

18 LETTER WRITING. § 23

counted and charged for each as one word. Abbreviations
for the names of towns, villages, states, territories, and
provinces are counted the same as though they were written
in full. The abbreviations of weights and measures in com
mon use are each counted as one word.
. All pronounceable groups of letters, when such groups are
not combinations of dictionary words, are counted each
group as one word. When such groups are made up of com-
binations of dictionary words, each dictionary word so used
is counted. Numbers and amounts should be written in
words, but if expressed in figures each figure is counted as
one word.

Figures, decimal points, bars of division, and letters are,
in general, counted each separately .as one word.

In ordinal numbers the affixes **st," **d," ** th," as in the
case of 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, are each counted as one word.

4. A night telegram must be written upon the night tele-
gram form, and is acceptable only between the hours of
opening and midnight. The offices closing before midnight
will not accept a night telegram that cannot be started before
the closing hour. In case of an interruption of the lines
that it is believed would prevent the transmission of a night
telegram before the following morning, such a telegram will
not be accepted.

CABLEGRAMS.

16. Cablegrams must be written on the regular forms
provided therefor, but if written on any other paper whatso-
ever, must, when offered for transmission, be pasted on the
regular sending form before being forwarded. Every cable-
gram must be prepaid by the sender unless it be a ** prepaid
reply *' or unless otherwise specially ordered. All words in
the address, text, and signature are counted and charged
for. Cablegrams may contain any number of words. Every
address must consist of at least two words; the first indi-
cating the name of the receiver, and the second the name of
the place the cablegram is addressed to. The sender is
responsible for an incorrect or insufficient address.

§23

LETTER WRITING.

Corrections and alterations can only be made by a new
cablegram, which must be paid for. Cablegrams may be
written in plain language, code language, or cipher lan-
guage, but they must be legibly written in characters that
have their equivalents in the Morse alphabet.

The signature may be abbreviated or omitted, but the
cable company declines to make any unpaid inquiries respect-
ing it.

For the benefit of the student, we subjoin the list of rates.

ATLANTIC CABLE RATES.

Kate
From per word.

Alabama $.31

Arizona 37

Arkansas 84

California 37

Colorado 84

Connecticut ', .25

Delaware 28

District of Columbia 28

Florida, Pensacola 81

Georgia 31

Illinois 31

Indiana 31

Iowa, Burlington, Clinton, Ce-
dar Rapids, Davenport, Du-
buque, Fort Madison, Keo-
kuk, and Muscatine 31

Iowa, other offices 34

Kansas 34

Kentucky 31

Louisiana, New Orleans 31

Louisiana, other offices 34

Maine 25

Maryland 28

Massachusetts 25

Michigan 31

Minnesota, Duluth, Hastings,
Minneapolis, Red Wing, St.
Paul, Stillwater, Wabasha,

and Winona 31

Minnesota, other offices 34

Rate
Prom per word.

Mississippi |.31

Missouri, Hannibal, Louisi-
ana, and St. Louis .*. 31

Missouri, other offices .34

Montana 34

Nebraska 34

New Hampshire 25

New Jersey, Hoboken and

Jersey City .25

New Jersey, other offices 28

New Mexico 34

New York, Brooklyn and New
York City, Governor's Island

and Yonkers 25

New York, other offices 28

North Carolina 31

North Dakota 34

Ohio 31

Oregon 37

Pennsylvania 28

Rhode Island 25

South Carolina 81

Tennessee 81

Texas 84

Vermont 25

Virginia 31

Washington 37

West Virginia 81

Wisconsin 31

20 LETTER WRITING. § 23

17» Regrnlatlons Governing Messag^es. — All messages
taken by The Western Union Telegraph Company are sub-
ject to the following terms:

To guard against mistakes or delays, the sender of a
message should order it repeated; that is, telegraphed back
to the originating office for comparison. For this, one-
half the regular rate is charged in addition. It is agreed
between the sender of the message and the Company, that
the Company shall not be liable for mistakes or delays
in the transmission or delivery, or for non-delivery of any
unrepealed message, beyond the amount received for send-
ing the same ; nor for mistakes or delays in the transmis-
sion or delivery, nor for non-delivery of any repeated
message, beyond fifty times the sum received for sending
the same, unless specially insured, nor in any case for delays
arising from unavoidable interruption in the working of
its lines, or for errors in cipher- or obscure messages. And
the Company is made the agent of the sender, without
liability, to forward any message over the lines of any other
Company when necessary to reach its destination. Cor-
rectness in the transmission of a message to any point on
the lines of the Company can be insured by contract in
writing, stating agreed amount of risk, and payment of
premium thereon, at the following rates, in addition to the
usual charge for repeated messages; viz., 1 per cent, for any
distance not exceeding 1,000 miles, and 2 per cent, for any
greater distance. No employe of the Company is author-
ized to vary the foregoing.

No responsibility regarding messages attaches to the Com-
pany until the same are presented and accepted at one of its
transmitting offices; and if a message is sent to such office
by one of the Company's messengers, he acts for that pur-
pose as the agent of the sender.

Messages are delivered free within the established free-
delivery limits of the terminal office. For delivery at a
greater distance, a special charge is made to cover the cost
of such delivery.

The Company will not be liable for damages or statutory

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 21

penalties in any case where the claim is not presented in
writing within sixty days after the message is filed with the
Company for transmission.

SOCIAIi liBTTERS.

18. Remark. — The letters collected in the following
pages are mostly from the pens of well known men and
women ; they are excellent examples of the epistolary style,
and are well worthy the close attention of the student.

The collection includes letters of affection, of friendship,
of condolence, of sympathy, of gratitude, and of good coun-
sel ; also other letters of a more formal nature.

LETTERS OF AFFECTION.

19. Letters of affection are those that grow out of one's
regard for others; they may be written by members of a
family to one another, or by a lover to his betrothed.

Letter from Daniel Webster to Ezekiel Webster.

Washington, April 11, 1816.
Dear Ezekiel, —

I received yours yesterday, and I learned with great sorrow the

illness of our mother and Mary. I have hardly a hope that the former

can now be living. If she should be, on receipt of this tcli her I pray

for her everlasting peace and happiness, and would give her a son's

blessing for all her parental goodness. May God bless her, living or

dying!

If she does not survive, let her rest beside her husband and our
father.

I hope Mary is not dangerously ill. You must write to me, addressed
to New York, where I expect to be on my way home about the 28th or
80th instant. Congress will probably rise about the 22d or a few days
later.

We have got through most of the important public business of this
session.

Give my love to your wife and children, and may Heaven preserve

you alL

Most affectionately yours,

D. Webstkr.

22 LETTER WRITING. § 23

The following charming letter from a young man to his
betrothed is taken from **Scribner*s Magazine,** Jmie, 1896:

Bradford College, June 15, 1805.

My Dearest Nell:

You shouldn't complain that my letters for the past six weeks
have been all about you, and nothing about myself. How can a fellow
help it: when you have made him the happiest being in the world ?
Still if you command, I must obey ; and begin the story of my poor self
where I left off. Let's see. Where was it ? It seems so long ago and
so far away that I can scarce recall it.

•' How soon a smile of God can change the world ! "

Oh ! I remember. The agreement was that you were to quit the
role of St Catherine, and condescend to enter a home instead of a set-
tlement; and I was to abjure the vows of a St. Christopher to right at
once all the wrongs of the universe by my own right arm. before enter-
taining the "thought of tender happiness." We were two precious
fools, weren't we ? Yet' it was a divine folly after all. Goethe is right
in his doctrine of renunciation. If we had not faced fairly the giving
up of all this bliss, it would not be half so sweet to us now. And
please don't tell me I have "smashed at one blow all your long cher-
ished ideals of social service." It is not so. The substance of all those
social aims of yours is as precious to us both as it ever was: and we
will find ways to work them out together. Not one jot or tittle of the
loftiest standard you ever set before yourself shall be suffered to pass
away unfulfilled. Your aims and aspirations are not lost, but trans-
formed, aufgehoben^ as the Germans say of the chemical constituents
of the soil when they are taken up to form the living tissue of plant or
animal.

There is nothing you ever thought of doing in a settlement that we
will not do better in our home. We shall not give less to the world,
because we are more ourselves. We shall not be less able to comfort
those who sorrow, because our own hearts overflow with joy. Because
we are rich in each other, we shall not be less generous to all. You
shall have all the classes and schools and clubs and meetings you
wish ; and they will not be the least bit less successful for being in the
home of a mill owner in our native city of fifty thousand people,
instead of in some neglected quarter of a city ten times as big.

Do you know, father is so delighted with what he calls the " recovery
of my reason," that he has promised to build a house for us this fall.
We will work up the plans together this summer. One feature of it,
though, I have fixed on already ; which I know you will approve. Oui
library will be a long room, with a big fireplace on one side and a cozy
den at each end, marked off by an arch supported by pillars. These
dens we will fit up with our college books and furniture ; and make

8 23 LETTER WRITING. 23

them just as nearly like our college rooms as we can. And then in the
long winter evenings we will come out of our dens before the fireplace ;
and you will be my private tutor, and with your patient tuition I shall
perhaps get some good after all out of the Horace and Goethe and
Shelley and Browning, which you understand and love so well, but
which, to tell the truth, I haven't got much out of thus far. Somehow
we fellows don't get hold of those things as you do.

Isn't it glorious that my examinatioui» come so that I can get off for
your class day and commencement. To be sure, I shall probably for-
get the fine points in political economy and sociology, in which I have
been working for honors the past two years. But then, hon(M*s or no
honors, I have got the good out of them anyway ; and what are honors
at the end of college compared with love at the beginning of life.

I am delighted that you are coming to my commencement. My part
is a dry, heavy thing; which I don't expect to make interesting to
anybody else ; but it is intensely interesting to me ; for it sums up the
inner experience which I have been going through these past four
years, and has helped to g^ve me my bearings as I go out into life.
My subject is '* Naturalness, Selfishness, Self-sacrifice, and Self-
realization." You have known me as no one else has all these years,
you will see what it all means. You catch the idea.

First : We set out as nature has formed and tradition has fashioned
us; innocent, susceptible, frail. The hard cruel world comes down
upon us, and would crush us under its heavy unintelligible weight.

Second: We rise up against it; defy tradition and throw convention
to the winds. We in turn strive to trample others under foot. But
though we wear spiked shoes, we find the pricks we kick against
harder and sharper than our spikes.

Third: We surrender, abjectly and unconditionally; cast spear and
shield away in the extreme of formal, abstract self-denial, and ascetic,
egotistical self-sacrifice. This in turn betrays its hoUowness and emp-
tiness and uselessness and unreality.

Fourth: The Lord of life, against whom we have been blindly
fighting all the while, lifts us up in his strong arms ; sets us about the
concrete duties of our station ; arms us with the strength of definite
human duties, and cheers us with the warmth of individual human love ;
and sends us forth to the social service v/hich to hearts thus fortified
is perfect freedom and perennial delight.

Such a process of spiritual transformation I take to be the true sigf
nificance of a college course. To be sure, in college, as in the great
world of which it is ^ part, none can see the meaning of the earlier phases
until they reach the later; and consequently many never see any sense
in it at aU. For the great majority of men go through college, as the
great majority go through life, without getting beyond the first or
second stage, and graduate as Matthew Arnold says most men die*
** unf reed, having seen nothing, still unblesU"

34 LETTER WRITING. § 23

There, Nell, haven't I been as egoistic this time as your altruistic
highness could desire ?

Your devoted lover,

Clarence Mansfield.

LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP,

20. Letters of friendship are those exchanged by friends.
Charles Sumner to Professor Simon Greenleaf.

Convent of Palazzuola, July 27, 1839.
Mv Dear Friend, —

I wrote you once, I think, from the palace of an English Bishop;
this will go to you from a monastery of Franciscans. In Rome, the
heat is intense ; and the fever-laden airs of the Campagna even enter
the city. Here Greene and myself have come to pass a few days —
*• hermits hoar in solemn cell." An English noble would give a sub-
sidy for such a site as this. In the background is the high mountain
which was once dedicated to the Latial Jove, to whom Cicero makes
his eloquent appeal in the oration for Milo; and on one side, clearly
discernible from my window, is Tusculum, the favorite residence of
the great Roman orator. The road over which I passed in coming
here is that on which Milo encountered Clodius. The stillness and
solemnity that is about me makes every day appear a Sabbath. My
companion is the Consul at Rome — a dear friend of Longfellow, and a
most delightful and accomplished person. The monks have given us
three rooms each, besides the grand hall; each of us has a bedroom, a
cabinet, and an ante-chamber. My ante-chamber is vaulted, and
covered with arabesques. My other two rooms are painted, so as to
resemble the cell of a hermit — the ceiling is arched — and I seem to see
the rude stones which the pious man has built in the wilderness; and
at my bedside are the beads and the crucifix. The hall is hung with
pictures of the most distinguished of the order; and a fresco on the
high-vaulted ceiling represents the ascension of St. Francis, its patron.
What would these Fathers have said, if they could have foreseen that
their retreat was to be occupied by heretics ; that the hospitality of
their convent was to be extended to those who do not believe in the
Pope or St. Francis? You know that this order is one of the most
rigid of the Roman Church. They wear neither hats nor stockings,
but simply sandals for their feet. The remainder of their dress is a
thick, heavy robe, or gown — '.'Odious! in woolen! 'twould a saint pro-
voke " — which they wear alike in all seasons. They live upon charity.
One of their number lately was begging for com of a farmer, who was
treading out *with his oxen the summer's harvest. The farmer, in

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 26

derision, and as a way of refusing, pointed to a bag which contained a
load for three men, and told the monk he was welcome to that, if he
would carry it off. The monk invoked St Francis, stooped and took
ap the load, and quietly carried it away! The astonished farmer
followed him to the convent, and required the return of his corn. His
faith was not great enough to see a miracle. It was given up; but
the story coming to the ears of the governor of the town, he summa-
rily ordered the restoration of the corn to the convent.

I have amused myself not a little in examining the library here. It
consists of about a thousand volumes, all in parchment, and in Latin
and Italian. There is one Spanish work, and one German! Our poor
language has not a single representative. The monks have looked
with astonishment upon the avidity with which I have examined their
books; I doubt if they have had such an overhauling for a century.
With gloves on, I took down and scanned every book, — a large portion
of them I found standing bottom upwards ; and as I put them in their
places properly (having had some experience in dealing with a library),
I think the monks may be gainers by my visit. The librarian told me
there were no MSS. ; but I found more than a dozen. Tlie work on
geography, which seemed to be the standard of the convent in this
department of knowledge, spoke of England as divided into seven
kingdoms— one of which was Mercia, another Northumberland, etc. ;
actually going back to the Heptarchy! The English possessions in
America were represented as being taken (tolte) from Spain ; and of
these, Bostona was the capital; but the great commeicial place of
America was Vera Cruz. When 1 get home, 1 will tell you what sort
of people monks are.

