The English language : its history and structure. With chapters on derivation, paraphrazing, sentence-making, and punctuation

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THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

ITS HISTORY AND STRUCTURE.

WITH CHAPTERS ON DERIVATION, PARAPHRASING, SENTENCE-
MAKING, AND PUNCTUATION.

LONDON:

T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW
EDINBURGH ; AND NEW YORK.

I879.

PREFACE.

Books on the English Language generally assume some con-
siderable linguistic knowledge in those for whom they are
intended. This little book assumes no such knowledge. It is
intended for the use of boys and girls in the higher classes of
Elementary Schools; and it has been written so as to be
understood without a knowledge of any language but English
being required. This, however, does not make the book the
less suitable for more advanced scholars, or for higher class
schools.

It is important that literary culture, no matter how limited
in range, should have a basis in language ; and for this purpose
there can be no more convenient or more interesting ground to
start from than the Mother Tongue. There are many pecu-
liarities in the grammar of that tongue which cannot be ex-
plained without a reference to its eventful history.

The history of the English Language is so closely interwoven
with the history of the Country, that the study of the one
cannot fail to be helpful to the study of the other.

The book is designed to meet the requirements of the
Education Codes in regard to the History and Structure of the
English Language, to Paraphrasing and to Composition of
Sentences.

940

CONTENTS.

Introduction 7

Historical Sketch : —

I. The Teutonic Stock 13

II. The Aryan Family 14

III. The English Conquest of

Britain 16

IV. The Periods of English .... 18
V. The Changes in English. ... 19

VI. The Keltic Element 21

VII. The Latin Element of the

First Period 22

VIII. The Latin Element of the

Second Period 24

IX. The Dialects of Old English 25

X. The Danish Influence 26

XI. The Norman Conquest 28

Ml. Old English Writers 29

Mil. The Transition Time- De-
cline and Revival 31

XIV. The Norman-French Influ-
ence — The Latin Ele-
ment of the Third Period 34
X V. The Transition Time— Con-
solidation 3f>

\\ I. Hm Mixed Vocabulary—
French and English Ele-
ments 37

Ml I. Tin- Discarded Dialects.
.Win. i be i n <>f Printing, and
tii^ Bei iv.il ci Leaning —
Ths Latin Clement <>f the
Fourth Period 42

\ I V Model ii I ■'.lu'lish. 46

\ v Recent [nflnenoes

I \ i lileoallaneoni Elements , . , f><>

XXII. BelMnterpretlnf Words... no

Win. [mil ni\. Word 54

XXIV. Words derived from the

Names of Persons 55

XXV. "Words derived from the

Names of Places 56

XXVI. The Lord's Prayer in dif-
ferent Stages of the
Language 58

Tables of English Literature: —

1. Old English Period 61

2. Transition Period (1100-1362).. 81

3. Transition Period (1485) 62

4. Modern English : —

(1.) Early Tudor Period (1
(2.)TheAgeof Elizabeth (1616) 68
(3.) Shakespeare to the Age

of Anne (1702) 64

(4.) TheAge of Anne (1730). . . 65
(5.) The Age of Anne to the

French Revolntion(lT
(6.) The French Revolution to

the Present Time (1870) c>7

Dkuivation :—

Prefixes 71

Affixes 72

( >ld English Roots 73

Latin Boots N

I Boots 79

WORD BPTJ ion..

l oglish Boots 80

Latin Boots s*

P \i;aihi; i-ish 88

mmimi Kara

i'i won a noa 06

CHAM OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND
ENGLISH LITERATURE.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

INTRODUCTION.

1. The history of the English Language has been more re-
markable than that of any other language of the civilized
world, — more eventful than those of Greece and Rome, more
varied than those of Germany and France, more romantic than
those of Italy and Spain. Interwoven with the history of the
English People and of the English Constitution, it has under-
gone with them the same vicissitudes of fortune. It has had
its trials and its triumphs, its revolutions and its restorations,
its times of brilliancy and its periods of decay. Time was
when it was the uncouth speech of a few hundred barbarian
adventurers; now it is the cherished inheritance of millions
scattered all over the globe, and embodies the richest and most
varied treasures of thought which any human speech contains.

2. The course of the English language may not inaptly be
represented by a river. (See the accompanying Chart.) It has
a definite source, though that lies in the remote regions of tra-
ditionary history. Lying at first outside of the domain of
historical fact, there is considerable uncertainty as to its rela-
tions with other languages, and also as to the elements of which
it is composed. By-and-by, however, it assumes a distinct
course, and comes within regions that have been explored, and
about which something is known. It becomes a book speech ;
and thereby its character in different stages is recorded, and
its progress is clearly marked. It receives additions on the

8 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

right hand and on the left, which swell its volume and add to
its riche.s.

3. The Teutonic source of the main stream is indicated at
the top of the chart. The language in this stage, it should
be remembered, belongs to a time much earlier than the be-
ginning of its history in the British Isles. The same source
has given rise to other modern languages, — German, Danish,
Dutch, and Swedish.

4. After the English had settled in Britain, the earliest con-
tribution to their language was made by the Cymrian Kelts
whom the English had conquered. Through the Kelts they
also received a small addition of Latin words left in the country
by the Romans, who had occupied it for upwards of three
centuries as a military power, and had introduced into it their
customs and their laws.

5. Next, the Church of Rome was introduced, which led to a
considerable addition of Church. Latin, along with some Greek
words. Intercourse with Rome increased, and more new words
were introduced, along with new articles of commerce.

6. Two well-marked dialects had now become apparent in
English speech, — the Northern or Anglian, and the Southern
or Saxon. The Northern or Anglian dialect was the first to
become a book speech ; and hence the literary language of the
whole country came to be called English, and the country
itself England.

7. The Danish Invasion was the next important event in
the history of the language, as in that of the people. It wu.s
fatal to the Northern dialect as a book speech ; but Danish did
not take its place as a distinct language: it was hy-and-by
absorbed in English. The effect of this was twofold, — to weaken
the inflections of English, and to introduce a few Danish words.
From this time till the Normal] Conquest the Southern dialect

(West-Saxon) was the leading English.

8. The Norman Conquest caused a complete revolution in
the language, as it did also in the government of England. Old
English sank out of sight for a century and a half. The river
became a morass. Pora time Norman-French took its place as

a distinct current ; but in the end it tOO was lost in the shal-

lowa, and became absorbed in the native ipeeoh. This was the

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 9

period of decline ; but during its course English "was still the
speech of the mass of the people. At this time, and indeed at all
times, the English language has showed remarkable tenacity of
existence. The Danish invasion in the eighth century shook the
governments of the North to their foundations, and the Danish
conquest of the eleventh century overthrew the governments of
the South ; but neither event displaced the speech of the people.
The Norman Conquest extinguished the Old English line of kings,
transferred the government in State and in Church to a new race,
and drove many of the Old English aristocracy into exile ; but it
was powerless to banish or to destroy the English tongue. That
continued to be a great part of the life of the English people.
It survived the Conquest; and it absorbed the Frankish speech,
as it had previously absorbed the Danish speech. The Norse
tongue presents, in this respect, a striking contrast to English.
The Norsemen who settled in England were absorbed into the
English, and gave up their own speech ; the Norsemen who
settled in France dropped their own speech and spoke French:
when their descendants, as Frenchmen, settled in England,
they dropped French and learned to speak Erjglish.

9. "When at last English emerged from the state of dispersion
and neglect into which it had been thrown by the Norman Con-
quest, it did so in the form of several dialects, which ere long
were combined in three main currents — a Northern, a Midland,
and a Southern. Of these the Midland proved the strongest,
and in the hands of Wyclif and Chaucer became standard
English.

10. In Chaucer's time a large Romance element was intro-
duced into English. It consisted of numerous French and some
Italian words. This addition was the result, not of the Norman
invasion, but of the study of French and Italian literature by
Chaucer and his contemporaries. Thus the silent influence of
books accomplished what conquest had failed to effect. From
this point English sweeps onward in a broad and majestic cur-
rent, bearing with it the richest treasures of thought.

11. At the time of the Renaissance, or the Revival of
Learning, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a very large
classical element was added to the language.

12. After the Restoration the influence of French literature

10 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

— especially poetry and the drama — had a great effect on the
literature of England, and some effect also on the language, in-
asmuch as it led such poets as Dryden and Pope to cultivate a
pointed and polished style of diction.

13. A new classical era, due to the caprice of fashion rather
than to any direct historical cause, began in the eighteenth cen-
tury. Its chief representative was Dr. Samuel Johnson. Its
effects continued to be felt till the beginning of the present cen-
tury, when there was a return from the artificial school of John-
son in prose and of Pope in poetry to the simplicity of nature,
in sentiment as well as in forms of speech.

14. This revival was coincident with the French Revolution,
and was probably due to similar causes — namely, a feeling of
profound discontent with the tyrannies of fashion, of formalism,
and of authority, and a desire for freedom and fur nature.
Since that time the most powerful influence affecting English
literature, and through it the English language, has been that
of German thought, especially in the departments of philosophy
and philology. Wordsworth and Shelley may be taken to illus-
trate, though in different ways, the revolutionary influence ;
Coleridge and Carlyle are the best representatives of the in-
fluence of Germany.

15. The English language is now more widely diffused than
that of any other people. English colonies have been Bottled l*»
every quarter of the globe, and in every one of them there is a
growing English population. English is spoken not only by the
population of the British Isles, but also by the millions of the
United States, and by hundreds of thousands in Canada, India,
Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the South Sea Islands.
It has been said that the sun B6VW sets on the possessions of
England's niieeii, which is but another way of saying that

tlniv is never ;i moment in which the sun doesnoj shine on
men speaking the English tongue. The population of the

world is estimated at L,483 million; the population ruled by

the English language ii 318 million, or nearly one-fourth, in

the postal serviee of the world, l,l.".(i million letters are carried
and delivered annually; of these .r>N7 million are written and

read by the English-speaking populations. More than half of

the worlds correspondence is carried 00 in English.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 11

16. The following spirited verses indicate in a picturesque
way the wide diffusion of the English tongue : —

TRIUMPHS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

BY J. G. LYONS.

1. Now gather all our English bards, let harps and hearts be strung,
To celebrate the triumphs of our own good English tongue ;

For stronger far than hosts that inarch with battle-flags unfurled,
It goes with Freedom, Thought, and Truth, to rouse and rule
the world.

2. Stout Albion learns its household lays on every surf -worn shore,
And Scotland hears its echoing far as Orkney's breakers roar :
From Jura's crags and Mona's hills it floats on every gale,
And warms with eloquence and song the homes of Innisfail.

3. On many a wide and swarming deck it scales the rough wave's

crest,
Seeking its peerless heritage — the fresh and fruitful West :
It climbs New England's rocky steeps, as victor mounts a throne ;
Niagara knows and greets the voice, still mightier than its own :

4. It spreads where winter piles deep snows on bleak Canadian plains,
And where on Essequibo's banks eternal summer reigns :

It glads Acadia's misty coasts, Jamaica's glowing isle,

And bides where gay with early flowers green Texan prairies

smile :
It tracks the loud, swift Oregon, through sunset valleys rolled,
And soars where Calif ornian brooks wash down their sands of gold:

5. It sounds in Borneo's camphor groves, on seas of fierce Malay,

In fields that curb old Ganges' flood, and towers of proud Bombay :
It wakes up Aden's flashing eyes, dusk brows, and swarthy limbs ;
The dark Liberian soothes her child with English cradle hymns.

6. Tasmania's maids are wooed and won in gentle English speech ;
Australian boys read Crusoe's life by Sydney's sheltered beach :

It dwells where Afric's southmost cape meets oceans broad and

blue,
And Nieuwveld's rugged mountains gird the wide and waste

Karroo :

12 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

7. It kindles realms so far apart, that, while its praise you sing,
These may be clad with Autumn's fruits, and those with flowers of

Spring :
It quickens lands whose meteor lights flame in an Arctic sky,
And lands for which the Southern Cross hangs orbed fires on high :

8. It goes with all that prophets told, and righteous kings desired ;
With all that great apostles taught, and glorious Greeks admired ;
With Shakespeare's deep and wondrous verse, and Milton's loftier

mind;
With Alfred's laws, and Newton's lore, — to cheer and bless man-
kind.

9. Mark, as it spreads, how deserts bloom, and error flies away
As vanishes the mist of night before the star of day !

But grand as are the victories whose monuments we see,
These are but as the dawn, which speaks of noontide yet to be.

10. Take heed, then, heirs of Alfred's fame, take heed, nor once disgrace
With deadly pen or spoiling sword our noble tongue and race.

Go forth, prepared in every clime to love and help each other;
And judge that they who counsel strife would bid you smite — a
brother.

11. Go forth, and jointly speed the time, by good men prayed for long,
When Christian states, grown just and wise, will scorn revenge and

wrong ;
When Earth's oppressed and savage tribes shall cease to pine or

roam,
All taught to prize these English words — Faith, Freedom,

Heaven, and Home.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 13

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE.

I.-THE TEUTONIC STOCK.

OUTLINE. — 1. Languages winch are alike in their roots and in

their structure have had the same origin. 2. English is like

Dutch, German, and Danish in both respects. 3. English is a

Teutonic tongue.

1. There are two ways in which languages may resemble one
another : they may contain the same roots ; and they may have
the same inflections, and the same laws of syntax. If they con-
tain the same roots, — not merely a few words that are similar,
but a mass of the most common, every-day words, evidently the
same, — that is one proof of common origin : if they have the
same grammatical forms and laws, that is another and still
stronger proof that they have come from the same source.
Just as we conclude that two animals which have the same
skeleton, and eat the same food, belong to the same kind ; so
we conclude that two languages which have the same roots,
and the same grammar, belong to the same family.

2. English resembles Dutch, German, Danish, and some
other languages, in both these ways; and we therefore con-
clude that it has had the same origin as they have had. This
conclusion becomes the more warrantable when the words
which English has in common with these languages are
examined. They are not rare words, or words used only occa-
sionally. They are words that belong to every-day conversa-
tion, and that enter into the fibre of speech. They belong to
such classes as these : the numerals, the pronouns, the auxil-
iary verbs, the names of relatives, prepositions, and conjunc-
tions. Here are a few examples of corresponding words in
English, Dutch, and German : —

English three me mother brother have

Dutch drie mij moeder broeder hebben

German drei mich mutter bruder haben

14 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Among the grammatical inflections in which these languages
correspond are the -s or 's of the genitive or possessive case ;
the -st or -t of the second person of verbs; the -en of passive
participles ; and the -end, -ende, or -ing of active participles.

The close resemblance of these languages in what are called
irregularities is shown in the following : —

English good better best

Dutch goed beter beste

German gut besser beste

3. There are no such close resemblances between English and
French, or Spanish, or Gaelic: English is, therefore, classed in
the same group with Dutch and German. The name given to
the group is the Teutonic stock. English is therefore called a
Teutonic tongue.

II.— THE ARYAN* FAMILY.

OUTLINE.— 1. The Teutonic stock belongs to the Aryan family.

2. That family embraces most of the languages of Europe.

3. The differences in languages are due to the separation

of peoples. 4. Languages change little after having been

fixed in books.

1. The Teutonic stock is one of seven or eight groups of
languages that constitute the Aryan family. All the lan-
guageeof the civilized world are arranged in two great families
— the Aryan and the Semitic. The Semitic family includes
Hebrew, Arabic, and other Eastern languages. The home of

this family was in Asia, and its history has been Confined to

tin- west. tii part of that continent. The original boms of the

Aryan family also was in Asia; but its chief representatives
are now in Europe. As its members extend t'roin India to
Europe, it is sometimes called the I ndo- Knropean family of

languages.

■ The word Aryan oobim from :i Banskrtt word "<■;/<;, "noble." it meant
originally • "tiller of the toll;" and was applied to tribes thai were settled anil
agrlonltoral, atop] <i to trlbet that were pastoral and nomadic, >>v wandering.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 5

2. The Aryan family embraces most of the languages of
Europe. It comprises in Europe, besides the Teutonic stock,
the Keltic (Welsh and Gaelic), the Italic (Latin, Italian, French,
&c), the Hellenic (Greek), the Sclavonic (Russian, Servian, &c),
and the Lettic (Old Prussian). It also includes two stocks in
Asia — the Indie (Sanskrit, the oldest language of the family)
and Iranic (Persian). The chief European tongues that are not
Aryan are Turkish, and the Magyar of Hungary.

3. The differences between one language and another are due
to the separation of peoples. At one time, many centuries ago,
there was only one Aryan language, spoken by one Aryan people.
As this people multiplied, a band of adventurers would leave
the old home in search of new lands. Some generations later,
another migration would take place from the parent stock,
probably in a different direction from that of the first. This
would be repeated again and again at wide intervals. Each of
these bands of settlers would carry away from the common home
the stock of words, and the manners and customs, in use there
at the time of its leaving.

Between the time of the first migration and that of each
subsequent one, the parent language would undergo great
changes. Each settlement, therefore, would begin its separate
career with a language in many respects different from that
with which the others had begun theirs. After the separation,
too, each language would change still further, owing to the
people meeting with new objects and new circumstances.

In the course of time each of these settlements would grow
into a nation. The larger it grew, the more likely would the
people at the one end of the country be to speak differently from
the people at the other end. Thus different dialects arise. We
may see proofs of this in our own day, and in our own country.
The people of Devonshire have many words that the people of
Yorkshire have not ; and the people of Lancashire use words
which the people of Kent cannot understand.

Now, when the Teutons spread over the great plain of Cen-
tral Europe, and overflowed into the peninsulas farther north,
it was natural that distance and lack of intercourse should give
rise to differences of speech. In point of fact, three distinct

16 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

branches of the Teutonic stock came to be recognized : one in
the high lands of South Germany — hence called High German;
a second in the low lands and along the coasts of North Germany
— hence called Low German ; and a third in the peninsulas now
called Denmark and Scandinavia — hence called Scandinavian.

4. It should be remembered that these changes would not
have been so great if, before the peoples separated, the language
had been fixed by being printed in books. It is upwards of
two hundred and fifty years since the Pilgrim Fathers sailed
to America and founded the United States ; yet the two nations
on the opposite sides of the Atlantic use to-day the same
language. The reason is, that they read the same books, — each
the other's books as well as its own. Special circumstances
have led the Americans to add a good many new words ; but
tlit- language is still one and the same.

III. -THE ENGLISH CONQUEST OF BRITAIN.

OUTLINE.— 1. English is a Low German tongue. 2. The English

came to Britain from the shores of North Germany. 3. They

came in the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. 4. The Britons,

whom they dispossessed, were Kelts.

1. When English is compared with Dutch and Flemish on
the one hand, and with German and Danish on the other, it is
found to be much more like the former than it is like the latter.
Hence it is concluded that English belongs to the same branch oi
the Teutonic stuck as 1 fetch and Flemish. English is therefore
called a Low German tongue. Modern German is the repre-
sentative of old High German, and Danish is Scandinavian.
( >f all modern dialects, that which most resembles English i^-
Friesian, Bpoken in Priesland in the north of Holland; and
Prieflian is a Low (Jennan dialect.

2. That Knglish is a Lowderman tongue is also proved by
history. It is known that the Rngliwh settlers in Britain
Came from the COastl <>f North Germany from what are now

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 17

Hanover, Holstein, and Schleswig. Friesland, whose dialect is
so like English, is a continuation of the same coast ; in fact the
Friesians are believed to be the descendants of the Englishmen
who remained on the Continent when their brethren came to
Britain. Now the dialects spoken all along that coast are Low
German dialects. The literary language, the language of edu-
cated people, is Modern German, which is descended from High
German ; but the language of the common people is Low
German.

The English settlers belonged to three tribes : the Jutes,
who came from Jutland ; the Saxons, who came from the
coasts of Westphalia and Hanover; the Angles, who came
from Schleswig and Holstein. The Jutes settled in Kent ; the
Saxons in the south, from Essex to Dorset ; the Angles landed
on the shores of the H umber and spread over the midland and
northern districts, occupying most of the land. All these
settlers used the same tongue — English ; and when they had
made the land fairly their own, they called it, after themselves,
Engla-land — "the land of the English."

3. Most of the details of the English settlement rest on tra-
dition, but the main facts may be relied on. The date assigned
to the first settlement is 449 a.d. In that year the Jutes,
under Hengist and Horsa, landed in Kent, and founded a
kingdom there. The date assigned to the sixth and last settle-
ment is 547 a.d. In that year the Angles, under Ida, landed
north of the Humber, and formed the kingdom of Bernicia,
which was afterwards combined with Deira, the two together
constituting Northumbria. It thus appears that bands of
colonists continued to arrive at intervals during about one
hundred years.

4. The Britons whom the English dispossessed were Kelts
called Cymri ; but the English called them the Welsh — that is,
foreigners or barbarians. The Welsh fought bravely for their
country ; but in the end they were conquered, and were either
made slaves or driven to remote corners of the land.

18 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

IV.-THE PERIODS OF ENGLISH.

OUTLINE.— 1. The English of to-day is essentially the same as the

English of the Angles and the Saxons. 2. From 670 to 1066, that

is, down to the Norman Conquest, the language is called Old

English. 3. From 1066 to 1485 it is called Transition English.

4. From 1485 to the present time it is called Modern English.

1. For a century or more after their settlement in Britain,
the English were so busy with fighting, first with the 'Welsh
and then with one another, that they had no time to write
books. The first English book known to have been written in
England belongs to the latter half of the seventh century.
It is Caedmon's poem.* There are older poems in English ; but
they were made before the English came to Britain.

Now the English of to-day is essentially the same as the
English of Caedmon. In the twelve intervening centuries
the language has undergone great changes, so great that the
English of the seventh century seems a foreign tongue to an
Englishman of the nineteenth ; yet in what may be called its
back-bone the speech of the two periods is one. It is one
in grammatical structure, and one in the stock of the com-
monest words and roots. The words in Modern English that
form the mechanism of speech — the auxiliary verbs, the pro-
nouns, the articles — have their roots in Old English.

The same is true of the names of family relations, of the
names of the seasons of the year, of the divisions of time, of
the appearances of nature, of the most common feelings and
thoughts. It is easy to write a sentence in which all the
woids are derived from Old English. It is impossible to write
a sentence of any length from which such words shall be
wholly excluded.

