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ENGLISH   EOOTS. 


DUBLIN  :   PRINTED  BY  ROBERT  CHAPMAN. 


(9^(i 


ENGLISH  ROOTS: 

AND 

THE   DERIVATION    OF   WORDS 

FROM  THE 

TWO        LECTUKES 

ENLARGED : 

WITH  A  SUPPLEMENT. 


EDWARD     NEWENHAM     HOARE,    M.  A. 

DEAN  OF  WATERFORD  ; 
CHAPLAIN  TO  HIS  EXCELLENCY  THE  LORD  LIEUTENANT  OF  IRELAND, 


Cl^irJi  €biti0«,  taafullK  rcfaiscb. 


DUBLIN: 

HODGES,   SMITH,   AND   CO.,   104,  GRAFTON-STREET. 

BOOKSELLERS  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

LONDON:  SIMPKIN,  MARSHALL  &  CO.,  STATIONERS'-HALL  COURT. 
MDCCCLXIII. 


.S 

TO  HIS  EXCELLENCY  f\J^  £i     i     iyj 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  FREDERIC,  EARL  OF^  CARLISLE,  K.G. 

LORD  LIEUTENANT  OF  IRELAND, 

ETC.,  ETC.,  ETC., 

A 

OEIGINALLT  ADDEE8SED  TO  THE  MBMBEBS  OF  THE 

WATERFORD  MECHANICS'  SCIENTIFIC  INSTITUTE, 

OF   WHICH   HIS   EXCELLENCY  IS 

PATRON, 
[bt  permission] 

WITH  EVERY  SENTIMENT  OF  ADMIRATION  AND  RESPECT 

FOE 

HIS       PUBLIC       SERVICES        AND       PRIVATE       VIRTUES 

BT 

HIS    excellency's 

OBEDIENT  AND  OBLIGED 

HUMBLE    SERVANT, 

EDWARD   N.  HOARE. 


031 


"We  often  hear  of  public-spirited  individuals,  of  men  who 
are  friendly  to  the  poor  and  the  working  classes,  of  liberal- 
minded  persons  anxious  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  the 
cultivation  of  intellectual  pursuits.  But  no  one  has  a  right  to 
assume  such  titles — to  take  credit  for  both  zeal  and  knowledge, 
if  he  have  done  nothing  in  his  neighbourhood  to  promote  a 
popular  Lecture." — Lord  Brougham. 


PEEFACE 

TO    THE    FIKST    EDITION. 

The  following  Lectures  were  delivered,  at  the 
close  of  a  course  on  various  subjects,  for  the 
Summer  Session,  1855,  by  members  of  the 
Waterford  Mechanics'  Scientific  Institute, 
of  which  the  author  has  the  honour  to  be  a  Vice- 
President  ;  and,  at  the  request  of  his  audience, 
he  now  commits  them  to  the  press. 

The  derivation  of  words  is  a  subject  which  has, 
of  late,  attracted  much  attention,  and  upon  which 
several  useful  works  have  been  published.  The 
writer  of  the  following  pages  has  confined  him- 
self to  words  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
having  being  led  to  the  consideration  of  this 
branch  of  the  subject  by  the  perusal  of  the  cu- 
rious and  scarce  work  of  Verstegan,  entitled — 
A  Restitution  of  decayed  Intelligence  in  Anti- 
quities, concerning  the  most  noble  and  renowned 
English  Nation  ;  of  which  the  first  Edition  was 
published  in  1605,  and  dedicated  to  King  James  I. 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

To  this  interesting  work  the  writer  is  indebted, 
in  a  great  measure,  not  only  for  his  first  impres- 
sions on  the  subject,  but  also  for  much  of  the 
information  contained  in  this  volume,  more  espe- 
cially as  it  relates  to  the  derivation  of  Proper 
names,  and  the  origin  of  Titles  of  honour  and  of 
office.* 

While  many  of  the  derivations  given  in  these 
Lectures  have  not  been  met  with  elsewhere,  the 
greater  number  have  been  suggested  by  reference 
to  the  researches  of  others.  The  author  desires 
particularly  to  acknowledge  the  valuable  assist- 
ance derived  from  the  excellent  and  comprehen- 
sive Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language^  by  Dr.  Richardson.  Nor  must  he 
omit  to  record  his  obligations  to  the  Diversions 
of  Pv.rley^  under  which  quaint  title,  Horne  Tooke 
gave  to  the  world  his  ingenious  philological 
disquisitions,  f 

It  may  be  proper  to  state  that  much  has  been 


*  The  Edition  from  which  quotations  have  been  made  in  this 
Volume  is  that  of  1634. 

t  The  following,  amongst  others,  have  likewise  been  consulted  : — 
Lye's  Diet.  Saxon ;  Somner's  Lexicon ;  Bosworth's  Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar  and  Dictionary;  Benson's  Vocab.  Anglo-Saxonicum ;  and 
Halli well's  Dictionary  of  Archaic  and  Provincial  words ;  as  also 
Johnson's  and  Webster's  Dictionaries  ;  Winning's  Comparative  Philo- 
logy ;  Archbishop  Whately's  Synonyms ;  Dean  Trench's  Lectures ; 
Professor  Sullivan's  Dictionary ;  and  Richardson's  Study  of  Language. 


PREFACE.  IX 

added  to  the  following  Lectures,  which,  the  time 
usually  allotted  to  such  addresses  would  not  allow 
of  being  included  when  they  were  delivered. 

In  thus  addressing  such  bodies  as  Mechanics' 
Institutes,  the  author  follows,  at  humble  distance, 
the  example  of  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
public  characters  of  the  present  day ;  and  he  feels 
that,  so  far  from  the  adoption  of  such  a  course 
being  in  any  way  derogatory  to  the  office  of  a 
minister  of  religion,  it  constitutes  an  important, 
although  it  be  but  a  secondary,  part  of  his  duty, 
to  promote,  by  every  means  within  his  power, 
such  objects  of  general  utility  as  the  members  of 
all  religious  persuasions  can  unite  to  carry  into 
effect,  with  a  view  to  the  physical,  moral,  and 
social  improvement  of  his  fellow-countrymen  of 
all  classes  and  creeds. 

Foremost  amongst  such  objects,  may  be  reckoned 
the  establishment  of  popular  lectures,  as  a  means 
of  advancing  the  great  cause  of  educational 
progress,  to  which  the  author  is  happy  to  add  the 
following  humble  contribution. 


Deanery,  Waterford. 
August  1,  1855. 


PEEFACE 

TO    THE    SECOND    EDITION. 


A  SECOND  Edition  of  tliis  work  having  been 
called  for,  the  author  has  taken  occasion  carefully 
to  revise  tlie  whole,  at  the  same  time  making 
several  additions  to  the  Lectures  as  they  originally 
appeared.* 

A  Supplement  has  also  been  appended,  in  which 
will  be  found  upwards  of  four  hundred  additional 
words,  traced  to  their  Anglo-Saxon  roots.  These 
have  been  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  although 
not  given  in  a  formal  catalogue;  and  will,  the 
author  hopes,  prove  interesting  to  the  general 
reader,  as  well  as  useful  to  teachers,  many  of  whom 
have  introduced  this  work  as  a  text-book  into  their 
schools.  The  Commissioners  of  National  Educa- 
tion in  Ireland  have  also  purchased  copies  of  the 
work,  for  the  Teachers  trained  in  their  Model 
Schools  in  Dublin. 

*  The  additions  to  the  Lectures  extend  to  eight  pages  in  each. 


PREFACE.  XI 

The  adoption  of  this  work  as  a  class-book  in 
schools,  has  given  it  a  place  in  educational  litera- 
ture which  the  author  could  never  have  antici- 
pated, and  which  if  he  had  foreseen,  would 
probably  have  led  him  to  adopt  a  different  mode  of 
treating  the  subject.  He  does  not  regret  this, 
however,  as  perhaps  the  more  simple  method  and 
style  of  popular  Lectures,  in  illustrating  what  is 
generally  considered  a  "  dry"  subject,  may  prove 
more  entertaining,  and  at  the  same  time  not  less 
iustructive,  than  if  the  same  amount  of  informa- 
tion had  been  conveyed  through  the  medium  of  a 
more  formal  and  elaborate  treatise. 


Deanery,  Waterford, 
January  \st,  1856. 


PKEFACE 

TO    THIKD    EDITION. 


This  Edition  will  be  found  to  be,  for  the  most 
part,  a  reprint  of  the  Second ;  the  whole  having 
been,  however,  carefully  revised,  and  some  few 
additions  having  been  made. 

Since  the  publication  of  the  former  Editions 
of  this  work,  the  substance  of  the  following 
Lectures  has  been  delivered,  as  an  address  to 
u  Working  Men's  Associations,"  in  different  places 
in  England ,  where  the  volume  has  had  considerable 
circulation. 


Deanery,  Waterford. 
Jan.  1,  1863. 


CONTENTS. 


LECTURE  I. 

INTRODUCTION—British  not  spoken  by  the  present  English ; 
nor  Irish  by  all  the  People  of  Ireland — Mixture  of  Races 
in  Ireland — Origin  of  Diversities  of  Langiaage — Teuton, 
Founder  of  Saxon  Race — Manus  or  Noah — Origin  of  the  Term 
Babbler — First  Arrival  of  Saxons  in  Britain — Brittany 
formerly  called  Armorica — Sasonaghs — Saxons,  wherefore  so 
called — England,  why  so  named,  and  by  whom, — Origin  of 
the  Names  of  Goths,  Vandals,  Lombards,  and  Welsh — 
Invasion  of  the  Danes — Norman  Conquest — Efforts  to  sup- 
press the  Anglo-Saxon — the  Conquest  proved  a  Means  of 
spreading  the  Saxon  Language — Norman-French  the  Lan- 
guage of  the  Court — Saxon  the  People's  Language  to  this 
Day — Normans  soon  adopted  the  English  Tongue — their 
Original  Language  had  been  Teutonic — Words  derived  from 
Latin  introduced  chiefly  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth 
Centuries — Normans  the  Possessors  of  the  Soil,  and  Saxons 
Tillers  of  the  Land — ^Words  relating  to  Agriculture  chiefly 
Saxon — Animals  in  the  Field  called  by  Saxon  Names ;  but 
Animal  Food  when  killed,  by  Norman-French — Bacon,  an 
Exception — Origin  of  the  Phrase,  To  save  0  le's  Bacon — 
Days  of  the  Week,  and  Seasons  of  the  Year,  retain  their 
Saxon  Names ;  but  the  Months  derived  from  Latin — Origin 
of  Names  of  Days  of  the  Week — Lent  and  Easter,  wherefore 
so  called — Derivation  of  Almanac — the  Saxons  counted  Time 
by  the  Nights,  and  the  Age  of  Man  by  the  Winters — ^Words 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

relating  to  Handicraft-Trades,  Saxon — Words  applicable  to 
Warfare,  French — Nautical  Terms  and  Phrases,  Saxon — 
Words  relating  to  Science  and  Government,  of  Greek  Origin 
— simple  Nouns  and  Verbs,  Saxon;  but  Adjectives  and  De- 
rivatives, taken  from  Foreign  Languages — Monosyllables 
prevail  in  Anglo-Saxon — Dealers  in  Necessaries  of  Life 
called  "Monger,"  from  Saxon — those  in  Luxuries,  "Mer- 
chant," from  the  French — Shires  in  England,  but  Counties  in 
Ireland — Derivation  of  various  Words  of  Saxon  Origin  [for 
Particulars  of  which,  see  Index  to  Words  at  the  End  of 
the  Volume] — Home  Tooke's  Etymology  of  Conjunctions, 
Adverbs,  and  Prepositions — Interjections — "Pagans"  and 
"  Heathen"  are  of  similar  Signification — Words  pronounced 
alike,  but  of  different  Meanings  and  Origin — the  Names  of 
the  Parts  of  the  Human  Body,  of  Plants  and  Trees,  and  of 
Animals,  of  Saxon  Derivation,  and,  for  the  most  part. 
Monosyllables, 1 

LECTURE  II. 

Derivation  of  various  W6rds  of  Saxon  Origin,  continued  [for 
Particulars  of  which,  see  Index  to  Words  at  the  End  of  the 
Volume] — Origin  of  "  Carouse"  and  "  Wassail,"  and  of 
"  Drinking  Healths" — Vortigem  and  Rowena — Law  Terms 
— the  Royal  Assent — Divisions  in  Houses  of  Lords  and  Com- 
mons— Disposition  to  borrow  Words  from  French — Anecdote 
by  Verstegan  connected  with  newly  introduced  Words — 
Necessity  of  Words  of  Saxon  Origin  in  English — less  Saxon 
in  Ireland  than  in  England — Changes  in  Pronunciation  of 
Words — "  Irishisms" — Words  made  to  rhyme,  indicating  the 
Pronunciation  at  the  Time  when  the  Poets  flourished — 
Instances  from  Pope,  Swift,  Cowper,  and  Lady  Mary 
Wortley — Changes  in  Orthography  of  many  such  Words — 
Pronunciation  of  Words,  like  the  Fashions,  arbitrary — Pre- 
fixes and  Afiixes  of  Saxon  Origin — Titles  of  Honour  and  of 
Office — Derivation  of  various  Saxon  Christian  Names — 
Surnames — Expressive  Character  of  the  English  Language — 
Preponderance  of  Words  of  Saxon  Origin — exemplified  by 


CONTENTS.  XV 

Pack. 
Annotations  from,  or  Reference  to,  Milton,  Shakspeare,  Swift, 
Scott,  Gray,  Cowper,  Byron,  Pope,  and  Tennyson — Dr. 
Johnson's  Style  less  Saxon — Advantage  of  Words  borrowed 
from  Latin  and  Greek — Synonyms — Importance  of  Simplicity 
and  Clearness  of  Style — Saxon  generally  preferable  to 
adopted  Words — Prevalence  of  the  English  Language,      70  to  130 

SUPPLEMENT. 

Remarks  on  the  Proportion  of  Words  in  the  English  Language 
derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  the  Character  of  such 
Words,  as  compared  with  those  of  other  Origin — Additional 
Anglo-Saxon  Words,  with  many  now  obsolete,  and  those  still 
in  LTse,  derived  from  them  [for  Particulars  of  which,  see  Index 
to  Words  at  the  End  of  the  Volume] — Remarks  of  Grimm 
on  the  English  Language — and  of  Harrison  in  Hollinshed's 
Chronicle — Conclusion,         .         .         .         .         .         131  to  209 

INDICES. 

Index  to  Words  explained  in  the  Lectures  and  Supplement — 
Index  to  Proper  Names — Table  of  Reference  to  Classes  of 
Words,  and  their  Derivations,         .         .         .         .       210  to  223 


"I  SHOULD  think  that  person  a  very  injudicious  friend  to  Mechanics' 
Institutes,  who  should  pretend  that,  in  your  reading  rooms  and  lecture 
rooms,  the  means  were  afforded  of  turning  out  your  members  as 
finished  scholars,  or  ready-made  philosophers,  or  of  conferring  those 
distinctions  which  must  always  be  the  reward  of  the  midnight  oil  of 
the  student,  or  the  life-long  researches  of  the  experimentalist.  But,  if 
it  be  the  object  to  raise  the  toiling  masses  of  our  countrymen  above 
the  range  of  sordid  cares  and  low  desires — to  enliven  the  weary  toil 
and  drudgery  of  life  with  the  countless  graces  of  literature,  and  the 
sparkling  play  of  fancy — to  clothe  the  lessons  of  duty  and  of  prudence 
in  the  niost  instructive  as  well  as  the  most  inviting  forms — to  throw 
open  to  eyes,  dull  and  bleared  with  the  irksome  monotony  of  their  daily 
task-work,  the  rich  resources  and  bountiful  prodigalities  of  nature — to 
dignify  the  present  with  the  lessons  of  the  past  and  the  visions  of 
the  future — to  make  the  artisans  of  our  crowded  workshops  and  the 
inhabitants  of  our  most  sequestered  villages  alive  to  all  that  is  going 
on  in  the  big  universe  around  them,  and,  amidst  all  the  startling  and 
repelling  distinctions  of  our  country,  to  place  all  upon  the  equal 
domain  of  intellect  and  of  genius; — if  these  objects — and  they  are 
neither  slight  nor  trivial- — are  worthy  of  acceptance  and  approval,  I 
think  they  can  be  satisfactorily  attained  by  the  means  which  Mechanics' 
Institutes  place  at  your  disposal ;  and  it  is  upon  grounds  like  these 
that  I  urge  you  to  tender  them  your  encouragement  and  support." — 
Lectures  cmd  Addresses ;  hy  the  Earl  of  Carlisle. 


ENGLISH  EOOTS, 

&c.  &c. 


LECTURE  I. 

"  If  we  knew  the  original  of  all  the  words  we  meet  with,  we 
should  thereby  be  very  much  helped  to  know  the  ideas  they  were 
first  applied  to,  and  made  to  stand  for." — Locke. 

The  subject  of  our  lecture  this  evening  is,  as 
announced  in  the  Syllabus — English  Roots,  and 
THE  Derivation  of  Words  from  the  ancient 
Anglo-Saxon  Language. 

At  first,  I  had  written  it  for  our  Secretary,  to 
whose  valuable  services  the  *'Waterford  Me- 
chanics' Institute"  is  so  much  indebted,  as  simply 
a  lecture  On  English  Roots.  But  if  I  had  stopped 
there,  without  any  further  explanation  of  my 
subject,  it  might,  perhaps,  have  been  thought 
that  I  was  about  to  deliver  a  lecture  on  the 
vegetable  productions  of  England ;  and  those  of 
my  audience  who  are  engaged  in  farming  pur- 
suits, or  who   take   an   interest  in   agricultural 

B 


Z  LECTURE  I. 

improvements,  might  have  come  here  this  evening 
expecting  a  dissertation  on  the  culture  of  turnips, 
parsnips,  and  mangold-worzel ;  while  my  fair 
hearers  might  have  been  disappointed  at  not 
being  entertained  with  some  interesting  accounts 
of  bulbous  roots,  chrysanthemums,  dahlias,  and 
other  flower  roots,  with  useful  instruction  in 
horticulture. 

To  prevent  the  possibility  of  any  such  misap- 
prehension, I  added  an  explanation,  to  show  that 
the  subject  of  my  lecture  is  the  root  of  words, 
and  that  not  of  words  generally  in  the  English 
tongue,  which  is  a  very  mixed  language,  com- 
prising words  of  Saxon  and  Celtic  origin,  w'ith 
some  Danish,  as  well  as  many  derived  from  the 
French,  and  from  the  languages  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome ;  but  on  the  derivation  of  words  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  of  w^hich  the  English  language 
is  chiefly  composed,  as  1  hope  to  convince  you  in 
the  course  of  this  lecture. 

It  may,  perhaps,  appear  strange,  that  address- 
ing an  Irish  audience,  I  should  choose  a  disser- 
tation on  the  Anglo-Saxon,  rather  than  upon  the 
Celtic  tongue,  which  is,  undoubtedly,  of  equal 
antiquity,  while  it  is  no  less  expressive,  and,  I 
believe  much  more  poetic.  But,  in  the  first 
place,  I  must  plead  ignorance  of  that  language, 
of  which  the  Irish  is  a  branch ;  and,  in  the  next 
place,  if  I  could  discourse  upon  it,  few,  if  any, 
of  my  audience  would  understand  me.     I  have, 


LECTURE  I.  .  3 

therefore,  chosen  the  language  which  is  the  root 
of  that  which  we  all  speak,  instead  of  that  which 
was  spoken  by  the  original  inhabitants  of  this 
country.  And  although  it  may,  at  first  sight, 
appear  strange  that  an  Irishman  should  be  unac- 
quainted with  the  Irish  tongue,  it  is  in  reality 
no  more  strange  than  that  the  present  inhabitants 
of  England  are  ignorant  of  the  original  British, 
still  spoken  in  Wales.  As  the  English  speak, 
not  the  British  of  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Britain,  but  the  Anglo-Saxon,  as  now  formed 
into  English;  so  the  Irish  generally  speak,  not 
the  Celtic  tongue  of  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Ireland,  but  the  same  language  with  their  English 
fellow-subjects.  Nor  should  this  circumstance 
offend  a  reasonable  feeling  of  nationality  amongst 
us.  As  our  English  neighbours  are  justly  proud 
of  the  name  of  Britons,  although  they  neither 
speak  the  original  language  of  Britain,  nor  have 
a  common  descent  from  the  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island ;  so  we  may  boast  of  the  name 
of  Irish,  of  which,  I  hope,  none  of  us  will  ever 
be  ashamed,  notwithstanding  that  we  do  not 
generally  speak  the  original  language  of  Ireland, 
and  although,  to  a  great  extent,  we  are  the  de- 
scendants of  English  settlers,  of  the  twelfth,  six- 
teenth, or  seventeenth  centuries,  rather  than  of 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  island;  with, 
however,  more  of  the  intermixture  of  races  than 
prevails  in  England,  producing,  we  flatter  our- 

b2 


4  LECTURE  I. 

selves,  a  union  of  the  good  qualities  of  tlie  Saxon 
and  tlie  Celt. 

Of  the  origin  of  all  the  diversities  of  language 
amongst  mankind,  none  of  us  are  ignorant,  as  it 
is  revealed  to  us  on  the  highest  authority.  At 
first  we  know  that  "  the  whole  earth  was  of  one 
language  and  of  one  speech ;"  and  it  was  natural 
that  the  descendants  of  a  common  parent  should 
have  spoken  the  same  tongue,  of  which  Adam 
must  have  been  taught  the  use  by  his  Creator  at 
the  first.  But  in  order  to  the  dispersion  of  man- 
kind throughout  the  world — to  prevent  which 
they  were  building  ''  a  city  and  a  tower,  .  .  . 
lest  they  should  he  scattered  abroad  upon  the  face 
of  the  whole  earth" — the  Almighty  "  confounded 
their  language,  that  they  might  not  understand 
one  another's  speech."  Upon  which,  they  neces- 
sarily separated  into  different  companies,  accord- 
ing as  they  found  they  could  understand  each 
other;  and  thus  formed  various  settlements, 
speaking  the  several  tongues  which  constituted 
the  original  languages  of  the  earth,  and  from 
which  all  others  have  been  derived. 

Of  these  primitive  languages,  spoken  by  the 
descendants  of  Japhet,  the  eldest  of  the  sons  of 
Noah,  who  settled  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
was  the  Teutonic;  so  called  from  Teuton,  by 
whom  the  founders  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race 
were  conducted  from  the  plains  of  Shinar, 
through  Circassia  and  the  Crimea,  into  Germany 


LECTURE  I.  0 

and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe.  Of  these 
nations,  who  were  by  the  Romans  called  Germans, 
Tacitus,  a  Roman  historian  who  flourished  about 
1800  years  ago,  writes  that  they  "  made  mention 
of  one  Teuton,  whom  they  alleged  to  have  sprung 
from  the  earth."  They  also  spoke  of  Manus,  who 
had  three  sons,  as  one  of  the  founders  of  their  race. 
Under  the  name  of  Manus  they  kept  up  the  tradi- 
tion of  Noah,  who  might  be  considered  the  second 
founder  of  the  human  family  after  the  deluge,  from 
the  eldest  of  whose  three  sons  they  were  descended. 
To  this  name  Manus,  which  these  nations  had 
given  to  Noah,  we  may,  perhaps,  trace  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  name  of  ^'"man,''  applied  to  the  human 
family  (like  Israelites  from  Israel)  ;  a  name  alto- 
gether unlike  that  by  which  he  is  designated  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  or  Latin;  although  from  the 
word  by  which  man  is  named  in  Latin,  we  have 
the  adjectives  "  human"  and  "  humane,"  as  well 
as  the  noun  *'  humanity,"  while  from  the  Greek 
name  we  have  "  misanthrope"  and  "  philan- 
thropy." "Man"  is,  however,  usually,  and  pro- 
bably with  better  foundation,  traced  to  magan,  to 
be  able  (from  whence  comes  "  may"),  as  describ- 
ing him  to  whom  "  dominion "  was  given  over 
the  inferior  animals ;  and  some  consider  the  word 
as  meaning,  gifted  with  mind. 

To  the  tradition  which  these  nations  had  of 
the  confusion  of  languages  at  the  tower  of  Babel, 
may  be  traced  the  word  "  babbler,"  which  is  a 


6  LECTURE  I- 

Saxon  word,  of  which  the  meaning  is  well  known. 
When  a  man  spoke  confusedly,  and  without 
sense,  he  was  called  a  bahhler,  and  was  said,  in 
the  primitive  language,  to  babble*  that  is,  to 
speak  like  those  at  Babel,  which  word  must  have 
been  introduced  while  the  occurrence  was  fresh 
in  their  memory,  inasmuch  as  they  could  not 
have  had  it  from  the  volume  of  inspiration,  of 
which,  as  pagans,  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  for 
many  ages  altogether  ignorant.  A  similar  word 
is  found  in  the  French  language,  the  original  of 
which,  although  now  so  much  derived  from 
Latin  through  the  old  Provence,  was  also  Teu- 
tonic or  Celtic,  of  which  many  words  still  remain 
in  that  language,  and  amongst  these  the  words 
babil  and  babillard,  used  in  the  same  sense  that 
the  Teutonic  and  Anglo-Saxon  have  it.  The 
name  Babel,  in  Hebrew,  signified  "  confusion." 

It  is  well  known  that  the  ancestors  of  the 
present  English  people,  as  a  body,  came  from 
Germany,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century, 
having  been  first  invited  over  by  the  Britons,  to 
defend  them  against  the  Picts,  after  the  departure 
of  the  Romans  from  Britain.  The  Saxons  having 
thus  obtained  a  footing  in  the  island,  soon  became 
the  possessors  of  the  entire  country,  extirpating 
the   former   inhabitants;    destroying  multitudes, 

*  Thus  the  apostle  Paul  was  contemptuously  described  r — "What 
will  this  babbler  say  ?" — Acts,  xviii.  18. 
^^  A'babbled  of  green  fields," — Shakspeare. 


LECTURE  I.  7 

and  driving  others  into  the  mountainous  country 
of  Wales,  where  their  descendants  are  still  to  be 
found ;  while  a  considerable  number  left  the  island 
altogether,  and,  emigrating  to  the  Continent, 
settled  in  that  part  of  France  which  was  anciently 
called  Armorica,  of  which  the  father  of  the 
renowned  Prince  Arthur  was  king  in  the  sixth 
century,  and  which  has  since  been,  from  these 
settlers,  called  Brittany,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
evince  many  characteristics  of  the  Celtic  race,  of 
which  the  ancient  British  were  a  branch ;  and  to 
this  day  a  man  speaking  Welsh  or  Irish  can  make 
himself  understood  in  Brittany. 

The  name  "  Saxons,"  which — or  that  of  Sasa- 
naghs — is  still  applied  to  the  English  by  the 
Scotch  and  Irish  who  yet  retain  their  native  lan- 
guage, is  derived  from  their  short  swords  called 
seaxes,  which  this  people  used  on  their  first  arrival 
in  Britain,  and  for  many  ages  previously.*  Nor 
is  it  unusual  to  designate  nations  and  classes  by 
the  arms  which  they  wear.      Thus  the  ancient 

*  This  gave  rise  to  the  following  couplet,  as  quoted  by  Rapin  : — 
"  Quippe  brevis  gladius  apud  illos  Saxa  vocatur, 
Unde  sibi  Saxo  nomen  traxisse  puiatur" 
That  is— 

"  The  Saxon  people  did,  as  most  believe, 
Their  name  from  Saxa,  a  short  sword,  receive." 
The  signal  given  for  the  massacre  of  the  British  lords  by  the  treachery 
of  Hengist,  was,  Nem  eowr  seaxes,  "  Take  your  Seaxes ;"  and  the 
arms  of  Saxony  are,  to  this  day,  three  short  swords  across.  See 
Rapin's  History  of  England,  and  Verstegan's  Restitution  of  Decayed 
Intelligence. 


8  LECTURE  I. 

Quirites  were  so  called  from  quiris,  a  short  spear, 
and  the  Scythians  from  scittan  to  shoot  with  a 
bow ;  while  we  have  also  Tnusheteers,  lancers,  and 
carbineers.  The  Saxons  who  invaded  Britain 
were  called  Anglo-Saxons,  because  they  came 
from  Angloland,  sometimes  called  Englaland  and 
England,  which  these  Saxons  inhabited  long  be- 
fore they  came  to  Britain,  as  Venerable  Bede,  the 
ancient  Saxon  chronicler,  testifies,  Those  who 
were  left  on  the  Continent  were  called  ^aM  Seaxes, 
or  the  old  Saxons. 

The  origin  of  the  name  of  England  was  the 
Angle-land,  whereby  they  described  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  nook  of  land  which  they  inhabited  on 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  word  ang  or 
eng  signified  a  narrow  strip,  from  which  we 
probably  have  the  word  "  angle,''  the  long  and 
narrow  instrument  consisting  of  a  rod,  a  line, 
and  a  hook,  with  which  an  angler  catches  fish. 
The  word  "  angle,""  as  describing  the  narrow 
point  where  two  lines  meet,  although  derived 
from  Latin,  may  also  have  had  its  first  origin 
from  the  Teutonic  word  ang,  signifying  narrow. 

The  Saxon  King  Egbert  caused  Britain  to  be 
called  England,  as  well  because  it  grows  to  a 
narrowness  both  towards  the  north  and  the  south- 
west, as  also  out  of  affection  to  the  original  country 
of  his  ancestors ;  like  as  the  first  English  emigrants 
to  America  gave  such  names  as  New  England 
and  New  York  to  countries  and  cities  on  that 


LECTURE  I.  y 

Continent,  and  more  frequently  without  the  qua- 
lification "  New,"  as  in  London,  Boston,  Halifax, 
Richmond,  and  other  instances.  King  Egbert 
may  also  have  given  this  name  of  "  Englishmen^^ 
to  his  subjects,  now  first  united,  after  the  Heptar- 
chy, under  one  king,  in  allusion  to  the  circum- 
stance of  Pope  Gregory  having  referred  the 
name  of  Angles,  formerly  given  to  a  portion  of 
the  people,  to  the  Latin  word  for  an  angel,  to 
which  it  sounded  similar.  In  reference  to  this, 
the  first  king  of  all  England  may  have  intended 
to  describe  his  subjects  as  angel-like  men. 

Referring  to  the  origin  of  names  of  countries, 
this  may  be  the  fit  place  to  notice  other  names 
of  people,  in  the  English  language,  derived  from 
the  Saxon.  The  Goths  were  the  inhabitants  of 
Gothland,  originally  Gotland,  or  Goodland,  so 
called  by  the  Northern  Saxons,  as  being  the  most 
fertile  lying  to  the  south;  the  Normans,  called 
by  the  Saxons  NoTthern-rrien,  were  so  named 
from  their  inhabiting  the  north.  The  Vandals 
were  so  called  from  the  word  Wandel,  to  wander, 
being  an  unsettled  wandering  tribe.  The  Lom- 
bards were  called  Long-beards,  by  the  Saxons, 
from  their  long  beards.  Wales  and  Welsh  were 
so  called  from  Gaul  and  Gaulish,  changing  the 
G  into  W ;  the  ancient  Britons  having  originally 
come  from  Gaul,  as  France  was  called  before  the 
Franks  invaded  that  seat  of  the  Celtic  race. 
Cornwall  was  originally  called  Kernaw,  signi- 


10  LECTURE  I. 

fying  "  horny,"  a  name  probably  given  to  that  part 
of  Britain  by  the  Romans,  from  cornu,  a  horn, 
from  the  many  promontories  like  horns  running 
into  the  sea.  The  Britons  having  kept  that 
remote  part  for  nearly  two  centuries  after  the 
Saxon  invasion,  it  came  to  be  called  Corngaulish, 
and  Cornwales,  the  horny  country  inhabited  by 
the  Gauls,  or  Welsh. 

About  350  years  after  the  coming  of  the  Saxons 
into  Britain,  the  Danes  invaded  England,  and 
remained  masters  of  the  Island  for  about  two 
centuries;  and  thus  introduced  some  Danish 
words  into  the  language,  which,  however,  are 
unimportant,  the  two  languages  being  very  simi- 
lar, both  having  had  a  common  origin. 

But  the  most  remarkable  event  in  the  history 
of  England,  and  that  which  eventually  produced 
the  greatest  effect  upon  the  language,  was  the 
Norman  Conquest  under  William  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, 500  years  after  the  first  settlement  of  the 
Saxons  in  Britain.  Great  efforts  were  made  by 
the  Normans  to  introduce  their  language  into 
England,  and  to  suppress  the  English  tongue ; 
and  for  many  ages  the  attempt  was  continued  to 
enforce  Norman^French,  and  to  prohibit  the  use 
of  Anglo-Saxon  amongst  the  people.  Thus, 
laws  were  enacted  enjoining  that  no  other  lan- 
guage should  be  taught  in  schools  than  French^ 
and  ordaining  that  the  laws  should  be  practised 
in  French,  and  that  all  petitions  and  business  of 


LECTURE  I.  11 

Court  should  be  also  in  that  language ;  while  the 
rule  was  rigidly  enforced  for  many  years,  that 
no  man  should  obtain  any  favour  who  did  not 
speak  French.  All  these  efforts,  however,  not 
only  proved  unavailing,  but  these  enactments 
tended  rather  to  cause  the  people  to  cling  more 
earnestly  to  that  which  was  proscribed.  Although, 
therefore,  many  new  words  were  introduced  into 
the  language  by  the  conquerors,  derived  from 
their  own  tongue,  yet  did  the  Anglo-Saxon  con- 
tinue, as  it  does  to  this  day,  to  be  the  chief  element 
m  the  language  of  the  country :  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  words,  and  especially  the  most  impor- 
tant parts  of  speech — the  Noun  and  the  Verb, 
being  derived  from  the  Saxon.  Moreover,  the 
Norman  Conquest,  by  driving  the  Saxon  royal 
family,  and  the  majority  of  the  English  dispos- 
sessed land-owners  into  Scotland,  was  the  means  of 
still  farther  spreading  their  language  northwards, 
(where,  however,  it  had  long  been  spoken  in  parts 
of  the  Lowlands,)  until  at  length  it  prevailed 
throughout  that  country,  with  the  exception  of 
the  more  remote  parts  of  the  Highlands,  where 
the  original  language,  the  Gaelic,  being  nearly 
the  same  with  the  Irish,  continued  to  be  spoken, 
as  it  is,  to  a  great  extent,  to  the  present  day. 

On  the  other  hand,  although  the  Norman- 
French  was  the  language  of  the  Court,  and  be- 
came the  forensic  language  in  England,  and  was 
spoken  by  the  Norman  aristocracy  and  barons,  it 


12  LECTURE  I. 

never  became  the  people's  language,  and  has  only 
left  in  the  English  tongue  a  mixture  of  words 
derived  from  Latin  through  the  French,  which 
are  to  this  day  little  understood  or  used  among 
the  peasantry  in  England ;  while  in  many  counties 
the  language  of  the  people  remains  so  purely 
Saxon,  that  any  one  speaking  the  English  of  the 
present  day  could  scarcely  understand  their  dis- 
course, or  make  himself  intelligible  to  them. 

It  will  not  be  so  surprising,  as  at  first  sight  it 
may  appear,  that  the  Norman  French  made  so 
little  progress  in  England,  when  it  is  considered 
that  so  far  were  the  Normans  from  extirpating 
the  Saxons  (as  these  latter  had  exterminated  the 
ancient  Britons,  or  expelled  them  from  the  soil) 
that  the  conquerors  never  were  more  than  a 
handful  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country;  while 
the  Saxons  or  English,  after  a  little  time,  rose  in 
credit  and  obtained  posts  of  honour  and  emolu- 
ment. Moreover,  the  descendants  of  those  Nor- 
mans who  settled  in  England  soon  came  to  be 
accounted  and  called  Englishmen,  and  to  speak 
the  English  tongue;  which  indeed  was  but  a 
return,  to  a  great  extent,  to  their  original  lan- 
guage ;  for  the  Normans,  when  they  first  settled 
in  that  part  of  France  which  was  called  after 
them  Normandy,  spoke  their  ancient  language, 
which  in  effect  was  the  same  with  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  both  being  of  the  Teutonic  origin;  al- 
though, in  the  lapse  of  about  150  years,  they 


LECTURE  I.  13 

had  given  it  up  for  the  French  language.  In 
like  manner,  the  Norman  nobility  in  England, 
after  some  time,  adopted  the  English  tongue, 
and  in  doing  so,  introduced  some  Norman- 
French  into  the  language.  But  it  was  not  until 
three  centuries  after  the  Conquest,  that  the  Eng- 
lish language  was  enriched  by  the  introduction 
of  the  Proven9al  by  Chaucer ;  and  the  greater 
number  of  the  words  which  we  now  use,  derived 
from  the  Latin,  were  not  introduced  by  the 
Normans  -through  the  French  language,  but 
were  taken  directly  from  Latin  by  the  educated 
classes  in  England,  on  the  revival  of  learning  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

Although,  in  process  of  time,  the  descendants 
of  the  first  invaders  having  lost  Normandy,  and 
the  kings  of  the  Norman  line  being  English 
born,  and  having  intermixed  with  the  Saxon 
blood  royal,  the  English  rose  to  offices  of  dis- 
tinction in  Church  and  State;  yet,  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  they  were  despised  and  kept 
under  by  their  Norman  conquerors,  who  became 
the  aristocracy  of  the  country  and  possessors  of 
the  soil,  employing  the  Saxons  to  till  the  ground, 
to  perform  manual  labour,  and  to  tend  the  flocks 
of  their  masters. 

Hence  it  will  be  found  that  almost  all  words 
relating  to  agriculture  and  to  handicraft  trades, 
as  well  as  the  names  of  cattle  in  the  field,  and  the 
implements  of  husbandry,  are  Saxon ;  while  words 


14  LECTURE  I. 

relating  to  skilled  warfare,  as  well  as  the  names 
of  animals  when  cooked  and  served  at  table,  are 
of  Norman-French  origin.  A  few  examples  will 
suffice  to  illustrate  this.  The  word  ''agriculture" 
is  indeed  of  Latin  derivation;  but  we  have  from 
the  Saxon,  "  husbandry,"  signifying  the  same 
thing,  for  which  the  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  word 
was  earth-tylih  (earth -tillage) ;  w^hile  tillage^ 
"ploughing^  sowing^  reaping,  threshing^  winnow- 
ing, mowing,  and  harvest,  are  all  Saxon  words ; 
as  are  also  the  plough,  the  spade,  the  rake,  the 
scythe,  the  reaping-hook;  with  grass,  hay,  straw, 
meadow,  field,  barn,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and 
many  others. 

The  animals  in  the  field  are  called  by  their 
Saxon  names;  but  those  that  are  used  for  food 
are,  when  killed  and  cooked  for  table,  called  by 
their  Norman-French  names.  Thus,  the  cow  be- 
comes "  beef,"  the  sheep  '^  mutton,"  the  calf  "veal" 
the  deer  "  venison,"'  the  pig  '^  pork,"  and  the  fowl 
"  poultry."  This  arose  from  the  circumstance  of 
the  Saxons  rearing  the  live  stock,  while  the  Nor- 
mans cooked  and  ate  the  animal  food.*     The  only 

*  Of  this  we  have  an  amusing  illustration  by  Sir  Walter  Scott: — 
**  Swine  is  good  Saxon  (said  the  jester  to  the  Swineherd),  .... 
and  pork,  I  think,  is  good  Norman-French;  and  so  when  the  brute 
lives,  and  is  in  charge  of  a  Saxon  slave,  she  goes  by  her  Saxon 
name  :  but  becomes  a  Norman,  and  is  called  pork  when  she  is  carried 

to  the  castle  hall  to  feast  among  the  nobles Nay, 

I  can  tell  thee  more  ;  there  is  old  Alderman  Ox  continues  to 
hold  his  Saxon  epithet,  while  he  is  under  the  charge  of  serfs  and 


LECTURE  I.  15 

exception  to  this  is  ''  bacon,"*  which  is  a  word  of 
Saxon  origin,  being  so  called  from  the  beech  tree, 
huche  or  hoc,  on  the  fruit  of  which  (called  the 
*'  mast,"  from  moestan,  to  fatten)  pigs  were  fed, 
to  harden  the  flesh,  as  they  still  are,  when  intended 
for  bacon,  as  also  with  acorns,  or  on  oats  where 
the  oak  or  beech  do  not  abound.  From  the  beech 
tree  we  also  have  the  proper  names  of  "  Buck- 
ingham" and  "Bacon ;"  and  an  extensive  forest  in 
Hungary  is  called  "Bakony,"  or  "Buconia,"  as 
abounding  in  Beech.  '  ^  Bacon"  having  been  the  fare 
of  the  common  people,  it  retained  its  Saxon  name, 
derived  from  hucen  or  hecen,  that  is,  "  beechen," 
of  or  belonging  to  the  beech .-|-     Hence  came  the 

bondsmen  such  as  thou,  but  becomes  beef,  a  fiery  French  gallant,  when 
he  arrives  before  the  worshipful  jaws  that  are  destined  to  consume 
him.  Mynheer  Calf,  too,  becomes  Monsieur  de  Veau  in  the  like  man- 
ner; he  is  Saxon  when  he  requires  tendance,  and  takes  a  Norman 
name  when'  he  becomes  matter  of  enjoyment." — Ivanhoe. 

*  A  reviewer  of  these  Lectures,  in  an  Irish  periodical,  in  order  to 
show  that  there  is  another  exception  to  the  rule  that  the  names  of 
animals  when  dressed  for  food  by  the  Normans  assumed  a  French 
name,  adduces  "lamb,"  which  he  proceeds  to  show  *''' was  not  eaten 
by  the  Normans'*''  at  all !  When  bacon  is  stated  as  above  to  be  the 
only  exception,  it,  of  course,  has  reference  to  those  animals  which 
were  ordinarily  used  as  food  in  the  middle  ages.  If  we  referred  to 
those  which  were  not  so  used  in  those  early  times,  we  might  have  ad- 
duced many  others  beside  lamb  (as  turtle  and  turkey')  to  which  the 
observation,  as  to  the  different  names  given  to  the  living  animal 
and  the  cooked  food,  does  not  apply.  Such  exceptions  prove  the 
rule. 

t  The  derivation  of  "bacon"  given  above  was  suggested  by 
Verstegan's  work  on  the  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  language.     The  word 


16  LECTURE  I. 

phrase,  to  save  one's  bacon,  meaning,  to  save 
one's  self  from  being  hurt — borrowed  from  the 
care  that  the  oppressed  Saxons  took  to  preserve 
this  their  most  valuable  and  usually  only  animal 
food,  from  the  marauding  Norman  soldiers,  by 
whom  they  were  continually  plundered  with  im- 
punity. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  all  the  Saxon  names  of 
the  days  of  the  week  are  continued  to  be  used  in 
the  EngHsh  language,  while,  on  the  other  hand 
none  of  the  months  have  retained  their  Saxon 
derivation,  but  are  all  of  them  called  by  names 
taken  from  Latin.  I  have  never  met  any  notice 
or  explanation  of  this  fact ;  but  I  think  it  may  be 
accounted  for,  on  similar  principles  to  those  which 
caused  the  difference  between  the  names  of  the 


is  usually  supposed  to  mean  haJced  meat ;  but  hog's  flesh  is  not  cnred 
by  baking,  and  any  other  meat  may  be  baked,  as  bread  is,  and  never 
was  on  that  account  called  "bacon,"  or  anything  like  it.  Moreover  the 
•word  bacon  is  to  be  found  in  French,  applied  to  the  living  animal, 
in  a  description  of  a  boar  hunt.  For  this  fact  we  are  indebted  to  the 
critic  referred  to  in  the  preceding  note,  who,  curiously  enough,  quotes 
it  to  prove  that  the  word  means  baked,  thereby  implying  that  the 
animal  was  first  baked,  and  afterwards  hunted  and  killed  !  We  can 
understand  a  beech-mast-fed  animal  being  hunted,  but  not  a  baked 
boar.  The  word  being  found  in  French  does  not  disprove  its  being 
Anglo-Saxon,  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  there  are  no  words  of 
Teutonic  origin  in  the  French  language,  of  which  every  one  knows 
there  are  many,  as,  guerre,  garde,  &c.,  not  derived  from  Latin,  but 
similar  to  the  English  "  war"  and  "  waad,"  «&c.,  derived  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  g  being  substituted  for  w,  there  being  no  such  letter 
as  the  latter  in  the  French  language. 


LECTURE  I.  17 

living  cattle  and  the  animal  food.  The  Saxons  A 
were  the  day  labourers,  and  as  such  they  had 
more  occasion  to  speak  of  days  than  of  months;  ( 
while  as  tillers  of  the  land  they  were  more  con-  / 
cerned  as  to  the  different  seasons  than  as  to  the 
particular  months  of  the  year.  We  usually  hear 
the  peasantry  amongst  ourselves  speak  of  what 
they  will  do,  in  respect  to  farming  operations,  in 
the  spring,  summer,  harvest  and  winter,  rather 
than  in  such  and  such  months.  Thus  it  would 
occur  that  the  Norman  employer  and  the  Saxon 
labourer,  whose  interchange  of  words  was  con- 
fined to  the  giving  and  receiving  of  orders,  would 
more  frequently  have  occasion  to  speak  to  each  \ 
other  of  the  days  of  the  week,  and  of  the  different 
seasons  of  the  year,  than  of  the  several  months  ; 
and  so  came  to  continue  the  Saxon  names  of  the 
week  days  and  of  the  seasons,  while  the  Normans, 
amongst  themselves,  kept  up  their  own  names 
for  the  months.  And  even  with  respect  to  the  ((j^XJ^o 
days  of  the  week,  they  are,  to  this  day,  described 
in  Parliamentary  documents  by  their  Latin  and 
not  by  their  Saxon  names.  Spring,  Summer, 
and  Winter,  are  of  Saxon  origin ;  the  Saxon  word 
corresponding  to  Autumn,  which  is  of  French 
derivation,  is  "  harvest,"  being  the  time  of  gather- 
ing in  the  harvest,  or  ripened  corn,  as  the  word 
signifies ;  and  we  usually  hear  the  peasantry  speak 
of  the  harvest,  and  not  of  the  autumn. 

The  days  of  the  week,  as  I  have  just  observed, 

c 


18  LECTURE  I. 

retain  their  Saxon  names,  given  to  them  by  the 
Anglo-Saxons  before  their  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity. The  first  day  of  the  week  was  called 
Sunday,  having  been  dedicated  to  the  Sun^  as 
Monday  was  so  called  in  honour  of  the  Moon. 
Next  to  these  heavenly  bodies  they  honoured 
Tuesco,  one  of  the  founders  of  their  race,  to  whom 
they  dedicated  the  third  day,  calling  it  Tuescos 
day,  or  Tuesday.  Woden  was  their  god  of  war, 
the  meaning  of  the  word  being  "  furious ;"  and 
an  author  of  the  seventeenth  century  refers  to  the 
word  wood  or  wode^  as  being  then  used  to  denote 
a  man  in  a  rage ;  so  it  is  also  constantly  found  in 
Chaucer  to  describe  one  that  is  angry  or  mad ; 
as  also  woodness  for  madness,  and  wodely  for 
madly.  After  this  idol  the  fourth  day  of  the 
week  was  called  Woden's  day,  now  Wednesday, 
which  accounts  for  the  orthography  of  the  word. 
Next  in  order  amongst  their  false  gods  was  Thor, 
who  was  worshipped  by  all  the  Teutonic  race. 
As  Woden  corresponded  to  the  Mars  of  the 
Romans,  so  did  Thor  to  Jupiter,  his  dominion 
having  been  supposed  to  extend  both  in  heaven 
and  earth,  governing  the  air,  the  winds,  and 
clouds;  to  whose  displeasure  they  attributed 
thunder  and  lightning,  tempests  and  hail ;  while 
to  his  being  propitiated  by  sacrifices  (frequently 
human),  they  believed  themselves  to  have  been 
indebted  for  fair  and  seasonable  weather,  causing 
abundance  of  corn,  and  keeping  away  the  plague, 


LECTURE  I.  19 

and  all  other  infectious  and  epidemic  diseases. 
From  this  idol  the  fifth  day  of  the  week  was 
named  Thor's  day,  or  Thursday ;  and  so  it  is  like- 
wise called  by  the  Danes  and  Swedes,  while  the 
Dutch  and  Germans  call  it  Dundersdagh;  and  in 
some  old  Saxon  Manuscripts  it  is  written  Thun- 
res-deag,  so  that  it  would  seem  that  Thor  or  Thur 
was  an  abbreviation  of  thunre,  since  written  thun- 
der. The  next  in  rank  was  the  goddess  Friga, 
who  was  reputed  to  be  the  giver  of  peace  and 
plenty ;  and  from  her  we  have  Friday,  meaning 
Friga^s  day.  The  last  of  the  seven  chief  idols 
of  the  Saxons  was  Seater,  from  whom,  and  not 
from  the  Roman  Saturn,  the  last  day  of  the  week 
was  called  by  the  Saxons  Sealer's  day,  or  Satur- 
day. 

From  the  Saxon  names  for  the  twelve  months 
of  the  year,  we  retain  only  two  words  in  the 
present  English  language,  viz.  Lent  and  Easter. 
The  month  corresponding  to  our  March  was 
called  by  the  Saxons  Lent-monat,  or  length 
month,  because  of  the  lengthening  of  the  days 
at  that  season  of  the  year;  and  as  this  month 
was  so  designated  at  the  time  when  the  Saxons 
embraced  Christianity,  they  called  the  fast  which 
occured  at  this  period  the  fast  of  *'  Lent,"  or  of 
Lent  month ;  which  month  is  now  called  March, 
a  name  borrowed  from  the  Normans,  and  so 
called  after  Mars,  the  god  of  war  amongst  the 
Romans.     Similar  to  this  is  the  derivation  of  the 

c2 


20  LECTURE  I. 

word  "  Easter/'  The  Saxon  name  of  the  month 
which  we  now  call  April,  from  the  Latin,  was 
Oster-TYionat,  the  Teutonic  for  east  being  ost,  sig- 
nifying '*  angry,"  because  during  this  month  the 
easterly  (or  boisterous)  winds  prevailed  in  the 
northern  countries  of  Europe,  which  were  inha- 
bited by  the  Teutonic  race.  Hence  the  name  of 
Ostend,  which  means  'the  East-end,  being  to  the 
east  of  the  ships  passing  through  the  narrow  chan- 
nel from  the  west.  The  feast  of  Easter,  called 
by  the  French  Pasque  in  allusion  to  the  Jewish 
Passover,  usually  falling  in  this  month,  was  so 
called  from  the  Saxon  name  of  the  month,  Oster; 
and  it  is  still  in  Saxony  Ostem,  as  by  us  it  is 
named  Easter.  As  we  have  no  English  words 
derived  from  the  Saxon  names  of  the  other 
months  of  the  year,  it  is  unnecessary  here  to 
enumerate  them.*  The  word  ^'  month"  is  itself 
derived  from  the  moon. 

Referring  to  days  and  months,  this  is  the  pro- 
per place  to  notice  other  Saxon  words  relating  to 
time.  The  ancient  Saxons  kept  a  note  of  the 
course  of  the  year  on  square  sticks,  on  which  they 
carved  the  course  of  the  moons  of  the  whole 
year,  by  which  they  knew  when  the  new  moons, 
full  moons,  and  changes  would  occur,  as  also 
their  festival  days ;  and  such  a  carved  stick  they 
called  an  almonaght,  that  is,  all-moon-heed,  by 

*  See  Verstegan's  Restitution  of  Decayed  Intelligence,  &c. 


LECTURE  I. 


h 


wliich  they  took  heed  or  notice  of  all  the 
moons  of  the  year.  Hence,  although  by  some  it 
is  supposed  to  be  from  an  Arabic  word,  our  Eng- 
lish name  **  almanac,"  for  that  which,  from  the 
Latin,  is  also  called  a  "  calendar."  The  Saxons 
counted  time  by  the  night,  as  we  still  speak  of  a 
se'nnight  or  seven  nights,  and  a  fort-night  or 
fourteen  nights,  written  in  Chaucer  fortenygt. 
They  had  anciently  twa-night  for  two  night,  as 
we  now  speak  of  every  second  day.  The  ages  of 
their  own  lives  they  reckoned  by  winters,  and  so 
we  still  speak  of  an  old  man  as  having  lived  or 
seen  so  many  "  winters." 