Only a few days ago I received your kind letter of May 17. I
deeply appreciate your sympathy in my father's death. Such a
relation cannot be severed without awakening the strongest emotions ;
and though I cannot affect to feel entirely the grief that others have
on such a bereavement, yet it has been to me a source of unfeigned
sorrow, and has thrown a shadow across my Italian pleasures. In the
education of my young brother and sisters I have always interested
myself as much as I was allowed to, from the moment in which I had
any education myself. I feel anxious to be at home, that I may take
upon myself the responsibility which belongs to me as the eldest
brother. Remember me to Mrs. Greenleaf, and believe me

Ever affectionately yours,

Charles Sumnsr*

P. S. Rome, July 28. — I have just received a long letter from my
brother George, who has penetrated the interior of Russia, Tartary,
Circassia, Bithynia, and is now going to the Holy Land. He has seen
more of Russia, I doubt not, than any foreigner alive. He is the most
remarkable person of his age I know. Pardon this from a brother.

26 LETTER WRITING. § 23

The following letter from Mrs. Mary Anderson Navarro

to Mrs. R. N. Kelly, of Louisville, Ky., a friend of the

former actress, is an ideal letter of friendship. It has been

said that the true artist often might be an actor, painter,

or sculptor, according as the artist willed. Certainly this

charming letter indicates that **Our Mary" might have

become a great woman of letters if she had not taken to the

stage.

Court Farm, Broadway, Worcestershire,

My Dear Old Friend. — So many thanks for your sweet kind

letter Surely you are blessed in your children. Elisha,

as I remember him, was one of the dearest of boys. May every bless-
ing attend him and his wife. It seems odd that that little fellow
should have a wife of his own, for I remember him as a tiny boy.

Yes, Juliet is in the convent in Kensington Square, almost opposite
to Thackeray's house, where he wrote "Vanity Fair." She is very
happy. No, Blanche is not going on the stage. She is very beautiful
and has a lovely voice, but I hope she will not be tempted to the acting
stage ever. (Blanche and Juliet are sisters of Mrs. Navarro.)

Yes, if I get over to America again my first pilgrimage will be to
my girlhood's home, and how I shall love to see you all and introduce
my adored and adorable Tony to you ! He grows more charming and
loving as the years go on.

I am so distressed to hear that Mr. Charles Jacob is dead. He was
such a truly gentle man, and so charming to meet It would be so
lovely if you could run over here to this old-world place and see mo
some time. I should so love to see your dear, kind face again.

My little boy is now two and a half years old, and so clever for his
age. His nurse is German, and he speaks German and English in his
pretty prattling way. He is wonderfully affectionate, but he has a
will of iron, and sometimes it takes it out of one to curb it, but he is a
pure joy to us both.

Here I write and it is a bright Spring day. The snowdrops are out
in our garden, and the crocus and daffodils show themselves in the
orchard beyond, popping their pretty heads above the fresh, brilliant,
green grass.

My own room is a white room, paneled from floor to ceiling hi old
wood. It has long, low windows, with tiny panes, and its furniture Is
all of the time of Louis XV, and in it the carpet and curtains are
green. The white, g^reen, and gold is so pretty.

Mother and Blanche have just returned from a trip to Germany.
Mother is so handsome and so well. Joe has had four children. He
has just lost a little girl. (Mary Anderson's brother, who married a
daughter of Lawrence Barrett)

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 21

There is a golden canary singing madly in one of the windows as
though he would send you a message. Well, no more. Tony joins me
in love to you and yours, and I close. Your ever true and loving

Mamie.

LiETTERS OF CONDOLENCE.

21. The following is a letter received from Admiral
Dewey by Mrs. Noss, of Mt. Pleasant, whose husband, Jesse
Noss, was killed in the battle of Malate, July 31, 1898:

Olympia, Flagship, Manila, Oct 28, 1898.

Mv Dear Mrs. Noss: — I wish to express to you my deepest sympathy.
It must lessen your sorrow somewhat to know that your young hus-
band fell fighting bravely for his country, the noblest death a man can
know. From the Olympia, I watched the fight that fearful night and
wondered how many American homes would be saddened by the
martyrdom suffered by our brave men, and my sympathy went out to
each and every one of them.

Your loss has been sadder than the others and I am unable to express
the sorrow I 'feel. Tears came to my eyes as I read the sad story of
the father who never saw his child and then the loss of all that was
left to the brave mother. It is hard sometimes to believe, but our
Heavenly Father, in His infinite goodness, always does things best and
some day father, mother, and daughter will be joined never again to
be parted.

With tenderest sympathy, believe me, your sincere friend,

George Dewey.

Letter Written by Queen Victoria to Lord Selbornb

ON THE Death of His Wife.

It is for you to whom she was so devoted, that I feel so deeply, for
to lose the loved companion of one's life is losing half one's existence.
From that time everything is different, every event seems to lose its
effect, for joy which cannot be shared by those who felt everything
with you, is no joy, and sorrow is only redoubled when it cannot be
shared and soothed by the one who alone could do so. The longer God
has permitted us to remain together, the more acute must be the agony
of separation, and I do most sincerely feel for you. No children can
replace a wife, or a husband, may they be ever so good and devoted.
One must bear one's burden alone.

If Napoleon the First had never written another line but
the subjoined letter sent to his mother on the occasion of his

28 LETTER WRITING. § 23

father's death, he would deserve enduring fame as a letter
writer: *^

Paris, March 29, 1785.
My Dear Mother:

Now that time has begun to soften the first transports of my
sorrow. I hasten to express to you the gratitude I feci for all the kind-
ness you have always displayed toward us. Console yourself, dear
mother; circumstances require that you should. We will redouble our
care and our gratitude, happy if, by our obedience, we can make up to
you in the smallest degree for the inestimable loss of a cherished hus-
band. I finish, dear mother — my grief compels it — by praying you to
calm yours. My health is perfect, and my daily prayer is that Heaven
may grant you the same.

Napoleone Buonaparte.

liETTERS OP SYMPATHT.

22. Letters of sympathy convey consolation, comfort,
and encouragement to friends in peril, distress, trial, or
suffering from sickness or loss. ** Sympathy is," according
to Arthur Helps, ** the universal solvent. Nothing is under-
stood without it.** Letters of sympathy should by their
unselfish generosity bear out this definition.

Dolly Madison to Her Sister Anna.

MoNTPELiER, August 2, 1882.

Beloved Sister Anna. — Mrs. Mason has just written to me to say
you are a little better, and those dear daughters of yours, Mary and
Dolly, whom I shall ever feel are my own children, have often con-
soled me by their letters since you were unable to write. Your hus-
band and boys too have written frequently — all in that affectionate
feeling towards you which manifested their deep love ; and although
my heart is sad within me, because I cannot see or assist you in your
long and painful sickness, yet am I very thankful to the Almighty for
his favors in bestowing such devoted friends as have surrounded your
pillow.

My dear husband is recovering, I hope, slowly, though still confined
to his bed. He speaks of you to me every day with all the partiality
and love of a tender brother, and ardently hopes that we may be long
spared to each other.

Mrs. Clay and her husband did not call to see me as we expected.
They understood that General Jackson was at Montpelier and passed

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 2&

on to Governor Barbour's. The next day Mr. Clay came for a few
hours, but did not meet the President here. I regretted much not
seeing Mrs. Clay, as she would have talked to me of you.

Do, dear sister, strive to get well and strong for my sake and your
children's; what should we do without you! As soon as my eyes are
well I will write to dear Mrs. B. In the meantime offer her my love
and thanks for all her goodness to you.

Adieu, my dear, ever and always,

Your loving sister,

Dolly P. Madison.

The late Mr. Gladstone's letters will give him in history a
place that his speeches and statesmanship alone could never
obtain even for so illustrious an orator and profound a states-
man. We make place for one letter from Queen Victoria's
greatest Prime Minister, so befitting the man that wrote it,
so kindly to the illustrious sufferer stricken down by foulest
crime, so tender and so consoling to the amiable recipient of
its profound and heartfelt sympathy as to call for no further
comment.

Right Honorable W. E. Gladstone to MRa J. A. Garfield.

London, July 21, 1881.
Dear Madam:

You will, I am sure, excuse me, though a personal stranger, for
addressing you by letter to convey to you the assurances of my own
feeling^ and those of my countrymen, on the occasion of the late hor-
rible attempt to murder the President of the United States, in a form
more palpable at least than that of messages conveyed by telegraph.
Those feelings have been feelings in the first instance of sympathy,
and afterwards of joy and thankfulness almost comparable, I venture
to say only second to the strong emotions of the g^eat nation of which
he is the appointed head. Individually, I have, let me beg you to
believe, had my full share in the sentiments which have possessed the
British nation. They have been prompted and quickened largely by
what I venture to think is the ever-growing sense of harmony and
mutual respect and affection between the countries, and of a relation-
ship which from year to year becomes more and more a practical bond
of union between us. But they have also drawn much of their streng^th
from a cordial admiration of the simple heroism which has marked the
personal conduct of the President, for we have not yet wholly lost the
capacity of appreciating such an example of Christian faith and manly
fortitude. This exemplary picture has been made complete by your

do LfetTER WRITING. 1 23

own contribution to its noble and touching features, on which I only
forbear to dwell because I am addressing you. I beg to have my
respectful compliments and congratulations conveyed to the President,
and to remain, dear madam, your most faithful servant,

W. £. Gladstone.

LETTERS OP GRATITUDE.

23. Letters of gratitude are expressions of a due appre-
ciation of favors received, accompanied by good will to the
benefactor.

D. S. Gregory, in ** Christian Ethics," says ^^ Gratitude
is the natural response of the heart to kindnesses intended or
received. It implies (as a moral sentiment) the desire to
show a proper appreciation of the favor, and to requite it if

possible."

Cambridge, November 9, 1878.
Dear Madam:

I have had the pleasure of receiving your note and the poems
you were kind enough to send me, and beg you to accept my thanks
for this mark of your consideration.

These poems I have read with interest and sympathy, and feel how
great a comfort it must be to you to be able to occupy the leisure which
advancing years bring with them, with the exercise of your talent If,
as you say, you cannot hear the singing of the birds, you will enjoy all
the more the sound of the voice that sings within.

Hoping that this consolation may never fail you, I am, Dear Madam,

Yours truly,

Henry W. Longfellow.

679 Fifth Avenue, New York.

Hon. Jere B. Rex, Chief Cierk,

House of Representatives,

Pennsylvania.

Dear Sir:

Will you kindly convey to the members of the Senate and the

House of Representatives of the State of Pennsylvania my sincere

thanks for their kindness in passing a resolution in recognition of my

services to the soldiers of your State during the war ?

While I do not feel entitled to the many expressions of appreciation

and good will that have come to me since the war with Spain, I am

none the less deeply touched by them.

Very truly,

Helen Miller Gouux
March 81. 1899.

8 23 LETTER WRITING. 3l

The following" public letter of thanks was written by
Rudyard Kipling:

Hotel Grenoblb, Easter Day, '90.
Dear Sir:

Will you allow me through your columns to attempt some
acknowledgment of the wonderful sympathy, affection, and kindness
shown towards me during my recent illness, as well as the unfailing
courtesy that controlled its expression ?

I am not strong enough to answer letters in detail, so I must take
this means of thanking as humbly, as sincerely, the countless people
of good will throughout the world, who have put me under a great
debt I can never hope to repay.

Faithfully yours,

Rudyard Kipling.

As a letter writer General Grant was clear, direct, unaf-
fected, but likewise, as occasion demanded, delicate and
sympathetic. His letter to General Sherman, written in
March, 1864, is a case in point.

Dear Sherman :

The bill reviving the grade of Lieutenant-General in the army
has become a law, and my name has been sent to the Senate for the
place. I now receive orders to report to Washington immediately in
person, which indicates a confirmation, or a likelihood of confirmation.

I start in the morning to comply with the order.

Whilst I have been eminently successful in this war, in at least
gaining the confidence of the public, no one feels more than I how
much of this success is due to the energy and skill, and the harmonious
putting forth of that energy and skill, of those whom it has been my
good fortune to have occupjring subordinate positions under me.

There are many officers to whom these remarks are applicable to a
greater or less degree, proportionate to their ability as soldiers: but
what I want is to express my thanks to you and McPherson. as the
men to whom, above all others, I feel indebted for whatever I have
had of success.

How far your advice and assistance have been of help to me you
know. How far your execution of whatever has been given you to
do entitles you to the reward I am receiving, you cannot know as well
as I.

I feel all the gratitude this letter would express, giving it the most
fiattering construction.

The word ^ou I use in the plural, intending it for McPherson also.

32 LETTER WRITING. § 23

I should write to him, and will some day: but, starting in the morning,
I do not know tha't I will find time.

Your friend,

U. S. Grant,

Major^GeneraL

How truly unselfish this letter of a truly modest yet illus-
trious man. Thoughtful sympathy and earnest gratitude
run through its every line. Grant speaks, indeed, of his
success, but see how he generously attributes it, in a very
large measure, to the energy and skill of his subordinates,
especially Generals Sherman and McPhefson. How expres-
sively tender the assurance that he feels all the gratitude his
letter under the most flattering construction could convey.
No one can read such a letter, written at a time when suc-
cess and adulation would have turned the brain of a weak
and hardened the heart of a selfish man, without recog-
nizing the true greatness of soul that enabled Grant to
achieve such success in the field, and then, in the Chief
Magistracy of the Nation, heal so many of the wounds
inflicted by a cruel internecine conflict.

LETTERS OF EARXEST GOOD COUNSEIi.

24. Letters of earnest good counsel may be addressed
by parent^ to children, by brother to brother, by friend to
friend, by superior to inferior.

Mr. Webster to Master Daniel Webster.

Washington, March 6. 1848.
My Dear Grandson:

Your father writes me from time to time, informing your grand-
mother and myself of the health of the family. But I wish to hear
oftener, and to know more of you. You are now ceasing to be a mere
child. You are ten years old, and it is time that you turned your
attention seriously to your books, as I presume you do. It is time
you should write me every week, and give me an account of your
studies.

You must now, my dear namesake and grandson, think less of play
and childish sports, and begin to pursue manly objects. I hear no

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 33

complaint of you, and believe you are doing very well. I expect to
iind you when I see you next, not a mere child, thinking of nothing but
play and amusements ; but a manly boy, fond of the company and con-
versation of your father and mother, and laboring to improve your
mind.

Two or three things I wish now to impress on your mind. First,
you cannot learn without your own efforts. All the teachers in the
world can never make a scholar of you, if you do not apply yourself
with all your might

In the second place, be of good character, and good behavior ; a boy
of strict truth, and honor, and conscience in all things. Have but one
rule, and let that be, always to act right, and fear nothing but to do
wrong.

Finally, •* Remember your Creator, in the days of your youth." You
are old enough to kn6w that God has made you, and given you a mind,
and faculties; and will surely call you to account

Honor and obey your parents; love your sister and brother; be
gentle and kind to all; avoid all peevishness and fretfulness; be
patient under restraint, and when you cannot have what you wish.