2. Prom the tune of Caedmon to the Norman Conquest the
language is called Old English i *. T * » t < » L066. That conquest
led to greal changes in England. English was lost tight of an

• See Lesson XII.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 19

a book speech for several generations. It was like a stream
which for a space ran under ground, and was much changed
when it reappeared.

3. From 1066 to 1485, the language is called Transition
English. During this period it passed through several stages,
Jirst, a time of Decline (1066 to 1205) ; second, a time of Revival

in separate dialects (1205-1362) ; third, a time of Consolidation
(1362-1485). The year 1205 is that in which English reap-
peared as a book speech. The year 1362 is that in which
English was re-introduced in the law courts. The year 1485
is that of the accession of the House of Tudor. It is also nearly
coincident with the introduction of printing into England, —
the event which has most tended to fix the language and to
arrest change.

4. From 1485 to the present time the language is called
Modern English. Modern English thus corresponds broadly
with printed English, and includes very little that is of earlier
date than the Reformation and the Elizabethan poets.

V.-THE CHANGES IN ENGLISH.

OUTLINE.— 1. Many Old English words have been lost. 2. Many

Old English inflections have been lost. 3. New words have

been added to English from various sources. 4. A few new

word-endings have been adopted. 5. The history of English

is an account of these changes — loss and gain.

1. When objects fall out of use, their names also are likely to
disappear. When customs and institutions change, the words
connected with them change also. For example, the Old
English mances, a certain coin or weight, has disappeared because
that coin or weight is no longer in use. The title Bret-icalda
has passed away (except as a historical term), because the office
no longer exists. Some words have been pushed out by the use
of words of the same meaning from other sources. Thus the
Latin word nation has taken the place of the O. E. theod; the

20 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

French happen, that of the O. E. ge-limpan ; the Greek parable,
that of the O. E. bi- spell.

2. Many inflections also have been lost. Nouns, for ex-
ample, had in Old English four cases, generally distinguished
by different case-endings; and there were some twenty vari-
eties of declension. Now there is only one case-ending — 's.
Adjectives were fully declined, differently for masculine,
feminine, and neuter, as in Latin and Greek. There were a
definite and an indefinite declension, as in German. The de-
monstratives " the " (se) and " this " (thes) were fully declined.
The verb had a separate ending for the plural in each tense, a
separate ending for the imperative, and another for the infini-
tive. Old English was, in fact, a highly inflected language, and
such it continued in the main to be till the Norman Conquest.

3. While English has been losing some words, it has also been
gaining others. At different times and in different ways the
English nation has been brought into contact with other
peoples ; — with the Britons, whom they conquered ; with the
Danes, with whom they struggled so long ; with the Normans,
who conquered them. English has derived additions from
these and from many other sources, till it has become the most
mixed and many-coloured of languages. To this it owes in a
great degree the richness and the variety of its vocabulary, as
well as the simplicity of its grammar.

4. The new word-endings which English has adopted are
very few. The feminine suffix -ess is the only one that is
undoubtedly Norman-French. The -m of tin- plural might also

be ascribed to the Norman-French, but it is plainly taken from

the old English -at. This ending was probably preferred to

others because it was familiar to both the nationalities repre-
sented in the composite tongue.

5. The history of the English language is simply a detailed

account of these changes of the gains and losses which the

language has met with during its long career A comparison

ot the language as it existed at different periods brim's this fact

THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 21

out very clearly ; and the wider apart the periods compared,
the more manifest is the change. Here, for instance, are, line
for line, and word for word, the Lord's Prayer as translated
by King Alfred, and the same in the language of to-day : —

Faeder ure, J»u ]>e eart on heofenum,
Father our, thou that art in heaven,

Si )>in nama ge-halgod;
Be thy name hallowed;

To-becume J)in rice ;
Come thy kingdom;

Ge-weor)>e pin willa on eorj^an, swa-swa on heofenum ;
Be-done thy will on earth, so-as in heaven;

time daeghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg,
Our daily loaf give us to day,

And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa-swa we f orgifa)> urum gyltenduni ;
And forgive us our debts, so-as we forgive our debtors;

And ne gelaede )>u us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle :
And not lead thou, us into temptation, but loose us of evil:

Soj)lice.

Soothly (or, Amen).

We want to know by what means the language has passed
from the first of these forms to the last.

VI.-THE KELTIC ELEMENT IN ENGLISH.

OUTLINE— 1. The English adopted some Keltic words from the
Britons. 2. Some of these words are still retained in En-
glish. 3. Others have been lost, or are now provincial.

4. Some Keltic words are of recent introduction.

1. It was quite natural for the English to adopt some of the
words which they heard the Britons use. They would not
think, for example, of changing the geographical names which
they found in use, though they might be forced to change their
pronunciation. Names of rivers, as Dee and Don, Thames and
Severn, Ov.se and Trent, were first applied by the Welsh, and were
learned from the Welsh by the English. Names of hills were also

22 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

retained, as Chiltern, Mendip, Cheviot; and names of islands, as
Marij Wight, Bute. Very few towns hear Keltic names, as
most of the towns have arisen in more recent times. The
names Carlisle, Cardiff, Liverpool, and Penzance are, however,
undoubtedly Keltic. A few geographical common names have
also been adopted, as brake (thicket), crag (rock).

2. All the words now mentioned are retained in Modern
English; and there are many others of the same kind. A
considerable number of the Keltic words in English relate to
menial work and common implements. The probability is that
the English masters learned these words from their Welsh
slaves. When they heard their servants speak of their crooks
and their mattocks, their tackle and their icickets, they would
naturally call these things by the same names, especially if the
things themselves were new to them. Other words of the same
class are basket (basged), bran, kiln {cylyn), darn, rvg.

3. A good many Keltic words which at one time existed in
English have now been lost. Such are kern, a foot soldier
(used by Shakespeare) ; crowd, a fiddle ; cats, lots. Others still
exist as provincial words, as bcrr, energy; brat, an apron; j»-'fc,
a cafltle (Scottish, peel-tower*).

4. Several words have been borrowed from the Welsh or the
Gaels in recent times, along with the things which they name,
imjlunnel, plaid, tartan, kilt.

VII.- THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE
FIRST PERIOD.

OUTLINE.— 1. Britain was a Roman province from 80 to 410 A.D.

2. The Romans made military roads and other works in the
island. 3. The Latin names of these works were adopted hy
the Britons. 4. From the Britons they were adopted by the
English.

1. The Romans first visited Britain in 05 n.c, bat they did

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 23

not gain any permanent footing in the island till 43 a.d. The
greater part of it was conquered, and made a province, by
Julius Agricola, between 78 and 84. Several of the Roman
emperors visited Britain, and many Romans lived there in
houses which they had built for themselves after the Roman
model. The Roman government of Britain lasted upwards of
three hundred years. Then the Empire became so weak that
its distant provinces had to be abandoned, and in 410 a.d. the
Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain.

2. Rome held Britain as a military power. That they might
hold it securely, the Romans formed firm roads (strata), passing
through the middle of the island from the extremities. They
placed permanent camps or castles (castra) at numerous points,
and garrisoned them with their soldiers. These castles were pro-
tected by ramparts (valla), and by trenches (fossa;). On the coasts
they made harbours (portils), and at certain points they planted
settlements (colonice) in the midst of the conquered people.

3. That these words were adopted or imitated by the Keltic
natives is proved by their existence in English. The English
did not begin to come into Britain till many years after the
Romans had left ; and there was no other way in which they
could get these words than through, the Britons. "We know,
moreover, that one road was known to the Britons as Watling
Street ; another as Rikenild Street ; a third as Irmin Street ;
and a fourth as the Foss.

4. When the English adopted the Latin words mentioned above
(§ 2), they frequently combined them with words of their
own tongue, as will appear from the following list. From —

Strata.... Street, Strat-ford, Streat-ham, Strad-broke.

Castra. ...Chester, Lan-caster, Wor-cester, Bed-cister, Glo'ster, Ex-eter.

Vallum... Wall-bury, Bailiff, Old Bailey.

Fossa Foss-way, Fos-bridge.

Portus....Port, Ports-mouth, Ports-ea.
Colonia...Lm-coln, Colne.

The English roots combined with Latin here are ford, ham.
bury, way, bridge, mouth, and ea ( = igge, island).

24 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

VIII— THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE
SECOND PERIOD.

OUTLINE.— 1. The authority of the Church of Rome was introduced

into England in 597 A.D. 2. Thereafter many church words

(Latin and Greek) were added to English. 3. Intercourse with

Rome increased. 4. New classical words of general meaning

were introduced.

1. Eoman Christianity was introduced into England by
Augustine and other missionaries sent by Pope Gregory in 597
a.d. It was at once embraced by the king and the people of Kent,
and it spread by-and-by to the neighbouring states. North um-
bria became Christian in 627, when Paulinus became the
northern bishop. Before their conversion, the English, like the
Scandinavians, had been heathen barbarians. Their gods were
in some cases heavenly bodies, as the sun and the moon; in
others, deified heroes, as Woden and Thor.

Of this fact we have still a proof and an instance in the names
given by the English before their conversion to the days of the
week, and retained ever since. Sunday and Monday were
named after the sun and the moon ; Tuesday, after Tieu, the
god of the Teutons ; Wednesday, after Woden, the god of war ;
Thursday, after Thor, the god of thunder ; Friday, after Freva,
the northern Venus; and Saturday, after Saetes, a water god.

2. Christianity, with its new services, new officials, new-
objects, and new ideas, could not but lead to the addition of
many words to the language. To translate into English the
Latin and Greek words used by the priests would have been
impossible. The things that required to be spoken about were

unknown to the English, and they had no words for them in their

language. They therefore adopted, or imitated, the words the

churchmen used; and thus, at a very early period, a number of
words from Latin and Greek were introduced into English.
The following .ire examples of these words: —

From Latin altar, cloister, creed, cross, disciple, feast, mass, porch,

preach, saint, sacrament.
From Greek angel, apostle, bishop, ohuroh, hymn, minster, monk,

pi leet, ptftlm

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 25

3. The ecclesiastical connection thus formed led to a great
deal of intercourse between England and Rome. The
Roman priests brought with them Roman customs and modes
of living ; and many articles of commerce, relating especially to
food and to dress, began to be imported.

4. At the same time that the English thus extended their
knowledge of things, they also increased their stock of words.
MaDy words of a miscellaneous character were added to the
language at that time, and have been retained in it till this day,
though they have undergone considerable changes.

The following are examples of miscellaneous words introduced
at this early period : —

From Latin — anchor, beet, belt, candle, chalk, cherry, city, cook,
comer, empire, fig, fork, Hon, marble, mule, nurse,
palace, pearl, purple, spade, table, tiger.

From Greek — agate, camel, cymbal, epistle, giant, myrrh, rheum,
school, sponge, theatre.

Classical words have been introduced at various periods subse-
quently. They will be referred to in their proper place.

IX. -THE DIALECTS OF OLD ENGLISH.

OUTLINE.— 1. The two chief dialects of Old English were the Nor-
thumbrian and the West Saxon. 2. The Northumbrian dia-
lect 'was destroyed as a book-speech by the Danes. 3. The

West Saxon then became the classical English.

1. The facte that the Teutonic settlers belonged to different
(though allied) tribes, that they came at different times, and
that they occupied different parte of the country, all tended to
the production of different dialects. At least four dialects have
been noted, — the Northumbrian, the Mercian, the West Saxon,
and the Kentish. Of these the most prominent and the most
distinctly marked were the Northumbrian, or Anglian, in the
north of England, and the West Saxon in the south. The
former was the speech of the Angles ; the latter preserved

26 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

whatever peculiarities belonged to the speech of the Saxons.
The Anglians of Northunibria were the first to use the language
as ;i book speech ; and that is, probably, why the language was
called after them " Englisc " — English — even by the Saxons.

2. The Norsemen, or Danes, who had begun their descents
on England in 787 a.d., obtained a secure footing in the north
in 878. They ravaged Northunibria and East Anglia, drove
out the Anglian kings, and put Norsemen in their place. In
their ravages, they destroyed the manuscripts found in the
monasteries and elsewhere ; and thus the Anglian tongue as a
book speech was completely crushed out. Indeed the versions
of the Northumbrian poems that we now possess are taken from
"West Saxon copies ; and there is little doubt that in the copy-
ing many of the northern peculiarities disappeared.

3. The English supremacy then passed to the Kingdom of
Wessex ; and with it also the leadership in letters. "VVessex
also had its struggle with the Danes ; but Alfred succeeded in
repelling them in the end. On their agreeing to become Chris-
tians, Alfred allowed them to settle in a district of East Anglia
and Mercia, which, after them, was called the Danelagh. Prom
Alfred's time the speech of Wessex was the standard or classical
English.

X.-THE DANISH INFLUENCE.

OUTLINE. — 1. The Danes were absorbed in the English people.

2. There is a considerable Danish element in English speech.
3. In the Danish struggle, English lost some case-endings.

l. The Danes who settled in the north and east of England
were, as we have already seen, people of the same stock and
family as the English. Danes and English, therefore, speedily
mingled, and ere Long both spoke the Same English tongue.
Freeh invasions of Danee took place in the tenth and eleventh
centuries, and from luiT till L04fl Danish kingri held the
throne of England,

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 27

2. As a result of this mixture of peoples, there is a consider-
able Danish element in English, especially in that of the north.
A line drawn from the "Wash to the Mersey may be taken
roughly as the southern boundary of Danish England. Over
the whole country north of that line as far as to the Forth,
there are places which bear names evidently of Danish origin.
For example : —

By, a town appears in Grims-by, Thores-by, Kel-by.

Fell, a hill „ Scaw-fell, Cross-fell, Bow-fell.

Dal, a valley n Scars-dale, Danes-dale, Grims-dale.

Kirk, a church .. . n Orms-kirk, Kirk-haugh.

Beck, a brook ... . m Cald-beck.

Tarn, a lake n Tarn-syke.

Gate, a way n Sand-gate.

Ness, a headland. n Skip-ness.

Many words found in the old Border ballads are Xorse : —

Boun, ready. i Lithe, listen.

Busk, prepare. Lowe, flame.

Some of these words are still preserved in provincial dialects
along with others ; such as, —
Neif, fist.

Wandreth, sorrow.
Cleg, a smart fellow.

Flit, to change house.
Gar, to make.
Greet, to weep.

A good many words still used in the current language are
Danish : —

are

bracken

dwell

kid

slant

bait

bunker

earl

lurk

sly

blunt

dash

gust

pudding

whim

3. Another effect of the mingling of the two peoples was, that
English was stripped of some of its word-endings or inflec-
tions. This result naturally follows when two peoples speaking
different languages coalesce. "When the Danes attempted to
use English words, they would try to dispense with gram-
matical forms ; and the English, when speaking to the Danes,
would be forced to do the same. In the conflict of tongues
English was the victor, but it came out of the straggle shorn cf
some of its appendages.

28 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

XI.-THE NORMAN CONQUEST.

OUTLINE.— 1. The Normans conquered England in 106G.- — 2. The

Old English Period then came to an end. 3. English ceased

for the time to be a book-speech.

1. The Normans conquered England in 1066. The Norman
Duke "William became King of England, and he divided the
land among his followers. Not the crown only, but also the
whole country, changed hands. The members of the English
royal family, and many of the English nobles, took refuge in
Scotland. The mass of the English people became the vassals
and the servants of their Norman conquerors.

2. This was the end of the Old English Period. The En-
glish-speaking people were put in subjection. The owners and
the rulers of the country spoke French. The work of schools,
law courts, and churches, was carried on in French. Never-
theless the common people, who formed the bulk of the popu-
lation, continued to use their Old English speech.

3. But English ceased for the time to he a hook speech.
With the exception of the Old English Chronicle, which was
continued in secrecy and fear till 1154, no English bocks were
produced for nearly a century and a half after the Conquest.
The books written at that time were chiefly monkish chron-
icled and histories; and these were written in Latin or in
French, never in English. English, therefore, became once
more liable to the change and decay from which languages that
are merely Bpoken and not written always Buffer. Word-endings
dropped off, or became changed ; and different forms and usages
were gradually adopted in different parte of the country,

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29

XII.-OLD ENGLISH WRITERS.

670-1154 A.D.

OUTLINE.— 1. Caedmon was the first English poet. 2. Baeda "was

the first English prose writer. 3. King Alfred made English

a classical tongue. 4. The "Old English Chronicle" was the

last work in Old English.

1. The first piece of literature produced by the English in
England was the Paraphrase of the Scriptures written by
Caedmon about 670. According to Baeda, Caedmon was a
poor and unlettered servant to the monks of Whitby, and he
received from God the power of song in a dream. This pretty
tradition was no doubt intended to account for so fine a poem
appearing in so rude an age. Other men, says the story, tried
to make holy poems like his ; but they could not, because he
was taught of God. In some parts the poem reminds us of
Milton's Paradise Lost, not only by its story, but also by its
lofty thought.

The Old English poetry after Caedmon was both religious
and warlike. The most famous of the war-songs are the Battle
Song of Brunanburh (937) and the Song of the Fight at Maldon
(991). Old English poetry was abrupt and terse, and instead of
tail-rhyme it used head-rhyme, or alliteration. For example : —

CAEDMON. TRANSLATION.

Streamas st6don Streams stood :

Storm up-gewat Storm up-went :

"Weollon wael-benna Rolled corpses [of] men :

"Wite-r6d gefeol The torment-rod fell :

He ah of Heofonum High from Heaven :

Hand-weorc Godes. Handiwork of God.

2. The oldest English prose work we know of was lost long
ago. It was Baeda's Translation of St. Johrfs Gospel, written
in his last days, and finished on his death-bed in 735. Baeda
was a monk of Jarrow in Northumbria, and was one of the
most famous men of his age as a writer of Latin books. His
Ecclesiastical History of England, written in Latin, is still our
chief authority for the events, general as well as ecclesiastical,
of Old English times.

30 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

3. Both Caedmon and Baeda were Northumbrians ; and we
have seen that when literature was destroyed by the Danes in
Northumbria, it was sheltered by the West Saxons. The man
who did most to encourage it was Alfred, King of Wessex
(871-901). Alfred really made English a classical tongue. He
not only wrote books in English himself (chiefly translations
from Latin), but he set up schools, where he ordered all the
youth to learn their mother tongue ; and he gathered around
him, both from England and from abroad, a great company of
learned men, to aid him in his work. His most famous works
are his translations of Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy and
of Baeda's History, already referred to.

4. The Old English Chronicle originated in the registers or
records of public events which it was customary for the monks
to keep at the religious houses. At first these records contained
little besides notes of the births and deaths of public men, —
kings, bishops, nobles.

In Alfred's time the dry bones were clothed with flesh and
blood. Under his own direction, or that of Plegmund the
primate, the bare lists were expanded into a full narrative.
The work then became a national history, often graphic in its
descriptions, and sometimes enlivened by war-songs and odes.
The Chronicle, as we have seen, survived the Norman Conquest
Though the old language was neglected and Languishing, the
Chronicle was persistently carried on in several monasteries,
and bears witness to the feeling of bitter jealousy with which
the oppressed people regarded their conquerors.

It gives proof, also, of the decay which was affecting the
language itself, — how its crust was crumbling, as a rock is
worn away by the biting air. Most of tin* inflections which

had survived the Danish shock now disappeared, and French

Words occasionally forced themselves into use. The last siir-

vi\> rot' these monkish Chronicles the Peterborough chronicle
— expired abruptly with the death of Stephen in 1164; and

with it also old English prose came to an end.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 31

XIIL— THE TRANSITION TIME.

DECLINE AND REVIVAL.

1066-1362 A.D.

OUTLINE.— 1. For more than a century after the Conquest, English

was in a state of decline (1066-1205). 2. This was followed

toy a time of dialectic revival (1205-1362). 3. The chief

writers of that time were Layamon (1205) and Ormin (1215).

4. During that time the Norman -French were absorbed

in the English people. 5. The characteristics of Transition

English are the simplification of grammar, and the addition
of few Norman-French words.

1. For more than a century after the Conquest, English was
in a state of decline ; that is to say, as has already been shown,
it ceased to be a book speech, and became a spoken or " illiter-
ate " tongue. In this state it continued till about the year 1205.
The changes which it underwent during that time were not so
much due to the direct influence of Norman- French, as to
English having been driven into obscurity and deprived of
literary practice and a literary standard.

2. When English reappeared as a book speech, its form was
greatly changed ; rathei", it appeared in several forms, differing
materially from one another. This was the natural consequence
of the want of a literary standard. In different parts of the
country change had taken different directions, and had resulted
in different forms.

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there were three
distinct dialects in which books were written, — the Northern,
the Midland, and the Southern. These dialects are most
readily distinguished by the plural ending of the present tense,
which was in the Northern -e*, in the Midland -en, and in the
Southern -eth. The Northern dialect was spoken in the Low-
lands of Scotland as well as in the north of England, and
passed into modern Lowland Scotch. The Southern dialect was
a continuation of the classical tongue of Wessex ; but it gradu-
ally died out. The Midland dialect was a revival or a develop-
ment of the English of the Peterborough Chronicle (1154),
and afterwards passed into standard English.

32

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

3. These three dialects of Transition English are repre-
sented by the following works respectively : —

DIALECT.

AUTHOR.

WORKS.

YEAR.

Northern.

-es.

Richard Rolle, of
Hampole

Cursor Mundi : a metrical
version of Scripture ....

Pricke of Conscience, and
prose treatises

1320.
1350.

Midland.
-en.

Ormin

Robert of Brunne . . .

Ormulum: a metrical
Church Service

1215.

Handlyng Sinne: transla-
tion of a French poem . .

1303.

Southern.
-eth.

Robert of Gloucester.

Brut: translation of AVace's

Brut (Welsh legends)

Riming Chronicle

1205.
1297.

4. During this period of transition, the Norman-French were
absorbed in the English people, as the Danes had been rive
centuries before, and the two races became one nation. One
thing which made this easy was that the Normans were kin-
dred of the English. " Norman " is really " Northman.'1 The
Normans were descendants of Norsemen who had settled in
France in the ninth century, and who called their country Nor-
mandy after themselves. They had given up their Norse tongue
for the French; and now they gave up their French tongue
for the English.

This result was aided by political events. Even in the
reign of William II., Englishmen served in the royal army.
His successor, Henry I., married an English princess of the
family of the Old English kings. Winn Henry (II.) of Anjou
and his wife Eleanor of Poitou came to England, manv French-
men followed in their train. From jealousy of these new-
comers, the Norman-French barons, who were already half
Englishmen, were led to ally themselves more closely with the
oative English. Tin- Loss of his French possessions by John
(1204), which isolated the Normans in England, occurred just
one year before English reappeared as a book speech in the Brut
of Layamon.