I  observed  that  things  connected  with  manu- 
facture were  generally  called  by  Saxon  names. 
The  word  "  manufacture,"  itself,  is  derived  from 
the  Latin,  signifying  made  with  the  hand,  but 
we  have  the  Saxon  name  corresponding  to  this, 
when  we  speak  of  "  handicraft"  trades.  Words 
referring  to  these  are  almost  all  Saxon,  as  builder, 
stone-cutter,  brick-layer,  smith,  shoemaker,  ship- 
wright, cart-wright ;  as  also  the  words  tiinber, 
stone,  brick,  slate,  leather,  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron, 
glass,  wood,  cloth,  &c.  The  Anglo-Saxon  name 
for  a  "  mason"  was  a  stone-wright,  which  has 
given  place  to  the  present  name  derived  from  the 
French  maison,  a  house,  from  which  also  comes 
"  mansion."  The  term  *'  smith"  was  applied  to 
all  trades  which  called  for  the  use  of  the  hammer. 
It  means  smiteth,  or  beats.     Thus  we  have  the 


22  LECTURE  I. 

*'  gold-smith,"  the  "  silver-smith,"  the  *'  white- 
smith," the  "lock-smith,"  and  the  "black-smith;" 
to  which  latter,  as  the  most  sturdy  of  all  the 
smiters,  the  name  of  "  smith"  is  now  almost  wholly 
confined,  so  much  so,  that  unless-  we  prefix  a 
word  to  distinguish  the  others,  we  understand  by 
a  "  smith"  a  black-smith,  as  he  who  ^ar  excellence 
smiteth  on  the  anvil.  The  Saxons  called  the 
*'  black-smith"  the  iron-smith  ;  and  the  "  carpen- 
ter" was  designated  a  wood-smith,  as  also  a  tree- 
Wright,  the  present  name  of  this  smiter,  both  with 
the  hammer  and  the  hatchet,  being  of  French 
origin.*  It  is  observable  that  the  "  tailor"  is  also 
called  by  a  name  deriv^ed  from  the  French,  who 
have  always  excelled  in  fashionable  dress-making 
for  both  sexes.  The  Saxon  name  for  a  maker  of 
men's  clothes  was  synder,  meaning  a  cutter,  from 
asyndrian,  to  separate,  the  word  "  tailor"  signify- 
ing the  same  in  French. 

I  have  already  observed  that,  for  the  most  part, 
terms  applicable  to  warfare  are  not  of  Saxon 
origin,  but  derived  from  Latin,  through  the  Nor- 
mans, who  were  a  warlike  people,  and  coming  to 
England  as  conquerors,  introduced  military  terms 
and  phrases,  which,  as  they  continued  to  have  the 
command  of  the  army,  naturally  became  incorpo- 
rated into  the  language.  The  words  officer^  gene- 
ral, colonel,  major,   captain,  adjutant,   cornet, 

*  In  Isa.  xli.  7,  the  word  translated,  in  the  authorized  version, 
"  carpenter,"  is,  in  the  translation  of  1551,  smythe. 


LECTURE  I.  23 

lieutenant,  and  ensign,  are  all  derived  from  the 
French  or  Latin ;  as  are  also  the  soldier,  the  Ser- 
jeant, and  the  corporal. 

The  weapons  of  war,  however,  which  were  in 
use  before  the  Norman  conquest,  are  all  called  by 
words  of  Saxon  origin,  as  sword,  shield,  spear, 
how,  and  holt  or  arrow.  But  every  term  relating 
to  military  science,  and  to  the  army  generally,  is 
of  Latin  or  French  derivation ;  these  having  been 
originally  under  the  controul  and  management  of 
the  Normans,  and  the  French  having  been  always 
a  great  military  nation,  through  whom  these  terms 
have  been,  from  time  to  time,  introduced.  Thus 
we  have  sieges,  manoeuvres,  trenches,  tactics, 
marches,  invasions,  assaults,  escalades,  encamp'^ 
ments,  columns,  hatteries,  fortifications,  hatta- 
lions,  homhardments,  and  so  forth;  as  also  the 
words  military,  naval,  artillery,  militia,  cavalry^ 
commissariat,  grenadiers,  and  infantry;  the 
last  originally  applied  to  troops  commanded  by  a 
Spanish  prince,  entitled  the  "  Lifant"  of  Spain, 
being  the  heir  apparent  to  the  throne  of  that 
kingdom.  The  yeomen,  however,  signifying  the 
commoners,  or,  perhaps,  the  yewmen,  or  bow-men, 
as  were  the  '^  yoemen  of  the  guard,"  retained  their 
Saxon  appellation. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  words  of  Saxon  deriva- 
tion prevail  most  amongst  seamen,  the  navy  being 
a  thoroughly  English  institution,  and  established 
by  Alfred  before  the  Norman  conquest.       The 


24  LECTURE  I. 

term  "sea-faring  man"  is  Saxon;  and  although 
the  word  "navy"  is  of  foreign  derivation,  the 
"  fleet"  is  of  Saxon  origin,  as  is  also  the  appropri- 
ate designation  of  the  maritime  power  and  defence 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  "  The  wooden  walls  of 
old  England.^''  The  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  term 
for  navigation  was  scip-crceft,  that  is,  ship-craft. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  give  a  full  catalogue  of 
nautical  terms  and  phrases,  hut  will  only  enume- 
rate some  of  those  most  familiar  to  "  land's-men," 
as  sailors  call  us,  using  a  Saxon  appellation.  The 
following  are  Saxon  words,  viz.: — ship,  boat, 
punt,  boom,  boltsprit,  or  bowsprit,  helm,  stern, 
bows,  mast,  spars,  sails,  hold,  lading,  hatch-way, 
ropes,  tar,  hawser,  wheel,  porthole,  keel,  needle, 
lead,  tack,  ladder,  hull,  shrouds,  docks,  deck,  and 
rudder,  as  also  yard,  used  in  its  original  sense, 
as  meaning  any  pole  or  rod,  although  now 
restricted  to  a  measure  of  three  feet.*  We  have 
also  from  the  Saxon,  the  skipper,  the  midship- 
man, the  sailor,  the  mate,  the  boatswain,  the  cock- 
swain, the  steward,  the  steersman,  and  the  crew. 
Of  sea  terms  and  phrases,  we  have,  of  Saxon 
derivation,  luff,  thwart,  starboard,  larboard,  lee- 
ward^ abaft,  and  aft  (of  which,  in  ordinary  use, 
we  have  the  comparative  after).      Sailors  speak 

*  The  word  yard.,  as  applied  to  an  enclosed  piece  of  ground,  is  also 
Saxon,  but  was  originally  spelt  differently,  namely  yeard,  while  the 
rod  or  pole  was  yerde.  It  may  have  been  so  called  as  having  been 
measured  off  by  a  yard  or  rod,  for  enclosure. 


LECTURE  I.  25 

of  a  taut  rope,  such  being  the  word  used  by 
Chaucer  for  tight;  they  speak  of  the  neap  and 
full  tides,  and  of  their  ebbing  and  flowing ;  they 
rigg  the  masts  ;  they  swab  (wash)  the  deck ;  they 
reef  the  sails,  they  tug  vessels  taken  in  tow;  they 
call  the  progress  of  the  ship  its  way,  and  this 
they  reckon  by  knots;  they  stow  away  their 
goods,  they  row  with  oars,  they  trim  the  sAij?, 
they  man  the  yards,  they  speak  of  so  many 
hands  on  board,  and  they  give  "  <x  ZoTi^  j9i6Z?,  a 
strong  pull,  and  a  pull  altogether'' — all  Saxon 
words.  The  well-known,  spirit-stirring  signal  of 
that  great  commander  and  genuine  Englishman, 
the  immortal  Nelson,  when  entering  on  his  last 
engagement,  to  be  crowned  with  his  greatest  vic- 
tory, consisted  of  ten  words,  of  which  one  only 
(expects)  is  of  foreign  origin;  and  for  this  a 
Saxon  word  might  be  substituted,  with  equal 
correctness,  though  not,  perhaps,  with  the  same 
euphony,  by  which  the  order  of  the  day  at 
Trafalgar  would  have  been — "  England  looks  to 
every  man  this  day  to  do  his  duty/'  The  con- 
fident expectation  of  the  gallant  admiral  would 
not  have  been  sufficiently  expressed  by  the  Saxon 
word  hope,  which  has  completely  changed  its 
original  signification,  as  it  is  now  generally  applied 
to  convey  the  idea  of  doubt  rather  than  that  of 
confident  expectation,  which  the  word  originally 
signified.  This  hope  or  expectation  was  fully 
realized  on  that  day  of  victory  under  Nelson ;  and 


26  LECTURE  I. 

we  doubt  not  will  never  be  disappointed  whenever 
the  brave  defenders  who  man  our  "  wooden  walls" 
are  called  to  do  their  duty  to  their  queen  and 
country. 

In  the  English  language,  which,  as  I  have 
already  observed,  is  of  a  composite  character,  we 
have  several  words  derived  from  the  Greek ;  and 
it  is  remarkable,  that  of  such  are  the  terms  by 
which  we  describe  the  various  sciences.  It  had 
long  been  a  characteristic  of  the  Greeks  that  they 
"  sought  after  wisdom ;"  and  from  their  language 
— the  most  perfect,  probably,  that  has  ever  been 
spoken  by  mankind — we  have  adopted  most  of 
the  words  applicable  to  science,  as  for  example, 
philosophy^  logic,  rhetoric,  astronomy,  geography, 
^mathematics,  and  geometry,  with  all  the  ologies, 
as  theology,  geology,  zoology,  entomology,  orni- 
thology, physiology,  archceology,  astrology,  etymo- 
logy, philology,  pathology,  analogy,  phraseology, 
and  many  others,  as  well  as  all  the  systems  of 
government — monarchy,  oligarchy,  aristocracy, 
and  anarchy,  or  no  government  at  all.  These, 
however,  do  not  belong  to  our  present  subject; 
and  I  only  refer  to  them  by  the  way.  But  here 
I  would  call  your  attention  to  a  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance, with  reference  to  the  words  of  foreign 
derivation,  as  compared  with  those  of  Saxon  origin. 

It  will  be  found  that,  for  the  most  part,  the 

*  This  phrase  will  soon  become  obsolete,  by  the  introduction  of  Iron 
steamers,  and  of  iron-clad  ships  of  war. 


LECTURE  I. 


27 


nouns  substantive  and  the  verbs  in  the  English 
language  (with  some  simple  adjectives,  such  as 
greats  STnall,  young,  old,  good,  bad,  &c.)  are 
Saxon,  while  the  derivatives  and  compound 
words,  and  generally  the  adjectives  and  adverbs, 
are  of  foreign  origin,  introduced  either  through 
the  Norman-French,  or  directly  from  the  Latin 
or  Greek.  Thus,  for  example,  we  have  *'  man" 
for  the  noun,  *'  human"  and  "  humane"  for  the 
adjective,  and  "  humanity"  for  the  derivative. 

We  have  also,  comparing  words  of  Saxon  and 
foreign  origin: — 


Woman — feminine. 
House — domestic. 
Heart — cordial. 
Earth — terrestrial. 
Heaven — celestial. 
God — divine. 
Sea — maritime. 
King  and  Queen — 
royal  and  regal. 
Youth — juvenile. 
Horse — equestrian. 
Ship — naval. 
Sailor — mariner. 
Father — paternal. 
Mother — maternal. 
Brother — fraternity. 
Boy — puerile. 


Dog — canine. 
Life — vitality. 
Death — mortality. 
Sleep — dormitory. 
Book — library. 
Happy — felicity. 
Strong — fortified. 
Weak — debility. 
Anger — irascible. 
Speech — sermon. 
Read — lecture. 
Speak — oratorical . 
Fire — incendiary. 
Light — illumination . 
Dark — obscurity. 
Old — senility. 
Heavy — ponderous. 


28  LECTURE  I. 

Foot — pedestrian.  Love — amiable. 

Sun — solar.  Hate — odious. 

Moon — lunar.  Health — salubrious. 

Hand — manufacture.  Holy — sanctified. 

Good — bountiful.  Star — astronomy. 

B  ad — malig  n  ity.  Year — annual. 

It  would  be  easy  to  add  many  other  examples, 
which  will  at  once  occur  to  the  mind,  when  the 
idea  has  been  suggested. 

The  Anglo-Saxon,  as  a  primitive  language, 
was  remarkable  for  abounding  in  monosyllables. 
Thus,  it  will  be  found,  that  of  the  forty-six  words 
of  Saxon  origin,  which  I  have  now  enumerated, 
as  they  occurred  to  me,  thirty-six  are  monosylla- 
bles, while  in  thirty-two  out  of  these  thirty-six, 
the  corresponding  words  in  Latin,  and  nearly  as 
great  a  number  in  Greek  and  French,  consist  of 
two  or  more  syllables. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  original  meaning 
of  Saxon  words  now  in  use,  and  not  at  first 
apparent.  The  best  of  all  beings  was  appropri- 
ately called  by  the  Saxons,  God,  or  the  Good 
Being;  while  the  author  of  all  evil  was  desig- 
nated the  Devil,  or  the  Evil  one.  The  "  heavens" 
are  so  called  as  being  apparently  heaved  up  above 
us.  "  Fare"  meant  a  passage ;  hence  the  word 
**  farewell,"  as  wishing  a  goodi jpassage  or  journey; 
as  also  "  thorough-fare,"  or  the  "passage  through. 
The  money  which  we  pay   for  our  conveyance 


LECTURE  I.  29 

is  called  the  "  fare,"  that  is,  what  we  pay  for  our 
fare;  while  as  applied  to  food,  it  meant  that 
which  was  taken  on  the  journey*  "  Gossip"  is  a 
contraction  for  god-sih,  signifying  the  spiritual 
relationship  held  to  exist  between  the  sponsors 
of  the  same  child  ;*  sib  meaning  relationship  or  of 
kin  together,  to  which  is  prefixed  the  name  of 
God,  to  designate  the  spiritual  relationship,  as 
we  have  the  names,  '^  godfather,"  *' godmother," 
and  "  godchild."  As  the  gossips,  especially  the 
two  godmothers  of  a  girl,  were  accustomed  to 
meet  at  the  house  of  their  godchild,  and  have  a 
little  chat  together,  all  trivial  talking  came  to  be 
called  ''  gossiping."  In  like  manner  the  word 
"  titter,"  which  we  now  apply  to  suppressed 
laughter,  signified  courtship;  and  as,  while 
"  talking  age"  enjoyed  its  gossip,  the  "  whisper- 
ing lovers"  indulged  in  their  merriment,  all  sup- 
pressed laughter  came  to  be  called  *'  tittering," 
that  is,  laughing  like  lovers,  as  all  trivial  talking 
was  called  "  gossiping,"  that  is,  talking  like 
gossips.  We  have  still  an  old  word  not  often 
used,  except  in  poetry,  "  quoth"  for  said, 
meaning  to  make  known,  from  whence  comes 
"uncouth,"  strange  or  unknown.  We  find  the 
word  "  bolt"  used  in  various  senses,  as  the  '^  bolt" 
of  a   door;    a  "thunder-bolt;"    '^bolt-upright;" 

*  Thus  Shakspeare  makes  the  king  address  the  god-mothers  of  the 
princess  Elizabeth,  as  his  joint  sponsors  of  the  royal  infant — "  My 
noble  gossips." — King  Henry  VIIL,  Act  F.,  Scene  IV. 


30  LECTURE  I. 

the  bran  is  *'  bolted"  in  a  mill ;  we  speak  of  a 
horse  '* bolting;"  and  of  a  greedy  fellow  "  bolting" 
his  food.  Now  all  these,  however  apparently 
different,  are  to  be  traced  to  the  same  origin. 
**  Bolt,"  formerly  spelt  houlU  is  the  Saxon  word 
for  an  arrow,  as  we  may  read  of  a  man  taking  a 
bolt  from  his  quiver.*  The  word  was  applied  to 
forked-lightning,  called  a  "  thunder-bolt,"  as  ap- 
pearing to  dart  like  an  arrow ;  and  to  the  fasten- 
ing of  a  door  by  a  straight  piece  of  wood  or  iron 
shot  out,  as  we  still  say.  "  Bolt-upright"  meant 
as  straight  as  an  arrow.  The  bran  is  driven, 
thrust,  or  shot  out  from  the  flour  in  the  mill ;  a 
horse  is  said  to  ''  bolt,"  when  he  starts  off  to  one 
side,  suddenly  like  an  arrow ;  and  a  hungry  boor 
"  bolts"  his  food,  swallowing  it  straight  down, 
without  chewing,  so  that  it  is  shot  down  into  his 
stomach. 

The  termination  or  affix,  monger,  which  we  still 
find  applied  to  some  words  to  describe  a  dealer  in 
any  commodity,  was  a  Saxon  word,  having  the 
same  signification  as  ^'  merchant"  derived  from 
the  French.  We  still  have  cheesemonger,  iron- 
monger, fishmonger,  and  coster  or  costardmon- 
ger,  a  dealer  in  vegetables ;  these  being  amongst 
the  commodities  in  which  the  Saxons  dealt  ; 
while   we  have   wine-merchant,   coal-merchant, 


*  Chaucer  quotes  "  to  shoot  a.  feotherless  houli,"'  as  a  proverb  mean- 
ing, in  his  daj,  to  labour  in  vaiu. 


LECTURE  I.  31 

and  silk-mercer  (a  word  of  similar  significa- 
tion to  merchant),  for  the  dealers  in  those 
luxuries  which  the  Normans  enjoyed;  and  which 
words  are  of  a  hybrid  character,  compounded  of 
Saxon  for  the  commodity,  and  French  for  the 
seller  of  it.  A  penny-monger  was  Anglo-Saxon 
for  a  money-changer,  the  silver  penny  having 
been  the  standard  coin  in  England  for  more  than 
a  thousand  years,  adopted  from  the  Roman 
denarius. 

*'  Shire"  signified  a  share  or  division.  For  the 
most  part  this  is  the  term  by  which  the  counties 
of  Great  Britain  are  described,  the  Saxon  word 
being  retained  there ;  while  in  Ireland  we  have 
not  the  word  in  ordinary  use,  the  connexion  of 
this  country  with  England  having  been  subse- 
quent to  the  Norman  conquest,  when,  in  dividing 
the  island  into  what  would  be  called  in  England 
"  shires,"  the  word  '*  county,"  being  of  French 
origin,  was  introduced,  and  applied  to  Ireland; 
retaining,  however,  the  old  Irish  names,  and  not 
adding  the  word  county,  except  in  cases  of  th^ 
King's  County  and  the  Queen's  County,  called, 
with  their  chief  towns  Philipstown  and  Mary- 
borough, after  King  Philip  and  Queen  Mary, 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  We  have,  however, 
*'  sheriff,"  or  shire-reeve,  like  "  borough-reeve,'* 
from  the  Saxon  reeve,  signifying  a  steward.  Of 
the  counties  in  England,  three  retain  a  direct 
reference  to  the  Saxons,  namely,  Essex,  Sussex, 


32  LECTURE  I. 

and  Middlesex,  meaning  the  countries  respectively 
of  the  east  Saxons,  and  the  south  Saxons,  with 
the  middle  Saxons  lying  between  both.  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk  signified  the  countries  of  the  north 
folk  and  of  the  south /o^fc,  this  being  a  well  known 
Saxon  word  for  people. 

The  word  "  cliff"  is  used  to  describe  a  rock  by 
the  sea  side,  having  the  appearance  of  being  cleft 
or  broken  off;  and  was  formerly  written  "  clifU'' 
as  it  is  found  not  only  in  Spenser  and  Chaucer, 
but  also  in  the  authorized  version  of  the  Bible  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  I  have  somewhere  read 
that  deore,  now  spelt  "  dear,"  meaning  beloved, 
also  signified  a  **  daughter."  If  this  be  correct, 
and  certainly  dear  is  Erse  for  daughter,*  it  con- 
veys a  very  pleasing  idea,  as  suggesting  that  any 
object  of  tender  affection  was  called  "  dear,"  as 
being  like  a  daughter  to  one.  Corresponding  to 
this,  is  the  passage  in  Nathan's  parable  addressed 
to  David,  where  he  describes  the  poor  man's  lamb 
as  so  dear  to  him  that  it  "  was  unto  him  as  a 
daughter.''''  The  word  "  ghost/'  formerly  gast,  is 
the  Saxon  for  a  spirit;  hence  '* gastlj,''^ or gastlike, 
looking  like  a  ghost,  and  "  aghast,"  frightened  as  if 
one  had  seen  a  spirit.  *'  Yeoman"  is  derived  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon  geeman  (the  g  being  frequently 
changed  to  y),  signifying  common,  as  the  yeomen 
were  commoners  of  the  realm ;  or  it  may  be  from 

*  See  Winning's  Comparative  Philology,  p.  53. 


LECTURE  I.  33 

yewmen,  the  men  who  carried  bows  made  of  the 
yew  tree.  The  name  given  to  the  yellow  part  of 
an  egg,  called  "yelk,"and  pronounced  like  "yoke," 
appears  unintelligible ;  but  it  was  originally  spelt 
with  g,  and  was  written  and  pronounced  gealewe, 
the  Saxon  for  "  yellow."  To  "  worry"  is  a  Saxon 
word,  originally  worrigen^  signifying  to  destroy, 
or  to  make  war  against;  thus  a  dog  is  said  to 
"  worry"  sheep,  while  the  word  is  also  used  in  a 
more  extensive  sense,  to  express  any  species  of 
tormenting  man  or  beast. 

"  Book,"  still  pronounced  in  some  parts  of 
England  huch^  was  hock^  from  the  beech  tree,  be- 
ing of  the  same  derivation  as  bacon,  formerly  spelt 
hakon  ;  but  for  a  different  reason.  The  pig  killed 
for  "  bacon"  was  so  called,  because  fed  upon  the 
beech-nut  to  harden  its  flesh;  and  the  "book" 
was  so  named,  because,  before  the  Saxons  knew 
the  use  of  paper,  their  writings  were  on  thin 
heechen  boards;  as  the  Romans  called  a  book 
liber,  from  the  Latin  for  the  rind  or  inner  bark 
of  a  tree.  Books  are  said  to  be  "in  boards," 
when  not  bound  in  leather,  the  covers  having 
been  anciently  made  of  wood ;  the  name  of 
"  book"  continues  to  be  used,  although  no  longer 
made  of  beech,  and  so  does  the  binding  in  "boards," 
though  no  longer  of  timber,  but  of  pasteboard, 
which  substance  was  so  called,  as  being  made  of 
paper  pasted  together  to  form  a  substitute  for 
board.      Thus,  also,  "paper"  is   still  so  called, 


34  LECTURE  I. 

although  no  longer  made  of  the  papyrus ;  and 
**  volume"  is  applied  to  that  which  is  no  longer 
rolled  up,  which  the  word  originally  signified ;  and 
the  instrument  with  which  we  write  is  called  a 
"  pen,"  from  the  Latin  for  a  bird's  wing,  whether 
it  be  formed  of  a  goose-quill,  or  from  steel.  The 
Saxons  called  a  pen  a  writing -feather. 

The  phrase  "  bog-Latin"  is  a  corruption  of  hoc- 
Uden,  that  is,  book-language,  by  which  term  the 
Saxons  designated  the  Latin  tongue,  as  being 
found  only  in  books,  and  known  only  to  those 
who  had  "book-learning."  With  the  Anglo-Saxons 
hoc-horde  signified  a  book-case  (like  cup-horde 
corrupted  into  "  cup-board,"  a  press  originally 
for  cups) :  a  scribe  or  scrivener  was  a  hocere  or 
booker,  that  is  a  book-maker,  before  the  art  of 
printing  was  discovered;  a  "  charter"  was  called 
a  hoc-leaf ;  a  'lecturer,"  also  from  the  Latin,  w^as, 
with  the  Anglo-Saxons,  a  hoc-reader ;  and  litera- 
ture, especially  the  practical  part  of  it,  the  com- 
posing of  books,  was  designated  hoc-craft,  which 
would  now  sound  too  much  like  the  reproachful 
term,  *'  book-making."  The  word  "  blaze"  meant 
to  divulge,  as  we  say  a  report  or  event  is  "  blazed 
abroad;"  and  the  "blaze,"  which  is  the  Saxon 
word  corresponding  to  "  flame,"  is  that  which 
divulges  the  existence  of  the  fire,  referring,  as 
Dr.  Johnson  observes,  rather  to  the  light  than  to 
the  heat.  "  Stark"  meant  bare  or  exposed,  as 
."  stark  mad,"  that  is,  openly  and  manifestly  de- 


LECTURE  I.  35 

ranged.  To  "  bay"  meant  to  bark,  as  Shakspeare 
has  it,  "  I'd  rather  be  a  dog  and  hay  the  moon, 
than  such  a  Roman."  A  stag  is  said  to  be  "  at 
bay,"  when  the  hunted  animal  makes  his  last  stand 
at  the  haying  or  barking  of  the  dogs.  "  Bourn" 
signified  a  boundary,  and  originally  a  rivulet 
forming  such.  Thus,  Shakspeare  describes  death, 
often  alluded  to  under  the  figure  of  a  stream  or 
river,  as  that  "  Bourne  from  which  no  traveller 
returns;"  and  he  calls  the  cliffs  of  Dover  the 
"  chalky  hourne"  or  houndary  of  England.  From 
this  comes  "  neighbour,"  the  man  who  is  nigh  or 
next  to  our  hourn  or  boundary ;  such  being  the 
original  meaning  of  the  word,*  although  we  have 
the  highest  Authority,  in  the  parable  of  the  good 
Samaritan,  for  not  thus  limiting  our  neighbourly 
feelings. 

"  Utter"  was  the  comparative  of  out,  of  which 
the  superlative  is  "  uttermost,"  written  also  '*  ut- 
most," and  in  old  writers  "  outmost."!  Hence,  to 
'*  utter"  a  sentence  meant  to  let  it  more  out.  This 
will  serve  to  explain  the  meaning  of  the  phrase, 
to  "  utter"  false  or  base  coin,  that  is,  to  put  it  out 

*  Etymologists  usually,  and  perhaps  correctly,  derive  "  neighbour" 
from  nigh  and  boor ;  tillers  of  the  land  having  been  formerly  called 
boors,  not  as  it  is  now  applied,  in  a  bad  sense.  Boure  also  signified  a 
house. 

t  "  Four  or  five  (berries)  in  the  outmost  fruitful  ])ranches  thereof." 
— IsA,  xvii.  6. 

" Chaos  retir'd, 

As  from  her  outmost  works,  a  broken  foe." — Milton. 

d2 


36  LECTURE  I. 

into  circulation.  The  word  "  issue,"  as  applied 
to  the  sending  out  lawful  money  of  the  realm,  is 
of  French  derivation,  introduced  by  the  Normans, 
who  had  the  management  of  the  mint.  As  a 
verb,  "  utter"  is  now  applied  only  to  uttering  a 
sentence,  or  base  coin ;  but  formerly  it  was  used 
to  describe  the  giving  out  of  any  commodity,  as 
articles  sold  in  a  shop.*  "  Flete"  signifies  swift, 
as  we  still  have  it,  although  the  orthography  is 
changed;  and  hence,  or  as  some  think,  from  the 
word  "  float,"  to  swim,  comes  *^  fleet,"  to  describe 
a  company  of  fleet,  that  is,  swift  or  floating  ships. 
The  word  fleot  or  flete,  also  signified  a  creek  or 
inlet  of  water,  from  which  is  derived  the  name  of 
a  well-known  street  in  London,  and  the  Fleet 
prison,  such  a  creek  having  formerly  been  in  the 
locality. 

The  word  "  fret"  meant  to  eat  or  devour,!  as 
"  a  moth  fretting  a  garment."  A  man  is  said  to 
*'  fret"  when  he  is  consumed,  eaten  up,  with  care. 
It  has  thus  become  an  intransitive  verb ;  but  ori- 
ginally it  would  have  been,  he  was  fretted — eaten, 
or  "  swalloiued  up  of  over  much  sorrow."  (2  Cor. 

*  "  Such  mortal  drugs  I  have  ;  but  Mantua's  law 
Is  death  to  any  he  that  utters  it." 

Borneo  and  Juliet. 
t  Chaucer  describes  a  "  sow  fretting  the  chyld  in  his  cradel ;"  and 
in  reference  to  a  representation  of  Acta^on  devoured  by  his  own  dogs, 
jje  has — 

"  I  saw  how  that  his  houn  is  have  him  caught, 
Aud  Ji-eitin  him,  for  that  they  kwew  him  nouglit." 


LECTURE  I.  37 

ii.  7).  *'  Gait,"  or  "  gate,"  signified  a  way,*  or 
march  ,"f-  as  we  speak  of  a  man's  "  gait, "J  or  man- 
ner of  walking;  and  a  "gate"  is  that  by  which 
we  find  a  vjay  into  a  field  or  castle.  Hence  the 
obsolete  word  algates  for  '^  always,"  the  original 
meaning  being,  in  all  ways,  under  all  circum- 
stances ;  "  always"  is  now  applied  to  signify  at  all 
times,  that  is,  through  all  ways,  or  through  the 
whole  course  of  life. 

"  Boot,"  or  bote,  was  to  help,  or  compensate ; 
as  a  man  is  said  to  give  some-thing  "  to  boot"  (a 
common  phrase  in  Ireland),  that  is,  to  help  to 
make  up  the  difference  in  value  between  two 
articles  given  in  exchange.  Hence  comes  "  boot- 
less," unprofitable,  that  which  yields  no  return  for 
our  pains.  This  word  anciently  also  meant  un- 
'pardonahle,  that  for  which  no  hoot  or  compensa- 
tion would  be  accepted.  "  Bodkin"  was  an  old 
word  for  a  dagger,  and  is  so  applied  by  Chaucer, 
and  at  a  later  period  by  Shakspeare.§  The  word 
is  now  applied  only  to  the  inoffensive  instrument 
found  in  a  lady's  work-box.  To  egg,  from  eggian, 
is  to  incite,  and  Chaucer-  has  the  noun  eggement ; 
thus  we  speak  of  '^egging"  on  a  person,  sometimes 

*  "  Good  gentlemen,  go  jour  gaiV — Shakspeare. 

t  "  Nought  regarding,  they  kept  on  their  gaii.^'' — Spenser. 

X  So  likewise  of  the  gait  of  beasts : 

" Leviathans, 

Wallowing,  unwieldly,  enormous  in  their  gaiV — Milton. 
§  "  When  he  himself  might  his  quietus  make 
With  a  bare  hodkiny — Hamlet. 


38  LECTURE  I. 

improperly  written  and  pronounced  edging.  The 
"  egg"  of  a  bird  is  also  Saxon,  but  was  formerly 
spelt  (Eg.  An  "  imp""  was  another  name  for 
child,  and  was  usually  applied  to  denote  the 
scions  of  royal  or  noble  houses.  Thus  Shakspeare 
calls  a  prince,  "  a  lad  of  life,  an  imp  of  fame/' 
and  makes  lord  Cromwell  speak  to  king  Henry 
of  *'  that  noble  imp,  your  son."  Thus  also  Spen- 
ser addresses  the  Muses — ''  Ye  sacred  ImpSy  that 
on  Parnasso  dwell ;"  and  there  are  still  existing 
many  epitaphs  of  the  ancient  nobility,  beginning, 
*'  Here  lies  that  noble  imp."  The  word  originally 
signified  a  shoot  or  twig  of  a  tree,  and  was  used 
figuratively  to  designate  a  child  or  offspring,  but 
has  come  to  be  used  only  in  a  bad  sense,  to  de- 
scribe a  child  of  tlie  devil.  *'  Gospel,''  or  good- 
spell,  is  Saxon  for  good  news,  and  lath-spell  was 
bad-news  ;  spell  signifying  a  "  story,"  which,  like 
"  tale,"  was  not  formerly  limited,  as  it  now  gene- 
rally is,  to  a  "  fiction,"  which  the  Saxons  called 
leas-spell,  from  leas  signifying  false,  as  "  leasing" 
meant  falsehood.  (Ps.  iv.  2).  "Lief"  signified 
willing;  hence  the  expression,  "I'd  as  lief,"  for 
"  I  would  be  as  willing."*  The  word  is  also  used 
by  Chaucer  as  an  adjective,  for  dear  or  beloved ; 
and  alderlevest"  is  best  beloved. 

We  call  the  upright  part  of  plants,  that  which 
supports  the  fruit  or  blossom,  the  "  stalk."      The 

*  "  I  had  as  lief  the  town- crier  spoke  my  lines." — Hamlet. 


LECTURE  I.  39 

word  was  formerly  applied  to  the  upright  pieces 
of  a  ladder,  from  the  Saxon  verb  stalhen,  to  stalk, 
or  step  slowly;  and  the  "stalks"  of  corn  and 
plants  were  so  called  from  their  appearance,  like 
the  uprights  of  a  ladder.  ''  Reck''  signified  care, 
from  whence  comes  to  "  reckon,''  or  count  up  with 
care,  and  ^'  reckless,"  careless  or  not  counting  the 
cost.  "Read"  was  to  interpret  or  discover,  as 
"  read  me  this  riddle,"  formerly  readle,  a  thing 
to  be  read  or  interpreted.  To  read  a  book  was 
.to  interpret  the  meaning  of  the  types  set  up  in 
its  pages,  and  thereby  to  read  or  discover  the 
author's  meaning.*  "  Twilight,"  or  twin-liglit,  as 
it  was  anciently  written,  signifies  two  lights,  de- 
scribing the  dubious  light  between  night  and  day. 
To  "  twit,"  or  reproach  with  a  sneer,  is  from  an 
old  Saxon  word,  twitten,  used  by  Chaucer.  A 
"  haw"  meant  a  ditch — still  called  in  some  parts 
a  haw-haw — and  the  thorny  bush  which  is  usually 
planted  on  the  side  or  top  of  the  haw  or  ditch,  to 
form  a  hedge,  is  called  the  "  hawthorn,"  the  berry 
of  which  is  called  a  "haw,"  that  is,  the  berry  of  the 
thorn  growing  on  the  side  of  the  haw  or  ditch. 
Hcega  is  Anglo-Saxon  for  "  hedge ;"   and  haga- 

*  Read  is  thus  used  to  mean   "  discover"  by  Scott,  in  Edmund's 
song  :— 

"  I  read  yon  by  your  bugle  horn, 
And  by  your  palfrey  good, 
I  read  you  for  a  ranger  sworn, 
To  keep  the  king's  green-wood." 

Hokeby,  Canto  iii.  17. 


40  LECTURE  I. 

thorn  (hedge-thorn),  is  the  hawthorn  ;  liaga  being 
changed  to  haw,  as  mnaga  is  put  for  "maw."" 
"Rather,"  or  sooner,  is  the  comparative  of  an 
obsolete  word,  rath,  signifying  "  soon,"  found  in 
old  English  books,  as  is  also  rathest  for  "  soonest." 
"  Farther"  is  the  comparative,  and  "  farthest"  the 
superlative  of  "  far"  or  "  forth."  "  Sear"  is  to 
burn,  and  hence  "  sere,"  dry  or  burned  up,  as 
"  the  sere  and  yellow  leaf"  of  Shakspeare.  The 
Saxon  name  for  the  month  of  June  was  Seremo- 
nath,  the  hot  and  dry  month.  An  arrow  was. 
often  called  "  a  shaft,"  as  we  may  read,  of  a  shaft 
shot  from  a  bow,  and  poets  sing  of  Cupid's 
"shafts."  Hence  the  straight,  or  bolt-upright, 
portion  of  a  pillar  is  called  the  "  shaft"  in  archi- 
tecture ;  a  word  also  used  by  miners  to  describe 
the  perpendicular  pit  which  they  sink  to  the 
mine  ;  hence,  also,  the  name  of  that  part  of  a  cart 
which  was  formerly  always  straight,  but  now  in 
spring  carriages  gracefully  curved  at  the  end. 
The  word  was  originally  sceaft^  or  shaved,  as  a 
scraped  stick,  which  formed  an  arrow.  A  "  sparre" 
meant  a  wooden  "  bar,"  as  the  word  is  so  applied 
by  seamen ;  sparran  was  the  Saxon  verb  to  bar, 
and  a  "spar,"  or  wooden  bar,  is  commonly  used 
to  fasten  a  gate.  Spenser  has :  "  Sparre  the  gate 
fast,  for  fear  of  fraud.''  Thence,  probably,  the 
use  of  the  pugilistic  term,  "  sparring,"'  for  fencing 
or  barring  off  the  blows. 

The  word  "tackle"  is  commonly  used  in  Ire- 


LECTURE  I.  41 

land  to  describe  the  harness  of  a  horse,  and  it  is 
also  applied  to  fishing- gear,  or  tackle.  This  is  a 
Saxon  word,  of  the  same  meaning  as  harness,,  of 
French  derivation,  the  origiaal  signification  of 
both  having  been  armour,  but  especially  bows 
and  arrows,  as  the  then  usual  weapons  of  war ; 
and  it  was  applied  to  armour  generally,  as  we 
may  read  of  a  man  being  "smitten  between  the 
joints  of  the  harness/'  The  word  "  tackle''  was 
formerly  used  in  a  similar  sense ;  and  the  expres- 
sion of  tackling  to  any  business  meant  preparing 
for  it,  as  a  man  would  buckle  on  his  armour  pre- 
paratory to  engaging  in  a  combat.  We  find  the 
word  "  hatch"  used  in  two  very  different  senses. 
The  verb  to  "  hatch"  is  derived  from  the  Saxon 
word  hegen,  to  sit  on  eggs  ;  the  "  hatches"  in  a 
ship,  meaning  the  small  doors  by  which  they 
descend  from  one  deck  to  another,  being  derived 
from  the  Saxon  word  hackeUy  to  cut  in  two  (from 
whence  comes  to  ^'liack"  or  hew)  and  a  "hatch" 
signifies  part  of  a  door  thus  divided.  It  was  for- 
merly much  used  in  the  singular  number,  as  in 
Shakspeare,  who  speaks  of  entering  a  house,  **  in 
a  window,  or  else  over  the  hatch."  "  Fallow" 
meant  pale  yellow,  hence,  ''fallow-deer;"  and 
unsowed  land  is  also  called  "  fallow"  land,  from 
its  somewhat  yellow  colour.  "  Pond"  and  ''pound" 
are  both  of  the  same  origin,  from  the  Saxon  word 
pyndan,  to  shut  up.  A  pond  is  a  piece  of  water 
shut  up  in  a  small  space,  and  a  "  pound"  is   a 


42  LECTURE  I. 

place  in  which  cattle  are  confined  or  shut  up;  hence 
also,  a  '^  pin/'  which  shuts  up;  a  ''  binn/'  in  which 
corn  or  wine  is  shut  up;  and  a  *'  pen,"  for  sheep. 
The  pen  with  which  we  write  is  of  Latin  deriva- 
tion ;  as  is  also  the  word  pound,  as  applied  to 
weights  and  money  ;  although  this  may  be  consi- 
dered doubtful.  *'  Hind"  is  an  adjective,  meaning 
backward ;  from  the  positive  we  have  "  behind  ;" 
from  the  comparative  is  derived  the  adjective 
*'  hinder,"  as  the  hinder  or  more  backward  part, 
and  the  verb  to  "  hinder,"  that  is,  to  put  or  keep 
back  ;  and  from  the  superlative  is  formed  "  hind- 
most," or  "  hindermost,"  formerly  hinderest,  the 
last,  or  most  backward.  The  original  of  "  to- 
morrow" was  to-morning,  like  "  to-day''  and  "  to- 
night." In  each  case  to  is  put  for  the,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Ireland  they  say  'Hhe  day,"  for  to-day. 
"  Neat"  signified  black  cattle,*  as  we  still  speak 
of  a  "  neat's  tongue."  "  Neat,"  that  is,  tidy,  is 
derived  from  a  Latin  word,  nitidus,  bright  or  shin- 
ing, signifying  clean.  "  Herd"  signifies  a  number 
of  cattle  or  other  animals,  guarded  or  kept  toge- 
ther, as  also  the  keeper  of  the  herd,  as  ''  shepherd," 
for  sheep-herd,  also  '* neat-herd,"  "goat-herd," 
and  "swine-herd."  A  '* herd"  is  a  name  for  a 
farm  servant  still  kept  up  in  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
but,  I  believe,  rarely  used  in  England  at  the  pre- 

*  "  Me  thought  he  bore  him  in  the  thickest  troop, 
As  doth  a  lion  in  a  herd  of  neat" 

K.  Henry  VI.,  Act  II. 


LFXTURE  I.  43 

sent  day.  The  word  "  herd"  is  derived  from 
hyrdan,  to  guard,  and  is  applied  both  to  the 
keeper  and  to  the  object  of  his  care  ;  from  the 
same  root  is  "  hurdle/'  by  which  fields  are  fenced, 
or  sheep  guarded  from  wandering. 

"  Horse"  is  a  Saxon  word,  and  the  animal  so 
called  was  the  ensign  on  the  banner  of  the  first 
Saxon  invaders  of  Britain,  the  chief  of  whom 
was  himself  called  Horsa  from  his  banner,  as 
others  have  had  the  name  of  Lion,  Fox,  and  Wolf, 
from  theirs.  Hengist,  as  his  brother  was  named, 
signified  a  war-horse ;  and  hence  came  hengist- 
man,  changed  to  '^  henchman,"  which  meant  a 
horseman,  but  was  afterwards  applied  to  all  the 
followers  and  retainers  of  a  great  man.  *^  Cra- 
ven," a  coward,  is  derived  from  crave,  to  beg ;  and 
was  applied  to  one  who  begged  his  life.  *^  Share" 
is  derived  from  the  Saxon  word  scearan,  to 
divide  ;  hence  also  "  shire,"  a  division  of  the 
country  ;  and  ''  shear,"  to  divide  or  cut  off  the 
wool  of  the  sheep  ;  as  also  "  shears,"  with  which 
it  is  cut  off;  and  the  "  ploughshare,"  that  part  of 
the  plough  which  cuts  or  divides  the  ground. 
"  Sharp''  IS  derived  from  the  same  root,  as  being 
cut  off.  ^'  Shore"  is  Saxon  for  the  coast  of  the 
sea ;  it  is  also  the  past  tense  of  the  verb  to 
* '  shear ;"  but  shorCj  to  prop  up,  a  word  used  b}^ 
builders,  is  Dutch.  This  word  is  also  improperly 
used  for  sewer,  which,  as  well  as  sewerage,  is  of 
French  derivation.     "  Strand,"  formerly  stronde, 


44  LECTURE  I. 

is  another  Saxon  word  for  the  sea-shore  ;  from 
whence  comes  ^'  stranded,"  or  driven  on  the  shore. 
The  word  "  sea"  is  Saxon  ;  and  therefore  "  sea- 
shore" is  better  than  sea-coast,  *'  shore"  being 
Saxon,  but  coast  French.  So  also  seaman, 
husbandman,  ploughman,  craftsman,  workman, 
workmanship,  horseman  and  horsemanship  are 
all  pure  Saxon ;  but  nobleman,  gentleman,  mer- 
chantman and  penmanship  are  all  hybrid  words 
compounded  of  French  or  Latin  and  Saxon. 

Reef  was  a  coat  or  garment ;  hence  comes  the 
word  for  the  "  roof"  of  a  house,  as  covering  it  as 
a  garment  covers  a  man  ;  while,  curiously  enough, 
one  of  the  names  of  a  house,  cote,  has  come  to  be 
given  to  a  garment,  which  serves  a  man  for  a 
covering,  as  a  house  gives  him  shelter,  or  as  a 
"  sheep-cote"  affords  cover  and  shelter,  to  sheep, 
and  a  "  dove-cote"  to  pigeons.  The  name  for  the 
garment  called  coat  may,  however,  have  been 
derived  from  the  French,  who  have,  for  centuries, 
given  fashions  and  names  for  dress  to  the  civilized 
world.  Home  Tooke  derives  "  roof  from  reef  nan 
to  sustain,  considering  it  as  the  past  participle  pas- 
sive of  that  verb,  and  used  to  describe  that  part 
of  the  building  which  is  supported  by  the  walls. 
*'  Foster"  was  originally /oocZs^er,  the  provider  of 
food,  the  feeder  ;  hence  '^  foster-father''  is  the  name 
given  to  the  husband  of  a  nurse,  not  the  father 
of  a  child,  as  "  foster-child"  is  the  child  nursed  by 
a  woman  not  the  mother,  or  reared  by  a  man  not 


LECTURE  I.  45 

the  father ;  and  ''  foster-brother"  is  one  who,  like 
a  brother,  has  been  fed  by  the  same  nurse. 

The  word  '^  sheaf"  originally  meant  a  bundle 
of  anything  shoved  together,  and  was,  from  an 
early  period,  applied  to  a  bundle  of  arrows  bound 
together  at  the  middle,  as  also  to  a  bundle  of 
wheat  so  tied,  and  called  a  "  wheat  sheaf,"  for- 
merly spelt  sheff,  as  Chaucer  has  '^  a  sheff  of 
arrows/'  The  word  ^'  ship"  was  anciently  scyp, 
and  hence  we  have  "  skipper,''  the  captain  of  a 
sailing  vessel.  ''  Stow"  signified  a  place,  and 
forms  the  termination  of  many  towns  and  places 
in  England.  Hence,  too,  we  speak  of  ^'  stowing 
away"  goods,  that  is  putting  them  in  their  place. 
*'  Steeple,"  formerly  stipel,  is  Saxon  for  a  high 
tower,  from  being  steep  or  high ;  a  word  still  ap- 
plied to  the  tower  of  a  church,  the  spire  being 
derived  from  Latin.  Suinc,  or  swine,  was  the 
Anglo-Saxon  for  labour,  whence  came  '^  swain,"  a 
labourer,  or  any  servant,  as  "  boat-swain."  Wana 
is  the  Saxon  for  a  defect,  which  has  been  changed 
to  "  want ;"  bat  we  still  speak  of  the  *'  wane"  of 
the  moon,  as  it  appears  to  become  less,  and  seems 
to  want  part  of  its  rotundity ;  and  "  wan"  or  pale, 
wanting  a  healthy  colour,  is  from  the  same  root. 
Waxen  signified  to  increase  or  grow,*  as  we  say 
the  fire  ^'  waxes"  hot,  or  a  man  "  waxed"  wrath ; 
and  the  moon  is  said  to  ^'  wax"  or  grow  greater, 

*  "  Who  marks  the  waxing  tide  grow  wave  by  wave." — Shakgpeare. 


46  LECTURE  I. 

as  well  as  to  *'  wane"  or  decrease.  Wold  is  Saxon 
for  a  *'  forest,"  and  was  originally  a  distinct  word 
from  wood,  which,  as  I  have  observed,  meant  mad 
or  angry.  This  word,  wold,  sometimes  written 
wait,  is  still  used  in  England  to  describe  places 
which  either  are  or  have  formerly  been  forests. 
In  ordinary  use  it  has  been  contracted  into 
*'  wood."  Welk  signified  a  '^  cloud,"  from  being 
wheeled  or  rolled  up;  but  was  commonly  used  in 
the  plural  number  to  describe  the  sky  from  which 
the  clouds  have  been  swept  or  rolled  off.  And 
the  name  is  still  so  applied  in  poetry,  in  the  pMral,  t 
the  "  welkin."*  Beame  was  another  name  for  a 
tree ;  from  whence  we  have  a  "  beam  of  timber," 
which  latter  word  was  a  verb,  signifying  to  build ; 
hence  the  original  meaning  of  a  "  beam  of  timber" 
was  a  tree  for  building.  "  Beam"  is  now  used  to 
describe  a  piece  of  dead  timber ;  but  in  the  case 
of  the  "  horn-beam"  it  retains  its  original  sense. 
"  Balk"  was  the  beam  used  for  the  roof,  a  word 
still  in  use  with  builders.  The  word  belle,  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  French  word  of  similar 
orthography,  but  of  very  different  meaning,  signi- 
fied in  Saxon  to  roar.  Thus  Chaucer  describes 
the  wind  as  it  belleth,  or  belloweth,  that  is,  roars. 
Hence  the  "  bell"  which  roared  out  the  curfew  of 
the  Normans  was  so  called  by  the  unhappy  Saxons, 
The  "  bull"  is  said  to  "  bellow,"  that  is,  to  roar, 
and  probably  was  so  named  as  being  the  greatest 

*  "  In  all  the  welkin  was  no  cloud." — Chaucer. 


LECTURE  I.  47 

roarer  and  bellower  amongst  the  beasts  in  the 
lands  of  the  Saxons.  From  the  roaring  of  the 
wind  issuing  from  the  instrument  used  to  blow 
up  the  blacksmith's  fire  or  furnace,  it  was  called 
a  "  bellows/'  a  name  given  to  the  smallest  pair 
used  in  a  drawing-room,  although  it  may  only 
"roar  you  as  gently  as  any  sucking  dove/'  Bait 
signified  a  bit  or  bite ;  as  the  "  bait''  put  on  the 
hook  for  the  fish  to  bite  ;  and  a  man  on  a  journey 
can  only  stop  to  give  his  horse  a  bit  or  hite^  whence 
to  '^  bait"  meant  to  stop  to  feed  for  a  little  time 
upon  the  road,  snatching  a  hit  by  the  way.  The 
morsel  of  which  the  rider  himself  hastily  partook, 
while  his  horse  was  baiting,  was  called  his  "  snack" 
from  snachen,  to  take  hastily,  to  snatch.  Tlie 
most  usual  name  now  in  use  for  such  a  light  meal 
is  luncheon,  supposed  to  be  of  Spanish  origin. 

The  words  "  nigh,"  "  near,"  and  "  next,"  origi- 
nally negh,  negher,  neghest,  are  the  degrees  of 
comparison;  like  *' high,"  "higher,"  "highest," 
anciently  hegh,  hegher,  and  heghest,  or  hext, 
*'  Instead"  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  in  stead,  in 
place.  "  After"  is  the  comparative  of  aft,  the  posi- 
tive being  retained  only  by  our  seamen.  "  Up," 
"upper,"  and  "uppermost"  were  formerly  ufa, 
ufera,  and  ufermost,  and  from  the  ancient  com- 
parative we  have  "  over."  Tooke  says  bove  is 
bufan,  and  "  above"  is  onbufan,  and  "  upon" 
ufon;  all  meaning  the  same  as  the  top  of  the 
head,  from  heofan,  to  lift  up  or  heave. 


48  LECTURE  I.         • 

Horne  Tooke  resolves  adverbs,  as  well  as  con- 
junctions and  propositions,  into  verbs  and  nouns ; 
and  as  to  the  interjection,  lie  considers  it  so  far 
from  being  properly  called  a  'part  of  speech,  that 
he  designates  it  "  the  brutish  inarticulate  inter- 
jection^ which  has  nothing  to  do  with  speech,  and 
is  only  the  miserable  refuge  of  the  speechless." 
In  proof  of  this  he  insists  that  "  the  dominion  of 
speech  is  founded  on  the  downfall  of  interjections  ?" 
"  Without  the  artful  contrivances  of  language,"  he 
observes,  "  mankind  could  have  nothing  but  inter- 
jections with  which  to  communicate,  orally,  any 
of  their  feelings/'  And  he  proceeds  to  show  that 
''  voluntary  interjections  are  only  employed  when 
the  suddenness  or  vehemence  of  some  affection  or 
passion  returns  men  to  their  natural  state,  and 
makes  them,  for  the  moment,  forget  the  use  of 
speech ;"  while  in  books  they  are  only  to  be  found 
''in  rhetoric  and  poetry,  in  novels,  plays,  and  ro- 
mances ;"  and  never  occur  "  in  books  of  civil 
institutions,  in  history,  or  in  any  treatise  in  useful 
arts  and  sciences."* 

To  return  to  adverbs.  This  ingenious,  though 
perhaps  sometimes  fanciful,  etymologist  makes 
''adrift''  to  be  the  past  participle  of  adrifan,  to 
drive  away  ;  "  aghast,"  the  same  part  of  the  verb 
agaze,  to  look  steadfastly  upon  ;  "  ago,"  the  same 
part  of  ago,  to  go;  and  "  asunder"  from  asundrian 

*  Diversions  of  Parley. 


LECTURE  I.  49 

to  separate.  '^Naught"  or  "  nought"  is  no  wJiit, 
as  '^  aught"  or  *' ought/'  signifies  one  whit  ; 
"  needs,"  anciently  written  **nedis,"  mesnis  need 
is  ;  "  anon"  is  in  one  minute ;  "  alone"  and  "  only," 
all  one  and  one-like ;  *' alive,"  on  life;  "asleep," 
in  sleep  ;  ''anew,"  of  new ;  "•  aboard,"  on  hoard ; 
"  farewell"  is  from  faran^  to  go,  and  well,  as  we 
may  say,  liow  fares  it  ?  or  how  goes  it?  The  old 
adverbs,  atwo  and  athree  are  used  by  Chaucer, 
signifying  "  in  two"  and  **in  three;"  similar  to 
the  verb  still  in  use,  '^  atone,"  to  make  at  one,  and 
the  noun  '^  atonement,"  or  that  which  makes  at 
one  those  who  had  been  separated  or  at  variance. 
*'  None"  means  no  one  ;  and  "  the  nonce"  meant 
the  once.  "  Awhile"  is  a  time  ;  and  *'  aloft"  is  on 
loft.  Similar  to  these  are  several  adverbs,  of 
which  the  meaning  is  obvious,  as  "afoot,"  "ashore," 
"  abreast,"  "  afloat,"  "  aloud,"  "  aside,"  and 
"aground."  "Aloof"  was  probably  all  off, 
"  Aye,"  and  "  yea"  or  "  yes,"  Tooke  makes  to  be 
the  imperative  of  a  verb  signifying  to  possess; 
meaning  have  or  enjoy  that.  ''  No,"  in  like  man- 
ner, he  derives  from  a  Teutonic  word,  nodig  or 
node,  signifying  averse  or  unwilling ;  while  "  nay" 
opposed  to  "yea,"  or  "aye,"  is  have  it  not'^ 
"  Naw"  is  new,  and  '*  never"  means  not  ever. 

The   word  "deal"  we  find    used   in  various 
senses,  but  all  may  be  traced  to  the  same  origin. 


See  Diversions  of  Purley,  by  HorneTocke. 