Look forward, constantly, to your approaching manhood, and put
off every day, more and more, all that is frivolous and childish. Provi-
dence has taken from us your dear uncle Edward, in the full vigor of
his life. It is an awful affliction to us all ; but we. must submit to the
will of God.

Now, you must see how soon you can become what ho was, a com-
panion to your father and mother, and a comfort to us all.

May Heaven bless you, my dear grandson, and may you continue
an object of warm affection to all your family connections, and all your
friends.

Your affectionate grandfather,

Daniel Webster.

I-ETTERS OF SPECIAI. REQUEST.

25. Letters of special request are those addressed by one
friend to another, asking for the grant of some particular
kindness, consideration, or favor.

George Crabbe to Edmund Burke, Esq.

Sir. — I am sensible that I need even your talents to apologize for the
freedom I now take ; but I have a plea which, however simply urged,
will, with a mind like yours, sir, procure me a pardon ; I am one of
those outcasts of the world, who are without a friend, without employ-
ment, without bread.

34 LETTER WRITING. § 23

Pardon me a short preface. I had a partial father, who gave me a
better education than his broken fortune would have allowed; and a
better than was necessary, as he could give me that only. I was
designed for the profession of physic; but not having wherewithal to
complete the requisite studies, the design that served to convince me
of a parent's affection, and the error it had occasioned. In April last I
came to London, with three pounds, and flattered myself that this
would be sufficient to supply me with the common necessaries of life,
till my abilities should procure me more ; of these I had the highest
opinion, and a poetical vanity contributed to my delusion. I knew
little of the world, and had read books only ; I wrote, and fancied per-
fection in my compositions ; when I wanted bread they promised me
affluence, and soothed me with dreams of reputation, whilst my appear-
ance subjected me to contempt.

Time, reflection, and want, have shown me my mistake. I see my
trifles in that which I think the true light ; and, whilst I deem them
such, have yet the opinion that holds them superior to the common run
of poetical publications.

I had some knowledge of the late Mr. Nassau, the brother of Lord
Rochford: in consequence of which, I asked his lordship's permission
to inscribe my little work to him. Knowing it to be free from all polit-
ical allusions and personal abuse, it was no very material point to me
to whom it was dedicated. His lordship thought it none to him, and
obligingly consented to my request.

I was told that a subscription would be the more profitable method
with me, and, therefore, endeavored to circulate copies of the inclosed
proposals.

I am afraid, sir, I disgust you ^vith this very dull narrative, but
believe me punished in the misery that occasions it. You will conclude
that, during this time, I must have been at more expense than I could
afford ; indeed, the most parsimonious could not have afforded it. The
printer deceived me, and my little business has had every delay. The
people with whom I live perceive my situation, and find me to be
indigent and without friends. About ten days since, I was compelled
to gpve a note of seven pounds, to avoid an arrest for about double that
sum, which I owe. I wrote to every friend that I had, but my friends
are poor likewise ; the time of payment approached, and I ventured to
represent my case to Lord Rochford. I begged to be credited for this
sum till I received it of my subscribers, which, I believe, will be
within one month ; but to this letter I had no reply, and I have prob-
ably offended by my importunity. Having used every honest means
in vain, I yesterday confessed my inability, and obtained, with much
entreaty, and as the greatest favor, a week's forbearance, when I am
positively told that I must pay the money, or prepare for a prison.

You will guess the purpose of so long an introduction. I appeal to
you, sir, as a good, and, let me add, a great man. I have no better

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 35

pretensions to your favor than that I am an unhappy one. It is not
easy to support the thought of confinement, and I am coward enough
to dread such an end to my suspense.

Can you, sir, in any degree, aid me with propriety ? Will you ask
any demonstrations of my veracity ? I have imposed upon myself, but
I have been guilty of no other imposition. Let me, if possible, interest
your compassion. I know those of rank and fortune are teased with
frequent petitions, and are compelled to refuse the requests even of
those whom they know to be in distress ; it is, therefore, with a distant
hope I ventured to solicit such favor; but you will forgive me, sir, if
you do not think proper to relieve. It is impossible that sentiments
like yours can proceed from any but a humane and generous heart.

1 will call upon you, sir, tomorrow, and if I have not the happiness
to obtain credit with you, I must submit to my fate. My existence is
a pain to myself, and every one near and dear to me are distressed in
my distresses. My connections, once the source of happiness, now
embitter the reverse of my fortune, and I have only to hope a speedy
end to a life so unpromisingly begun ; in which (though it ought not to
be boasted of) I can reap some consolation from looking to the end of
it. I am, sir. with the greatest respect, your obedient and most
humble servant,

George Crabbe.

LETTERS OF INQUIBT.

26. Letters of inquiry are frequently interchan^^ed among:
friends. They may deal with persons, with politics, with his-
torical events, or with science and art. These letters cover
a very comprehensive field.

Springfield, Illinois, October 26, 1860.
Major David Hunter.

My dear Sir .—Your very kind letter of the 20th was duly received,
for which please accept my thanks. I have another letter, from a writer
unknown to me. saying the officers of the army at Fort Kearney have
determined, in case of the Republican success, at the approaching
Presidential election, to take themselves, and the arms at that point.
South, for the purpose of resistance to the government. While I think
there are many chances to one that this is a humbug, it occurs to me
that any real movement of this sort in the army would leak out and
become known to you. In such case, if it would not be unprofessional
or dishonorable (of which you are to be judge), I shall be much obliged
if you will apprise me of it.

Yours very truly,
Major David Hunter. A. Lincoln.

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.

36 LETTER WRITING. § 23

liETTERS OP NARRATIVE.

27. The following letter written by Sir Henry Bessemer,

the famous inventor of the Bessemer process of making steely

to his niece Mrs. Charles Allen, may be classed as a letter of

narrative.

Denmark Hill, London, S. \V., March 81, 1897.

My Dear Niece : Allow me to thank you very much for the most
interesting specimen of embossing in Utrecht velvet which you have
been so kind as to send me ; it brings back old remembrances that will
be for ever dear to me.

My sister was an artist with more than average ability in water-
color drawing, and excelled greatly in the art of embroidery in silk,
and in due course was appointed embroideress to the Princess Victoria
before she became Queen.

It is rather curious that I seemed bom with an instinctive taste for
designing patterns, and when I reflect on my natural aptitude for
mechanical inventions, this old power of designing foliage, and flowers,
but more especially grotesque ideal scroll work and foliage, it seems to
me to have been a sort of faculty of inventing unseen forms in almost
endless variety, and when I was only eighteen, I designed for one year
the principal Indian patterns for the great Indian silk merchants Ever-
ingtons of Ludgate-Hill. It is a curious fact in connection with your
friend's letter that I designed the patterns embroidered by my sister,
in the draperies of the beautiful cradle of her Gracious Majesty's first
infant, at which early period I had the honor to be an exhibitor, together
with my sister, at the Royal Academy, then held at Somerset House
in the Strand.

My sister had made a great number of flower paintings which she
put together in a portfolip she had made, and on which she asked me
to write in bold printing letters, •* Studies of Flowers from Nature by
Annie Bessemer.'* This little incident shaped my whole future life.
1 thought I would write the inscription in gold letters, and ordered two
ounces of bronze powder (called also gold powder) but which is really
only a beautiful fine brass, intrinsically worth eight pence per pound.
I was charged fourteen shillings for my two ounces of brass powder,
with the result that a material known and used in China and Japan
for more than 1,000 years, was still made by a roundabout hand process,
hence its great cost. I invented an elaborate series of self-acting
machines and manufactured it successfully. My first order was
obtained by my traveller, from the Colebrookdale Iron Company, for
two pounds at eighty shillings per pound net I kept the process a
profound secret for about thirty-six years; it furnished me the money
necessary for pursuing my many patented inventions, and then the
secret leaked out, prices went down and down until I was selling the

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 3?

same article for which I had eighty shillings a pound, as low as two
shillings and ninepence, when I gave up the manufacture.

But I am letting my pen run away with me, and forgetting all about
Utrecht velvet Between forty and fifty years ago, 1 was exhibiting
some si>ecimens of castings from natural objects, cast in white metal
and which were coated by a thin film of copper deposited thereon from
an acid solution of that metal. The Exhibition was known as
•*Toblisses"' Museum of Arts and Manufacture, which occupied the
site of the present National Gallery in Trafalgar Square.

These specimens were seen and admired by Mr. Pratt, an uphol-
sterer in Bond Street, and he sought me out, showing me a beautiful
piece of velvet work of French manufacture ; he proposed to produce a
similar effect by embossing Utrecht velvet. He had tried the embossers
of cotton velvet at Manchester, but they had utterly failed. This stub-
bom pile would not keep down, and the pattern was all gone in a few
weeks.

I studied the question both from a chemical and a mechanical point
of view, made some experiments, and found that my plan was success-
ful. The simple fact is that wool, like the hair of all animals, partakes
of the property of horn, and is fusible by heat, but that high tempera-
ture is destructive if continued for more than a second of time, and
my rollers would burn the whole fabric if worked too slowly. There
we're many details to work out, and when that was done I constructed
the necessary machinery at my own cost, and managed to have six
shillings a yard for all the velvet I passed through the machine. The
first work done by the machine was for the furnishing of a suite of
rooms in Windsor castle. With this good introduction the material
became popular and fashionable, and I may add profitable. I increased
the demand by lowering the price, and when it got down to one shilling
per yard, I sold the machinery to a manufacturer of Utrecht velvet, at
Danbury ; the price eventually came down to twopence per yard, and
then omnibusses and cabs were lined with it. My great difficulty was,
I could find no one capable of preparing the rolls, and had, as a last

resource, to do it myself.

Your affectionate uncle,

Henry Bessemer.

LETTERS OF CENSURE.

28. Letters of censure are, in social life, best omitted.
A father or mother may, however, sometimes be justly
called on to reprove a son with the view to his improvement;
so too may a superior admonish an inferior. Still more
rarely may a friend tender his friend a letter of charitable

38 LETTER WRITING. § 23

disapproval. The care, delicacy, and kindness that must

characterize these letters may be at once discerned from

Browne's **Religio Medici," where we read: **No man can

justly censure or condemn another; because, indeed, no man

truly knows another."

Buffalo, N. Y.,

May 3, 1899.
My Dear Son:

I have learned with regret that you have seen fit to associ-
ate yourself in business with a man whose reputation, business
and personal, is open to doubt and question.

Had you taken advice before entering on so hazardous an experi-
ment you would have done your duty, not only by your family but by
yourself.

Meantime accept very best wishes from

Your father,

William Havens.

The following letter from tlie pen of Abraham Lincoln,
while perhaps not strictly a letter of censure, may be included
under this head.

Executive Mansion,

Washington, Dec. 81, 18($1.
Major-General Hunter.

Dear Sir : — Yours of the 23d is received and I am constrained to
say it is difficult to answer so ugly a letter in good temper. I am, as
you intimate, losing much of the great confidence I placed in you. not
from any act of omission of yours touching the public service, up to the
time you were sent to Leavenworth, but from the flood of grumbling
despatches and letters I have seen from you since. I knew you were
being ordered to Leavenworth at the time it was done; and I aver
that with as tender regard for your honor and your sensibilities as I had
for my own, it never occurred to me that you were being •' humiliated,
insulted, and disgraced" ; nor have I, up to this day, heard an intima-
tion that you have been wronged, coming from any one but yourself —
no one has blamed you for the retrograde movement from Springfield,
nor for the information you gave to General Cameron ; and this you
could readily understand, if it were not for your unwarranted assump-
tion that the ordering you to Leavenworth must necessarily have been
done as a punishment for some fault. I thought then, and think yet,
the position assigned to you is as responsible, and as honorable, as that
assijrned to Buell— I know that General McClellan expected more
important results from it. My impression is that at the time you were

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 39

assigned to the new Western Department, it had not been determined
to replace General Sherman in Kentucky; but of this I am not certain,
because the idea that a command in Kentucky was very desirable, and
one in the farther West undesirable, had never occurred to me. You
constantly speak of being placed in command of only 8,000 — now tell
me, is not this mere impatience ? Have you not known all the while
that you are to command four or five times as many ?

I have been, and am sincerely your friend ; and if as such, I dare
make a suggestion, I would say you are adopting the best possible
way to ruin yourself. •* Act well your part, there all the honor lies."
He who does something at the head of one regiment, will eclipse him
who does nothing at the head of a hundred.

Your friend as ever,

A. Lincoln.

I^TTERS OF INVITATION, ACCEPT ANCE, AND REGRET.

29. Invitations to dinners, receptions, etc. are usually
conveyed by notes (seq^rt. 30). There are cases, however,
in which letters 'may properly be used. Take the case
exemplified by the first of the following letters: Mr. Mathe-
son feels that his guest Colonel Lee would find Mr. Graham
a congenial associate and wishes to invite the latter to din-
ner. He is not particularly intimate with Mr. Graham, and
cannot therefore write a familiar note, beginning with
**Dear Graham"; on the other hand, a formal note in the
third person would be too ceremonious and stiff. The writer
therefore resorts to the ordinary letter. The acceptance or
letter of regret has of course the same form as the letter of

invitation.

Letter of Invitation.

15 Court Street,

Brooklyn, N. Y.,

March 17, 1899.
Hugh Graham, Esq.,

New York City.

My Dear Sir :

My friend. Colonel Lee, of Virginia, is now visiting me, and I

am very anxious that you should meet him.

We shall esteem it a great favor if Mrs. (iraham and yourself do us

the honor to come to dine next Thursday evening at 7 o'clock.

Very sincerely yours,

Robert Matheson.

40 LETTER WRITING. § 23

Letter of Acceptance.

540 Madison Avenue,

New York City,

March 18, 1899.
Robert Matheson, Esq.,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

My Dear Sir :

Your kind favor of the 17th inst. I have received, and acknowl-
edge with hearty thanks. I shall be glad, indeed, to meet your friend,
Colonel Lee, of whom I have so long and favorably heard.

Mrs. Graham and myself gratefully accept your invitation to dinner
on Thursday evening next

Very truly yours,

Hugh Graham.

Letters of Regret.

15 Vermont Avenue,

Washington. D. C,

Mar. 17, 1899.
The Honorable Homer Dickson, M. C,

Arlington HoteL
Afy Dear Sir :

I beg to acknowledge with hearty thanks the receipt of your
very kind invitation to dinner for Wednesday evening next, which
reached me Saturday. I had hoped to do myself the honor of accept-
ing this invitation, and to have the pleasure of enjoying an evening
at your hospitable and intellectual board.

An unexpected call to Philadelphia, however, obliges me. reluc-
tantly, to write that it will be impossible for me to attend.
I have the honor to be, dear Sir, with much respect,

Very faithfully yours,

F. B. Stratton.

From the Poet Longfellow,
My dear Sir:

I fear that, after all, I shall not be able to attend Mr. Lover's
dinner. I will be entirely frank with you : I am frightened at the idea
of having to speak, which at all public dinners hangs over me like the
sword of Damocles. It is this skeleton at the feast that warns me
away.