In the quarrel which extorted Magna Ckarta from John

(1215), the barons made OOmmon CaUSS Willi the people against

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 33

the king. The court of Henry III., John's son, was twice
flooded by Frenchmen : first, when he appointed a Poitevin as
his minister; and again, when he chose a Provencal for his
queen. This disgusted the English barons, and, with other
causes, led to the Barons' War in 1258.

In that very year there was issued the well-known English
Proclamation of Henry III., — the first State paper written in
English since the Conquest. One result of the Barons' War
was to give a new constitution to Parliament. In 1265, the
Parliament summoned by Leicester contained representatives
of cities and boroughs, side by side with barons, prelates, and
knights of the shire. This welded all classes and races firmly
together. The next king bore the English name of Edward,
and called himself an Englishman.

5. The characteristics of Transition English are the simplifi-
cation of the grammar, and the addition of Norman-French
words.

The simplification of the grammar was a natural conse-
quence of the efforts made by two peoples in the same land to
speak to and understand each other. In such circumstances words
are used in their simplest form, and grammatical niceties are
dispensed with. The same thing had occurred when the Danes
and the English agreed to live together, in the ninth century.

In the Transition Period the most remarkable change con-
sisted in the reduction or " levelling " of word-endings. For
example, the old vowel endings, -a, -o, and -u, gave place to
a uniform -e. The form -en took the place of -on and -an, and
-es of -as, both in nouns and in verbs. The dative ending of
nouns was dropped, and its force was expressed by a prepo-
sition. Where the force of the genitive was expressed by a
preposition, the case-ending was dropped. The declensions of
nouns were reduced to two ; terminations for gender were dis-
regarded.

These examples indicate the nature of the changes made in
the structure of the language in this period. The changes in
the vocabulary were much slighter. The number of French
words adopted at this time was comparatively small. But this
subject belongs to next lesson.

3

34 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

XIV.-THE NORMAN-FRENCH INFLUENCE.

THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE THIRD PERIOD.

OUTLINE.— 1. The Norman - French words introduced in Transition

English are of Latin origin. 2. They relate to Feudalism

and War, to the Church, to the Law, and to the Chase.

1. Norman-French was the dialect spoken in the north of
France, as Provencal was that spoken in the south. Both were
derived from Latin, which was introduced into Gaul by the
Romans. The group of languages derived from Latin bears
the name of the Romance (that is, Roman) tongues ; and tales
or stories called " romances" are so called because they were
first written in these languages — namely, Italian, French,
Spanish, and Portuguese. In Norman-French there are traces
of other elements — Keltic, Germanic, and Norse ; but the
language is essentially Latin. The words borrowed from
the Normans are therefore called the Latin of the Third.
Period.

2. The subjects to which these words relate are naturally
those in which the Normans were specially interested, or over
which they had chief control. Such were Feudalism and
War, the Church, the Law, wad the Chase.

Though a form of feudalism had existed among the English
before the Conquest, the system in force all over England after
that event was peculiarly Norman, from the unusual powers
which it gave to the King. There was also a Christian Church
in England before the Normans came; but the Normans tilled
the cathedrals, churches, and monasteries with French priests
and monks, who used their own language in all their services.

In the law courts, likewise, the lawyers were Normans, and
[Trench was the official language. The chase, again, was the

favourite amusement of the Norman kings and their followers.

LargS districts of England were turned into forests for their
use; and the forest laws passed for the protection of these

grievously oppressed the Bnglish people.

The following are examples of new words acquired from the

Normans in each of these four classes: —

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35

Feudalism and War captain, chivalry, duke, fealty, homage,

tournament.

The Church friar, prayer, relic, scandal.

The Law assize, chancellor, damages, estate, judge,

parliament, plaintiff.
The Chase brace, chase, couple, copse, forest, mews,

quarry, venison.

A few examples will serve to show the changes words
underwent in passing from Latin to English through French : —

Latin. French. English.

caballus (ahorse) cheval.

che valerie chivalry.

captare (to catch) chasser chase.

fidelitas (faithfulness) f ^alte7 fealty.

frater (brother) frere friar.

parabolare (to speak) parler parlour.

parlement parliament*.

precari (to pray) prier pray.

venatio (hunting) venaison venison.

XV. -THE TRANSITION TIME.

CONSOLIDATION.
1362-1485 A.D.

OUTLINE. —1. The use of English was revived in the law courts in
1362, and in schools in 1385. 2. In this period the East Mid-
land dialect became the standard English. 3. Being the

language of the Court and the Court poets, it is called King's

English. 4. The characteristics of the King's English are the

further loss of grammatical forms, and a large infusion of
French words.

1. The authoritative restoration of English as the language
of public business in the law courts and in schools marks an
important stage in its history. These two steps were a public
admission that English had made out its claim to be regarded
as the national speech. Hitherto it had been degraded and
disinherited ; now it was restored to its rightful place. It was
no doubt seen to be absurd that the law courts and the schools
were conducted in such a way as to exclude from them the
mass of the people.

36 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

2. There were two causes which led to the adoption of the
East Midland dialect as the standard book-speech : the one
was the fact of its being the speech of London — the capital,
and the seat of the court ; the other was the circumstance that
several great writers arose who made that speech classical. It
was, in short, the language used in the best society and by the
best writers.

One of these writers was Sir John Mandeville, whose
Travels in the East has been called "our very oldest book
in Modern English prose." Mandeville wrote about 1356 — a
few years before the commencement of the period ; but his
work distinctly belongs to the time of consolidation. A second
was William Langland, author of the Vision of Piers the Plow-
man. A third was John Wyclif, the first translator of the
whole Bible into English. A fourth was John Gower, a moral
story-teller in verse. A fifth was Geoffrey Chaucer, author of
The Canterbury Tales, — the first great English poet, and one of
the greatest.

3. As this new book speech was the language of the Court
and the Court poets, it has been called the King's English.
Gower and Chaucer were friends, and they both were friends
of persons about the Royal Court. Chaucer was connected
with the Court in one way or another during the greater part
of his life. At sixteen he was page to the Duchess of Clarence.
He was often sent by the King on special missions to Italy.
He held the offices of Comptroller of Customs, and of Clerk of
the Works at Westminster and at Windsor; and he was for a
time a member of Parliament. There was good reason, then,
for calling the Language in which he wrote King's English.

4. The characteristics of the King's English are the further

loss of grammatical forms, and a large infusion of French
words. Many of the word-endings which had been abbreviated

or "levelled" in tin- former period, were lost altogether in this

one. They had ceased to mark distinctions of declension or
case, of gender or Dumber, of person or mood; and therefore

they were east Off aS useless lumber.

Thus the -en of the infinitive (formerly -an) first became -r,

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37

and then was dropped altogether; for example, brec-an (to
break) passed into brec-en, in Chaucer it is brek-e, and soon after
his time it became brek and break. In like manner, the attempt
to distinguish gender by terminations was abandoned, and the
rule was adopted of treating the names of all things without
life as neuter. Several peculiarities were continued. The
plurals of verbs ended in -en or -e. The suffix -e was a mark
of the plural of adjectives, and was also used as a mark of
adverbs. The plural imperative ended in -eth.

The second characteristic of the period was the large infusion
of French words. This was due, not to the influence of French
residents in England, but to that of Englishmen who read
French books. When a young man, Chaucer read a great deal
of French poetry. Some of his earliest writings were transla-
tions from the French. He was thus led freely to introduce
French words into his own poetry. Gower did the same ; and
the example of these great writers was followed by others.

XVI.-THE MIXED VOCABULARY.

FRENCH AND ENGLISH ELEMENTS.

OUTLINE.— 1. Most of the words of French origin in English were
introduced in the hook speech of the fourteenth century, and

later. 2. The words of French origin relate to abstract ideas

and artificial society. 3. The English words relate to homely

matters, to natural objects, and to simple and rural life.

1. It has been shown that there were two occasions on which
French words were introduced into England ; — first, at the time
of the Norman Conquest ; secondly, in the time of Chaucer
and Gower. Most of the words of French origin which the
language contains began to be introduced in the latter period.
They were introduced, that is to say, through the literature of
the time, and not as words of ordinary conversation. The un-
obtrusive influence of a few poets thus effected greater changes
on the language, and made greater additions to it, than either
the laws of French rulers or the overbearing mastery of Norman
knights. The language was greatly enriched by the elements

38 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

thus introduced into it : it was made more elegant, more flexible,
more musical, and its power as an instrument of literature was
much increased. The result, however, was very different from
what it would have been had the Normans succeeded after the
Conquest in eradicating the Old English speech, and in imposing
the French language on the conquered people.

2. In the following passage,* descriptive of the effects of the
Norman occupation of the country, the words of French origin
are printed in italics. It should be remembered that many of
these words were adopted, not immediately after the Conquest,
but in the later of the two periods mentioned above : —

For a time, the two tongues lived side by side, though in very
different conditions: the one, the language of the master, at court
and in the castles of the soldiers who had become noble lords and
powerful barons ; the other, the language of the conquered,
spoken only in the lowly huts of the subjugated people.

The Norman altered and increased the latter, but he could not
extirpate it. To defend his conquest, he took possession of the
country ; and, master of the soil, he erected fortresses and castles,
and attempted to introduce new terms. The universe and the
firmament, the planets, comets, and meteors, the atmosphere and
the seasons, all were impressed with the seal of the oonq
Hills became mountains, and dales valleys ; streams were called
rivers, and brooks rivulets; waterfalls, cascades, and \\oo(\&, forests.

The deer, the ox, the calf, the swine, and the sheep appeared
on his sumptuous table as venison, beef veal, pork, and mutton.
Salmon, sturgeon, lamprey, and trout became known as delicacies :
serpents and luardt, squirrels, falcons and herons, cocks and
pigeons, stall n,ns and mules, wen- added to the animal kingdom.

Marls and lords \v -ere placed in rani below his cftlfttl and )nar-
quises. New titles and dignities, of viscount, boron, and baronet,

squire and matter, were treated; the manor presided over the
English aldermen and sheriff; and the ehemeellor and the peer,
the embateador and the chamberlain, &* general and theocfaarai

headed tin: fist of officers of the government.

The king alone retain,,/ his noma, l>nl tli.' ftatfl and the OOttftf

became French i tin- <idn>ini*tratinn was enrried on ac-ording to

• Prom Dt \ ere.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 39

the constitution ; treaties were concluded by the ministers in their
cabinet, and submitted for approval to the sovereign; the privy
council was consulted on the affairs of the empire, and foya^ sm&-
j^'ecfe sent representatives to parliament. Here the members
debated on matters of grave importance, on peace and GMWj ordered
the arraj/ and the navy, disposed of the national treasury, con-
tracted debts, and had their sessions and their parties.

At brilliant feasts and splendid tournaments collected the flower
of chivalry; magnificent balls, where beauty and delicious music
enchanted the assembled nobles, gave new splendour to society,
polished the manners and excited the admiration of the ancient
inhabitants; who, charmed by such elegance, recognized in their
conquerors persons of superior intelligence, admired them, and
endeavoured to imitate their fashions.

3. In the following passage,* descriptive of the manners and
customs preserved by the English, the words printed in italics
are of native, that is of Teutonic, origin : —

But the dominion of the Norman did not extend to the Aome
of the Englishman; it stopped at the threshold of his house:
there, around the fireside in his kitchen and the hearth in his
room, he me£ his beloved kindred; the 6n'cfe, the wi/e, and the
husband, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, tied to each
o^Aer by £ove, friendship, and X7W feelings, knew nothing dearer
than their own swee? Aome.

The Englishman's flocks, still grazing in his fields and
meadoios, gave him mi7£ and butter, meat and woo?; the herdsman
watched them in spring and summer; the ploughman drew his
furrows, and used his harrows, and, in harvest, the car? and the
flail; the reaper plied his scythe, piled up sheaves and hauled his
wheat, oats, and rye to the 6am. The waggoner drove his warn,
with its wheels, felloes, spokes, and nave; and his team bent
heavily under their yoX-e.

In his ^raafe by Za?!^ and sea, he still so?o? and bought; in the
store or the s/?o/>, the market or the s^ree?, he cheapened his goods
and had all his dealings, as pedler or iceaver, baker or cooper,
saddler, miller, or tanner. He ?eni or borroioed, trusted his
neighbour, and with sM£ and care throve and ^rew wealthy.

* From De Vere,

40 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Later, when he longed once more for freedom, his warriors took
their weapons, their axes, swords, and spears, or their dreaded
bow and arrow. They leaped without stirrup into the saddle,
and killed with dart and gavelock. At other ftmes they launched,
their 6oa£s and s/njos, which were still pure English from keel to
deck and from the helm or the rudder to the £o/> of the mast,
afloat and ashore, with scw7 or with oar.

As his fathers had cftme before him in the land of his birth, the
Englishman would not merely eat, drink, and sleep, or spend his
fo'wie in playing the Aarjt? and the fiddle, but by walking, riding,
fishing, and hunting, he kept young and healthy ; while his /<"///
with her children were 6wsy teaching or learning how to ra*c/
and to wiite, to s% and to draw. Even needle- work was not
forgotten, as their writers say that " by this they sAo?ie most in
the world? The wisdom of £ate>* ages was not known then, but
they had their home-spun sayings, which are yet looked upon as
tfrwe wisdom, as : GW Ae^os them that help themselves : Zos£
ftV/ie is never found again: When sorrow is asleep, wake it not!

XVII.— THE DISCARDED DIALECTS.

OUTLINE.— 1. The Northern (Northumbrian) dialect was continued
as a book speech by Scottish writers. 2. The Southern dia-
lect fell out of use about the end of the fourteenth century.

1. Though the North tin dialect was no Longer used by English
writers, it was continued as a book speech in Scotland. The
south-east of Scotland, between the Tweed and the Forth, was
for several centuries part of the English kingdom of Northuin-
hria (G17-9C6). The language of the Lothians was then the
same (in spite of a few dialectic peculiarities) as the language

of Yorkshire. In 966 Lothian was ceded to the Keltic kimrof
Scots. About 1016 the Tweed became the southern boundary of
Scotland. The language of the diet tict thus annexed by-and by
became the language of the Scottish Court and People.
After the Norman conquest of England, and especially after

the' marriage of Malcolm Ca re with the English princess

Ddargaret, Scotland became more decidedly English, not in
speech only, but also in customs ;«ul institutions. The English

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 41

language gradually spread northward along the east coast as
far as to the Moray Firth.

In the fourteenth century, it began to be used as a book
speech by John Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen, in his long
heroic poem, The Bruce, written about 1377. About the same
time, Andrew Wyntoun, prior of St. Serf's, in Lochleven
(Fife), wrote his Orygynale Crony kU of Scotland in the same
tongue.

This language was the beginning of the Scots dialect, in
which Allan Eamsay, Eobert Burns, and Walter Scott after-
wards wrote. Though Barbour was a contemporary of Chaucer,
his language is purer English than Chaucer's, inasmuch as it
does not contain the French element which is so conspicuous in
the Canterbury Tales.

Chaucer's influence was, however, introduced into Scotland
by James I., who had studied his poems during a long cap-
tivity in England (1405-24), and who wrote a beautiful poem
called The King's Quhair, (quire, book). This influence was
continued by Robert Henry son (1500), William Dunbar
(1520), and Sir David Lyndsay (1555); but Scottish speech
has always retained much of its original Northumbrian
character.

2. The Southern dialect fell out of use about the end of the
fourteenth century. Almost the last to use it as a book speech
was John of Trevisa, a Gloucestershire canon, who wrote in
it a translation from the Latin of Ealph Higden's History of
the "World called Polychronicon. To him we are indebted for
an interesting fact about the English tongue. He says : " The
yer of oure Lord, a thousond thre honored foure score and fyve
of the secunde Kyng Eichard, after the conquest nyne, in al
the gramer scoles of Engeland children leveth Freynsch and
construeth and lurneth an Englysch." The plural ending -eth
marks this as Southern English.

Though Southern English thus ceased to be a book speech,
it never quite died out as a spoken dialect. It has lingered
till our own day in Dorsetshire ; and Mr. Barnes has shown
its capacity for literary uses by publishing a volume of Poems
Written in the Dorsetshire Dialect.

42 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

XVIII.-THE USE OF PRINTING, AND THE
REVIVAL. OF LEARNING-.

THE LATIN ELEMENT OF THE FOURTH PERIOD.

OUTLINE.— 1. The introduction of printing into England (1471) tended

to fix the form of the language. 2. The revival of learning

(after 1453) introduced a new classical element into English.

3. Modern English contains many duplicate words. 4. Many

of the classical words introduced in the sixteenth century have
fallen out of use.

1. Printing was introduced into England by William Caxton
in 1471. The art had been invented in Germany thirty years
previously, and Caxton had learned it while residing at Bruges
in Flanders. He not only printed books, he also wrote them.
The first book printed in England was his Game and Playe of
the Chesse, translated oat of the French. He produced in all
sixty-eight different works; and when he died, in 1492, his
business was continued by two of his foreign assistants, —
Wynkyn de Worde and Richard Pynson. Printing soon ex-
tended, and books were multiplied by the thousand.

The effect of this on the language was very great When
the only way of publishing books was by multiplying manu-
scripts, it was impossible to obtain uniformity. The copyists
often took great liberties with the works they copied. Kadi
version contained some peculiarities due to the fancy of the
copyist or to the dialect of the district in which it was produced.
The spelling of words was changed ; the grammatical forms
were altered ; sometimes new words were put for less familiar
ones, lint printing put a stop to these caprices, as all the
copies printed from the same types were necessarily the same.

Nut, only was uniformity thus secured, but a standard of

speech was set up to which all would be forced to conform.
In England i li.it effect \<r\ soon followed. The printing
press, more than anything else, consolidated English speech;
and its Introduction, therefore, forms the true beginning of the

modern era.

2. About the same time that printing was adopted, there

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 43

was a great revival of learning going on in Europe. This
was due to the scattering of scholars and their manuscripts
when Constantinople was taken by the Turks (1453). The
refugees first went to Italy, and revived there the study of Greek
and Roman literature, history and art. A passion for antiquity
possessed the minds of scholars, poets, and artists.

By-and-by the new learning spread to France and Germany ;
and in the beginning of the sixteenth century it took root
firmly in England. Classical studies were prosecuted with an
ardour previously unknown ; and Erasmus, a learned Dutch-
man, who was Professor of Greek at Oxford from 1509 till
1514, says that England then ranked next to Italy for exact-
ness and extent of learning.

One effect of this soon showed itself in the introduction into
the language of a host of words derived from Latin and Greek,
Most of the words of Latin origin which form so large an
element in our modern speech were adopted at or after this
time, and constitute the Latin of the Fourth Period.

3. In many cases a word was taken direct from Latin
which had previously been taken indirectly through Xorman-
French. Here are a few examples : —

Latin. French. English.

exemplum example.

ti . ...ensample. ...sample

factum fact.

ii ....fait feat.

f actionis : faction.

ii ....facon fashion.

f ragilis fragile.

ii ....frele frail.

hospitalis hospital.

ii ....hotel hotel.

lectionis lection.

n . ...lecon lesson.

Latin. Trench. English..

fidelitas fidelity.

n f^alte" fealty.

legalis legal.

ii loyal loyal.

major major.

ii maire mayor.

pauper pauper.

n pauvre poor.

regalis regal.

ii royal royal.

securus secure.

ii sur sure.

The effect of this has been to enrich the language with a
number of duplicate words, and to fit it for expressing nice
shades of meaning; for it seldom happens that both words
derived from the same source have exactly the same meaning,

44 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

or are applied to the same thing. Compare, for example, fact
and feat; faction and fashion ; hospital and hotel; legal and
loyal; secure and sure.

It should be remembered, too, that the new words did not
always displace old ones, but that native words still held their
place side by side with Latin ones. In the Book of Common
Prayer, which was first printed in 1548, and was issued in its
present form in 1662, there are many instances in which a
native and a classical word are used side by side, as if it had
been intended that the one word should appeal to the com-
mon people and the other to the learned. For example, in the
Exhortation and Confession, these pairs occur : —

acknowledge and confess,
tlissemble nor cloke.
humble, lowly,
goodness and nurcy.
assemble and meet togethir.
pray and beseech,
erred and strayed.

4. Many of the words of Latin origin introduced in the
sixteenth century have fallen out of use. The language has
gained greatly by the loss; for the pedantic English called
Euphuism,* which was fashionable for a time at the Court of
Elizabeth, WW affected and unnatural, and showed very bad
taste. Its chief advocate was John Lyly the dramatist, who
published two books as models of the new speech.

This freak was very successfully ridiculed by Shakespeare in
one of the earliest of his comedies Love's Labour** Lost — in
which he put into the mouths of his characters such words as
festinateli/f indubitatej superscript) peregrinate aMosunoMtj the
poeteriors of thit day (the afternoon), excrement (beard). Ex-
amples of the words of learned length that have been dis-
carded are: oonsociate (unite), txpuleed (expelled), immanity
(barbarity), mansuetude (mildness), and stultiloquy (foolish

speaking).

0 cillid from the titles uf t\N.i of I->1>'> books — nniiitlv,

" liipiiins, tin- Anatomy "f Wit," rod " Bnphw land."

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 45

XIX— MODERN ENGLISH.

SINCE 1485 A.D.

)UTLINE.— 1. Modern English prose begins with Sir Thomas More

(1509-13). 2. The standard was fixed by William Tyndale's

New Testament, first printed in 1525. 3. Some antiquated

forms survived till the age of Elizabeth.

1. Henry Hallam, the historian of the literature of Europe,
nentions Sir Thomas More as the first writer of good English
jrose. He says that in More's History of Edward the Fifth
' there is not only a diminution of obsolete phraseology, but a

certain modern turn and structure, which denote the com-

nencement of a new era, and the establishment of new rules of
aste in polite literature." It is worth noting that the year in
vhich More wrote his History (1509) is that of the accession
>f Henry VIII. to the English throne, and is the date assigned
yy general consent as the starting-point of the era of modern
listory. Modern English and Modern History may therefore
)e said to have begun their career together.