E 


50  LECTURE  I. 

the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  doelaUy  signifying  to  divide. 
Thus  a  "  deal"  board  is  a  board  dealt  or  divided ; 
to  "deal"  in  any  commodity  means  to  divide  the 
goods  by  retail;  and  when  we  say  we  ''deal" 
with  any  person,  it  means  rather  that  we  go  to 
him  to  deal  out  to  us.  To  "  deal"  with  people 
after  their  desert,  means  to  divide  or  measure 
out  to  them  recompense  (reward  or  punishment) 
according  to  their  deserving.  A  pack  of  cards  are 
* 'dealt"  out,  when  divided  amongst  the  players; 
and  a  "  deal"  means  a  share,  now  only  used  to 
mean  ''a  great  deal,"  or  a  large  share.  ''Dale," 
a  valley  dividing  two  hills,  is  also  derived  from 
dcdan,  to  divide.  "  Heal"  is  to  cover,  and  a  sore 
i^ healed  when  well  covered  over;  while  "health" 
is  from  healeth.  From  heal^  to  cover,  comes 
"  hell,"  or  the  unseen  place,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  word  used  with  the  same  signification,  not 
necessarily  meaning  a  place  of  torment,  although 
now  usually  restricted  to  that  sense;  and  the 
"hull "  of  a  ship  is  the  part  covered  by  the  water. 
The  "  earth,"  so  called  from  erea^Uy  to  plough 
(whence  comes  "arable,"  that  may  be  ploughed), 
was  worshipped  as  a  goddess  by  the  pagan  Saxons'; 
and  in  honour  of  her  they  called  the  fire- side, 
around  which  the  family  assembled,  the  "  hearth," 
which,  by  a  figure,  is  applied  to  the  whole  house 
and  home,  as  the  Eomans  called  their  homes 
lares,  from  their  household  gods.  h 

Male  and  female,  amongst  mankind,  were  an- 


LECTURE  I.  51 

ciently  described,  as  in  the  Saxon  gospels  (Matt, 
xix.  4),  as  weajp-man  and  wif-man,  meaning 
weapon-man  and  woof -man,  in  allusion  to  the 
weapons  of  war  used  by  the  man,  and  the  woof 
or  web  on  which  the  women  were  employed. 
From  the  latter,  the  word  "  wife"  is  derived  ;  as 
"  spinster  "  is  from  spinning.  The  '^  husband  "  is 
the  huse-hand,  who  keeps  the  house  together,  as 
"  huswife''  is  the  house-wife,  from  managing  the 
the  house  with  thrift.  *'  Stepfather"  is  probably 
a  corruption  for  sted-father,  "  sted"  meaning  place, 
as  instead,  in  place  of;  and  in  Danish,  they  have 
stied-fceder,  and  stied-mader.  ''  Barn"  is  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  the  same  word  as  bar,  being 
a  place  of  defence  or  safety  for  the  corn.  "  Ballast " 
signified  originally  the  loading  of  a  ship  ;  it  is 
now  applied  to  that  which  is  put  in  the  hold  to 
make  up  for  want  of  sufficient  loading.  "  Hope" 
is  derived  from  the  verb  to  open,  as  describing  a 
person  looking  out,  with  open  and  longing  eyes, 
for  that  which  he  is  wishing  for :  and  thus  it 
corresponds  with  "  expect ''  derived  from  the 
Latin,  and  meaning  to  look  out 

'*  Friend  "  and  ''  liend ''  appear  somewhat  simi- 
lar words,  with  very  opposite  meanings.  The  first 
is  derived  from  the  Saxon  verb  frian,  to  love, 
while  the  latter  is  ixom.fian,  to  hate;  from  whicii 
also  we  have  ^'  foe.'^  "•  Friendship"  is  friend- 
shape,  after  the  manner  or  fashion  of  a  friend,  as 
*  landscape"  is  a  representation  or  shape  of  the 

e2 


52  LECTURE  I.  -  Ji|J 

land  ;  both  from  scaffan,  to  form.  **  Loaf  is  de- 
rived from  the  Saxon  word  for  bread,  leaf,  so 
called  because  it  has  been  raised,  from  helaf,  to 
raise ;  hence  also  leavened.  The  bread,  when 
made  moist,  is  called  ''  dough,"  being  the  past 
participle  of  deawian,  to  wet ;  from  which  we 
also  have  the  "  dew"  that  waters  the  grass. 

To  "steer"  is  to  move  or  guide ;  and  the  ''  stern" 
is  that  part  which  is  stirred  or  moved  in  guiding 
the  ship's  course.  A  young  heifer  is  called  a 
"  steer,"  and  a  young  ox  is  a  "  stirk,"  as  being 
under  guidance  and  discipline,  while  as  yet  "  un- 
accustomed to  the  yoke."  "•  Spade  "  is  from  sjpetan, 
to  throw  out ;  from  which  comes  '*to  spit;"  and 
the  portion  of  clay  thrown  up  by  the  spade  is 
called  ''a  spit."  The  ''spit"  on  which  meat  is 
roasted  is  that  which  is  thrust  through  the  joint; 
and  the  word  is  also  used  as  a  verb,  as  when  a 
bird  is  said  to  be  "  spitted."  "  Righteousness" 
was  originally  rightwiseness,  or  the  act  of  walking 
in  right  ways,  as  the  corresponding  word,  now 
obsolete,  wrongiuiseness,^  was  going  in  wrong 
ways.  The  word  "  wrong"  is  the  past-participle 
of  "  wring,"  and  describes  that  which  has  been 
wrung  from  the  right  course  or  position.  The 
word  "  ought "  is  the  past-participle  of  the  verb  to 
owe,  as  we  say  he  ought  to  do  it,  that  is  he  owes  it, 
or  it  is  owed  by  him  to  do  it.     It  is  more  correct 

*  Trencli's  English,  past  and  present,  p  98. 


LECTURE  I.  53 

to  write  the  adverb,  signifying  one  whit,  "  aught" 
than  ought  ''  Guilt"  is  taken  from  the  past  tense 
of  the  verb  to  guile,  meaning  gulled,  or  beguiled, 
as  we  still  have  it,  that  is,  by  the  devil ;  and  in 
criminal  charges  the  accused  is,  by  our  law  forms, 
described  as  having  acted  under  the  instigation 
or  guile  of  the  devil.  The  "  left-hand"  signifies 
that  which  is  left  unused,  as  distinguished  from 
the  ''  right-hand,"  which  is  the  right  and  proper 
one  to  employ.  A  "  field"  was  originally  so  called, 
as  being  a  piece  of  land  on  which  the  trees  had 
been  felled,  and  it  is  spelled  feld  in  old  authors, 
and  opposed  to  woods,  or  uncleared  land. 

To  "  deck''  signified  to  cover ;  hence,  it  is 
applied  to  clothing,  and  especially  to  fine  and 
ornamental  covering.  The  "  deck''  of  a  ship  is 
that  which  covers  the  "  hold,"  a  word  derived 
from  hellan,  to  hide.  To  "  chop  and  change"  is 
an  old  phrase,  meaning  to  bargain  and  exchange, 
and  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  ceapan,  to 
bargain,  to  cheap,  that  is,  to  buy  or  sell.  Hence 
the*  nautical  term,  a  ''chopping"  wind  or  sea, 
signifying  a  changing  wind  or  sea.  A  "  knave" 
originally  meant  a  boy,  and  was  used  generally 
to  describe  a  servant ;  and  knab  is  the  German 
for  a  boy.  Home  Tooke  thinks  it  probably  de- 
rived from  nafath,  i.  e.  ne-hafath,  who  has  no- 
thing. This  word  knave  is  now  applied  only  in 
a  bad  sense  to  describe  a  rogue.  "  Dearth"  is  the 
third  person  singular  of  the  obsolete  verb  dere,  to 


54i  LECTURE  I. 

hurt  or  injure ;  and  is  applied  to  scarcity,  which 
injures  a  country,  and  is  caused  by  injury  done  to 
the  crops.  Hence,  also,  is  derived  "  dear,"  in  the 
sense  of  scarce,  or  of  too  great  a  price.  To  duhhe 
was  to  strike;  hence  a  knight  was  said  to  be 
*'  dubbed,''  from  the  stroke  of  the  sword  laid  on 
his  shoulder ;  and  from  a  word  of  similar  import, 
a  man  who  is  beaten  in  a  fight  is,  in  vulgar  lan- 
guage, said  to  have  gotten  a  *'  drubbing." 

Home  Tooke  considers  "  if,"  and  the  old  word 
"an,"  used  in  the  same  sense,  to  have  been 
originally  gif  and  anan^  meaning  give  and  grant. 
He  also  makes  "  unless''  to  be  the  imperative  of 
the  old  Saxon  verb  anlesan,  to  dismiss:  from 
which  termination  of  the  imperative  of  this  verb, 
less,  added  to  nouns,  came  such  adjectives  as 
"hopeless,"  "doubtless,"  "restless,"  &c.,  that  is, 
dismiss  hope,  doubt,  rest,  «fec. ;  so  that  we  may 
say,  indifferently,  "sleepless,"  or  without  sleep, 
"  restless,"  or  without  rest,  &c.  "  Else"  he  also 
considers  to  be  the  imperative  of  alesan,  to  dis- 
miss ;  and  "  eke,"  for  also,  the  imperative  of  eacan, 
to  add ;  as  in  like  manner  "  and,"  from  ananad,  to 
add  to,  or  increase.  He  also  makes  "  but"  and 
"without"  the  imperatives  of  beon-utan  and 
wyrthan-utan,  to  be  out ;  and  "though"  the  im- 
perative of  thafigan,  to  allow  ;  "  since,"  he  makes 
to  be  the  past  participle  of  seon,  to  see;  and 
"  lest"  the  same  participle  of  lesan,  to  dismiss. 
The  preposition  "  through,"  this  same  ingenious 


LECTURE  I.  55 

writer  shows  to  be  the  same  as  "  thorough ;"  and, 
as  he  believes  that,  properly  speaking,  there  are 
only  two  parts  of  speech,  the  noun  and  the  verb, 
he  makes  this  the  same  as  the  substantive  thuruli, 
the  Teutonic  for  a  door,  gate,  or  passage.  "  From'' 
he  makes  to  be  the  noun  frumman,  the  begin- 
ning, as,  "  figs  came  from  Tui'key,"  i.  e.,  "  figs 
came — the  beginning,  Turkey."  And  as  he  makes 
*'  from"  the  commencement,  so  he  considers  "to'' 
the  result,  consummation,  or  end;  and  "till," 
which  he  observes  is  only  used  with  respect  to 
time,  he  thinks  is  a  word  compounded  of  to  and 
whilSy  the  latter  word  meaning  time;  so  that 
"  from  morn  till  night,"  is  the  same  as  "  from 
morn  to  time  night ;  and  he  shows  that  the 
English  peasantry,  as  well  as  some  ancient  authors, 
use  wJiile  for  till,  that  is,  leaviug  out  to,  as  *'  I 
will  stay  while  evening,"  instead  of  till,  or, 
to  while,  that  is,  to  tlm^e  evening.  In  like  man- 
ner, he  traces  "  for"  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  noun 
afara,  the  first  or  consequence  ;  whence  comes 
the  use  of  "  for,"  to  express  the  cause  or  the  end 
of  any  action.  The  preposition  "  by"  Tooke  con- 
siders as  the  imperative  bytJi  of  the  Saxon  verb 
heon,  to  be,  that  is,  to  be  the  cause  or  agent. 
"  Between"  and  "  betwixt"  are  compounded  of 
the  imperative  he,  with  twegan  and  twas,  meaning 
twain  and  two.  "  Beneath"  means  the  same  as 
below,  being  the  imperative  be  compounded  with 
neathj  an  obsolete  word  meaning  "  low ;"  from 


56  LECTURE  I. 

which  we  still  have  "  nether"  and  "  nethermost." 
'*  Under"  is  from  the  same  root,  on  neder,  or,  on 
the  netherside.  "  Beyond"  is  compounded  of  be 
and  geondj  the  participle  of  the  Saxon  verb  gan 
or  gongan,  to  go.  '*  Among,"  which  was  formerly 
writtea  emong,  is  derived  from  the  verb  geman- 
gan,  to  mingle,  or  mix.  "  Against"  is  from  a 
Dutch  verb  jogenen,  to  meet  or  encounter,  or, 
more  probably,  from  the  An  gloSdiXou,  an- gang  en, 
to  meet.  *'  Amid"  or  ''  amidst"  (by  Chaucer 
written  amiddes)  is  Saxon,  in  the  midst  or  mid- 
dle ;  and  "  along"  is  on  long.  "  Beside"  is  by 
the  side  of 

To  '*  amaze  "  means  to  puzzle  a  person,  as  if 
lost  in  a  maze,  or  labyrinth  ;  and  "  amazement" 
means  the  state  of  being  in  a  maze.  The  word 
*'  mazed"  is  found  in  old  authors  for  mad  "  Tidy" 
is  a  good  old  English  word,  and  its  meaning  is 
significant ;  it  is  derived  from  tid,  time,  and 
means  "  timely  ;"  no  one  can  be  tidy  who  is  not 
in  good  time  at  their  work.  Untid  was  an  old 
word  meaning  untimely.  The  original  mean- 
ing of  "  wicked"  was,  like  "quick,"  alive;  and 
"  wick"  is  still  used  in  the  North  of  England  for 
alive ;  hence  the  ''  wick,"  or  live  part  of  the 
candle,  is  so  called.  From  the  same  word  we 
have  the  compounds,  quicklime,  quicksands,  and 
quicksilver.  From  "  alive"  and  "  lively,"  wicked 
came  to  signify  restless  and  turbulent,  and  at  last 


LECTURE  I.  57 

assumed  its  present  sense,  expressive  of  unmitiga- 
ted moral  evil,  either  of  character  or  actions.* 

A  boy  or  youth  was  called  a  "  lad,"  as  being 
under  the  leading  or  guidance  of  parents  and 
tutors ;  the  feminine  was  laddess,  which  has  been 
contracted  to  "lass/'  A  *' ladder,"  which  leads  a 
man  up  to  any  height,  is  from  the  same  root, 
Icedan,  to  lead.  *'  Kine"  is  a  contraction  from 
cowen,  the  plural  of  "  cow."'  The  word  ''  knot," 
is  employed  in  various  senses,  but  in  all  cases  is 
to  be  traced  to  the  Saxon  verb  cnyttan,  to  "  knit.'' 
A  hard  ''knot"  is  a  complicated  knitting  together 
of  the  cord  ;  a  ''  knotty  point"  means  an  intricate 
question  ;  a  "  knot"  of  persons  is  a  number  of 
people  connected  or  gathered  together ;  a  ''knot" 
in  a  piece  of  timber  is  the  place  where  the  fibres 
are  tightly  hnit  or  complicated  together,  and 
thence  rendered  hard ;  and  a  "  top-knot"  was  a 
bundle  of  locks  of  hair  knit  or  tied  together  at 
the  top  of  the  head. 

Christianity  having  been  received  firyt  in  the 
cities  and  towns,  those  who  did  not  embrace  our 
holy  religion  were  called  "  pagans,''  derived  from 
Latin,  meaning  the  people  inhabiting  the  villages 
and  country.  In  like  manner,  they  were  called 
by  the  christian  Saxons  "  heathen,"  being  the 
inhabitants  of  the  heaths  and  the  wilder  districts 
of  the  country. 

Many  words  are  pronounced  and  often  spelt 

*  English  Synonyms.     By  Archbisliop  Whately. 


58  LECTURE  I. 

alike,  which  are  totally  different  in  signification. 
This  arises  from  the  circumstance  of  such  words 
being  derived  in  one  instance  from  the  Saxon, 
and  in  the  other  from  Latin  or  French.  Thus 
*' wicked/'  for  sinful,  is  Saxon;  but  "wicket/'  a 
small  gate,  is  French.  We  have  "  rear,"  to  bring 
up,  and  *'rear*'  or  "  rare,"  signifying  raw,  both 
Saxon ;  while  we  have  '^  rare"  for  scarce,  and  the 
*'rear"  of  an  army  from  the  French.  '^Eain" 
from  the  clouds,  is  Saxon  ;  but  the  "  reign"  of  a 
king  and  the  "rein"  of  a  bridle,  are  French.  The 
"sea,"'  is  Saxon;  but  the  "  see'"  of  a  bishop  is  of 
Latin  and  French  derivation.  The  Saxon  word 
"  raise,"  means  to  build  up  ;  but  '^  raze,''  from  the 
French,  is  to  pull  down.  Numerous  similar  exam- 
ples will  occur  to  every  one,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  all  dictionaries  and  spelling-books ;  but  the 
origin  of  these  apparent  anomalies  in  the  English 
language  is  not  usually  set  forth,  and  is,  probably, 
not  generally  perceived. 

I  have  already  observed  that  the  most  simple 
and  primitive  words  in  the  English  language,  and 
those  most  in  daily  use,  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and 
are,  for  the  most  part,  monosyllables.  We  have 
seen  this  exemplified  in  nautical  terms,  in  the 
days  of  the  week,  and  in  the  implements  of  hus- 
bandry. It  will  also  be  found  that  all  the  parts 
of  the  human  body  are  called  by  Saxon  names, 
and  are  usually  designated  by  words  of  one  syl- 
lable. The  word  "  body"  is  a  word  of  two  sylla- 
bles ;  but  was  originally  a  monosyllable,  as  we 


LECTURE  I.  59 

find  an  "  abode"  for  a  habitation,  which  is  its 
primary  meaning,  frequently  written  "  bode"  in 
Chaucer  and  other  authors.  Bode,  or  "abode" 
is  the  past  participle  of  the  Saxon  verb  bidan, 
to  abide,  and  as  a  noun  signifies  a  dwelling-place. 
Hence  it  was  applied  to  the  human  body,  as 
being  the  abode  of  the  soul,  which  is  by  a  beauti- 
ful figure  described  as  a  '^  tabernacle,''  in  which 
for  the  present  the  immortal  part  of  man  abides.* 
Thus,  too,  Chaucer  describes  death — '*  his  spirit 
changed  house.'''  The  word  "  body"  is  especially 
applied  to  a  dead  corpse,  the  bode  or  body  being 
that  in  which  the  soul,  during  life,  abode  or  did 
dwell.  The  Anglo-Saxons  also  called  the  body 
the  sawol-huSj  that  is,  the  house  of  the  soul.  The 
"head"  was  formerly  spelt  heved,  and  was  so  called 
as  being  heaved,  or  raised  up  above  all  the  mem- 
bers. The  "eye"  is  so  called  from  a  Teutonic 
word,  augyan,  to  point  out ;  the  "  nose"  is  derived 
from  ness,  signifying  prominent^  sl  word  frequently 
found  in  composition,  in  geography,  to  signify 
a  promontary,  as  Shearness,  Dungeness,  &c.,  it 
is  also  used  to  indicate  a  state  or  condition,  as, 
goodness,  happiness,  &c.  "  Skull"  is  of  the  same 
origin  as  " scale;"  as  is  also  "  shoulder,"  formerly 
written  shoulde,  where  the  arms  separate  from 
the  body ;  each  being  derived  from  the  verb  scylan 
to  divide  ;  the  skull  consisting  of  several  distinct 

*  Thus  the  Apostle  St.  Peter,  in  view  of  the  near  approach  of  death, 
says,  "  Knowing  that  shortly  I  mast  put  off  this  my  tabernacle." — 
2  Pet.  i.  14. 


60  LECTURE  I. 

pieces  of  bone,  and  the  scales  of  a  fish  being 
each  detached  from  the  other.  The  *'  mouth"  is 
derived  from  matgan  to  eat ;  as  the  "  jaw"  is  that 
with  which  a  man  chaws  or  cheius ;  and  the  ''  ear" 
is  the  organ  of  hearing,  derived  from  the  verb 
ei^en,  to  take  or  to  receive,  as  sounds.  The 
"  tooth"  is  that  which  tuggeth  or  toweth,  as  we 
say  a  steam-^u^  takes  a  vessel  in  tow.  The 
**  cheeks"  are  so  called  from  chew,  and  eke,  mean- 
ing again,  as  they  are  again  and  again  brought 
into  motion  when  we  chew  our  food.  The 
'*  tongue"  comes  from  thingan  to  speak  ;  and  the 
"  hand"  from  hentan,  to  take.  Connected  with  the 
head  we  have  four  dissyllables,  viz. : — "  forehead," 
*'  eye-brow,"  "eye-lid"  (or  eye-cover),  and  '^nos- 
tril" (or  nose-thrill,  that  is,  bored) ;  but  these  are 
each  more  properly  two  Saxon  words.  The  "  in- 
step" is  from  an-stcepan,  to  go  forward. 

The  "  neck''  is  so  called  from  nicken,  to  bend ;  as 
are  also  the  "•  knee"  and  its  diminutive  "  knuckle," 
the  little  knee  of  the  finger.  "  Finger"  is  from 
fingan,  to  take  ;  from  whence  comes  "  fang"  the 
namegivento  talons  or  tusks  of  an  animal,  by  which 
he  takes  his  prey,  and  the  word  is  still  used  as  a  verb 
in  some  parts  of  England.  The  "  foot,"  anciently 
fet,  is  from  fettian,  to  carry,  whence  also  comes  to 
fetch.  The  "  leg"  is  from  leggan,  to  place  or  sup- 
port. The  "  thigh"  means  the  thick  part  of  the 
leg,  and  the  *'  calf"  is  supposed  to  have  meant  the 
little  thigh,  as  a  calf  is  a  little  cow.     The  "  shin" 


LECTURE  I.  61 

means  the  sJdnned  bone,  being  the  bone  which  is 
covered  only  with  *'  skin,"  which  latter  is  derived 
from  sJcinnan,  to  shine,  as  it  appears  conspicu- 
ously, and  was  often  made  to  shine  with  oil,  as  with 
careful  tending  a  horse's  skin  will  shine.  *'  Flesh" 
may  mean  flayed,  as  meat  is  call  flesh,  that  is, 
fleshed  or  flayed,  when  stript  of  the  skin.  "  Blood" 
is  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  to  bleed,  a  word 
derived  from  the  colour,  hledan,  meaning  to  blush 
or  grow  red.  '*  Sinew,"  anciently  one  syllable, 
sine,  means  strength.  The  "  liver"  is  so  called 
from  being  essential  to  life;  the  "lungs"  from 
lungan,  to  draw,  namely,  the  breath  ;  and  the 
"  lights,"  as  the  lungs  of  other  animals  are  called, 
mean  the  light  part  which  contains  the  air.  The 
''  toes"  are  so  called  from  tean,  to  expand  ;  or  more 
probably  from  toen,  to  take,  having  been  originally 
applied  to  the  talons  or  claws  of  birds,  with  which 
they  take  their  prey  ;  the  "joints"  are  the  ^'om- 
ings  ;  and  the  "  wrist"  is  that  joint  by  which  we 
widest  or  pull  ofi*  anything.  The  "  nails,"  like  the 
fingers  and  toes  to  which  they  are  attached,  have 
reference  to  the  fangs  and  talons  of  other  animals, 
being  derived  from  the  verb  nceglian,  to  fasten, 
as  with  the  claws  a  bird  or  beast  fastens  on  its 
prey.  Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  the  "nail" 
which  a  carpenter  uses  to  fasten  his  work  is  a 
word  of  the  same  origin  with  the  finger  nails,  al- 
though the  connexion  is  not  at  first  sight  apparent. 
The  "  ankle"  is  the  bone  by  which  the  foot  is 


62  LECTURE  I. 

Tmnhyd,  that  is  hanged  to  the  leg.  The  *'  throat," 
through  w\nc\\i\\Q  breath  and  food  pass,  is  probably 
derived  from  throivan,  to  throw. 

The  "  bones"  are  intended  for  the  support  of 
the  body,  and  without  them  the  rest  could  not 
he  or  subsist ;  the  word  may  be  derived  from  the 
verb  beon,  to  be.  The  word  "  rib"  seems  to  have 
been  applied  to  anything  ripped  or  torn  asunder, 
and  hence  those  bones  are  so  called  which  extend 
separately  or  asunder  from  the  back  bone  ;  as  are 
also  the  split  boards  with  which  the  sides  of  a 
ship  are  strengthened,  and  parts  of  the  leaf  or 
stalk  of  plants.*  The  "  heart"  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  so  called  from  a  Teutonic  word, 
huera,  to  move  quickly,  whence  comes  to  hurry, 
on  account  of  the  perpetual  motion  and  agitation 
of  the  heart ;  while  others  think  that  it  is  derived 
from  herd,  that  is,  hard,  or  durable,  because  we 
owe  the  duration  of  life  to  the  motion  of  the 
heart.  The  '*  breath"  is  the  spirit ;  from  be  and 
oreth,  the  spirit.  The  '*  chest,"  which  encloses 
the  heart,  lungs,  &c.,  is  the  case  in  which  these 
parts  of  the  body  are  shut  up ;  and  so  we  apply 
the  word  to  a  trunk  or  chest  for  clothes  ;  and  we 
use  a  similar  word,  "  case,"  from  the  Latin,  in 
like  manner,  as  a  gun-case,  a  hat-case,  a  case  of 
instruments,  &c.  A  coffin  was  anciently  called 
a  ''chest,"  as  containing  the  dead  body.  The 
word    "  elbow"  is   one  of   the   few   dissyllables 

*  See  Richardson's  Dictionary. 


LECTURE    I.  63 

employed  to  designate  a  member  of  the  body, 
and  it  is  compounded  of  el^  a  measure,  and  the 
how  or  bend  of  the  arm,  from  which  to  the  tip  of 
the  middle  finger  that  measure  extends.  Elhoga 
is  the  Saxon  for  a  "  cubit."  The  ''  lips"  are  so 
called,  probably,  from  lamping  over  the  mouth. 
The  '*  chin"  is  from  cinan,  to  open,  because  when 
the  chin  is  drawn  down  the  mouth  is  opened ; 
hence  also  comes  a  chink,  or  opening.  The  "  arm" 
is  from  even,  to  take,  and  from  the  German  arm, 
it  is  supposed,  was  derived  the  Latin  arma,  arms. 
The  "back,"  the  "brain,"  the  "beard,"  and  the 
"  hair,"  are  Saxon  words,  and  monosyllables,  of 
which  we  have  no  satisfactory  derivation. 

It  will  be  observed  that,  in  tracing  these  deri- 
vations, the  words  adduced  have  been,  in  many 
instances,  referred  to  obsolete  Anglo-Saxon  verbs; 
but  these  are  to  be  'found  in  old  books  and  manu- 
scripts, although  some  are  now  altogether  disused, 
or  are  to  be  found  only  in  composition  with  other 
words. 

The  names  of  the  various  animals  known  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
may  also  be  traced  to  Anglo-Saxon  derivations, 
and  will  be  found,  for  the  most  part,  to  consist 
of  monosyllables. 

The  "  horse''  is  supposed  to  have  been  so  named 
from  his  obedience  and  tractableness,  the  obsolete 
Saxon  word  hyrsian  signifying  to  obey.  The 
name  of  "  dog"  is  now  applied  in    the  English 


64  LECTURE  I. 

language  to  every  species  of  that  animal,  but  in 
the  other  northern  dialects  it  means  the  large 
hunting-dog,  so  called  from  tacJcen,  to  take  or 
catch.  The  "  cow"  is  the  animal  that  chews  the 
cud,  so  called  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  ceowan,  to 
ruminate  or  chew  the  "  cud ;"  this  latter  word 
meaning  that  which  has  been  chewed.  "  Sheep" 
were  the  earliest  objects  of  care  to  mankind,  and 
for  pasture  were  driven  from  place  to  place  in 
large  numbers  by  their  owners.  The  word 
*^J^  sji^eep,"  which  has  no  singular  as  distinguished 
^^  from  the  plural,  may  have  originally  signified  a 
"  drove,"  as  a  flock  is  called  when  driven  along 
the  road,  and  the  name  may  be  derived  from  the 
f^  verb  sceofan,  to  shove,  or  drive;  from  whence 
also  we  have  a  "  shovel."  The  "^at,"  which  so 
patiently  watches  for  the  mouse,  takes  her  name 
from  the  verb  ge^acheri,  to  watch.  The  ''  stag" 
was  so  called  from  stigan,  to  stick,  from  his  long 
horns  ;  or,  according  to  Tooke,  from  steige,  to 
raise  up,  from  his  raised  and  lofty  head.  The 
word  "  swine"  is  the  plural  for  sow,  contracted 
from  sowen,  like,  "  kine"  from  cowen,  that  is, 
cows.  The  '^  sow"  is  from  succan,  to  suck. 
^  "  Birds"  are  so  called  from  the  breadth  of  their 
y^  wings ;  the  word  was  anciently  written  bridd, 
Jk  and  is  derived  from  hrcedan,  that  is,  to  broaden  or 
spread  abroad  ;  and  "  fowl"  is  derived  from  fugel 
to  fly.  The  "sparrow"  takes  his  name  from 
spyrrian,  to  search,  from  the  active  disposition  of 


LECTURE  I.  65 

that  bird  in  search  of  food.     The  "nightingale" 
is  the  singer  in  the  night,  compounded  of  nighty 
and  galen,  to  sing.     The  "hawk"  was  called  havoc 
in   Saxon,  which  word,  derived  from  haven  to 
take  or  snatch,  was  used  as  an  interjection,  like 
halloo!  as  a  word  of  encouragement  to  slaughter 
in  hunting,  probably  in  allusion  to  the  sport  of 
hawking.^     Havoc  is  a  Teutonic  word  signifying 
devastation,  and  formed  a  suitable  name  for  the 
hawk,  as  a  bird  of  prey  making  havoc  among  the 
smaller  birds.    The  "raven"  is  so  called  in  allusion 
to  his  ravenous  disposition,  from  reajian,  to  tear 
away  ;  and  the  "  rook"  from  his  propensity  to 
steal,  from  roeccan  to  reach,  or  lay  hold  on.     The 
''  crow"  owes  his  name  to  his  hoarse  voice ;  as 
does  the  "  cock"  to  his  "  shrill  clarion ;"  the  mop- 
ing  "  owl"   to   his   melancholy  howl;    and  the 
^"  frog"  to  his  croaking.     The  "  duck"  is  so  called, 
probably,  from  the  verb  difan  to  dive;  duchen 
being  the  frequentative  of  that  word.   The  "  drake" 
derives  his  name  from  the  mud  in  which  he  takes 
delight,  from  the  German  dreck,  whence  "  dregs,"        * 
signifying  mud.     The  "  swan"  has  his  name  from^^/tt\) 
swimman,  to  swim.     The  "  swallow"  feeds,  as  no  (w*jf 
other  bird   does,  flying,  and   he  swallows  flies     - 
by  wholesale.     "  Fox"  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
derived  from  the  German  fahen,  to  take  by  craft    ' 
or  guile,  while  others  derive  it  from  the  Saxon 

*  "  Cries  Havock  !  and  lets  slip  the  dogs  of  war." 

ShaTcspeare. 
F 


66  LECTURE  I. 

fian,  from  whence  comes  foe,  being  the  great 
enemy  to  the  poultry  ;  and  others  again  from  fax 
or  feax,  an  Anglo-Saxon  word  for  hair,  which  is 
found  in  old  authors, — faxed,  for  bushy,  from  his 
brush.  "  Wolf  is  derived  either  from  his  yell  or 
yelpj  or  from  the  Gothic  ^uilwan,  to  ravage. 
The  "  herring,"  a  fish  which  visits  the  British 
seas  in  numerous  swarms,  is  so  called  from  the 
word  her,  an  army,  from  the  closely  compacted 
hosts  or  numbers  in  which  they  are  found.  The 
name  of  the  "  turkey,"  an  American  and  not  a 
Turkish  bird,  may,  perhaps,  be  derived  from  the 
noise  which  this  bird  makes,  like  turk,  turk;  but 
it  more  probably  alludes  to  the  swaggering  strut 
and  furious  manner  and  appearance  of  the  tur- 
key-cock, with  his  inflated  breast,  red  face,  and 
outspread  tail,  strutting  among  the  hens  like  any 
''blue-beard"  Turk,  or  "three-tailed"  bashaw. 
This  bird,  however,  was  unknown  to  the  Saxons, 
and  therefore,  not  named  by  them ;  but  by  the 
English,  at  a  period  when  the  Turks  were  looked 
upon  with  the  greatest  aversion.  The  "  mole" 
derives  its  name  from  the  little  hillocks  of  mould 
cast  up  by  this  animal ;  and  was  anciently  called, 
as  it  still  is  in  some  parts  of  England,  "  mould- 
warp,"  from  mold,  earth,  and  werpan,  to  throw 
or  cast  up.     The  "  spider"  means  the  spinner,* 

*  111  his  description  of  dreams,   as   the   work  of  Queen  Mab, 
Shakspeare  calls  the  spider  by  this  name. 

"Her  waggon-spokes  made  of  long  spinners'  legs." 

Romeo  and  Juliet. 


LECTURE   I.  67 

SO  called  from  spinning  his  web ;  s'pinan  signify- 
ing to  spin,  from  whence,  also,  comes  a  "  spindle." 
The  derivation  of  the  spider's  prey,  from  the  verb 
to  *'  fly,"  is  obvious.  The  name  of  the  "  moth" 
is  to  be  traced  to  the  same  root  as  mouth,  in 
allusion  to  the  eating  propensities  of  that  insect ; 
Tnath  being  a  contraction  for  matgith,  the  third 
person  singular  of  matgan,  to  eat.  The  "  snail" 
is  a  diminutive  of  '^  snake,"  both  so  called  from 
snican,  to  creep  ;  hence  the  term  sneaking,  creep- 
ing in  a  servile  manner.  The  "  worm"  is  de- 
rived from  an  old  Saxon  verb,  werpan,  to  move 
in  curved  lines,  from  which  we  have  "  warp."  To 
**  worm  "  one's  self  into  another's  favour,  or  into 
an  advantageous  position,  is  to  act  like  a  worm, 
creeping  along  insensibly,  and  by  tortuous  ways. 
The  '^  worm"  of  a  still  is  formed  like  the  insect  so 
called,  and  through  it  the  distilled  liquor  creeps 
slowly,  drop  by  drop. 

The  "  slug"  means  the  slow  reptile ;  and 
similar  is  the  derivation  of  the  "  sluggard"  and 
the  "  sloth."  The  "  adder"  creeps  beneath  the 
grass,  and  was  also  called  ncedre,  that  is  "  be- 
neath." In  allusion,  probably,  to  this  reptile, 
poison  was  called  atter.  The  venomous  spider 
was  called  attercop,  a  name  still  in  use  in  some 
parts,  and  from  cop  we  have  "  cobweb,"  formerly 
copiueh.  The  "  gnat"  is  so  named  from  ncetan,  to 
sting;  and  the  "bat,"  because,  with  its  wings 

f2 


68  LECTURE    I. 

expanded,  it  resembles  a  boat  impelled  with  oars ; 
the  "  boat"  itself  is  so  called  from  being  a  vessel 
forced  along  the  water  by  the  heating  of  oars, 
from  the  past  participle  heot^  beaten.  The  "  seal" 
is  a  contraction  from  sea-calf^  so  called  from  the 
noise  made  by  this  animal,  like  a  calf  bleating. 
The  *'  gadfly,"  goadfly,  is  an  insect  that  torments 
cattle  like  a  goad.  The  "  lobster,"  called  by 
Chaucer  the  loppe,  has  its  name  from  the  verb  to 
leap;  the  leap  or  spring  of  the  lobster  being 
noted  by  naturalists.  The  ''salmon's"  name  is 
derived  from  a  French  verb  of  a  similar  signifi- 
cation, from  the  well-known  power  of  that  fish 
to  leap.  The  "  crab"  is  so  called  from  creopan^ 
to  creep.  The  *'  flea,"  whose  leaping  powers  are 
well  known,  was  also  called  loppe  in  Anglo- 
Saxon. 

Many  other  names  of  animals  might  be  enu- 
merated, of  which  the  exact  derivation  cannot 
be  given,  but  which  will  be  found  to  be  of  Saxon 
origin,  and  monosyllables ;  as  hat,  kite,  rat,  toad, 
mouse,  hare,  elk,  deer;  a  few  are  dissyllables,  as 
rabbit,  hedgehog,  dormouse,  and  badger.  From 
the  cruel  sport  of  hunting  the  last-named  animal, 
all  species  of  tormenting  and  petty  persecution 
came  to  be  called  ''  badgering." 

The  names  of  trees,  and  of  all  vegetable  pro- 
ductions known  to  the  northern  nations  of 
Europe,  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  for  the  most 
part  expressed  by  monosyllables ;  as  the  oakj  the 


LECTURE    I.  69 

limey  the  ash,  the  pine*  the  Jir,  the  beech,  the 
yew,  the  asp,  the  6irc^,  the  e^m,  the  vine,  the 
6oiz;,  the  holm,  and  the  plane;  with  cor-Ti,  oa^s, 
^y^ea^,  /la^/,  ^mss,  and  here  (for  barley),  the  /^ 
and  the  grape;  as  also  the  different  parts  of 
plants  and  trees,  as  the  root,  the  hunch,  the  s^a^A;, 
the  leaf,  the  ^/?,orii,  the  fruit,  the  6ucZ,  the  5^em, 
i  the  bark,  and  the  seed.  Of  dissyllables,  we  have 
the  willow,  the  maple,  and  the  (X^c^er  ;  likewise 
the  blossom,  and  the  berry.  The  "  elm"  was 
sometimes  called  the  coffer,  because  chests  (coffers) 
and  coffns  were  usually  made  of  the  wood  of 
this  tree. 

This  lecture  has  extended  far  beyond  the  length 
which  I  had  anticipated;  and  the  subject  has 
grown  so  much  upon  me  while  engaged  in  its 
preparation,  that  I  must  reserve  for  a  future 
opportunity  much  that  I  had  meant  to  have 
brought  under  your  notice  on  this  occasion. 

*  Some  critics  have  disputed  the  Saxon  origin  of  the  vine,  the 
pine,  and  the  Jig  tree,  because  these  names  are  severally  similar  to  the 
Latin ;  but  this  is  as  much  evidence  that  they  are  all  Saxon  as  that 
they  are  Latin.  We  find  in  Somner,  Benson,  and  Bos  worth,  the  win- 
treow,  the  pin-treow,  and  the  Jic-beame,  signifying  the  wine-tree,  &c. 
The  Latin  and  Anglo-Saxon  names  had  probably  the  same  origin,  in 
the  Teutonic.    ^  '     ^' ■  ;-V'^^'" -'    ^  -  ;      ''       -,    .  ■• 


LECTUEE    II. 


In  my  former  Lecture  I  noticed  several  words 
which  may  be  traced  to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  of 
which  the  derivation  is  not  generally  known,  as 
also  some  words  which  have  changed  their  mean- 
ing from  that  which  they  originally  conveyed. 

Many  others  might  be  enumerated,  to  some  of 
which  I  shall  refer,  before  I  proceed  to  consider 
titles  of  honour,  and  proper  names  derived  from 
the  Saxon,  with  other  topics  connected  with  our 
subject. 

The  word  "  bequeath"  means  to  leave  a  legacy 
in  a  will,  and  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  quith, 
meaning  a  will — that  which  a  man  quoth,  or 
made  known,  as  his  wish,  or  "  will."  A  "  fee  "  is 
a  word  with  which  we  are  all  acquainted ;  it  is 
derived  from  feoh,  the  Saxon  for  money,  a  word 
originally  applied  to  cattle,  the  medium  of  ex- 
change,'before  the  use  of  money.  ''  Coward  "  is, 
by  Home  Tooke,  derived  from  cowered^  bowed 
down,  crouching,  or  stooping  through  fear ;  and  it 
was  formerly  used  as  a  verb,  to  cowre,  or  cower, 
of  which  coward  is  the  past  participle.    An  "  inn," 


LECTURE  II.  71 

anciently  ingeat,  is  a  house  of  common  '^?i-^om^. 
A  surgeon  was  formerly  called  a  "  leecli,"  from 
the  Saxon  word  lich,  signifying  the  body,  his 
art  appertaining  to  the  human  body.  The  little 
creature  that  sucks  the  blood,  and  thus  performs 
one  of  the  offices  of  a  surgeon,  is  therefore  called 
a  '^  leech."  A  hearn^  or  bairn,  was  the  Saxon  for  a 
child,  and  is  still  so  applied  in  Scotland.  OAepe, 
or  cheap,  was  the  Saxon  name  for  a  market. 
Hence,  we  have  "  chapman,"  a  small  merchant,  such 
as  frequented  markets.  Chaucer  has  chapman- 
hade  for  the  profession  or  business  of  a  merchant. 
Ceap-scip,  i.  e.,  cheap-ship,  meant  a  merchant- 
vessel,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  a  "  trader."  To 
"  cheapen  "  meant  to  buy  or  bargain  at  market ; 
and  formerly  good  cheap  and  bad  cheap  were 
modes  of  expression  used  to  denote  a  good  or  a 
bad  bargain.*  The  term  ''  cheap,"  being  now  used 
only  to  describe  a  "  good  "  purchase,  this  epithet 
is  omitted  as  unnecessary.  Uncheap  was  a  Saxon 
word  for  "  gratuitous,"  that  is,  without  a  price. 
Undeare  was  used  to  express  what  we  now  mean 
by  "  cheap,"  and  deareworth  was  what  we  call 
"  dear."  The  name  of  the  street  called  "  Cheap- 
side,"  in  London,  does  not  imply  that  goods  are 
cheaper  there  than  elsewhere,  but  denotes  the 
site  of  an  ancient  market-place,  a  *' cheap,"  or 
market,  having  been  held  at  the  side,  or  on  the 

*  Thus  Shakspeare   has  "  good  cheap,"  of  which  dog  cheap  is 
probably  a  corruption. — King  Henry  IV, 


72  LECTURE  II. 

site  of  the  road  or  street.    Similar  to  this  is  "  Chep- 
stow/' the  "place  of  a  market. 

As  **  gospel"  meant  good  news,  so  the  ancient 
Saxon  name  for  a  parable  or  proverb  was  hispel, 
signifying  a  story  by  the  way,  or  as  we  now  say, 
a  "  by-word."  Light  was  the  Saxon  for  metre 
or  rhyme  ;  hence  came  "  ditties,"  or  ballads,  and 
to  "  indite"  (endight)  prose  was  to  set  it  forth  in 
order.  The  several  meals  of  the  day  were,  by 
the  Saxons,  called  breakfast,  noon-meale,  and 
even-meale ;  for  the  two  last-named,  "  dinner" 
and  *'  supper,"  derived  from  the  French,  have 
long  been  substituted  ;  and  for  the  first,  of  which 
the  derivation  is  obvious,  '^dejeuner"  has  now 
come  into  use,  to  describe  fashionable  mid-day 
or  afternoon  entertainments,  which,  however,  are 
seldom  literal  break-fasts.  From  an  union  of  two 
words,  French  and  Saxon,  we  have  "  gentleman :" 
the  Saxons  called  a  gentleman  by  birth,  an  ethel- 
boren-man,  that  is,  a  nobly -born  man.  A  peasant 
they  described  as  a  ceorl-boren-man ;  as  ceorl,  or 
"  churl,"  signified  a  rustic,  without  implying  re- 
proach. "Whit-Sunday"  was  so  designated  by 
the  Saxons,  as  being  the  Weid-Sunday,  that  is, 
the  *^  Holy  Sunday,"  being  that  upon  which  Chris- 
tians commemorate  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Some,  however,  consider  it  to  mean  White  Sun- 
day, and  to  have  been  so  called  from  the  circum- 
stance of  the  candidates  for  baptism,  or  confirma- 
tion, appearing  at  Whitsuntide  clothed  in  white, 
as  the  emblem  of  purity. 


LECTURE  II.  73 

In  my  former  lecture,  I  noticed  the  meaning 
of  the  Saxon  word  sted  or  steady  as  signifying  ''  a 
place,"  which  is  derived  from  stood  or  staid- 
Hence  we  have  "  steady,"  and  "  steadfast,"  or 
"  stedfast,"  meaning  firmly  fixed  to  one  place,  and 
applied  to  fixedness  of  purpose.  The  word  is 
used  in  composition,  as  "  bed-stead,"  the  place  of 
a  bed,  and  "  home-stead,"'  the  place  of  one's  home. 
Folkstede  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  word  for  a  vil- 
lage. "  Twine"  means  two  threads,  and  ''  twist" 
is  that  which  is  twiced,  or  doubled  ;  of  the  same 
signification  is  "tweed;"  while  "  thread"  means 
three' d  or  thriced.  A  "  wrinkle"  means  that  which 
is  wrung  or  distorted.  "  Wrench'"  is  also  derived 
from  wringaUi  to  wring,  twist,  or  torture ;  and  it  is 
found  used  as  a  noun  by  old  writers,  equivalent 
to  fraud  or  other  wrong.  The  noun  *'  wretch," 
now  applied  in  a  bad  sense,  originally  meant  one 
who  was  wrecked,  or  deeply  afflicted ;  as  an  adjec- 
tive, "  wretched"  is  still  used  in  its  original  mean- 
ing, but  usually  implies  a  feeling  of  contempt  as 
well  as  pity.  As  a  noun,  "  wretch"'  was  formerly 
used  in  a  good  sense,  as  conveying  a  feeling  of 
tenderness  excited  by  the  misfortunes  of  the  per- 
son to  whom  it  was  applied.^ 

I  have  already  shown,  by  many  examples,  that 
the  most  simple  words,  and  those  in  general  use, 

*  Thus  in  ShaksT^esuce— OtheUo,  Act  TIL,  Scene  III. ;  and  Eamlety 
Actll.j  /Scene  JI.  In  both  which  places  "  wretch"  is  applied  withoat 
implying  reproach  or  contempt. 


74  LECTURE  II. 

are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  for  the  most  part  mono- 
syllables.    To  those  before  adduced,  may  be  added 
the  names  of  three  out  of  the  four  elements,  earthy 
I  Jlre,  and  water;  as  also   the   four  winds, — the 
!    "  north,"  derived  from  an  old  verb,  signifying  to 
i    dry  up  and  bind,  as  frost  does;   the  "  south,"  so 
I    called  from  a  verb  which  signified  to  make  warm, 
I    to  boil,  from  which  we  have  the  word  seethe  ;  the 
j    '*  east, ""  signifying  stormy  ;  and  the  "  west,"  being 
I   the  past  participle  of  wcetan,  to  wet ;  this  being 
the  rainy,  as  the  others  are  the  dry,  warm,  and 
stormy  points  of  the  compass. 

We  have  observed  that  several  words  have 
changed  their  original  meaning.  Amongst  these, 
we  may  mention  ^*  dote,"  and  "  fond ;"  each  of 
which  words  meant  foolish,  as  we  still  speak  of 
a  man  ^'  doting,"  and  we  find  the  word  "  fond" 
still  used  in  its  original  sense,  especially  in  poetry, 
as  we  may  read  of  a  "  fond  conceit."  Shakspeare 
makes  King  Lear  describe  himself  as  "a  foolish, 
fond  old  man."  Neither  of  these  words  appears 
to  have  had,  originally,  any  special  reference  to 
afiection,  but  meant  folly,  madness,  or  imprudence 
of  any  kind ;  and  in  one  instance,  quoted  by  Dr. 
Johnson,  "  fond"  is  applied  in  a  sense  altogether 
opposite  to  its  present  usual  meaning,  to  describe 
an  injudiciously  severe  schoolmaster,  when  a  youth 
is  said  to  have  been  '^  beaten  out  of  all  love  of 
.  learning  by  a /one?  schoolmaster  ;"  meaning  there- 
\by,  a  foolish  and  ill-judging  teacher.     Notwith- 


LECTUEE  IT.  75 

standing,  it  is  certain  that,  from  an  early  period, 
these  two  words,  "  doting"  and  ''  fond,"  or  both  of 
them  united,  as  "  dotingly  fond,"  were  employed 
to  express  very  strong  and  tender  affection  ;  and 
it  does  not  speak  much  for  the  warm-heartedness, 
or  gallantry,  of  the  Anglo  Saxon  race,  that  when 
we  would  describe  the  strongest  affection  towards 
the  object  of  our  most  tender  regard,  we  use 
language  which,  in  plain  English,  means  that 
we  are  making  great  fools  of  ourselves.  The 
Saxons,  like  most  of  the  northern  nations,  were 
hard  drinkers,  and  it  is  a  subject  of  regret 
that  their  descendants,  at  the  present  day,  have 
not  altogether  lost  this  not  very  creditable  cha- 
racter. They  were  not  less  remarkable  for  their 
hospitality  than  for  their  love  of  strong  drink, 
and  did  not  like  to  see  their  guests,  any  more 
than  themselves,  leave  a  drop  in  the  bottom  of 
their  very  capacious  tankards.  Hence  they  called 
it  a  "  carouse,"  when  they  drank  all  out;  the  word 
^ar  signifying  "all,"  and  ous  meaning  "out;" 
hence,  the  g  being  changed  to  c,  to  "  carouse" 
(anciently  garousz)  meant  to  drink  all  out^ 
This  "carousing"  tending  to  frequent  quarrels, 
the  Saxon  King  Edgar 'enacted  a  law,  which  he 
strictly  enforced,  ordering  that  certain  marks 
should  be  made  in  their  drinking  cups,  at  a  par- 
ticular height,  above  which  they  were  forbidden 

*  "  The  Queen  carouses  to  thj  fortune,  Hamlet." — Shahspeare. 


76  LECTURE  II. 

to  fill  them  under  a  heavy  penalty.  This  law, 
however,  as  Eapin  relates,  was  but  a  short  time 
in  continuance,  being  too  much  opposed  to  the 
national  character  to  be  long  maintained.  The 
word  '*  wassail,"  defined  by  Dr.  Johnson  as  a 
drunken  hout,  comes  from  the  old  Saxon  words 
was  and  heal^  that  is,  ''  be  of  good  health ;"  was 
being  the  imperative  of  the  Saxon  verb  signifying 
to  be,  of  which  we  still  have  the  imperfect  tense, 
and  heal  signifying  health.  The  custom  of  pledg- 
ing healths  arose,  it  is  probable,  out  of  the  savage 
habits  of  the  times,  when  every  man  dreaded 
violence ;  but  when,  at  the  same  time,  the  most 
cruel  amongst  them  respected  a  pledge,  and  strict- 
ly kept  their  word.  When  a  man  took  up  the 
large  tankard,  to  drink,  he  pledged  his  word  to 
his  neighbour  that  he  would  protect  him,  while 
drinking,  from  violence,  if  the  other  would  pledge 
his  troth,  that  is,  his  *'  truth,"  in  like  manner,  for 
his  safety,  while  he  was  in  the  act  of  drinking, 
and  thereby  obstructing  his  view  by  the  large 
drinking  vessel,  and  exposing  his  throat  to  an 
enemy.  A  tradition,  which  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt,  tells  that  the  first  introduction  of  this 
custom  of  "  drinking  healths"  into  Britain,  and 
with  it  the  word  wassail,  was  on  the  occasion  of 
Hengist  and  Horsa,  the  first  Saxon  chiefs,  hav- 
ing invited  Vortigern,  the  British  king,  to  a  sup- 
per. The  lady  Bowena,  daughter,  or  niece,  of 
Hengist,  came  into  the  king's  presence,  with  a  cup 


LECTURE  II.  77 

of  gold,  filled  with  wine,  in  her  hand,  and  mak- 
ing a  low  obeisance,  she  accosted  him  in  these 
words,  in  the  Saxon  tongue :  Waes  heal,  laford 
cyning — **  be  of  good  health,  lord  king."  The 
king,  not  understanding  what  she  said,  inquired 
the  meaning  from  his  chamberlain,  who  was  also 
his  interpreter,  and,  as  instructed  by  him,  replied, 
"  Drinc  heal,''  that  is,  ^'  Do  you,  yourself,  drink 
my  health ;"  upon  which  she  touched  the  cup 
with  her  lips,  and  then  gave  it  to  the  British 
king.  The  fair  lady  soon  afterwards  became  Yor- 
tigern's  wife,  the  infatuated  king  putting  away  his 
wedded  queen ;  and,  instead  of  getting  a  dowry  with 
Rowena,  he  complied  with  the  demand  of  Hen- 
gist — who,  doubtless,  rightly  judged  Vortigern 
to  be  a  doting  and  fond  fool — by  giving  the 
whole  county  of  Kent  to  the  Saxons.  Having 
thus  acquired  the  fairest  portion  of  the  country,* 
by  stratagem  and  compact,  the  invaders  never 
rested  satisfied  until  they  had  obtained  possession 
of  the  entire  island. 

In  this  county  of  Kent,  thus  early  brought 
under  Saxon  sway,  the  Saxon  custom  is  said  by 
Dr.  Johnson  to  prevail,  as  it  continues  in  force  in 
other  parts  of  England,  whereby  the  lands  of  the 
father  are,  on  his  decease,  divided  amongst  all  his 
children.     This  custom  is  called  "  gavel-kind,"  a 

*  "  Kent,  in  the  commentaries  Caesar  writ, 
Is  term'd  the  civil'st  place  of  all  this  isle." 

Shakspeare. 


78  LECTURE    II. 

Saxon  term,  compounded  of  the  words  give  all 
kind,  or  kin,  that  is,  give  or  divide  amongst  all 
the  children.  This  is  one  of  the  few  law  terms 
of  Saxon  origin  which  remain  in  the  English 
language,  the  Normans  having  used  French  in 
the  law  courts ;  so  that,  in  the  legal  profession, 
as  well  as  in  those  of  medicine  and  divinity, 
derivatives  from  the  Latin  are  found  generally  to 
abound. 