My warmest thanks, however, for your invitation ; and believe me,

Very truly yours,
October 2, 1846. Henry W. Longfellow.

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 41

NOTES AND CARDS.

PREIJMIKART REMARKS.

30. Definition. — A note is essentially a short letter
conveying from one person to another in the same city,
town, or neighborhood the writer's wishes or compliments.

Notes differ from ordinary letters in being more formal
and in being written usually in the third person.

31. Materials. — The paper and envelopes used for
notes should be of the best quality. It is customary to use
only very thick paper. As regards color, white is always
in good taste, but delicate tints are permissible.

The size and style of paper and envelopes change like the
fashion ; what is correct one year may be out of date the
next. Invitations to parties, weddings, etc. are generally
enclosed in two envelopes; the inside envelope of the same
quality as the paper, the outside one not so fine. The full
post-office address is written on the outer envelope, and the
name or names of those invited on the inner envelope.
Answers to invitations do not require two envelopes, nor do
personal or private notes.

32. Caution. — To write a note wholly in the third per-
son is sometimes a difficult task, the writer being prone to
change from the third to the first person. An inexperienced
person might write :

•* Mr. Edwards presents his compliments and requests the pleasure of
Miss Smith's company to the theater this evening. I will call at 8
o'clock."

Note the change from the third person * * Mr. Edwards "
to the first person ** I." This is a point that must be looked
after in writing notes in the third person.

33. Signature and Bate. — A formal note, being in
the third person, has no signature. The date of a formal
note is usually placed at the bottom^ though it is allowable

, «■

42 LETTER WRITING. § 23

to place it at the top. Notes in the familiar form may quite
properly have the date at the top.

34. French Phrases. — The following French phrases
and words, or their initials, are sometimes used on notes and
cards:

B. S. V, P, Rdpondez^ s'il vous platt — answer, if you please.
/*. P, C. Pour prendre cong^—\jo take leave.
Costume de riguer — full dress, in character.
Bal masque — masquerade ball.
Soiree dansante — dancing party.

These phrases are, however, passing out of use.

35. Superscription. — The envelope — or if there are
two envelopes, the inside one — should bear only the name
of the party addressed. This applies to notes of invi-
tation, and in general to notes sent by messenger. Notes
to persons living in another city — or locality — may be sent
by mail like letters. In this case the full address is put on
the outer envelope and only the name and title on the inner
envelope. A note to a married couple may have the names
of both for the superscription; as, Mr, and Mrs, Robert
Dunlap, When, however, both names are mentioned in the
note, it is quite customary to put only the wife's name on
the envelope.

Familiar notes are in effect short letters, and are super-
scribed like ordinary letters, when sent by mail.

INVITATIONS.

36. Notes of Invitation. — These include invitations
to dinners, to weddings, to balls and social parties, to college
and society anniversaries, and to many other social functions.

37. Dinners. — An invitation to a dinner should contain
the name of the person for whom the invitation is intended
and should state very clearly the date and hour of the dinner.
The invitation may be either written or printed.

Invitations to dinner should always be answered, as it is

g 23 LETTER WRITING. 43

necessary for the host or hostess to know the number of

persons that will be present.

We give some forms for dinner invitations:

Mr. James E. Colvin requests the pleasure of Mr. E. Howard Sloan's
company at dinner, on Wednesday evening, June 28, at eight o'clock.

410 Griswold Ave.

Mr. and Mrs. Cavendish have the honor of inviting
Mr. and Mrs. Lansing Lewis to dinner, Saturday,
February 11, 1899, at seven o'clock p. m.

38. Weddingr Invitations. — Invitations to weddings

should be issued ten days or more before the ceremony, by

the bride's parents or nearest friend. They may be engraved

in script, written, or printed from type on cards or note

paper. The note form is preferable for an invitation of this

kind. The form of invitation following does not require an

answer. The invitation is usually accompanied by a church

admission card ; sometimes a reception card is also sent with it.

Mr. and Mrs. L. O. Price

request your presence

at the marriage of their daughter

Winifred Davis

Andrew Jackson Houston,

Friday Evening, April sixth.

Eighteen Hundred and Ninety-Nine.

New Orleans, La.

39. Aiinouncemont. — A wedding annoimcement may
have the following form :

Mr. Samuel E. t>enton.

Miss Mary Folmer

Married

Wednesday, June fourteenth, 1899.

At home after July twelfth,

488 Madison Ave.

Another method is to have merely the announcement
written or engraved on the note sheet and the **at home**
on a card, as follows:

Mr. and Mrs. Samuel E. Denton

At home after July 12,

488 Madison Ave.

^ LETTER WRITING. § 23

40, Invitations to Parties. — The following notes will
serve as models for invitations to parties, balls, etc.

Mr. and Mrs. M. W. Storey request the pleasure of
Miss Estey*s company on Thursday evening, March 8, at
eight o'clock.

Mr. and Mrs. E. F. Payne request the pleasure of your
company on Tuesday evening, October 22, from eight to
eleven o'clock, to meet Colonel and Mrs. Harding.

1627 Spruce St

Mr. and Mrs. A. Barton request the honor of your com-
pany to celebrate the fifteenth birthday of their daughter
Agnes, on Monday evening, November 22.

The pleasure of your company is requested at the

Junior Promenade
on Friday evening, May 15, at nine o'clock.

The Armory.

41, Familiar Notes. — Between intimate friends the
formality of the third person is often dropped and the style
of the familiar letter is used; thus:

Dear John,

Frank is to be here this evening. Can yon
not come too ?

Charles.

Dear Alice,

We are getting up a little party to go to the

lake Friday afternoon. Will you not join us ? If you will

go, we will call for you at one o'clock. Try to go.

Your friend,

Sarah.
Please answer by bearer.

42, Miscellaneous Notes of Invitation. — The follow-
ing are notes appropriate for various occasions, not included
among those previously given:

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 45

At Home, June 4.
Miss Williams presents her love to Miss Thompson, and
requests the pleasure of her company at an evening social,
on Monday, the 10th instant

Yourself and family are respectfully invited to attend

the funeral of

Mr. Thomas Horton

from the family residence, 802 Green St., on Friday, the

14th inst, at ten o'clock a. m.

Interment in Avondale Cemetery.

The Class of *97

of the

University of Illinois

invite you to be present

at their

Commencement Exercises

June fourth to ninth,

18W.

ACCEPTANCKS AND REGRETS.

43, Except in the case of dinners, it is not necessary to
send an acceptance to an invitation to an entertainment unless
the invitation contains a specific request for an ans^rer. A
regret^ that is, a non-acceptance, must be sent in case one is
unable to attend.

An invitation to a dinner should be answered at once.
Other invitations requiring an answer should be answered
within three days of the receipt of the invitation. If a
person finds at the last moment that he cannot attend, a
regret should be sent the day after the party.

The style of the acceptance or regret should correspond
somewhat to the style of the invitation. A formal note
demands a formal answer, a familiar note a familiar answer.

Notes of acceptance and regret should be written.

44. Models. — The following forms of acceptances and
regrets are in answer to the preceding invitations.

46 LETTER WRITING. g 23

Mr. E. Howard Sloan accepts with pleasure Mr. Colvin's kind invi-
tation for Wednesday evening, June 28th.
Friday, June 23d.

Mr. Sloan regrets that, owing to a business engagement, he is unable
to accept Mr. Colvin's kind invitation for Wednesday evening.
Friday, June 28d.

My Dear Sarah:

I shall be greatly pleased to form one of your party for Friday
afternoon, and will be ready at the appointed time.

Ever yours,

Alice.
4.

Miss Thompson accepts with pleasure the charming invitation of
Miss Williams for Monday evening next.
615 Madison Ave., June 8.

MISCELI^NEOUS NOTES.

45. Notes are chiefly used in matters of ceremony, as
invitations, etc. They may, however, be used under other
circumstances, as illustrated by the following:

Will Mr. Snow kindly lend Miss Saunders, for the afternoon, his
copy of •• Harper's Magazine" for June ?
June 6th.

Mr. Hudson, having business of special importance to communicate,
will be glad if Mr. Artley can make it convenient to call on him at two
o'clock this afternoon.

1805 California Avenue,
Saturday, May 17.

Admiral the Earl of Hardwick to Admiral Farragut.

13th July, Sidney Lodge.

Admiral the Earl of Hardwick presents his compliments to Admiral
Farragut, and lx;gs to say that he is now resident at the above address.
He is lame, and has difficulty in boarding ship, or he would wait in

g 23 LETTER WRITING. 47

person on Admiral Farragut The Earl of Hardwick hopes that he
may be able in some way to gain Admiral Farragut's friendship.

Admiral Farragut, U. S. Navy.

CARDS OF CEREMONT.

46. Cards are sometimes used instead of notes to convey
invitations to social functions, as weddings, receptions, etc.
Cards thus used are classed as cards of ceremony.

The forms of invitations previously given for notes, with
the exception, of course, of the familiar form, are equally
applicable to cards. It is therefore unnecessary to give
other models.

In order that the written or printed matter may not
appear crowded, cards of ceremony are necessarily quite
large. The usual size is about 3 in. X 4J^ in. or 3^ in. X 5 in.
The cards should be of the finest quality of cardboard. The
color is usually white.

Cards of ceremony, like notes, may be enclosed in either
one or two envelopes, depending on the circumstances of
the delivery. The remarks we have made regarding the
superscription and delivery of notes apply also to cards.

BUSINESS, PROFESSIONAL., AND OFFICIAL. CARDS.

47. Business men use cards to show the business in
which they are engaged and to give their address. They
are generally used as a matter of convenience, although they
may be used for advertising purposes.

Cards are also used by professional men and public officers
for professional and official purposes. Such cards should
contain the person's name and professional or official title ;
the address may or may not be added.

Business and professional cards may be printed with ordi-
nary type, but are usually printed from handsomely engraved
plates. They should always be plain, neat, and tasteful.

The following are forms generally used :

48 LETTER WRITING § 23

HAVEN & STOUT.
1 Nassau Street, corner Wau, St.

New York Stock Exchange.
Members of •{ New York Cotton Exchange.
Chicago Board of Trade.

Orders executed on above Exchanges In
Bonds, Stocks, Cotton. Grain.

HENRY W. WILMER. Consulting Engineer,

1812 MoNADNocK Building,

Waterworks, Sewerage, and Chicago, Ilu

Municipal Engineering.

ALBERT O. EVERHART,

Magistrate of Court No. 8,

418 South Eleventh Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

§ 23 • LETTER WRITING. 49

VISITTNG CARDS.

48. Uses. — Among the many uses to which visiting
cards are put, we mention the following: to announce a
visitor's name; to announce a guest's name at a reception;
to make one's name known to a stranger; to accompany a
letter of introduction.

There are many customs and rules regarding the proper
use of visiting cards for various occasions and under various
circumstances; a discussion of these points would, however,
fall outside of the scope of this Paper.

49. Inscription. — In addition to the name, the residence
may also be given in the lower right or left comer. If a
lady has a regular day or days for receiving, she sometimes
announces this in the lower left comer; as, "Wednesdays^"
or ** Thursdays and Fridays," eta

A title of address, as Mr., Mrs., may be used or not,
according to the taste of a person. Professional men and
persons in high official positions, use their professional titles;
as, Dr., Gen., M.D., C.E., etc. One should not use the
title Honorable, or any scholastic title, unless it is at the
same time professional. A man and his wife sometimes use
a joint card; as, **Mr. and Mrs. Smith," **Dr. and Mrs.
H. A. Brown," etc.

A married lady, if her husband is living, uses her hus-
band's Christian name or initials instead of her own; as,
**Mrs. James A. Brown."

50. Style. — ^Visiting cards vary in style and size to suit
the taste and changing fashions. They should always be
plain and neat. The most elegant cards are engraved or
vnntten ; those printed from type have an inferior look and
are not much used by people of refined taste.

PUBIilC liETTERS-

51, Public, or open, letters may be a communication
from a regular newspaper correspondent narrating certain
phases, for instance, of the war with Spain, the political and

50 LETTER WRITING. § 23

social conditions of the Philippine Islands, the condition of
the negro in the South, or such like matters of grave public
interest; or, again, the open letter may be one discussing
questions of public policy, addressed to the public at large,
or to some private individual of recognized importance in
the community in which he lives.

52. Open letters have played a great part in American
history. The spirit of revolt that Congress had, at the close
of the Revolutionary War, by criminal neglect, engendered
in the army against the greatly-abused powers of Con-
gress, soon degenerated from open hostility to that body
into a covert, yet decided, antagonism to the republican
system itself. "This antagonism ran," says ** Peterson's
Magazine," ** throughout the rank and file of the whole
Continental line and even extended to the militia in the
Northern States.

'* From brooding over their wrongs, the great body of the
officers of the army took counsel together, for the purpose of
overthrowing the authority by which those wrongs were
inflicted, and in the bitterness of their resentment so far
forgot their duty as citizens, and their solemn oaths of alle-
giance as American soldiers, that they determined to pull
down the temple of Liberty reared by their valor and forti-
tude, and erect a monarchy upon its ruins. Their proposed
plan of establishing an elective kingdom depended for its
successful execution upon Washington's acceptance of the
crown as king of America. All the cohesion that it pos-
sessed, and the bond of union among those who supported
it, rested upon the hope that they would convince him that
the true welfare of the country would be best promoted by
such a change in the system of government as would lodge
the power of the nation in the hands of a single wise and
just ruler. Colonel Lewis Nicola, of the Pennsylvania line,
to whom Washington was strongly attached, a most worthy
officer, distinguished for the highest soldierly qualities, and
of unimpeachable moral character, was appointed by them to
submit their proposal to him in the name of the army.

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 51

** He presented it to Washington in a regfular document,
at his headquarters, which were then at Fishkill-on-the-
Hudson, in the house of David Verplanck, a one-story build-
ing of wood and stone in the Dutch style, which is still well
preserved. Colonel Nicola very prudently retired as soon
as he presented the document, his curiosity to observe its
effect upon Washington not being so strong as his concern
about its effect on himself, should he remain to witness its
perusal.

** That he acted wisely in retiring was made manifest by
the following answer sent him by Washington on the same
day:

" To Colonel Lewis Nicola.

**Sir: — With a mixture of surprise and indignation I have read
with attention the sentiments you have submitted to my perusaL

** Be assured, sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given me
more painful sensations than your information of their being such
ideas existing in the army as you have expressed, which I must view
with abhorrence, and reprehend with severity. For the present the
communication of them will rest in my own bosom, unless some further
agitation of the matter shall make a disclosure necessary.

**I am much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct could
have given encouragement to an address which seems to me big with
the greatest mischiefs that can befall my country. If I am not
deceived in the knowledge of myself, you could not have found a
person to whom your schemes are more disagreeable.