2. One of the earliest and most momentous events of modern
listory was the Reformation ; which, in England, dates from
he reign of Henry VIII. The Reformation was greatly aided
>y two events mentioned in last chapter — the invention of
)rinting and the revival of learning — and it combined with
hem in producing an important effect on the English language,
rhe revival of learning led to more careful study of the Scrip-
ures in the original tongues, and to the making of more accu-
rate translations : the Reformation led to these translations
)eing read freely by the people ; and the invention of printing
ed to their multiplication and wide distribution.

A standard of English was thus brought within reach of all ;
or those who did not own Bibles, or could not read them, heard
he Scriptures read in the mother tongue Sunday after Sunday,
rhe earliest of the translators of this time (and the first since
vVyclif) was William Tyndale, whose New Testament was
printed at Antwerp in 1525-34. He afterwards printed parts
)f the Old Testament. The first complete English Bible printed

46 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

in England was that of Miles Coverdale, issued in 1535, and
dedicated to Henry VIII.

Now all the translations made after Tyndale's time were
more or less based on his version. This is expressly true of
Cranmer's Bible (1540) and of the Geneva New Testament
(1557). The Authorized Version (1611), now in use, was not
made without constant reference to those of Tyndale, Coverdale,
and Cranmer, though avowedly based on the Bishops' Bible of
1568 (Parker's). The diction of the Authorized Version is in
many points older than that of the time in which it was made ;
and this is owing to the fact of the older versions having been
freely used by the translators.

The English Bible has had a great effect on English, not only
as spoken, but also as a book speech. Bible English is remark-
able for its simplicity and its force. In regard to the proportion
of foreign elements in it, it is by far the purest English to be
found in our modern literature, ninety-six per cent, of its word-
list being of native origin.

3. What has been said of the old-fashioned diction of the
Bible holds also to some extent of other works. The poet
Spenser, whose Faerie Queene was printed in 1590-96, was an
admirer of Chaucer, whom he calls "well of English undefiled ;"
and he imitates some of Chaucer's peculiarities in his own
poetry. He uses words that had fallen out of use in his day,
as well as old spellings, forms, and idioms. He uses tfa t (kn< m \
belgardes (fair looks : Fr. belle, regarder), forlore (left), serine
(casket), fet (fetch), stent (blamed), arced (interpret), bedight
(jtdorned). Garland he spells girlond. He uses the idiom him
lift, for it pleases him. He uses the prefix //- for the passive

participle (» 0. E. ge\ y-drad for dreaded. There is the' same
antique flavour in the writinga of Spenser's friends Sir Philip
Sidney and Sir Walter Ralegh.

In Shakespeare i\w\e are many words and osages that are
n. .u obsolete. Be uses his tor its, bb is also done in the English
Bible ("If (he salt have Lost hit savour"). He uses cfapt for
called, which may be traced through Spenser's cfooped, and
Chaucer's y-dspt, to the 0. K. gs-clypods, He nsea an tor if;
benisan for blessing; bodemmts for forebodings; hardiment for

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 47

courage ; think sH thee for does it seem to thee ; these - - as for
such - - as ; ye for you (objective) ; thrid for thread ; suspire
for breathe; allegiant for loyal; and many other words and
phrases which are no longer used. In spite of these exceptions,
however, the English of Shakespeare is English in its full
maturity. It has never been used with greater power, ease,
grace, or purity than by him.

John Milton, who was just eight years old when Shakespeare
died, used many old-fashioned words, and invented some new
ones.

Being a great admirer of the Early English poets, he used
many of their pithy words and quaint forms ; as, belike (likely),
eyn (eyes), frore (frosty), nathless (nevertheless), rathe (early),
swinked (hard-worked), tilth (tilled land), to-ruffled (ruffled),
whilere (a while before), xoon (dwell), y-cleped, y-clept, y-clopd
(clept, called).

Being a great classical scholar, he used classical words in then-
literal sense, and he coined new words when he could not find
an old word that pleased him ; as, ammiral (admiral ; a ship),
atheous (ungodly), concent (singing together; harmony), dividual
(divided), emprise (enterprise), illaudable (not praiseworthy),
plenipotent (all-powerful), profluent (flowing forward), villatic
(belonging to a farm), transpicuous (able to be seen through).

XX.— RECENT INFLUENCES.

OUTLINE. — 1. In the eighteenth century the fashion of preferring

words of classical origin prevailed. 2. In the beginning of

the nineteenth century the study of German philosophy and of
French politics had a certain effect both on English literature

and on the English language. 3. During the present century

the study of Old English has been greatly extended.

1. The leader in the classical revival of the eighteenth cen-
tury was Dr. Samuel Johnson, whose writings, and whose
position as the literary dictator of his time, gave him great
influence. A marked preference was shown for big words and
for a pompous style. Some new words were invented, and

48 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

some that had grown obsolete were revived ; but the practice
consisted mainly in the systematic use of the classical element
in the existing language, and the avoidance of the familiar and
pithy native words.

Johnson was followed in this custom, and even surpassed, by
the historians Gibbon and Hume, to whose style it gives a
stately air and a majestic roll. It has been calculated that one-
fourth of Johnson's vocabulary is foreign ; but in Hume the
proportion is one-third, and in Gibbon it is much more than
one-third.

Quite as striking as the changes in the vocabulary were the
peculiarities of idiom, or form of expression, adopted by John-
son and his school. These showed themselves in a tendency to
fall into modes of arrangement which are unusual in English,
but are common in the Eomance tongues, which are derived
from Latin.

This peculiarity is clearly set forth in the fact, that while
many of Addison's phrases could not possibly be translated
literally into French or Italian, there is hardly one phrase of
Johnson's which could not be so rendered. One of Johnson's
chief characteristics is his laborious building up of sentences ex in-
sisting of antithetical or contrasted members : for example : —

"As this practice is a commodious subject of raillery to the
gay and of declamation to the serious, it has been ridiculed with
all the pleasantry of wit and exaggerated with all the amplifica-
tions of rhetoric." Here there are five pairs of contrasted
thoughts, all carefully balanced ; namely, —

raillery dechunatii >n.

gay serious.

ridiculed exaggerated.

pleasantry amplifications.

wit rhetoric.

This sentence is a type of many, and it is therefore I good

example of the artificial and ponderous nature of the style.

2. At the very close of lasi century and the beginning of the
present one, the study <>f German literature especially of
philosophy and criticism- was eagerly undertaken by Samuel
Taylor Coleridge and liis followers. At the same time there

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 49

occurred a remarkable revival in English poetry, which is
represented in the works of Coleridge and Wordsworth, Shelley
and Byron. If this revival was not directly due to the influ-
ence of the French Revolution, it was certainly due to that
general revolt in men's minds against the artificial and the
false of which the Revolution was the chief political result.

Both events have had a greater effect on literature than on
language, on thought than on expression. Still, their effect on
language has been very considerable.

One effect of the German influence has been to revive the
power of forming compound words which is inherent in the
language, and was freely used in its earliest stage.

Another effect has been to create a necessity for extending
our vocabulary of philosophical terms. To this we are
indebted for the free use of such words as subjective, objective,
aesthetic, analytic, synthetic.

The poetical revival consisted mainly in a return to the truth
and simplicity of nature. Wordsworth not only showed how the
highest thoughts might be suggested by the humblest things, but
how these thoughts might be expressed in the simplest language.

3. Of late the study of the Old English language, and of
Old English literature, has been greatly extended. Within the
past few years a very considerable body of literature bearing on
this subject has been produced. The movement received its
first impulse from the essays which Richard Garnett read to
the Philological Society of London between 1835 and 1848.
The publication of Dr. Joseph Bosworth's "Anglo-Saxon Dic-
tionary" in 1838 greatly aided the study, which has been sys-
tematically developed in various directions in the works of
Edwin Guest, W. W. Skeat, Henry Sweet, A. J. Ellis, E.
Morris, E. A. Abbot, and others both in England and in
America.

Alongside of the Philological Society, there is now an Early
English Text Society, for the printing of works and transla-
tions of works belonging to the Old English and Early English
Periods. The practical effect of this new zeal for the study of
the language has been a reaction in favour of the use of Teu-
tonic; or native words.

4

50 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

XXI— MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS.

OUTLINE. — 1. English contains words drawn from most of the

languages of the world. 2. These borrowings are the result

partly of commercial intercourse, and partly of the spread of
the arts and sciences.

1. The following are examples of common words drawn from
a variety of languages : —

American maize, potato, tobacco.

Arabic admiral, algebra, almanac, coffee, cotton, lake, lemon,

lime, sofa.

Chinese nankeen, satin, tea (congou, bohea, &c).

French beau, belle, bouquet, depot, soiree.

Hebrew amen, cherub, jubilee, sabbath.

Hindustani... calico, jungle, muslin, punch, rupee, sugar.

Italian bust, canto, folio, grotto, motto, opera, umbrella, volcano.

Malay bamboo, bantam, chintz, curry, sago.

Persian balcony, bazaar, chess, orange, shawl, turban.

Polynesian ... kangaroo, tattoo.
Portuguese.... cash, cocoa.

Spanish cargo, chocolate, cigar, negro, sherry.

Turkish sash, tulip.

2. It is obvious, from the words in the above list, that these
borrowings are the result, partly of commercial intercourse,
and partly of the spread of the arts and sciences. When an
article of commerce, or a new kind of art, or a new branch of
science, was introduced into England for the first time, it natu-
rally brought with it the name by which it had previously been
known in the country from which it had been borrowed. This
foreign name would undergo changes in the process of Its adoption
into English, and in the end would heroine an English word.

XXII. SELF-INTERPRETING WORDS.
The words in the following list are examples of what may

In- called self c\ ideiit derivation. The derivatives arc printed

in clarendon, the rooi vrords in itcUies. It' the derivative is
not taken directly from the root-word in each case, both are

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 51

derived from a common source. A few of the English roots are
of French origin : —

Abase to bring to the base (Fr.), or make low.

Abate to beat (Fr.) down.

Abreast with the breasts in line.

Adrift in the drift, or thing driven.

Aloft on-loft, in the lift (air).

Anon in-one (instant).

Atonement at-one-ment, reconciliation.

Babble to speak like a babe.

Balloon a big ball (Fr.).

BaUot a little ball (Fr. ).

Band, bond that which bmd$.

Bank a bench on which money was laid out.

Batcb bread baked in one lot.

Bird one of a brood.

Brand something burned.

Breakfast a breaking of a fast.

Brick a piece broken off.

Brood something bred.

Brown the burned colour.

Bursar keeper of the burse or purse.

Butler keeper of the butts (large casks), or of the bottles.

Claw something cleft or split.

Cloud vapour drawn into clods, or masses that cleave together.

Club a society cleaving together.

Coop a hollow place, like a cup.

Cope a covering, or cap.

Daisy day's-eye. The flower closes its petals at night, and

opens them in the morning.

Disease want of ease (Fr. ) ; pain.

Diver the bird that dives.

Doff. do-off.

Don do-on. {Sodup, do-up; and dout, do-out: now disused.)

Drawing-room ...originally with-draioing room; i.e., a room for re-
tiring to.

Earth eared {i.e., ploughed) land.

Erst ere-est, i.e., earliest or first.

Fare the price of faring, or travelling. The verb fare

means to get on, to succeed, — as in

" 111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey,
"Where wealth accumulates and men decay."

Farthing .fourth-ing, the fourth part of a penny.

52 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

F . > places for faring (i. e. , going) across a utreaiu .

Gad-fly the fly with a gad or goad.

Gaffer good father.

Gammer good mother.

Gentleman a man of gentle (i.e., noble) birth. {Gentle is from

the Lat. gens, gentis, a family.)
Gospel God 'spell (news of God) or good-spell (good news).

The latter corresponds most closely with the

word "evangel," which is from the Greek en,

well, and angelia, a message.

Groove something graven, or hollowed out.

Haft that by which we have or hold an instrument.

Handicraft craft, or skill, of hand.

Handle to touch with the hand; n. the part held in the

hand.

Handsel money given in hand (hand, and scllan, to give).

Handsome ready to the hand.

Handy skilful with the hand.

Hanker to let the mind hang on a thing.

Harbinger one who goes forward to provide a harbour, i.e., a

place of safety for an army (O. E. here, an army ;

beorgan, to protect; whence borough).

Hardware ware made of hard material, as iron.

Hatch to produce by hacking, i.e., by chipping the egg.

(Hack is literally to cut with an axe (O. E. haebe);

whence hash.)

Hawthorn the thorn that grows in hairs, i.e., hedges.

Heaven that which is heaved, or lifted up.

Hinder t< > put beh ind.

Homestead the stead (place) of a home; a farm enclosure.

(Stead occurs in instead ami stead//.)

Hunt to pursue with hounds.

Husband house-bond, the owner of a house.

Instead in the stead or place of.

Island water-land [0. ES. <<i, water, wad land).

Jaw that which clu we.

Kindness .. the feeling that becomes those of the same kin.

Lammas loaf-mass, feast of the offering of first fruits at har-
vest (Au-. 1).

Lapwing a bird which flaps its winffss* if one wen broken.

Larder a place where /">■</ and meat an kept.

Ledge where things ma; be laid.

Likewise in a like way or manner,

Line to cover with linen in the inside,

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 53

Linen cloth made from lint or flax.

Lofty lifted up, aloft.

Meadow mowed grass.

Mildew a deposit or dew like meal.

Molars teeth that grind like a mill.

Naught no-whit, nothing.

Ness a nose of land.

Net something knitted.

Nostril a nose-thyrl, or nose-hole.

Notwithstanding... not-withstanding, i.e., not standing against.

Nurse a, nowrisher (Fr., nourrice).

Oar that which ears (ploughs) the water.

Offal off-fall, waste, refuse.

Offing the sea off the land.

Onset a setting on.

Orchard ort-geard, root-yard.

Outgrow to grow beyond.

Outlaw one out, or beyond the protection, of the laic.

Outpost a, post out-side a camp.

Pastime something to pass the time.

Pitch to strike with a pike. {Pick, and poke, to thrust,

are from the same root.)

Plump like a lump (whence also clump).

Poach to poke into another's ground.

Pocket a little poke, or pouch.

Quicklime lime in a quick, or active, state.

Quicksand sand which seems quick, or alive, because it moves

so readily.

Quicksilver a fluid metal like quick, or living, silver.

Rack to reach or stretch out.

Rankle to grow rank, or coarse, from over-growth.

Reaver a robber.

Rift an opening riven, or split, in anything.

Ringdove a dove with a white ring on its neck.

Roadstead a stead (place) for riding ; a place where ships ride

at anchor.

Rubbish that which is rubbed off ; waste.

Sheaf a bundle of things shoved together.

Sheriff a shire-reeve, the chief officer in a shire.

Ship something scooped, or hollow.

Shire a district sheered, or cut, off.

Shore where the sea-line sheers, or cuts, the land.

Shuttle the thing the weaver shoots from side to side.

Smith he who smites the anvil.

Sorry sore in mind.

54

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Soup that which one sups.

Splice to join what has been split.

Starboard the stewing side of a ship.

Steadfast .fast in stead (place).

Steady firm in stead (place).

Stew to cook in a stove.

Stirrup stige-rap, a mounting-rope.

Straight stretched out.

Tackle things to be taken hold of.

Tale something to tell.

Thorough passing through and through.

Thread that which is thrown, or twisted.

Toll money told, or counted.

Twist to twine two threads.

Woodpecker a bird that pecks wood with its bill.

Wrong something wrung, or wrested, from the right.

XXIII.-IMITATIVB WORDS.

Many words have been formed by imitating the sounds sug-
gested by the objects or actions which they name ; for example,
crash, cough, sneeze. Some writers hold that all language origi-
nated in the imitation of natural sounds ; that is to say, that the
primitive root-words were formed in this way, and that other
words were derived from these. Other writers ridicule this idea,
calling it the Bow-wow theory of language. Whether or not lan-
guage originated in this way, it is certain that there are in every
language many words which obviously were formed by imita-
tion. The following is a list of wordfl formed in this way : —

bang

crash

hist

pop

sigh

squeak

blubber

creak

hum

puff

slam

squeal

boom

croak

hush

quack

slap

tap

babble

crow

Jingle

rap

slash

thump

bump

cuckoo

lash

rattle

smack

thunder

chatter

dabble

moan

ring

meeae

thwack

chirp

dash

mumble

rumble

snip

tinkle

clank

din

murmur

■orape

snore

twang

clap

fizz

mutter

scratch

muff

whack

clash

flap

paddle

1 nam

S( »1 >

whee/.o

rl.it b r

gargle

patter

i ereeofa

splash

w hirr

clink

gurgle

pee-wit

shriek

splutter

whist

cough

hiss

plump

thuffle

squall

whizz

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 55

XXIV— "WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES
OF PERSONS.

The following is a list of words derived from the names of

persons : —

Burke, to murder or destroy, from... Burke, a notorious murderer (1829).

Cicerone, a guide who describes \ r.. ., -r,

, ' ' , b > Cicero, the Roman orator,

what he shows )

Daguerreotype, a sun-picture onl-p. ,. .

f i \ -Daguerre, the inventor.

Davy lamp, a safety lamp, used in ) a. rT . -^ ., .

-. ■r' j n \ gir Humphry Davy, the inventor.

Friday, the sixth day of the week ...Freya, the wife of Odin.
Galvanism, chemical electricity Galvani of Bologna, the discoverer

(died 1798).
Guillotine, an instrument for be- ) Guillotin, a physician, the in-
heading i ventor.

Hansom, a light two-wheeled cab Hansom, the inventor.

Jeremiad, a doleful story Jeremiah the prophet, author of

Lamentations.

Jovial, merry, cheerful Jovis (of Jupiter).

Lazar, a diseased person Lazarus, the diseased beggar (Luke

xvi.).
Macadamize, to pave a road with i Macadam, the inventor (died

small stones 1 1836).

Mackintosh, a water-proof over-coat... Mackintosh, the inventor.

Martial, warlike Mars, the Roman god of war.

Martinet, a strict disciplinarian Martinet, an officer in the French

army, under Louis XIV.
Ma usoleum, a splendid tomb Mausolus, a king of Caria, to whom

his widow erected a magnificent

tomb.
Mercury, quick-silver Mercury, the active messenger of

the gods.
Nicotian, belonging to tobacco i.Nicot, who introduced tobacco into

France (1560).
Panic, sudden fright Pan, the god of the woods, who

often startled shepherds in the

fields.

-».-.. ,. e -n r ■ ( Philip of Macedon, against whom

Philippic, a discourse full of m- J -r, ,. .u ■, ■> ■> •

. ' \ Demosthenes thundered his

vective ™r

v Philippics.

Platonic, pure, free from baseness. ...Plato, the Greek philosopher.

56 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Saturday, the seventh clay of the ) Saetes, a Northern god ; said to be
week ) connected with water.

Saturnine, grave, gloomy Saturn, the planet, whose influence

was so described by the astrolo-
gers.

Spencer, a short over- jacket Lord Spencer, by whom it was

made fashionable.

Stentor ian, very loud Stentor, a Homeric herald, who

had a powerful voice.

_ . ,. , , ~ r Tantalus, in Greek mythology,

Tantalize, to torment by offer- , , j ,. t-

' ... * . , who was made to stand up to his

ing pleasures which cannot be< , . • . . v j j

, yi chin in water, which receded

*- when he tried to drink, &c.

Thursday, the fifth day of the week... Thor, the god of thunder.

Tuesday, the third day of the week...Tieu, the god of the Teutons.

Voltaism, galvanism Volta, an Italian, the discoverer.

Wednesday, the fourth day of the ) ,17. , ~ , . , , , ,

, - > Woden, or Odin, the god of war.

XXV.-WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES
OF PLACES.

The following is a list of words derived from the names of
places : —

Bayonet, a dagger fixed on the end ) ,-. . -r,

. :a , , -. ( Bayonne, in 1 ranee,

of a rifle or musket .from >

Bedlam, a lunatic asylum Bethlehem, a monastery in Lon-
don, afterwards used as a mad-
house.

Calico, cotton cloth Calicut, in India.

Cambric, fine linen Cambray, in Flanders.

Canter, an easy gallop Canterbury: from the easy pace

of the pilgrims who rode bo
Becket's shrine.

Cashmere, \ . , , . , , , ,

y, la rah kind <>t wool- ) ~ , . , ,.

< ammere, > , ■ .. < aanmere. in India.

M I Leu doth j

Ken ymere,*)

Champagne, a light, sparkling wine...( Ihampagne, in France.

Cherry, a bright red Btone-fruU Ceraaua, on the Black Sea.

Copper, a reddiih-ooloured metal.. .Oyprus, an island In the Levant.

* Kcnni/»ur, is also <i. ri\ sd from Si rt$y (Suffolk) and its adjaoant uwre.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE- 57

Currant, a small fruit of the grape ) ri . ., . ~
, . ' } Corinth, m Greece,

kind J

Cypress, an evergreen, used as an ) n . , , . ., T

■,,,,,, > Cyprus, an island in the Levant,

emblem of death ) J '

Damask, figured linen Damascus, in Syria.

Fustian, coarse, twilled cotton cloth... Fostat (Cairo), in Egypt.

Gin, an alcoholic liquor flavoured ) ^ . ^ ., , ,

' . , . > Geneva, m Switzerland,

with juniper berries )

Guinea, an old gold coin — 21s Guinea, a country in Africa, which

yielded the gold of which it was
first made.

Guinea-fovsl, a dark -gray fowl, with ) r, . ....
white spots ) '

^ypsy, one °f a wandering race Egypt, in Africa, whence they

were supposed to have come.

Holland, a kind of linen I tt n i

Hollands, a kind of gin )

Indigo, a blue dye India.

Jersey, a woollen jacket Jersey, one of the Channel Islands.

Madeira, a rich wine Madeira, an island on the north-
west of Africa.

Magnesia, a medicinal powder ),, . . T ,.

, , 7, , j _, ( Magnesia, in Ly dia.

Magnet, the load-stone )

Malmsey, a strong sweet wine Malvasia, in Greece.

Meander, a winding course Meander, a winding river in Asia

Minor.

Milliner, a maker of bonnets and ),,-., . Tj_ ,
. , ' > Milan, m Italy,

head-dresses )

Morocco, a fine kind of leather Morocco, in Africa.

Muslin, a fine kind of cotton cloth... Moussul, in Mesopotamia.

Nankeen, a buff -coloured cotton)^ ,. . n,.
, , >JNankm, in China.

Pistol, a small hand-gun Pistoja (Pistola), in Italy.