Of  the  law  terms  so  introduced,  some  are  well 
known,  but,  perhaps,  seldom  understood.  The 
Court  of  "  Oyer  and  Terminer"  signifies  the  court 
where  causes  are  heard  and  determined ;  the  word 
oyer  being  the  old  Norman-French  for  hear  ;  the 
imperative  mood  of  which  was  used  three  times 
to  call  all  persons  concerned  to  the  hearing,  when 
the  officer  proclaimed  the  opening  of  the  court 
by  crying — Oyez,  oyez,  oyez,  from  which  that 
functionary  was  called  *'the  crier;"  and,  having 
but  a  very  humble  duty  to  perform,  he  was  soon 
allowed  to  be  a  Saxon,  who  corrupted  the  old 
Norman  into  the  English  words,  0  yes!  0  yes  I 
0  yes  !  as  at  the  present  day  we  hear  it  sung  out, 
both  in  civil  and  ecclesiastical  courts. 

We  have  still  some  old  terms  used  in  legal 
forms,  which  are  Saxon,  it  being  necessary  that  they 
should  be  understood  by  the  lower  orders.  Thus, 
notices  of  ejectment  were  signed  John  Thrustout; 
and  the  fictitious  names  of  John  Nokes  and  John 
Style,  originally  John  of  the  Oke  (or  oak),  and 


LECTURE  II.  79 

John  at  the  Style,  are  both  Saxon,  as  are  also 
John  Doe  and  Richard  Roe.  These  names  go  to 
prove  how  common  the  name  of  John  was  with 
the  Saxons,  as  an  Englishman  is  always  called 
John  Bull,  and  a  British  sailor  is  known  every- 
where as  honest  Jack. 

On  this  part  of  our  subject,  we  may  observe, 
that,  to  this  day,  the  royal  assent  is  given  to  Acts 
of  Parliament  in  French,  La  Reine  le  veut — The 
Queen  wills  it ;  and  if  it  should  occur  that  our 
gracious  Sovereign  should  unhappily  differ  with 
her  Parliament,  the  refusal  of  her  assent  would 
be  conveyed  in  the  mild  terms,  La  Reine  s'avi- 
sera — The  Queen  will  consider  of  it.  In  the 
House  of  Lords,  on  a  division,  the  Peers  say 
content  or  non-content,  from  the  Latin ;  while 
the  Commoners  in  the  people's  House,  say  aye  or 
no,  in  homely  Saxon.* 

It  was  not  at  the  period  of  the  first  arrival  of 
the  Normans  in  England,  that  all,  or  even  the 
greater  number  of  the  present  words  of  French 
derivation  were  introduced  into  the  language  ; 
the  English  at  all  times  appearing  to  have  a  taste 
for  borrowing  words  from  others,  and  especially 
from  their  French  neighbours,  although  they 
would  not  *'  on  compulsion"  give  up  their  original 
Anglo-Saxon.    In  the  curious  and  scarce  work  on 

*  The  "  Speaker,"  whose  office  is  designated  by  a  Saxon  word, 
says — Ayes  to  the  right,  and  Noes  to  the  left,  using  Saxon  terms ; 
while  the  enumerators  are  called  "  Tellers,"  also  Saxon. 


80  LECTURE  II. 

the  history  and  language  of  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
published  in  the  year  1644,  already  referred  to, 
the  author  complains  bitterly  of  this  propensity, 
observing  that  it  had  given  rise  to  a  proverb,  in 
the  days  of  the  Normans,  when  it  used  to  be  said 
of  a  vain  fellow  among  the  Saxons,  aping  the 
invaders,  "  Jack  would  he  a  gentleman  if  he 
could  speak  French.'"  As  an  illustration  of  the 
inconvenience  of  this  adoption  of  new  words,  the 
author  relates  the  following  instance : — 

*'  So  fell  it  out,  not  many  years  past,  that  a 
principal  courtier  writing  from  London,  to  a  per- 
son of  authority  in  the  North  parts,  touching 
the  training  of  men,  and  providing  furniture  for 
war,  willed  him,  among  other  things,  to  equippe 
his  horses.  The  receiver  of  the  letter,  with  some 
trouble,  came  at  last  to  the  understanding  of  it 
all,  except  equippe,  whereof  in  no  sort  he  could 
conceive  the  meaning.  In  the  end,  he  consulted 
about  it  with  divers  gentlemen  in  the  country 
thereabouts,  but  none  could  resolve  him.  It 
was  among  them  remembered  that  we  used  in 
our  language  the  word  quipping,  and  the  word 
whipping;  the  first  not  proper  for  horses,  but 
sometimes  used  to  men ;  the  latter  not  fit  for 
gentlemen's  horses,  but  for  carters'  jades.  In  fine, 
none  of  them  all  being  able  to  find  in  all  the 
English  they  had,  what  equippe  might  mean,  a 
messenger  was  sent  of  purpose  to  the  Court  at 


LECTURE  II.  81 

London  to   learn  the   meaning  thereof  of  the 
writer  of  the  letter."* 

Although  it  is  now  needless  to  tell  you  the 
meaning  of  "  equip,"  from  the  French,  it  may  not 
be  unnecessary  to  explain  that  by  the  Saxon 
word  quipping,  from  whence  comes  ''  quibble," 
as  practised  on  men  but  not  on  horses,  was  meant 
to  describe  rallying  with  sarcasms,  as  Milton  has — 

"  Quips  and  cranks,  and  wanton  wiles, 
Nods  and  becks,  and  wreathed  smiles." 

The  foregoing  is  stated  by  Verstegan,  as  a  fact 
of  recent  actual  occurrence  ;  but  he  proceeds  to 
adduce,  apparently  only  as  a  good  story,  the  case 
of  a  man  who  told  his  friends  "  how,  as  he  itine- 
rated, he  obviated  a  rural  person,  and  interrogat- 
ing him  concerning  the  transitation  of  the  time, 
and  the  demonstration  of  the  passage,  found  him 
a  mere  simplician;  whereas  (adds  our  author) 
if  in  his  true  speech  he  had  asked  him,  what 
was  the  clock,  and  which  had  been  his  way,  his 
ignorance  might  of  the  simplician  have  been  in- 
formed in  both." 

As  an  evidence  of  the  great  preponderance  of 
Saxon  in  the  present  English  language,  it  may 
be  observed,  that  while  we  could  write  entire 
pages  and  chapters,  without  having  resort  to  the 
use  of  a  single  word  derived  from  any  other  lan- 
guage, it  would  be  found  impossible  to  compose  a 

*  Verstegan's  Restitution  of  Decayed  Intelligence. 


82  LECTURE  II. 

sentence  of  twenty  words  from  which  those  of  Saxon 
origin  should  be  omitted.  Of  this  the  sentence  just 
quoted  affords  a  striking  example.  The  object  of 
the  writer  was  to  frame  an  imaginary  speech,  of 
words  derived  from  the  Latin;  and  although 
he  makes  his  narrator  speak  of  itinerating  for 
walking,  obviating  for  meeting,  and  interrogating 
for  asking ;  and  represents  him  as  speaking  of 
a  rural  person  for  a  countryman,  inquiring  for 
the  transitation  of  the  time,  instead  of  asking  what 
it  was  o'clock,  and  the  demonstration  of  the  pas- 
sage for  the  showing  of  the  way,  and  speaking  of 
a  simplician  for  a  fool  or  dunce  ;  yet,  with  the 
exception  of  concerning  for  *'  about,"  he  is  com- 
pelled, for  all  the  other  smaller  but  not  unimpor- 
tant words,  to  use  Saxon,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
pronouns,  the  articles,  the  conjunctions,  and  the 
adverbs,  occurring  in  the  sentence. 

I  am  not  sure  that  an  English-speaking  Irish 
peasant,  at  the  present  day,  would  clearly  under- 
stand a  man  inquiring  of  him  concerning  "  the 
transitation  of  the  time,  and  the  demonstration 
of  the  passage ;"  but  it  is  certain  that  in  Ireland 
words  derived  from  Latin  are  better  understood 
and  more  generally  used  than  by  corresponding 
classes  in  England ;  and  I  may  add,  that  the  less 
educated  class  in  Ireland  speak  better  grammar 
than  the  corresponding  class  in  England.  Both 
these  facts  are  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  English  language  has  been  intro- 


LECTURE  II.  83 

duced  into  Ireland  since  its  completion  by  the 
addition  of  words  derived  from  the  Latin  and 
French,  and  that  this  was  generally  done  by  well- 
educated  Englishmen ;  while  the  peasantry  in 
England  speak  their  own  language,  as  it  was 
spoken  by  their  Saxon  ancestors,  not  improved 
in  orthography  or  syntax  by  having  been  handed 
down  by  their  **  rude  forefathers,"  from  sire  to 
son,  through  a  succession,  in  too  many  cases,  of 
illiterate  generations. 

In  connexion  with  this  part  of  our  subject, 
it  is  interesting  to  observe  the  changes  of  the 
English  language,  in  the  use  and  pronunciation 
of  certain  words,  as  shown  by  a  comparison 
between  the  different  modes  in  which  they  are 
now  used  in  England  and  in  Ireland.  It  will 
be  found  that  the  use,  and  more  especially  the 
pronunciation,  of  many  words,  in  respect  of  which 
our  English  neighbours  accuse  our  countrymen  of 
Irishisms  and  of  a  brogue,  were  the  same  in 
England,  at  the  period  of  the  general  introduc- 
tion of  the  language  into  this  country,  as  now 
prevail  in  some  cases  in  Ireland.  The  changes 
have  been  made  in  England  which  have  not 
been  as  yet  universally  adopted  in  Ireland.  To 
some  of  these  I  shall  now  refer,  in  illustration  of 
this  remark  ;  taking  the  words,  for  the  most  part, 
as  I  have  chanced  to  find  them  in  the  works  of 
Chaucer  and  Spenser  ;  the  former  of  whom  lived 

g2 


84  LECTURE  II. 

in  the  fourteenth,  and  the  latter  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

The  first  **  Irishism,"  as  these  are  now  called, 
to  which  I  shall  refer,  is  the  word  hilt  How  often 
is  poor  Paddy  laughed  at  for  this  expression  ! 
And  yet  it  will  be  found  that  Chaucer  uses  it  for 
killed ;  and  there  is  no  reason,  except  fashion, 
why  it  should  not  be  used  as  well  as  s'pilt  In 
like  manner,  Chaucer  and  Spenser  have  holt  for 
*'  hold,"  and  it,  as  well  as  "  bolt,"  was  spelt  with  u^ 
as  an  illiterate  Irishman  would  say  he  took  a  hoult 
of  the  hoult  of  the  doore  (door).  This  latter  word 
was  anciently  dure^  meaning  a  dure-fare^  or 
*'  thorough-fare."  Similar  to  these,  is  ould  for 
'^  old,"  and  rowled  for  "  rolled,"  to  be  found  in 
publications  of  the  seventeenth  century.  "  Rush" 
is  in  old  books,  rish^  from  risan,  to  rise ;  to 
*' raise"  is  reise;  and  '^ risen"  is  risse  or  riz. 
*' Rudder"  was  written  rother,  like  "mother," 
which  was  anciently  written  moder;  while  "  mur- 
der," in  comparatively  modern  times,  was  spelt 
murther;  and  "  burden  "  was  buHhen.  "  Toge- 
ther "  is  in  old  books  togither  ;  "  key  "  is  kaie  ; 
*' nostril"  is  nosthril ;  "neither"  is  nather;  the 
preposition  ^'  by  "  is  be  ;  and  "  before  "  is  afore. 
"  Ask  "  was  axe,  and  axing  was  the  term  formerly 
used  for  a  request ;  both  words  being  derived 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  axing,  to  inquire,  to  ask. 
"  Fodder"  for  cattle,  from  food,  was  written /o^Aer, 
and   was   doubtless  pronounced  like   "  bother." 


LECTURE   II,  bo 

The  Saxon  word  for  message  was  arrande,  now 
called  "  errand''  (distinct  from  the  Latin-derived 
errant,  or  wandering),  but  still  amongst  the  Irish 
peasantry  pronounced  arrand.  "  World,"  some- 
times vulgarly  pronounced  as  if  a  word  of  two 
syllables,  was  originally  such,  the  Saxon  word 
being  woruld.  Drede  is  "  fear,''  and  affeared  or 
afered  is  "afraid,''  as  used  by  Shakspeare  and  other 
writers  of  the  sixteenth  century.*  "  Sermon"  is 
spelt  sarmonde  in  old  writers,  and  "  wrestle"  is 
wrastle.  "Welcome"  was  formerly  wilcome;  a 
**  nettle"  was  a  nittle ;  and  a  "  pen"  was  a  pinn. 
Again,  and  even  agen  and  agin,  are  to  be  found 
used  by  the  accomplished  poets  referred  to,  for 
*' against;"  as  is  also  learn  for  "teach,"  which 
was  the  original  meaning  of  the  word;  and  / 
seen  for  "I  saw;"  while  they  likewise  use  a  well- 
known  word  with  Irishmen,  to  swap,  for  ex- 
change. In  Ireland  we  often  hear  a  large  num- 
ber of  persons,  &c.,  described  as  a  power  of  peo- 
ple, &c. ;  and  in  some  parts  they  use  insense  for 
apprise  or  inform,  i.  e.,  to  make  sensible  of;  as 
*'  I've  insensed  the  master  of  it."  But  these 
phrases  are  also  found  in  common  use  in  some 
parts  of  England.f  In  Ulster,  and  the  northern 
parts  of  Connaught,  many  words  of  Anglo-Saxon 
derivation  are  in  use,  brought  over,  probably, 

*  "  Will  not  the  ladies  be  affeared  of  the  lion  ?" 

Midsummer  Nighfs  Dream. 
t  See  Leicestershire  Words^  Phrases,  and  Proverbs;  by  Dr.  Evans. 


86  LECTURE   II. 

from  Scotland  in  the  seventeenth  century ;  such 
as  art  for  a  section  of  the  heavens — "  There  will 
be  bad  weather  as  long  as  the  wind  is  blowing 
from  that  art;''  bairn  for  child;  hray  for  hill 
(from  the  Anglo-Saxon  hrcew,  or  h^eah,  a  brow) ; 
they  call  the  first  springing  of  the  corn  braird, 
and  a  ditch  they  call  a  gripe  ;  the  Anglo-Saxon 
words  being  briar d,  the  top,  and  gr&p,  a  furrow.* 
We  may  often  hear  the  Irish  peasantry  speak 
of  a  thing  being  divided  into  two  halves ;  and 
anciently  "  half"  meant  any  part,  and  the  expres- 
sion "  four  halves"  is  old  English  ;t  so  that  this 
"  Irishism"  may  also  be  traced  to  the  original  Eng- 
lish settlers.     "  Lieutenant,"'  from  the  French,  is 
described  by  Yerstegan,  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, as  being  pronounced  in  England  liftenant,  as 
we  may  still  sometimes  hear  it  in  Ireland.     A  re- 
markable instance  of  the  change  in  the  application 
of  words  is  that  of  "  starve."     An  Irishman  is 
laughed  at  for  saying  a  man  was  starved  with 
the  hunger,  as  if  it  were  a  tautology.     This  arises 
from  the  word  "  starve"  (formerly  spelt  sterve) 
I  having  now  come  to  signify  to  perish  of  hunger, 
\only,    whereas  it   originally  meant,  simply,    to 
i;  perish  or  die,  whatever  might  have  been  the  cause. 
/Thus  Chaucer  tells  of  a  man  who  "  starved  with 
I  hunger,"  and  relates  how  the  Trojans  "  starved'* 


*  Most  of  the  above  words  may  be  found  in  Burns^ 
t  Tyrwhitt,  quoted  by  Dr.  Richardson. 


•      LECTURE  II.  87 

through  the  stratagem  of  the  wooden  horse 
brought  into  the  devoted  city.  He  also  applies 
this  word  to  describe  the  death  of  our  Saviour 
on  the  cross.  And  in  some  parts  of  England,  as 
well  as  in  Ireland,  the  peasantry  still  speak  of  a 
man  being  starved  with  the  cold. 

With  respect  to  the  usual  mode  of  pronouncing 
words,  we  can  only  judge  of  this  by  poetry,  and 
observing  such  as  are  made  to  rhyme.  Now,  in 
the  poets  to  whom  I  have  already  referred,  we 
find  such  rhymes  as  creature  with  "  nature  ;"  treat 
with  ^' great;"  leave y^iih  "save;"  and  hleah,  speaky 
and  weak,  with  "  break."  In  fact  ea  appears  to 
have  been  commonly  pronounced  as  a;  and  so  it 
still  continues  to  be  in  several  words,  for  example, 
wear,  hear,  tear,  rear,  heart,  hearth,  and  hearken, 
and,  in  like  manner,  ei  in  "  heir"  is  pronounced  as 
ai  in  hair.  Nor  can  any  sound  reason  be  given 
why  "  weary"  should  not  be  pronounced  warey,  as 
well  as  *'  wear"  ware ;  or  why  ''  speak"  should 
not  be  spake,  and  "  bleak"  hlake,  and  "  weak'' 
wake,  as  well  as  "  great"  grate,  "  heart"  hart,  or  as 
"•  break"  is  generally  pronounced  in  England 
brake,  and  as  every  one  calls  a  *'  beefsteak,"  a 
heef-stake. 

It  is  observable  that  many  of  the  words  of  this 
class  were  anciently  written,  as  well  as  pro- 
nounced, with  a  instead  of  e  or  ea.  Thus  we  find, 
in  old  authors,  kay,  for  key,  lay,  for  lea,  and  hate, 


88  LECTURE  II. 

for  beat.  Others,  again,  now  spelt  with  ay  or  a 
only,  had  formerly  ea,  as  slea  for  "slay/'  and 
flea  for  "  flay  ;"  and  yet  these  words  appear  to  h(ive 
been  always  pronounced  as  they  now  are,  in  the 
same  manner  as  words  similarly  spelt  are  still  often 
pronounced  in  Ireland,  as  "play  and  say  for  "  plea" 
and  "  sea."  When  slea  was  "  slay"  Sindflea  "flay," 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  '*  plea''  was  play, 
and  "  sea"  was  say.  Some  such  words  are  still 
given  in  dictionaries  as  spelt  either  way,  as  *'fleaks" 
or  "flakes"  of  snow,  and  to  "flea"  or  *^flay"  the 
skin  ;  as  also  "  steak"  or  *'  stake." 

But  we  need  not  go  back  three  centuries  to  find 
words  made  to  rhyme,  which  would  now  be  con- 
sidered "  Irishisms."  Pope,  who  wrote  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century,  makes  "  tea"  to  rhyme 
with  obey;  and  it  can  be  shewn  that,  within 
twenty  years  before  his  time,  this  beverage  re- 
tained its  French  name^  and  was  written  the,  and 
pronounced  accordingly.  Pope  has  "  weak"  rhym- 
ing with  take;  also  "  retreat,"  and  "  complete,"  to 
rhyme  with  great.  Some  have  considered  this 
latter  instance  as  afibrding  a  proof  that  "  great" 
was  then  pronounced  as  if  spelt  greet,  rather  than 
an  evidence  of  "  complete"  having  been  comjplate. 
But  in  the  same  poem  in  which  Pope  has  '^  retreat" 
and  "complete"  rhyming  with  "great,"  he  makes 
"state,"  and  "rate"  to  rhyme  with  the  same  word. 
Now  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  pronunci- 
ation of  these  latter  words,  and  we  find  them 


LECTURE  II.  89 

frequently  made  to  rhyme  with  "  great."  The 
poet  describes  man  as 

"  Plac'd  on  this  isthmus  of  a  middle  state, 
A  being  darkly  wise,  and  rudely  great." 

And  he  points  out  the  true  nobility  of  race, — 

"  But  by  your  fathers'  worth  if  your's  you  rate. 
Count  me  those  only  who  were  good  and  great." 

When  we  find  in  the  same  poem,  the  Essay  on 
Man,  the  following  couplet, — 

"  There,  in  the  rich,  the  honoured,  fam'd,  and  great, 
See  the  false  scale  of  happiness  compleaV — 

we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  complete  was 
pronounced  complate;  and  it  is  to  be  remarked 
that,  in  the  earlier  editions  of  Pope's  works,  this 
word  is  spelt  "  compleat/'  The  words  "  supreme" 
and  "extreme"  will,  in  like  manner,  be  found 
spelt  with  ea  and  without  the  final  e,  in  books 
printed  about  a  hundred  years  since,  as  "supream" 
and  "extream,"  which,  I  doubt  not,  were  pro- 
nounced suprame  and  extrame. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  for  "weak"  was  wake,  and 
"weakness"  was  wacness.  We  may  also  find 
bluke  for  "  bleak ;"  blather  for  "  bladder ;"  dale 
for  "  deal ;"  receave  for  "  receive ;"  and  many 
similar  words.  The  Irish  peasant  frequently  says 
hebes Jot  "he  is  ;"  in  some  parts  of  England,  also, 
the  same  expression  is  used. 

As  to  the  pronunciation  of  words  similarly 
spelt,  other  poets  of  the  last  century,  as  well  as 
Pope,  might  be  quoted,  to  show  that  words  like 


90  LECTURE  II. 

those  referred  to,  spelt  with  ea,  and  even  with  e 
sole,  were  frequently,  if  not  usually,  pronounced 
as  if  written  with  a  only. 

Thus  Swift  has  the  following: — '^severe"  to 
rhyme  with  air;  ''survey"  with  tea;  *' speak," 
with  break;  "  dean"  with  vein;  ''deserve"  with 
starve;  ''peace"  with  pace;  "treat"  with  the 
French  tUe-a-tete;  and  many  similar.  Cowper, 
in  his  well-known  lines,  supposed  to  be  spoken  by 
Alexander  Selkirk,  has — 

"  I'm  monarch  of  all  I  survey, 

My  right  there  is  none  to  dispute ; 
From  the  centre  all  round  to  the  sea, 
I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute." 

And  Lady  Mary  Wortley,  referring  to  the  Gre- 
cian Archipelago,  has  the  following  couplet: — 

"  Warmed  with  poetic  transport  I  survey 
Th'  immortal  island  and  the  well-known  sea."* 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  when  an  Irishman 
calls  his  native  island  "  the  first  jim  of  the  say,'' 
he  pronounces  the  latter  word  as  did  the  best 
writers  of  the  last  century,  while  it  will  be  found 
that  the  Anglo-Saxon  for  a  "gem"  is  gimm.  It 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  that  every  Eng- 
lish poet  makes  "  wind"  to  rhyme  with  "find," 
"  mind,"  "  bind,"  &c.,  which,  I  think,  is  sufficient 

*  In  no  work  are  rhymes  like  the  above  so  common  as  in  Francis's 
Translation  of  Horace.  He  was,  however,  an  Irishman  by  birth  ;  but 
he  was  an  accomplished  scholar,  and  kept  an  academy  in  England, 
where  Gibbon,  the  historian,  was  one  of  his  pupils. 


LECTUEE  II.  91 

evidence  as  to  its  pronunciation,  until  it  has  come 
to  be  pronounced  differently  in  prose  from  what 
it  is  in  verse,  in  England.  And  I  will  venture  to 
express  a  preference  for  the  uniform  mode  of 
pronunciation  more  general  in  Ireland,  as  com- 
pared with  that  which,  in  prose,  gives  it  a  sound 
different  from  that  of  any  other  word  spelt  in  a 
similar  way,  and  resembling  sinned,  or  the  first 
syllable  in  the  verb  "  hinder." 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  said  that  the  foregoing 
examples  of  the  broad  pronunciation  of  ea  and 
of  e,  like  a  in  /ar,  are  rather  evidences  of  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  the  writers  quoted,  than 
proofs  of  the  usual  manner,  in  their  time,  of 
pronouncing  the  words  adduced.  But,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  rashness  of  thus  accusing  such 
poets  as  Swift  and  Pope,  it  may  be  answered  that 
no  similar  discrepancies,  whether  as  the  result  of 
carelessness  or  poetic  license,  will  be  found  in  the 
case  of  other  words  as  to  the  pronunciation  of 
which  there  is  no  doubt.  The  word  ''see,"  for 
example,  will  not  be  found  as  rhyme  for  ohey^ 
or  survey ;  nor  will  '•'  meet,"  or  "  feet,"  be  made 
to  rhyme  with  state,  or  rate.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  in  the  case  of  the  latter  examples 
adduced,  the  pronunciation  may  have  been  at 
the  time  in  progress  of  change,  and  considered 
optional. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  as  corroborating  our 
view  of  the  subject,  that  some  words  with  ea, 


92  LECTURE  II. 

and  even  witli  e  only,  are  to  this  day  pronounced 
as  a  broad.  Thus  in  many  parts  of  England, 
the  peasantry  say  sarvant  for  "  servant ;"  and 
clargy  for  "clergy."  And  amongst  all  classes, 
"  clerk"  and  "  serjeant"  are  pronounced  as  if 
written  with  a  and  not  e ;  as  also  "  bear"  and 
*'tear"  (to  rend),  pronounced  as  6ar6  and  tare; 
and  "here"  (for  barley),  and  "were,"  as  if  spelt 
hare  and  ware.  Sheridan,  in  his  Pronouncing 
Dictionary,  has  mar  chant  for  "  merchant,"  which 
would  now  be  considered  as  vulgar  as  sarvice  or 
varmin;  which,  however,  as  well  as  desarve^sarch^ 
marcy^  and  vartue  (formerly  spelt  vertue),  may 
still  be  heard  in  common  use  amongst  the  peasan* 
try  in  many  parts  of  England.  The  pronunciation 
of  proper  names  is  less  liable  to  change  than  that 
of  other  words ;  and  we  find  Berkeley,  Derby, 
Berkshire,  Hertfordshire,  and  others,  still  pro- 
nounced as  if  written  with  a  (broad)  instead  of 
e,  in  the  first  syllable. 

Many  words  now  spelt  with  a  had  formerly  e, 
and  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  orthography  of  such 
words  came  to  be  changed,  in  the  course  of  time, 
to  correspond  with  the  pronunciation.  Thus 
"  starve"  was  sterve;  "  star"  was  sterre;  "  great" 
^was  grete;  ''  dart"  was  derte  ;  "  dark"  was  derhe; 
*\  r*'  carve"  was  kerve  ;  *'  mark"  was  merke;  and  the 
name  of  the  '*  parson"  of  the  parish  was  spelt 
like  that  of  any  other  person.  All  these,  I  incline 
to  think,  were  pronounced  as  they  now  are,  even 


LECTURE  II.  93 

when  spelt  differently ;  as  we  find  in  the  case  of 
"  heart"  spelt  herte^  and  yet  made  to  rhyme  in 
Chaucer  with  such  words  as  *^  start,"  ^'  part,"  and 
*^  smart."  And  we  find  in  Johnson's  Dictionary 
words  of  this  class  spelt  indifferently  with  a  and 
e,  as  *'  threshing"  or  thrashing^  "  wreck"  or  wrack, 
"  chew"  or  chaw;  and  **  serge"  was  formerly  sarge, 
as  it  is  in  French  from  which  it  is  derived. 

The  reference  to  the  word  "  speak"  being  pro- 
nounced as  if  it  were  spahe,  reminds  me  of  a 
story  told  of  an  occurrence  said  to  have  taken 
place  on  the  occasion  of  a  dinner  having  been 
given  in  London,  by  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  immediately  after  the  passing  of 
the  Act  of  Union  between  England  and  Ireland, 
to  which  several  members  of  the  late  Irish  par- 
liament, together  with  their  ex-Speaker,  were 
invited.  A  difficulty  arose  as  to  the  way  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  two  speakers  in  addressing  them ; 
it  having  been  determined,  as  a  matter  of  cour- 
tesy, on  that  occasion,  to  continue  his  title  to  the 
Irish  Speaker,  not  yet  raised  to  the  peerage.  An 
English  member,  struck  with  the  accent  of  some 
of  the  Irish  guests,  jocularly  proposed  to  address 
the  Irish  speaker  as  Mr.  Spaker  ;  upon  which  a 
somewhat  hot-tempered  Irishman  of  the  party 
waxed  so  indignant,  as  considering  it  used  in  de- 
rision of  his  countrymen,  that  a  serious  quarrel 
appeared  imminent,  until  a  good-humoured  Irish 
member    present     pacified   his   irascible    fellow- 


94  LECTURE  II. 

countryman,  by  pointing  out  to  him  that  the 
Englishman  could  have  meant  no  offence,  as  he, 
doubtless,  only  intended  to  signify  that  the  Irish 
Speaker's  functions  had  ceased,  his  office  being  at 
an  end ;  and  that,  therefore,  it  was  more  proper 
to  describe  him  by  the  past  tense,  as  "  Mr.  Spaker," 
that  is,  he  who  formerly  spake  ! 

There  are  other  words,  of  which  the  pronun- 
ciation, not  peculiar  to  Ireland,  that  is  now 
thought  vulgar,  would  not  have  been  so  considered 
formerly.     Thus  Shakspeare  says : — 

"  Our  wills  and  fates  do  so  contrary  run." 

And  Spenser  has : — 

"Ne  let  mischievous  witches  with  their  charms." 

And  Milton:— 

"  0  argument,  blasphemous,  false,  and  proud." 

The  city  of  Rome  was  formerly  pronounced, 
and  still  is  by  some,  as  if  it  were  written  Room  ; 
and  the  word  '*  oblige"  was  pronounced  in  Pope's 
time  as  if  spelt  ohleege.  If  this  pronunciation, 
similar  to  that  of  "  prestige,"  be  now  altogether 
discontinued,  it  has  been  so  only  within  the  last 
few  years. 

Instances  might  also  be  adduced,  to  shew  that 
phrases,  which  are  now  justly  condemned  as 
bad  grammar,  were  not  so  considered  formerly. 
Thus,  "  Bring  me  them  books"  is  rather  antiqua- 
ted than  bad  English.  The  same  remark  applies 
to  another  incorrect  mode  of  speaking,  which  we 


LECTURE  11.  95 

may  sometimes  hear;  as  if  one  said — "My  bro- 
ther and  me  went  together  to  London."  Before 
the  conjunction  "  and"  was  substituted  for  the 
imperative  mood  of  the  verb  ananad,  to  add,  as 
we  have  shown  from  Home  Tooke,  the  sentence 
would  have  been  perfectly  correct — "  My  brother, 
add  me,  went  together  to  London."  The  substi- 
tution of  the  conjunction  has  become  universal, 
but  the  consequent  change  of  case  in  the  second 
pronoun  has  not  been  adopted  by  those  whose 
acquaintance  with  the  rules  of  grammar  is  defi- 
cient. 

In  making  the  suggestions  which  1  have  now 
offered  for  your  consideration,  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  words,  and  of  the  method  of  pronuncia- 
tion, to  which  I  have  referred,  I  hope  it  is  un- 
necessary for  me  to  say  that  I  do  not  advocate 
the  use  of  such  words  as  axe^  Jdlti  riz,  boult,  and 
hoult;  nor  justify  the  vulgar  pronunciation  of 
such  words  as  spake,  plaze,  clane,  and  nate, 
or  extrame,  suprame,  and  complate ;  nor  do  I 
recommend  you  to  speak  of  a  cup  of  tay  as  a 
trate,  when  you  are  on  the  say,  although,  I 
believe,  such  might  have  been  correct  a  hundred 
years  ago. 

M}^  object  has  been  only  to  account  for  such 
words  and  pronunciation ;  and  to  show  that  they 
are  not  mere  corruptions  introduced  by  the  Irish, 
but  that  having  been  imported  here  by  the 
Encrlish  settlers  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 


96  LECTURE  II. 

centuries,*  they  liave  not  been  changed  for  the 
more  modern  use  and  pronunciation,  as  speedily 
as  we  hope  they  will  be,  in  these  days  of  increased 
facilities  of  intercourse  between  the  two  countries, 
and  of  mutually  improved  feelings  of  amity  be- 
tween her  Majesty's  subjects  at  both  sides  of  the 
channel. 

There  is  nothing  more  arbitrary  than  the  pro- 
nunciation of  words,  and  the  fashions  in  dress, 
and  no  other  rule  than  custom,  and  the  usages  of 
good  society,  can  be  applied  to  either;  and  to 
these  we  must  conform,  if  we  would  avoid  ex- 
posing ourselves  to  the  charge  of  vulgarity  on  the 
one  hand,  or  of  affectation  on  the  other. 

Before  leaving  this  part  of  our  subject,  I  would 
remark,  that  the  English  are  the  only  people  in 
Europe,  who,  in  speaking  or  reading  Latin, 
pronounce  the  first  letter  of  the  alphabet  a  as  in 
face^  all  others  pronouncing  it  broad  as  in  man. 
And  I  must  confess  that  I  should  be  sorry  to 
see  our  classical  schools  and  colleges  in  Ireland 
adopting  the  English  peculiarity  in  this  respect. 

The  ancient  Saxon  pronunciation  of  the  first 
letter  of   the  alphabet   was,   most   probably,   as 

*  I  take  no  account  of  the  settlement  of  the  English  in  Ireland, 
under  Strongbow,  in  the  twelfth  century,  because,  so  completely- 
changed  was  the  language  in  the  interim,  that  those  who  came  over 
in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  and  the  descendants  of  those  who  had  come 
with  Strongbow,  could  not  understand  each  other  when  they  met  in 
Ireland,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


LECTURE    II.  97 

Johnson  remarks,  that  which  it  has  in  many 
of  our  monosyllables,  like  au,  as  in  "all"  and 
**  wall,"  where  it  is  pronounced  as  in  law  and  cause. 
Many  of  these  words  were  anciently  written,  as 
pronounced,  with  u,  as  sault  and  ivaulk ;  a  form 
still  retained  in  "  fault"  and  "  vault."  This  sound 
of  the  first  letter  is  still  almost  universally  re- 
tained in  the  rustic  pronunciation,  and  in  the 
northern  dialects  of  England,  as  maun  for  "  man," 
and  haund  for  "  hand ;"  and  so  it  is  pronounced 
by  the  Scotch,  who  speak  more  pure  Saxon  than 
the  English  generally,  as  do  also  their  descendants 
in  the  North  of  Ireland. 

We  shall  here  notice  the  Anglo-Saxon  jprefixes 
and  affixes^  that  is,  the  particles  forming  the 
commencement  and  termination  of  words.  Of 
the  prefixes,  we  have  (X,  signifying  at,  to,  or  on ; 
as  '^  afield,"  at,  or  to  the  field;  "afoot,"  on  foot; 
and  "  aboard,"  on  board.  A  was  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  an  inseparable  affix,  often  denoting  pri- 
vation, but  more  frequently  without  such  mean- 
ing. It  is  now  usually  omitted,  although  re- 
tained in  some  words,  as  "  awaken."  Al  signifies 
all,  as  "  Almighty."  Be^  as  a  prefix,  is  the  verb 
to  be,  as  "  befriend,"  be  a  friend  to.  En  is  to 
make,  as  **  enable,"  to  make  able ;  and  this  is 
sometimes  written  6m,  as  "  empower,"  '*  embark." 
Fore  is  before,  as  "  foretell,"  to  tell  beforehand. 
Mis  signifies  not,  or  wrong,  from  mis,  a  defect, 

H 


98  LECTURE    II. 

as  "  misfortune,"  ''  misconduct."  Out  is  beyond, 
or  superiority,  as  "  outlive,"  "  outrun."  Of  or  off 
is  out  of,  or  from,  as  "  offspring."  Over  means 
above  or  beyond,  as  **  overseer,"  "  overflow ;"  up 
is  upward  motion,  as  "  upstart,"  also  "subversion," 
as  "  upset."  With  is  from,  or  against,  as  "  with- 
draw," "withstand."  Un  is  not,  as  "unable." 
In  numerous  instances,  especially  in  words  of 
Latin  origin,  im  has  given  place  to  in  or  im. 
"  CT'Tipossible"  was  formerly  in  use ;  and  although 
we  retain  "  uiijust,"  the  noun  is  "  mjustice."  On 
and  or  were  also  negative  prefixes  with  the 
Saxons.  Imh  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  prefix,  but 
has  given  place  to  the  Latin  circum,  round  about, 
we  have  the  remains  of  it  in  "  embed  "  and  "  em- 
bosom." Under  as  a  prefix  means  below,  or 
beneath,  as  "  undervalue."  An  "  underwriter" 
is  one  who  subscribes  his  name  to  an  agreement. 
"  Lloyd's  underwriters"  are  the  agents  of  Lloyd's 
Insurance  Company  who  underwrite,  or  subscribe, 
their  names  to  policies  of  marine  insurances. 

The  most  important  of  the  English  afiixes,  of 
Anglo-Saxon  origin,  are  en,  signifying  to  make, 
or  made  of,  as  "  blacken,"  to  make  black,  "  wooden," 
made  of  wood;  ful  meaning  full  of,  as  in  "hope- 
ful ;"  head  or  hood  denoting  a  state  or  degree,  as 
"  Godhead,"  "  manhood."  Ish  implies  belonging 
to,  as  "  boyish ;"  kin  is  a  diminutive  affix,  as  ''  lamb- 
kin ;"  less  denotes  privation,  and  may  be  expressed 
by  prefixing  the  preposition  without,  as  "  hopeless," 


LECTURE  II.  99 

without  hope,  "  careless,"  without  care.  Like  or 
ly  denotes  likeness,  as  "  godlike"  or  "  godly." 
"  Worldly"  was  anciently  "worldlike."  Ness  de- 
notes the  prominent  character  or  quality,  as 
"  goodness,"  "  greatness."  Ess  is  a  feminine  ter- 
mination, as  "lioness,"  "semstress,"  or  seamstress, 
the  sewer  of  seaons.  Rick  and  wick  denote  rule 
or  authority,  as  "  bishopric ;"  "  bailiwick"  and  dom 
has  the  same  meaning,  as  "  kingdom."  ^hip 
signifies  office,  state  or  condition,  as  **  lordship," 
"  friendship ;"  and  is  derived  from  shape  or  form, 
as  "  landscape,"  for  landshape.  The  term  "  ship- 
shape'' means  shaped  in  proper  form  and  order. 
Some  denotes  some  of,  or  in  some  degree,  as 
"  quarrelsome."  Tide  denotes  time,  as  "  noontide." 
Ward  means  turned  to,  or  in  the  direction  of,  as 
'*  homeward, "  ^* backward."  Chaucer  has  '' Canter- 
bury-ward,'" to  express  going  towards  Canterbury. 
"  Homeward "  and  heavenward "  are  good  old 
English  words.  The  adjective  "  toward"  or  docile, 
is  formed  of  to  and  ward;  and  an  "untoward  " 
event  is  one  that  is  not  according  to  one's  mind  or 
wishes.  "  Forward''  was  forth-war d,  going  forth. 
"  Awkward  "  means  wrong-ward ;  Shakspeare 
has  "  awkward  (for  adverse)  winds."  "  Forward  " 
or  adverse,  is  compounded  of  from  and  ward ; 
and  "  wayward  "  signifies  having  regard  to  one's 
own  way,  self-willed.  The  affix  y  implies  having, 
or  abounding  in,  as  "stony,"'  "wealthy,"  "healthy." 


100  LECTURE  II. 

There  are  many  other  prefixes  and  affixes  in 
the  formation  of  English  words,  but  being  de- 
rived from  Greek  and  Latin,  it  does  not  come 
within  our  present  purpose  to  notice  them.  For 
these,  I  would  refer  you  to  Professor  Sullivan's 
admirable  Dictionary,  used  in  the  Irish  National 
Schools,  from  which  many  of  the  foregoing  ex- 
amples of  prefixes  and  affixes  have  been  taken. 

The  derivations  of  titles  of  honour,  and  of 
office  and  dignity,  of  Saxon  origin,  forms  an  in- 
teresting part  of  our  subject,  to  which,  however, 
1  connot  refer  more  than  very  briefly.  **  King'' 
(cyning),  is  the  first  of  such  titles,  attached  to  the 
highest  office  in  the  realm.  This  is  derived  from 
cun^  or  eyn,  which  meant  "  valiant,"  and  ing^  a 
particle,  signifying  the  endowment  of  a  quality. 
The  king  meant  the  most  valiant,  and  such,  at 
the  commencement  of  monarchies,  became  the 
heads  or  chiefs  of  the  people.  Of  this,  the  femi- 
nine was  cuninghia,  contracted  to  "  queen." 
The  only  title  of  nobility  now  continued  in  Eng- 
land, derived  from  the  Saxon,  is  that  of  "  earl," 
compounded  of  ear,  meaning  honour,  and  ethel, 
or  el,  noble,  or  worthy ;  but  as  the  Saxons  had  no 
feminine  for  earl,  the  lady  of  this  noble  derives 
her  title  of  *'  countess"  from  that  of  the  wife  of 
the  Norman  count,  from  which  latter  title  we  have 
the  "  viscount,"  or  vice-count. 

The  more  general  title  of  "  lord,"  which  was 


LECTURE  II.  101 

formerly  not  confined  to  members  of  the  peer- 
age,* was  originally  laford  or  leaford^  the  aff order 
or  provider  of  bread  for  his  household ;  leaf,  or 
laf,  being  another  word  for  bread,  from  which  we 
have  '<  loaf."  "  Lady"  is  a  contraction  for  leaf- 
dian,  the  dispenser  of  bread ;  the  lord,  as  head 
of  the  family,  provided  the  bread  which  was 
dealt  out  by  the  lady  of  the  house.  Such  was 
the  rule  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  households;  from 
which  province  of  the  lady  came  the  custom, 
peculiar  to  England,  of  the  wife  sitting  at  the 
head  of  the  table,  and  carving  for  the  family  and 
guests,  while  the  husband  sat  at  the  foot,  near  the 
servants,  to  give  orders  for  providing  the  food, 
as  required,  which  was  placed  in  reserve,  on  the 
table  or  board  set  at  his  side  of  the  room,  and 
hence  called  the  "  Ude-board."  Which  custom 
of  the  lady  sitting  at  the  head  of  the  table,  is 
stated  by  the  writer  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
to  whom  I  have  already  referred,  to  have  been  a 
matter  of  no  little  surprise  to  the  French  of  his 
time;  but  now-a-days  French  cookery  has  to  a 
great  extent  superseded  carving,  and  Continental 
fashions  sometimes  put  the  lady  of  the  house  alto- 
gether "  to  one  side" — of  the  table. 

The  title  *' steward"  anciently  sted-ward  meant 

*  The  title  of  lord  still  extends  beyond  the  peerage  ;  as  to  the 
Lords  of  the  Treasury,  of  the  Council,  and  of  the  Admiralty,  and  the 
Lords  Justices  of  Ireland  ;  as  also  to  the  Irish  Lord  Chancellor,  though 
not  a  peer,  the  Lord  Advocate  of  Scotland,  and  the  Scotch  judges. 


102  LECTURE  II. 

the  keeper  of  the  place  ;*  as  hold-ward  was  the 
keeper  of  the  hold  or  castle.  This  latter  word 
is  no  longer  in  use  in  its  primary  meaning ;  but 
as  the  office  of  Stedward,  by  contraction  ^'  Stew- 
ard," gave  a  name  to  the  royal  race  of  Stuart, 
so  from  Eoldward  is  derived,  by  the  omission  of 
two  consonants,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most 
honourable  houses  in  England,  borne  by  the 
noble  families  who  inherit  "  the  blood  of  all  the 
Howards;"  and  of  these  by  that  of  the  present 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  who  has  recently 
done  us  the  honour  of  becoming  the  Patron  of 
our  Mechanics'  Institute  in  Waterford  ;  and  who 
adorns  an  illustrious  name  by  his  public  and  pri- 
vate virtues,  and  in  nothing  more  gracefully  than 
in  meeting  the  people  in  the  halls  of  the  Mecha- 
nics' Institutes,  contributing  to  their  instruction, 
and  to  the  elevation  of  their  minds,  by  popular 
lectures  an  the  cultivation  of  taste  in  poetry,  and 
in  support  of  the  cause  of  intellectual  progress 
and  improvement. 

The  honourable  title  of  *'  mayor"  is  usually 
attributed  to  Norman  origin,  as  derived  from  the 
Latin  major,  the  greater;  but  although  the  words 
are  somewhat  similar,  it  appears  more  probable 

*  Similar  to  "  Steward"  is  the  Dutch  and  German  Stadholder  or 
Statholder,  and  thef.French  Lieutenant.  Stat  being  the  same  as  steady 
as  in  German  "  instead"  is  anstatt ;  and  lieu  being  the  French  for 
place.  The  translation  of  all  these  words  is  place-holder,  usually 
meaning  one  who  holds  the  place  for  another. 


LECTURE  II.  103 

that  it  is  derived  from  a  Saxon  word,  as  are  the 
names  of  the  other  city  dignitaries,  or,  to  use 
Saxon  epithets,  borough  worthies,  as  sheriff, 
alderman,  boroughreeve,  bailiff,  constable,  as  also 
the  wards,  the  bailiwicks,  the  guilds,  the  towns, 
and  the  boroughs.  Meer  is  a  name  in  general  use 
amongst  all  the  nations  who  speak  the  Teutonic 
tongue,  signifying  power  or  authority  with  dig- 
nity, and  is  derived  from  the  old  verb  maye,  to 
be  able,  which  is  still  in  use  as  an  auxiliary  verb. 
Thus,  Mynheer  is  the  German  title  corresponding 
to  Monsieur  in  French,  and  to  Mr.  or  master,  pro- 
nounced mister,  in  English.  The  "  mayor" — an- 
ciently written  meyer,  and  meier  as  it  is  now  in 
German  and  Dutch,  and  in  French,  maire — is 
derived  from  the  ancient  Teutonic,  and  signifies 
the  man  of  power  and  authority  in  the  city ;  he  is 
the  mayer,  or  man  of  might,  who  may  use  the 
chief  authority  within  his  jurisdiction. 

I  have  already  observed,  that  "  sheriff,"  an- 
ciently spelt  shereve,  and  in  Chaucer  shiregereve 
(like  landgrave),  means  the  keeper  of  the  shire, 
reeve  meaning  a  keeper  or  guardian ;  hence  also 
boroughreeve  and  portreeve,  the  word  port  in  the 
Teutonic  signifying  a  walled  town.  The  titles, 
''  bailiff"  and  ''  baillie,''  have  been  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  the  French ;  but  they  would  appear 
to  be  of  the  same  origin  as  the  word  bail,  which 
means  protection.  The  "baillie"  is  an  officer 
well  known  in  Scotland,  who  is  the  keeper  or 


104  LECTURE  II. 

protector  of  the  peace  within  his  bailiwick.  The 
*'  bailifFe"  takes  men  under  his  safe  keeping  ;  and 
when  a  man  gets  ''bail,"  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
said,  is  "  bailed/'  he  ohtsims  protection  from  arrest. 

The  title  of  "  alderman"  is  generally  described 
as  signifying  elder  man  ;  but  I  think  incorrectly. 
It  is  true  that  amongst  the  Jews  "  elder''  was  a 
title  of  honour ;  and  that  yldra,  the  comparative 
of  eald,  the  Anglo-Saxon  for  "  old,"  was  also 
written  ealdor ;  but  Verstegan  has,  I  think, 
shown  very  clearly,  in  his  chapter  on  "  Titles  of 
Honour,''  that  the  true  meaning  of  "  alderman"  is, 
"  of  all  the  men  chief,"  he  being  the  first  of  all  the 
council-men  under  the  mayor. 

That  this  is  the  meaning  of  the  prefix  alder,  we 
have  abundant  evidence  in  Chaucer,  who  has 
"  alderearst"  (for  alderfirst),  "  alderbest,"  "  alder- 
most,"  "  alderlast,"  "  alderlivest,"  "  aldersconist" 
(for  alderfairest),  and  "  aldereldest,"  to  describe, 
severally,  in  the  strongest  superlative,  the  first, 
best,  chiefest,  last,  dearest,  fairest,  and  eldest,  of 
all  those  referred  to  in  the  context.  We  also 
find  in  old  writers,  alderyoungest,  alderhighest, 
alderwisest,  alderleast,  alderworst,  alder  foremost, 
alderlowest,  aldertriiest,  and  many  others.* 

We  also  find  alder  in  composition  with  nouns 
as  well  as  with  adjectives,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
word  "alderman"  itself  Thus  Chaucer  repre- 
sents the  "  host  of  the  Tabert"  as  proposing  for 

*  See  Halliwell's  Archaic  Dictionary. 


LECTURE    II.  105 

the  best  narrator  of  the  "  Canterbury  Tales/'  that 
he  "  shall  have  a  supper  at  our  aldercost,''  which 
may  mean  at  his  chief  cost,  or  the  best  of  his 
entertainments ;  or,  as  the  glossary  has  it,  *'  at 
our  common  cost" — the  cost  of  all  the  company  ; 
and  we  find  alder-prise,  signifying  praise  of  all. 
Again,  in  setting  out  in  the  morning,  on  the  pil- 
grimage to  Canterbury,  it  is  arranged  that  the  host 
himself  shall  lead  the  way,  as  their  ^^aldercock," 
that  is,  the  leader  of  the  party,  or  cock  of  the  walk, 
in  the  same  sense  as  in  the  "  Spectator"  the  '*  cock 
of  the  club"  is  a  title  implying  influence  and  lea- 
dership. 

I  think  it  will  thus  he  seen  that  alder,  used  as 
a  prefix,  either  to  adjectives  or  nouns,  did  not 
mean  "elder."  The  word  "alder-eldest/'  to  de- 
scribe the  eldest  son,  is  sufficient  to  prove  that 
such  is  not  its  signification.  The  same  observation 
applies  still  more  strongly,  to  ''  alder-youngest." 
But  we  may  adduce  other  evidence  to  show  that 
it  meant  pre-eminence.  This  will  appear  by  ob- 
serving the  more  ancient  application  of  the  name 
"  alderman,"  which  was,  in  the  days  of  the  early 
Saxons,  the  highest  title  of  honour  next  to  that  of 
the  king  himself  The  "  Alderman  of  all  Eng- 
land'' was,  as  we  learn  from  Rapin,the  first  subject 
in  the  realm,  corresponding  to  a  Grand  Justici- 
ary;  and  Bosworth  defines  an  Alderman  as  '^  the 
highest  nobleman."  Other  aldermen,  or  "  ealder- 
men,''  were  governors  of  counties,  from  which  they 


106  LECTURE    II. 

came  to  be  called  Earls.  In  the  Saxon  Psalter^ 
**  the  princes  of  Judah  and  their  captains''  are 
called  the  "  Aldermannum  of  Judah  and  hereto- 
gan  heare^  This  latter  title  "  heretogan,"  cor- 
responds with  the  *'  Duke/'  from  the  Latin  duXj 
8L  leader,  and  meant  the  leader  of  an  army :  here 
signifying  war,  or  an  army,  and  togan  to  lead. 
Hengist  and  Horsa,  the  first  leaders  of  the  Saxons 
into  Britain,  are  called  "  Heretogan,"  and  the 
Dutch  for  duke  is  hertogh.  A  principal  town  was 
called  by  the  Saxons,  alder-burgh,  an  archbishop 
was  designated  alder-biscop,  a  prince  or  chief 
judge  was  alder-dema,  and  alder-dom  was  a  prin- 
cipality. It  was  also  written  ealdor  in  all  these 
cases. 

This  explanation  of  the  word  "  alder,"  meaning 
the  chief  or  first  of  all,  serves  to  explain  the 
otherwise  unintelligible  names  of  two  churches 
in  the  city  of  London.  "  Alder mary"  Church 
meant  the  church  dedicated  to  St.  Mary,  the  first 
or  chief  of  all  women,  in  allusion  to  that  which 
was  said  to  the  Virgin  at  the  annunciation, 
"  Blessed  art  thou  among  women  ;"  and  thus 
it  corresponds  with  the  various  churches  of  aS'^. 
Maria  Maggiore  on  the  Continent,  and  Great  St 
Mary's  at  Oxford.  "  Aldermanbury"  parish  was 
probably  the  burg,  a  Saxon  word  for  a  dwelling- 
place  of  the  first  and  principal  citizens,  or  the 
church  may  have  been  the  place  of  their  burial, 
as  Bury  St.  Edmund's  in  Suffolk  was  called  after 


LECTURE    II.  107 

Edmund,  the  Saxon  king  and  martyr,  buried 
there.*  "  Aldergate"  in  London  was  doubtless 
at  one  time  the  principal  of  all  the  gates ^  as  the 
"  aldermen"  were  the  chief  of  all  the  men,  in  the 
city.  For  alder  it  was  sometimes  written  althir, 
which  may  account  for  the  very  vulgar  pronun- 
ciation, althirman. 

A  *'  knight,"  in  Saxon  cnyhty  meant  a  servant 
or  follower,  and  was  from  an  early  period  used 
as  a  title  of  honour,  and  applied  to  the  king's 
body-guard  ;  and  from  the  mounted  knights  is 
derived  Knight-rider  street  in  London.  An- 
ciently, in  Saxon,  a  disciple  or  pupil  was  called 
a  horning enght ;  and  in  the  Netherlands  a  lear 
knight  is  the  same  as  an  apprentice,  that  is,  a 
learner  who  serves  his  master.  Members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  are  styled  '*  knights  of  the 
shire,"  although  not  knights  in  the  ordinary  ac- 
ceptation of  the  term ;  but  they  are  the  represen- 
tatives of  their  constituents,  and  elected  to  "serve," 
in  Parliament.  Home  Tooke,  who  is  fond  of 
tracing  nouns,  as  well  as  conjunctions,  adverbs, 
and  prepositions,  to  the  past  participle  of  verbs, 
supposes  cnyht  to  be  that  part  of  the  verb  cnyttan, 
to  join  or  unite,  signifying  what  would  now  be 
called  an  attache — one  of  the  king's  companions. 