•* At the same time, in justice to my own feeling^, I must add, that
no man possesses a more sincere wish to see justice done to the army
than I do ; and as far as my power and influence in a constitutional
way extend, they shall be employed to the utmost of my abilities to
effect it, should there be any occasion.

•* Let me conjure you then, if you have any regard for your country,
concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for me, to banish these
thoughts from your mind, and never communicate as from yourself, or
anyone else, a sentiment of the like nature.

•* George Washington."

53, Abraham Lincoln was perhaps in no respect more
powerful and persuasive than as a letter writer. Here is a
model letter from his pen :

6% LETTER WRITING. % 23

Washington, Atis^tist 26, 1868.
Dear Sir :

Your letter, inviting me to attend a mass meeting of uncondi-
tional Union men, to be held at the capital of Illinois on the 8d day of
September, has been received. It would be very agreeable to me to
thus meet my old friends at my own home, but I cannot just now be
absent from here so long as a visit there would require.

The meeting is to be of all those who maintain unconditional devotion
to the Union, and I am sure my old political friends will thank me for
tendering, as I do, the nation's gratitude to those other noble men whom
no partisan malice or partisan hope can make false to the nation's life.

There are those who are dissatisfied with me. To such I would say:
You desire peace, and you blame me that we do not have it But how
can we attain it? There are but three conceivable ways. First, to
suppress the rebellion by force of arms. This I am trying to do. Are
you for it ? If you are, so far we are ag^reed. If you are not for it, a
second way is to g^ve up the Union. I am against this. Are you for
it ? If you are, you should say so plainly. If you are not for force,
nor yet for dissolution, there only remains some imaginable compromise.

I do not believe any compromise embracing the maintenance of the
Union is now possible. All I learn leads to a directly opposite belief.
The strength of the rebellion is its military — its army. That army
dominates all the country and all the people within its range. Any
offer of terms made by any man or men within that range, in opposi-
tion to that army, is simply nothing for the present, because such man
or men have no power whatever to enforce their side of a compromise
if one were made with them.

To illustrate: Suppose refugees from the South and peace men of the
North get together in convention and frame and proclaim a compro-
mise embracing a restoration of the Union ; in what way can that com-
promise be used to keep Lee's army out of Pennsylvania? Meade's army
can keep Lrce's army out of Pennsylvania, and I think can ultimately
drive it out of existence. But no paper compromise to which the con-
trollers of Lee's army are not agreed can at all effect that army. In
effort at such compromise we should waste time which the enemy
would improve to our disadvantage, and that would be alL

A compromise, to be effective, must be made either with those who
control the rebel army, or with the people first liberated from the domi-
nation of that army by the success of our own army. Now, allow me
to assure you that no word or intimation from that rebel army, or from
any of the men controlling it, in relation to any peace compromise, has
ever come to my knowledge or belief. All charges and insinuations to
the contrary are deceptive and groundless. And I promise you that if
any such proposition shall hereafter come, it shall not be rejected and
kept a secret from you. I freely acknowledge myself the servant ol

§ 23 LETTER WRITING. 63

the people according to the bond of service — the United States Consti-
tution— and tliat as such I am responsible to them.

But, to be plain, you are dissatisfied with me about the negro. Quite
likely there is a difference of opinion between you and myself upon
that subject I certainly wish all men could be free, while I suppose
you do not Yet I have neither adopted nor proposed any measure
which is not consistent with even your view, provided you are for the
Union. I suggested compensated emancipation, to which you replied
you wished not to be taxed to buy negroes. But I had not asked you
to be taxed to buy negroes, except in such way as to save you from
greater taxation to save the Union exclusively by other means.

You dislike the Emancipation Proclamation, and perhaps would have
it retracted. You say it is unconstitutionaL I think differently. I
think the Constitution invests its commander-in-chief with the law of
war in time of war. The most that can be said — if so much — is that
slaves are property. Is there, has there ever been, any question that
by the law of war, property, both of enemies and friends, may be taken
when needed ? And is it not needed whenever taking it helps us or
hurts the enemy ? Armies, the world over, destroy enemies' property
when they cannot use it, and even destroy their own to keep it from
the enemy. Civilized belligerents do all in their power to help them-
selves or hurt the enemy, except a few things regarded as barbarous
or crueL Among the exceptions are the massacre of vanquished foes
and non-combatants, male and female.

But the proclamation, as law, either is valid or is not valid. If it is
not valid it needs no retraction. If it is valid it cannot be retracted,
any more than the dead can be brought to life. Some of you profess
to think its retraction would operate favorably for the Union. Why
better after the retraction than before the issue ? There was more than
a year and a half of trial to suppress the rebellion before the proclama-
tion issued, the last one hundred days of which passed under an
explicit notice that it was coming, unless averted by those in revolt
returning to their allegiance. The war has certainly progressed as
favorably for us since the issue of the proclamation as before.

I know, as fully as one can know the opinion of others, that some of
the commanders of our armies in the field, who have given us our most
important successes, believe the emancipation policy and the i^se of
the colored troops constitute the heaviest blow yet dealt to the rebel-
lion, and that at least one of these important successes could not have
been achieved when it was but for the aid of black soldiers. Among
the commanders holding these views are some who have never had
any affinity with what is called ••Abolitionism " or with •• Republican
party politics," but who hold them purely as military opinions. I sub-
mit these opinions as being entitled to some weight against the objec-
tions often Urged that emancipation and arming the blacks are unwise
as military measures, and were not adopted as such in good faith*

54 LETTER WRITING. § 23

You say you will not fight to free negproes. Some of them seem
willing to fight for you — but no matter. Fight you, then, exclusively
to save the Union. I issued the proclamation on purpose to aid you in
saving the Union. Whenever you shall have conquered all resistance
to the Union, if I shall urge you to continue fighting, it will be an apt
time then for you to declare you will not fight to free negroes. I thought
that in our struggle for the Union, to whatever extent the negroes
should cease helping the enemy, to that extent it weakened the enemy
in his resistance to you. Do you think differently ? I thought that
whatever negroes can be got to do as soldiers leaves just so much less
for white soldiers to do in saving the Union. Does it appear otherwise
to you ? But negroes, like other people, act upon motives. Why should
they do anything for us if we will do nothing for them ? If they stake
their lives for us, they must be prompted by the strongest motive, even
the promise of freedom. And the promise, being made, must be kept.

The signs look better. The Father of Waters again goes unvexed
to the sea. Thanks to the great Northwest for it Nor yet wholly to
them. Three hundred miles up they met New England, Empire, Key-
stone, and Jersey, hewing their way right and left. The sunny South,
too, in more colors than one, also lent a hand. On the spot, their part
of the history was jotted down in black and white. The job was a
great national one, and let none be banned who bore an honorable part
in it And while those who have cleared the great river may well be
proud, even that is not all. It is hard to say that anything has been
more bravely and well done than at Antietam, Murfreesboro, Gettys-
burg, and on many fields of lesser note. Nor must Uncle Sam's web-
feet be forgotten. At all the watery margins they have been present
Not only on the deep sea, the broad bay, and the rapid river, but also
up the narrow, muddy bayou ; and wherever the g^und was a little
damp, they have been and made their tracks. Thanks to alL For the
great Republic — ^for the principle it lives by and keeps alive — ^for man's
vast future — thanks to all.

Peace does not appear so distant as it did. I hope it will come soon,
and come to stay ; and so come as to be worth the keeping in all future
time. It will then have been proved that among free men there can be
no successful appeal from the ballot to the bullet, and that they who
take such appeal are sure to lose their case and pay the cost And
there will be some black men who can remember that with silent
tongue, and clenched teeth, and steady eye, and well poised bayonet
they have helped mankind on to this consummation ; while I fear there
will be some white ones unable to forget that with malignant heart and
deceitful speech they strove to hinder it

Still let us not be over sanguine of a speedy, final triumph. Let ua
be quite sober. Let us diligently apply the means, never doubting
that a just God, in his own good time, will g^ve us the rightful result

A* Lincoln.

INDEX

Note.— All items in this .ndex refer first to the section and then to the pasre of the section.
That, "Accents 20 48" means that accents will be found on pasre 43 of section 20.

Sec.

Page
2
79
61
66
64

69
70
65

Sec. Page

A and An. Specific uses of ... .

Abbreviate, Misuse of word . . .

Abbreviations and contractions .

Geographical . .

List of 21

" of desrrees, fellow-
ships, etc .... 21
** '* orders and soci-
eties 21

" titles 21

** relating: to business 21

to church

affairs . . 21 68
to legral and
civil af-
fairs ... 21 65
to time. . 21 66
Unclassified .... 21 71
Use of period with . 20 27

Ability. Misuse of word 19 79

Abridsre. Misuse of word 19 79

Absolute constructions 20 20

Abstract nouns 16 2

Accents 20 43

Accept, Use of word 19 80

Acceptances 23 45

Access, Use of word 19 80

Accession. Use of word 19 80

Action as denoted by verb phrases 18 31

'• Use of word 19 80

Active form of transitive verb . . 18 8
** transitive verbs. Passive

and 18 8

verbs and neuter verbs . . 18 4

" Classes of 18 5

Acts. Use of word 19 80

Added clauses. Punctuation of . . 20 22

Address of letter 21 18

Position of 21 20

Adherence. Use of word 19 80

Adhesion, Use of word 19 80

Adjective. Adjunctive or attrib-
utive

after verbal noun ....

and its noun. Concord of

the

" the adverb

Any. AmbifiTuity from
use of

Appositive

Clause used as an . . .

Common '.

Compound

Definition of

•' verbal

Derivative

elements. Expansion of

equivalents

Function of the

Functions of the ....

Inflection of the ....

Noun or pronoun as the

equivalent of an . . .

Parsins: the

phrases. Uses of ... .

Place of the

Predicative

Primitive

Proper

Simple

Table of the

The

Use of Them as an
used as an adverb ,
" as a noun . . .

appositively . . .

as complement of

predicate ....

attributively . . .

17
19

19
15

19
17
15
17
17
14
18
17
17
17
14
17
15
17

15
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
14
17
19
19
18
15
15

15
15

2
61

6
15
16

7
7

INDEX

Sec.

Pti£e

Adjective used in a factitive sense

Adjectives. Adverbs in place of . .

••

and adjective pro-

nonns. Misused

*' adverbs with cer-

tain verbs . . .

••

as antecedents ....

••

classified with respect

to form . .

••

with respect

t»

' to use . .

>•

Comparison of ... .

•• 19 82

Compound 14 24

Demonstrative .... 17 6

Derivation of 17 4

" derived from nouns . . 17 4
from suffixes
joined to other

adjectives . . 17 4
" " from suffixes
joined to

verbs .... 17 4
Bach Other and One

Another 19 34

*• for adverbs. Use of . . 19 68
*' Former and Latter.
AmbifiTuity from use

of 19 33

" in succession. Two or

more 19 86

Irresrular comparison

of 17 15

Qualitative 17 6

Quantitative 17 6

Redundant 19 40

Rules for comparing . 17 18
This, That, These,

Those. Use of ... 19 37

•* Use of adverbs for . . 19 38
** Whole, Less. More,

Most, Use of .... 19 87
" with the same noim.

Two 19 106

Adjunctive or attributive adjective 17 2

Admiral, Addressing an 21 52

Advance, Use of word 19 81

Advancement, Use of word .... 19 81

Adverb, Adjective used as an-. . . 18 69

Almost as an adjective.

Use of 19 69

Clause used as an .... 15 17

Conjunction used as an . 18 70

Definition of 14 26

'• a simple . . 18 71

•* conjunctive . 18 71

Sec.

Adverb. Definition of interrogative 18

"modal. ... 18
Prom before Hence,
Thence, and Whence.

Use of 19

Functions of the 15

<< •• •• •• -mn

. . . «> . 19

" How to distinsruish the

modal 18

How, Use of 19

" Most or About for Almost

or Nearly. Use of ... . 19
No, Use of ........ 19

*' Noun used as an 18

Parsinsr the 18

Place of the 19

Position of the 19

" Preposition used as an . . 18

'* Pronoun used as an ... 18

. '* Since for Ago, Use of . . 19

Table of the 18

The 14

•• 18

There, The 18

" Verb used as an 18

" Verbal used as an ... . 18
" with intransitive verbs.

Place of 19

dverbs absolute in meaninsr ... 19
and adjectives with cer-
tain verbs 18

At LenfiTth and At Last.

Use of 19

" Classes of modal .... 18
" classified according: to

use 18

by meaning . . 18

" Comparison of 18

Ever and Never, Use of . 19

First functions of .... 14

" for adjectives. Use of . . 19

" relatives. Conjunctive 19

in place of adjectives . . 19

modifyinff adjectives . . 15

other adverbs 15

verbs 15

of time and manner with

same verb 19

Parts of speech used as . 18

Phrase 14

Second function of . . . 14
Third function of .... 14
Use of. for adjectives . . 19
When. While, and Where,
Use of 19

Faze
71
72

72
66

68
67
69
77
91
65
70
69
68
78
25
69
76
69
70

91
69

69
73

93
69
26
76
25
26
68

INDEX

* *
vu

Stc.
Adverbs with transitive verbs.

Place of 19

with verbs of ipotion . . 19

Adversative conjunctions 18

Affirmation with nesration 19

AfiTSrravate. Misuse of word .... 19

Alderman 21

Alleviate. Use of word 19

Allude, Meaninsr of word 19

Alternative conjunctions 18

Ambassador *. 21

Ambiffnity or obscurity of expres-
sion. Causes of 22

Analysis. Meaninir of 15

Models of 15

•* 16

of letters 22

Sentential 15

Anomalous use of That 19

Answers to letters. Promptness of 22
Antecedent and its pronoun. Con-
cord of the 19

" of a pronoun 14

Relative with no real . 19

Antecedents, Adjectives as ... . 19

Confusion of .... 19
** connected by Or or

Nor 19

*' of different persons . 19

** ** the same sender . 19
•' i>receded by pro-
nouns Each, Bvery.

and No 19

" Sentences used as . 19
A or An, Effect of, on the meaning:

of a noun 19

Apposition, Punctuation of ele-
ments in 20

Appositive adjective 17

** particulars. Punctu-
ation of 20

Apostrophe 20

Use of 20

Appreciate, Meaning of word ... 19
Archbishop, Address and saluta-
tion for 21

Anrnraent. Use of word 19

Arranffement of words 14

Article A or An, Use of, with

plurals 19

as antecedent of relative

in restrictive clauses . . 19
Is not used, Words with

which 19

The. The definite 19

Pare

92
66
85
51
81
51
81
81
84
48

12
28
31
28
19
28
72
25

25
19
20
112
24
20

29
29
30

28
24

16
2

23
43
39

5
8

Article, Use of. with nouns made

definite by modifiers . . 19
Articles A. An. and The. Frequent

misuse of 19

or plurals 19

Rules for use of 19

The 19

Use of, with a series of

terms 19

Use of, with comparisons

and alternatives .... 19
Use of, with proper names

in the plural 19

Use of. with special cor-
respondence of adjec-
tives . . - 19

Use of. with titles and
names regarded as

mere words 19

Use of, with verbal nouns

and participles 19

Use of, with words for-
mally defined 19

with connected adjectives
relatins: to same thiufft

Use of 19

with connected adjec-
tives, Use of 19

with connected nouns.