Port, a dark purple wine Oporto, in Portugal.

Sherry, a light amber-coloured wine... Xeres, in Spain.

Spaniel, a kind of dog Spain.

Tariff, a table of duties or prices Tarifa, in Spain.

Toledo, a finely-tempered sword- ) m , , . „
blade } Toledo, m Spam.

Turkey, a large domestic fowl Turkey, whence it was erroneously

supposed to have come.

Worsted, twisted thread or yarn ) Worsted, near Norwich in En-
made of wool ) gland.

58 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

XX VI.— THE LORD'S PRAYER IN DIFFERENT
STAGES OF THE LANGUAGE.

OUTLINE.— 1. The Maeso- Gothic Version of the Scriptures was

made about 376 A.D. 2. A Low German Version was made

about 700. 3. The oldest Old English Version was made by

a bishop of Lindisfarne about 715. 4. King Alfred's trans-
lation into Old English was made about 890. 5. Wyclifs

Version was made in 1380 (Transition English). 6. Tyndale's

Version was made in 1534 (Modern English). 7. The Rheims

Version was made from the Latin Vulgate in 1582. 8. The

Authorized Version was made in 1611.

The following eight versions of the Lord's Prayer show very
clearly the changes which the language has undergone. The
first version is not properly English ; but the language in which
it is written is one of the forefathers of English. It is interest-
ing and instructive, as a specimen of the oldest book that exists
in any Teutonic tongue. It is from a translation of the Gospels
made by Ulphilas, in the fourth century, for the use of the
Gothic Christians in Moesia (now Servia and Bulgaria). The
excessive amount of word-endings in this version should be
noted. By the time of Alfred these had been very much re-
duced ; by the time of Wyclif they had almost entirely disap-
peared. The second version, like the first, is not properly
English; it is Low German, of the same date nearly as the
oldest Old English Version. The last four versions show few
changes except in the spelling of certain words, and in the
interchange of the letters u and v. It may be noted that in
Tyndale's version (1534) many words have final 9 which drop
that letter in the later versions; for example, ourc, itrtc, daycy

brcede.

1.

AD.

376 Atta unsar the iii hiininain,

700 Tim ore Fader, the earl on heofenum,

715 Fader invn, |>u in I leofnas,

890 Faeder ore, \w |>e eart on heofenum,

1380 Oure fadir that, art In heuenee,

1534 o nine father which arte in heven,

1582 Ovr Father which art In heaoen,

1611 Our father which ait in heanen.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 59

A.D.

376 reihnai namo thein;

700 Si thin noman gehalgod ;

715 Sie gehalgud Xama ])in ;

890 si J>in nama ge-halgod ;

1380 halowid be thi name ;

1534 halowed be thy name ;

1582 sanctified be thy name ;

1611 hallowed be thy name ;

3.

A.D.

376 Kvimai thiudinassus theins ;

700 Cume thin rike ;

715 To-cymeth ric t>in ;

890 To-becume }>in rice ;

1380 Thi kingdom come-to ;

1534 Let thy kyngdome come ;

1582 Let thy kingdom come ;

1611 Thy kingdom come ;

A.D.

376 Tairthai vilja theins, sve in himina yah ana airthai;

700 Si thin "Willa on eorthan, twa on heof enum ;

715 Sie fillo Jrin suae is in Heofne and in Eorba ;

890 Ge-weor}>e Jrin willa on eor]>an, swa-swa on heofenum;

1380 Be thi wille don in erthe, as in heuene ;

1534 Thy wyll be fulfilled as well in erth as it ys in heven ;

1582 Thy wil be done, as in heauen, in earth also ;

1611 Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heauen;

5.

A.D. (continuous)

376 Hlaif unsarana thana sinteinan gif uns himma daga,

700 Syle us to-dag orne daegwamlican hlaf,

715 Hlaf uferne oferwistlic sel us to daeg,

890 Urne daeghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg,

1380 Geue to us this day oure breed [ouir other substaunce],

1534 Geve vs this daye oure dayly breede,

1582 Giue vs to day our supersubstantial bread,

1611 Giue vs this day our dayly bread,

60 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

6.

A.D. (off-let) (what) (owing) (we be),

376 Yah af-let ana thatei skulaus siyuhna,

700 And forgif us lire gylter,

715 And forgef us Sc3'lba urna,

890 And forgyf us ure gyltas,

1380 & forgeue to vs oure dettis,

1534 And forgeve vs oure treaspases,

1582 And forgiue vs our dettes,

1611 And forgiue vs our debts,

7.

A.D. (we) (off-let) (debtors) (of ours).

376 svasve yah veis af-letam thaine skulam unsaraini ;

700 Swa we forgifath tham the with us agylthat ;

715 Suae we forgefon scylgumurum ;

890 swa-swa we forgifab urum gyltendum ;

1380 as we forgeuen to oure dettouris ;

1534 even as we forgeve oure trespacers ;

1582 as we also forgiue our detters ;

1611 as we forgiue our debters;

AD.

376 Yah ni briggais uns in fraistubn yai.

700 And ne laed thu na us on koatnunge,

715 And ne inlead usith in Costnunge,

890 And ne gelaede bu us on costnunge,

1380 & lede us not in to temptacioun,

1534 And leade vs not into temptacion,

1582 And leade vs not into tentation.

1611 And leade vs not into temptation,

9.

A.D. (loose) (the) (eviO.

376 Ak lausei uns af thainina til<ilin : Aui'n.

700 Ac alys us from! vfclr: Si l>it swa.

715 Ah gefrigusich from evil : Sn|>lice.

890 Ac alvs us of ytle : Soulier.

1380 but delyuer ui from yuel ; iinen.

1534 But delyver n from evell : Amen.

1582 But dtliuer vi from euil : Amen.

1611 lint dt'liuer vs from euill : Amen.

TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

1.-OLD ENGLISH PERIOD.

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

Caedmon.

Died about 680.

A monk of Whit-
by.

Religious poems on
Tlie Creation.

Edwin (Nor-
thumbria).

Baeda.
672-735.

" The Venerable
Bede." A monk
of Jarrow.

Ecclesiastical His-
tory (in Latin),
Gos-pel of St. John
(lost).

Alfred.
S71-901.

"The Great." King
of England.

Translations of
Baeda 's History,
dSsop's Fables,

Alfred.

Various Monks.
875-1154.

In different mon-
asteries.

The English Chroiir
icle.

Alfred to
Stephen.

2.-TRANSITI0N PERIOD (1100-1362).

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS. REIGN.

Layamon.

1150-1210.

A Worcestershire
priest.

The Brut, a rhym-
ing chronicle of John.
Britain (1205).

Ormin.
11S7-1237.

An East Anglian
canon.

The Ormulum,
metrical relig- '■ T ,
ious services
(1215).

Robert.

1255-1307.

Chronicle of Eng-
A monk of Glouce- ( land, in rhyme
ster. (1297) ; Legends
of Saints.

Edward I.

Robert Man-
nyng-.

1272-1340.

A monk of Brunne.

Chronicle of Eng-
land, in rhyme ;
Handlyng Sinne
(1303).

Edward I.

William Lang- 1

land. A Western poet.
1332-1400.

Vision oj Piers the
Plowman (1362).

Edward III. !

62 ENGLISH LITERATURE.

3— TRANSITION PERIOD (1362-1485).

AT"TH0R, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REICiN.

Sir John Mande-
ville.

1303-1372.

"First writer in
formed English."

ZYovete in the East
(Latin, French,
and English,
1356).

Edward III.

John Barhour.
1316-1396.

Archd. of Aber-
deen. Wrote in
Northern Eng-
lish (Scottish).

The Bruce, narra-
tive poem (1377).

Richard II.

(Robert II. of

Scotland.)

John Wyclif.

1324-1384.

Church reformer ;
head of college
at Oxford; priest
of Lutterworth.

Translation of the
Bible from Latin
Vulgate (1380),
Traits and Ser-
mons.

Richard II.

John Gower.

1325-1408.

An eminent law-
yer, Chief -Jus- The Lo> • >■'.< Gonfee-
tice of the Com- sion (1393).
mon Pleas.

Richard II.

Geoffrey Chau-
cer.
1340-1400.

Soldier, courtier,
ambassador,
Comptroller of

Customs.

The Canterbury

Talis (1384-90).

Richard II.
Henry IV.

James I. of
Scotland.
1894-1437.

A prisoner in Eng-
land from 1405-
l 124.

The KinafsQuhair,
or Book, a poem
in Chaucer's style

Henry VI.
(James I. 8c)

William Caxton
1412-1492.

Introduced print-
ing into Eng-
land (1471).

'Tin Cam,- and
Playt <>/ the
Cfteaw(14T4).

Edward iv.

4.-MODERN ENGLISH-(l) EARLY TUDOR
PERIOD (1485 1575).

1

\i I i, BIB i ii,

i ■ i .Mi:

•'NAL NOTES.

\WUKS.

in now.

Gawin Douglas.

1474 1522.

Biahop <>f Imim
Iteld. Wmti' in
Stnttish dialeot,
or Northern
i ogliah.

Palace o/ Honour
(1601X transla-
tion if

(IB l'irst
translation frOBO

Latin Into
Han verse.

H.ury Nil.
II. nry VIII.

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

63

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

Sir Thomas
More.

1-480-1535.

Lord High Chan-
cellor. Executed
by Henry VIII.

History of Richard
III. (1513), His-
tory of Edward
V., Utopia.

Henry VIII.

William Tyn-
dale.

ab. 1477-1536.

Lived and wrote at
Antwerp, where
he was burned
as a heretic.

Translation of New
Testament (1525,
1534), and Five
Books of Moses
(1530).

Henry VIII.

Sir David
Lyndsay.

1490-1557.

Of the Mount,
"Lord Lion-
King-at-Arms."

Satire of the Three
Estates (1535),
MonarchieO-553).

Henry VIII.
Mary.

John Fox.

1517-1587.

An English clergy-
man. Lived and
wrote at Basel.

Book of Martyrs
(1563).

Elizabeth.

5.-MODERN ENGLISH-(2) AGE OF
ELIZABETH (1575-1616).

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

Edmund Spen-
ser.

1552-1599.

Secretary to Vice-
roy of Ireland.
Lived at Kilcol-
man, Co. Cork.

Shephearde's Kal-
endar (1579),
Faerie Queene
(1590-96).

Elizabeth.

Sir Philip
Sidney.

1554-1586.

Mortally wounded
near Zutphen.

Arcadia (1580), Be- j
fence of Poesy ■ Elizabeth.
(15S1).

Francis, Lord
Bacon.

1561-1626.

Viscount St. Al-
bans and Veru-
1am, Lord High
Chancellor: de-
graded for receiv-
ing bribes (1621).

Essays (1597), Ad-
vancement of
Learning (1605),
Novum Organ-y-
um (1620).

Elizabeth.
James I.

William Shake-
speare.

1564-1616.

Born and died at
Stratf ord-on-
Avon. Prince of
dramatic poets.
Wrote 37 plays
in all. Was an
actor and theatre
proprietor.

Love's Labour's Lost
(1588), Midsum.
Night's Bream
(1598), Julius
Cozsar (1601),
Hamlet (1602),
Sonnets (1609),
The Tempest.

Elizabeth.
James I.

64

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

Ben Jonson.

1574-1637.

"Rare Ben Jon-
son." Comic
dramatist, brick-
layer, soldier,
player.

Every Man in Hit

Humour (1596),
The Alchemist
(1610).

Elizabeth.
James I.

Sir Walter
Ralegh.

1552-1618.

Courtier, naviga-
tor, historian.
Executed on a
charge of treason

History of the
World (1614) ;
written in the
Tower of London

James I.

William Drum-

mond.
1585-1649.

Of Hawthornden. Love Sonnets and
Friend of Ben Religious Poems
Jonson. (1616).

James I.

6.-M0DERN ENGLISH-(3) SHAKESPEARE TO
THE AGE OF ANNE (1616 1702).

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

John Milton.

1608-1674.

Foreign Secretary
to the Common-
wealth (1649).
Became blind
(1654).

Hymn to the Na-
tivity (1629); De-
fence of the Eng-
lish People(1650),
prose; Paradise
Lost (1667).

Charles I.
Charles II.

Jeremy Taylor.

1613-1667.

Bishop of Down.
A master of elo-
quent and ornate
prose.

Holy Living and
H oly Dying
(1649).

Charles I.

Samuel Butler.

1612-1680.

Humorous and sar-
castic poet.

Hudfbra$QJB68y, ■
mock heroic
poem, ridiculing

tin- Puritans.

Charles II

John Dryden.
1681 lTi'i.

"\V rote keenly pol- Annus Mirahilis
ished satirical (1667), Abtalom
verse, and plays and AcMtOfhA

on the French (16S1), Hind and

model. Pa/nthmr (1887).

Charles II.
.lames II.

John Bunyan.
L828-1688.

At fust a trawl
ling tinker; for
twelve years in
Bedford Jail.

Tht I'ilgrim's Pn

pre* (1878).

Charles II.

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

65

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

Sir Isaac New-
ton.
1642-1727.

Discoverer of the
law of gravita-
tion.

Principia Mathe-
matica (1687), a
treatise on Nat-
ural Philosophy,
establishing the
theory of gravi-
tation ; — written
in Latin.

James II.

John Locke.

1632-1704.

Philosopher and
political writer.

Letters on Tolera-
tion(1689), Essay
concerning the
Human Under-
standing (1690).

William III.

7.-M0DERN ENGLISH-(4) AGE OF ANNE
(1702-1730).

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

Sir Richard

Steele.

1671-1729.

Introduced the
periodical Essay
in England. Was
expelled from
the House of
Commons for
writing political
pamphlets.

The Tatler (1709),
The Spectator
(1711), The Guar-
dian (1713).

Anne.

Jonathan Swift.

1667-1745.

Dean of St. Pat-
rick's. Wrote
strong and terse
English. Died
insane.

Battle of the Books,
Tale of a Tub
(1704), Gulliver's
Travels (1726).

Anne.
George I.

Wrote pure and
Joseph Addison. graceful English.
1672-1719. Secretary of
State (1717).

Essays in Tatler,
Spectator, and
Guardian. Cato:
A Tragedy (1713)

Anne.
George I.

Daniel Defoe.
1663-1731.

Was pilloried for
sedition (1703).
Was Secretary to
the Commission-
ers on the Scot-
tish Union (1707)

Robinson Crusoe
(1719).

George I.

06

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

REIGN.

Alexander Pope

1688-1744.

Made Dryden his
model. Chief
poet of the Arti-
ficial School.
Wrote bitter sa-
tires in keenly
polished verse.

Essay on Criticism
(1711), Rape of
the Lock (1712-
14), Translation
of The Iliad
(1715-20), The
Dunciad (1728-
29), Essay on
Man (1733).

Anne.
George I.
George II.

8.-MODERN ENGLISH-(5) AGE OF ANNE TO
FRENCH REVOLUTION (1730-1790).

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

James Thomson
1700-1748.

Educated for the
Scottish Church.
Became a man of
letters in London

The Seasons (1730);
The Castle of In-
dolence (1748),
in Spenserian
stanza.

George II.

Henry Fielding.

1707-1754.

Greatest of the
Early English
novelists.

Tom Jones (1749),
Amelia (1751).

George II.

David Hume.
1711-1776.

For a time keeper
of the Advocates'
Library, Edin-
burgh; for a time
Under-Secretary
of State.

Inquiry concern-
ing the rri)>ri i>Ji. •<
of Morula (1751),
History of En-
gland (11 :U <:•_').

George II.

Dr. Samuel
Johnson.
1709-1784.

Chief master of the
formal and Lai
inized style. The
literary dictator
of bis time.

London (1738), a

DOain ; English
I> i r ( i o n it r ;/

i)j Bosseku
(1759), a novel ;
Lives of On Posts

(1780).

George II.

Goorgo 111.

! Edmund Burke.
1730-17'.»7.

A "great maiter

(if cl(ic|Url)<V,"

ami a profound
thinker on politi-
cal questions.

Essay on ths 8ub-
• lime niid limn
tifni (iv ;.<;>, /;■
flections on tin-
French /.'< polu*
f i»n (1700).

Goorgo IF.

George in.

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

Dr. William

Robertson.

1721-1793.

Principal of the
University of
Edinburgh.

History of Scot-
land (1759), His-
tory of Charles
V. (1769), His-
tory of America
(1777).

George II.
George III.

Adam Smith.

1723-1790.

A Professor in

Glasgow. Found-
er of the science
of Political
Economy.

Moral Sentiments
(1759), Wealth of
Nations (1776).

George II.
George III.

Oliver Gold-
smith.
1728-1774.

Began to study
divinity, law,
and medicine,
and failed in all.
Travelled on foot
over Europe,
playing a flute
for his living.

TheViear.ofWake-

field (1766), a
novel; The De-
serted Village
(1770), a poem;
She Stoops to
Conquer. (1773),
a comedy.

George III.

Edward Gibbon. ' Shows bias against
1737-1794. Christianity.

Decline and Fall
of the Roman

Empire (1776-S7)

George III.

Robert Burns.
1759-1796.

The national poet
of Scotland.
Originally a
ploughman.

Poems and Songs
(Tarn o' Shant>:r,
The Cottar's Sat-
urday Night,
d-c), 1786-96.

George III.

William Cowper
1731-1800.

The victim of mel-
ancholy. Lived
at Olney, Bucks.

The Task (1785), a
poem; John Gil-
pin; The Iliad
(1791).

G«orge III.

9.— MODERN ENGLISH-(6) FRENCH REVOLUTION
TO PRESENT TIME (1790-1870).

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

"WORKS.

REIGN.

Samuel Taylor
Coleridge.

1772-1834.

One of the Lake
poets ; great as a
critic and con-
versationist.

The Ancient Mari-
ner in Lyrical
Ballads (179S),
and Christabel
(1797-1806).

George III.

68

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REION.

William Words-
worth.
1770-1850.

Chief of the Lake
poets — poets of
nature and feel-
ing. Poet-laure-
ate (1843-50).

EarlyPocm$(l7m),
Lyrical Ballads
(1798), Th A -
cursion (1814).

George III.

Robert Southey.
1774-1843.

One of the Lake
poets. Poet-lau-
reate (1813-43).
Author of more
than 100 volumes

Wat Tyler (1794),
Thalaba the De-
stroyer, The
CxirseofKehama,
Life of Nelson,
The Doctor.

George III.

Lord Byron

(George Gordon).

1788-1824.

A romantic poet.
Excelled in de-
scriptions of na-
ture. Led a wild
and useless life.
Died at Misso-
longhi, when aid-
ing the cause of
Greek indepen-
dence.

Hours of Idleness
(1S07); Childe
Harold's Pil-
grimage (1812);
Don iA«itt (1819);
The Corsair
(1814), and other
Turkish tales in
verse; Manfred,
a dramatic poem,
(1817); Cairn, a
mystery (1821).

George III.
George IV.

Sir Walter Scott
1771-1832.

The greatest of
romance writers.
Kept the author-
ship of the Wa-
verley Novels a
secret till 1827.
A Scottish law-
yer. Lived at
Abbotsford, on
the Tweed.

Border Minstrelsy
(1802), Lay oft fa-
Last Minstrel
(1S05), Marmion
(1808), The Lady
<ftheLakc(1810),
Waverley (1^14),
first of the Wa-
verley Novels, of
which there were
twenty-seven.

George III.
George IV.
William IV.

Thomas Camp-
bell.

1777-1844.

Lived as a literary
man in London.
Most famous for
his short poems,
imperially Ml na-

V ll ft

Pleasures <f Hops
(1799), Eohenlin-
d' it, Battle of the
l'n in,, y
inert if 1
gland, Gertrude
of Wyoming
(1809).

George 111.

Thomas Moore.
177U 1862.

1

Chief [rlsfa lyric

pOdt. Fond of
fashionable life.

Latin RooJb*(1817X
/ . ./. if Byron
(1880), Irish Met-

1 :<<'rge III.
QtOfft iv.

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

69

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

REIGN.

Percy Bysshe
Shelley.

1792-1822.

Professed himself
an atheist. Lived
in Italy. Was
drowned in the
Mediterranean.

Queen Mab (1813),
Prometlicus Un-
bound (1819),
Odes, To the Sky-
lark, &c.

George III.

Henry Hallam.

1778-1859.

Was helpful in ob-
taining the abo-
lition of the slave
trade (1833). As
a historian, ac-
curate and im-
partial.

Europe during the
Middle Ages
(1818), Constitu-
tional History of
England (1827),
Literature of Eu-
rope (1837).

George III.
George IV.
William IV.

Victoria.

Thomas de
Quincey.

1785-1859.

Was an opium-
eater for several
years. A master
of prose-poetry,
or impassioned
prose. Helped
to introduce Ger-
man influence.

Confessions of an
English Opium-
Eater (1821), Sus-
jnria de Profun-
di^, numerous
Essays on Phil-
osophy, History,
&c.

George IV.

William IV.

Victoria.

Thomas Carlyle
1795.

The most original
thinker of his
age, on which he
has exercised a
powerful influ-
ence. Intro-
duced German
literature to En-
glish readers.

Sartor Resartus
(1833), T/ie French
Revolution(1837),
Oliver Cromwell's
Letters and
Speeches (1845),
History of Fried-
rich II. of Prus-
sia (1858-65).

1

George IV.
William IV. I
Victoria.

Lord Lytton
(Bulwer).
1805-1872.

Brilliant novelist,
poet, and essay-
ist. Was Colonial
Secretary in 1858.
Best known as
Sir Edward Lyt-
ton Bulwer.

Pelham (1828); The
Lady of Lyons
(1840), a drama ;
King Arthur
(1848), a poem ;
The Caxtons
(1850).

1

George IV.

William IV.

Victoria.

Lord Macaulay.
1800-1859.

The most popular
of modern his-
torians. Made
historical writ-
ing a Fine Art.
Possessed mar-
vellous power of
memory.

Essay on Milton in
Edinburgh Re-
view (1825), Lays \
of Ancient Rome
(1842), Essays
from the Edin-
burgh Review
(1843), History of
England (1848-
1859).

George IV.

William IV.

Victoria.

1

70

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

AUTHOR, BIRTH,
DEATH.

PERSONAL NOTES.

WORKS.

1

REIGN.

Alfred Tenny-
son.

1809.

Poet- laureate since
1850.