A  warder  or  warden  is  another  name  for  guar- 

*  We  find  also  the  towns  of  Alderbury,  Alderford,  Alderley,  Alder- 
ton,  Aldermaston,  Alderminster,  and  Aldershott ;  the  prefix  alder  in 
each  case  indicating  pre-eminence. 


108  LECTURE    II. 

dian.  The  Normans  always  changed  w  into  g, 
there  being  no  such  letter  as  w  in  French  ;  thus 
the  French  have  Gualles  and  Corngualles  for 
"Wales  and  Cornwall,  as  also  guerre  for  war. 
Constable  meant  cynings  (or  king's)  stable,  being 
a  hybrid  word  compounded  of  Saxon  and  French, 
and  signifying  the  king's  support.  The  Lord 
High  Constable  was  an  ancient  officer  of  the 
Crown,  first  created  by  William  the  Conqueror. 
The  humblest  "  constable"  is,  at  this  day,  the 
keeper  or  protector  of  the  Queen's  peace. 

The  last  branch  of  our  subject  is  the  derivation 

of  proper  names,  peculiar  to  the  English  and  to 

other  nations  of  Teutonic  origin ;  but  to  which 

we  can  only  refer  very  briefly. 

i       Albert  means  well-advised,  or  one  who  gives 

good  advice  ;  and  fully  is  the  signification  of  the 

name  realized   in   the   Royal   Consort*    of    our 

gracious  Queen,  whose  own  name,  ViCTOKiA,  I 

I  need  not  tell  you,  is  the  Latin  for  Victory.     May 

I  it  ever  prove  a  name  of  good  omen  ! 

Edmond  means  the  r)%outh  of  truth.  Edward 
I  and  Edgar,  a  keeper  of  his  word.  Gertrude  is 
s  all  truth.  Leonard  signifies  a  lion's  heart.  Ber- 
\  nard,  a  bear's  heart.  Richard,  a  rich  or  bountiful 
I  heart.   Everard,  a  boar's  heart.  Lambert,  a  lamb's 

*  Since  the  pablication  of  the  former  Editions  of  these  Lectures, 
our  Queen  and  the  nation  have  sustained  an  irreparable  loss  in  the 
death  of  Prince  Albert.  We  may  confidently  hope  that  the  Prince  of 
Wales  will  prove  well-advised  and  good,  like  his  lamented  Father. 


LECTURE    II.  109 

heart.  Godhart,  a  good  heart  Manhard  or  Hard- 
man,  a  mans  hearty  or  a  man  of  heart ;  and 
Gerard  means  all  heart. 

William  is  a  very  ancient  proper  name,  the 
origin  of  which  may  be  traced  to  a  period  anterior 
to  the  arrival  of  the  Saxons  in  Britain,  having 
been  introduced  at  the  time  of  the  wars  of  the 
Romans  with  the  ancient  Germans.  The  leaders 
of  the  Romans  wore  gilt  helmets,  and  when  a 
German  warrior  overcame  and  killed  one  of  those 
well-armed  captains,  the  gilded  helmet  was  taken 
off  the  slain  enemy,  and  proudly  placed  on  the 
head  of  the  victor,  who  was  thenceforward  ho- 
noured with  the  title  of  Gild-helme,  which  after- 
wards became  a  christian  name,  at  first  bestowed 
upon  the  son  of  a  gilt-helmeted  warrior ;  and,  as 
many  other  names  with  the  Saxons  commenced 
with  '^  will,''  this  was  easily,  by  wrong  pronuncia- 
tion, brought  to  Willhelme,  and  shortened  to 
William  ;  but  for  a  female  name,  first  given  to 
the  wife  or  daughter  of  the  warrior,  it  is  spelt 
Wilhelmina.  Among  the  Franks,  it  kept  the 
name  of  Guildhelm,  and  with  their  descendants, 
the  French,  it  became  Guilhceume,  and  since  came 
to  be  Gulllaume,  and  in  Latin,  GuilielThus. 

Walter  was  originally  the  title  of  an  ofllcer, 
rather  than  a  proper  name.  It  signified  one  who 
had  a  charge  or  command  in  a  forest,  like  the 
wood-ranger  ;  wait  or  wold  being  the  Saxon  for 
a  forest,  from  which  we  have  the  present  desig- 


110  LECTURE    II. 

nation,  wood.  Winfred  signifies  win  peace,  an 
obtainer  of  concord;  and  Winnefred,  originally 
Winnefreda,  is  the  feminine,  with  the  same 
meaning.  Wilfred  was  one  who  willed  peace. 
Segismund  meant  the  mouth  of  victory,  being  the 
relater  of  victories  for  the  encouragement  of 
others.  The  etymology  of  Rosamond  is  rose 
"mouth,  a  name  given  to  a  fair  maiden  for  the 
colour  of  her  lips,  or,  what  was  still  better,  the 
sweetness  of  her  words.  Robert  meant  disposed 
to  rest ;  and  Roger,  originally  Rogard,  the  keeper 
of  rest  or  peace.  Osmond  was  the  spokesman  of 
the  family,  os  being  the  house,  and  mond  the 
mouth.  Oswald,  or  Osweald,  was  the  ruler  or 
provider  for  the  wealth  or  prosperity  of  his  house. 
Raymond  was  rein-mund,  meaning  pure  mouth. 
Mathilde,  now  Matilda,  was  anciently  mead  healt, 
that  is,  a  maiden  champion.  Harold,  from 
here-healtj  signified  a  champion  of  the  army; 
hence  the  "  herald"  who  carried  the  challenge  of 
the  champion.  Hugh  was  originally  Heughe, 
and  with  some  nations  it  is  Hugo  ;  it  means  joy 
or  gladness,  and  Hubert,  a  joyful  heart.  Hum- 
phrey was  anciently  Humfrid,  or  Homefred, 
signifying  home  peace,  or  domestic  quietness. 
Henry  meant  a  possessor  of  wealth,  from  han, 
still  used  in  some  parts  of  England  for  have,  and 
rye,  signifying  riches ;  this  latter  word  also  signi- 
fied possession,  and  was  added  to  an  office,  to 
describe  the  extent  of  the  office  bearer  s  jurisdic- 


LECTURE   II.  Ill 

tion,  as  "bishopric,"  "bailiwic."  Godfrey,  or 
Geoffrey,  signifies  good  "peace;  -Alfred  means  all 
peace;  and  Frederic,  rich  in  peace  or  friendship. 
Francis,  originally  Franc,  is  free,  and  Lanfranc, 
free  of  the  land. 

El,  and  edel,  or  ethel,  signified  noble.  Thus 
Ethelbald  meant  nobly  bold,  or  valiant;  Ethel- 
bert,  nobly  advised.  Ethelbard,  or  Ethel  ward, 
was  a  keeper  of  nobility;  Ethelwin,  a  winner  of 
nobility,  one  who  obtained  honour  by  his  mei'its. 
Baldwin  was  a  bold  vjinner.  The  word  winne 
also  meant  beloved,  and  hence  Allen,  or  Allwine, 
a  christian  name,  was  beloved  of  all.  Bede  or 
bead  is  the  Saxon  for  prayer,  and  it  is  supposed 
that  the  parents  of  Venerable  Bede,  in  giving  him 
this  christian  name,  presaged  his  singular  piety 
and  devotion.  The  name  Charles  has  undergone 
several  alterations.  It  signifies  all  noble.  It 
was  at  first  Gar-edel;  gar,  as  before  observed, 
being  all,  and  edel,  as  we  have  just  remarked, 
being  noble.  This  was  abbreviated  into  Gareal, 
the  g  changed  to  c  as  in  carouse,  and  eal  put  for 
edel.  In  Latin,  Careal  was  written  Carolus,  and 
in  modern  English,  Charles.  Cuthbert  means 
oi  good  understanding ;  the  word  cuth  signifying 
knowledge,  as  uncouth  is  unknown  or  strange, 
and  bert,  as  in  Albert,  meaning  wise  or  advised. 

Dunstan  was  a  name  signifying  stability  or 
constancy,  from  dun,  a  hill,  and  stane,  since 
changed  to  "stone."     Hence  Dunstan  meant  a 


112  LECTURE   II. 

mountain-stone,  or  roch^  similar  to  Peter,  derived 
from  the  Greek.  Herbert  signified  well  advised 
as  to  the  condition  of  an  army ;  the  word  here 
being  the  Saxon  for  an  army.  Leopold  is  keeper 
of  peace,  or  amity ;  from  leof  now  changed  to 
love,  and  hold,  to  keep.  From  Leof  hold  it  was 
changed  to  Leophold,  and  Leopold,  for  the  sake 
of  euphony.  Roderick  was  originally  Raderic, 
that  is,  rich  in  counsel,  the  word  read  or  rade 
signifying  counsel,  and  ric,  rich.  Rodolph,  an- 
ciently Radolphe,  is  derived  from  read,  counsel, 
and  olph,  which  signified  help.  This  name  is  now 
contracted  to  Ralph.  A  similar  old  name,  Ran- 
dolph, was  originally  Reindidphe,  that  is  pure 
help,  or  sincere  assistance,  rein  signifying  pure, 
and  ulphe  or  olph,  help  or  aid. 

So  much  for  Christian  names.  Surnames 
were  gradually  introduced  for  distinction  of  fami- 
lies, and  at  first  began  by  calling  the  son  after 
the  father's  name,  with  the  addition  of  a  word  to 
signify  son  or  of  Thus  the  ancient  Celts,  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  had  Mac  or  Mc  and  O', 
and  the  Welsh  Ap,^  while  through  the  Normans 
or  Francs  came  Fitz,  a  corruption  of  the  French 
jils,  a  son.  These  were  prefixed  to  the  christian 
name  of  the  father,  as  MacDonald,  M'Mahon, 
O'Connell,  Apjohn,  Fitzjames,  and  Fitzgerald. 
But  the  Saxons  affixed  the  word  son  for  a  similar 

*  Hence  came  such  names  as  Price,  originally  Ap-rys ;  and  Powell, 
from  Ap- Howell. 


LECTURE   II.  113 

purpose :  hence  all  names  ending  thus  are  of  Saxon 
or  English  origin,  as  Johnson  and  Jackson, 
Adamson,  Thompson,  Edmundson,  Richardson, 
Jamieson,  Eobertson,  Williamson,  Hudson,  &c. 
In  many  cases  the  word  is  contracted  by  dropping 
the  two  final  letters :  thus  we  have  Adams,  Peters, 
Andrews,  Roberts,  Williams. 

In  process  of  time  the  place  of  residence  came 
to  be  added  to  the  name  of  the  proprietor,  and 
thus  a  new  set  of  surnames  was  formed ;  and  to 
this  circumstance  we  may  trace  such  names  as 
Wood,  Hill,  Field,  Green,  Brook,  Ford,  Moore, 
Meadows,  Hall,  Mills,  Bridge,  and  Church.  These 
were  originally :  John,  of  the  Wood  ;  William, 
at  the  Hill ;  Edward,  by  the  Bridge,  &c.  Others 
are  not  so  plain ;  for  example,  names  ending  in 
ton  (as  Newton,  Stapleton,  Littleton),  which  is  a 
word  derived  from  tune,  a  fenced  or  enclosed 
place,  originally  in  the  country,  from  which  we 
have  toiun^lands.  Hence  also  boroughs,  when 
walled  in,  were  called  towns.  Some  families 
settled  near  a  cliff  by  the  sea-side,  and  took  such 
names  as  Whitecliff,  contracted  to  Wicliffe ;  Rad- 
cliffe,  or,  as  it  is  still  found  in  the  name  of  a 
church  at  Bristol,  Redcliff ;  and  Clifibrd,  from  a 
ford  under  a  cliff,  Clough  was  a  slope  on  the 
side  of  a  hj]l  covered  with  trees,  and  Colclough 
meant  a  cool^  shady  slope.  Connhe  was  a  field  of 
hilly  ground;  Cote  was,  like  cottage  from  the 
French,  a  small  house ;  a  Croft  was  a  small  plot 

I 


114  LECTURE  II. 

of  ground ;  Dale  and  Den  the  same  as  the  word 
''  valley/'  which  we  have  from  the  French;  Dun 
was  a  hill,  and  ey  a  river  ;  Ham,  a  home,  origi- 
nally a  place  of  shelter  ;  Oke  was  an  oak  tree  ; 
Ley  signified  ground  lying  uncultivated,  hence 
lea  land  meant  the  land  lying  egle  or  idle.  Port, 
although  similar  to  the  word  describing  a  harbour, 
from  the  Latin  porta,  a  gate,  was  a  Saxon  word 
signifying  a  walled  town.  The  meaning  of  "  pool," 
"well,"  "tree,"  "roof,"  and  "land"  are  obvious. 
A  shaw  meant  a  shade  of  trees,  and  was  also 
applied  to  any  place  of  shelter;  Sted  and  stow 
signified  a  place;  Stock  meant  a  staff;  Thorp 
was  the  Saxon  for  a  village  ;  Worth,  anciently 
wearth  and  weard,  was  a  place  between  two 
rivers,  and  "  weirs"  in  rivers  still  retain  the  name. 
A  wye  was  a  place  of  refuge  or  retreat,  and  by 
degrees  all  market-towns  came  to  be  so  called. 

Proper  names  of  towns  and  places,  as  well  as 
of  families,  in  England,  may  be  found  to  end  in 
each  of  the  Saxon  words  which  I  have  now  enu- 
merated, having  reference  to  their  original  situa- 
tion or  history.  In  Ireland,  we  have  remains  of 
the  same  words  in  surnames  of  fltrailies  who  have 
settled  in  this  country ;  but  not  in  the  names  of 
towns,  as  in  these  the  old  Irish  names  were 
usually  retained.  Even  Waterford,  which  sounds 
so  like  Saxon,  is  of  Danish  origin ;  from  Vader 
Fiord,  "  the  fiord  of  the  father,"  or  of  Odin,  a 
Scandinavian  deity.     Owing  to  the  similarity  of 


LECTURE  II.  115 

the  two  languages,  it  was  easily  changed  into 
Water-ford;  but  one  never  heard  of  a  ford, 
meaning  a  shallow  part  of  a  river,  so  called.  We 
find  in  Ireland  Swineford ;  and  in  England  Ox- 
ford, formerly  Oxenford,  the  arms  of  which  city 
are  an  ox  passing  through  a  ford ;  Watford,  or 
the  ford  in  the  wait  or  wood ;  and  Knutsford,  or 
Canute's  ford ;  but  to  describe  a  ford  as  one  of 
water  would  be  a  tautology ;  moreover,  there  is 
no  "  ford"  or  shallow,  at  Waterford,  but  a  re- 
markably deejp  channel  in  the  Suir,  which  the 
Scandinavian  "  fiord  "  indicated. 

The  derivation  of  names  from  various  trades 
and  occupations  is  very  obvious,  as  Smith,  Tailor, 
Fisher,  Mason,  Wright,  which  last  signifies  a 
workman,  as  "wheelwright,"  from  an  obsolete 
verb,  of  which  we  now  have  only  the  past  tense 
wrought^  did  work.  Such  names  as  Bishop,  Dean 
(formerly  Beane),  Archdeacon,  Chancellor,  Judge, 
Major,  Sergeant,  &;c.,  owe  their  origin  to  the 
founder  of  the  family  having  filled  the  offices  in- 
dicated. The  name  of  Butler  is  derived  from  the 
office  of  Chief  Butler  of  Ireland  having  been 
attached  to  the  noble  house  of  Ormond,  the  chief 
family  of  that  name. 

Surnames  were  adopted  by  some,  or,  where 
not  complimentary,  were  more  probably  given 
to  them  by  their  neighbours,  from  birds,  beasts, 
and  fish,  in  allusion  to  some  resemblance  to  those 
animals  in  their  manner  or  disposition. 

i2 


116  LECTURE  II. 

Of  such  are  Lion,  Wolf,  Fox,  Hare,  Bull,  Hog, 
Hind,  Hart,  and  Lamb,  from  those  several  qua- 
drupeds; while  from  birds  we  have  Peacock, 
Drake,  Swan,  Heron,  Woodcock,  Pigeon,  Spar- 
row,  Crowe  and  Hawke  ;  and  from  fishes,  Roche, 
Spratt,  Whale,  Herring  and  Salmon.  Others 
derived  their  names  from  the  colour  of  their 
hair,  or  their  complexion,  as  Black,  White,  Scar- 
let (for  red),  Brown  and  Grey  ;  and  some  from 
other  personal  characteristics,  as  Long,  Short,  Lit- 
tle, Low,  Thin  (anciently  Thynne,  as  it  still  is  in 
the  family  name),  Strong,  Bold,  and  Armstrong, 
which  last  name,  in  the  case  of  a  well-known  seal 
engraver  in  London,  is  "  Strongi'th'arm." 

Although  I  fear  that  I  may  have  already  tres- 
passed at  too  great  length  on  your  attention,  I 
am  desirous  to  add  a  few  observations  as  to  the 
expressive  character  of  the  English  tongue,  and 
in  reference  to  the  extent  to  which  words  derived 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  are  found  to  prevail  in  the 
composition  of  the  language. 

I  have  before  remarked,  that  the  Greek  was, 
perhaps,  the  most  perfect  language  ever  spoken 
amongst  mankind.  One  of  the  characteristic 
beauties  of  that  language  consisted  in  the  admir- 
able manner  in  which  the  sound  was  often  suited 
to  the  sense.  Now,  this  feature  may,  I  think,  be 
traced  in  the  English  language,  and  might  be 
illustrated  by  numerous  references  to  the  best 
writers,  both  in  prose  and  verse.     I  shall,  how- 


LECTURE  II.  117 

ever,  confine  myself  to  two  examples,  taken  from 
a  single  poem,  where  words  of  Saxon  origin  con- 
vey a  lively  representation  of  the  scenes  which 
they  are  employed  to  describe. 

The  Poem  to  which  I  refer  is  Gray's  Elegy 
written  in  a  country  Church-yard.  What  can 
be  more  expressive  than  the  first  verse : — 

"The  Curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day^ 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me  !" 

Here  there  is  only  one  word,  "parting,"  for 
dying,  (besides  the  Norman  Curfew^),  which  is 
not  pure  Saxon. f  Observe  how  the  words  suit 
the  sense,  especially  in  the  third  line.  You  may 
see  the  man  wearied  with  the  day's  labour  trudg- 
ing home,  through  the  ground  broken  by  his  own 
•plough— plodding  his  weary  way.  But  there  is  one 
word  to  relieve  the  appropriate  monotony  of  the 
line, — sweet  both  in  sound  and  sense ;  an^s'you 


*  "  Curfew"  is  derived  from  the  French,  meaning  to  cover  ihejire, 
when,  at  8  p.m.  on  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  all  fires  were  extinguished, 
by  a  law  of  the  jealous  Conqueror,  William  I, 

t  It  might  be  thought  that  "  toll"  is  from  Latin,  but  it  appears 
rather  to  be  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  tull^  found  in  Chaucer, 
signifying  to  entice,  or  draw  in,  as  the  tolling  of  a  bell  calls  people 
to  church.  Thus  Milton  speaks  of  a  tolling  sign-post  hung  out  to 
call  or  entice  passengers  in.  Home  Tooke  makes  "  toel"  the  past 
tense  of  iilian,  to  lift  up, — "  the  toll  of  a  bell  is  the  bell  lijied,  and 
applied  to  the  sound  thus  caused."  The  word  may  have  been  derived 
however,  from  the  sound,  like  vmrmur^  &c. 


118  LECTURE  II. 

hear  that  it  is  homeward  that  the  weary  man  is 
now  at  eventide  retracing  his  steps,  you  may  per- 
ceive the  smile  on  that  toil-worn  face,  as  he 
already  sees  by  anticipation  the  "blazing  hearth," 
with  *'  the  busy  housewife,"  and  the  "  children" 
who — 

" run  to  lisp  their  sire's  return, 

And  climb  his  knees  the  envied  kiss  to  share." 

Take  another  verse  of  this  beautiful  poem  : — 

*'  Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew  tree's  shade, 
Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mouldering  heap, 
Each  in  his  narrow  cell  for  ever  laid, 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep." 

Here  we  have  every  word  Saxon,  with  the 
exception  of  "  cell"  for  grave ;  and  how  is  it 
possible  for  words  better  to  convey  the  picture  of 
the  secluded  country  churchyard,  with  the  old 
gnarled  elms  around,  and  the  solitary  yew,* 
beneath  whose  dark  shadows  you  may  see  the 
simple  graves  of  the  rustics,  formed  of  the  green 
sod,  and  rising  in  little  hillocks,  gradually  "  moul- 
dering" away  under  the  droppings  from  the 
trees.-|- 


*  From  the  branches  of  the  yew  the  Saxons  made  their  bows;  and 
this  tree  being,  consequently,  of  great  value,  it  was  planted  in  the 
churchyard,  where  it  had  liberty  to  extend  its  branches,  and,  as  public 
property,  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  parish  authorities. 

t  It  would  have  been  easy  to  multiply  examples  of  the  accordance 
between  the  sound  and  the  sense,  in  other  poems  of  a  descriptive  cha- 
racter ;  but  the  above  were  selected  as  being  most  generally  known. 


LECTURE  II.  1  19 

With  reference  to  the  preponderance  which 
words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  bear  to  all  others 
in  the  English  language,  it  has  been  stated  by  a 
good  authority  on  the  subject,  that  if  we  '*  sup- 
pose the  English  language  to  be  divided  into  a 
hundred  parts ;  of  these,  to  make  a  rough  distri- 
bution, sixty  would  be  Saxon,  thirty  would  be 
Latin  (including,  of  course,  the  Latin  which  has 
come  to  us  through  the  French),  five  would  be 
Greek  ;  we  should  thus  have  assigned  ninety-five 
parts,  leaving  the  other  five,  perhaps  too  large  a 
residue,  to  be  divided  among  all  the  other  lan- 
guages from  which  we  have  adopted  isolated 
words."*  For  example,  a  few  from  the  Hebrew, 
belonging,  mostly,  to  religious  matters,  and  some 
from  Arabic,  relating  to  arithmetic*!*  and  astro- 
nomy. It  has  been  computed  by  Sharon  Turner, 
that  there  are  in  English  about  38,000  words,  of 
which,  about  23,000,  or  more  than  five-eighths, 
are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin.  But  not  only  is  the 
proportion  of  Saxon  words  thus  shown  to  be 
above  one-half  of  the  whole  in  the  language, 
but  these  words,  being  of  primary  necessity,  are 
used  much  more  frequently. 


*  English :  Past  and  Present.     Five  Lectvres.    By  the  Rev.  R.  C. 
Trench,  D.  D.,  Dean  of  Westminster. 

t  The  numerals,  one,  two,  three,  and  once,  twice,  thrice,  &c.,  are  of 
Saxon  origin ;  bat  the  rules  of  arithmetic  are  from  Latin,  as,  addition, 
substraction,  multiplication,  division,  &c. ;  while  algebra,  cypher,  &c. 
are  of  Arabic  origin. 


120  LECTURE  II. 

Following  up  this  suggestion,  I  have  referred 
to  some  well-known  authors,  with  a  view  to 
ascertain  the  proportion  between  Saxon  words 
and  those  of  foreign  derivation ;  and  the  result  of 
such  examination  is  very  interesting  and  remark- 
able. It  will  be  found  that  in  "  Gray's  Elegy  in 
a  country  Church-yard,"  already  referred  to,  not 
more,  on  an  average,  than  two  words  in  each 
verse  of  four  lines  (of  which  there  are  thirty-two) 
are  derived  from  Latin  or  French,  while  three 
of  the  verses  are  composed  altogether  of  Saxon 
words. 

In  Cowper  s  "  Diverting  History  of  John 
Gilpin,"  comprising  sixty-three  verses  of  four 
lines  each,  the  proportion  of  Saxon  is  still  greater ; 
the  number  of  words  of  other  origin  averaging 
little  more  than  one  to  each  verse,  or  about  three 
or  four  in  the  hundred. 

In  Hamlet's  advice  to  the  players,  Shakspeare 
has  not  more  than  one-tenth,  out  of  about  1,000 
words,  which  are  not  pure  Saxon.  This  is  in 
prose.  To  take  an  example  in  poetry  from  the 
same  play;  in  Hamlet's  soliloquy,  "  To  he,  or  not 
to  be,  that  is  the  question,'^  the  proportion  is  about 
the  same,  namely,  ten  in  the  hundred  not  Saxon. 
In  one  of  the  most  touching  passages  to  be  found 
in  this  wonderful  poet — Wolsey's  soliloquy  on  the 
favour  of  princes,  and  the  vanity  of  the  world — 
the   proportion  of  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin 


LECTURE  II.  121 

is  still  greater.     It  occurs  in  the  Play  of  King 
Henry  VIII.  Act  II.  Scene  III. 

"  So,  farewell  to  the  little  love  you  bear  me. 
Farewell,  a  long  farewell  to  all  my  greatness  ! 
This  is  the  state  of  man.     To  day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope,  to-morrow  blossoms, 
And  bears  his  blushing  honours  thick  upon  him ; 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost, 
And  when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  surely. 
His  greatness  is  a  ripening,  nips  the  root. 
And  then  he  falls  as  I  do.     I  have  ventured, 
Like  little  wanton  boys,  that  swim  on  bladders. 
These  many  summers  in  a  sea  of  glory ; 
But  far  beyond  my  depth  ;  my  high-blown  pride 
At  length  broke  under  me,  and  now  has  left  me, 
Weary  and  old  with  service,  to  the  mercy 
Of  a  rude  stream,  that  must  for  ever  hide  me. 
Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  this  world,  I  hate  ye  ! 
I  feel  my  heart  new  open'd.     Oh,  how  wretched 
Is  that  poor  man  that  hangs  on  princes'  favours  ! 
There  is,  betwixt  that  smile  we  would  aspire  to. 
That  sweet  aspect  of  princes,  and  their  ruin, 
More  pangs  and  fears  than  wars  or  women  have ; 
And  when  he  falls,  he  falls  like  Lucifer^ 
Never  to  hope  again." 

Here  we  find  in  thirteen  lines,  containing  196 
words,  only  thirteen  words  (besides  the  proper 
name,  Lucifer)  not  of  Saxon  origin ;  being  about 
seven  to  the  hundred.* 

In  the  '*  L' Allegro"  of  Milton,  consisting  of  151 
lines,  and  containing  nearly  one  thousand  words, 
there  are  not  more  than   thirty   derived  from 

*  In  the  above  quotation,  and  in  those  that  follow,  the  words  not 
of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  are  distinguished  by  Italics. 


122  LECTURE  II. 

Latin  and  French,  the  Saxon  words  being  in  the 
large  proportion  of  ninety-seven  to  the  hundred. 
This  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  Milton  was  Foreign 
Secretary  to  the  Council  of  State,  during  the 
Commonwealth,  at  a  time  when  correspondence 
with  foreign  nations  was  carried  on  in  Latin,  and 
he  was  considered  the  best  writer  and  speaker  of 
that  language  in  England  at  that  period. 

The  preponderance  of  Saxon  in  all  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  works,  whether  in  prose  or  poetry,  is  very 
striking.  Let  one  example  suffice,  which  I  select 
because  it  is  so  well  known,  although  many  other 
stanzas  might  be  found  still  more  purely  Saxon  * 

I  take  it  from  the  commencement  of  the  sixth 
Canto  of  the  "  Lay  of  of  the  Last  Minstrel/' 

*'  Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said  : 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  ! 
Whose  heart  had  ne'er  within  him  burn'd, 
As  home  his  footsteps  he  hath  turn'd, 

From  wandering  on  2i  foreign  strand  I 
If  such  there  breathe,  go,  mark  him  well ; 
For  him  no  minstrel  raptures  swell , 
High  though  his  titles^  proud  his  name, 
Boundless  his  wealth  as  wish  can  claim, 
Despite  those  titles^  power,  and  pelf, 
The  wretch,  concentered  all  in  self. 
Living,  shall  forfeit  fair  renown, 
And,  doubly  dying,  shall  go  down 
To  the  vile  dust  from  whence  he  sprung, 
Unwept,  xmhonour^d,  and  unsung." 

*  See,  especially,  the  various  songs  or  ballads  introduced  in  Scott's 
poetic  tales  :  for  example,  Wilfred's  song  in  "  Rokeby,"  "  0  Lady, 
twine  no  wreath  for  wie."  See,  also,  the  Lady  Heron's  Lochinvar,  in 
"  Marraion." 


LECTURE  II.  123 

Here  are  only  twelve  words  (including  the 
hybrid,  compounded  of  the  English  prefix  un  and 
the  Latin-derived  honoured)  not  of  Saxon  origin, 
in  sixteen  lines,  containing  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred words  * 

It  will  be  found,  as  a  general  rule,  that,  in  the 
best  English  poetry,  the  Saxon  bears  a  very 
large  proportion,  as  compared  with  words  derived 
from  other  sources.  Take,  for  example,  a  passage 
from  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man,"  which  I  quoted  in 
a  lecture  on  "  Popular  Education,"  delivered  at 
this  Institute  two  years  ago : — 

"  All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole, 
Whose  body  Nature  is,  and  God  the  soul : 
That,  chang'd  thro'  all,  and  yet  in  all  the  same, 
Great  in  the  earth,  as  in  th'  etherial  frame — 
Warms  in  the  sun,  refreshes  in  the  breeze, 
Glows  in  the  stars,  and  blossoms  in  the  trees, 
Lives  through  all  life,  extends  thro'  all  extent, 
Spreads  undivided,  operates  unspent ; 
Breathes  in  our  soul,  informs  our  mortal  part, 
As  full,  as  perfect,  in  a  hair  as  heart ; 
As  full,  as  perfect,  in  vile  man  that  mourns, 
As  the  rapt  seraph  that  adores  and  bums. 
To  him,  no  high,  no  low,  no  great,  no  small; 
He  fills,  he  bounds,  connects,  and  equals  all." 

In  these  fourteen  lines,  there  are  little  more 
than  as  many  words  which  may  not  be  traced  to 

*  It  may,  perhaps,  be  thought  that  the  words  rapture  and  despite 
are  of  foreign  origin ;  but  Tooke  derives  the  Latin  rapere,  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  reafian,  to  tear  away  (to  bereave)  ;  and  despite  appears  to 
be  more  properly  derived  from  the  Saxon,  spcetan,  to  spit,  than  from 
Latin. — See  "  Richardson's  Dictionary." 


124  LECTURE    II. 

Anglo-Saxon  origin.  Tlie  word  ''connect/'  al- 
though similar  to  the  Latin  connectere,  may  be 
traced  to  the  verb  cnittan  or  nictan,  to  "  knit/' 
the  Anglo-Saxon  thus  supplying  the  root.* 

The  exact  proportion  of  a  word  to  the  line,  or 
about  one-eighth  of  the  whole,  not  Saxon,  will 
be  found  in  the  following  extract  from  the  same 
poem : — 

*'  0  happiness  !  our  being's  end  and  aim ; 
Good,  pleasure^  ease,  content !  whate'er  thy  name. 
That  something  still  which  prompts  th'  eternal  sigh, 
For  which  we  bear  to  live,  or  dare  to  die, 
Which  still  so  near  us,  yet  beyond  us  lies, 
O'er-looked,  seen  double,  by  the  fools  and  wise." 

It  is,  however,  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the 
age  of  Pope  was  not  remarkable  for  the  simplicity 
of  style  which  leads  to  the  adoption  of  Saxon, 
rather  than  of  words  borrowed  from  other  lan- 
guages. 

One  short  poem  of  Lord  Byron  s  will  serve  to 
show  that  the  English  tongue,  as  derived  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  is  sufficient  to  convey,  in  the  most 
beautiful  and  appropriate  language,  the  thoughts 
of  the  poet. 

The  subject  of  the  poem  to  which  I  refer  is.  The 
Destruction  of  Sennacherib. 

"  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold, 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold ; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea^ 
When  the  blue  wave  rolls  nightly  on  deep  ijallilee. 

*  Home  Tooke,  vol.  ii.  p.  300. 


LECTUBE  II.  125 

"  Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  summer  is  green, 
That  host  with  their  banners  at  sunset  was  seen ; 
Like  the  leaves  of  the/orest  when  autumn  hath  blown, 
That  host  on  the  morrow  lay  wither'd  and  strown. 

"  For  the  anffel  of  death  spread  his  wings  on  the  blast, 
And  breath'd  on  the  face  of  the  foe  as  he  pass'd ; 
And  the  eyes  of  the  sleepers  wax'd  deadly  and  chill, 
And  their  hearts  but  once  heav'd,  and  for  ever  grew  still. 

"  And  there  lay  the  steed,  with  his  nostril  all  wide, 
But  through  it  there  roll'd  not  the  breath  of  his  pride ; 
And  the  foam  of  his  gasping  lay  white  on  the  turf, 
And  cold  as  the  spray  of  the  rock-beaten  surf. 

"  And  there  lay  the  rider,  distorted  and  pale, 
With  the  dew  on  his  brow,  and  the  rust  on  his  mail; 
And  the  tents  were  all  silent,  the  banners  alone, 
The  lances  unlifted,  the  trumpet  unblown. 

■'  And  the  widows  of  Ashur  are  loud  in  their  wail, 
And  the  idols  are  broke  in  the  temple  of  Baal ; 
And  the  might  of  the  Gentile,  unsmote  by  the  sword, 
Hath  melted,  like  snow,  in  the  glance  of  the  Lord." 

There  may  be  some  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of 
the  words  banner,  lance,  trumpet,  roll,  pass, 
and  glance;  but  even  if  these  six  be  added,  it 
will  be  found  that  in  the  six  verses,  of  four  lines 
to  each  verse,  the  number  of  words  not  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  derivation  does  not  average  more  than 
three  to  each  verse,  or  about  one  word  in  every 
twelve  of  the  entire  poem. 

The  preponderance  of  words  of  Saxon  origin 
might  be  exemplified,  did  the  limits  of  this  lecture 
permit,  by  quotations  from  other  poets  (as  well 
as  from  some  of  our  best  prose  writers),  especially 


126  LECTURE  II. 

from  Swift,  Southey,  Moore,  Wordsworth,  and 
perhaps,  most  of  all,  from  the  present  Poet-laureat, 
Tennyson,  who  has  entire  pieces  with  scarcely  a 
word  derived  from  any  other  language.  Take 
for  example,  "  The  lord  of  Burleigh,"  a  piece  in 
which  the  poet  records  the  affecting  tale  of  the 
humbly-born  countess,  in  the  appropriate  simpli- 
city of  Anglo-Saxon  words,  which  harmonize  so 
touchingly  with  the  feelings  of  the  heroine  ;  in 
tender  sympathy  with  which,  her  loving  and  be- 
reaved lord 

" .     .     .     .     came  to  look  upon  her, 

And  he  looked  at  her  and  said, 
'  Bring  the  dress,  and  put  it  on  her, 

That  she  wore  when  she  was  wed.' 

"  Then  her  people^  softly  treading. 
Bore  to  earth  her  body,  dress'd 
In  the  dress  that  she  was  wed  in, 
That  her  spirit  might  have  rest." 

In  the  600  words  of  this  poem,  there  are  not 
to  be  found  more  than  forty,  which,  like  people 
and  spirit  in  these  lines,  are  not  of  Anglo-Saxon 
origin. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  remarks  which  I 
made  in  my  former  lecture,  as  to  the  preponder- 
ance of  monosyllables  in  pure  English,  and  the 
practicability  of  writing  whole  chapters  of  words 
of  Saxon  origin,  exclusively,  I  may  adduce  the 
fact  that  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dal  ton,  of  Tram  ore,  a 
member  of  this  Institute,  and  a  liberal  contribu- 


LECTURE    II.  127 

tor  to  our  library,  is  the  author  of  two  little 
volumes  on  religious  subjects,  comprising  about 
one  hundred  pages  each,  consisting  exclusively  of 
words  of  one  syllable,  and  I  need  scarcely  add, 
almost  all  of  Saxon  origin. 

As  a  contrast  to  the  examples  before  quoted, 
permit  me  to  read  a  few  sentences  from  Dr. 
Samuel  Johnson,  who  delighted  in  ponderous 
polysyllables,  and  in  hard  and  learned  words 
derived  from  the  Latin.  Treating  of  Discontent, 
as  the  common  lot  of  mankind,  this  great  moral- 
ist thus  expresses  himself : — 

*'  Such  is  the  emptiness  of  human  en/oyment,  that  we  are  always 
impatient  of  the  present.  Attainment  is  followed  by  neglect,  and 
possession  by  disgust.  Few  moments  are  more  pleasing  than  those  in 
which  the  mind  is  concerting  measures  for  a  new  undertaking.  From 
the  first  hint  that  awakens  the  fancy  to  the  hour  of  actual  execution, 
all  is  improvement  and  progress,  triumph  and  felicity.  Every  hour 
brings  additions  to  the  original  scheme,  suggests  some  new  expedient  to 
secure  success,  or  discovers  consequential  advantages  not  hitherto  fore- 
seen. While  preparations  are  made  and  materials  accumulated,  day  glides 
after  day,  through  Elysian  prospects,  and  the  heart  dances  to  the  song 
of  joy:' 

Here,  out  of  one  hundred  and  nine  words,  we 
find  thirty- three  from  Latin,  two  from  French, 
and  two  from  Greek,  making  thirty-seven,  out  of 
one  hundred  and  nine  words,  or  rather  more  than 
one-third,  of  foreign  derivation. 

In  fact,  Dr.  Johnson  was  desirous  to  form  a 
new  style ;  which,  however,  notwithstanding  our 
veneration  for  that  great  man,  and  the  value  of 


128  LECTURE  II. 

liis  writings,  will  be  found  heavy,  turgid,  and 
monotonous* 

Let  it  not  be  thought,  however,  that,  while 
recommending  the  more  simple  Anglo-Saxon,  I 
would  deprecate  the  use  of  words  of  Latin  deri^ 
vation,  altogether.  On  the  contrary,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  English  language  has  been 
embellished  and  improved,  by  the  addition  of 
words  adopted  from  the  harmonious  and  compre- 
hensive languages  of  ancient  Greece  and  Kome. 
Amongst  other  advantages  derived  from  such 
borrowed  words,  is  the  convenience  of  synonyms 
hereby  supplied,  by  the  use  of  which  tautology 
is  avoided.  It  is  against  the  abuse,  and  not 
against  the  moderate  and  judicious  use,  of  such 
adopted  words,  that  we  protest.  And  while  en- 
tertaining all  due  respect  for  words  derived  from 
the  ancient  classical  languages,  I  think  it  will  be 
found,  that  the  writers  and  speakers  who  please 
us  most  are  those  who  deal  the  least  in  language 
so  derived,  and  whose  style  is  the  most  Saxon  in 
its  character.! 

*  *'  I  own  I  like  not  Johnson's  turgid  style, 

That  gives  an  inch  the  importance  of  a  mile." 

Wolcof. 
t  From  an  analysis  of  several  works,  made  by  Turner,  with  which 
the  author  has  met  since  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  these 
Lectures,  it  appears  that  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Scriptures 
presents  the  most  remarkable  example  of  the  preponderance  of  purely 
Saxon  English,  the  words  of  foreign  origin  being  only  about  one- 
thirtieth.      Of  fourteen  popular  writers,    in  prose  and  verse,  from 


LECTURE  II.  129 

In  the  use  of  language,  and  the  method  of 
reading  and  speaking,  as  in  dress  and  manners, 
the  more  simple  and  natural  will  be  found  to  be 
the  more  pleasing  and  attractive.  The  object  of 
a  writer  or  speaker  should  be  to  convey  his  ideas 
in  the  clearest  and  most  convincing  manner; 
and  this  end  will  be  best  attained  by  the  use  of 
a  simple  style,  and  through  the  medium  of  clear 
and  intelligible  language,  with  which  the  reader 
or  hearer  is  thoroughly  acquainted.  And  this 
is  especially  true  with  reference  to  a  writer  or 
speaker  who  is  desirous  to  instruct  and  influence 
the  humbler  classes  and  people,  of  plain  business 
habits.  In  order  to  reach  these,  it  is  a  great  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  it  is  necessary  to  be  vulgar. 
I  believe  that  the  purest  writers  will  be  the  best 
understood,  even  by  those  who  have  not  enjoyed 
the  fullest  advantages  of  education ;  and  that  the 
true  course  for  a  writer  or  speaker  to  adopt  is, 
always  to  keep  in  view  the  instruction  of  the  hum- 
bler class  of  his  readers  or  hearers.  If  he  succeed 
in  conveying  to  these  the  ideas  which  he  desires 
to  communicate,  in  a  clear  and  intelligible  man- 
ner, he  may  be  assured  that  he  will,  at  the  same 
time,  not  only  be  understood,  as  a  matter  of  course, 

Spenser  to  Johnson,  it  appears  that  Dean  Swift  has  tlie  fewest  words 
not  of  Saxon  origin,  while  the  historians  Gibbon  and  Hume  exceed 
even  Dr.  Johnson  in  the  use  of  words  derived  from  a  foreign  source. — 
See  Turner's  Anglo-Saxons,  vol.  ii.  ;  Edinburgh  Review^  October,  1839; 
and  Spalding's  History  of  English  Literature,  Second  Edition,  p.  166. 

K 


130  LECTURE   II. 

by  those  who  are  better  informed,  but  will  both 
satisfy  and  please  the  more  educated  classes,  who 
themselves  possess  good  taste,  and  can  appreciate 
what  is  at  once  the  most  agreeable  and  the  most 
instructive. 

With  a  view  to  these  results,  I  think  it  will  be 
found  that  the  English,  as  derived  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  language,  is  the  best  fitted  for  our  purpose ; 
and  that,  without  rejecting  altogether  the  addi- 
tions made,  from  time  to  time,  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  words  derived  from  other  nations,  we  shall 
find  our  own  English  to  be  a  language  well  suited 
to  a  great  and  enlightened  people,  desirous  to 
convey  the  expression  of  their  opinions,  with  the 
"  plainness  of  speech"  which  becomes  free  citizens 
and  honest  men. 

This  noble  language  is  now  spoken  by  upwards 
of  sixty  millions  of  the  human  race,  or  about  one- 
twelfth  of  the  entire  population  pf  the  earth.  Let 
us  hope  that  it  may  always  be  the  language  of 
freemen,  and  that  it  may  ever  continue  to  be  the 
medium  of  conveying  civilization,  science,  and 
religion,  with  all  their  accompanying  blessings, 
to  the  people  of  every  region  and  clime  where  its 
sounds  are  heard,  throughout  the  habitable  globe. 


SUPPLEMENT 

TO 

THE     SECOND     EDITION. 


In  the  foregoing  pages,  although  constituting  a 
considerable  expansion  of  Lectures,  addressed  to 
the  members  of  a  Mechanics'  Institution,  it  was 
not  possible  to  do  more  than  to  make  a  selection 
from  the  numerous  derivations  of  words  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  of  those  which  appeared  the  most 
striking  and  suitable  for  a  popular  address.  At 
the  same  time,  many  equally  interesting  and 
instructive  were  jiecessarily  omitted,  as  their 
introduction  would  have  still  more  extended  the 
Lectures,  which  had  already  far  exceeded  the 
usual  limits  of  such  addresses. 

This  work  having  now  been  adopted  as  a  text- 
book in  several  schools,  I  have  felt  anxious  to 
render  it  more  useful  to  teachers,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  more  interesting  to  the  general  reader, 
by  the  addition  of  some  of  the  words  which 
were  not  brought  forward  in  the  foregoing  Lec- 
tures ;  and  with  this  view  the  following  supple- 
mentary chapter  is  added  to  this  edition. 

k2 


]  32  SUPPLEMENT. 

Before  I  proceed,  however,  to  give  those  addi- 
tional derivations,  I  am  desirous  to  quote  the 
substance  of  some  interesting  and  valuable  obser- 
vations, on  the  subject  treated  of  in  this  volume, 
from  the  pen  of  an  able  writer,  confirmatory  of 
some  of  the  remarks  contained  in  the  foregoing 
Lectures,  as  adducing  additional  evidence  of  the 
prevalence  of  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  in  the 
English  language  as  now  spoken,  and  of  the 
importance  of  the  subject  under  consideration. 

The  writer  to  whom  I  refer  is  the  author  of 
two  volumes  of  essays,  which  originally  appeared 
in  the  Edinburgh  Review,"^  and  which  I  have 
met  with  since  the  publication  of  the  First  Edi- 
tion of  this  work.  In  an  essay  On  the  Struc- 
ture of  the  English  Language,  contained  in  the 
first  volume,  the  writer,  after  noticing  the  fact 
of  the  preponderance  in  point  of  numbers  of 
words  of  Saxon  origin  in  the  construction  of  the 
present  English,  remarks,  that  *'  if  we  look  not 
merely  at  the  numbers  of  the  words  which  the 
Anglo-Saxon  has  contributed  to  the  English, 
but  to  the  hinds  of  words,  as  well  as  to  the  share 
it  has  had  in  its  formation  and  development,  we 
shall  at  once  see  that  there  is  no  comparison 
between  the  importance  of  this,  and  that  of  any 
other  element ;"  and  he  proceeds  to  show,  that, 
in  the   first  place,  English  grammar  is  almost 

*  Essays  selected  from  Contributions  to  the  Edinburgh  Review. 
By  Henry  Rogers.     London:  Longman.     1850, 


SUPPLEMENT.  133 

exclusively  occupied  with  what  is  of  Anglo-Saxon 
origin.  The  few  inflections  which  we  have  in 
English  are  all  Anglo-Saxon.  Thus,  the  genitive, 
the  general  modes  of  forming  the  plural  of  nouns, 
and  the  terminations  by  which  we  express  the 
comparative  and  superlative  of  adjectives,  er  and 
est ;  the  inflections  of  the  pronouns ;  of  the  tenses, 
persons,  and  participles  of  the  verbs  ;  and  the 
most  frequent  terminations  of  our  adverbs  (ly) 
are  all  Anglo-Saxon.  The  nouns,  too,  derived 
from  Latin  and  Greek,  receive  the  Anglo-Saxon 
terminations  of  the  genitive  and  plural;  while 
the  preterites  and  participles  of  verbs,  derived 
from  the  same  sources,  take  the  Anglo-Saxon  in- 
flections. As  to  the  parts  of  speech — those  which 
occur  most  frequently,  and  are,  individually,  of 
most  importance,  are  almost  wholly  Saxon.  Such 
are  our  articles  and  definitives  generally;  as  a, 
an^  the,  this,  that^  these,  those,  many,  few,  some, 
one,  none;  the  adjectives,  whose  comparatives 
and  superlatives  are  irregularly  formed,  and  which 
are  the  most  comprehensive  and  extensively  used, 
as  good,  bad,  little,  &;c. ;  the  separate  words,  more 
and  w^ost,  by  which  we  as  often  express  the  forms 
of  comparison  as  by  distinct  terminations ;  all  our 
pronouns,  personal,  possessive,  relative,  and  inter- 
rogative ;  nearly  every  one  of  our  so-called  irre- 
gular verbs,  including  all  the  auxiliaries,  have,  be, 
shall,  will,  may,  can,  onust,  by  which  we  express 
the  force  of  the  principal  varieties  of  mood  and 


134  SUPPLEMENT. 

tense ;  all  the  adverbs  most  frequently  employed, 
and  the  prepositions  and  conjunctions  almost 
without  exception. 

It  is  next  to  be  observed  that  the  names  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  objects  of  sense,  being  the 
terms  which  occur  most  frequently,  and  which 
recall  the  most  vivid  conceptions,  are  Anglo- 
Saxon.  This  language  has  given  names  to  the 
heavenly  bodies,  sun,  mooriy  stars;  to  three  out 
of  the  four  seasons,  and  to  as  many  of  the  four 
elements  ;*  to  the  natural  divisions  of  time,  as 
day,  night,  morning,  evening,  twilight,  noon, 
midday,  midnight,  sunrise,  sunset;  some  of 
which  are  amongst  the  most  poetical  terms  we 
have.  To  these  may  be  added,  year,  month, 
week  and  day.  To  the  same  language  we  are 
indebted  for  the  names  of  light,  and  darkness, 
heat  and  cold;  frost,  rain,  snow,  hail,  sleet, 
thunder  and  lightning;  as  well  as  almost  all 
those  objects  which  form  the  component  parts  of 
the  beautiful  in  external  scenery,  as  sea,  and  land, 
hill  and  dale,  wood  and  stream,  &c.  The  same 
may  be  observed  of  all  those  productions  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  which  form  the 
most  frequent  subjects  of  observation,  and  which 
are  invested  with  the  most  pleasing  and  poetic 
associations ;  and  of  the  members  of  the  human 
body-t     The  Anglo-Saxon  has  also  supplied  us 

*  See  Lecture  I.  in  this  Volume,  pp.  17  and  74.  ^ 

t  Ibid.,  pp.  59-63. 


SUPPLEMENT.  135 

with  all  that  vivid  class  of  words  which  denote 
the  cries,  postures,  and  motions  of  animated 
existence ;  such  as  to  sit,  to  stand,  to  lie,  to  rise, 
to  walk,  to  leap,  to  stagger,  to  slip,  to  slide,  to 
stride,  to  glide,  to  yawn,  to  gape,  to  wink,  to  thrust, 
to  fly,  to  swim,  to  creep,  to  crawl,  to  spring,  &c. 
Hence,  in  descriptions  of  external  nature,  whether 
in  prose  or  verse,  the  most  energetic  and  graphic 
terms  are  almost  universally  Anglo-Saxon.  This 
might  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  narratives 
of  the  Old  Testament,  the  book  of  Proverbs,  and 
the  parables  in  the  Gospels.  The  remark  also 
applies,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress,"  *'  Robinson  Crusoe,"  the  "  Vicar  of 
Wakefield,"  "  Gulliver's  Travels,"  and  similar 
w^orks,  in  which  the  bulk  of  the  words  are  pure 
Saxon. 

It  is  from  this  language,  also,  that  we  derive 
the  words  which  are  expressive  of  the  earliest  and 
dearest  connexions,  and  the  most  powerful  feelings 
of  our  nature.  Thus  we  have  from  the  Saxon, 
father,  mother,  husband,  wife,  brother,  sister,  son, 
daughter,  child,  home,  kindred,  friends.  Hence, 
also,  we  have  those  figurative  expresssions  by 
which  we  represent  to  the  imagination,  and  that 
in  a  single  word,  the  reciprocal  duties  and  enjoy- 
ments of  hospitality,  friendship,  or  love;  such  are 
hearth,  roof,  fireside.  The  chief  emotions  of  which 
we  are  susceptible  are  expressed  in  the  same 
language,  as  love,  hope,  fear,  sorrow,  shame  ;  the 


136  SUPPLEMENT. 

outward  signs,  too,  by  which  emotion  is  indicated 
are  almost  all  Anglo-Saxon,  such  as  tear^  smile^ 
blush,  to  laugh,  to  weep,  to  sigh,  to  groan.  In 
short,  the  words  generally  expressive  of  the 
strongest  emotions,  or  their  outward  signs,  as  well 
as  of  almost  all  the  objects  calculated  to  call  them 
forth,  are  of  Saxon  origin. 

The  words,  too,  which  have  been  earliest  used, 
and  which  are  consequently  invested  with  the 
strongest  associations,  are  almost  all  of  a  similar 
origin.  This,  indeed,  follows  from  what  has  been 
already  said.  The  words  descriptive  of  the  objects 
of  sense,  and  of  the  varieties  and  signs  of  emotion, 
are  necessarily  the  terms  which  fall  first  upon  the 
ear  of  childhood ;  and  these  being  of  Saxon  origin, 
it  is  evident  that  the  words  most  connected  with 
our  earliest  associations  are  of  that  language ;  and 
the  very  fact  that  they  are  the  earliest,  gives  them 
additional  power  over  the  mind — a  power  quite 
independent  of  the  meaning  which  they  convey. 
They  are  the  words  which  fell  from  the  lips  most 
dear  to  us,  and  carry  back  the  mind  to  the  home 
of  childhood,  and  to  the  days  of  youth. 

Again ;  it  is  remarkable  that  most  of  the  objects 
about  which  the  practical  reason  of  man  is  em- 
ployed in  common  life,  receive  their  names  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  the  language,  for  the 
most  part,  of  business — of  the  counting-house,  the 
shop,  the  market,  the  street,  and  the  farm.* 

*  See  Lecture  I.  of  this  Volume,  pp.  13,  14. 


SUPPLEMENT.  137 

Further,  it  will  be  found  that  nearly  all  our 
national  proverbs,  in  which,  it  is  truly  said,  so 
much  of  the  practical  wisdom  of  a  nation  is  to 
be  found,  are  almost  wholly  Anglo-Saxon :  while 
a  very  large  proportion,  and  that  always  the 
strongest,  of  the  language  of  invective,  humour, 
satire,  and  colloquial  pleasantry,  is  also  derived 
from  that  source. 