Use of 19

with correspondent

terms. Use of 19

As Well As in the sense of And.

Use of 19

Atlantic cable rates 28

Attorney General of State 21

Attraction construction. The ... 19
Author's name foUowinsr citation.

Use of dash with 20

Auxiliaries as principal verbs ... 18
Avocation. Use of word 19

Balance. Use of word 19

Balanced sentences 19

Baron (title) 21

Baroness (title) 21

Baronet (title) 21

Bishop, Address and salutation for 21

Body of letter 21

Botanical names. Capitalization of 20

Brace 20

Brackets 20

Use of 20

Brevity in business correspondence 22
Business cards 28

Paze

1
4

3
1

6
7
5

4
4
3
4

107
19
49

112

30
82

82
99
46
58
46
54
23
51
43
43
36
19
47

Vlll

INDEX

Business correspondence, Style of 22

letters 21

Miscellaneous . . 23

Model 23

But That or But What for That . . 19

Cabinet officer. Title of 21

Cable rates 23

Cablefirrams 23

Capacity, Misuse of word 19

Capital letters. Use of 20

Capitalization of botanical names 20
•' defined terms . . 20
" derivations from

proper names . 20
"examples and
numbered

items 20

20
20
20
20

" first words . . .
•• headingrs' ....

" landO

** " important words

" " names of the

Deity 20

" personified nouns 20

" proper names . . 20

•' quoted titles . . 20

" Roman numerals 20

" sacred writings . 20

" titles 20

" zoological names 20

Captain. Addressing: a 21

Cardinal. Addressing: a 21

Cardinals, Order of ordinals and . 19
Cards, Business, professional, and

official 23

of ceremony 23

" Visiting: 23

Care of letters 22

Caret 20

Case constructions. Diagrams of . 16

Definition of 16

'* nominative ... 16

*' possessive ... 16

in nouns 16

Meaning: of word 16

Nominative 16

Objective 16

Remarks on possessive ... 16

Use of nominative 16

" " objective 16

" " possessive 16

Cases. Functions of 16

" Number of 16

Cause. Use of word 19

Sec. Page Sec,

19 Cedilla 20

9 Censure. Letters of i . . 23

13 Characteristics of a good sentence 22

1 Charge d' Affaires, Title of .... 21

113 Choosing of words. The 19

Civil titles not hereditary 21

Classes of pronouns 17

49 " ** words 14

19 Classification of sentence accord-

18 ing to use ... 14
79 " ** sentences .... 15

45 Clause connectives. Varieties of . 15

51 " Coordinate 17

52 " Definition of a 15

elements 15

50 " Restrictive 17

used as a noun 15

an adjective ... 15

47 adverb .... 15

46 Clauses, added. Punctuation of . . 20

46 " and phrases 20

54 " coordinate. Punctuation

53 of 20

Dependent 16

48 " Functions of dependent . 15

52 " How sentences become . 15

49 '* independent. Punctuation

47 of 20

49 " of equal rank 15

50 ** *• unequal rank 15

53 •* Rank of 16

51 ** relative. Punctuation of . 20
53 " Secondary 15

55 " subdivided. Punctuation
36 of 20

Subordinate 15

47 Clearness in construction of sen-

47 tences 22

49 Clergyman, Addressing a 21

26 Clipped words and slang 19

43 Collective nouns 16

28 •' •* as subjects ... 19

16 " •• Treatment of. as

17 singnlaror

17 plural 19

15 Colloquial usage of clipped words

15 and slang 19

16 Colon. Rules for 20

19 Colonel. Addressing a 21

18 Color of letter paper 21

20 Comma, General principles of use

22 of 20

22 " Rules for use of 20

20 Common adjectiye 17

16 " gender. Definition of . . 16

82 " noun. Definition of a . . 16

Page
44

87
10
49
78
47
21
16

5
20
14
26
13
13
25
16
17
17
22

23
18
16
18

19
18
18
18
15
18

11
65
11
2
49

H
24

68
12

9
9
3
12
1

INDEX

Common nouns 16

" Varieties of ... 16

Comparative decree 17

" Superlative degree

for the 19

Comparison. Equality and in-
equality in .... 19

Methods of 17

" of adjectives .... 17

Irreffu-

lar . IT

" adverbs 18

Comparisons, Inadmissible .... 19

" of adjectives .... 19

Than in 19

Complex and compound sentences 18

** sentence 15

Definition of the 15

Complimentary close 21

Composition of letters 22

Compound adjective 17

adjectives 14

" members of a simple

sentence 15

" nouns. Plural of ... . 19

" personal pronouns . . 17

relative pronoun ... 17

'* sentence 15

" sentences. Complex

and 18

series. Punctuation of 20

verbal nouns 19

Conclusion. Forms of 21

of letter 21

Punctuation of 21

Condolence, Letters of 22

" 28

Congratulation, Letters of .... 22

Conjugation 18

Definition of 18

•• 18

** of irresrular transitive

verbs 18

** " resrular transitive

verbs 18

" '* the auxiliary verb

Be 18

•• verbs 18

Conjunction and preposition com-
pared. Functions of

the IH

Definition of 14

Or or Nor after No or

Not 19

Parsing: the 18

Table of the 18

Page
1
1
12

112

111

22
10
22
27
25

88
24
61
27
24
26
59
27
54
14
14
46

53
53

83
31

88
89

Sec. Page

Conjunction Than, Use of .... 19 71

The 11 30

" IS Ki

•• 19 70

" wrong: 19 70

" used as an adverb . . 18 70

Conjunctions. Adversative .... 18 85

Alternative 18 84

And and But. Use of 19 108
As Well As. But.

Save 19 51

Classes of 18 84

Coordinating: .... 18 84

Copulative 18 84

Function of 14 80

Illative 18 85

Improper ellipses

after 19 74

" Relative pronouns

exclude 19 71

Subordinating: ... 18 85

Conjunctive adverb. Definition of 18 71

Directly as a 19 114

adverbs for relatives 19 22

Connected terms. Likeness of ... 19 71

Connectives. Omitted 20 18

Subordinating .... 15 19

understood 15 26

Varieties of clause . 15 14

Conscience. Use of word 19 83

Consciousness. Use of word ... 19 83
Construction. The attraction ... 19 112
*• squinting ... 19 100
Constructions, Avoidance of doubt-
ful 19 14

Consul. Title of 21 49

Contemptible. Use of word .... 19 82

Contemptuous. Use of word ... 19 82

Continuity of paragraph 22 17

Contract. Misuse of word .... 19 79

Contractions and abbreviations . . 21 61
Contrasted elements. Punctuation

of 20 18

Converse, Use of word 19 89

Convict. Meaning of word 19 83

Convince. Use of word 19 83

Coordinate clause 17 26

" clauses. Punctuation of 20 23

Coordinating conjunctions .... 18 84

Copulative conjunctions 18 84

Copying letters 22 25

(*orrect and faulty diction 19 1

Correlatives 18 86

Correspondence. Definition of . . 21 s

Corresponsives. Use of 19 72

Countess (title) 21 58

INDEX

Sec. Page

Courtesy in letter writinsT 22 23

Credible. Meanintr of word .... 19 83

Credit. Letters of 23 10

Creditable. Meaninfl: of word ... 19 83

Dash. Parenthetical 20 33

Rules for 20 32

Use of. to indicate cbansre in

sense or construction . . 20 32

Date at end of letter 21 18

** of letter answered 22 26

" •* note 23 41

Dates, Punctuation of 20 21

Dean. Addressing a 21 56

Declarative sentence. Definition

of 14 7

Declension of nouns 16 20

" " the personal pro-
nouns 17 23

Defective verbs 18 45

Definite article The. Use of .... 19 3

Definition of a complex sentence . 15 24

" " compound sentence 15 26

" adjective 14 24

*• adverb 14 26

** a modifier 14 14

" " noun 14 17

** " phrase 15 10

•* •* pronoun 14 19

simple sentence . . 15 21

verb 14 22

** conjunction 14 31

** English firrammar . . 14 3

" interjection 14 32

" letter 14 2

*• phrase 15 11

" predicate 14 12

•• preposition 14 28

•• sentence 14 2

" subject 14 12

•* word 14 2

Degfree. Comparative 17 12

Positive 17 11

Superlative 17 12

Deirrees conferred by universities

and collcsres 21 59

Deliberation in letter writing: ... 22 24

Demonstrative pronouns 17 30

Dependent clauses 15 18

Functions of . 15 16
Punctuation of 20 14
" particulars. Punctua-
tion of 20 23

Derivative adjective 17 4

Description, Ixjtters of 22 61

Sec.

Diasrrams of case constructions . 16

Diction. Correct and faulty .... 19

in letter writing: 22

Dieresis 20

DiflSculty, Meaning: of word .... 19

Dinner invitations 23

Direct questions. Punctuation of . 20

" quotations. Punctuation of . 20

Directly as a conjunctive adverb . 19

Discovery. Use of word 19

Disjunctive connection 20

Dismissal. Meaning: of word ... 19

Dismission, Meaninsr of word ... 19

Disposal. MeaninjT of word .... 19

Disposition. Meaning: of word . . 19

Distributives. Use of 19

Ditto marks 20

Divisions of English g:rammar . . 14

Domain of grammar 14

Don't for Doesn't. Use of 19

Double neg:atives 19

" relative 17

Doubtful constructions. Avoidance

of 19

Duchess (title) 21

Duke (title) 21

Dunning: letters 23

Earl (title) 21

Ecclesiastical titles 21

Eg:oism. Meaning: of word 19

Eg:otism, Meaning: of word .... 19

Elemental, Meaning: of word ... 19

Elementary. Meaning: of word ... 19

Ellipse of the verb 20

Ellipses after conjunctions. Im-
proper 19

Ellipsis 20

Emperor (title) 21

Emphasis 20

Enclosing stamp for answer ... 22

Encumbrance, Meaning: of word . . 19

Eng:lish grammar. Definition of . . 14

" . Divisions of . . 14

Envelopes 21

Special-request 21

Envoy 21

Esquire and Mr.. Distinction be-
tween 21

Use of. as title 21

Essential parts of a sentence ... 14

Estimate, Meaning of word .... 19

Estimation, Meaning of word ... 19

Etymological punctuation .... 20

Page

114

112

110

46
54

84
84
84
84
21

74
44

45
44
25
83
8
S
13
87
48

40
40
10
85
85
3

INDEX

Examples and numbered items.

Capitalization of 20

Excellency (title) 21

Except. Use of word 19

Exclamation mark at end of sen-
tence. Rule for . . 14
" point. Rules for . . . 20

Exclamatory phrases 18

sentences 14

and expres-
sions . . 20

series 18

Expression in letter writing .... 22

Factitive object. Nouns or pro-
nouns as 16

False passive 18

*• Use of 19

Familiar notes 23

Faulty diction. Correct and .... 19

Female. Use of word 19

Feminine distinctions. Omission of 16

irender. Definition of . . 16

Use of word 19

Feminines In ess and ix. Use of . . 19

Fisrures. Use of. in letter writing: . 22

First words. Capitalization of ... 20

Folding letters 21

Foreigm postage. Rates of 21

Forms of sentences 15

Framework of a letter 21

French phrases used in notes ... 23

Future perfect tense 18

Gender by form or meaning .... 16

" use or context 16

Definition of 16

common . . 16

* " feminine . . 16

" masculine . 16

" neuter ... 16

" in nouns . : 16

of proper names 16

Sex and 16

General. Addressing a 21

Generalization. Use of dash with . 20

Gentleman, Meaning of term ... 21

Gerund. Definition of 18

" The 18

Good usage of clipped words and

slang 19

Governor of State 21

Grace (title) 21

Graduated emotion 20

47
44
80

9
31
90

4
12
54
44

1
85
13
11
85
10
28
46

79
20
10
42
87

12
12
11
12
11
11
12
11
13
11
52
33
40
27
26

11
48
44
32

Sec.

Grammar 14

Grammar. Definition of English . 14

Divisions of English . . 14

Domain of 14

" in punctuation 20

Language and 14

Unit of thought in . . . 14
Grammatical errors in letter wri-
ting 22

punctuation .... 20

Had Rather. Had Better, Use of . 19

Heading of letter 21

Punctuation of 21

Headings. Capitalization of ... . 20

Specimens of 21

Hereditary titles 21

Honorable (title) 21

Honorary titles 21

Hyphen 20

I and O. Capitalization of 20

If for Whether. Use of 19

Illative conjunctions 18

Impediment. Meaning of word . . 19

Imperative mode 18

•• Definition of . . 18

" sentence. Definition of 14

Incorrect expressions, List of . . . 22

Indefinite article. Use of. in diction 19

pronouns 17

Independent clauses. Rinctuation

of 20

elements and con-
nectives in analy-
sis. Indicating ... 15
Indicative and subjunctive modes

contrasted 18

mode 18

•* Definition of . .18

Indorsement. Letters of 23

Infinitive, Elements that may be

associated with the . 18

Forms of the 18

Function of the 18

mode 18

*• Definition of . . . 18
" Omission of To before

the 19

split. The 19

Infinitives and verbals. Parsing . . 18
Inflection by change within body

of word 16

by difTerent words ... 16

** suffixes 16

2
3
3
4
6
1
3

11
3

116
16
16
46
17
46
42
57
44

107

18
15
16
10

22
21
23
20
21

67
63
66

8
8
8

Xll

INDEX

So:.