Early Poems(l$3Q), j

In Memoriam 1 „ T,,
,10.M r, „ .1- George IV.
18o0) JdyHsqr wiuj^xv.
the King (1859- 1 ~sj~ t .
73), Queen Mary ,
(1875), a drama. 1

Robert Brown-
ing.
1812.

Married Elizabeth
Barrett, the
greatest poetess
of modern times.

Pauline (1833);
Paracelsus
(1836), a drama ;
Men and Women
(1855); Dramatic
Lyrics.

William IV.
Victoria.

Charles Dickens
1812-1870.

The most popular
of modern nov-
elists. He creat-
ed the novel of
low life as well
as that of society.
A successful dra-
matic reader.

Pickwick Papers
<1837), Martin
Chuzzlewit0-S42),
David Copper-
fidd{lSi4),Dom-
bey and Son,
Bleak House, &c.

Victoria.

William Make-
peace
Thackeray.

1811-1863.

A novelist of char- Vanity Fair (1846),
acter, a keen ! Esmond (1852),
satirist, a sue- ' The Neuronics
cessful lecturer. (1855).

Victoria.

John Ruskin.

1819.

Created the litera-
ture of art criti-
cism. Professor
of the Fine Arts
at Oxford.

Modern Painters

(1S42), The Seven
Lamps of Arclii-
tccturc (1849),
'Die Stones ,</
Venice (1851-53).

Victoria.

i
1

DERIVATION.

71

DERIVATION.

PREFIXES.

1. ENGLISH.

A, on; as, aboard.

Be, about; as, beware, bespatter.

Ell or In (em or im, before b and p\

make; as, enable, embark, income,

imbitter.
For, against; as, forbid, forswear.
Fore, before; as, foresee, foremost.
Mis, not, ivrong; as, misconduct.
Out, beyond; as, outlive.
Over, above, beyond; as, overdo, over-
To, this; to-day, to-morrow, [charge.
Un, not; as, unable, unbind.
Under, below; as, undersell, underhand.
Up, up wards; as, upheave, uphold.
With, from, against ; as, withhold,

withstand.

2. LATIN.

A, ab, abs, from; as, avert, to turn
from ; absolve, to loose from ; abs-
tract, to draw from.

Ad (for euphony ad assumes the forms
of a, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at,
according to the initial letter of the
root with which it is joined), to; as,
adverb, affix, attract.

Amb, ambi, round about; as, ambient,
ambition (going round, canvassing
for office), ambiguous.

Ante, before; as, antecedent.

Circum (circu), about; as, circum-
ference, circuit.

Con (co, cog, col, com, cor), together;
as, concur, collect, correct.

Contra, against; as, contradict, con-
trast.

De, down or concerning; as, deject, de-
scribe.

Di or dis (dif), asunder; as, divide,
dispel, diffuse.

E or ex (ec. ef ), out of; as, emit, effect.

Extra, beyond; as, extraordinary.

In (ig, il, im, ir), in, before a verb ;
not, before an adjective and adverb ;
as, include ; infinite, irregular, in-
correctly.

Inter, between; as, intercede.

Intro, within; as, introduce.

Juxta, nigh to; as, juxtaposition.

Ob (oc, of, op, os), in the way of; as,
object, occur, offer.

Per (pel), through; as, pervade, pel-
lucid (thoroughly clear).

Post, after; as, postpone, postscript.

Pre, before; as, prefix, precede.

Preter, beyond; as, preternatural.

Pro (pol, pox), forth, for; proceed, pro-
nounce, pollute (t6 wash forth, or
overflow), portend (to stretch forth,
or betoken).

Re, back; as, replace, recall.

Retro, backward; as, retrospect.

Se, aside or apart; as, select, seclude
(to shut apart).

Semi, half; semi-circle.

Sine, viithout; sinecure.

Sub (sue, suf, sug, sup, sus), under;
as, subscribe, succeed, suggest, sup-
press.

Subter, beneath (implying secrecy); as,
subterfuge (secret flight).

Super (sua-) above , as, superfluous,
survive.

Trans (tra), across, or beyond; as,
transport, traverse.

Ultra, beyond; as, ultramarine (a colour
brought from beyond the sea).

3. GREEK.

A or an, without, not; as, atheist
(without God), apathy (without feel-
ing), anarchy (without government).

Amphi, both; as, amphibious (with
both lives — land and water), amphi-
theatre (a circular theatre).

Ana, through, up; as, analysis (a loosen-
ing up), anatomy (a cutting up).

Anti (ant), against; as, antidote (given
against poison), antagonist (a striver
against).

Apo (ap), from; as, apostate (an off-
stander), aphelion (farthest from the
sun).

72

DERIVATION.

Cata (cat), down, against; as, cataract

(a rushing down), catastrophe (an

over-turning).
Dia, through; as, diameter (a measure

through).
En (em), in or on; as, endemic (in, or

peculiar to, a people), emphasis (a

showing on, making clear).
Endon, within; endogenous (growing

from within).
Epi, upon; as, epidemic (on, or common

to, a people), epitaph (on a tomb).
Exo (ex), without, exogenous (growing

outside), exodus (a way out).
Hyper, over, above; as, hypercritical

(over critical).

Hypo, under; as, hypothesis (something
placed under).

Meta (met), change ; as, metaphor
(a change of object, a name belonging
to one thing applied to another).

Para (par), against, side by side; as,
paradox (against common opinion \
paraphrase (something beside or like
something else).

Peri, round about ; as, perimeter
(measurement around).

Syn (sy, syl, sym), together; as, syn-
thesis (a placing together), system
(parts placed together), syllable
(letters taken together), sympathy
(feeling together).

AFFIXES.

1. Denoting the agent, or the
doer of a thing.

an grammarian, librarian.

ant descendant, occupant.

ar beggar, liar.

ard drunkard, sluggard.

ary lapidary, plenipotentiary.

eer auctioneer, mutineer.

ent respondent, agent.

er reader, baker.

ist botanist, duellist.

or confessor, inspector.

s ter maltster, spinster.

2. Denoting the object, or the
receiver of a thing.

ate advocate, confederate.

ee trustee, committee.

ite favourite.

3. Denoting state of being,
or quality.

acy accuracy, oelibMJ,

age average, foliage.

•JM6fVl0y..fregranee, occupancy.

doin kingdom, freedom

euce, ency i\ci lii-ui c, tendency

hood manhood, neighbourhood

ion creation, tendon.

ism heroism, egotism.

ment banishment, engagement,

mony parsimony, testimony,

ness hardness, darkness.

ry slavery, bravery.

ship courtship, partnership.

t weight, height.

tude multitude, gratitude.

th warmth, health.

ty royalty, poverty.

ure pleasure, rapture.

y jealousy, victory.

4. Denoting littleness (dinriim
the. )

cle, CUle particle, animalcule

kin, en lambkin, kitten.

let rivulet, eaglet.

ling darling, seedling.

ock hillock, paddock.

y baby, Tommy.

5. Denoting rank or office.

acy curacy, pap acy

ate protectorate, pontificate

don? dukedom, kingdom.

ric bishopric.

ship mastership, clerkship

6. 1 denoting place.

ary, Ory. . . .library, depository.

erie menagerie,

ery, ry brewery, heronry,

y rectory.

DERIVATION.

73

7. Denoting full of.

fill plentiful, beautiful.

ical methodical, poetical.

ive instructive, operative.

ose verbose, jocose.

OUS populous, glorious.

some fulsome, wearisome.

y wealthy, healthy.

8. Denoting of, or belonging to.

ac demoniac, elegiac.

al paternal, filial.

an, ane human, humane.

ar circular, ocular.

ary military, adversary.

en woollen.

ic public, domestic.

id florid, morbid.

ile juvenile, hostile.

ine feminine, sanguine.

ish British, selfish.

9. Other Adjective terminations.

ant,ent..denoting being., j jjjjjjjj

, ( arable,
' " «"*»*"■{ audibie.

ble

em denoting direction \ .

( western.

•i ' , ( docile,

de " Viaybe- {tractile.

less.... M without. . < , , '
( homeless.

like.. .. ii likeness.. < .. '

[ manake.

l* " likenesS-{br™hX.

10. Denoting to make.

ate abdicate, complicate.

en deepen, lengthen.

fy beautify, sanctify.

ish publish, admonish.

ise despise.

ize authorize.

11. Adverbial terminations.

l* denoting^ { j£™^

,. .. | homeward,
i direction < ,

{ outward.

( likewise,
i manner . < ,, . '
I otherwise.

ward.

wise. . ,

OLD ENGLISH ROOTS.

JEr [air), before ; early, ere, erst (first), or.
Agan, to own ; owe, ought.
Bana, death; bane, henbane.
Beorgan, to protect; borough, burgh,

borrow, burrow, harbour, harbinger.
Biddan, to pray; bid, bead, beadsman,

forbid.
Blast, flame; blast, bluster, blaze.
Blawan, to blow, breathe ; bladder,

blow.
Blian, to till; boor, neighbour.
Biigan, to bend ; bough, bow, buxom,

elbow.
Byrnan, to burn; brand, brandy, brim-
stone, brown, brunt.
Cedpian [k'ydpian), to exchange, to

buy ; cheap, Cheapside, chapman,

chaffer, chop (Scot. coup).
Cennan [kennan), to beget; kin, kind,

kindness, king, akin.
Cleafan 'k'lyafan), to split; cleave, cliff,

cleft, clover (from its cleft leaves).

Cunnan, to know, to be able; can, con,
cunning, ken, keen. '

Cwellan, to slay ; kill, quell.

Dsel [dale), a part; deal, dole, ordeal.

D&m [doom), judgment; doom, dooms-
day.

Drygan, to dry; drought, drug.

Elian, to plough ; ear (to plough), earth.

Faran, to go; farewell, ferry, ford.

Fedan, to feed ; food, fodder, father.

Fengan, to seize ; fang, finger.

Feond [f'yoand), an enemy; fiend.

Fill [fool), unclean; filth, foul, fulsome.

Galan, to sing, nightingale.

Geard, an enclosure; garden, orchard
[ortgeard, garden for worts or vege-
tables), yard.

Gerefa, a governor ; sheriff (Scot.
grieve).

G6d, good; gospel [spell, discourse).

Graf an, to dig ; grave, graft, groove,
grove, engrave.

I

DERIVATION.

Hal, sound ; hail, hale, health, holy,

whole, wholesome.
Healdail, to hold ; halt, halter, hilt,

hehold, upholsterer.
Hefan, to lift; heap, heave, heaven,

heavy, upheaval.
Hlaf, bread; loaf, Lammas = loaf -mas

(the feast of harvest).
HllS (hoos), a house ; housewife, hus-
band, hxistings.
Lsefan, to leave ; leave (quit), eleven

(one left, after ten), twelve (two left).
Lyft, the air, the heavens; loft, lofty.
Mugan, to be able; may, might, main,

dismay.
Nsess, a headland; nose, naze, ness.
Neah [n'ya), nigh; near (nigher), next,

neighbour.
Reafian, to seize ; bereave, rive, rob,

rove.
Sceotan, to dart ; shoot, shot, shut,

shuttle.

Sceran, to cut ; score, share, plough-
share, shire, sheriff.
Scippan, to form; shape, landscape.
Smitan, to strike; smite, smith.
Spell, a message, a discourse ; spell,

gospel.
Steoran, to guide; steer, stern.
Steorfail, to die; starve.
Stigail, to rise ; stair, stile, stirrup,

sty (a tumour on the eyelid).
Swerian, to engage for; ansiver, eweer.
Tsecan, to show, to point out; teach.
Tellan, to count; tell, tale, talk./
Wegan, to carry ; wag, wave, way,

weigh.
Weordh, being, substance; worth, wor'

ship.
Witan, to know; wise, wit, uri

wizard.
Writhan, to twist ; wraili, writha,

wreath, wroth, wry.
Wunian, to dwell; wont.

LATIN ROOTS.

Acidus, sour; acid, acidity, acidulate,
sub-acid.

Aedes, a house; edify, edifice, edifica-
tion.

Aequus, equal ; equator, equity, ade-
quate.

Acstimo, I value ; estimate, inesti-
mable, esteem.

Aevum, an age ; jmmeval (primus\
eternal.

Ager, a field; agriculture, agrarian.

Agger, a heap ; exaggerate, exaggi r-
at ion.

Ago (actus), I do; agent, agitate, nari
gate (navis), action, enact.

Alter, another ; alternate, (titer, tub-
nit< ru, aid nation.

Altus, high; altar, altitude, taali

Amo, I Love; enamour, amicable,

Anima, the si ml, Hfe; animal, animals,
aitinttisity, magna n Imow

Annus, a pear; annale, annual, anni-
versary (wto), annuity, biennial.

Aptus, fit; apt, adapt, adepi

Aqua, water; aquatic, aquarium, ague-
duct (duco), agueoue.

Arbiter, a judge; arbitrai-y, arbitra-
tion, arbitrator.

Arbor, a tree; arbour, arboriculture.

Arma, arms; army, armour, armorial,
disarm.

Ars (art-is),* art; artifice, artisan.

Asper, rough; asperity, exasperate,
asperate.

Auctus, increased; auction, author,
autumn.

Alldax, bold; audacious, audacity.

Audio, I hew; audience, audible, antdit.
Barba, a beard; barb, barber.
Bellum, war; belligerent (gero), rebel.
Bene, well; benediction (dico), bene-
factor (facio).
Bis, twice; biennial, biscuit.
Bonus, good; boon, bounty.
Brevis, short; brief, abbreviate
Cado (casus, • l fall; ooecade, accident.

Caedo (OMRM), I cut, kill; excise, dc-

eide, fratricide.

Campus, u plain; camp, campaign.

Cfcndoo, l glow, aiii white; oandU,
eandid, candidate [wearing a white

robe), inense, inct ndiary.

* The Criiitives of Nouns and the Passive PartlotfiM Of Verbs are giveu la
parentheses when they show the Btcm of the u i ill.

DERIVATION.

75

Capio (captus), I take; accept, deceive,
captive.

Caput, the head; cap, cape, capital,
captain.

Caro (carn-is), flesh; carnage, carnal.

Castus, pure; chaste, chasten, chastise.

Causa, a cause; accuse.

Caveo, (cautus), I take care ; caveat,
caution.

Cavus, hollow; cave, cavern, excavate.

Cedo (cessus\ I yield; accede, proceed,
cease, access.

Centrum, the centre ; concentrate, ec-
centric.

Ceutuui, a hundred; cent., century.

Cerno (cretus), I perceive; discern, dis-
creet.

Civis, a citizen; civic, civilize.

Ciamo, I cry out ; claim, exclaim,
clamour.

Claras, clear; clarify, declare.

Claudo (clausus), I shut; clause, in-
clude.

Colo (cultus!, I till; cultivate, agricul-
ture (ager).

Copia, plenty; copious.

Coquo (coctus), I boil; concoct, cook,
biscuit.

Cor (cord-is), the heart; core, cordial,
concord.

Corpus (corpor-is), the body; corps,
corpse, corporeal.

Credo, I trust, believe; creed, credit,
incredulous.

Cresco, I grow; crescent, decrease.

Crux, a cross; crucify, crusade.

Cura, care ; cure, curious, accurate,
curate, secure [se, apart), sinecure

■ {sine, without).

Curro (cursus), I run; current, course,
concur, occur.

Dens ^dent-is), a tooth; dentist, indent.

Deus, a god; deity, deify.

Dexter, right (not left); dexterous, dex-
terity.

Dico (dictus), I say; benediction, dic-
tate, predict.

Dignus, worthy; dignify, indignant,
deign.

Do (datus), I give ; donor, date, addition.

Doceo, (doctus), I teach; docile, doctor,
document.

Dominus, a master ; dominion, pre-
dominate, domain (what one is
master of).

Domus, a house; dome, domestic.

Duco (ductus), I lead; produce, due-
tile, duke, educate, aqueduct.

Duo, two; duel, duet, double.

Durus, hard; endure, obdurate.

Emo (emptus), I buy; redeem, exempt

Ens (ent-is), being; entity, abseyit.

Eo (itus , I go; exit, transit, circuit.

Equus, a horse; eques, a horseman;
equerry, equestrian.

Esse, to be; est, is; essence, interest.

Facilis, easy; facility, difficult.

Facio (factus), I make ; fact, fashion,
feat, affect, office, benefactor.

Fallo (falsus), I deceive ; fail, faUe,
fallacy, infallible.

Fama, a report ; fame, defame.

Felix (felic-is), happy; felicity.

Fendo, I strike; defend, fence.

Fero (latus), I bear ; differ, fertile,
translate.

Fido, I trust; confide, infidel, defy.

Filius, a son; filial, affiliate.

Finis, an end, or limit ; fine, finish,
finite, confine.

FirniUS, strong; firm, affirm.

Flecto (flexus), I bend; reflect, flexible.

FlOS (flor-is), a flower; floral, florid,
florin.

Fluo (fluxus), I flow; fluent, fluid, in-
fluence, influx, superfluous.

Foedus, a treaty ; federal, confederate.

Folium, a leaf; foliage, folio.

For (fatus\ I speak; infant, nefarious,
fate, preface, fable.

Forma, shape; form, reform.

Fortis, strong; fort, fortify, fortitude.

FrangO (fractus), I break ; fragment,
fraction.

Frater, a brother ; fraternal, fratri-
cide (caedo).

Frigeo, I am cold; frigid.

Fruor (fructus, fruitus\ I enjoy; fruit.

Fumus, smoke ; perfume.

Fundo (fusus), I pour ; found (pour
metal), confound, confuse, refute.

Fundus, the bottom; found (establish),
foundation.

Gelu, frost; congeal, gelatine.

Gens (gent-is), a nation; gentile, genteel,
gentle, general, gentry.

Genus (gener-is), a kind ; general, de-
generate, gender.

Gero (gestus), I bear, or carry ; belli-
gerent (bellum), gesture, swigged.

76

DERIVATION.

Gradior (gressus\ I walk ; grade,
gradual, degrade, progress, degree.

GratllS, thankful ; grace, grateful,
gratis.

Gravis, heavy; grave, aggravate.

Grex (greg-is), a flock; congregate, gre-
garious.

Habeo, I have; habito, I dwell in;
habit, inhabit, exhibit, able, ability.

Homo, man; homage, homicide (caedo).

Hospes (hospit-is), a guest ; hospital,
hospitable.

Hostis, an enemy; host, hostile.

Humus, the ground ; posthumous, ex-
hume.

Ignis, fire; ignite, igneous.

Impero, I command; empire, impera-
tive.

Initium, beginning; initial, initiate.

Insula, an island ; insular, peninsula
(pene, almost).

Jacio (jactus), I throw; object, adjec-
tive.

Janua, a gate; janitor.

Junctus, joined; junction, subjunctive.

Jus (jur-is), right, law; jurisdiction,
injure.

Juvenis, a youth; juvenile.

Labor (lapsus), I glide; lapse, relapse.

Lapis (lapid-is), a stone; lapidary, di-
lapidate.

Laus (laud-is), praise; laud, laudable.

Lego (lectus), I gather ; college, legend,
lecture, neglect.

Lego (legatus), I send; legacy, delegate.

Levo, I raise; lever, elevate.

Lex (leg-is), law; legal, legislate, privi-
lege.

Liber, free; liberal, liberty.

Ligo, I bind; ligament, obligation, r*
ligion.

Liquet), I melt; Uquid, jig—I*.

Litera, a letter; literal, literary.

Locus, a place; local, dislocate, loco-
motive.

Loquor (locutus), I speak ; eJoftmU,
elocution

Ludo (lusus), I play ; illusimi, etude,
Imlierous

Lumen (lomln-ls), light; illumine,

luminary.
Luna, the moon ; lunar, tublunary,

lunacy
Luo, I waib; ablution, pollute, deluge.
Lux (luc-u , liK'hi; lucid, elucidate

Magnus, great ; magnificent, magni-
tude.

Malus, bad ; malady, malefactor
(facio), malevolent (volo), maltreat.

Maneo (mansus1, I stay; manse, man-
sion, permanent, remnant.

Manus, the hand; manage, manual,
manufacture (facio).

Mare, the sea; mariner, maritime.

Mater, a mother ; maternal, matron,
matricide (caedo).

Medius, the middle; immediate with
nothing in the middle, or intervening).

Memor, mindful; memory, rememhtr.

Mens (ment-is), the mind ; mental,
comment, vehement [ve, not\

Merx (merc-is), merchandise ; com-
merce, merchant, mercantile, mer-
cenary.

Miles (milit-is), a soldier; military.

Minor, less; minute, dimemieh.

Miror, I wonder; miracle, mirror, ad-
mire.

Miser, wretched; miter, misery.

Mitto (missus1, I send; admit, submis-
sion, message, promise.

Mollis, soft; mollify.

Moneo, I advise, remind ; admonish,
monument, hhmm

Mons (mont-is , a mountain ; mound,
mount, surmount.

Mors (mortis1, death; mortal, mortif'i

Moveo (motns), I move; miioi', MO-
don, r< mote, moment.

Multus, many; multijily, multitude

Munus (nmner-is\ a gift; mm
(facio , n numerate

MlltO, I change; miital'le, transmute

Nascor vnatus\ I am born; natal,
nation, OOgUOte

Navis, a ship; naval, navigate.

NeCtO (nexus , 1 tit'; annu; connect.
Noceo, I hurt; unmet /if, noisome,

an nia/.
Nomen, a naine; nominal, inain.

Norma, a rule; normal, tnormoue,

Nota, a mark; note, notice, notify.
NovllS, new; IMHMi, rJHOMfl

Nox (noet-ti), night; nocturnal.

no.r

Nullus, none; nullify, annul

NuUHTUS, a mimlirr; nitin.val. MM

til' ride
Nlincio, I tell; announce.

Omen, a ilgn; omlnoue

DERIVATION.