Lastly,  the  author  to  whom  I  refer  justly 
observes,  that  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  truth, 
that  while  our  most  abstract  and  general  terms 
are  derived  from  the  Latin,  those  which  denote 
the  special  varieties  of  objects,  qualities,  and 
modes  of  action,  are  derived  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon.  Thus  mnove  and  motion  are  very  general 
terms,  and  of  Latin  origin ;  but  all  the  terms  for 
expressing  nice  varieties  of  bodily  action  are,  as 
has  been  already  observed,  derived  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon.  Sound  is  perhaps  Latin,  but  it  may 
also  be  Anglo-Saxon ;  but  to  buzz,  to  hum^  to  clash ^ 
to  hisSjto  rattle,  and  innumerable  others, are  Anglo- 
Saxon.  Colour  is  Latin ;  but  white,  black,  green, 
yellow,  blue,  red,  brown,  are  Anglo-Saxon.  Crime 
is  Latin;  but  murder,  theft,  robbery, — to  lie,  to 
steal,  to  kill,  are  Anglo-Saxon.  Member  and 
organ,  as  applied  to  the  body,  are,  the  first  Latin, 
and  the  second  Greek;  but  ear,  eye,  hand,  footy 
lip,  mouth,  teeth,  hair,  finger,  nostril,  are  Anglo- 
Saxon.*    Animal  is  Latin ;  but  man,  cow,  sheep, 

*  See  Lecture  I.  pp.  59-63. 


138  SUPPLEMENT. 

calf,  cat,  are  Anglo-Saxon  *  Number  is  imme- 
diately French,  remotely  Latin;  but  all  our 
cardinal  and  ordinal  numbers,  as  far  as  a  million^ 
are  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  foregoing  observations  will  serve  to  explain 
why  it  is,  that,  as  I  have  shown  in  the  Second 
Lecture,  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  are  found 
to  predominate  in  the  writings  of  our  best  authors, 
and  more  especially  in  poetry,  and  particularly  in 
descriptive  pieces.  In  these,  the  objects  of  sense, 
the  features  of  natural  scenery,  the  emotions  of 
the  mind,  and  their  outward  signs,  as  well  as 
allusions  to  the  most  tender  affections,  and  the 
strongest  feelings,  will,  to  a  great  extent,  be 
constantly  recurring ;  but  all  these  being  expressed, 
as  has  been  observed,  by  Anglo-Saxon  terms,  it 
follows  that  words  tracing  their  origin  to  this  lan- 
guage cannot  fail  to  abound  in  those  writings,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  describe  such  objects  and 
scenes,  and  to  portray  such  feelings  and  emotions. 

I  feel  asured  that  no  apology  is  necessary  for 
having  brought  before  the  reader  so  much  of  the 
substance  of  the  interesting  essay  from  which  the 
foregoing  remarks  have  been  borrowed,  tending, 
as  they  do,  not  only  to  confirm  some  of  the  state- 
ments put  forward  in  the  preceding  Lectures,  but 
also  to  suggest  many  additional  facts  connected 
with  our  subject,  and  to  illustrate,  in  a  clear  and 
forcible  manner,  the  importance  of  the  inquiry  as 

*  See  Lecture  L,  p.  14, 


SUPPLEMENT.  139 

to  the  place  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  occupies  in 
the  construction  of  the  English  language. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  various  words 
which  appear  of  interest  and  importance,  with 
their  derivation  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  the 
changes  which  have,  in  the  lapse  of  time,  taken 
place  in  reference  to  the  application  of  many  of 
them ;  as  the  particulars  have  been  gathered  out 
and  selected  from  the  best  authorities,  or  suggested 
in  the  course  of  the  researches  and  train  of  thought, 
into  which  the  study  of  the  subject  naturally  leads 
the  inquirer. 

In  doing  so,  it  may  be  more  convenient  to  take 
them  generally,  in  alphabetical  order,  than  to 
arrange  them  under  different  heads. 

The  word  *'  acre"  is,  we  know,  now  applied  only 
to  a  certain  measurement  of  land ;  but  originally 
it  meant  a  field,  or  enclosed  place,  without  refer- 
ence to  its  dimensions.  In  early  Saxon  times,  the 
churchyard  was  called  ''  God's  acre,"  as  being  the 
piece  of  ground  in  which  the  bodies  of  Christians 
— God's  people — were  buried.*  A  field-labourer 
was  called  an  acre-man;  and  a  land-tax  was  acre- 
shot.  The  Saxon  word  adle  meant  pain  or  sickness, 
and  was  used  to  describe  various  diseases.  An 
"  addled  "  egg  means  one  that  is  diseased  or  bad. 
The  word  is  derived  from  adlian,  to  be  useless, 
bad,  or  unprofitable.   Hence  we  have  idle^  ail,  and 

*  "  I  like  that  ancient  Saxon  phrase,  which  calls 
The  burial-ground  God's  Acre  !  " — Longfellow. 


140  SUPPLEMENT. 

ill.  "Allege"  is  from  leggan,  to  lay  down;  like 
''  depose'^  and  "  deponent,"  used  in  legal  forms, 
and  taken  from  the  Latin.  That  which  is  alleged 
or  deposed  is  that  which  is  laid  down,  and  the 
deponent  is  he  who  lays  down  the  statement.  An 
"  ado"  is  an  aifair  or  business,  and  was  applied  in 
a  similar  sense,  as  when  we  speak  of  making  a 
fuss  about  anything,  as,  in  Shakspeare,  '*Much 
ado  about  nothing."  To  **abet"  is  to  aid,  or 
assist,  from  abettian,  to  make  better.  "  Abroad" 
means  beyond  the  usual  bounds,  from  abrcedan, 
to  broaden,  to  extend  or  lengthen  out.  **  Anxious'* 
was  formerly  angsome,  from  ange,  signifying 
trouble.  The  liquor  "  ale"  is  a  peculiarly  English 
beverage,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  celan,  to  burn  or  inflame,  of  which  the  third 
person  singular  was  aloth,  that  which  warms.* 

"  Broth,"  means  that  which  briweih,  from  bri- 
wan  to  cook,  or  boil;  hence  also  to  brew. 
'' Blind"' means  stopped-up,  being  the  past  par- 
ticiple of  blinnan,  to  stop.  This  explains  the 
meaning  of  '*  blind  windows,"  by  which  are 
meant  stopped-up  windows ;  and  the  "window- 
blinds'"  are  so  called,  because  they  stop  the  too 
bright  rays  of  the  sun  from  entering  at  the  win- 
dow. A  "  brook"  is  water  breaking  out,  and  was 
formerly  written  broke.  To  "  broach  a  vessel"  is 
to   break  into   it,   by  boring   through ;  and    to 

*  " Ale,  noble  ale, 

No  liquor  more  preserves  the  natural  hec^f. — Howell. 


SUPPLEMENT.  141 

"broach  a  doctrine"  is  to  break  it  open,  to  dis- 
close it.  A  *'  break,"  or  brake,  for  a  horse,  is 
that  by  which  his  unruliness  is  broken,  by  which 
he  is  tamed  or  subjected  to  use.*  The  "  bit"  of 
a  bridle  is  derived  from  bcetan,  to  restrain. 
"Bann"  signified  a  proclamation;  being  placed 
under  a  bann  meant  being  proclaimed  an  outlaw ; 
but  is,  perhaps,  rather  an  Anglo-Norman  than  an 
Anglo-Saxon  word.  The  "banns"  of  marriage 
are  published,  by  which  the  intended  marriage  is 
proclaimed;  and  although  this  is  a  preliminary 
step  to  being  bound  in  wedlock,  the  word  has 
QO  etymological  relationship  to  "  bands,"  which 
mean  the  same  as  bonds,  from  bindan,  to  bind. 
From  the  latter  word  we  have  a  band  or  company 
of  men,  applied  also  to  a  company  of  musicians. 
From  bann  we  have  the  word  "  banish,"'  the  pun- 
ishment of  one  under  a  bann.  We  have  seen 
that  "  beam"  meant,  a  tree,  now  applied  only  to  a 
piece  of  tree  which  has  been  felled;  the  word 
was  also  used  to  describe  anything  moving  in  a 
straight  line,  as  a  "sunbeam;"  and  from  this 
application  of  the  word  came  beamain,  to  shine, 
as  a  "beaming"  countenance.  " Block"  and  "lock" 
are  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  beloc  or  loc,  the*  past 
participle  of  belycan  or  lycan,  to  shut  or  close  up. 
A  "blockhead"  is  a  man  having  a  head  like  a 
block  of  wood,  or  whose  faculties  are  blocked  ujp.'] 

*  Richardson's  Study  of  Language,  p.  130. 

t  Kichardson  On  the  Study  of  Langmige^  p.  139. 


142  SUPPLEMENT. 

A  "block"   of  wood  was  originally  a  piece  of 
timber  used  to  fasten  a  gate,  or  to  block  up  a 


A  "  bough,"  or  "  bow"  of  a  tree  is  so  called  as 
being  hendahle,  from  hygaUy  to  bend;  whence 
we  have  "  bow,"  applied  to  the  inclination  of  the 
head  in  reverence,  to  an  engine  of  war,  to  an  in- 
strument of  music,  to  a  particular  kind  of  knot, 
to  the  carved  part  of  a  saddle  and  of  a  ship,  to  a 
rainbow,  and  to  bended  legs; — always  meaning 
bended  or  curved.*  "  Bosom"  may  also  be  traced 
to  the  same  root,  as  being  curved  or  rounded. 
Beacen  in  Anglo-Saxon  meant  a  sign  or  token ;  it 
is  now  restricted  to  a  "beacon"  or  signal  for 
mariners.  We  have  the  verb  to  "beacon''  from 
this  root.  Bewearan  was  the  infinitive,  meaning 
to  defend,  of  which  verb  we  now  use  only  the 
imperative,  when  we  caution  a  person  to  "beware," 
that  is,  to  be  on  his  guard.  "War"  is  derived 
from  the  same  root,  its  original  meaning  having 
reference  to  defence,  rather  than  to  aggression. 
"  Blithe,"  that  is  be-lithe,  gay,  or  cheerful,  is  an 
adjective,  now  little  used  except  in  poetry;  while 
the  expressive  word  blithe-heartness  for  "  joyful- 
ness"  has  long  been  lost.  Bocsum,  or  bucksome, 
also  anciently  written  bowsom  and  bough-some, 
meant  obedient,  compliant,  bendable.  It  is  now 
spelt  "buxom,"  and  conveys  the  idea  of  inde- 

*  Tooke's  Diversions  of  Purley. 


SUPPLEMENT.  143 

pendence  rather  than  of  obedience.  The  '*  beetle" 
used  by  women  in  washing  was  originally  hyttle, 
a  hammer,  that  with  which  they  heat  the  clothes. 
Bering  meant  behaviour,  as  a  man's  "  bearing" 
now  means  his  deportment.  Bestede  or  "bestead" 
meant  oppressed,*  corresponding  with  the  modern 
word  "  beset,"  as  with  card.  "  Betide"  means  to 
happen,  from  hy  the  tide,  or  time.  "  Bewray" 
is  an  obsolete  word,  signifying  to  discover,  and  is 
a  different  word  from  "  betray,"  derived  from  the 
French.  It  was  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  in  the  seventeenth  century.f 
Brawn  was  a  Saxon  word  for  a  sinew,  as  we 
speak  of  "  brawny'"  arms.  Home  Tooke  derives 
it  from  a  hoar,  by  transposition  of  the  letter  r, 
bauren,  that  is,  hoaren,  boar's  flesh,  and  it  is  still 
so  applied ;  as  also  metaphorically  to  that  which 
has  the  strength  and  vigour  of  a  boar.  A  how- 
window,  also  spelt  hay-window,  means  a  hent-out 
window,  from,  higan,  to  bend,  from  which  came 
both  "  bow,"  as  we  have  already  seen,  and  "  bay," 
by  which  we  describe  the  part  of  the  sea  which  is 
howed  or  hayed  into  the  land,  bending  in  the 
shape  of  a  bow. 

Anything  laid  down,  or  spread  out,  was  called 
a  '*  bed,"  from  heddian,  to  spread.  Although  the 
word  is  now  applied  chiefly  to  that  which  is  spread 

*  "They  shall  pass  through  it,  hardly  bestead  and  hungry/' — 
Isaiah,  viii.  21. 

t  "  Thy  speech  bewrayeth  thee." — Matt.  xxvi.  73. 


144  SUPPLEMENT. 

out  for  US  to  lie  down  upon,  yet  we  still  speak  of 
a  hedj  of  gravel ;  a  flower  bed  ;  a  bed  of  oysters ; 
and  a  bed  or  layer  of  coal;  the  word  was  also 
formerly  used  to  denote  a  table.  "  Beliove"  is 
an  old  word,  being  an  impersonal  verb,  like  the 
Latin,  oportet;  it  means,  it  ought  to  be,  from 
hofariy  to  need.  "  Bitter"  is  from  bitan,  to  bite. 
"  Blue"  describes  the  colour  of  the  sky,  when 
the  clouds  have  been  blown  away;  and  of  the 
skin  when  blown  upon  by  the  north  or  east  wind.* 
"  Brown"  means  burnt,  from  brin  to  burn,  mean- 
ing the  colour  of  that  which  has  been  "  burnt ;" 
and  the  "  brunt"  of  the  battle  means  the  hottest 
part  of  the  engagement.  "  Bewildered"  is  like 
amaze,  being  as  it  were,  in  a  wilderness.  A 
"  beadle''  was  originally  a  crier  in  the  courts,  as 
well  as  a  keeper  of  the  door,  and  derived  his 
name  from  bead,  to  call,  or  pray.  A  "  bed-rid- 
den" person  is  a  bed  presser,  from  bed  and  ridan, 
to  press ;  and  a  man  who  "  rides"  a  horse  is  one 
who  presses  on  his  back.  The  passive  participle 
in  modern  English  ending  in  en,  '*  bedridden" 
appears  to  signify  one  ridden  by  the  bed ;  but 
the  Anglo-Saxon  is  bed-rida,  and  in  Chaucer  it  is 
bed-rede.  A  bout  meant  a  turn;  hence  a  "  bout" 
of  illness.     We  have  seen  that  the  word  "  half" 

*  "  Every  blast,"  of  the  north  wind,  produced  a  "  smarting,  suc- 
ceeded by  numbness  of  the  skin,  during  which  the  parts  affected 
become  bluish.'''' — Lieutenant  Bellott's  Journal  of  a  Voyage  in 
the  Polar  JSeas,  vol .  ii.  p.  95. 


SUPPLEMENT.  145 

was  not  originally  restricted  to  signify  an  even 
portion  of  anything  divided  in  two  parts,  but 
meant  a  part  or  portion  generally ;  and  to  the 
same  word  we  may  trace  "  behalf,"  that  is,  on  the 
side  o'r  "part  of  another ;  taking  one's  part  is  a 
common  phrase,  especially  amongst  school-boys. 
The  w^ord  hete  is  to  be  found  in  old  writings, 
meaning  to  walk  to-and-fro,  as  the  word  is  still 
used  by  sportsmen ;  and  the  policeman's  *'  beat' 
is  the  part  of  a  district  assigned  for  his  walking 
up  and  down.  Bikere  meant  to  quarrel,  whence 
we  have  "  bickerings"  for  contentions.  Brouke 
meant  to  use  or  enjoy ;  the  word  is  now  generally 
used  with  a  negative  ;  when  one  ''cannot  brook" 
anything,  it  means  that  it  cannot  be  endured, 
much  less  enjoyed.  Bale  meant  mischief;  the 
noun  is  obsolete,  but  we  still  have  the  adjective 
*'  baleful,"  from  balwian,  to  torment. 

When  a  buyer  does  not  give  the  first  price 
asked,  but  endeavours  to  get  the  commodity  at  a 
lower  price,  he  is  said  to  *'  chaffer,"  a  word  of  the 
same  signification  with  *' cheapen,"  from  cyfan  or 
ceapan^  to  buy.  A  "  candle"  is  that  which 
kindles,  or  gives  light,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
it  be  of  Saxon  or  of  French  origin.  The  sun 
was  described  by  the  Saxons  as  the  frith-candle, 
that  is,  the  free  light, — as  "  free  as  the  light  of 
heaven."  (There  was  no  window-tax  in  those 
days.)  Ccenxin  was  to  know,  from  which  comes 
the  old  word  ken;  and  a  prudent  or  '* knowing" 

L 


146  SUPPLEMENT. 

man  is  called  "  canny."  Hence  also  comes  '^  cun- 
ning," not  originally  used  in  a  bad  sense.  Cavke 
or  care  meant  anxious  solicitude,  and  is  still  soJ 
applied,  as  "carking  care."  ! 

To  cast  was  to  think  ;  hence  a  man  is  said  to 
"cast"  a  matter  in  his  mind;  and  to  "cast  ac- 
counts" may  probably  be  traced  to  the  same  root. 
The  word  "  clap"  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
clappan,  which  signified  to  leap,  or  move  hastily, 
and  implied  also  a  noise  accompanying  the  quick 
motion.  It  is  applied  to  clapping  the  hands  for 
applause ;  to  clap  to  a  door  is  to  shut  it  hastily,; 
and  Chaucer  applies  it  to  noisy  and  quick  talking. 
The  clapper  of  a  mill  is  in  constant  motion, 
accompanied  with  noise.  Cappe  meant  the  top 
of  anything;  hence,  perhaps,  a  cap  as  covering  the 
top  of  the  head,  though  this  may  be  from  the 
Latin  for  the  head.  Builders  retain  this  name 
in  the  ca'pping  or  "  coping"  of  a  wall.  Burns  has 
it  capstane — "  The  last  sad  capstane  of  his  woes," 
To  "  claw"  was  to  scratch,  as  an  animal  with 
claws.  Hence  to  claw  on  the  back  is  an  expression 
used  by  Chaucer,  to  describe  coaxing  and  flattery, 
and  to  claw  on  the  gall^  to  denote  making  one  angry 
by  saying  disagreeable  things  to  hurt  the  feelings. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  word,  crceft^  in  modern  Eng- 
lish "  craft,"  was  in  very  general  use  in  composi- 

*  " I  held  it  ever, 


Virtue  and  cumilng  were  endowments  greater 
Than  nobleness  and  riches." — Shakspeare. 


SUPPLEMENT.  147 

tion  ;  thus  we  may  find  smith-crceft  for  the  art  of 
a  blacksmith,  or  a  carpenter ;  metre-crceft  for  the 
art  of  poetry  ;  sang-crceft  for  the  art  of  singing  ; 
scip-crceft  for  navigation  ;  stcef-crceft  for  the  science 
of  letters,  or  grammar  {stcef  signifying  a  letter)  ; 
stcef'CrcEftiga  was  a  philologist ;  Icece-crceft  was  the 
science  of  medicine ;  wig-crceft,  that  is,  war-craft, 
was  the  art  of  making  war;  woth-crceft  was 
rhetoric  ;  m-crmft  was  law-craft,  and  CB-crmfty 
meant  skilful  in  the  la\^.  We  still  have  "  handi- 
craft" and  "  witchcraft ;"  as  also  "  craft,"  and  the 
-adjective  "  crafty,"  which  originally  meant  skill 
and  skilful,  now  come  to  signify  subtlety  or 
deceit,  and  cunning  or  deceitful.  Formerly, 
deceit  was  described  as  over-crceft ;  as  we  still 
apply  the  term  "  over-reaching"  to  describe  cheat- 
ing and  deception.  In  an  ancient  translation  of 
the  New  Testament,  an  architect,  or  builder,  is 
called  a  craftie-man,  meaning  a  man  of  skill  in 
the  art  of  building,  where  the  heavenly  city  is 
alluded  to,  and  it  is  now  rendered  ''  whose  buil- 
der and  maker  is  God."  (Heb.  xi.  10.)  The  word 
"  craft"  is  likewise  applied  to  certain  sailing  ves- 
sels, either  as  being  ships  employed  in  trade  or 
craft,  like  the  designation  *'  traders,''  or  as  being 
carefully,  craftily,  or  skilfully  made,  like  *'ship'' 
derived  from  shape. 

A  serpent  was  called  in  Anglo-Saxon,  creopere, 
that  is,  a  creeper,  from  creopan,  to  crawl  or  creep. 
Hence    also   '^  cripple,"    formerly  spelt   creepUy 

l2 


148  SUPPLEMENT. 

describes  a  lame  or  maimed  person,  who  can  only 
crawl  or  cree'p  along.  A  paralytic  person  was 
called  an  earth-cryple.  The  Anglo-Saxon  croppe^ 
now  written  *'  crop,"  was  a  word  originally  applied 
to  the  tops  of  trees ;  and  an  old  phrase,  croppe 
and  rote,  meaning  the  top  and  bottom,  in  allusion 
to  the  top  and  the  root  of  a  tree,  was  used  to  sig- 
nify perfection.  Thus  Chaucer  has  the  croppe 
and  rote  of  beautie,  and  the  croppe  and  rote  of 
guile  ;  also,  to  express  »  thorough  acquaintance 
with  a  subject,  he  has,  ''  I  know  croppe  and  rote." 
Hence  probably  the  phrase,  learning  by  rote; 
although  now  usually  applied  to  superficial  know- 
ledge, and  traced  by  etymologists  to  the  French, 
routine.  To  crop  the  hair  means  to  cut  off  the 
top ;  and  cattle  are  said  to  crop  the  grass.  The 
crops  of  hay,  oats,  &c.,  are  the  tops  of  the  ripe 
grass  or  corn ;  but  th~e  term  is  now  applied  to  farm- 
produce  generally,  even  to  roots,  as  in  the  case  of 
green  crops,  or  a  good  crop  of  potatoes,  although 
formerly  it  would  have  been  a  contradiction  in 
terms  to  speak  of  crops  of  roots.  1 

The  Saxon  for  a  furnace  was  cylne,  which  ac- 
counts for  the  somewhat  strange  orthography  of 
a  kiln,  as  brick-kiln,  lime-kiln.  The  word  cwene 
was  used  to  describe  the  female  in  general ;  and 
hence  the  "  queen-bee"  was  probably  so  called,  n<^t 
as  ruling  over  the  hive,  but  merely  to  specify  tlie 
female l)ee,  as  a  *'hen"  was  called  cwen-fugel,  or 
female  fowl.     The  queen-bee  was  also  called  the 


SUPPLEMENT.  ,  149 

mother-bee.  "  Callow"  meant  bald,  unfledged ;  as, 
''  Eight  callow  infants  fill'd  the  mossy  nest."  A 
*' charwoman"  is  a  servant  brought  in  to  do  tem- 
porary jobs;  from  cyrre,  work  or  labour.*  A 
"  churn"  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  cyrran, 
to  turn.  A  "clump,"  as  of  trees,  is  from  geliman, 
or  gluman,  to  connect.  It  is  somewhat  singular 
that  the  word  "  cleave"  is  applied  m  the  opposite 
senses  of  adhering  and  dividing  ;  which  is  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  similitude  between  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  words  clyfian,  to  adhere,  and  cleoffan,  to  cut 
asunder. 

'^  Dole"  was  another  word  for  "  deal,"  a  share; 
and  was  used  both  as  a  noun  and  a  verb.  From 
dwg,  a  day,  came  daggian,  to  become  day,  and 
hence  we  now  have  *^  dawn."  Don  and  doj^  meant 
to  put,  or  do  on,  and  to  put,  or  do  off.  The  "  drift" 
of  a  man's  discourse,  that  which  he  is  "  driving 
at,"  signifies  the  drawing  out  of  his  meaning. 
The  name  of  the  *'  dyer"  is  derived  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  deag,  meaning  colour.  A  "  dastard,"  or 
coward,  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  dastri- 
gan,  to  terrify,  from  the  past  participle  of  which, 
dastriged,  came  dastT'd.  On  this,  Dryden  form- 
ed the  verb  to  dastardf  the  word  being  ordinarily 

*  '' as  the  maid  that  milks 


And  does  the  meanest  chars." 

Anthony  and  Cleopatra. 
t  "And  dastards  manly  souls  with  hope  and  fear." 

Conquest  of  Mexico 


150  SUPPLEMENT. 

used  only  as  an  noun.  Dun  or  done  meant  a  hill. 
From  this  has  been  derived  "  the  downs"  of  Kent, 
being  hills  dipping  down  to  the  sea ;  hence  we  have 
also  "  down,"  meaning  descending,  or  going  down ; 
which  was  formerly  used  as  a  verb,  as — "  Down 
with  him."  This  apparently  opposite  meaning, 
or  application,  of  the  word,  may  be  accounted  for, 
by  considering  "  down,"  or  adown,  as  having 
originally  signified  off  the  down  or  hill,  "  down- 
hill."* "  Drought"  is  the  third  person  singular, 
dragoth  (or  dryth  and  drith),  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
verb,  draggan,  to  drive  out;  whence  to  dry^  by 
expelling  the  moisture.  Hence  also  we  have,  ac- 
cording to  Home  Tooke,  a  ''  drain,"  through 
which  fluid  is  driven,  and  the  "  drone"  (in  Anglo- 
Saxon  dran,  drane,  and  drcen)  expelled  or  driven 
from  the  hive  by  other  bees.  The  drone  of  a  bag- 
pipes is  so  called  from  the  humming  sound  like 
that  of  a  drone. 

"  Dumb"  is  a  word  now  applied  only  to  an 
obstruction  in  the  organ  of  speech,  but  it  was 
formerly  used  more  generally ;  it  is  derived  from 
dumhian,  to  obstruct,  whence  we  have  dam  to 
stop  up,  distinct  from  the  Latin-derived  "  damn," 


*  Dr.  Richardson,  in  his  recently  published  and  interesting  work, 
On  the  Study  of  Language^  quotes  Mr.  Taylor  as  suggesting  that  "down'' 
is  a  contraction  of  of-dune,  off  or  from  the  hill,  doion-hill ;  in  proof  af 
which  he  shows,  that  the  Latin  pronus,  from  which  we  have  "  prone," 
is  rendered  by  the  Saxon  king  Alfred  into  the  Anglo-Saxon,  af-dune  ; 
and  by  Chaucer,  adown. 


SUPPLEMENT.  151 

to  condemn.  "  Dim,"  formerly  dimn  is  from 
dimnian,  to  obscure.  l)rear  was  sorrow,  hence 
*'  dreary,"  or  melancholy.  Diucescan  is  a  Saxon 
verb  signifying  to  darken,  whence  we  have  the 
^'  dusk"  of  the  evening,  when  the  light  of  day  is 
nearljT^  extinguished.  Dyppa  is  deep;  hence  to 
"  dip,"  was  to  plunge  into  the  deep,  although  it  is 
now  used  to  describe  a  rather  shallow  bathing, 
and  figuratively  is  applied  to  a  mere  skimming  of 
the  surface,  as  dipping  into  a  book  denotes  a 
superficial  reading  of  it. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  called  the  "  equinox"  even- 
night  We  have  already  seen*  that  *' eke,"  for 
also,  is  derived  from  eacan,  to  add  ;  hence  also  we 
have  "  each."  As  a  verb,  eke  is  also  used,  signify- 
ing to  add  to,  or  increase;  to  "  eke  out"  is  to  con- 
tribute an  addition  to  what  is  provided  from  some 
other  source,  in  order  to  make  up  the  amount 
required.  Eld  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  for  old,  from 
which  we  still  have  "  elder"  and  "  eldest."  A 
grandfather  was  formerly  called  an  eld  or  aid- 
father.  We  have  seen  that  words  relating  to  the 
sea  are  usually  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  ;*f-  amongst 
these  is  "  ebbing"  of  the  tide,  derived  from  ebba, 
signifying  to  go  back,  the  Anglo-Saxon  term  for 
"  receding,"  which  we  have  from  the  Latin. 

The  high-road  used  to  be  called  by  the  Saxons 
the  folks-fare;   we   have    before   observed   that 

*  Lecture  L,  p.  54,  f  Lecture  L,  p.  23, 


152  SUPPLEMEI^T. 

"  fare"  meant  a  way,  or  passage*  A  "  furlong" 
meant  oTigmaUj  sl  furrow-long,  that  is,  the  length 
of  a  furrow  in  a  ploughed  field.  The  fourth  part 
of  a  penny  is  called  a  "farthing ;"  the  Anglo-Saxon 
wsisfourthling,  sjid  meant  originally  the  fourth 
part  of  any  sum  or  measure.  *'  Faith"  is  the  third 
person  singular  of  the  verb  fcegan,  to  engage  or 
promise,  and  was  formerly  written  fcegth  and 
faieth,  that  which  one  covenanteth  or  engageth. 
The  adverb  "  fain"  is  the  past  ipsbrticiiple  fcegened, 
contracted  to  fcegen  sindfcegn,  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
wQih  fcegnian,  to  be  glad,  to  /am.f  As  a  verb 
this  word  is  not  now  so  commonly  used  as  it  was 
formerly.  "  Feign,"  to  dissemble,  is  from  the 
French. 

'^  Fairies"  were  so  called,  probably,  from  their 
"  fairness,"  not  only  in  the  literal  sense,  but  me- 
taphorically as  being  spotless  and  pure ;  on  the 
same  principle  that  they  are  called  ''  the  good 
people''  by  the  Irish  peasantry,  doubtless  with  a 
view  to  conciliate  by  flattery  those  imaginary 
spirits,  who  are  believed  to  delight  in  mischief  and 
cunning,  but  who  are  called  fair  or  honest,  and 
good  or  beneficent,  with  a  view  to  avert  their  dis- 
pleasure, and  to  avoid  the  evil  consequences  of 
their  malevolence.  The  name  fay  or  fairy  has, 
however,  been  by  some  derived  from  their  sup- 
posed power  to  say,  or  foretell,  and  to  influence 
the  fate,   to   foredoom.     Others  derive   it  from 

*  Lecture  I.  p.  28.  f  Somner  and  Home  Tooke. 


SUPPLEMENT.  153 

faran^  to  go,  in  reference  to  their  imaginary 
wanderings  through  the  earth  and  air.  Others, 
again,  have  thought  them  to  be  so  called  in  allu- 
sion to  their  supposed  fair  or  bright  forms,  as 
another  class  of  genii  are  called  Brownies,  from 
their  swarthy  appearance. 

A  *' flood"  is  so  called  to  describe  the  waters  as 
having  flowed  over  the  earth.  "  Filth"  is  that 
which  fijleth,  or,  as  we  now  write  it,  '^  defileth/' 
the  third  person  singular  of  fylan,  to  pollute. 
Feed  was  once  a  noun,  meaning  "  food';"  of  which 
we  have  the  remains  in  the  language  of  the  stable, 
where  the  ostler  speaks  of  *'  a  feed "  of  oats. 
Feme  meant "  before,"  and  was  used  in  composi- 
tion, in  Anglo-Saxon,  to  signify  "  of  old,"  or  far 
off.  Feme-land  meant  a  far  or  distant  land  ;  and 
ferne-yere,  in  former  years,  or  of  yore. 

Forlore  is  an  obsolete  word  which  signified  to 
lose  or  abandon;  we  still  retain  "  forlorn,"  being 
the  past  participle.  A  party  of  brave  men,  who 
are  ready  to  sacrifice  themselves  in  a  service  of 
danger,  are  described  as  a  '^  forlorn  hope,"  being 
looked  upon  as  lost,  and  abandoning  themselves 
to  their  fate.  To  ''  fulfil"  is  to  fill  up  entirely,  to 
complete  any  object.  The  term  fret  is  often 
found  in  early  writers  applied  to  ornamental  work 
of  various  kinds,  and  in  many  different  senses, 
but  generally  to  any  work  that  roughens  the 
surface.  The  ^'  fret  of  gold"  in  Chaucer  is  a  kind 
of  cap  made  like  network  ;  and  anything  of  the 


154  SUPPLEMENT. 

kind  was  said  to  be  fretted  when  gems  were 
placed  crosswise  in  alternate  directions,  or  inter- 
laced. A  coronet  is  found  described  as  a/rei^  of 
pearls;  and  a  frilled  shirt  was  said  to  h^  fretted. 
A  pair  of  boots  in  the  twelfth  century  are  de- 
scribed as  being  ornamented  with  circles  of  fret- 
tvork,  meaning  probably  embroidered  with  circles 
intersecting  each  other.  Frett-work  in  architec- 
ture is  the  more  curious  way  of  plastering  or 
carving  a  roof  or  ceiling.*  This  application  of 
the  word  arose,  probably,  from  the  outline  of  the 
work  so  ornamented  having  the  appearance  of 
heing fretted,  or  eaten  away;  to  "fret"  meaning, 
as  has  been  observed, f  to  eat  or  consume  ;  from 
whence  came  fretwian,  to  adorn.  According  to 
Skinner,  however,  fret-iuork  derives  its  name 
from  the  Italian,  fratto,  that  is,  like  the  Latin 
fr actus,  broken,  being  a  kind  of  work  distinguished 
by  frequent  fractures  and  incisions  ;  or  by  being 
broken  or  cut  into  many  parts. 

We  have  two  rather  vulgar  or  slang  words, 
"  gab"  and  "  gammon,"  which  may  be  traced  to 
Anglo-Saxon  origin.  Gabban  meant  to  deride,  to 
tattle,  or  prate  ;  a  man  is  said  to  have  "  the  gift  of 
the  gab,"  when  he  can  talk  with  ease,  but  without 
evincing  much  depth  or  sound  sense,  "glibly,""  as  it 
is  called,  that  is,  at  a  galloping  rate,  from  geleapan, 
to  move  swiftly,  to  gallop.     The  word  ''  gammon" 

*  Halliwell's  Archaic  Dictionary,  vol.  i.  p.  381. 
-j-  Lecture  L  p.  36. 


SUPPLEMENT.  155 

meaning  joking  and  nonsense,  is  from  gamian,  to 
play,  to  make  sport  of.  Hence,  also,  plays  are 
called  "  games ;"  and  birds  or  other  animals 
hunted  for  sport  or  amusement  are  called  '^  game." 
Hence,  also,  "  gambling,"  or  **  gaming,''  now  re- 
stricted to  playing  for  a  wager  or  "  bet,"  a  word 
derived  from  badde,  a  pledge.  '*  Gaffer"  and 
"  gammer"  are  old  words  still  applied  to  describe 
respectively,  old  men  and  old  women.  The  first 
originally  meant  a  godfather,  and  the  latter  a 
godviother. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  called  the  feast  of  Christ- 
mas yeol  and  geol,  and  it  is  still  called  yule  in  the 
North  of  England.  A  yule-log  is  the  name  given 
to  a  large  log,  or  block  of  wood,  laid  on  the  fire 
at  Christmas,  and  which  continues  mouldering 
away  for  many  days  ;  yule-cakes  and  yule-songs, 
are  cakes  made,  and  songs  sung,  on  Christmas-eve. 
The  origin  of  this  word  is  nincertain  ;  some  ety- 
mologists deriving  it  from  the  Saxon  heowl,  a 
wheel,  from  the  turning  of  the  sun  after  the  win- 
ter solstice  at  this  season  ;  while  others  incline  to 
the  Latin  juhilum,  signifying  originally  a  shep- 
herd's song.  Others,  again,  trace  it  to  the  cry  of 
rejoicing,  ule,  ulel  with  which  it  was  customary 
to  run  about  the  streets  after  church  on  Christmas 
day.* 

Gear   meant   clothing,  as  well  as  all  sorts  of 

*  Blount,  quoted  by  Halliwell. 


156  SUPPLEMENT. 

instruments  of  cookery,  of  war,  of  furniture,  and  ot 
chemistiy.  The  word  is  found  applied  in  all  these 
senses  in  Chaucer.  It  is  derived  from  gearwian^ 
to  prepare.  Dr.  Johnson  refers  to  the  word  as 
being  in  use  in  Scotland,  to  describe  goods  or 
riches,  as  they  would  say,  "  He  has  gear  enough.'* 
A  '^  girth"  is  that  which  girdeth;  and  "  growth" 
is  that  which  groweih. 

As  the  colour  "  brown"  is  derived  from  the 
verb  to  hrin^  or  burn,  and  "  blue"  from  bleowan, 
to  blow ;  so  ''  green"  may  be  traced  to  growan 
to  grow — this  being  the  colour  of  the  growing 
I  crops ;  and  as  fruit  is  green  when  unripe,  so  a 
raw  or  immature  youth  is  called  "green;"  and 
Chaucer  calls  inexperience  greenhead.  The  name 
of  the  well-known  fruit  ''  gooseberry"  is  probably 
a  corruption  of  gorse-herry,  so  called  from  the 
prickliness  of  the  tree,  like  the  gorse  hedge. 
"  Grim"  meant  raging  like  a  tyrant ;  "  gruff"  is 
rough  ;  and  '*  gaunt"  may  be  traced  to  wane  and 
want  (the  w  being  frequently  changed  to  g). 
Gild,  now  "  guild"  meant  a  brotherhood,  as  the 
"  Guild  of  Merchants,"  &c.,  in  London.  (?erZ, 
now  "  girl,"  formerly  meant  a  young  person,  with- 
out distinction  of  sex.  A  boy  was  described  as  a 
"  knave-gerl  ;"*  and  "  knave-child,"  to  distin- 
^  ^>.  guish  male  from  female,  is  to  be  found  in  Chaucer. 
/       The  Holy  Sacrament  was  called  hj  the  Anglo- 

/  .    ■ . . 

*  Halli well's  Dictionary  of  Archaic  and  Provincial  Words. 


SUPPLEMENT.  157 

Saxons  Housel^  and  to  have  partaken  of  it  was  to 
liave  been  houseled.  The  word  occurs  in  old 
books ;  and  in  Shakspeare,  the  ghost  of  Hamlet's 
father  describes  himself  as  having  been  sent  to  his 
account — "  UnhouseVd^  disappointed,  unaneld ;" 
that  is,  without  the  sacrament,  unprepared,  and 
unanointed.  '*  Hithe"  was  an  ancient  name 
for  a  wharf,  and  remains  in  use  in  proper  names, 
as  in  Rotherhithe,  compounded  of  r other  for  rud- 
der, and  hithe  for  wharf  The  old-fashioned  name 
for  a  primer,. "  horn-book,"  originally  described  a 
single  sheet  of  paper  protected  by  horn  edges,  as  a 
slate  is  in  a  wooden  frame.  The  heron,  or  hern, 
was  formerly  called  a  hernshaw,  and  was  the  usual 
game  pursued  in  "  hawking" — a  favourite  sport  in 
the  "  olden  time."  When  a  stupid  fellow  is  said 
not  to  know  "  a  hawk  from  a  handsaw,"  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  latter  word  is  a  corruption 
for  a  hemshaw ;  and  the  saying  meant,  as  if  it 
were  now  said,  "  he  would  not  know  a  greyhound 
from  a  hare."  Hortigard  was  an  ancient  name 
for  an  "  orchard,"  signifying  the  yard  or  guarded 
place  for  horts  or  arts,  that  is,  roots.  An  orchard 
now  means  an  enclosed  field  for  fruit  trees  only, 
but  originally  signified  any  garden. 

HorneTooke  shows  that  "hank,"  "haunch,"  and 
"  hinge,"  are  the  same  word,  with  the  common 
interchange  of  h,  ch,  and  ge,  firom  the  Anglo-Saxon 
verb  hang  an,  to  hang.  A  "  hank"  of  thread  is 
as  much   as  is   hanky d  or  hanged  together;   a 


158  SUPPLEMENT. 

"haunch"  of  venison  is  that  part  by  which  the 
lower  limbs  are  hanked  or  hanged  upon  the  body 
or  trunk ;  and  a  '*  hinge"  is  that  upon  which  the 
door  is  hanged,  as  we  speak  of  a  door  being  hung 
on  its  hinges.  We  have  observed  that  the 
''  ankle,"  or  ankle-hone,  is  that  by  which  the  foot 
is  nankyd,  hankyd,  or  hanged  to  the  leg.*  To 
"  hanker"  after  anything  is  to  hang  about ;  loiter- 
ing as  unwilling  to  quit— desirous  to  keep  or  get.f 
*'  Halt''  is  the  imperative  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb, 
healdan,  to  hold ;  hence,  to  "  halt"  is  to  hold  in, 
to  stop ;  and  as  an  adjective  "  halt"  means  lame, 
that  is,  holding  in  or  stopping  in  the  gait.  In 
German,  halten  is  to  hold,  or  to  stop. 

The  first  use  of  anything  is  called  harndselling 
it ;  and  a  handsell  means  something  given  to  the 
buyer  on  first  receiving  his  purchase.  It  is  deri- 
ved from  ha7id  and  sdl,  which  latter  word  meant 
to  give  as  well  as  what  we  now  mean  by  '*  sell.'' 
In  Dutch  it  is  hand-gift e,  which  more  clearly  ex- 
presses the  meaning  of  the  word.  Hcest  was  the 
Anglo-Saxon  for  hot  :  hence  a  A;P^tempered  per- 
son is  said  to  be  "  hasty."  The  Anglo-Saxon  for 
"  holy"  is  halig,  from  whence  comes  "  hallowed;" 
and  halig-writ,  or  "  Holy  Writ,"  was  their  name 
for  the  "  Sacred  Scriptures,"  as  the  inspired  volume 
is  called  from  the  Latin,  as  it  is  called  '^  Bible" 
from  the  Greek,  meaning  the  book.     A  man  ser- 

*  Lecture  I.  p.  61. 

t  Richardson's  Study  of  Language,  p.  135. 


SUPPLEMENT.  159 

vant  was  called  by  the  Saxons  hus-carl,  and  a 
female  domestic  was  a  hus-scyjge;  to  this  latter 
may  be  traced  the  name  given  to  a  college  ser- 
vant, usually  an  old  woman,  who  certainly  cannot 
derive  her  name  from  skipping  up  stairs. 

Ilche  signified  "  the  same."  This  word  is  still 
used  in  Scotland,  and  as  applied  to  proper  names 
denotes  that  the  surname  is  the  same  as  the  pro- 
perty or  place  of  residence  ;  thus  Macintosh  of 
that  nice  means  Macintosh  of  Macintosh.  "J[n- 
come"  is  from  incuman,  to  come  in  ;  and  "  Income 
tax"  is  the  tax  on  what  comes  in  to  the  payer. 

It  has  been  already  observed  that  "  John"  has 
always  been  a  very  common  name  in  England,* 
"Jack"  was  also  usually  applied  to  lads,  and 
especially  to  servant  boys  ;  and  these  having  been 
employed  to  pull  off  their  masters'  boots,  and  to 
turn  the  spit  for  the  cook,  when  machines  were 
invented  for  these  purposes,  they  were  called  by 
their  name,  as  boot -jack,  kitchen-jack.  The  boy 
who  rides  the  horse  at  a  race  is  also  called  a  "joc/ce^/' 
or  Jackey.  '^  Kith"  and  ^'  kin"  are  words  of  similar 
meaning,  signifying  relations  well  known  to  each 
other,  from  cythan  and  cennan,  to  know  or  make 
known.  The  adjective  "kind''  is  derived  from 
kiriy  meaning  natural,  having  natural  feelings — 
feelings  belonging  to  our  common  nature  or  kind 
— like  "  human"  and  "  humane"  from  the  Latin 

*  Lectiu-e  II.,  p.  79. 


160  SUPPLEMENT. 

homo,  that  is,  of  feelings  becoming  man.  "  Man- 
kind" and  '* kindred"  are  from  the  same  Anglo- 

^  5axon  root  with  kin  and  kind. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  word  ledene  meant  language, 
and  is  to  be  found  applied  to  the  English  tongue.* 
Its  application  to  the  Latin,  to  which  it  is  now 
restricted,  arose  from  this  having  been  the  univer- 
sal language  with  lettered  men  in  the  middle  ages. 
Formerly  Latin  was  called  hokledene,  that  is,  the 
book  language,  corrupted  to  bog  Latin.'t  This 
was  the  language  of  books  in  early  times  ;  and 
hence,  to  distinguish  it,  boc  was  prefixed  to  ledene, 
which,  although  somewhat  like  the  word  "  Latin," 
meant  any  language.  It  has  been  already  observ- 
ed that  the  verb  to  ''  learn"  formerly  meant  to 
teach  ;t  and  so  it  is  constantly  used  in  the  version 
of  the  Psalms,  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  lere  is  to  teach,  whence  a  teacher 
was  called   a  loresman,  from  the  past  participle 

\lore,  which  wp  still  retain  as  a  noun.  Lerend, 
now  written  "  learned,''  meant  taught,  and  is  ap- 
plied to  one  who  has  been  well  instructed.  The 
word  lewd,  now  used  in  a  bad  sense,  originally 
signified  unlearned — that  is  untaught,  and  was 
opposed  to  lerde,  or  learned.§     Learning  having 

*  "  For  the  love  of  Inglis  lede, 

Inglis  hde  of  Ingland." — Old  MS.,  quoted  by  Halliwell. 
f  Lecture  L,  p.  34. 
X  Lecture  IL,  p.  85. 
§  ''  Bot  lerde  and  lewde,  old  and  yong, 

Alle  nutherstondith  Englisch  tonge."  MS.  quoted  by  Halliwell. 


SUPPLEMENT.  161 

been,  in  the  middle  ages,  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  clergy,  the  rest  were  called  lewde,"^ 
from  whence  we  have  "  laity/' 

"  List''  was  to  please,  or  choose ;  and  the  word  is 
frequently  found  in  writings  of  the  seventeenth 
century .f  It  was  often  used  as  an  impersonal 
verb,  signifying,  "  it  is  lawful,"  like  the  Latin,  libet 
or  licet.  Lin  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  for  flax,  and 
"linen"  means  made  of  flax,  like  *'  wooden"  from 
wood,  &c.  Lolyhede  meant  meekness  or  humility ; 
and  we  flnd  "  lowliness"  in  this  sense  in  the 
Authorized  Version  of  the  New  Testament. 
'^  Lour,"  formerly  lowre,  means  to  look  discon- 
tented, to  be  lowered  or  cast  down — as  we  say, 
crest-fallen  or  chop-fallen.  Thus  the  counte- 
nance of  the  first  murderer  lowered  or  loured, 
when  it  was  said  to  him  ''  Why  is  thy  counte- 
nance fallen  V  (Gen.  iv.  5,  6.)  Hence  the  sky 
is  said  to  lour  when  it  is  darkened,  and  the 
clouds  appear  loiver.  A  town  or  lout  is  a  person 
of  lo%v  or  mean  manners  or  understanding.  To 
lout  was  to  bow  down,  to  lower  or  bend  the 
body ;  but  is  to  be  found  usually  appplied  in  a  bad 

*  "Bot  lerde  and  lewde,  old  and  yong, 
Alle  untherstondith  Englisch  tonge." 

MS.  Bodl  quoted  by  Halliwell. 
t  "  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeih.'"     John  iii.  8. 
"  Whithersoever  the  governor  listeth.^''     James  iii.  4. 
"  Now,  by  my  mother's  son,  and  that's  myself, 
It  shall  be  moon,  or  star,  or  what  I  list.^^ — ShaJcspeare. 

M 


162  SUPPLEMENT. 

sense,  to  describe  an  awkward  clown,  or  a  cring- 
ing imposter.*  We  may  often  meet,  in  books 
of  narrative  or  dialogue,  written  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, with  the  interjection  la  I  or  la  me  /  put 
into  the  mouths  of  well-bred  people.  It  would 
now  be  justly  considered  vulgar,  and  is  thought 
by  some  to  have  been  a  corruption  of  "  law" 
as  if  the  speaker  meant  to  swear  hy  the  law  of 
God.  The  word  is  found,  however,  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  dictionaries,  as  an  interjection,  equivalent 
to  lo  !  that  is,  look!  It  is  thus  found  in  Shak- 
speare,  "  Lo  you  !''  that  is.  Look  you  !  {Twelfth 
Night).  Well-a-day  or  well-a-way,  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  worla-wa!  that  is,  ''  woe,  lo,  woe!'' 

Leve  and  lathe  were  old  words  for  love  and  hate. 
We  may  trace  the  first  in  the  expression  already 
referred  to,  I'd  as  lief;  and  the  second  in  the 
phrase  Fd  be  loathe,  as  also  in  the  words  "  loathe" 
and  ''  loathesome."  The  word  "  let"  is  used  in  two 
opposite  senises,  signifying  both  to  permit  and  to 
hinder.  As  a  verb,  it  is  now  restricted  to  the 
former  meaning  ;  but  as  a  noun,  it  is  still  some- 
times used,  especially  in  legal  forms,  in  the  sense  of 
a  hindrance.     The  words  were  not  precisely  alike 

*  In  the  First  Edition  of  the  foregoing  Lectures,  a  quotation  was 
given  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Johnson,  from  Spenser  (mis-printed 
Chaucer),  as  an  example  of  the  word  lout  being  used  to  indicate  a 
graceful  bow ;  but  Dr.  Kichardson,  in  a  letter  to  the  author,  has 
pointed  out  that  the  louter,  in  the  passage  referred  to,  was  an  artful  old 
man,  who  came  to  the  courteous  knight,  cringing,  in  order  to  deceive. 
"  He  fair  the  knight  saluted,  louting  low." — Fairy  Queen, 


SUPPLEMENT  163 

ill  the  Anglo-Saxon ;  loetan  was  to  permit,  and 
lettan,  to  hinder.  The  word  "  listless,"  that  is, 
heedless,  is  derived  from  lystan,  to  hearken,  to 
attend  to,  whence  we  have  "  listen/'  Spenser  has 
the  word  listful  as  the  opposite  to  listless. 

A  person  is  said  to  "  long"  for  that  which  he 
earnestly  desires ;  which  expression  Home  Tooke 
thus  explains : — "  When  we  consider  that  we  ex- 
press a  moderate  desire  for  anything,  by  saying 
that  we  incline  (i.  e.  bend  ourselves)  to  it,  will  it 
surprise  us  that  we  should  express  an  eager  desire, 
by  saying  that  we  long  for  it,  i.  e.  make  longj^j 
lengthen^  or  stretch  ourselves  after  it ;  especially 
when  we  observe,  that  after  the  verb  to  incline^ 
we  say  to  or  towards,  but  after  the  verb  to  long, 
we  must  use  either  for  or  after,  in  order  to  con- 
vey our  meaning."*  '^Law,''  anciently  written 
lagh,  is  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  lagyan  or 
lecgan,  to  lay  down.  The  Anglo-Saxon  for  a 
'•  lawyer"  was  lahman ;  it  was  also  formerly 
lawer  and  lawier.  A  law  is  a  rule  laid  down  for 
us  to  observe  ;  and  we  still  speak  of  "  laying 
down  the  law."  Home  Tooke  and  Wachter  insist 
that  the  Latin  lex  was  derived  from  the  same 
source,  namely,  the  Gothic  lag  or  Iceg,  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  laggan. 

*  Dryden  singularly  combines  the  literal  and  metaphorical  usage  , 
as  observed  by  Richardson  on  the  word  "  long" : — 

"  He  (the  fire)  wades  the  street,  and  straight  he  reaches  cross, 
And  plays  his  longing  flames  on  t'other  side." 

Annus  Mirahilis. 
M  2 


164  SUPPLEMENT. 

We  have  already  given  the  derivation  of  "  lord'' 
and  '*  lady,"  as  traced  by  Verstegan,  meaning  the 
bread  'provider,  and  the  bread  dispenser.  Home 
Tooke  gives  a  different  account  of  these  titles  of 
honour,  still  tracing  them,  however,  to  the  same 
Anglo-Saxon  hlifian,  to  raise  or  lift  up  ;  from 
which  verb  is  derived  "  loaf," — leavened^,  or  raised, 
bread.  But  while  Verstegan  derives  "  lord"  and 
"  lady''  from  the  loaf,  Tooke  traces  these  words  to 
the  verb  to  raise.  According  to  this  eminent 
etymologist,  'Mord/'  anciently  written  hlaford,  is 
composed  of  hlaf,  raised,  and  ord,  me*aning,  like 
the  Latin  ortus,  birth  or  origin,  thus  signifying 
high-born.  "  Lady"  is  in  Anglo-Saxon  hlafdig, 
which  is  the  same  word  as  "  lofty,"  that  is,  raised 
or  exalted,  following  the  condition  of  her  hus- 
band. That  '4ady"  and  "lofty"  are  the  same 
word,  he  thus  proves: — The  Anglo  Saxon  hlaf, 
hlafod,  hlafd,  hlafdig,  are  in  English,  (omitting 
the  h)  laf  lafod,  lafd,  lafdy  (the  Anglo-Saxon 
^^  softened  into  y).  Retaining  the/,  pronuncia- 
tion requires  the  d  to  be  changed  into  t,  and  the 
word  becomes  lafty,  (a  broad,  that  is,  aw)  or  lofty. 
Suppress  the  /,  the  d  may  remain  unchanged,  and 
the  word  becomes  lady.*     The  word  lean  is  to  be 

*  See  Dr.  Richardson  On  the  Study  of  Language  (1854),  in  which 
pablication  this  venerable  etymologist  has  given  "  An  exposition  of 
77*6  Diversions  of  Purley^''  and  has  thereby  placed  within  the  reach 
of  all,  the  substance  of  Home  Tooke's  valuable  work,  thus  adding  a 
useful  contribution  to  the  study  of  philology. 


SUPPLEMENT.  165 

found  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  vocabulary  as  signify- 
ing a  loan,  also  a  tribute,  stipend,  or  emolument. 
This  may  be  the  origin  of  the  word  llen^  in  the 
sense  of  a  charge  on  an  estate,  or  on  the  emolu- 
ments of  an  office,  which,  however,  is  usually 
considered  as  being  derived  from  the  French. 