Inflection, Definition of 16

Kinds of 16

of adjectives 17

Inflectional base. The 18

Inflections. Noun 16

of nouns 16

" the noun. ..... 16

verb 18

** verbs 18

Special names of . . 16
Informal introduction. Punctua-
tion of 20

Ink 21

Inquiry, Letters of 23

'• 23

Interjection as a part of speech . . 18

Definition of 14

The 14

•• 18

Use of the 18

Interjections, Thought expressed

by 18

Interrosration mark at end of sen-
tence. Rule

for ...... 14

•• in case of

doubt ... 20

" Rules for . . 20
Interrosrative adverb. Definition

of 18

pronouns 17

sentence. Definition

of 14

" tense forms .... 18

Intransitive verb. Definition of . . 18

Introduction, Letters of 22

■* of letter. Punctuation

of 21

Various forms of , . 21
Introductory expressions. Punctua-
tion of 20

" words. Use of dash

for 20

Invention in letter writing: 22

Use of word 19

Invitation. Notes of 23

Invitations to dinners 23

•• parties 23

• weddinffs 34

Irregular transitive verb. Conjusra-

tion of an 18

verbs. List of ...... . 18

Resrularand ... 18

Irritate, Use of word 19

Insuperable, Use of word 19

Insurmountable. Use of word ... 19

5
8
9

41
6

90
5

68
7

21
14
11
*•>
89
32
32
89
89

71
29

7
33

7
52

21
2^

34
1
85
42
42
44
43

59
46
43

86
85

J Sec. Page

Joint nominatives. The verb after . 19 60

Judsre. Addressinsr a 21 50

Junior (title) 21 42

Justice of the Peace. AddresshuT a 21 61

King (title) 21 45

Knisrht (title) 21 58

Lady (title) 21 58

LanfiTuafife and srrammar 14 1

Definition of 14 1

Orifirfn of word 14 1

Lawyer, Title of 21 51

Legibility in letter writing 22 27

Legislator. Title of 21 50

Letter, Address of 21 18

Body of 21 23

Conclusion of 21 24

Definition of 14 2

" 21 8

Essential parts of 21 14

Folding a 21 35

Framework of 21 10

from Abraham Lincoln re-
garding progress of war 28 52

from Abraham Lincoln to
General Hunter 23 38

from Abraham Lincoln to
Major Hunter 23 85

from Admiral Dewey to
Mrs. Moss 23 27

from Charles Sumner to
Simon Greenleaf 23 24

from Daniel Webster to
Ezekiel Webster 28 21

from Dolly Madison to her
sister 23 28

from Elizabeth Carter to
Catherine Talbot .... 22 68

from General Grant to Gen-
eral Sherman 23 31

from George Crabbe to Ed-
mund Burke, Esq 23 33

from Helen Gould to House
of Representatives. Penn-
sylvania 23 3D

from Longfellow 23 90

from Mr. Webster to Mas-
ter Daniel Webster ... 28 82

from Mrs. Mary Anderson-
Navarro to Mrs. R. M.
Kelly 28 26

from Napoleon Bonaparte
to his mother 28 28

INDEX

Xlll

Letter from Queen Victoria to

LordSelbome

from Rudyard Kipliofif to

the public

from Sir Henry Bessemer

to Mrs. Charles Allen . .

** from Thomas Gray to Mr.

Mason

'* from Washinsrton to Col.

Nicola

from W. E. Gladstone to
Mrs. Garfield ......

General form of

Headinifof

" Insertion of, in envelope . .

** paper. Color of

•' Quality of

•• Varieties of . . . .

Salutation of

writing:. General sutrsres-

tions conceminsr

writinsr. History of . . . .

** " Importance of . .

Materials used in

Style in

Letters acknowledfiring: orders . .
•* . " receipt of

money .

Analysis of

and characters

* words

Business

Care of

Classification of

Composition of

'* containinsr enclosures . . .

Copying: of

Miscellaneous

Models of

" of acceptance

" affection

announcement

" application

'* business solicitation . .

X
41
• •

censure

' condolence

' congratulation

credit

' description . .
' friendship . .
"g:ood counsel ,
' gratitude . . .
' indorsement .
* inquiry . . . .

S^.

Pa£g

•27

•2\

'22

•22

'22

'25

'23

•23

2:{

2:^

2.S

Src.

Letters of inquiry 23

'* introduction 22

•• invitation 23

** narrative 22

" ** recommendation .... 23

•• regrret 23

** " special request 23

* sympathy 23

Official 21

" ordering: g:oods 22

Public 21

" or open. 23

requesting: special favors . 23

" . Social 21

•• 23

Liable. Use of word 19

Lieutenant, Addressing: a 21

Likely, Use of word 19

Limitations, Use of word 19

Limits, Use of word 19

Log:ical elements. Punctuation of . 20

'* punctuation 20

Long: sentences. Short and ... 19

Loose sentences 22

Periodic and .. . 19

Lord (tide) 21

" Chancellor (title) 21

" Mayor (title) 21

Lordship (title) 21

Mail matter. Classes of 21

Major. Addressing: a 21

Male, Use of word 19

Margrin on letter sheet 21

Marks of parenthesis 20

" '* punctuation. Miscellane-
ous 20

" quantity 20

Reference 20

Marquis (title) 21

Masculine g:ender. Definition of . . 16

Use of word 19

Master (title) 21

Materials of notes 23

used in letter writing: . . 21

Mention. Meaning: of word .... 19

Mesdames (title) 21

Military and naval titles 21

Miss (title) '21

Mister, Use of. as title 21

Mistress (title) '21

Modal adverb. Definition of ... . 18

adverbs. Classes of .... 18

Mode 18

Pane
35
52
39
65
86

8
89
38
28

9
29

9
49

9
21
86
54
86
86
86.

1
100
14
98
57
57
57
44

73
53
85
'23
35

43
45
45
46
11
85
41
41
11
81
41
52
42
39
41
72
73
14

XIV

INDEX

Sec.

Mode. Definition of 18

•* Function of 18

•* Imperative 18

" Indicative 18

'* Infinitive 18

Model business letters 23

social letters 23

Moderation in letter writins: .... 22

Modes. Confusion of 19

Indicative and subjunctive.

contrasted 18

Number of 18

with regard to time, The

different 18

Modification in spelling: of adjec-
tives 17

Modified predicate 14

subject 14

Modifier. Definition of 14

Modifiers of subject of verb .... 19
" What they are and what

they do in sentences . 14
Modifyinsr elements in analysis.

Indicating: 15

Money orders 21

Names, Gender of proper 16

of the Deity. Capitaliza-
tion of 20

Narrative, Letters of 22

Naval and military titles 21

Neatness in letter writing 22

Negation. Affirmation with .... 19

Negatives. Double 19

Neglect. Use of word 19

Negligence. Use of word 19

Neuter gender. Definition of ... 16

verbs and active verbs . . 18

No, Misuse of word 19

Nobility. Orders of 21

Nominative absolute 19

case 16

•• Definition of . . 16

'• Use of 16

Concord by changing

the 19

Nominatives. The verb after joint 19

Nota bene 21

Note, Definition of 23

Notes and cards 23

Familiar 23

French phrases used in . . 23

" Materials of 23

Page
15
14
16
15
20
1
21
24
56

18
15

14
15
14
14
46

30
77

48
65
36
52
26
51
67
110
86
86
12
4
87
46
18
16
17
20

47
50
34
41
41
44
42
41

Sec. Faze

Notes, Miscellaneous 23 46

" of acceptance and regret . 23 45

" invitation. Miscellaneous 23 44

Signature and date of ... 23 41

Superscription of 23 42

Nothing. Misuse of word 19 87

Noun. Adjective after verbal ... 19 61

and pronoun. The 15 1

" Clause used as a 15 16

'* Definition of a 14 17

common . . 16 1

• proper ... 16 5

verbal ... 18 27

" Function of the 14 17

*• Inflections 16 6

of the 16 5

" or pronoun as a modifier . . 15 5
•• " *• *• as factitive ob-
ject 15 4

as equivalent of

an adjective . 15 6
" *' " as equivalent of

a n adverbial
phrase .... 15 5
as object of prep-
osition .... 15 4

Predicate. ... 19 110

" Parsing the 16 26

** Person of a subject 16 15

'* Repeating the 19 28

Subdivisions of the .... 16 1

•• The : .... 14 17

" 16 1

•• 19 8

" used as an adverb 18 69

Notms. Abstract 16 2

" and pronouns. Absolute, or

independent use of .. 15 1

** •' pronouns. Uses of ... 15 1

Casein 16 15

Classes of 16 1

Collective 16 2

Common 16 1

Compound verbal 19 61

Declension of 16 20

Gender in 16 11

Generic, or class names of 16 1

Inflections of 16 30

Number in. ........ 16 8

" or pronouns as predicate

complement . 15 8

Other plural forms of ... 19 9

Person in 16 14

" not a real inflection

of 16 14

Persons of 16 14

INDEX

Sec.

Noniis. Plural of compound ... 19

Proper 16

" " used as common

nouns «. 16

** resrarded as common ... 16

" Rule for forminsr plural of . 16

Sinsrular 19

Table of 16

** Varieties of common ... 16

Verbal 16

Verbals used with 19

Number, Definition of 16

•* plural ... 16

*• singrular . . 16

" in nouns 16

of cases 16

* " verbs. Person and . . 18

Use of word 19

O and I, Capitalization of 20

Object of the preposition 18

Objective case 16

•• Definition of. ... 16

•• Useof 16

Objectives of time or measure . . 19

Objects of prepositions 18

Omitted 19

Obstacle. MeaninjT of word .... 19

Obstruction. Meaning: of word . . 19

Obverse, Use of word 19

Official cards 23

letters 21

Omission denoted by apostrophe . 20

" dash .... 20

Omitted connectives 20

Open letters 28

Oral parsing: 16

Ordinals and cardinals. Order of . 19

Originality in letter writins: .... 22

Paffinsr of sheets of letter 22

Paper. Color and quality of . « . . 21

Ruled and unruled 21

" Varieties of 21

Parasrraph 20

•* Construction of .... 22
** Fundamental requisites

of 22

Parenthesis. Use of 20

Parenthetical dash 20

" flrrammatical ele-

ments. Punctuation

of 20

Parsing:. Abbreviated oral 18

10
4

5
8

54
80
19
19
22
17
81
17
88
83
89
47
9
39
34
18
49
26
36
25

29
12
12
11
45
16

16
85
33

12
64

Sec.

Parsing:. Model for written 18

" of verb. Model for oral . . 18

written 18

Ofal 16

the adjective 17

•* adverb 18

'• conjunction 18

•* noun 16

*• preposition 18

Written 16

Part. Use of word 19

Participle. Definition of 18

Substitutes for the . . . 19

The 18

•• dangiingr 19

Participles after verb To Be . ... 19

" from transitive verbs . 19

modified by Very ... 19

Parties, Invitations to 23

Parts of speech 14

grrouped 14

used as adverbs . 18

Party. Use of word 19

Passive, False 18

form of transitive verb . 18
Other prepositions than

By in the 18

" transitive verbs. Active

and 18

" Use of false 19

verbs wrong:ly transitive 19

Past perfect tense 18

" tense 18

People, Use of- word ........ 19

Period, Rules for 20

** Rule for placing: a. at end

of sentence 14

Use of. in complete sen-
tences 20

Periodic and loose sentences ... 19

sentences 22

Person and number of verbs .... 18

" Definition of 16

** in nouns 16

" not a real inflection of nouns 16
" of a subject noun ... .16

" Use of word 19

Persons of nouns 16

Personal pronoun. Function of . . 17

pronouns 17

Compound ... 17

Declension of . 17

Personification 16

Personified nouns. Capitalization of 20
Petitions. Forms of salutations and

address for 21

67
63
65
26
15
77
88
26
82
27
87
27
61
27
62
62
60
111
44
16
33
69
87
12
8

8
54
55
37
37
87
27

27
98
14
41
14
14
14
15
87
14
21
21
22
23
11
52

XVI

INDEX

Phrase adverbs

" and clause subjects .... 19
construction, or the pos-
sessive case 19

" Definition of a 15

elements 15

Prepositional 14

" prepositions 18

Phrases and clauses 20

Distinct subject 19

Exclamatory 18

Omission of parts of verb 19

Potential verb 18

** Prepositional 16

Uses of adjective 17

Verb 18

Verbal 15

** with respect to fotm ... 15

use. . . . 15

Place of the relative 19

Plea, Use of word 19

Plentiful, Use of word 19

Plenty, Use of word 19

19
16
19

Plural forms of nouns

number. Definition of . . .
" of compound nouns ....
" " nouns. Rules for forminsr

the

** treatment of collective
nouns. Sinarular and . .
" treatment of periods of time
and sums of money . . .

verb unsuited 19

Plurallzin? of mere characters . . 19
Plurals, Apparent, that are sinsrular 19

Professor Bain's 19

Points used in punctuation .... 20

Pope. Addressing the 21

Portion, Use of word 19

Positive degree 17

Possessive case, Definition of . . . 16

denoted by apos-
trophe 20

'* '* or the phrase con-
struction ... 19
•• Remarks on the . 16
" Use of the ... . 16
" in partial and joint own-
ership 19

'* pronouns, Repetition of 19

with verbals 19

Possessivcs. Omission of s from

certain 19

Postoftice statistics 21

Post titles 21

Page Sec.

26 Postscript 21

76 Postasre, foreism. Rates of 21

46 •• Rates of 21

Postal information 21

15 " service in England ..... 21
10 '* " •* the United States 21

10 " Telegraph Co., Rules and

28 rates of 28

81 Potential verb phrases 18

6 Precision in the use of words ... 22

52 Predicate complement. Nouns or

90 pronouns as L5

56 " complements in analy-

34 sis. Indicating .... 15

11 •* Definition of 14

16 " Modified 14

ao ** noun or pronoun .... 19

11 •• Subject and 14

11 ** " " reversed . 19

10 Predicating word 18

23 Predication. Kinds of 18

81 *• Meaning of 14

88 Predicative adjective 17

88 Preference, Use of word 19

9 . Preferment, Use of word 19

9 Prelate, Addressing a 21

10 Preposition and conjimction com-
pared. Functions of

9 the 18

Definition of 14

19 12 " Function of 18

Object of 18

13 " Parsing the 18

51 •* The 14

17 •• '* 18

13 " " 19

8 " " relative and its

4 governing ... 19

56 " •* right 19

87 " used as an adverb . . 18

11 Prepositional phrase 14

17 ** phrases 15

Prepositions BetMreen and Among,

39 Use of 19

Classes of 18

15 ** In and Into. Use of . 19

18 " List of 18

22 •* Needless 19

Objects of 18

16 ** Omission of 19

25 " Phrase 18

16 '* Pronoims after ' . . , 19

with certain words . . 19

14 " *' the same object 19
8 Present perfect tense 18

38 " tense. Universal 19

Page
38
79
73
78
5

29
12
15

110
10

104
1
21
21
2
88
88
56

28
79
80
82
27
79
75

22
76
70
28
11

76
81
77
80
75
81
75
81
111
77
76
87
67

INDEX

xvii

Sec. Page
President of a Board, Addressinfl: a 21 51
Collcsre, Address-
ing a 21 51

•* the United States,

Title of 21

Pretitles, Compound 21

Primitive adjective 17

Prince of Wales (tiUe) 21

Princess (title) 21

Principal parts of the verb .... 18

** verbs. Auxiliaries as . . 18

Professional cards 23

Professor. Abuse of title 21

Progressive passive 18

•• forms of

verbs ... 19

Promptness in answerinsr letters . 22
Pronoun and its antecedent, Asrree-

ment of 19

" Antecedent of a .... . 14

Chansre of 19

" Compound relative ... 17
" Concord of antecedent

and its . . 19
"verb and rela-
tive .... 19

Definition of a 14

Function of the 14

personal. 17 21

" in counected relative

clauses 19 22

" It. Amblsruity from use of 19 31

It or That. Use of .... 19 28

None 19 108

Place of 19 118

Predicate noun or .... 19 110

Simple relative 17 24

Subject of a relative ... 19 105
" That as an adverb. Use

of 19 28

•• Use of relative ... 19 20

The 14 19

•' 17 19

" 19 18

used as an adverb .... 18 69

Pronouns after prepositions .... 19 111

Careless use of 22 12

Classes of 17 21

Collective nouns repre-
sented by 19 20

connected by alternative

conjunctions 19 26

Declension of personal . 17 23

Demonstrative 17 30

Sec. Page

Pronouns Bach. Every, and No,
Antecedents preceded
by

19 28

Either or That. The Lat-

ter or The X^st, Use of

Indefinite

" Interrogative

" Non-correspondence of.

in number

'* Omission of necessary .