77

Jinis, all ; omnipotent (potens), om-
niscient (scio).

ius, (oner-is), a burden; onerous, ex-
onerate.

pus (oper-is), work; operate.
"bis, a circle; orb, orbit, exorbitant.
rdo (ordin-is), order; ordain.
.'no, I deck; adorn, ornament.
5 (or-is), the mouth ; oral, adore,
orator, oracle.
fum, an egg; oval.

ando (passus), I spread out ; pass, pace,
compass, expand.

ango (pactus), I fix, agree upon; im-
pinge, compact.
anis, bread; pantry, pannier.
ar, equal; pair, peer, disparity.
areo, I appear ; apparent, appari-
tion.

aro, I prepare; apparel, compare, re-
pair.

ars (part-is), a part ; partake, partial,
party, particle.

ater,a father; paternal, patron, pat-
tern.

atior (passus), I suffer ; passion,
patient.

auper, poor; pauperism.
ax (pac-is), peace ; pacify, appease.
ello (pulsus), I drive; compel, pulse,
compulsory.

endeo, I hang; pendant, depend, per-
pendicular.

endo (pensus), I weigh, I pay; expend,
expense, pensive, comjyensate.
es (ped-is), the foot ; pedal, pedes-
trian, expedition, quadruped.
eto (petitus), I ask, seek ; petition,
impetuous, compete, repeat.
laceo, I please ; complacent.
laco, I appease; implacable.
lanus, level; plane, plain, explain.
lecto (plexus), I weave ; complex,
simple, double.

leo (pletus), I fill ; complete, accom-
plish.

lico, I fold ; reply, complicate, ex-
plicit.

'lus (plur-is), more.; plural, surplus.
'oena, punishment ; penalty, penance,
penitent, repent.

'ondus, weight ; pound, ponder, pon-
derous.

•ono (positus), I place; depone, oppose,
post, deposit, compound.

Populus, the people; popular, popula-
tion.

Porto, I carry ; porter, export, im-
portant.

Posse, to be able ; potens, able ; pos-
sible, potent, omnipotent.

Precor, I pray; deprecate, precarious.

Prehendo, I take; apprehend, appren-
tice.

Premo(pressus), I press; impress, print.

Pretium, a price ; prize, praise, pre-
cious, appreciate.

Primus, first ; prime, primary, prim-
rose.

Probo, I prove; probable, approbation.

Proprius, one's own ; proper, proprietor,
property.

Proximus, nearest; approximate, prox-
imity.

Puer, a boy; puerile.

PungO (punctus), I prick ; pungent,
punctual.

Puto, I prune, I think ; compute, dis-
pute, count, amputate.

Quaero (quaesitus), I seek; query, in-
quire, conquer, request.

Qualis, of what kind; quality, qualify.

Quatuor, four ; quadrille, quadruped,
quarter.

Queror, I complain; quarrel, querulous.

Radius, a spoke of a wheel ; ray,
radiate, radiant.

Radix (radic-is), a root; radish, radical,
race (generation), eradicate.

Rapio (raptus), I snatch ; rapacious,
rapid, rapture.

RegO (rectus), I rule ; regent, region,
regiment, insurrection.

Res, a thing; real, reality.

Rete, a net; reticule, retina.

Rideo (risus), I laugh ; ridicule, deride.

Rigidus, stiff ; rigid, rigour, rigorous.

Rivus, a river; river, rival.

Robur (robor-is), oak ; strength, robust,
corroborate.

RogO, I ask; interrogate, prerogative.

Rota, a wheel ; rote, rotary, rotate,
rotund.

Rumpo (ruptus), I break; abrupt, rup-
ture.

Rus (rur-is), the country; rural, rustic.

Sacer, sacred ; sacrifice, sacrament,
sacrilege (lego), desecrate.

Salio (saltus), I leap ; sally, assail,
exult.

78

DERIVATION.

Salus (salut-is), health ; salute, salu-
brious, salutary.

Salvus, safe; salvation.

SanctUS, holy; sanctify, saint.

Sanguis (sanguin-is), blood; sanguine,
sanguinary.

SaxiUS, sound, healthy ; sane, insane,
sanitary.

Satis, enough ; satisfy, satiate, satis-
factory (facio).

Scando, I climb; ascend, scan.

Scio, I know; science, conscience, omni-
science (omnis), conscious.

Scribo (scriptus), I write; scribe, scrii>-
ture.

Seco (sectus), I cut; section, insect.

Sedeo, I sit; sessio, a sitting; preside,
sediment, session, assess.

Senex, old; senile, senate.

Sentio (sensus), I perceive; sense, sen-
tence, consent, sentiment.

Sequor (secutus), I follow; consequence,
persecute.

Servio, I serve; serf, service.

Servo, I keep; conserve, observe.

Signum, a mark; sign, signal, signify.

Similis, like ; similar, assimilate,
simile.

Sisto, I stop; assist, existence.

Sol, the sun; solar, solstice (sto).

Solus, alone ; sole, solitary, solitude,
soliloquy (loquor).

Solvo (solutus), I loose; solve, absolute,
insoluble.

Specio spoctus), I sec; spectacle, aspect,
d\ <iase, suspicion.

Spero, 1 hope; despair.

Spiro, I breathe; spirit, expire

Spondeo (sponsus), I promise; respond,
espouse.

Statuo, I set up; statue, statute, desti-
tute, constitution.

Stilla, a drop; distil, instil.

StO (status), 1 stand; state, st< it >le, estab-
lish, distant.

Stringofstrictus), I bind; strain, atrait,
strict, stringent.

StrilO, I pile up; structure, tlutlOfj.

SlUnma, (hi kOpj stun, summit, sum-
ma ri/

Sumo (fumptoj), I take; omimm

suiii/it inn
TacitUS, silent ; tacit, titriturn

Tango ductus), I touch ; tangti

tart

TegO (tectus), I cover ; tegument, pro-
tect.

Tempero, I mix ; temper.

Tempus (tempor-is\ time ; temporal,
tempest, contemporary.

Tendo (tentus, tensus), I stretch ; tend,
attend, extent, intense, tent.

Teneo (tentus>, I hold ; tenure, attain,
content.

Terminus, a boundary ; term, deter-
mine.

Terra, the earth ; terrace, terrestrial,
territory, terrier, Mediterranean,
(medius).

Terreo, I frighten ; terror, deter.

Testis, a witness; testify, testament,
testimony, Protestant.

Texo (textus\ I weave ; text, textile

Timeo, I fear; timid, intimidate.

Tingo (tinctus), I dip; tinge, taint,
stain, tincture.

Tono, I thunder; astonish, detomde.

Torqueo (tortus), I twist ; torture, ex-
tort.

Traho (tractus), I draw ; trace, track,
tract.

Tribus, a class ; tribe, tribune.

Trudo (trusus), I thrust ; iyitrude,
abstruse.

Turba, a crowd; turbid, turbulent,
disturb.

Umbra, a shadow; umbrage, umbrella.

Ullda, a wave; undulate, inundate,
abound, redurulant.

Ungo functus), I anoint ; u .-._■
■unction.

UllUS, one ; unite, union, uniform.

Urbs, a city ; urbane, sulnirb.

Utor (usus), 1 use; utensil, utility

ValeO, I am strong; xudiant, valid,
ai-ii il.

VanilS, empty ; rain, vaunt.

VarinS, ditrerent ; Miry, raritt-i, varie-
gate (ago).

Velio (vectus), I carry ; vehicle, convey,

op mum
Venio (Tentro), i oome; event, venture.
Veibum, a word; terb, ureal, proverb.
Verto (verms), 1 torn; advert, wniveree,
Verus, true; amer, peraoUf, t

verify, verity.

Vcstis, :i garment; r,st, faetef, m .'

meut, vestry.
VetUS (votor-is), old; r,t<ran, inntcr
ate.

DERIVATION.

79

Via, a way ; viaduct (duco), voyage,

deviate, previous.
Video (visus), I see; evident, visible.
Vinco (victus), I conquer ; convince,

victor.
Viridis, green; verdant, verdure.
Vita, life; vital, vitality.
Vitium,vice; vitiate.
Vivo (victus), I live ; revive, victuals.

VOCO (vocatus), I call; convoke, vocation.

Volo, I will; voluntary, benevolent.

Volvo (volutus), I roll; involve, revolu-
tion, volume.

Voveo (votus), I vow ; avow, vote.

Vox, the voice; vowel.

Valgus, the common people; vulgar.

Vulnus (vulner-is), a wound; invulner-
able.

GREEK ROOTS.

Anthropos, man ; misanthrope, philan-
thropy.

Arche, beginning ; monarch, anarchy,
architect.

ArctOS, a bear ; Arctic, Antarctic.

Arithmos, number ; arithmetic.

Astron, a star ; astronomy, astrology,
asterisk, disaster.

Atmos, vapour ; atmosphere.

Bapto, I dip; baptize.

Biblos, a book ; Bible, bibliography.

Botane, pasture ; botany.

Chorde, a string ; chord, cord.

Chole, bile; choler, cholera, melancholy
{melan, black).

Chronos, time; chronicle, chronometer.

Demos, the people; demagogue {agogos,
leading), democracy {kratos, rule).

Dosis, a giving ; anecdote {an, not ; ek,
out), antidote {anti, against), dose.

Doxa, an opinion ; heterodox, orthodox.

Ergon, work; energy, liturgy.

Ge, the earth ; geography, geology,
geometry.

Gennao, I bring forth ; Genesis, gene-
alogy, oxygen {oxys, sharp, acid).

Gramma, a letter; diagram.

Grapho, I write ; biography, geography.

Hippos, a horse ; hippodrome, hippo-
potamus [potamos, a river).

Hodos, a way; exodus, period, method.

Hydor, water; hydraulic, hydrogen.

Idios, peculiar; idiom, idiot.

Kalos, beautiful ; caligraphy, calis-
thenics [sthenos, strength), kaleido-
scope [eidos, form ; skopeo, I see).

Kleros, lot ; clergy, clerk.

Kratos, power; aristocrat, democrat.

Krites, a judge; critic, criterion.

Kyklos, a circle ; cycle, encyclopaedia
(paideia, learning).

LllO, I loosen; analysis, 2'>a'>'alysis.

Lithos, a stone ; lithography, aerolite.

Logos, a word, a discourse; geology.

Monos, alone; monosyllable.

Naus, a ship ; nausea, nautical, aero-
naut.

Nomos, law; astronomy, Deuteronomy,
economy.

Oikos, a bouse; economy, parochial.

Orthos, right ; orthodox, orthoepy, or-
thography.

Pais (paid-os), a child, boy; pedagogue,
pedant.

Pathos, feeling; pathetic, sympathy.

Phemi, I speak; blaspheme, prophecy.

Philos, a friend, a lover ; philosophy,
philanthropy.

Phos (phot-os), light ; photograph,
phosphorus.

Physis, nature; physics, physiology.

Planetes, a wanderer ; planet.

Polis, a city; police, metropolis.

Polys, many; polysyllable, polytechnic

Pous (pod-os i, the foot; antipodes, tri
pod.

Pyr, fire ; empyrean, pyramid.

Skopeo, I see; microscope, telescope.

SopMa, wisdom ; philosophy, sophistry

Sphaira, a globe; hemisphere.

Stell5, 1 send; apostle, epistle.

Strophe, a turning; apostrophe, catas-
trophe.

Teclme, art; technical, pyrotechnic.

Tele, far-off ; telegraph, telescope.

Temno, I cut; anatomy, atom, epitome.

Theos, God; theology, atheism.

Tithemi, I place; antithesis.

TrepO, I turn; trope, trophy, tropic.

Typos, a mark ; stereotype, typog-
raphy. •

Zdon, an animal; zodiac, zoology.

80

WORD-BUILDING.

WORD-BUILDING.

In the following Exercises, the stem is in each case a Modem
English word. The simplest form in which the Old English or
the Latin root appears in English is taken as the base or start-
ing-point, and from it the derivatives are formed. The exer-
cise of word-building here suggested may be freely practised
with words that occur in the daily reading lessons, as it does not
require a knowledge of any language but English. The object
is to show how each derivative springs from the root-meaning
of the English stem. It is also interesting to show how the
addition of prefixes and suffixes modifies or adapts the root-
meaning. For example, from the English stems heed and heart
we have the following : —

heed-ful-ly,

in a careful manner.
heed-ful-ness,

the state of being careful,
heed-less-ly,

in a careless manner,
heed-less-ness,

the state of being careless.

t heart-y heart-i-ness.

Heart < heart-less heart-less-ness.

\ heart-en dis-heart-en.

Heed,

care

f heed-ful,
full of care.

heed-less,
without care.

!

ENGLISH ROOTS.

BngUab stem. DertYattvM,

back a-back, on the back, by surprise; back-ward, toward the

back, slow; back-bite, to bite at the back, to slander

one En hie sbaenos.
bear bar ar, one who bean; for-bear, t<> bear forth or off, t<>

abstain ; over-bear, t<> boar over or down, to overpower,
bid for-bld, to bid <>tl' <>r away, to prohibit; un-bid-den, not

asked.
bold bold-ly, bold-like, In a bold manner; bold-ness, the

quality "f being bold; em-bold-en, t<> make bold.
bright bright-ly; bright-ness ; bright-en.

WORD-BUILDING. 81

English Stem. Derivatives.

cheap (lit. a bargain, a market) cheap-en; cheap-ness; chap-
man, a dealer; Cheap-side and East-cheap, parts of
London.

come be-come, to come to, to suit ; come-ly, becoming ; in-come,

what comes in ; over-come, to come above, to conquer.

dark dark-ly; dark-en; dark-ness.

drink drink-er, one who drinks; drunk-ard, one who gets

drunk; drunk-en, made drunk.

end end-less ; end- wise, endways, on end.

even (lit. level, just) even-ly; even-ness; un-even, not even.

fair (lit. bright) fair-ness ; fair-ly; un-fair.

fear fear-ful, full of fear, afraid; fear-less.

friend friend-ly; friend-ship; friend-less; un-friend-ly ; be-
friend, to act as a friend to.

get for-get, to get or put forth from the memory ; for-get-ful ;

for-get-ful-ness.

ghost (lit. breath) ghost-ly; ghast-ly, pale; a-ghast, terrified,

as if by looking on a ghost.

give gift, something given; for-give, to give away, to remit;

for-give-ness ; mis-give, to give wrong, or amiss, to fill
with doubt.

ground ground-less, without ground or reason; under-ground.

hard hard-y, full of hardness, strong, brave; hard-i-hood,

bravery, confidence; hard-en; hard-ness; hard-ship,
a state or thing hard to bear.

have (lit. to hold) be-have, to hold oneself properly; be-hav-

iour ; mis-be-have, to behave amiss.

heal (lit. to make whole) heal-er; heal-th, state of being

whole; heal-th-y; heal-th-ful: whole; wholesome.

heart heart-y, full of heart; heart-i-ness ; heart-less; heart-

less-ness ; heart-en, to put heart into, to encourage ;
dis-heart-en, to discourage.

heed heed-ful; heed-ful-ness ; heed-less; heed-less-ness.

hold be-hold, to hold or bind with the eye; be-hold-en, bound,

indebted ; up-hold ; with-hold, to hold from or back.

home (lit. a dwelling) home-ly, home-like, plain; home-li-ness ;

home-less ; home-spun, made at home ; ham-let, a little
home, a small village.

law (lit. something laid down) law-ful, in accordance with

law ; law-ful-ness ; law-less, contrary to law ; lawless-
ness ; law-giver, one who gives or makes laws ; law-
suit, a suit or process at law ; out-law, one outside the
law's protection ; law-yer, one skilled in law.

lead lead-er; lead-er-ship ; mis-lead, to lead wrong or amiss.

6

82 WORD-BUILDING.

English Stem. Derivatives.

learn (lit. to teach oneself) learn-er; learn-ing; learn-ed; un-

learn-ed.

light (shining) light-en, to make light or clear; en-light-en;

light-ning, that which lightens; light-house, a house
for showing a light.

light (not heavy) light-ly; light-ness; light-some, gay, lively;

light-er, a boat used in light-ening or unloading ships ;
a-light, to settle on lightly.

like like-ly; like-li-hood ; like-ness; like-wise, in a like or

similar way ; un-like ; un-like-ly.

live a-live, in life ; live-ly, life-like, active ; live-li-ness ; live-

li-hood, means of living ; out-live, to live beyond.

long (lit. stretched out) long, to stretch out the mind toward,

to desire; long-ish, rather long: leng-th, quality of
being long ; leng-th-y ; leng-th-en.

love lov-er; love-ly; love-li-ness ; be-lov-ed; un-love-ly.

make mak-er; un-make: match, something made, or of the

same make as another thing; match-less, unequalled.

mind mind-ful; mind-ful-ness ; mind-less; re-mind.

name name-less ; mis-name.

need need-y; need-less; need-less-ly.

own (lit. to have) own-er; own-er-ship; dis-own: owe, to have

what is another's, to be bound to pay : ought, am bound.

reck (lit. to heed) reck-less; reck-less-ness.

rob (lit. to seize) rob-ber; rob-ber-y: rove; rov-er: be-reave;

be-reave-ment.

see see-r, one who sees the future, a prophet; fore-see; over-
seer; sight; fore-sight; over-sight; un-sight-ly.

set be-set, to set about; on-set, a setting on; over-set, to

turn over; up-set; set-ter, a dog that sets, or stops,
when it is near game; set-tie, to set, or fix; set-tl-er;
set-tle-ment.

slow slow-ness; slo-th, slowness; slo-th-ful ; slo-th-ful-ness ;

slo-th-ful-ly.

soft soft-en ; sof t-ly ; sof t-ness.

stand stand-ard, something which itande, or is fixed; under-
stand, to stand under, to support, to oomprehend;
under-stand-ing ; with-stand, to stand against, to op-
pose.

teach (lit. to show) teach-er; teach-a-ble.

true tru-th ; tru-th-ful; tru-th-ful-ly ; tru-ism, something

evidently true: trust, belief in the troth of ;• person or
thing; in-trust; trust-ee, one t<« whom ■ thing ts ln«
trusted : trust-y.

WORD-BUILDING. 83

English Stem. Derivatives.

turn turn-er ; re-turn, to turn back, or again ; over-turn ; up-
turn.

wake wak-en, to make to wake ; wake-ful, not inclined to sleep ;

a-wake, not asleep; a-wak-en, to wake or rouse from
sleep : "watch, to wake or wait, to look with attention ;
watch-ful ; watch-ful-ness.

wit ( lit. to know) wlt-ness, knowledge given in proof, one who

gives knowledge in proof ; wit-less ; wit-ty : wise, hav-
ing wit, or knowledge; wis-dom; un-wise; wiz-ard,
one who is very wise.

worth worth-y, full of worth ; worth-i-ness ; un-worth-y ;

worth-less: wor-ship, worth-ship, state of being worthy;
wor-ship-per ; wor-ship-ful.

LATIN ROOTS.

English Stem. Derivatives.

act {actus, done; from ago, I do) act-ion, doing, thing done;

act-ive, engaged in doing ; en-act, to put in act, to per-
form; en-act-ment; trans-act; act-or; re-act; act-u-aL

apt {aptus, fit) apt-ly, fit-ly; apt-ness; apt-i-tude; ad-apt,

to make apt or fit ; ad-apt-a-tion.

art {ars, art-is, art) art-iul; art-less; art-less-ness.

boon (bonus, good) boun-ty, goodness, a gift; boun-te-ous;

boun-ti-fuL

camp (campus, a plain) en-camp, to make a camp; en-camp-

ment ; de-camp, to break up a carnp, to go away.

cede (cedo, I go; cessus, given up) ac-cede, to go to, to agree to;

ac-cess; ac-cess-ion; ac-cess-i-ble ; con-cede; con-cess-
ion; inter-cede; inter-cess-ion; pre-cede; re-cede; ex-
ceed; pro-ceed; suc-ceed; suc-cess; suc-cess-or.

civ-ic (civis, a citizen) civ-il, belonging to a city; civ-il-ize, to

make civil; civ-il-i-za-tion, the act of making civil;
civ-il-i-ty, city manners.

close (claudo, I shut; clausus, closed) close-ness ; en-close; en-

clos-ure ; dis-close, to unclose.

core (cor, cord-is, the heart) cord-i-al, hearty; cord-i-al-i-ty ;

ac-cord, to make cordial, to agree; con-cord, hearts
together; dis-cord, hearts opposed; re-cord, to call
back to the heart : cour-age, heartiness, valour ; en-
cour-age; dis-cour-age.

cure (cura, care) cur-a-ble; cur-ate, one who has the cure or

care of souls; cur-a-tive, able to cure; cur-a-tor, one

84 WORD-BUILDING.

English Stem. Derivatives.

who takes care of a thing ; pro-cure, to take care of, to
obtain; se-cure, without care, free from danger;
se-cur-i-ty ; in-se-cure ; ac-cur-ate, done with care.

course (cui-ro, I run ; cursus, run) cours-er ; cours-ing ; con-course,

a running together, a meeting ; dis-course, a running to
and fro; inter-course, a running between, communica-
tion ; re-course ; cur-rent ; con-cur, to agree ; in-cur ;
oc-cur; oc-cur-rence ; re-cur; ex-curs-ion; ex-curs-ion-
ist; in-curs-ion; suc-cour, to run up to, to assist.

date (do, I give; datus, given) ante-date, to date beforehand,

or too soon; mis-date, to date wrong; post-date, to
date afterwards, or too late : add, to put to ■ ad-dit-ion,
act of adding ; con-dit-ion, state of things put together ;
6-dit, to give out, to publish ; e-dit-ion ; e-dit-or.

duct (duco, I lead; ductus, lead; dux, a leader) duct-ile, able to

draw out; duct-il-i-ty ; con-duct; con-duct-or; pro-duct;
pro-duct-ive ; pro-duct-ion; intro-duce; pro-duce; re-
duce ; e-duc-ate, to draw out the faculties : duke, a
leader ; duke-dom, rule of a duke ; duch-y ; duc-aL

dure (durus, hard) dur-a-ble, lasting; dur-a-ble-ness ; dur-a-

tion, continuance in time ; en-dure, to bear ; en-dur-
ance ; ob-dur-ate, stubborn ; ob-dur-acy.

err (erro, I wander) err-or ; err-ant ; err-at-ic, wandering ;

un-err-ing; err-o-ne-ous.

fact (facio, I make; /actus, made) fact-or, one who makes;

fact-or-y, place where things are made ; fact-ion ; af-fect,
to act on, to move the feelings ; af- feet-ion ; af-fect-ion-
ate; de-fect, something not done, a shortcoming; de-
fect-ive; ef-fect, a deed drawn out of something else;
ef-fect-ive; per-fect, something done through and
through, or thoroughly; im-per-fect.