The  word  moel  meant  a  portion  of  anything ; 
it  is  now  only  applied  to  food.  Mod-tide  was. 
meal-time,  and  efen-meal  was  supper,  or  evening 
meal.  From  this  word  we  have  piece-meal,  in 
small  fragments.  Mede  was  a  reward,  and  though 
the  word  is  now  rarely  used,  yet  it  is  to  be  found 
in  poetry,  not  only  in  Chaucer,  Spenser,  and  Mil- 
ton, but  also  in  Pope  and  later  writers.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  derived  from  mcetan,  to  meet,  from 
whence,  also,  that  which  meets,  or  is  suitable,  is 
said  to  be  "  meet"  or  proper ;  as  Eve  was  to  be  a 
''  help  meet"  for  Adam,  or  as  it  is  commonly  said 
a  help-mate ;  this  latter  word,  m^ate,  being  from 
the  same  root,  and  applied  formerly  to  man  and 
wife,  but  now  almost  entirely  restricted  to  birds 
who  have  *^  mated"  or  paired  together.  This  word 
is,  however,  still  used  to  describe  boys  who  join  in 
the  same  sports,  and  are  called  play-mates;  it  is 
also  retained  on  board  ship,  where  the  officer  who 
is  second  in  command  is  called  the  mate,  or  "  cap- 
tain's mate,"  that  is,  the  man  who  meets  with  the 
captain  most  frequently  on  duty,  as  well  as  at 
meals. 

"  Midwife"  was  anciently  medewyf  and  mead- 


166  SUPPLEMENT. 

m/e,  and  meant  the  wifman,  or  woman,  who 
attended  the  patient  for  "mead  or  Tneed,  that  is 
"  hire,"  which  word  is  derived  either  from  Tnete, 
to  measure,  or  from  Trietan,  to  meet;  **  meed'' 
being  that  which  a  person  meets  with,  deservedly, 
in  return  for  service  done.  Mold  is  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  word  for  the  earth  or  clay  ;  and  hence 
vessels  made  of  metal  are  said  to  be  cast  in  a 
'mould,  because  they  take  their  form  from  the 
pattern  made  in  clay,  sand,  or  mould.  Etymolo- 
gists, however,  generally  consider  the  noun, 
mouldy  and  the  verb,  to  Tnould,  as  being  of  French 
origin.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  to  "iuoul- 
der,  that  is,  to  turn  to  dust,  and  the  adjective 
mouldy,  or  covered  with  m^ould,  are  derived 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  m^old,  signifying  the  soil, 
or  ground,  in  which  the  roots  which  produce  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  vegetate.  "  Much"  was  for- 
merly written  Tuuehen  and  m^uckel,  as  it  is  still 
pronounced  in  Scotland ;  and  is  derived  from  m^ow, 
signifying  a  heap.  This  latter  word  is  derived 
from  mawan,  to  cut,  from  whence  we  have 
"  mead"  and  "  meadow,'"  the  field  of  which  the 
grass  is  to  be  cut  or  mown  ;  and  it  was  applied 
to  the  heap  of  grass  which  had  been  meowed  or 
myown,  and  which  is  in  some  parts  called  a  "  mow.'' 
Home  Tooke  traces  the  word  "  more"  to  this  root ; 
supposing  that  the  term  mow  came  to  denote  any 
heap,  and  also  became  an  adjective,  and  was  so 
used  by  our  old  English  authors,  and  written  i^   ' 


SUPPLEMENT.  167 

Of  this  the  comparative  was  mo-er  or  ''  more," 
and  the  superlative  mo-est  or  '^  most."  Mucker, 
meaning  to  heap  or  hoard  up,  from  Tuucg,  a  heap, 
is  used  by  Chaucer,  to  describe  a  mean  way  of 
getting  or  saving  up  money,  and  it  is  not  altogether 
disused  at  the  present  day.  Mild-heartness  was 
an  expressive  Anglo-Saxon  word  for  pity,  like 
the  Latin  Tniserieordia. 

To  "  moot"  a  question  means  to  discuss  it,  and  a 
''  moot  point''  is  a  topic  which  is  mooted  or  dis- 
puted. The  word  is  derived  from  mot,  which  sig- 
nified a  meeting,  or  convention,  for  the  discussion 
of  public  affairs ;  so  called  from  metian,  to  meet. 
Thus  there  were  amongst  the  Saxons  the  m,ichel~ 
gemot,  or  great  meeting,  and  the  ivittena-gemjot, 
or  meeting  of  the  wise  men.  The  subjects  discus- 
sed in  those  meetings  were  hence  said  to  be  geinot- 
ed,  or  brought  into  court,  and  hence  any  disputed 
topic  came  to  be  called  a  m^oot  point.  '*  Mirth"  is 
caused  by  the  driving  away  of  care  or  melancholy ; 
and  Tooke  considers  it  to  be  the  third  person 
singular  of  m^irran,  to  disperse,  that  which  m^irreth, 
that  is,  dissipateth,  care  or  sorrow  .The  verb  was 
also  written  merry  an,  from  whence  we  have  the 
pleasant  word,  "  merry."  To  the  same  root  he 
traces  "morning,"  anciently  written  merrien, 
Tnergen^  m^arne,  morr,  margen,  and  morn,  and, 
he  adds,  "  I  believe  them  to  be  the  past  tense  and 
past  participle  of  the  Gothic  and  Anglo-Saxon 
mergan,   7nerran,   or    myrran,   to   disperse,   to 


168  SUPPLEMENT. 

spread  abroad,  to  scatter,  as  the  morning  disperses 
the  mists  and  darkness,  and  spreads  abroad  the 
light  of  day.  '  Morrow'  and  '  morn'  are  of  the 
same  derivation.  By  the  customary  change  of  i 
or  y  into  o,  tyiott  is  the  regular  past  tense  of 
myrran,  and  morr  easily  came  to  be  pronounced 
and  written  morive  and  Tnorewe,  and  it  w^as  so 
written  in  the  middle  ages,  as  were  also,  arwe  for 
arrow,  narwe  for  narrow,  sorwe  for  sorrow,  &c." 
The  adverb  "  may  be,"  or  "  mayhap,''  signifies 
may  happen.  In  some  parts  of  England  it  is  pro- 
nounced mappan.  "  It  may  be"  is  the  same  as 
it  may  happen. 

Nyllan,  or  nillan,  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  word, 
signifying  not  to  wish,  to  be  unwilling.  Willan 
and  nillan  corresponded  to  the  Latin  volo  and 
nolo.  "  Will  he,  nill  he,"  meant  whether  he  likes 
it  or  not.  The  words  "  naughty"  and  '*  naughti- 
ness," formerly  nahtinesSy  now  chiefl}^  confined  to 
the  nursery,  are  from  naught  nothing ;  as  describ- 
ing the  absence  of  any  thing  good.  A  "  naughty" 
person  is  one  who  is  "  good  for  nothing."  The 
word  was  formerly  applied  to  things  as  well  as  to 
persons.*  "  Nevertheless''  was  formerly  nathless, 
that  is,  na  (or  not)  the  less  ;  and  is  to  be  found  in 
Chaucer,  never-the-later,  but  has  long  been  fixed 
as  at  present  written.  Over-woenan  is  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  verb,  signifying  to  presume,  derived  from 

*  "  The  other  basket  had  very  naughty  figs,  which  could  not  be 
eat^en,  they  were  so  bad." — Jeremiah,  xxiv.  2. 


SUPPLEMENT.  169 

the  prefix  over,  and  ivcenan,  to  think,  to  ween.  A 
man  overweens  when  he  thinks  "more  highly  of 
himself  than  he  ought  to  think."  We  have  seen 
that  "  atonement"  is  at-one-ment  ;*  and  we  find 
in  old  writings  oned  for  made  one,  and  onement 
for  reconciliation;  as  also  one-hede  for  unity.f 
The  word  "  odd"  is  applied  to  signify  an  uneven 
number,  and  when  used  to  describe  an  odd  man 
or  an  odd  action,  it  now  conveys  an  unfavourable  ^ 
meaning.  It  was  not,  however,  formerly  so  re- 
stricted, but  meant  anything  unmatched.  The 
word  means  owed,  contracted  to  ow'd,  odd. 
When  we  count  by  pares  or  couples,  we  say  one 
pair,  two  pairs,  fee,  and  one  owed,  or  odd,  to  make 
up  another  pair.  When  we  use  the  expression, 
an  "  odd  man"  or  an  "  odd  action,''  it  still  relates 
to  pairing,  or  matching,  and  we  mean  without  a 
fellow,  unmatched, — not  such  another,  one  owed 
to  make  up  a  couple. j  This  explanation  of  the 
word  may  serve,  I  think,  to  render  intelligible  the 
odd  and  apparently  unmeaning  designation  of  a 
well-known  society  in  England,  called  "  Odd 
Fellows" — that  is,  the  companions,  who,  being 
fellows  or  equals  amongst  themselves,  are  odd,  or 
unmatched,  in  worth  it  may  be  supposed  they 
mean,  amongst  all  the  rest  of  the  world. 

*  See  Lecture  I,  p.  49. 
t  Halliwell's  Archaic  Dictionary. 

X  Sir  Thomas  More  writes  "  God  in  soveraine  dignity  is  odd]*'  Uiat 
is,  unmatched. — See  Diversions  of  Purley. 


170  SUPPLEMENT. 

The  adverb  ''  perhaps"  is  compounded  of  the 
Latin  ^er,  through,  with  the  German  hap]r)en, 
which  is  still  preserved  in  English.  The  more 
poetic  and  the  purely  Saxon  form  of  this  adverb 
is  "  haply ;"  that  is  happen-like,  it  *'  may  be,"  or 
it  is  likely  to  happen.*  The  word  "happy''  is  ap- 
plied to  those  into  whose  possession  good  happens 
to  come  or  fall,  who  have  good  hap.  The  word 
may  be  traced  (as  well  as  the  Latin  habere,  to 
have,  and  caper e,  to  take,  and  the  French  hap- 
per,  to  catch),  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  Verb  hahban, 
to  have  or  hold.  Belike  is  an  adverb  found  much 
in  our  best  old  authors,  and  means  luck,  derived 
from  the  Danish  and  other  northern  languages ;  it 
is  thus  the  same  as  "  by  chance,"  or  hjhap.  The 
adverbs,  "  perchance,"  "  perad venture,"  and  the 
obsolete  "  percase,"  (of  similar  signification  with 
belike,  may  be,  perhaps,  and  mayhap),  are  of  Latin 
origin  derived  through  the  French.  The  old  ad- 
verb, prithee,  is  "  I  pray  thee.''  The  word  "  pain- 
ful" was  formerly  used  to  describe  a  work  upon 
which  great  pains  had  been  bestowed,  or  the 
person  who  had  laboured  diligently,  or  with  pains, 
in  his  work.  A  "  painful  preacher"  was  formerly 
thus  designated ;  but  such  a  phrase,  or  a  "  painful 
book,"  would  now  convey  the  idea  of  pain  in- 
flicted on  the  hearers  or  readers,  rather  than  of 
pains  taken  by  the  preacher  or  writer.     "  Pitiful " 

*  "  Haply  some  hoary-headed  swain  may  say." — Gray's  Elegy, 


SUPPLEMENT.  171 

formerly  meant  full  of  pity  or  compassion ;  it  is 
now  used  in  a  contemptuous  sense. 

"  Plight"  is  an  old  English  word  meaning  to 
pledge,  or  lay  doivn  one's  word.  /  plight  thee 
my  troth,  is  *'  I  pledge  thee  my  truth."  To  be  in 
a  bad  plight  means  to  be  placed,  or  laid,  in  a  state 
of  danger  or  peril,  like  the  Americanism,  in  a 
^'fix,''  a  word  derived  from  Latin.  '*'  Pang"  means 
pain,  from  pyngan,  to  pain  or  torment ;  and  poison 
was  so  called  in  Anglo-Saxon,  in  allusion  to  the 
pangs  usually  suffered  by  those  who  drank  it.  To 
''  pine"  away  is  of  similar  signification.  The  word 
'^pad"  was  formerly  used  to  describe  an  under 
garment ;  padding  is  now  applied  to  that  which 
is  put  under,  or  within  the  garment.  The  name 
"  P^ggy '  is  now  used  as  a  diminutive  of  ''  Mar- 
garet," without  any  apparent  reason.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  peg  or  pega,  signifying  a 
little  girl,  and  was  applicable  as  a  word  of  fond- 
ling to  a  female  child  of  any  name. 

"  Quick"  means  alive,  active,  quick,  as  we  find 
it  in  constant  use  in  old  books,*  as  also  the  verb 
"  quicken."  The  thorny  trees  that  are  planted  to 
form  hedges  are  called  "  quicks,'' — in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  the  quick  beam,  or  tree ;  and  the  fence  so 
made  is  called  a  ^'  quick-set  hedge,"  from  its  rapid 
growth;  hence  also  the  weed,  than  which  none 


•  Thus  in  the  Creed — "  to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead  ;"  and 
frequently  in  the  Authorized  Version,  "  quickened  " 


172  SUPPLEMENT. 

more  ^'  grows  apace,"  is  called  "  quitch  grass,"  or 
couch  grass.  "Quaff"  (perhaps  ^o  off)  is  from 
caf^  quick.  ''  Quicksilver"  is  live  or  lively  silver; 
"  quick-lime/'  live  lime,  as  distinguished  from 
slack-lime  ;  and  *'  quicksands"  are  live  or  moving 
sands.  The  adverb  '*  quickly"  means  quick-like, 
that  is,  livelike,  or  lively.  A  *^  quagmire"  is  mire, 
or  mud,  which  quakes  or  shakes  under  one,  and 
is  so  called  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  quacian,  to 
shake,  tremble,  or  quake;  hence,  also,  an  "  earth- 
quake," formerly  called  an  earth-quave.  To  "  wag" 
may  also  be  probably  traced  to  the  same  verb. 
Qualm  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  word,  meaning  grief, 
or  death ;  from  cwellan,  to  kill.  Hence  we  have 
*'  qualms  of  conscience  ;"  as  also  the  verbs  to 
''kill "and  to  "quell." 

The  word  "  rash"  now  meaning  hasty  and  with- 
out consideration,  was  formerly  in  use  as  a  verb, 
signifying  to  snatch,  or  seize — to  tear,  or  rend. 
Meat  that  was  burned  in  cooking,  as  being  too 
hastily  dressed,  was  said  to  be  rashed;  and 
"  rasher,"  as  applied  to  slices  of  bacon  hastily  fried, 
probably  partakes  of  this  derivation.*  Meat  un- 
der done,  or  not  sufficiently  cooked,  is  said  to  be 
"  raw,"  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  hreow,  meaning 
crude,  that  is  hreowd,  caused  to  rue,  as  a  man  will 
have  reason  to  repent  of  unfinished  work,  which 
is  hence  described  as  crude. 

*  Halliwell's  Dictionary  of  Archaisms  and  Provincialisms. 


SUPPLEMENT.  173 

Birds  are  said  to  roost,  when  they  go  to  rest,  from 
hrost,  past  participle  of  hrestan,  to  rest.  To  "  rule 
the  roast"  was,  perhaps,  originally  to  rule  the  roost, 
as  the  cock  of  the  roosting  place  for  the  fowl  in  the 
poultry  yard.  Rec  was  smoke;  hence  reeking, 
steaming.  Reee  or  reec  signified  cruel,  whence 
comes  to  wreak  vengeance.  The  ^*  rind "  is 
that  which  protects  the  trunk  or  fruit  of  a  tree ; 
from  wrean,  to  cover,  past  participle  wrined. 

We  are  apt  to  think  rather  of  the  cutting  than 
of  the  gathering  of  the  sheaves,  when  we  speak  of 
reaping  the  harvest ;  but  originally  the  word  was 
applied  to  the  binding,  rather  than  to  the  cutting 
of  the  crops.  The  Anglo-Saxon  word  rcepan  sig- 
nifies to  bind,  from  rcep,  a  band,  or  ^ ^  rope  f  berefe 
was  to  bind,  and  a  bundle  of  corn  was  called  a 
reap.  The  reapers  were  not  the  men  who  cut 
down  the  crop,  but  the  women  and  others  who 
bound  it  up  into  sheaves.  The  operation  of  cutting 
the  corn  is  usually  called  in  Scotland  "  shearing" 
it ;  that  is,  separating  it  from  the  root.*  With 
this  derivation  and  meaning  agrees  the  work  as- 
signed to  the  "  reapers,"  in  the  parable  of  the  tares 
in  the  field,  where  they  are  described,  not  as  cut- 
ting the  crop,  but  sent  to  gather  together — first 
the  tares,  and  hind  them  in  bundles  to  burn  them, 
and  to  gather  the  wheat  into  the  barn  (Matt.  xiii. 
30)  ;  and  when  "  gleaners"  are  allowed  to  collect 

*  See  Lecture  I.,  p.  43. 


174  SUPPLEMENT. 

all  that  the  reapers  leave  behind  them,  as  in  the 
case  of  Ruth,  it  does  not  mean  what  the  shearers 
leave,  for  that  would  be  the  entire  crop ;  but  that 
which  is  left  by  the  hinders  ungathered.  The 
word  "'  reef"  is  used  in  two  different  and  opposite 
senses,  as  sailors  are  said  to  "reef  the  sails,"  that 
is,  to  draw  them  in ;  and  rocks  which  are  torn 
asunder  are  called  "  reefs/'  Both  words  are  de- 
rived from  the  same  root,  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb, 
reafian,  signifying  to  seize  or  tear.'  In  the  first 
instance,  the  word  "  reef,"  is  used  to  describe  the 
seizing  or  dragging  together  of  the  sails ;  in  the 
other,  the  range  of  rocks  seeming  to  be  reft,  or 
torn  asunder,  is  called  a  "reef"  of  rocks. 

"  Rue,"  anciently  rew,  signified  to  lament ;  and 
reawe  was  mourning  or  repentance.  The  sorrow- 
ful, woe-begone  Don  Quixote  is  described  as  "  the 
knight  of  the  rueful  countenance.''  Ruth  is  an 
old  English  word,  signifying  compassion  or  sym- 
pathy, also  sorrow  and  mournfulness ;  and  ruthless 
meant  without  pity,  unmerciful*  The  sea  shore 
was  called  rima,  from  ryman,  to  extend ;  and  the 
same  word  is  applied  to  the  margin  of  anything, 
being  the  extreme  edge,  or  utmost  extent  in 
breadth,  as  the  "  rim"  of  a  cup  or  other  vessel. 
Similar  to  this  is  the  word  "  brim,"  that  is,  he-rim, 
to  describe  the  extent  of  the  capacity  of  any- 
thing ;  and  "  brimful"  means  filled  up  to  the  hrim. 

*  *'  Ruin  seize  thee,  ruthless  king." — Gray.  i 


SUPPLEMENT.  175 

Ringan  is  to  beat  or  strike,  so  as  to  produce  a 
sound,  and  is  now  chiefly  used  to  denote  the 
"  ringing '  of  bells.  The  word  may  be  traced  to  a 
metallic  instrument  of  music  of  a  circular  form, 
like  a  ring,  which,  when  beaten,  returned  a  sound, 
which  is  hence  called  a  ringing  sound.  The  word 
"  rock"  is  usually  attributed  to  French  origin,  as 
also  a  "  rocket,"  or  small  coat  oy  frock',  but  Home 
Tooke  traces  it  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  wrigan, 
to  hide,  and  hence  to  clothe,  of  which  the  past 
participle  was  rog,  hidden,  and  the  word  as  a 
noun  was  first  applied  to  rocks  hidden  by  the  sea, 
but  afterwards  masses  of  a  like  substance,  found 
on  dry  ground,  received  the  same  name,*  while, 
though  no  longer  covered  and  hidden^  they  afford- 
ed cover  and  hiding-flaces  to  man  and  beast.f 
The  Anglo-Saxon  verb  wrigan,  to  cover,  or 
clothe,  still  survives  in  the  English  to  rig,  a  word 
chiefly  used  by  sailors,  who,  as  I  have  observed  in 
the  first  lecture  of  this  volume,  delight  in  words 
of  Anglo-Saxon  origin.  Tooke  traces  to  this 
same  root  "  rogue,"  which  means  covered,  cloaked, 
and  is  applied  to  one  who  has  cloaked  or  covered 
designs.  The  species  of  crow  called  "  rook"  is 
notorious,  like  the  magpie,  for  roguish  tricks, 
and  for  covering  and  hiding  what  he  steals.  It 
may,  probably,  be  in  allusion  to  the  dishonest 

*  Richardson's  Studi/  of  Language. 

t  "The  rocks  are  a  refuge  for  the  conies." — Ps  civ.  18.     "And  Alt? 
themselves  in  the  dens,  and.  in  the  rocks  oi  the  mountains."— Kev.  vi.  15. 


176  SUPPLEMENT. 

propensities  of  the  people  who  reside  in  the 
locality  that  a  certain  district  in  London  is  called 
''  The  Rookery."  The  word  ''  rock''  was  formerly 
used  as  a  verb,  signifying  to  hide;^  and  Shak- 
speare  describes  "  the  rooky  wood,"  which  means 
not  full  of  rooks,  but  the  covering  and  sheltering 
wood-t  The  Anglo-Saxon  for  a  cross  was  rode, 
now  spelt  "  rood  ; "  thus  we  have  the  "  rood 
screen,''  and  the  "  rood-loft,"  being  the  loft  on  the 
screen  dividing  the  choir  from  the  nave,  upon 
which  the  cross  was  erected.  "  Holy-rood"  is 
the  same  as  "  Holy-cross."  It  is  here  observable 
that  the  Saxon  name  is  retained  in  Scotland  in 
the  name  of  Holyrood  Palace,  and  at  Southamp- 
ton in  the  name  of  an  ancient  church  there  ;  bu^ 
the  Latin-derived  "cross"  is  substituted  for  "rood" 
in  Ireland,  as  Holy  cross  Abbey ;  which  agrees  with 
the  fact  before  noticed,  that  words  derived  from 
the  Latin  are  more  generally  in  use  in  Ireland 
than  in  England. t  "  Eife"  or  ryf,  meant  frequent, 
and  so  it  is  still  used  in  the  sense  of  abundance 
or  frequency.  The  term  rijj-raff  meant  a  tattered, 
torn,  or  worthless  set  of  persons,  or  things,  from 
reafian,  to  take  away,  whence  also  we  have  to 
''  rive"  and  to  "  rip."§ 

♦  "  0  false  murderer,  roching  (that  is,  hiding)  in  thy  den."— C%aiw;er. 

f  Richardson's  Dictionary. 

X  Lecture  IL  p.  82. 

§  Richardson's  Dictionary. 


SUPPLEMENT.  177 

.  We  have  seen  that  various  words  are  derived 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  scearan,  to  cut,  di- 
vide, or  scatter.*  Of  such  are  shire^  share,  shears, 
sheer,  shore,  shred,  sherd,  score,  short,  skirt,  and 
many  others.  To  these  may  be  added,  '*scar," 
now  applied  to  a  division  caused  by  a  cut  in  the 
skin,  but  formerly  with  a  more  extensive  signi- 
fication, as  a  division  cut  in  anything :  hence  it 
was  applied  to  a  cliff,  as  ASca^^borough.  The  word 
sheer  was  formerly  used  in  the  sense  of  clear, 
pure,  and  unmixed,  all  impurities  being  cut  oflf. 
The  phrases  sheer  ignorance  amd  sheer  nonsense, 
signifying  ignorance  separated  from  the  least  ad- 
mixture of  information,  and  folly  without  a 
single  grain  of  sense.  To  shear  or  sheer  off  is  to 
part  or  separate  from.  Shot  sheer  away  means  so 
separated  as  to  leave  not  the  smallest  particle 
behind.f  Fountaine  shere,  in  Spenser,  means 
separated  from  all  intermixture  or  pollution — un- 
mingled  :  and  hence  used  to  denote  purity.  To 
"  scare,"  or  frighten,  is  to  make  one  sheer  off. 

The  modern  railway  language  deals  in  words 
derived  from  Latin,  as  engine,  station,  terminus; 
and  tank  from  the  French.  Stoker,  however,  is 
Saxon,  meaning  the  sticker,  or  poker  of  the  fire  ; 
as  is  also  the  driver,  and  an  old  word  become 
familiar  to  railway  travellers,  to  shunt,  that  is,  to 
move  off  from  one  set  of  rails  to  another  on  the 

*  See  Lecture  I,  p.  43.  t  Home  Tooke. 

N 


178  SUPPLEMENT. 

line.  The  word  is  of  the  same  origin  as  to  shun, 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  scunian,  to  move  off,  or 
out  of  the  way — to  fly  from,  or  avoid.  Hence 
also  '^askance"  and  "•  eschew.""  A  "  stool,"  meant 
anything  set,  or  upon  which  one  may  sit ;  from 
stellan  to  place.  A  "joint-stool"  meant  a  better 
kind  of  seat,  made  by  a  "joiner,"  as  a  carpenter 
was  called,  and  having  joinings  in  it,  as  distin- 
guished from  a  rude  log,  or  single  block  of  wood. 
Staell  or  stazl,  meant  in  Anglo-Saxon  a  seat  or 
place.  It  is  now  applied  to  the  seats  in  which 
the  members  of  a  cathedral,  or  of  an  order  of 
knighthood,  sit ;  and  to  the  places  in  which 
butchers  and  others  sell  their  goods ;  as  also  to  the 
standing  places  for  horses  or  other  animals.  To 
"  instal"  is  to  place  in  the  stall  the  person  entitled 
to  occupy  a  seat  in  the  chapter  of  an  order,  or  of 
a  cathedral. 

The  word  "  sad"  is  now  used  in  the  sense  of 
m'elancholy  and  dejected;  but  in  its  original  sense 
it  meant  sober  or  grave,  without  necessarily  im- 
plying sorrow.  It  meant  set,  that  is,  settled  or 
steady,  from  settan  or  scetan,  to  set  or  settle. 
When  Coleridge  speaks  of  "  a  sadder  and  a  wiser 
man,"  it  means  one  who  would  be  more  sober, 
settled,  and  prudent,  for  the  future.  The  word 
''sadness"  was  formerly  used  for  firmness  or  sta- 
bility. From  this  word  scetan,  to  settle,  we  have 
the  phrase,  to  set  a  house  or  farm,  much  used  in 
Ireland,  in  the  sense  in  which  to  let  is  employed 


SUPPLEMENT.  179 

in  England.  To  "  set"  is  to  place  a  tenant  in  a 
house  or  farm  ;  to  *'  let"  is  to  permit  him  to  take 
possession.  A  saw  was  an  old  saying,  as  Shak- 
speare  describes  the  Justice  ^'  full  of  wise  saws  and 
modern  instances."  Scathe  meant  harm,  and  was 
in  common  use  from  Chaucer  to  Shakspeare,  from 
which  we  retain  "scatheless/'  unhurt.  It  is 
derived  from  scathian  to  take  away,  to  deprive. 
When  the  joists  of  a  floor,  or  the  rafters  of  a  roof 
bend  or  droop,  they  are  said  by  builders  to  sagg; 
and  this  word  is  used  by  Shakspeare,  meaning  to 
droop.  Scylan  was  to  hide,  and  a  *'  shield"  is 
derived  from  the  past  participle,  scyWd,  hid  or 
covered,  for  protection. 

It  might  be  thought  that  "smallish"  was  a 
modern  word,  if  not  an  Americanism ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  met  with  in  Chaucer,  to  denote  rather 
small.  Stent  was  to  stop,  or  put  bounds  to,  and 
did  not  originally  imply  niggardliness,  that  is 
*'  nearness,"  or  confining  within  too  narrow  limits, 
to  which  the  word,  changed  to  "  stint,"  is  now 
restricted.  To  stey  was  to  ascend ;  hence  we  have 
the  "  stairs,"  or  steyers,  by  which  we  ascend  from 
one  floor  to  another  of  a  house.  Stound  meant,  in 
Saxon,  a  moment ;  to  which  may,  perhaps,  be  traced 
the  word,  now  fallen  into  disuse,  astounded^  for  as- 
tonished, as  by  anything  coming  upon  one  sudden- 
ly, and  without  warning,  as  in  a  moment  The 
words  astound  and  "  astonish'"  are,  however,  so 
like  a  French  word  of  similar  signification,  that 

n2 


180  SUPPLEMENT. 

they  have  been  considered  by  such  eminent  philo- 
logists as  Dr.  Johnson  and  Home  Tooke,  to  be 
derived  from  the  French  estonner,  now  written 
etonner.  I  incline  to  agree,  notwithstanding, 
with  Dr.  Richardson,  in  tracing  its  more  im- 
mediate derivation  from  the  old  verb  astone  or 
astony,  of  which  we  find  the  past  participle 
"astonied''  in  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible ; 
and  which  was  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
stunian,  to  stupify,  to  stun.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  an  English  word  appearing  simi- 
lar to  the  French  does  not  disprove  its  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin.  Although  the  great  bulk  of  the 
French  language  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  it 
retains  many  words  from  the  original  languages 
of  the  northern  tribes  that  from  time  to  time  set- 
tled in  ancient  Gaul.*  This  observation,  apply- 
ing, as  it  does,  equally  to  Latin  words,  disposes  of 
such  criticisms  as  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  such 
words  as  pine,  fig,  and  vine  cannot  be  Anglo-Saxon. 
In  these  and  other  instances,  it  is  difiicult  to  say 
whether  the  Romans  borrowed  from  the  Germans, 
or  the  Germans  from  the  Romans ;  as  for  example, 
in  the  case  of  the  Latin  hdbeo,  and  the  German 
haben,  to  have. 

The  word  ''scrip"  is  to  be  found  applied  in 
very  difierent  senses;  as  when  we  read  of  the 

*  See  an  interesting  article  in  that  useful  repertory,  Chambers^ 
Edinburgh  Journal,  February,  1854,  p.  67.  See  also  Lecture  I.,  of 
ihis  volume,  pp.  6  and  12. 


SUPPLEMENT.  181 

Apostles  being  directed  to  "  provide  no  scrip  for 
their  journey,"  and  we  now  speak  of  Government 
or  Eailway  ^*  scrip."  In  the  former  instance, 
''  scrip"  is  a  Saxon  word  signifying  a  bag,  wallet, 
or  purse  ;  and  in  the  latter  it  means  a  written 
paper,  from  the  Latin  scriptum,  and  would  more 
properly  be  called  script*  Sweven  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  meant  a  dream,  whence  a  "  swoon,"being  in 
a  dreamy  state.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  vocabula- 
ries we  find  many  words  compounded  of  "  heart," 
most  of  which  have  been  lost  in  modem  English. 
We  still  retain  "  hearty,"  but  we  have  lost  sore- 
heartness  for  sorrow.  ''  Scandal"  is  derived  from 
scande,  meaning  reproach.  To  "  shrive"  was  to 
confess;  hence  "  ^S'^rove-Tuesday,"  the  day  pre- 
vious to  Lent,  when  confessions  were  made.  The 
rapid  flight  of  a  bird  of  prey  is  called  a  "  swoop" 
from  sweeping  past  quickly.f 

When  a  person  '^  tastes''  anything  for  trial  of 
its  quality,  he  "  smacks"  his  lips  ;  a  word  derived 
from  smo3ccan,  to  taste,  and  may  have  had  its 
origin  in  the  sound  one  makes  when  tasting  food. 
Spaccan  was  a  Saxon  word  signifying  the  radii 
of  a  circle,  hence  the  spacs  or  *'  spokes"  of  a 
wheel.  Steel  was  to  take,  but  now  means  to  take 
dishonestly  that  which  belongs  to  another — to 
*'  steal."     A  stalworth  knight  meant  a  warrior 

*  See  Trench's  English  Past  and  Present. 

f  "  All  mj  pretty  chickens  and  their  dam,  at  one  fell  swoop^ 

Macbeth. 


182  SUPPLEMENT. 

who  was  worth  being  taken  ;  whose  capture  would 
bring  credit  to  the  victor.  The  phrase  "  Spick- 
and-span-new"  is  similar  to  the  Dutch  Spickspel- 
der  nieiiw,  signifying  new  from  the  warehouse 
and  loom ;  spyker  meaning  a  warehouse,  and  spil 
or  spely  a  spindle  or  loom.  In  Saxon  or  German, 
spange  meant  any  thing  shining,  as  a  "  spangle,'' 
and  spick  was  a  warehouse  ;  so  that  "  spick-and- 
span-new"  meant  shining  new  from  the  ware- 
house. "Brand-new,"  often  incorrectly  pro- 
nounced bran-new,  means,  as  Shakspeare  has  it, 
"fire-new,""  that  is,  fresh  from  the  fire,  forge,  or 
furnace.*  To  brand  signified  to  burn  ;  hence,  a 
"  fire-brand"  is  a  burning  torch.  A  sword  was 
called,  as  we  frequently  find  it  in  poetry,  a 
"  brand  ;"  because,  when  moved  rapidly  to-and- 
fro  in  the  air,  it  glitters  like  a  fire-brand ;  and 
hence,  when  a  man  flourishes  his  naked  sword, 
be  is  said  to  brandish  his  weapon,  that  is,  he 
causes  it  to  have  an  appearance  like  a  brand. 

It  is  very  commonly  supposed  that  the  termina- 
tion of  the  possessive  case  in  English  (s  with  an 
apostrophe)  is  a  contraction  for  his — thus  the 

*  Butler  gives  to  spick-and-span-new,  a  similar  meaning  as  to 
brand-new,  making  his  hero  determine  to  strike  the  iron  while  it  was 
hot. 

"  Then  while  the  honour  thou  hast  got, 
Is  spick-and-span-new,  piping  hot, 
Strike  her  up  bravely,  thou  hadst  best, 
And  trust  thy  fortune  with  the  rest." 

Eudihras,  Part  I.  Cant.  iii.  397. 


SUPPLEMENT.  183 

^'  king's  crown"  is  thought  to  mean  "  the  king  his 
crown,"  which,  no  doubt,  was  a  form  of  expres- 
sion, to  be  found  in  old  books ;  but  that  this  is  not 
a  correct  explanation  of  this  termination  is  evi- 
dent from  the  fact  that  we  also  say  ^'  the  queen's 
crown,"  which  cannot  be  so  interpreted.  The 
fact  is  that  es  was  the  termination  of  the  genitive 
case  in  Anglo-Saxon,  and  it  was  anciently  "  the 
kinges  crown,"  but  the  e  being  dropped,  the  apos- 
trophy  was  inserted,  and  hence  we  have  "  king's." 
The  "  sand"  separated  from  the  rock,  or  sundred 
into  innumerable  particles  on  the  sea-shore,  is  so 
called  from  syndrian,  to  separate,  to  sunder. 
Things  which,  collected  together,  exactly  corre- 
spond in  figure,  size,  &c.,  are  said  to  be  of  the 
same  kind,  from  samnian,  to  collect  or  bring 
together,  to  "  summon"  into  one  place  at  one 
time.  This  latter  word  has  assumed  a  French 
character,  but  it  may  be  that  in  early  times  it 
was  changed  from  smnnian,  to  call  to  the  same 
place.  ''  Sake"  is  derived  from  secan,  to  seek  ; 
when  we  say  that  we  perform  an  action,  for  the 
sake  of  anything,  we  mean  by  "  sake"  that  for 
which  we  seek  to  do  it. 

The  sweeper  of  the  streets,  who  scrapes  off  the 
dirt,  is  called  a  ''  scavenger,"  from  scaffan,  to 
scrape,  to  shave  off.  "  Scoff"  is  from  sceoffan,  to 
shove,  push,  or  drive  out  contemptuously. 
"Scold,''  like,  "scandal,"  is  from  scyldan,  to 
accuse.     A  "  scrap"  is  that  which  is  scraped  off; 


184  SUPPLEMENT. 

and  to  ''  scrawl''  is  to  scrafe  ill-formed  letters. 
Formerly  a  "  shroud"  meant  any  clothing  or  cover- 
ing ;  it  is  now  applied  only  to  the  dress  of  a 
corpse,  except  by  sailors,  who  apply  the  word  to 
the  sails  by  which  the  masts  of  the  ship  are 
covered.  A  "  sigh"  is  produced  by  first  drawing 
or  sucking  up  the  breath,  and  is  derived  from 
sycan,  to  suck.  *'  Sight"  is  from  the  verb  to  see, 
formerly  written  sigh  ;  whence  sighed,  sigh'd  or 
sight,  that  which  is  seen.  We  now  use  "  silly"  in 
a  bad  sense,  to  mean  foolish ;  but  it  originally 
meant  good,  and  unsuspicious  of  evil  in  others  ; 
from  guileless,  it  has  come  to  signify  foolish,  or 
easily  imposed  upon.  The  peasantry  speak  of  an 
idiot,  or  silly  person,  as  an  '^  innocent." 

*'  Sin"  is  derived  from  syndrian,  to  separate, 
as  describing  that  which  is  an  erring  and  straying 
from  the  right  path  ;  the  "  sinner"  separates  from 
the  right  way.  The  Hebrew  word  for  sin,  con- 
veys the  sense  of  missing  the  right  aim,  or  devia- 
ting from  the  proper  course ;  the  Greek  word  for 
sin  is  of  the  same  signification  ;  while  the  Latin- 
derived  ^'  transgression"  means  a  passing  of  the 
bounds.  '^  Smooth"  meant  originally  that  which 
was  made  so  by  beating  or  smiting.*  "  Smuggle" 
is  derived  from  snican,  to  creep  in  stealthily ;  and 
from  the  same  verb  we  have  "  snug,"  as  a  ''  snug 
berth,"  that  into  which  one  may  quietly  creep 

*  "  He  that  smootheth  with  the  hammer  encouraged  him  that  smote 
the  anvil." — Isa.  xli.  7. 


SUPPLEMENT.  185 

and  hide  one's  self.  "  Smile"  meant  bland  and  se- 
rene ;  smelt  wceder  is  Anglo-Saxon  for  'mild  and 
genial  weather,  when  the  sky  is  clear,  and  with- 
out wind.  '*  Smerk"  is  of  similar  origin,  but  now 
used  in  a  low  and  bad  sense.  "  Sneezing"  relates 
to  the  nose  (nease),  and  was  formerly  called 
neasing.  "  Slop'"  is  the  past  participle  of  slip, 
from  whence  we  also  have  a  slope,  or  slippery 
place.  Clothes  were  formerly  called  slo'ps,  pro- 
bably from  being  slipped  off  at  night.  A  "  slop- 
shop" is  an  emporium  where  all  sorts  of  clothing 
are  to  be  had,  as  in  sea-port  towns,  where  outfits 
are  procured. for  a  voyage.  A  "slough"  means 
sluggish  or  slow  water,  a  stagnant  pool.  It  is 
derived  from  sleacian,  to  retard,  or  render  slow ; 
from  which  may  also  be  traced  slouch,  slow,  slug, 
slack,  sloven,  and  slut.  The  slack  of  coal  is  that 
part  which  burns  slowly,  as  slack-lime  is  distin- 
gished  from  that  which  is  quick  or  lively. 

The  word  "  since"  is  applied  in  many  senses  in 
EDglish,  and  has  been  spelled  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
as  seathan,  sithan,  sithen,  sithence,  syne,  seand, 
sense,  sythe,  sith,  seeing  that  It.  is  used  in 
modern  English  in  four  ways — two  as  a  prepo- 
sition affecting  words,  and  two  as  a  conjunction 
connecting  sentences.  As  a  preposition,  we  use  it 
when  we  say  anything  occurred  since  such  an 
event ;  and  as  a  conjunction,  when  we  say,  one 
may  act  so  and  so,  since  or  seeing  that,  it  is  not 
unlawful.     It  is  also  used  adverbially,  as  when  we 


]  86  SUPPLEMENT. 

say,  "it  is  a  year  since/'  From  the  Anglo-Saxon 
verb,  sceotan,  to  throw,  or  cast  forth,  we  have  many 
English  words  in  common  use,  as  shoot,  shut,  scout, 
sketch,  shot,  scot,  sheet,  sheet- anchor,  or  shot-anchor, 
and  shout,  to  throw  out  words ;  and  the  shoots  of 
a  tree  or  plant ;  as  also  skates,  with  which  a  man 
shoots  along  on  the  ice ;  and  the  fish  which  has  the 
name  of  "  skate,"  from  the  rapid  manner  of  its 
shooting  or  darting  along  in  the  water.  We  may 
bear  the  Irish  poor  complain  that  they  have  not  a 
"•  screed"  to  put  on  their  children.  This  word  is 
derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  screadan,  to  clothe ; 
or  may  mean  shred.  They  also  say  they  have  not 
a  single  stitch  to  put  on  them.  "  Stitch"  is  from 
stican,  to  stick,  applied  both  to  needle-work, 
which  is  stuck  with  the  needle,  and  to  a  sharp 
pain  in  the  side,  "  resembling,"  as  Tooke  observes, 
*' the  sensation  produced  hj  being  stuck  or  pierced 
by  any  pointed  instrument."  To  "  settle"  is  to 
take  up  one's  seat  or  habitation  in  a  place ;  "to 
settle"  a  room  is  to  set  or  put  things  in  their  place ; 
and  a  "settle-bed''  is  a  bed  set  up  for  one  to 
settle  or  take  their  rest  in;  all  being  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  settlian,  to  take  a  seat.  The  "  sun- 
j&ower"  has  a  name  of  a  hybrid  character,  from  the 
Saxon  sun  and  the  French  fieur ;  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  name  for  this  plant  was  the  sun-soece,  that 
is,  the  sun-seeker,  similar  to  the  Greek-derived 
heliotrope,  the  turner  towards  the  sun.  "  Sooth," 
that  is,  sayeth,  means  truth ;  and  as  our  simple  fore- 


SUPPLEMENT.  187 

fathers  implicitly  believed  all  that  such  people  told 
them,  a  fortune-teller  was  called  a  "  soothsayer." 
The  "  heel"  was  called  s'por  or  s]puT^  and  hence  the 
word  is  applied  to  the  instrument  that  is  fixed 
to  the  heel  of  the  boot ;  and  this  being  used  to 
excite  the  horse,  gave  rise  to  the  verb  to  "  spur'' 
a  person  on  to  any  exertion.  To  "  spurn"  meant 
literally  to  kick  with  the  heel^  in  allusion  to  the 
original  meaning  of  the  word;  it  is  still  used 
metaphorically,  to  treat  with  contempt. 

A  "stave"  in  music,  or  in  a  song,  is  derived 
from  stefen  or  steveUj  a  voice  or  sound.  Strcel 
meant  a  carpet ;  and  a  lady's  dress  is  said  to  street 
on  the  ground  when  it  sweeps  the  carpet  or  the 
street.  ''  Straw"  is  so  called  because  it  is  strewn 
or  strawed,  as  litter  for  cattle :  from  streowian,  to 
spread,  to  strew.  The  "strawberry"  is  a  berry- 
bearing  plant  which  spreads  itself  in  all  directions. 
Stridan  is  an  Anglo-Saxon  verb,  meaning  to 
stretch  or  spread ;  hence  we  have  stride,  astride, 
straggle,  and  straddle,  as  also  the  adverb  "  astray." 
The  couch  which  we  call  a  "  sofa"  has  its  name 
from  swcefan  to  sleep.  "  Span"  is  the  past  parti- 
ciple of  spinan,  to  stretch  out.  "  Speed"  meant 
to  go  forward,  whence  "  good  speed,"  or  "  God 
speed."  The  word  by  itself  conveys  the  idea  of 
swiftness.  To  "  spill"  meant  to  waste,  from  spil- 
Ian,  to  destroy,  waste,  or  spoil.  A  spell  signified 
a  story,  as  also  to  teach,  from  spellian,  to  declare ; 
so  we  speak  of  spelling  syllables,  that  is,  teaching 


188  SUPPLEMENT. 

or  declaring  their  meaning ;  and  a  "  spell'^  meant 
an  incantation  by  words  and  speeches. 

A  "  spout''  is  so  called  from  spittan,  to  throw 
out,  to  spit,  and  was  a  very  appropriate  name 
for  the  substitutes  for  the  Gargoyles  in  ancient 
architecture,  which  represented  monsters,  or  gro- 
tesque human  heads,  spitting  out  the  water  from 
the  roof  "  Spouting"  is  used  to  describe  a  throw- 
ing out  of  words.  A  "  stirrup''  was  originally  a 
stige-rape,  from  steigen,  to  ascend,  and  rape,  a 
rope  ;  that  is,  a  rope  or  strap  by  which  to  mount 
on  horseback.  ''  Stock"  is  a  word  used  in  various 
senses ;  as  the  stock  of  a  tree,  or  of  a  gun ;  the 
stock  from  whence  a  race  or  family  comes;  and 
stock  in  trade.  In  the  plural  we  have  the  stocks 
in  which  ships  are  fixed  ;  the  stocks  in  which  cul- 
prits were  stuck  up  ;  and  the  stocks  or  public  funds 
"  where,"  says  Home  Tooke  (no  friend  to  the 
Government  of  his  day),  "the  money  of  unhappy 
persons  is  now  fixed,  thence  never  to  return." 
This  learned  etymologist  is  of  opinion  that  stock, 
however  differently  applied,  is  the  past  participle 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  sticcan,  to  stick ;  and  to  the 
same  source  he  traces  "stocking"  for  the  legs, 
corruptly  written,  as  he  supposes,  for  stocken  (that 
is,  stock,  with  the  addition  of  the  participial  ter- 
mination en),  because  it  was  stuck,  or  made  with 
sticking  pins,  now  called  knitting-needles. 

"Storm"  is  derived  from  styrmian,  to  rage; 
and  as  a  verb  it  is  still  applied  to  a  raging  or 


SUPPLEMENT.  189 

furious  person,  who  storms  at  others.  "  Strong" 
is  the  past  participle  of  string^  from  stringan,  to 
enable,  to  give  ability  or  power.  To  string  is  to 
give  power  to,  as  to  "string"  the  sinews  or  nerves ; 
and  a  strong  man  is  one  who  is  well  strung.  A 
'*  stud"  of  horses  is  a  number  of  horses  standing 
together,  or  the  place  where  they  stand  or  stood. 
"  Stunt"  is  stopped  in  the  growth,  from  stintan,  to 
stop,  to  stint.  A  "  stye''  is  a  place  raised  up,  now 
only  applied  in  this  sense  to  a  place  so  erected  for 
pigs ;  the  word  is  also  used  to  designate  a  rising 
or  tumour  on  the  eyelid.  It  is  derived  from  sti- 
gan,  to  go  up ;  from  whence  we  also  have  stage, 
stack,  stalk,  stairs,  and  a  style,  composed  of  steps 
raised  to  pass  over;  as  also  stories  of  a  house, 
raised  one  upon  another.  Spenser,  has  the  word 
to  sty,  meaning  to  mount  up. 

A  "token"  is  derived  from  tcecan,  to  shew, 
whence  also  we  have  "  teach/'  Treppan  is  an 
Anglo-Saxon  word  signifying  to  ensnare,  to  take 
in  a  trap.  This  appears  to  be  the  true  derivation 
of  this  word ;  but  some  have  derived  it  from  the 
French,  confounding  it  with  the  name  of  a  sur- 
gical instrument,  with  which  an  injured  skull  is 
"trepanned,"  with  which  this  word,  although 
similar  in  sound,  has  no  connexion.  Others  have 
traced  it  to  Trepani,  a  town  in  Sicily,  into  which 
some  English,  in  a  storm,  were  invited  and  then 
detained.  The  English  word,  however,  to  trepan, 
or  more  properly  trappan,  is  to  entrap. 


190  SUPPLEMENT. 

"  Tight''  means  tied^'^  from  tian,  or  tigan,  to 
tie.  Home  Tooke  traces  the  words  "  town/' 
"  tun/'  and  "  ten/'  to  the  same  root,  namely,  the 
Anglo-Saxon  verb,  tynan,  to  enclose,  to  tyne,  or 
teen.  "  Town"  he  makes  to  be  any  number  of 
houses  enclosed  together.  Formerly,  he  observes, 
the  English  subaudition  (or  suppressed  word) 
was  more  extensive,  and  embraced  any  enclosure  ; 
any  quantity  of  land,  &c.,  enclosed;  and  he  in- 
stances Dr.  Beddoe's  having  written  to  him,  that 
"  in  the  west  of  Cornwall,  every  cluster  of  trees  is 
called  a  town  of  trees;"  that  is,  trees  encompassed, 
or  within  a  certain  compass.  He  adds,  that  to 
tyne  is  still  a  provincialism.  Dr.  Richardson 
shows  that  "  closing  a  door"  was  formerly  called 
"  tyndynge  to  the  dore."  I  may  add,  that  in  the 
northern  part  of  Connaught,  the  peasantry  always 
described  my  glebe  land  as  the  town,  as  they  did 
also,  generally,  any  enclosed  farm ;  and  the  name 
*'  townlands"  is  well  known  in  Ireland,  as  describ- 
ing what  are  in  England  called  hundreds.  A 
tun,  or  "  ton,"  is  a  certain  measure  of  liquid  en- 
closed in  one  vessel ;  or  a  certain  quantity  or 
weight  in  one  package.  "  Tunnel,"  now  only  used 
as  a  noun,f  is  a  diminutive  of  tun,  and  meant  any 

*  "  He  halt  him  taied ;"  that  is,  he  held  him  tight — Gower. 
"  A  great  lang  chaine  he  tight;'"  that  is,  tied. — Spenser. 

t  "  Some  foreign  birds  are  described  by  Derham  as  tunnelling,  that 
is,  enclosing  their  nests,  and  suspending  them  from  trees,  to  keep  them 
out  of  the  reach  of  rapacious  animals." — Richardson. 


SUPPLEMENT.  ]91 

smaller  enclosure  for  smoke,  in  its  passage  out; 
or  for  liquor  in  its  passage  into  a  tun,  as  the 
vessel  was  called  which  contained  a  tun.  *^  Ten" 
is  also  derived  from  tynan,  and  is  applied  to 
denote  the  number  of  the  fingers  enclosed  in  the 
hands,  when  tyned^  or  shut  up. 

In  Anglo-Saxon,  "thing''  was  also  written 
ihinCj^  from  ikencan,  to  think.  The  old  word  "  me- 
thinks''  was  methinketk;  that  is,  it  appears  to  me. 
"  Methought"  was  also  a  not  uncommon  expres- 
sion, meaning,  it  thought  me,  or  caused  me  to  think. 
The  verb  to  think  was  formerly  used  in  the  sense 
of  seems  Jit*  The  noun  "  thing"  describes  that 
which,  or  that  about  which,  we  think  ;  the  word 
was  written  thinh^ihrQQ  centuries  ago,  and  nothink 
is  not  an  uncommon  Provincialism.  Although 
the  noun  formed  from  the  infinitive,  or  the 
present  tense,  of  the  verb  to  *  think,  has  been 
changed  to  "thing,"  that  which  is  formed  of 
the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  of  the 
same  verb  remains  unchanged ;  a  "  thought" 
is  that  which  we  think,  or  which  causes 
thought,  sensation,  or  feeling.  As  "  thing"  is 
that  which  causes  us  to  think,  and  is  the  cause 
of  sensations  or  ideas,  so  to  think  is  the  efiect, 


"  Prince — Where  shall  we  sojourn  till  our  coronation  ? 
Gloucester — Where  it  thinks  best  unto  your  royal  self." 

K.  Richard  HI.  Act.  L  Sc.  3. 


192  SUPPLEMENT. 

that  is,  to  receive,  to  have,  sensations  or  ideas. 
*'  Thank"  and  "  think"  are  more  nearly  allied  to 
each  other,  than  is,  perhaps,  generally  supposed, 
To  be  "  thankful"  is  to  be  thinkful,  or  mJMdful  of 
a  benefit  received;  and  " unthankfulness''  argues 
"thoughtlessness,"  being  uniMnJcful  or  unmind- 
ful  of  an  obligation.  The  Anglo-Saxon  word  is 
found  applied  to  thought, — "  of  his  own  thane,'" 
that  is,  of  his  own  thought,  or  will.  The  verb  is 
thancgian,  to  thank,  from  thencan,  to  think.  To 
be  thankful  for  a  favour  is  to  be  "  sensible,"  think- 
ful  or  senseful  of  it. 

The  word  tind  was  used  in  the  last  century 
in  the  sense  of  to  "  kindle",  and  we  still  have 
"tinder,"  derived  from  tindan,  to  set  on  fire. 
"  Thwart,"  to  pervert,  to  cross  one's  purpose,  is 
thweort,  the  past  participle  of  thweorian,  to 
wrest  or  twist.  '  The  Anglo-Saxon  noun,  threat, 
signified  a  great  multitude  of  people ;  and  as  these 
often  carried  a  menacing  appearance,  "  to  threaf't 
and  "  threatening"  were  derived  from  this  word. 
From  the  Anglo-Saxon  tceecan,  to  take,  we  have 
the  taek  of  a  ship— that  is,  the  course  taken  by 
the  ship,  or  by  which  she  is  taken;  and  to  tack 
is  to  take  another  course.  The  tackle  (such  as 
ropes,  &c.,)  is  that  by  which  the  ship  is  taken, 
held,  or  guided  on  her  way.     Tackle  for  hunting 

*  See  Richardson's  Study  of  Language ;  and  Tooke's  Diversions  of 
Purley. 

t  *'  What,  threat  you  me  with  telling  of  the  king  ?  " 

Shakspeare. — Richard  II. 