* Personal

** Precedence of

Relative

*' Repetition of possessive

Table of

113

They, Their, and Them.

Ambiffuity from use of

" Uses of nouns and . . .

with verb Be, Misuse of

Proper adjective

'* names. Capitalization of .

Gender of

noun. Definition of a . . . .

** nouns

** " used as common

nouns

Proposal. Use of word

Proposition. Use of word

Propriety in the use of words . . .

Public letters

Punctuation and capitalization of
sentences

Avoidance of unnec-
essary

Etymolofirical ....

for emphasis and ref-
erence

Grammar in

Grammatical ....

History of

in letter writinsr . . .

Logical

marks or points . . .
'* Miscellaneous
" Origin of . . .

of address and salu-
tation

** conclusion of let-
ter

" heading

superscription . .

Rhetorical

Rules for

Taste and judgment
in

19
17
17

19
19
17
19
17
19
17

19
15
19
17
20
16
16
16

16
19
19
22
21
23

20
20

20
20
20
20
22
'20
20
20
20

21
21
21
20
20

27
31
29

19
30
21
27
23
25
35

32
1

18
3

13
5
4

3
6
3
1

15
1
4

43
7

21 21

31
o

XVlll

INDEX

Sflc. Page
Punctuation, Technical marks

used in 20 5

Purity of diction 22 3

Quantity. Use of word 19 87

Queen (title) 21 46

Quotation marks. Use of 20 37

Quotations, Punctuation of .... 20 25

•• direct . 20 37
quoted. Punctuation

of 20 88

" within questions.

Punctuation of ... 20 80
Quoted consecutive parasrraphs,

Punctuation of 20 38

quotations. Punctuation

of 20 38

titles. Capitalization of . 20 47

Rabbi. Addressing a 21 56

Rank of clauses 15 18

Rates of postage 21 73

Reason, Use of word 19 82

Recapitulation of letter answered 22 26

Recommendation, Letters of ... 23 8

Recourse, Meaning of word .... 19 88

Redundant adjectives 19 40

verbs 18 45

Reference marks 20 45

Reflexive verb. Definition of .... 18 7

Regfistration of postal matter ... 21 76

Refirret. Notes of 23 45

Rcsrular and irreifular verbs ... 18 43
transitive verb. Conjuga-
tion of a 18 56

Relations, Meaning: of word .... 19 89
Relative and its groveming prepo-
sition. The 19 22

" clauses, Punctuation of . 20 15
Pronoun in con-
nected .... 19 22

Double 17 27

Omission of the 19 107

Place of the 19 23

pronoun. Compound . . 17 27
Concord of verb

and 19 45

Function of the 17 23

Simple 17 24

Subject of a . . 10 \(X>

** pronouns 17 23

exclude con-
junctions . . 19 71
• with no real antecedent . 19 112

StC, Pog€

Relatives in restrictive and coordi-
nate clauses 17 25

Substitutes for 17 28

Use of word 19 89

Relieve, Use of word 19 81

Remainder. Use of word 19 82

Requirement, Use of word 19 89

Requisite. Use of word 19 89

Resort, Meaninif of word ..... 19 88

Resource, Meaning of word .... 19 88

Responsives 18 74

Rest, Use of word 19 82

Restrictive and coordinate clauses.

RelaUves in 17 25

clause 17 25

Return directions 21 37

Reverend (tide) 21 48

Doctor (title) 21 43

Reverse, Use of word 19 89

Rhetorical elements. Punctuation

of 20 10

pause. Indication of. by

dash 20 82

punctuation 2d 2

repetition 20 88

Right Honorable (title) 21 43

" Reverend (title) 21 44

Roman numerals. Capitalization of 20 49
Rule for exclamation mark at end

of sentence 14 9

" placing mark of interro-
gation at end of sen-
tence 14 9

" placing period at end of

sentence 14 9

Rules for use of articles 19 3

Sacred writings. Capitalization of . 20 50

Salutation of a letter 21 19

Position of 21 21

Same, Use of word 19 90

Scholastic titles 21 59

Sealing letters 22 29

Secondary clauses 15 18

Semicolon. Rules for 20 22

Senator or representative in Con-
gress, Addressing a 21 29

Senior (title) 21 42

Sentence, Characteristics of . ... 22 10
Classification of. accord-
ing to use 14 5

Complex 15 23

Compound 15 25

" members of a

simple. . . 15 22

INDEX

XIX

Sec. Page

Sentence. Construction of 22 10

Definition of 14 2

"a simple . . 15 21
"declarative. 14 7
"Imperative. 14 7
"interroga-
tive ... 14 7
"the complex 15 23
Elements in a simple . . 15 21
Essential parts of .... 14 10
Principal parts of a ... 14 12
Rule (or exclamation

mark at end of 14 9

Rule for Interrosration

mark at end of .... 14 9
Rule for placing period

at end of 14 9

Simple 16 20

The 14 5

Sentences, Analysis of simple ... 15 28

"/ Balanced 19 99

become clauses. How . 15 13

Classification of .... 15 20

Complex and compound 18 88
" defined with respect to

use 14 7

" Different uses or func-
tions of 14 6

" Dismemberment of, in

analysis 15 28

Exclamatory 14 7

Forms of 15 20

Length of 22 13

Loose and periodic . . 22 14
" Need for both periodic

and loose 19 99

Periodic and loose ... 19 98
" Punctuation and capi-
talization of 14 8

Questions, exclama-
tions, and inverted . . 14 12
Short and Ions . .... 19 100

Unity of 19 94

" used as antecedents . . 19 24

Variety in use of . ... 22 15

Sentential analysis 15 28

" elements 14 10

20 6

Functions of . 15 1

" structure. The simplest 15 20

Sewafire, Meaninsr of word 19 90

Sewerage, Meaninsr of word .... 19 90

Sex and gender 16 11

" Distinction of 16 11

ShaU and will. Use of 18 62

Sheriff. Addressing a 21 51

Sec. Page

Short and long sentences 19 100

Side heads. Punctuation of .... 20 28

Signature of note 28 41

" or subscription of letter 21 25
to letter. Remarks con-
cerning 22 27

Signs and characters used in ab-
breviations 21 73

Similar, Use of word 19 90

Simple adjective 17 8

adverb. Definition of ... 18 71

" relative pronoun 17 24

" sentence 15 20

Elements in a . . 15 21

" sentences. Analysis of . . 15 28
Singular, Apparent plurals that

are 19 18

nouns 19 8

" distinguished . . 19 28

" number. Definition of . 16 9
" treatment of collective

nouns 19 12

" treabnent of periods of

time and sums of

money 19 18

Slang, Clipped words and. 19 11

" Colloquial usage of clipped

words and 19 11

" Good usage of clipped

words and 19 11

Social letters 21 9

28 21

Style of 22 21

Solicitor, Title of 21 50

Special delivery 21 78

" request envelopes .... 21 87

Speciality, Meaning of word ... 19 90

Specialty, Meaning of word .... 19 90

Specimens of headings 21 17

Speech, Auxiliary or helping parts

of . . 14 33

Parts of 14 16

" " grouped 14 33

" The indispensable parts of 14 33

SpeUhig 22 3

in letter writing 22 27

Split infinitive. The 19 68

Squinting construction. The . ... 19 100

Stamp. Remarks concerning ... 21 37

Staying. Meaning of word 19 90

Stopping. Meaning of word .... 19 90

Style in business correspondence . 22 19

" " letter writing 22 19

" " social letters 22 21

Styles. Mixture of 19 55

Subdivided clauses. Punctuation of 20 23

INDEX

Subdivided members of sentence.

Punctuation of 20

Subject and predicate 14

" " predicate in analysis.

Indicating 15

*• predicate reversed . 19

Definition of 14

Modified 14

'* noun or pronoun. Omis-
sion of the 19

phrases. Distinct 19

" noun. Person of a ....
" of a relative pronoun . .

verb. Modifiers of

the

Verb before the

Subjects. Collective nouns as . . .

16
19

19
19
19

connected by Or or Nor 19

19
19

18
18

Phrase and clause . . .
" taken conjointly ....
that name parts of a
whole. Connected . .
with Every. Connected . 19
Subjunctive and indicative modes
contrasted ....
mode. Definition of

Subordinate clauses 15

Subordinatins: conjunctions .... 18
*• connectives .... 15
Subscription or sicrnaturc of let-
ter 21

Suffixes. Inflection by 16

Superlative desrree 17

" ** for the compar-
ative 19

Superscription 21

Arrangrement of . . 21
Examples of ... 21

of notes 23

Points to be ob-

served in .... 21
Punctuation of . . 21
** Remarks concern-
ins: 22

Synonyms 19

Synopsis of the verb Have .... 18

Table of nouns 16

*' pronouns 17

•* the adjective 17

adverb 18

conjunction 18

•• •• verbs 18

Tabular matter. Punctuation of . 20

Technical marks in punctuation . 20

Sec. Paxe Sec. Page

Telesrrams 'la 15

24 Telesraph messaires. Regulations
10 fifoveminsr 28 20

Tense 18 29

28 " Definition of 18 29

104 " elements. Effect of certain . 18 40
12 *• forms, Interrogrative .... 18 83
14 •• Function of 18 29

•• Future perfect 18 87

48 " Past 18 37

52 " •• perfect 18 87

16 '* Present perfect 18 87

105 *• Universal present 19 57

Tenses. Concord of 19 57

46 •* defined 18 86

46 " Number and names of

49 the 18 31

53 " Relation of, with respect

46 to time 18 86

52 Terms, Likeness of connected . . 19 71

with wron? reference,

106 Two 19 70

105 Than in comparisons 19 111

Than Who or Than Whom. Use

18 of 19 108

19 That. Anomalous use of .... 19 72

18 Thats to introduce a clause. Two 19 108
85 Thought in firrammar. Unit of ... 14 3

19 Tilde 20 45

Time. Divisions of 18 30

25 Title pases. Punctuation of .... 20 26
8 Titles. Capitalization of 20 53

12 " Civil, not hereditary .... 21 47

Classification of 21 38

112 " Ecclesiastical 21 54

28 •* Hereditary 21 45

28 " Life and honorary 21 57

32 *• Naval and military .... 21 52

42 *• of address ......... 21 89

•• distinction 21 39

29 21 57

31 •• ** honor 21 39

21 45

28 " run in. Punctuation of ... 20 34

78 *• Scholastic 21 59

66 " Use of. in letter writinjr . . 22 28

Transitive forms. Other .18 10

verb. Active form of . 18 8

29 " " Conjugation of an
85 irresrular. ... 18 59
19 " ** Conjugation of a
78 regular .... 18 66
89 *• " Definition of. .18 7
68 " " Passive form of . 18 8
28 *' verbs. Active and pas-

5 sive 18 8

INDEX

XXI

Set. Page
TranslHve verbs, Participles from 19 60
Transposed expressions. Punctua-
tion of 20 13

Truthfulness In letter writing ... 22 24

Type, Old style and Doint sizes of 20 42

*• system of 20 40

Point system o' 20 41

Unit of thoufifht in arrammar ... 14 3

Unity of parasrraphs 22 .16

" " sentences 19 94

Universal present tense 19 57

Valentines, etc.. as mail matter . 21 78
Variety in use of sentences .... 22 14
Verb, Active form of transitive . . 18 8
" After joint nominatives . . 19 50
" and relative pronoun. Con-
cord of 19 45

" before the subject 19 46

" between two nominatives . 19 47

•* Bid. Use of 19 58

" Conjugation of an irresrular

transitive . . 18 59
" " of a regular

transitive . . 18 56

*• Dare. Use of 19 58

•• Definition of a 14 22]

" •• 18 2

• intransitive . . 18 7

*• reflexive ... 18 ' 7

*• transitive ... 18 7

" Do. Misuse of the 19 56

" Peel, Use of 19 59

*• Function of the 14 21

" Importance of the 18 1

" Inflections of the 18 14

" Make. Use of 19 59

** Model for oral parsing: of the 18 63

written parsing of

the ..*.... 18 65

" Modifiers of subject of ... 19 46

•* Need. Use of 19 59

" Passive form of transitive . 18 8

*' phrases 14 22

18 30

" *' Action as denoted

by 18 31

Formation of ... 18 43
** ** Omission of parts

of 19 56

Potential 18 34

•* Principal parts of 18 42

•* See. Use of 19 60

Sec.

Verb. The 14

•• 18

" 19

** To Be. Participles after ... 19

*• unsuited. Plural 19

" used as an adverb 18

Verbal adjective. Definition of . . 18

" noun. Adjective after ... 19

" Definition of .... 18

nouns 16

" Compound 19

*' phrases 15

** used as an adverb 18

Verbals 18

Parsini; infinitives and . . 18

" used with nouns 19

Verbs. Active and passive transi-
tive 18

** verbs neuter . 18

*' Auxiliaries as principal . . 18

" Classes of active 18

Conjugation of 18

Defective 18

'* express. What 18

" Have. Help, and Find. Use

of 19

Parsins: 18

Inflections of 18

List of irregular 18

" Participles from transi-
tive 19

" Person and number of . . . 18
" Progressive passive forms

of ............ 19

Redundant 18

Regular and irregular ... 18

of motion. Adverbs with . 19

** of preventing 19

Table of 18

** with future reference ... 19
* wrongly transitive. Pas-
sive 19

Very Reverend (title) 21

Vice President. Title of 21

Viscount (title) 21

Visitant. Meaning of word 19

Visiting cards ,23

Visitor. Meaning of word 19

Vocation, Use of word 19

Wedding announcements 23

invitations 23

Western Union Telegraph Co.,

Regulations of 28

What for That. Use of 19

Page
21
1
45
62
51
69
27
61
27
3
61
11
70
26
66
63

4
30

5
53
45

60
63
68
46

113
45
43
66
62
68
66

55
44
47
46
91
49
91
82

43
43

20
24

xxii

INDEX

Sec. Page

Who or Which instead of That . . 19 101

" •• Whom, Use of 19 104

Word bridges 14 27

" DefinlHon of 14 * 2

Words, Arransrement of 14 5

Bisr 22 10

Classes of 14 16

implied or understood . . 14 6

Letters and 14 1

Propriety in the use of . . 19 91

Sec. Paxe

Words, Short or long 22 9

The chooBins: of 19 78

Written parsing 16 27

Yes and No. Punctuation or . . . 20 26

Zoological names, Crjrftalisation

of 20 61

168 -- --'-"

7009

.301

fi1D7ni013«1

b89071910939a

»'%"^Ar

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