-fer (fero, I bear) con-fer, to bring together; con-fer-ence, a

meeting; de-fer, to put off; de-fer-ence; dif-fer, to
beer or put apart, to disagree; dif-f er-ence ; of-fer, to
put forward; pre-fer; re-fer; suf-fer; trans-fer.

firm (jinn us, strong) flrm-ness; in-firm, not strong ; in-flrm-i-ty ;

ln-flrm-a-ry, a plane lor the Infirm, a hospital; flrm-a-
ment, the sky, supposed by the enoients to be solid;
af-flrm, to make strong, (■■ assert a.s true; con-firm, to
make firm together, to make more firm.

form [format shape) form-al, aooording to form; form-al-i-ty ;

in-form-al; con-form, to be or make of the same form
with; con-form-i-ty; con-form-ist ; non-con-form-ist;
de-form, to spoil the form of; in-form, to put into

WORD-BUILDING.

85

English Stem. Derivatives.

form ; mis-in-form ; per-form, to form or do through
and through ; per-form-ance ; re-form, to form again ;
re-form-a-tion ; trans-form, to change the form of.

grace... {gratus, thankful) grace-fail; grace-less; grac-i-ous, with

much grace ; dis-grace, being out of grace ; dis-grace-
ful : grat-is, by grace, for nothing ; grate-ful ; grat-i-
tude; grat-i-fy; grat-i-fi-ca-tion.

habit {habeo, I have; habitus, had) habit-u-ate, to acquire a

habit ; habit-a-ble ; in-habit, to make a habit of living
in ; in-habit-ant ; habit-u-al : ex-hibit, to hold out to
view; pro-hlbit, to hold forward, to hinder.

-ject (jacio, I throw; jactus, thrown) e-ject, to throw out;

e-ject-ment; inter-ject, to throw between; intersect-
ion; ob-ject, to throw against; ob-ject-ion, the act of
throwing against ; pro-ject; re-ject; sub-ject, to throw
or put under; ad-ject-ive, a word thrown or added to
a noun; de-ject-ed, cast down.

Join (jungo, I join.; functus, joined) join-er; joint; joint-ly;

junct-ion, the act of joining; ad-join; con-join; con-
junct-ion; dis-join; re-join.

-lect {lego, I gather; lectus, gathered) col-lect, to gather to-
gether; col-lect-or; col-lect-ion ; re-col-lect; e-lect, to
gather or choose out ; ne-g-lect, not to gather ; se-lect,
to choose apart, to pick out.

magni- {magnus, great) magni-fy, to make great; magni-fi-cent ;

magni-tude, greatness.

-mit {mitto, I send; missus, sent) com-mit, to send with a

thing, to intrust ; com-mit-tee, persons to whom a thing
is committed ; e-mit, to send out ; o-mit, to send away,
to leave out ; re-mit ; sub-mit ; trans-mit.

note {nota, a mark) not-a-ble, worthy of note ; not-a-tion, act

of noting ; not-ice, taking note ; not-ice-a-ble ; not-i-fy,
to make known ; de-note, to note or mark, to mean.

ord-er (ordo, ordin-is, order) ord-er-ly, with good order; dis-

ord-er, want of order ; ordin-a-ry, according to the com-
mon order ; extra-ordin-a-ry, out of the common order.

part (pars, part-is, a part) part-ner, one who has a part with

others ; part-ner-ship ; part-i-al, relating to a part only ;
im-part-i-al ; a-part, parted from ; de-part, to part
asunder ; de-part-ure ; im-part, to give a part of.

-pel (pello, I drive; pulms, driven) corn-pel, to drive together;

dis-pel, to drive asunder ; ex-pel, to drive out ; im-pel,
to drive on ; pro-pel, to drive forward ; re-pel, to drive
back : pulse, a beating ; im-pulse ; re-pulse.

86 WORD-BUILDING.

English Stem. Derivatives.

-pend {pendo, I hang; pensus, hung) ap-pend, to hang to; de-
pend, to hang from ; de-pend-ant, one who depends on
another ; in-de-pend-ent ; in-de-pend-ence ; pend-ant,
something hanging ; sus-pend, to hang under.

-pend {pendo, I weigh) ex-pend,to weigh out, to pay; ex-pend-i-

ture, what is paid out ; pen-sion, a weighing, a payment ;
dis-pense, to weigh out in portions ; ex-pense.

-pone (pono, I place) de-pone, to lay down, as a pledge, to give

evidence ; com-pon-ent, placed together ; post-pone, to
place after, to put off ; re-pone, to replace in an office.

-pose {pono, I place; positus, placed) posit-ion, state of being

placed, place ; posit-ive, placed or fixed ; post, a place ;
post-ure, position of body; com-pose, to place toge-
ther ; de-com-pose, to place apart ; de-pose, to put
down; dis-pose; ex-pose; im-pose ; op-pose; pro-
pose ; re-pose ; sup-pose.

-port {porto, I carry) ex-port, to carry or send out of a country ;

im-port, to carry into a country; re-port, to carry
back, to repeat; sup-port, to carry or bear from under;
trans-port ; port-a-ble ; port-er, a carrier.

press {premo, I press; prcssus, pressed) corn-press, to press

together ; de-press, to press down ; ex-press, t< > press out,
to utter; im-press, to press upon; op-press; re-press;
sup-press.

-rect {rego, I rule; rectus, straight) rect-or, a ruler, in the

church; rect-or-y, place where a rector lives; rect-i-fy,
to make right; rect-i-tude, uprightness; cor-rect, to
put right; di-rect, to guide; e-rect, to set up.

-rupt {rumpo, I break; ruptus, broken) ab-rupt, broken off;

cor-rupt, broken to pieces, f ull of errors ; cor-rupt-i-ble;
dis-rupt-ion, breaking asunder; e-rupt-ion, breaking
out; inter-rupt; ir-rupt-ion, a breaking in; rupt-ure.

scribe {scribo, I write) a-scribe, to write an addition to; de-
scribe, to write about; in-scribe, to write upon J sub-
scribe, to write (the name) under; sub-scrip-tlon.

-script (scrij'tiis, written) script, written ohsjaoter; script-ure, a

saeied writing; 8Cript-U-raL

-side {.v(Uo, I sit) pre-side, to sit. before or over others ; re-side,

to sit down, to dwell] sub-side, to sit under, to settle;
as-sid-U-OUS, sitting close at work ; in-sid-i-ous, sitting
in wait, treaoherous; as-Biz-es, sittings » .f a oourt.

session.. (sassio, a sitting) as-sess, to set or ti\ a tax ; as-se8s-ment;

pos-sess, to sit as mester.of] pos-sess-ive; pos-sebs-ion,
act, of possessing, or thing possessed.

WORD-BUILDING. 87

English Stem. Derivatives.

-serve (servo, I keep) con-serve, to keep together or entire;

con-serv-a-to-ry, place for conserving (flowers) ; ob-serve,
to keep in view ; ob-serv-a-to-ry, place for observing (the
stars) ; un-ob-serv-ed ; pre-serve, to keep, before or in
presence of an enemy ; re-serve, to keep back.

sign (signum, a mark) sig-nal, remarkable ; sig-nal-ize, to make

remarkable; sig-ni-fy, to make a sign for, to mean;
sig-ni-fi-cant ; as-sign, to mark to a person ; de-sign, to
mark out, to plan ; en-sign ; re-sign, to sign away.

-sist (sisto, I stop, stand) as-sist, to stand to or by; con-sist,

to stand along with ; de-sist, to stand away, to forbear ;
ex-ist, to stand out, to live ; co-ex-ist, to live together ;
pre-ex-ist, to live at an earlier time ; in-sist, to stand on,
to be firm ; per-sist, to stand through, to persevere ; re-
sist, to stand against ; sub-sist, to stand under, to have
the means of living ; ir-re-sist-i-ble.

state (sto, I stand; status, stood; stans, standing) state-ly,

showing state or dignity; state-ment, a thing stated;
stat-ion, a standing-place ; stat-ion-a-ry, standing still ;
stat-ion-er, keeper of a book station or stand ; stat-ion-
er-y; e-state, standing, property.

tend (tendo, I stretch, I strive) at-tend, to stretch the mind to;

at-tent-ion; con-tend, to strive with; dis-tend, to
stretch apart; ex-tend, to stretch out; ex-ten-sive;
in-tend, to stretch or fix the mind on; pre-tend, to
stretch something out before one, so as to hide.

tract (traho, I draw; tractus, drawn) tract-a-ble, able to be

drawn; abs-tract, to draw out; at-tract, to draw to;
con-tract, to draw together; de-tract, to draw away
from; dis-tract; ex-tract; re-tract; sub-tract: trace,
a track made by drawing ; re-trace.

verse (i-erto, I turn; versus, turned) verse, a line of poetry, at

the end of which the reader turns to the next line;
vers-i-fy, to make verses; vers-ion, a passage turned,
an exercise; con- verse, to turn together, to talk; ad-
verse, turned to, or against ; di-verse, in different direc-
tions; di-vers-i-fy ; per-verse, turned thoroughly.

vis-it {video, I see; visus, seen) vls-it-or; vis-ion, thing seen;

vis-i-ble, able to be seen ; in-vis-i-ble ; re-vise, to look
over again; re-vis-ion; pro-vide, to see to beforehand;
pro-vis-ion; e-vid-ent, easily seen.

88 PARAPHRASING.

PARAPHRASING.

1. A Paraphrase expresses the meaning of a passage of prose
or of poetry in different language from that of the original.
The change made is one of form only, not of substance. A
paraphrase resembles a free translation ; a translation, that is,
which, without following the original word by word, gives its
pith or spirit in a new and original form.

2. Paraphrasing of this kind is one of the most useful and prac-
tical exercises in Composition. It obviates the chief difficulty
which young people encounter in attempting to write — the diffi-
culty, namely, of finding material. The task of casting ideas in ilie
mould of sentences is of itself sufficiently trying for the powers of
the pupil ; but his difficulty is made much greater by asking him
to invent the ideas as well. In paraphrase, the ideas are supplied.
The pupil is required only to give them original expression.

3. To this end, however, it is necessary that the pupil should
make himself master of the passage to be paraphrased. When
he shall have firmly grasped its meaning, he will have little
difficulty in expressing it in language of his own.

4. There is no better way of bringing out the salient points
of a passage than to prepare an exhaustive series of questions
on it. The answers to these questions, given, not in the words
of the original, but in the scholar's own words, will form a com-
plete abstract of the passage. To make a paraphrase in this
way, each answer must be in the form of a complete sentence;
and care must be taken to connect the several sentences, so as
to make the narrative continuous.

5. The following are the principal changes that maybe made
in the course of paraphrasing: —

(1.) Change of words; as, —

" The power of Fortune is oonfeeaed only by (he miserable; for
the happy Impute all their rooooee t.<> prudence and merit."

Changed: —

The injiinm; (,f Fortune is <i<{n>ittt<i only by the Ka/orftmate;
for the protjN row tuetibt ;iii their luooen to forcthouoht and merit.

PARAPHRASING. 80

(2.) Change of order; as, —

" In all speculations on men and on human affairs, it it of no
small moment to distinguish things of accident from permanent
causes."

Changed: —
To distinguish things of accident from permanent causes, is of
no small moment in all speculations on men and on human affairs.

(3.) Change of construction ; as,—

" What passion cannot music raise and quell?"

Changed: —
There is no passion which music cannot raise and quell.

Or,
Every passion can be raised and quelled by music.

(4.) Change of figurative into plain language ; as, —

(a) " And now the rising morn with rosy light

Adorns the skies, and puts the stars to flight. "

Changed : —
And now day breaks ;

Or,
And now morning begins to dawn.

(b) " Now came still evening on, and twilight gray

Had in her sober livery all things clad."

Changed : —
Evening stole over the landscape, and all nature was covered
with the gray shades of twilight.

(5.) Putting a general word for particulars; as, —

" Helm, axe, and falchion glittered bright."

Changed : —
Arms and armour gleamed brightly.

(6.) Change of figure ; as, —

" The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is often interred with their bones. "

Changed : —
Men's evil deeds are recorded on brass; their good ones are
often written in water.

90 PARAPHRASING.

(7.) Omission of unnecessary remarks and ornaments of
style ; as, —

" Wide o'er the sky the splendour glows,
As that portentous meteor rose ;
Helm, axe, and falchion glittered bright,
And in the red and dusky light
His comrade's face each warrior saw,
Nor marvelled it was pale with awe.
Then high in air the beams were lost,
And darkness sank upon the coast."

Paraphrased : —
As the meteor rose higher and higher, and its brightness in-
creased, the faces of the warriors turned pale from fear. At
last, when high up in the heavens, it disappeared, and all was
dark.

EXAMPLE.

Self- Devotion. — When the Saracens were besieging a Lom-
bard city in 874 a.d., the Lombards, after 'a vain appeal to
the French King, resolved to 'implore the aid of the Greek
Emperor. During the siege, a fearless citizen dropped from
the wall by night, 'passed the intrenchments of the enemy, and
'accomplished his mission to the Emperor. As he was return-
ing with the welcome news, he fell into the hands of the
barbarians. They commanded him to 'assist their enterprise,
and betray his countrymen, assuring him that wealth and
honours should be the reward of sincerity, but that falsehood
would be punished with immediate death. lit- "a fleeted to
yield; but as soon as he was 'conducted within hearing of the
Christians on tdie ramparts, he cried out with a loud voire,
" Friends and brethren, be b«>M and patient : 'maintain the
city; deliverance is at hand. I know niv doom, and commit
my wife and children to your gratitude." The rage of the

Arabs confirmed his evidence, and the devoted hero fell trans-
fixed with ;i score of spears.

\ \ III I. II is or IMIKASE.

A vain appeal. A usrirss application; an onsuoosssral request; :i

barren request.
Implore the aid. -Beg tin- assistance; throw tntmsaWn on the

clemency; ask for ths liolp.

PARAPHRASING.

91

Passed the intrenchments. — Made his way through the lines; got
beyond the siege-works.

Accomplished his mission. — Succeeded in his object; effected his pur-
pose ; secured the favour of the Emperor ; obtained a promise of
aid.

Assist their enterprise. — Give them help; further their designs;
espouse their cause.

Affected to yield. — Pretended to submit; made them believe that he
acquiesced.

Conducted within hearing". — Led near; brought within ear-shot;
could make himself heard by.

Maintain the city. — Don't surrender; holdout.

Questions.

1. Who were besieging a Lom-
bard city in 874?

2. To whom did the Lombards
apply for help? With what suc-
cess? *

3. What did they determine to
do?

4. How were their wishes con-
veyed to him?

5. What answer did the Em-
peror return? and what did the
Lombard do?

Complete Answers.

1. The Saracens were besieging
one of the cities of the Lombards
in 874.

2. The Lombards prayed for
succour from the French King;
but in vain.

3. They then determined to
throw themselves on the clemency
of the Greek Emperor.

4. Their wishes were conveyed
to him by a brave Lombard, who
made his way by night through
the enemy's lines.

5. The Emperor promised to
send immediate succour to the be-
sieged city ; and the Lombard
hastened back with the tdad tid-

6. What befell him on his way?

7. What did the Saracens re-
quire of him?

6. Before he could reach the
city again, he was captured by the
Saracens.

7. They required of him as the
price of his life, that he should
espouse their cause, and act faith-
fully with them against his fellow-
citizens.

* It is often advisable, and sometimes necessary, to join the answers to two
or more questions in one sentence. The questions are numbered according to
the sentences ; and when two questions appear under one number, it is intended
that the answers should be conjoined.

92 PARAPHRASING.

8. How did he act at first? How 8. At first he pretended to sub-
when he neared the walls? mit, and advanced with the enemy

toward the city; but no sooner
could he make himself be heard by
his friends on the ramparts, than
he shouted to them that deliver-
ance was at hand, and that they
were on no account to surrender.

9. What did he add about him- 9. He added, " I know my fate;
self? but I intrust my wife and children

to my fellow-citizens.''

10. What did the Arabs then 10. Thereupon the furious Arabs
do? rushed on him, and despatched

him with many wounds.

THE PARAPHRASE.

Self- Devotion. — The Saracens were besieging one of the cities
of the Lombards in 874. The Lombards prayed for help from
the French King ; but in vain. They then determined to throw
themselves on the clemency of the Greek Emperor. Their
wishes were conveyed to him by a brave Lombard, who made
his way by night through the enemy's lines. The Emperor
promised to send immediate succour to the besieged city ; and
the Lombard hastened back with the glad tidings. Before he
could reach the city again, he was captured by the Saracens ;
who required, as the price of his life, that he should espouse
their cause, and act faithfully with them against his fellow-
citizens. At first he pretended to submit, and advanced with
the enemy toward the city ; but no sooner could he make him-
self be heard by his friends on the ramparts, than he .shouted
to them that deliverance was at hand, and that the) were on
no account to surrender. He added, " I know my fate ; but I
intrust my wife and children to my fellow-citizens." There*
u pon the furious Arabs rushed on him, and despatched him
with many wounds.

y.B. — For practice, the scholars should be required to answer
in writing questions on their reading lessons.

SENTENCE-MAKING. 93

SENTENCE-MAKING.

1. Use simple words.

It is a common fault of young writers to use fine-sounding
words, of which they often do not know the meaning. This
habit should be as much as possible discouraged. As a rule,
the scholar should not go to the dictionary in search of words.
He should use his own stock of words, and should refer to a
dictionary only when he is in doubt about the exact meaning
and use of a word which he has occasion to employ.

It is worth remembering that the most powerful orators — in
the pulpit and on the platform, at the bar and in Parliament —
have been men who preferred short and telling words of English
origin, to high-flown terms borrowed from classical sources.
The reason is plain : the former belong to our native speech ;
the latter are of foreign origin. " He proceeded to his resi-
dence, and there perused the volume," is weak and affected.
"He went home and read the book," is plain and forcible, and
goes straight to the mark.

2. Use few words.

Never use two words when your meaning can be expressed
by one. Instead of " Through the whole period of his existence,
say " Through his whole life." Instead of " He writes very
like the man whose pupil he was," say " He writes very like his
master." Avoid also the heaping up of words of similar mean-
ing in such phrases as, " clear and obvious," " mild and gentle,"
" cruel and barbarous."

3. Use the right words.

That is to say, use the words that most exactly express your
meaning. Here the dictionaries are often misleading. " Con-
stant" and " perpetual" are words of similar meaning, and they
are given for each other in most dictionaries ; yet the one may
be used in many places where it would be improper to use the
other. For example, we may say correctly that a boy and his

94 SENTENCE- MAKING.

dog were " constant playmates ; " but to call them " perpetual
playmates" would be absurd. "Carry" and "convey" are
synonyms; but they cannot always be used for each other.
"The dog fetched and carried" is good English; "The dog
fetched and conveyed" is nonsense.

4. Put the right words in the right places.

This is necessary, to secure clearness. The misplacing of a
word or a phrase may alter the meaning of an entire sentence.
Even where the meaning of the individual words is not mistak-
able, it is important that the construction should leave no room
for doubt. For example : " The prisoner heard the neighing
of his horse, as he lay at night by the side of one of the tents."
Here it is not clear whether the prisoner or his horse " lay at
night by the side of one of the tents." To make this point
clear, say : " The prisoner, as he lay at night by the side of one
of the tents, heard the neighing of his horse." Again : " She
hit a man with a stone on his back" is ambiguous. "She hit a
man on his back with a stone" is clear. " Edward fled without
drawing bridle to Dunbar" may suggest an absurd idea.
" Edward fled to Dunbar without drawing bridle" is unmis-
takable.

5. Write short sentences.

In a long sentence a great many ideas are put before the
mind together. The mind is thereby subjected to a needless
strain, which often causes confusion. In short sentences, "ii
the other hand, each point is presented Separately. The ideas
are taken in by the reader in detail; and he places them in
their true connection all the more easily because lie seizes each
of them by itself.

If the plan of using short words in short sentences were
closely followed, it would overcome most of the difficulties

which young people have in writing correctly and effectively.
Grammatical errors would be less frequent, Kecause involved
constructions would be avoided. There would be no occasion,
besides, for attending to niceties of punctuation. Indeed it
should rarely be accessary tor young writers to use any other
points than the period and the comma.

PUNCTUATION. 95

PUNCTUATION.

1. Punctuation is the use of points in composition. The
points most used are, —

The Period ( . ) and the Comma ( , )

In some cases it is necessary also to use

The Semicolon ( ; ) and the Colon ( : )

2. The chief use of Punctuation is to make the meaning of
what we write as plain as possible. Points help to do this in
two ways : — First, by separating words that are to be kept apart
in meaning ; secondly, by grouping words that are to be taken
together.

EXAMPLE.

" Ever and anon he pressed the hand to his lips, then hugged it
to his breast again, murmuring that it was warmer now."

Here a comma is used to separate the two statements, " he
pressed the hand" and he "hugged it"; and the comma after
" again" serves to connect that word with " hugged it to his
breast," and, at the same time, to separate it from " murmur-
ing." The period marks the close of the sentence ; that is to
say, it separates the whole sentence from that which follows.

3. The period and the comma are the points most frequently
used, and some writers rarely use any other.

4. The period marks the close of a sentence. If a sen-
tence be Simple, and contain no explanatory phrases, no other
point is needed.

5. The comma separates two simple statements, or two
explanatory phrases, or an interjected word from the
rest of the sentence.

96 PUNCTUATION.

EXAMPLES.
Hubert rode on, his brother's horse being lame.
Hubert rode on his brother's horse, being lame.
Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was born at Stratford-on-

Avon, where he also died.
History, moreover, is a very profitable study.
Henry was kind, liberal, and forgiving.
He was kind and liberal, gentle and forgiving.

G. The semicolon is used to separate the members of a
sentence when one or more of these are complex. When
a sentence consists of several great divisions, within which
commas are used, the great divisions are separated from one
another by semicolons : —

EXAMPLE.
" Sloth makes all things difficult, but Industry all easy; and he
that riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake
his business at night; while Laziness travels so slowly, that
Poverty soon overtakes him."

7. The colon is used to separate members of a sen-
tence in which semicolons are used :—

EXAMPLE.
" If this life is unhappy, it is a burden to us which it is difficult
to bear; if it is in every respect happy, it is dreadful to he
deprived of it: so that, in either case, the result is the same;
for we must exist in anxiety and apprehension."

8. The dash (— ) is used to indicate a sudden break in
a sentence.

EXAMPLE.
At every place winch we visited London, Taris, Lmssels,
I'.i rliu we found letters awaiting us.

'.). The interrogation (?) is used after questions, and
the exclamation ( ! ) after expressions of surprise or sor-
row.

EXAMPLE

(> shame ! where is thy Mush?

^ U -1

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