SUPPLEMENT.  193 

is  that  by  which  birds,  beasts,  or  fish  are  taken 
or  caught ;  and  it  was  applied  also  to  armour 
taken  by  the  warrior,  as  we  speak  of  a  man  taking 
up  arms ;  and  lastly,  a  tack  is  a  small  nail,  to  take 
hold,  ^^^  or  fasten.*  To  "  till "  1/he  ground  is  to 
raise^  lift,  or  turn  it  with  the  spade  or  plough, 
and  thus  to  cultivate  it ;  and  "  tillage"  was  for- 
merly called  tilth — that  is,  the  operation  which 
tilleth,  turns  up,  or  raises  the  earth,  which  is  also 
applied  to  the  land  so  tilled.  The  till  of  a  shop 
is  a  small  box  which  may  be  lifted  up  daily,  as 
distinguished  from  a  large  chest  or  coffer,  which 
was  both  heavy  and  carefully  locked;  and  the 
tiller  of  a  boat  is  a  moveable  rudder.  The  tilt  of 
a  boat  or  waggon  is  the  cover  raised  over  it. 
From  the  same  root  tillian,  to  labour,  we  have 
"  toil."  Tooke  considers  the  primitive  meaning 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  to  be,  to  lift  up,  to  raise, 
to  turn  over.  "  Thorn"  is  derived  from  toeran, 
to  tear,  of  which  the  past  participle  is  toren  or 
torn,  which  latter  word,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  was 
used,  metaphorically,  for  anger. 

A  "  thrall "  was  a  servant  whose  ear  had  been 
drilled  or  bored,  according  to  the  ancient  Jewish 
custom,  as  described  in  an  old  translation  of  the 
Pentateuch: — '^  Thirlie  his  eare  mid  anum  sele;" 
(Exod.  xxi.  6,)  which  custom  was  retained  by  our 
Saxon  forefathers,  and  executed  on  their  slaves  at 

*  For  another  application  of  the  word  tackle,  see  Lecture  I.,  page  40. 

O 


194  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  cliurcli  door*  Tlie  word  is  derived  from 
'  thirlian^  to  pierce ;  hence  also  thrill^  used  to  de- 
scribe an  emotion  of  trembling,  like  that  caused  by 
the  action  of  boring  or  piercing.  The  "threshold" 
of  a  door  is  constantly  beaten^  and  trampled  upon, 
by  the  feet  of  those  going  in  and  out;  hence  the 
Anglo-Saxon  name  given  to  this  piece  of  timber? 
thrceswold,  from  threscan  to  beat,  or  thresh,  and 
wold,  wood.  The  operation  of  threshing  corn  is 
so  called  from  the  beating  out  of  the  grain.  From 
the  Anglo-Saxon  thrawan,  to  throw,  we  have 
*'  throe,"  or  "  throw,"  to  describe  any  painful 
agony,  under  which  the  sufferer  heaves,  and  throws 
out  his  arms,  or  tosses  about.  "  Throng"  is  applied 
to  a  multitude  pressed  together,  from  thringan, 
to  squeeze  or  thrust  together.  "  Tide"  meant 
time,  the  moment  when  anything  happened ;  and 
is  now  applied  to  the  time  of  the  ebbing  and  flow- 
ing of  the  sea,  hence  called  "  the  tide," — but  in 
composition  we  still  have  "eventide,"  for  eventime, 
and  "  betide,''  or  betime,  that  is,  happen.  "  Early" 
and  "  late"  were  formerly  called  tideful  and  late- 
ful.  "  Tidings"  may  be  traced  to  the  same  Anglo- 
Saxon  word  tidan,  to  come. 

The  '*  tongs"  with  which  coals  are  taken  up  is 
derived  from  tangan,  to  take.  "Trade"  comes 
from  tredan,  to  tread,  meaning  the  following  a 
beaten  or  trodden  course.     Trow  was  an  Angio- 

*  Ellisy  English  Poets,  yol.  i.  quoted  hy  Richardson. 


SUPPLEMENT.  195 

Saxon  word  meaning  to  think,  believe,  to  be  con- 
vinced of.  From  this  comes  "true/' anciently  written 
trew  (the  past  participle  of  trow^  sisgrew  is  of  grow, 
and  knew  of  know)  meaning  trowed,  that  is,  be- 
lieved firmly.  "  Truth"  (formerly  written  troweth 
and  troth)  is  the  third  person  singular  of  the  verb 
to  trow,  describing  that  which  one  troweth,  or 
firmly  believeth.  To  "  trust"  is  to  think  or  believe 
one  to  be  ^rite  and  faithful ;  and  "trustworthy" 
is  worthy  of  trust.  The  Anglo-Saxon  verb  is 
trywsian,  to  think  true,  to  confide  in  another. 

We  have  seen  that  a  '*  story"  did  not  formerly 
always  mean  a  fiction  or  untruth.*  A  '*tale'' 
would,  however,  appear  to  have  conveyed  the  idea 
not  only  of  falsehood,  but  of  libel;  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  word,  tcel  or  tale,  signifying  calumny- 
*'  Telling  tales"  would  thus  appear  to  have  meant, 
not  merely  repeating  improperly  what  had  occur 
red,  but  propagating  untruths,  and  bringing  false 
accusations  against  others.  The  word  is,  however, 
often  found  in  old  authors,  without  carrying  the 
meaning  thus  assigned  to  it;  in  Anglo-Saxon 
dictionaries,!  to  '^tattle"  is  of  similar  signification - 
from  tittlan,  to  accuse ;  and  a  "  tattler''  meant  a 
calumniator. 

The  terms  "  unhandsome"  and  "  handsome"  had 
reference  to  the  hand,  and  were  originally  ap- 
plied rather  to  the  conduct  than  to  the  personal 

*  Lecture  I.,  page  38  . 

t  Somner's  Dictionary,  and  Benson's  Vocab,  Anglo-Saxon. 


196  SUPPLEMENT. 

appearance.  '*  Handsome  is  that  handsome  does," 
was  a  good  proverb,  preferring  good  deeds 
(actions  performed  with  the  hand)  to  fair  looks. 
We  still  sometimes  so  apply  the  words ;  as  when 
we  speak  of  a  man  evincing  handsome  conduct, 
or  of  an  unhandsome  turn  or  action.  Several 
words,  with  the  negative  prefix  un,  have  been  lost 
in  the  change  from  Anglo- Sax  on  into  modern 
English;  of  these  are  unrest^  unmildness,  un- 
niightyj  unsorry,  unglad,  unright,  unhonest, 
ungood,  unpossible,  unpatientness,  unstrong^ 
unwisdom,  unsharp,  and  unfast  opposed  to 
"  stedfast."  We  still  retain  "  uneasy"  and  "uneasi- 
ness ;"  but  have  lost  unease,  which,  as  well  as 
misease,  was  used,  as  we  now  have  "  disease." 
We  have  lost  unteach,  but  we  have  preserved 
"  un teachable."  "  Unrighteous"  was  anciently 
unrightwise;  and  unright-willing  was  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  word  for  unlawful  ambition — a  wishing  for 
that  which  was  not  right.  Unhele  was  an  old  word 
for  misfortune;  and  unlaw  for  injustice,  from 
which  we  still  have  the  adjective  "  unlawful,"  and 
the  noun  "  unlawfulness."  . 

Several  words  compounded  of  the  prefix  up^ 
have  also  been  lost ;  as  upriste  for  resurrection, 
and  the  expressive  words  uphaven,  and  uphavedr 
ness,  signifying  heady,  and  highmindedness ;  as 
lowlyhede,  now  changed  to  "lowliness,"  meant  hu-  , 
mility.  Upcome  was  to  ascend,  and  undercome  to 
submit.  While  these  have  fallen  into  disuse,  we  still 


SUPPLEMENT.  197 

retain  "overcome,"  as  the  oi^^osite  to  undercome  ; 
instead  of  which  latter  word  has  been  adopted 
^'  succumb"  for  sub-come,  compounded  of  the 
Latin  preposition  for  "  under."  "  Usury,"  which 
has  long  been  applied  in  a  bad  sense,  originally 
only  meant  payment  for  the  use  of  money. 

A  "  vat,"  or  large  vessel,  was  formerly,  and  more 
properly,  called  "  fat,"  as  in  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion of  the  Bible  may  be  found  a  "  vine-fat"  and  a 
"  press- fat/'  It  is  derived  from  vatta,  German 
vassen,  to  hold  or  contain,  whence  fat  or  feet,  a 
vessel  of  such  dimensions  as  to  be  capable  of  con- 
taining a  large  quantity.  The  adjective  *'  fat,' 
Tooke  considers  to  be  the  past  participle  of  fedan, 
to  nourish,  fat  signifying  well-fed.  All  other 
English  words  commencing  with  the  letter  v,  will 
be  found  to  be  of  Latin  or  French  origin. 

The  thin  or  watery  portion  of  milk  is  called 
^'  whey,"'  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  hwceg ;  it  being 
usual  to  soften  g,  at  the  end  of  words,  to  y,  and  to 
transpose  h  and  w  at  the  commencement  of  words, 
in  forming  them  into  English  from  Anglo-Saxon 
This  word  gave  a  name  to  a  colour,  meaning  pale, 
and  was  used  to  denote  anything  white  or  thin.  In 
Shakspeare  it  is  found  both  in  its  literal  sense,* 
and  metaphorically,  as  indicating  cowardice.!     It 


*  ^'I'll  make  you  feed  on  cards  and  whey.'' 
t  "  What  soldiers,  whey  face." 


198  SUPPLEMENT. 

is  to  be  found  in  Butler,  to  describe  the  colour  of 
Hudibras's  beard.* 

The  Anglo-Saxon  word  "  ween,"  from  weenan^ 
to  think,  is  found  in  old  books  and  in  poetry. 
"  Wit"  meant  wisdom,  from  witan,  to  know ;  from 
which  came  *'wist"  and  '^  wot,"  as  also  "to  wit.' 
Hence,  too,  we  have  "witness,"  one  who  tells 
what  he  knows.  Outwita  was  Anglo-Saxon  for  a 
philosopher,  whose  wit  or  knowledge  is  beyond 
that  of  the  general  mass  of  the  people.  The  verb 
to  ^'  outwit"  is  retained,  in  modern  English,  but  it 
is  applied  in  a  bad  sense,  like  *'  cunning,"  which 
originally  mesuci^ knowing,  and  was  used  in  a  good 
sense.  "  Do  to  wit"  (2  Cor.  viii.  1)  was  an  old 
phrase,  meaning  to  cause  one  to  understand.  A 
"  wart"  is  that  which  is  rooted  in  the  flesh,  from 
wart.,  signifying  a  root  of  any  kind.  Whelm  was 
a  Saxon  word,  meaning  to  boil  over,  from  which 
we  have  "  overwhelm,"  that  is,  to  sink  as  by  over- 
flowing troubles  boiling  over  one. 

A  "  window"  formerly  windore,  was  intended 
for  the  admission  of  air  as  well  as  of  light,  and 
took  its  name  from  being  the  door  for  the  wind 
to  enter — the  winder,  as  it  is  sometimes  vulgarly 
called,  or  admitter  of  the  wind.  "  Wade,"  and 
"  waddle,"  mean  to  make  way  through  water  or 
mud.  Wabble  and  wappelian  were  Anglo-Saxon 
words,  signifying  to  boil ;  hence  the  term  "  pot- 

*  "  The  upper  part  thereof  was  whey, 
The  nether  orange  mix'd  with  grey." 

Eudibras,  Part  L,  Canto  1. 


SUPPLEMENT.  199 

walloper,"  a  corruption  of  pot-ivahbler,  used  to 
designate  householders,  or  those  who  boiled  a  pot 
within  the  borough.  A  "  wharf,"  where  goods 
are  landed  from  boats,  is  so  called  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  verb  hwyrfan,  to  throw  out;  either 
because  it  projects  into  the  water,  or  from  the 
goods  being  thrown  out  of  the  boat  upon  it.  In 
this  and  numerous  other  cases,  the  h  and  w  have 
been  transposed,  for  the  easier  pronunciation,  in 
modern  English ;  as,  for  example,  in  the  words  whatj 
wheat,  white,  where,  whither,  why^  whole,  who,  when, 
why,  wheel,  whether,  while,  whistle.  The  old  word 
"wont,"  meaning  was  accustomed,  is  the  past  par- 
ticiple oiwone  or  won,  to  dwell  or  frequent,  to  do 
habitually.*  A  wic  or  wye,  meant  a  village  or 
town,  and  is  frequently  found  at  the  end  of  names 
of  places  in  England,  as  Norwich,  Ipswich,  Ber- 
wick, (fee.  To  this  word  we  may  probably  trace 
"  week."  The  wick-days  were  the  days  on  which 
the  country  people  went  to  the  town  or  wic,  to 
attend  market;  thus  week-days  meant  market 
days.  Although  we  now  include  Sunday  as  one 
of  the  seven  days  of  the  week,  we  still  keep  up 
the  distinction,  and  when  we  say  a  school  or  shop 
is  open  every  iveek-day,  we  imply  that  it  is  closed 
on  Sundays.  *'  Whole"  and  "  wholesome"  were  ori- 
ginally spelt  without  the  w;  and  are  derived  from 
hcelan,  to  hide,  and  hence  to  "  heal,''t  frona  which 
we  also   retain  '*hale,"  ''health,"  and  healthy." 

•  Where  prayer  was  wont  to  be  made." — Acts,  xvi.  13. 
t  Lecture  I.,  p.  50. 


200  SUPPLEMENT. 

Amongst  tlie  various  names  for  clothing,  with 
the  Saxons,  was  the  word  weod,  which  was  also 
figuratively  applied  to  the  grass  and  herbs  cloth- 
ing the  field  with  verdure.  In  reference  to  this 
signification  of  the  word,  it  is  now  applied  only 
to  those  which  are  useless  or  noxious,  which  we 
call  "  weeds/'  Formerly  these  were  called  un- 
weods;  and  the  proverb  which  tells  us  that  '^ill- 
weeds  grow  apace''  still  retains  the  distinction: 
In  the  sense  of  clothing,  the  word  is  now  applied 
only  to  the  dress  of  a  widow,  called  weeds.  Warre 
meant  caution,  from  warran,  to  defend ;  we  still 
retain  the  imperative  of  this  verb,  when  we 
address  to  a  person  the  caution — "  beware."  We 
also  have  derived  from  it,  "  war"  and  *^  warlike;" 
and  "  ward,"  a  term  applied  to  one  who  is  taken 
care  of,  as  a  "ward  of  chancery."  Wealdan  in 
Anglo-Saxon  meant  to  govern.  Hence  a  king 
is  said  to  "  wield"  his  sceptre,  this  being  the  en- 
sign of  his  authority ;  and  a  man  who  skilfully 
uses  the  weapon  is  said  to  ''wield"  his  sword 
dexterously.  Wedd  was  a  pledge.  To  "  wed"  is 
to  plight  ones  troth — that  is,  to  pledge  one's 
truth;  and  a  "  wedding"  is  the  occasion  of  making 
the  pledge  in  "wedlock," — the  lock  or  band,  that 
is  confirmed  with  the  pledge  of  one's  troth  or  truth. 
"Water"  was  formerly  written  weter,  and  its 
derivation  is  from  wceter,  to  make  "  wet."  Well- 
willingness  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  word  for  "  bene- 
volence," as  evil- willingness  was  for  "  malevo- 


SUPPLEMENT.  201 

lence ;''  the  two  more  modern  words  being  nothing 
else  than  the  Latin  version  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
word  in  each  case. 

The  pleasant  English  word  "  welcome"  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  mean  come  well,  as  "  farewelF' 
is  fare  (or  go)  well  on  your  way.  But  it  appears 
to  have  a  deeper  meaning  ;  conveying  more  of  a 
hearty  feeling,  than  merely  wishing  one's  visitor 
to  arrive  safe  and  sound.  It  was  formerly  spelt 
wUcor)ie^  and  it  is  still  so  pronounced  by  the  hos- 
pitable Irish  peasant.  In  old  Anglo-Saxon  Lexi- 
cons it  is  found  amongst  words  compounded  of 
wilU  and  not  with  those  with  the  prefix  well. 
It  is  derived  from  will  and  come,  meaning  come 
with  mj  will — "  with  all  my  heart/'  A  welcome 
visitor  is  one  whose  coming  is  wished  or  willed 
for ;  and  he  is  sure  to  find  that  he  has  come  with 
the  hearty  good  will  of  his  host,  who  receives 
him,  "not  grudgingly  or  of  necessity,"  but  with 
genuine  good  will  and  best  wishes.  "  Unwel- 
come," on  the  other  hand,  means  that  to  which 
one  gives  an  unwilling  reception.  "  Unwelcome 
tidings,"  for  example,  is  that  which  is  received 
against  one's  will — it  is  un-will-come,  and  meets 
with  no  warm  response  in  the  heart,  or  vjill,  of  the 
hearer. 

Wild  means  wilVd,  applied  primarily  to  un- 
tamed animals,  not  subdued  to  the  will  of  man — 
self-willed.  A  wilderness"  is  a  wild-deer-ness  ; 
and  so  it  was  anciently  written ;  namely,  the  place 


202  SUPPLEMENT. 

of  wild  deer — that  is,  of  wild  beasts;  the  word 
"  deer"  having  been  formerly  applied  to  all  ani- 
mals and  beasts  of  the  field,  and  not,  as  now, 
restricted  to  one  species.*  V/^an  meant  calamity, 
from  wanna,  to  decline  or  grow  less,  to  wane ; 
from  whence  came  "  want."  Looking  wan  meant 
having  a  sorrowful  visage ;  wanhope  was  an  old 
word  for  despair — wanting  hope.  Witan  meant 
to  know,  and  hence  wist :  thus  "  witty"  meant 
knowing,  having  one's  wits  about  them.  He 
wot  not  meant  he  knew  not.f  Winsome  meant 
pleasant,  and  is  still  used  in  Scotland,  as  well  as 
winsomeness,  meaning  cheerfulness. 

Withe  was  an  old  word  for  a  hand  made  of  the 
\  wiDow  tree,  as  Sampson  was  bound  with  "  green 
I  withes."     The  word  comes  from  withan,  to  con- 
nect or  join,  hence  also  is  derived  the  preposi- 
tion ''^ith/'     We  have  lost  the  comparative  and 
superlative  of  "  without,"  which  were  anciently 
withonter  and  withoutermost.     Wordfast  was  a 
\    good  Saxon  word  for  true,  describing  a  man  keep- 
1   ing  his  wordfast — that  is,  firm,  like  "  steadfast " 
Wmrkan  meant  to  take  vengeance ;  and  '*  wrecker" 
was  an  avenger :  we  now  speak  of  wreaking  ven- 
geance, but  formerly  the  addition  of  the  noun 
was  unnecessary,  being  implied  in  the  verb.     The 

*  "  But  mice,  and  rats,  and  such  small  deer^ 
Have  been  Tom's  food  for  seven  long  year." 

Lear,  Act  III.  Sc.  4. 
t  "  We  wot  not  what  is  become  of  him." — Acts,  vii.  40. 


SUPPLEMENT.  203 

plant  which  is  called  "  woodbine"  is  properly 
wood-bind,  as  it  was  anciently  written,  as  binding 
the  tree  about  which  it  creeps.  Wyrd  was  the 
Anglo-Saxon  for  fate,  and  the  weird  sisters  meant 
"  the  fates."  "  Worship/'  formerly  worthship, 
meant  honour.  When  an  Irishman  addresses  his 
superior  as  ''  your  honour,''  he  uses  the  modern 
word,  derived  from  Latin,  for  "  your  worship/'  as 
magistrates  are  addressed  on  the  bench. 

In  the  manufacturing  districts  of  England, 
they  always  speak  of  wages  in  the  singular  num- 
ber ;  and  so  it  is  found  in  old  authors  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  vocabularies,  wage,  and  not  "  wages." 
Weal  is  Anglo-Saxon  for  prosperity  of  any  kind ; 
from  which  we  have  "  wealth,"  now  only  applied 
to  abundance  of  riches.  The  opposite  to  this 
was  woe,  derived  from  the  sound  of  sorrowful 
lamentation,  and  "  woe-begone"  means  far  gone 
in  melancholy.  We  retain  "  woeful"  but  have 
lost  the  corresponding  word,  in  the  opposite  sense, 
welful,  found  in  old  authors.  On  the  other  hand 
we  retain  "  welfare,"  for  going  well ;  while  we 
have  lost  the  old  word  woe/are,  or  going  ill. 

''  Waggon"  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
wcegan,  to  carry,  from  whence  also  we  have 
''weigh,"  "wag,"  and  "way."  Wain  is  a  con- 
traction of  waggon  or  wagon — wagn,  wain. 
The  name  of  the  constellation  called  "•  Charles's 
wain"  is  a  corruption  of  the  churVs  or  carVs  wain, 
that  is,  the  rustic's  or  farmer's  waggon ;  and  it  is 


204  SUPPLEMENT. 

also  called  "  the  plough."  "  Wind"  is  that  which 
bloweth,  from  the  Gothic  waian,  to  breathe ;  to 
**  wind"  up  anything  is  from  Anglo-Saxon  wen- 
dan,  or  windan,  to  turn.  To  "  winnow"  is  to 
fan,  or  beat  with  the  wind,  and  thereby  to 
separate  the  chaff  from  the  grain.  "  Winter"  is 
the  windy  season  ;  or,  as  some  think,  it  may  be 
so  called  from  the  waning  or  decreasing  of  the 
length  of  the  days  at  this  period  of  the  year, 
when  nature  appears  to  decay;  from  wanian,  to 
decrease,  to  wane,  to  decay. 

A  *'  well"  from  which  we  draw  water,  is  spelt 
like  the  adjective  well  or  prosperous ;  but  is  from 
another  root  meaning  wealhan,  to  spring  up  ; 
which  word  is  still  sometimes  used  as  a  verb  by 
poets — "  welling  up."  A  wight  meant  any  per- 
son of  either  sex,  and  the  word  was  formerly  used 
as  an  adjective,  meaning  lively  and  sprightly. 
It  is  derived  from  tuitan,  to  know  or  to  feel. 
Wend  was  to  go,  and  is  still  used  in  poetry.  In 
some  towns  in  England  narrow  lanes  are  called 
''  wynds" — through  which  men  may  wend  their 
way.  "  Yearn"  is  an  old  English  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  word,  signifying  to  long  for,  derived  from 
ge-yra-nan,  to  run  after ;  to  earn  is  from  the 
same  word,  the  wages  to  which  a  labourer  looks 
forward  as  the  reward  of  his  toil  being  that  which 
he  pursues.  Yare  meant  ready,  or  prepared ; 
and   yule  was   an   old  word   for  rejoicing.*     A 

*  See  page  155. 


SUPPLEMENT.  205 

mete-yard  was  a  rod  prepared  for  measuring  ;  by 
usage,  Wiete,  for  measure,  is  omitted,  and  the 
"  yard,"  which  originally  was  of  no  certain  length, 
now  signifies  a  measure  of  three  feet.  The  word 
is,  however,  still  applied  by  sailors  to  other  poles, 
as  the  "sail-yards"  of  a  ship.  A  "  yard,"  signify- 
ing an  enclosed  place,  as  a  "  church-yard,"  a 
^'court-yard,"  is  so  called  from  geard,  the  past 
participle  of  gyrdan,  to  encompass  or  enclose  ; 
whence  we  have  to  "gird,"  "girth,"  and  the 
diminutive  "  girdle."  We  sometimes  meet  with 
the  word  "yore,"  which  was  more  frequently 
used  of  yore  than  it  is  at  the  present  day.  It 
meant  "  of  old,'"  that  is,  of  years  gone  by.  To 
"  yawn"  is  to  open,  from  cinian,  ganian,  or  geo- 
nan,  as  it  was  variously  written  ;  and  is  applied 
to  the  opening  of  the  jaws,  chaws,  or  yaius, 
through  drowsiness  ;  an  operation  to  which  I  can 
only  hope  my  readers  have  not  been  driven,  by 
the  length  of  this  chapter.  The  word,  however, 
as  well  as  the  letter  with  which  it  begins,  there 
being  no  Z  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet,  reminds 
me  that  it  is  time  to  draw  to  a  close.* 

Before  I  conclude,  however,  I  am  desirous,  in 

*  While  the  third  edition  of  this  work  has  be^n  going  throngh  the 
press,  there  has  been  much  discussion  in  the  newspapers  and  elsewhere,  as 
to  the  proper  orthography  ofBaindeer,  or,  as  it  is  now  almost  universallj 
written,  Reindeer.  The  fact  is,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  original 
spelling  was  raindeer  or  ranedeer;  but  it  is  equally  certain,  that  latterly 
reindeer  has  been  the  usual  way  of  spelling  the  word.  The  deriva- 
tion may  have  been  the  same  as  that  of  the  "  rain"  that  waters  the 


206  SUPPLEMENT. 

confirmation  of  the  remarks  whicli  I  made  in  the 
Second  Lecture  of  this  volume,  in  reference  to  the 
characteristic  beauties  of  the  English  language, 
to  avail  myself  of  the  observations  of  a  celebra- 
ted German  writer,  Jacob  Grimm,  as  quoted  by- 
Dean  Trench,  in  his  latest  and  very  interesting 
work  on  the  study  of  words,*  who  observes  that 
this  eminent  scholar,  who  is  most  profoundly 
acquainted  with  the  great  group  of  the  Gothic 
languages  in  Europe,  and  is  a  passionate  lover  of 
his  native  German,  gives  the  palm  over  all  to 
our  English.  After  ascribing  to  this  language 
^'  a  veritable  power  of  expression,  such  as,  per- 
haps, never  stood  at  the  command  of  any  other 
language  of  men,"  he  goes  on  to  say — ''Its 
highly  spiritual  genius,  and  wonderfully  happy 
development  and  condition,  have  been  the  result 
of  a  surprisingly  intimate  union  of  the  two  noblest 
languages  of  modern  Europe,  the  Teutonic  and 
the  Romance.  It  is  well  known  in  what  relation 
these  two  stand  to  one  another  in  the  English 
tongue,  the  former  supplying,  in  far  larger  pro- 
portion, the  material  groundwork;  the  latter  the 
spiritual   conceptions.      In    truth,    the   English 

earth,  from  rinnan,  to  run,  in  allusion  to  the  animal's  speed.  In  the 
/Spectator,  published  about  150  years  ago,  we  find  a  poem  commenc- 
ing— 

"  Haste,  my  raindeer,  and  let  us  nimbly  go." 

In  Bosworth's  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary,  rann,  rhanas,  andran-deor 
are  given  as  the  name  of  this  animal. 

*  English  :  Past  and  Present,  p.  27.  •     ^ 


SUPPLEMENT.  207 

language,  which,  by  no  mere  accident,  has  pro- 
duced and  upborne  the  greatest  and  most  pre- 
dominant poet  of  modern  times,  as  distinguished 
from  the  ancient  classical  poetry  (I  can,  of  course, 
only  mean  Shakspeare),  may,  with  all  right,  be 
called  a  world-language,  and,  like  the  English 
people,  appears  destined  hereafter  to  prevail,  with 
a  sway  more  extensive  even  than  its  present,  over 
all  portions  of  the  globe.  For  in  wealth,  good 
sense,  and  closeness  of  structure,  no  other  of  the 
languages  at  this  day  spoken  deserve  to  be  com- 
pared with  it — not  even  our  German,  which  is 
torn,  even  as  we  are  torn,  and  must  shake  off 
many  defects,  before  in  can  enter  boldly  into  com- 
petition with  the  English,"* 

In  addition  to  this  testimony,  I  must,  before  I 
conclude,  give  a  short  extract  from  William  Har- 
rison, a  clergyman  who  lived  about  the  year  1560, 
and  who  was  one  of  the  contributors  to  Holin- 
shed's  Chronicles,  prefixed  to  the  historical  por- 
tion of  which  work  is  a  description  of  Britain  and 
its  inhabitants,  by  this  writer,  which  is  valuable 
as  affording  an  interesting  picture  of  the  state  of 
the  country  and  the  manners  of  the  people,  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  his  account  of  the  lan- 
guages of  Great  Britain,  after  referring  to  ancient 
British  or  Welsh,  and  the  Latin  introduced  by 

*   Ueber  den  Ursprwng  der  SpracKe :  Berlin,  1851. 


208  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  Eomans,  as  the  French  was  afterwards  by  the 
Normans,  he  observes:  — 

"The  third  language  is  that  induced  by  the 
Saxons  (which  the  Britons  call  Saysonaec,  as  they 
do  the  speakers  Saysons) ;  a  hard  and  rough  kind 
of  speech,  when  our  nation  was  brought  first  into 
acquaintance  withal,  but  now  changed  with  us 
into  a  far  more  fine  and  easy  kind  of  utterance, 
and  so  polished  and  helped  with  new  and  milder 
words,  that  it  is  to  be  avouched  how  there  is  no 
one  speech  under  the  sun  spoken  in  our  time, 
that  hath  or  can  have  more  variety  of  words, 
copiousness  of  phrases,  or  figures  and  flowers 
of  eloquence,  than  hath  our  English  tongue, 
although  some  have  affirmed  us  rather  to  bark 
like  dogs  than  to  talk  like  men,  because  the  most 
of  our  words  (as  they  do  indeed)  incline  into  one 
syllable."* 

To  illustrate  the  meaning,  the  force,  and  beauty 
of  the  English  language,  has  been  the  object 
sought  to  be  attained  in  the  compilation  of  this 
volume.  With  a  view  to  this,  little  more  has 
been  attempted  than  to  put  forward,  in  a  popular 
and  famihar  style,  the  result  of  the  researches  of 
distinguished  etymologists,  whose  works  are  com- 
paratively but  little  known,  and  to  bring  to  light 
some  of  the  stores  of  knowledge  which  are  to  be 
found  buried  in  dictionaries  and  vocabularies  (of 

*  See  Chambers'  Cyclopcedia  of  English  Literature.    Vol.  i.  p.  250. 


SUPPLEMENT.  209 

all  books  the  least  inviting),  placing  them  before 
the  reader  in  a  simple  form. 

If  the  study  of  this  volume  prove  useful  to 
teachers,  and  more  interesting,  while  not  less  in- 
structive, to  the  young,  than  other  lesson-books ; 
and  if  the  perusal  of  these  pages  should  lead  any 
of  his  readers  to  a  careful  study  of  the  interest- 
ing and  important  subject  of  etymology,  the 
Author  will  feel  amply  repaid  for  the  labour 
which  he  has  incurred,  in  digging  out  the  several 
ROOTS  here  presented  to  his  readers,  for  their 
entertainment  and  profit. 


INDEX   TO   WORDS. 


Page 
140 

Anew, 

Page 
49 

49 
59 

Angle, 
Ankle, 

8 
61 

140 

139 

67 

Anon, 

Anxious, 

Arable, 

49 

140 

50 

139 

Arm, 

63 

40 

Art, 

86 

48 

Askance, 

178 

85 
47 

Asleep, 
Astound, 

49 
179 

66 

Astride, 

187 

32,48 
48 

Asunder, 
Atone, 

48 
49 

139 

Atonement,    . 

49 

•J 

104 

Athree, 

49 

105 

Atwo, 

49 

151 

140 

Aught, 
Awhile, 

49 

49 

37 

Awkward, 

99 

49 

Ax, 

84 

140 
20 

Aye, 
Babbler, 

49 
6 

49 

Bacon, 

15 

49 

Bailiff, 

.       103 

56 

Baillie, 

.       103 

49 

Bairn, 

71 

37 

Bait, 

47 

56 

Baleful, 

.       145 

56 

Balk, 

46 

66 

Ballast, 

51 

56 

Band, 

141 

54 
54 

Banish, 
Bann, 

.       141 
141 

212 


INDEX  TO  WORDS. 


Page 

Barn, 

51 

Body, 

Bat, 

67 

Bog-Latin, 

Bay, 

35 

Bolt, 

Beacon, 

.       142 

Bolt-upright, 

Beadle, 

144 

Bone,       .       .         .         . 

Beam, 

46, 141 

Book, 

Bearing, 

143 

Boor, 

Beat, 

145 

Boot,  Bootless, 

Beckon, 

142 

Boot-jack, 

Bed, 

143 

Boroughreeve, 

Bed-ridden,    . 

144 

Bosom, 

Bedstead, 

73 

Bough, 

Beef, 

14 

Bourne, 

Beetle, 

.       143 

Bout, 

Behalf, 

145 

Bow, 

Behind, 

42 

Bow-window, 

Behove, 

144 

Braird, 

Belike, 

.       170 

Brake, 

Bell, 

46 

Brand-new,    . 

Bellows, 

47 

Brawny, 

Beneath, 

55- 

Bray, 

Bequeath, 

70 

Breakfast,       . 

Bereave, 

65 

Breath, 

Beside, 

56 

Brew, 

Bestead, 

143 

Broach, 

Bet, 

155 

Brook, 

Betide, 

143 

Broth, 

Between,  Betwixt,  . 

55 

Brown, 

Beware, 

142 

Brunt, 

Bewildered,    . 

.       144 

Bull, 

Bewray, 

143 

Burthen, 

Beyond, 

56 

But, 

Bickering, 

145 

Buxom, 

Binn, 

42 

By,                  .         .         . 

Bird, 

64 

Byword, 

Bit, 

141 

Calf, 

Bitter, 

144 

Callow, 

Blaze, 

34 

Candle, 

Blind, 

140 

Canny, 

Blithe, 

142 

Cap,                .         .        . 

Block, 

142 

Cark, 

Blockhead, 

141 

Carouse, 

Blood, 

61 

Carpenter, 

Blue, 

.       144 

Case, 

Boards, 

93 

Cast, 

Boat, 

68 

Cat, 

Bodkin, 

37 

Chaffer, 

IN  THE  LECTURES. 


213 


1, 

Page 

71 

71 

.       149 

Dip, 

Ditties, 

Doff, 

71 
60 
62 
63 

Dog, 

Dog-cheap, 
Dole, 
Don, 

53 

Dote, 

72 

Doubtless, 

149 

Dough, 

146 

Dovecote, 

146 

Down, 

149 

Drake, 

32 

Drain, 

149 

Dreary, 

44 
67 
65 

Dregs, 
Drift, 
Drone, 

108 
146 

Drought, 
Drove, 

44 

Drubbing, 

64 
71 

Dubb, 
Duck, 

63 

Dumb, 

146 

Dusk, 

43 

147 

Dyer, 
Each, 

147 

Ear, 

148 

Earl, 

56 

Earn, 

64 
34 

Earth, 
East, 

117 

Ebb, 

50 
149 

Egge, 
Eke 

32 

Elbow,  . 

149 

Else,      . 

50 

Eschew, 

54 

Even-raeale, 

53 
71 

63 

Eye.       . 

Eyelid, 
Fain,     . 

151 

Fairies, 

28 

Faith,    . 

52 

Fallow, 

151 

Fangs, 

72 

Fare, 

214 


INDEX  TO  WORDS. 


Page 

Farewell,        .         .         .28,49 

Gate, 

Farther, 

40 

Gaunt, 

Fat, 

197 

Gavelkind, 

Fee, 

70 

Gear, 

Feed, 

153 

Gentleman, 

Fetch, 

60 

Ghost, 

Field, 

53 

Gird, 

Fiend, 

51 

Girdle, 

Filth, 

153 

Girl,       . 

Finger, 

60 

Girth, 

Flea, 

68 

Glibly, 

Fleet, 

36 

Gnat, 

Flesh, 

61 

God, 

Float, 

36 

God's  acre,     . 

Flood, 

153 

Gooseberry, 

Fly, 

67 

Gospel, 

Fodder, 

84 

Gossip, 

Foe, 

51 

Green, 

Folk, 

32 

Grim, 

Folks-fare, 

151 

Gripe, 

Folkstede, 

73 

Growth, 

Fond, 

74 

Gruff, 

Foot, 

60 

Guild, 

For, 

55 

Guilt, 

Forlorn, 

.       153 

Hale, 

Fortnight, 

21 

Half, 

Forward, 

99 

Halig-writ, 

Foster, 

44 

Halt, 

Fowl, 

64 

Hand, 

Fox, 

65 

Handicraft, 

Fret, 

36 

Handsell,      . 

Fretwork, 

154 

Handsome, 

Friend, 

51 

Hank, 

Friendship, 

51 

Hanker, 

Frog, 

65 

Haply, 

From, 

55 

Happy, 

Froward, 

99 

Harness, 

Fulfil, 

153 

Harvest, 

Furlong, 

.       152 

Hasty, 

Gab, 

.       154 

Hatch, 

Gadfly, 

68 

Hatches, 

Gaffer, 

.       155 

Haunch, 

Gait, 

37 

Havoc, 

Gallop, 

.       154 

Hawk, 

Game, 

.       155 

Hawthorne, 

Gammer, 

155 

Head, 

Gammon, 

.       154 

Heal, 

INDEX   TO   WORDS. 


215 


Page 

50 

Kill,      . 

199 

Kiln,     . 

62 

Kilt,      . 

50 

Kin,      . 

57 

Kind,    . 

28 

Kndred, 

99 

Kine,    . 

39 

King,    .         .         . 

60 

Kith,     . 

43 

Knave,  . 

110 

Knave-child, 

42 

Knave-girl,    . 

106 

Knee,    . 

157 

Knight, 

66 

Knight  of  the  Shir( 

') 

47 

Knit,     . 

42 

Knot,    . 

42 

Knuckle, 

158 

La!       . 

157 

Lad,      . 

53 

Ladder, 

.       102 

Laddess, 

73 

Lady,    .         . 

99 

Laity,    . 

51 

Landgrave,     . 

64 

Landscape, 

157 

Lass, 

63 

Lateful,. 

.       157 

Law,     . 

51 

Lawyer, 

50 

•  Learn,  . 

43 

Leasing, 

51 

Leaven, 

41 

Leech, 

54 

Left-hand,      . 

.       159 

Leg,      .         . 

38 

Lest,     . 

27 

Let,       .         . 

23 

Lewd,  . 

70 

Lief,      • 

.       178 

Lien, 

47 

Lights, 

60 

Linen,    . 

60 

Lip,       . 

.       159 

List,      . 

61 

Liver,    . 

.       178 

Loaf, 

216 


INDEX  TO  WORDS. 


Page 

Loathe, 

162 

Lobster, 

68 

Long, 

163 

Lord, 

100 

Lore, 

.       161 

Lour, 

.       161 

Lout, 

161 

Lowliness, 

.       161 

Lungs, 

61 

Man, 

5 

Mansion,        .    -     . 

21 

Mason, 

21 

Mast, 

15 

Mate, 

165 

May-be, 

.       168 

Mayhap, 

168 

Mayor, 

102 

Mazed, 

56 

Meadow, 

.       166 

Meal, 

165 

Meed, 

165 

Meet, 

165 

Methinks, 

191 

Midwife, 

165 

Mirth, 

167 

Mo,  more,  most, 

166 

Mole, 

66 

Monger, 

30 

Month, 

20 

Moth, 

67 

Mouth, 

60 

Mow, 

166 

Moot, 

167 

Morning, 

167 

Morrow, 

168 

Mouldy, 

166 

Much, 

166 

Mucker, 

167 

Murther, 

84 

Mutton, 

14 

Nail, 

41 

Naught, 

49 

Naughty, 

168 

Nay,               .         . 

49 

Near, 

47 

Neat, 

42 

Neck, 

60 

Needs, 

Neighbour, 

Nethermost, 

Never, 

Nevertheless, 

Next, 

Nightingale, 

No,  None, 

Nonce, 

Noon-meale, 

North, 

Nose, 

Nos  thrills. 

Nostril, 

Nothink, 

Naught, 

Now, 

Odd, 

Only, 

Orchard, 

Ought, 

Outwit, 

Over, 

Overcome, 

Overcraft, 

Overwhelm, 

Owl, 

Oyer  and  Terminer, 

0  yes !  0  yes  !  0  yes  ! 

Padding, 

Pagan, 

Painful, 


Pen, 

Perhaps, 

Pin, 

Pine, 

Pitiful, 

Plight, 

Ploughshare, 

Pond,    . 

Pork, 

Portreeve, 

Pot-walloper, 

Poultry, 

Pound, 

Prithee, 


INDEX    TO    WORDS. 


217 


Page    1 

Quaff,             .         .         .       172    1 

Roost,  .... 

Quagmire,      . 

172 

Rue,      . 

Quake, 

172 

Rueful, 

Qualm, 

172 

Ruthless, 

Queen, 

100 

Sad,      . 

Queen-bee, 

148 

Sagg,     . 

Quell, 

172 

Sake,     . 

Quick, 

56 

Same, 

Quipping,       . 

81 

Sand, 

Quitch-grass, 

172 

Salmon, 

Quoth, 

29 

Saye  one's  bac 

on,    . 

Rain, 

58 

Saws, 

Raise, 

58 

Scale, 

Rare, 

58 

Scar,      . 

Rash, 

172 

Scare, 

Rasher, 

172 

Scatheless, 

Rather, 

38 

Scavenger, 

Raven, 

65 

Scoff, 

Raw, 

172 

Scold, 

Raze, 

68 

Scrap, 

Read, 

39 

Screed, 

Reap, 

173 

Scrawl, 

Reaper, 

173 

Scrip, 

Rear, 

58 

Scull 

Reck,      . 

39 

Sea,       . 

Reckless, 

39 

Seal,      . 

Reef, 

44 

Sear, 

Reek, 

173 

Sea -shore,      . 

Reeve, 

31 

Seethe, 

Rein, 

58 

Sennight, 

Reindeer, 

.       205 

Set, 

Reign, 

58 

Settle, 

Restless, 

54 

Shaft, 

Rib,       . 

62 

Share, 

Rife, 

.       176 

Sheaf, 

Riff-raff, 

.       176 

Shear, 

Rig,       . 

.       175 

Sheep, 

Righteousness 

52 

Sheepcote, 

Right-hand, 

53 

Sheer  off, 

Rim, 

.       174 

Sheet-anchor, 

Rind, 

.       173 

Shepherd, 

Ring, 

.       175 

Sheriff, 

Rip, 

.       176 

Shield, 

Rock, 

.       175 

Shin, 

Rood, 

.       176 

Shipcraft, 

Roof, 

44 

Ship-shape, 

Rook, 

65 

Shire, 

218 


INDEX  TO  WORDS. 


Page 

Shoulder,        ...         89 

Spell, 

. 

Shout, 

186 

Spic-  an  d-span-ne  w, 

Shovel, 

64 

Spider, 

Shrive, 

181 

Spill,     . 

Shroud, 

184 

Spindle, 

Shunt, 

177 

Spinster, 

Sideboard, 

101 

Spit,      . 

Sigh,      .         . 

184 

Spoil,     . 

Sight, 

184 

Spokes, 

Silly, 

184 

Spout, 

Sin, 

184 

Spurn, 

Since, 

185 

Stadholder, 

Sinew, 

61 

Stag,     . 

Skate, 

186 

Stairs, 

Skin,     . 

61 

Stalk,    . 

Skip,     . 

.       159 

Stall,     . 

Skipper, 

45 

Stalworth, 

Slop,      . 

185 

Stark, 

Slop-shop, 

185 

Starve, 

Sloth, 

67 

Stave, 

Slough, 

.       185 

Steadfast, 

Slug,     . 

67 

Steady, 

Sluggard, 

67 

Steal,     . 

Smack, 

181 

Steeple, 

Smallish, 

179 

Steer, 

Smerk, 

185 

Steward, 

• 

Smile, 

185 

Stepfather, 

Smith, 

21 

Stint, 

Smooth, 

184 

Stirk,     . 

Smuggle, 

184 

Stitch, 

Snack,   . 

47 

Stirrup, 

Snail,     . 

67 

Stock, 

Snake, 

67 

Stocking, 

Sneak, 

67 

Stoker, 

Sneeze, 

185 

Stood, 

Snug, 

184 

Stool, 

Sofa,      . 

187 

Storm, 

Soothsayer, 

186 

Stound, 

South, 

74 

Stow, 

Sow,      . 

64 

Straggle, 

Spade, 

.     62 

Strand, 

Span,     . 

187 

Straw, 

Spangle, 

182 

Strawberry,    . 

Spar,      . 

40 

Streel, 

Sparring, 

40 

Stride, 

Sparrow, 

64 

String, 

Speed, 

187 

Stud, 

INDEX    TO   WORDS. 


219 


Stun, 

Page 
.       180 

Stunt, 

189 

Style, 
Summon, 

189 
183 

Sunflower, 

186 

Supper, 
Swain, 

72 
45 

Swallow, 

65 

Swan,    . 

66 

Swap,    . 

Swine, 

Swine, 

85 
45 
64 

Swoon, 

181 

Swoop, 
Tack, 

181 
192 

Tackle, 

192 

Tailor, 

22 

Tale,      . 

195 

Talons, 

61 

Tattle, 

.       195 

Taut,     . 

25 

Ten,       . 

191 

Thank, 

192 

Thigh, 
Thing, 
Think,  ^ 

60 
191 
191 

Thorn, 

193 

Thorough-fan 
Though, 
Thought, 
Thrall, 

S 

28 

54 

.       191 

193 

Thread, 

73 

Threat, 

.       192 

Thresh, 

194 

Threshold, 

.       194 

Thrill, 

.       193 

Throe, 

.       194 

Throng, 
Throat, 

.       194 
62 

Through, 
Thunder, 

54 
19 

Thunderbolt, 

29 

Thwart, 

192 

Tide,      . 

.       194 

Tideful, 

,       194 

Tidings, 
Tidy, 

.       196 
54 

Tight, 

Till, 

Tiller, 

Tilt,       . 

Timber, 

Tinder, 

Titter, 

To,         . 

Toe, 

Toil,      . 

Token, 

Toll,      . 

To-morfow, 

Ton, 

Tongs, 

Tongue, 

Tooth, 

Toward, 

Town, 

Townlands, 

Trade, 

Trap, 

Trepan, 

Troth, 

True, 

Trust, 

Truth, 

Turkey, 

Tweed, 

Twilight, 

Twine, 

Twist, 

Twit, 

Uncheap, 

Uncouth, 

Undear, 

Under, 

Undercome, 

Unhandsome, 

Underwriter, 

Unless, 

Untoward, 

Unrightwise, 

Unwelcome, 

Upon, 

Upper, 

Uppermost, 


220 


INDEX  TO  WORDS. 


Page 

.       197 

Wight, 

35 

Wife  and  Wifman, 

35 

Wild, 

.       197 

Wilderness,    . 

14 

Will-he,  nil-he, 

14 

Will, 

.       198 

Wind, 

.       198 

Window, 

.       203 

Winnow, 

.       203 

Winter, 

,       303 

Wit,      . 

.       203 

With,    . 

45 

Withes, 

45 

Without, 

202 

Witness, 

45 

Witty, 

200 

Woepman, 

200 

Woe, 

107 

Wold, 

67 

Wolf, 

76 

Wont, 

200 

Wood, 

45 

Woodbine, 

203 

Woodness, 

99 

Wordfast,        , 

203 

Worldlike,      . 

203 

Worm, 

200 

Worry, 

200 

Worship, 

199 

Wot, 

,       1 

198 

Wreack,         ,         , 

203 

Wrench, 

201 

Wretch, 

203 

Wrinkle, 

46 

Wrist, 

204 

Wrong, 

204 

Wrongwiseness, 

74 

Yard,       .        . 

199 

Yawn, 

197 

Yea, 

55 

Yearn, 

199 

Yelk,     , 

56 

Yeoman,         • 

56 

Yes,                .         . 

68 

Yore, 

200 

Yule, 

221 


INDEX  TO  PEOPER  NAMES. 


Page 

Page 

Albert, 

108 

Everard, 

108 

Aldergate,      . 

107 

Fleet-street, 

36 

Aldermanbury, 

106 

Francis, 

111 

Aldermary,     . 

106 

Frederic, 

111 

Alfred, 

111 

Friday, 

19 

Allen, 

111 

Friga, 

19 

Anglo-Saxons, 

8 

Geofirey, 

111 

Armorica, 

7 

Gerard, 

109 

Bacon, 

15 

Gertrude, 

108 

Bakony, 

15 

Godfrey, 

.       Ill 

Baldwin, 

111 

Godhart, 

109 

Bede,              , 

111 

Goths, 

9 

Bernard, 

108 

Great  St.  Mary's,    . 

106 

Brittany, 

7 

Hardman, 

109 

Buckingham, 

15 

Harold, 

.       110 

Bury  St.  Edmund's, 

106 

Hengist, 

43 

Butler, 

115 

Henry, 

110 

Charles, 

111 

Herbert, 

112 

Charles'  Wain, 

203 

Holycross, 

176 

Cheapside, 

71 

Holyrood, 

176 

Chepstow, 

72 

Horsa, 

43 

Cornwall, 

10 

Howard, 

102 

Cuthbert,       . 

111 

Hubert, 

110 

Dunstan, 

111 

Hugh, 

.       110 

Eald-Seaxes, 

8 

Humphrey,     . 

.       110 

Easter, 

19 

Jack, 

79 

Edgar, 

108 

John  Bull,      . 

79 

Edmond, 

108 

John  Doe, 

79 

Edward, 

108 

John  Nokes,  . 

78 

England, 

8 

John  Style,    . 

78 

Englishman,  . 

9 

John  Thrustont,      . 

78 

Essex, 

31 

King's  County, 

31 

Ethelbald,      . 

.       Ill 

Knightrider-street, 

.       107 

Ethelbard,      . 

.       Ill 

Knutsford, 

.       115 

Ethelbert,      . 

111 

Lambert, 

108 

Ethelward,     . 

.       Ill 

Lanfranc, 

111 

222 


INDEX  TO  PROPER  NAMES. 


Lent, 

19 

St.  Maria  Maggiore 

106 

Leonard, 

108 

Stuart, 

1Q2 

Leopold, 

112 

Suffolk, 

32 

Lombards, 

9 

Sunday, 

18 

Maryborough, 

31 

Surnames  with   prefixes 

Matilda, 

110 

Mac,  Ap,  0\  and  Fits 

112 

Middlesex, 

32 

with  affix  Son,     113 

Monday, 

18 

rom 

Norfolk, 

32 

animals, 

115 

Normandy,     . 

12 

derived    from 

I 

Normans, 

9 

trades, 

115 

Odd-Fellows, 

169 

fom 

Osmond, 

110 

place  of  residence, 

113 

Ostend, 

20 

derived    from 

I 

Oswald, 

.       110 

personal  characteristics,      116 

Oxford, 

115 

Sussex, 

32 

Peggy, 

171 

Swineford, 

115 

Philipstown, 

31 

Thor,     . 

18 

Queen's  County,      . 

31 

Thursday, 

19 

Quirites, 

8 

Tuesco, 

18 

Ralph, 

112 

Tuesday, 

18 

Randolph, 

112 

Vandals, 

9 

Richard, 

108 

Victoria, 

108 

Robert, 

110 

Wales, 

9 

Roderic, 

112 

Walter, 

109 

Rodolph, 

112 

Waterford,      . 

114 

Roger, 

110 

Watford, 

.       115 

Rosamond, 

110 

Wednesday,    . 

18 

Saturday, 

19 

Welsh, 

9 

Saxons, 

7 

Whitsunday, 

72 

Scarborough, 

177 

Wilfred, 

.       110 

Scythians, 

8 

Wilhelmina, 

109 

Seater, 

19 

William, 

109 

Segismond, 

110 

Winfred, 

110 

Sheerness, 

59 

Winnefred, 

.       110 

Shrove  Tuesday,     . 

181 

Woden, 

18 

223 


TABLE 

OF 

REFEKENCE    TO    CLASSES    OF   WORDS, 

AND  THEIR 

DJERIVATIONS. 


Abstract  Terms, 

Adjectives,     . 

Adverbs, 

Affixes, 

Agriculture,  Words  re- 
lating to 

Animals,  Names  of 

Animal  Food, 

Body,  and  its  Members, 

Cattle,  Names  of 

Colours, 

Conjunctions, 

Derivatives, 

Elements,  The 

Emotions  of  the  Mind, 

Government,  Forms  of 

Handicraft  Trades, 

Husbandry,  Terms  of 

Jnvective,  Humour,  and 
Satire, 


Page 

Page 

.       137 

Law  Terms, 

78 

27 

Manufactures,  Names  of 

21 

48 

Materials,  the  raw 

21 

97 

Medicine,  and  Divinity, 

78 

Military  Terais, 

23 

13 

Modes  of  Action,     . 

135 

.  14,  63 

Months,  Names  of  the      . 

16 

14 

Nautical  Terms, 

23 

58 

Prefixes, 

97 

13 

Prepositions, 

55 

.       137 

Proper  Names,        .         108-116 

64 

Sciences,  Names  of 

26 

27 

Seasons  of  the  Year, 

17 

74 

Simple  Nouns,  and  Verbs, 

27 

.       135 

Titles  of  Honour,    .         100-108 

26 

Trees,  and  Plants, 

68 

21 

Week-days,  Names  of 

16 

14 

Winds,  Names  of  the  four 
Words  relating  to  Arith- 

74 

.       137 

metic,  and  to  Religion, 

119 

CORRECTIONS. 
Page  140,  note ;  for  heart  read  heat. 
142,  line  15;  for  beacon  read  beckon. 


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